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tnSTORY 

OF 

Bengali  Language  and  Literature. 

A  series  of  lectures  delivered  as  Reader 
to  the  Calcutta  University, 

BY 

DINESH  CHANDRA  SEN,  B.A. 

Fellow  of  the  Calcutta   University,  Associate    Member  of  the  Asiatic 

Society  of  Bengal,  Honorary  Member  of  the  Indian    Research 

Society,  Author  of    Banga  Bhasa-0-Sahitya 

and     other.   Bengali    works, 

&€.,     &C.,     e^fC. 


"  This  language,  current  through  an  extent  of  country  nearly  equal  to 
Great  Britain,  when  properly  cultivated,  will  be  inferior  to  none  in  elegrance  and 
perspicuity." 

William   Carey. 

"  Bengali  unites  the  melHfluousness  of  Italian  with  the  power  possessed  by 
German  of  rendering  complex  ideas." 

F.  H.   Skrine. 


CALCUTTA. 

Published  by  the  University. 

191  1. 


CALCUTTA : 
Printed  by— I).  C.   Kerr,  at  tlie  "  \'almiki  Pres 
II,  Haldar  Lane,  Bozcbatur. 


FK|70| 


TO    THE 

HON^BLE  MR.  JUSTICE 

ASUTOSH  MOOKERJEE  SARASWATI, 

C.S.I.,  M.A.,  D.L.,  D.Sc,  F.R.A.S.,  F.R.S.E., 

VICE-CHANCELLOR  OF  THE  CALCUTTA  UNIVERSITY 

Whose  sound  and  far-sighted  educational  measures  in  furthering  the 

cause  of    our  beautiful   language  will   be  ever  gratefully 

remembered  by  his  countrymen. 

THESE  PAGES 

ARE  INSCRIBED 

IN  TOKEN  OF  THE  AUTHOR'S  GRATITUDE  AND  ESTEEM. 


<:51111 


PREFACE. 


This  work  consists  of  the  lectures  delivered  bv  me  as 
Reader  in  Bengali  Language  and  Literature  to  the  Calcutta 
University  during  the  months  of  January  to  April  1909,  at  the 
Senate  House.  Calcutta.  They  treat  of  our  language  and 
literature  from  the  earliest  times  down  to  1850. 

The  volume  now  presented  to  the  public  has  very  little 
affinity  with  my  Bengali  work  on  the  same  subject,  for  which 
I  was  granted  a  literary  pension  by  the  Right  Honorable 
the  Secretary  of  State  for  India  in  1899.  There  must, 
of  course,  be  something  in  common  between  the  two  books, 
dealing  as  they  do  with  the  same  subject,  but  the  arrangement 
adopted  in  the  present  work  is  altogether  new,  and  the  latest 
facts,  not  anticipated  in  my  Bengali  treatise,  have  been  incor- 
porated in  it. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  our  earlv  Benorali  literature 
had  the  strange  characteristic  of  forming  a  gift  from  the  lower 
to  the  higher  classes.  The  more  cultured  ranks  of  our  society 
under  Hindoo  rule  delighted  in  the  study  of  classical  Sanskrit  ; 
during  the  Mahomedan  period,  Arabic  and  Persian  were  added 
to  this  ;  and  the  vernacular  literature  deemed  it  always  a  great 
honour  and  privilege  if  it  could  only  now  and  then  obtain  an 
approving  nod  from  the  aristocracy.  This  perhaps  accounts 
for  the  somewhat  vulgar  humour  that  characterises  old  Bengali 
writing.  But  inspite  of  occasional  coarseness  a  depth  of  poetry 
throbbed  in  the  heart  of  the  multitude.  I  refer  my  readers 
particularly  to  the  Mangala  Gans,  to  the  works  of  the  Alanasa 
and  Chandi-cults,  and  to  the  Yatra  and  Kavi  songs.  For  the 
great  Vaisnava  period  of  our  literature,  on  the  other  hand,  no 
apology  is  necessary.  In  this  our  people  attained  the  very 
[lowering  point  of  the  literary  sense.     I  do  not  know  how  far  I 


PREFACE. 


have  been  successlul  in    conveying,  even  in    a    small    degree, 
the  great  beauty  of  this  department  of  our  literature. 

With  regard  to  the  short  chapter  on  pre-Mahomedan 
literature,  which  is  chiefly  Buddhistic.  I  regret  to  say  that  I 
was  not  allowed  access  to  the  materials  collected  by  Mahamaho- 
padhyaya  Haraprasad  Shastri  in  Nepal.  The  chief  interest  of 
this  period  is,  however,  linguistic  and  philological.  When 
Mahamahopadhyaya  Shastri  publishes  an  account  of  his 
researches  in  that  held,  the  world  will,  I  feel  sure,  learn  many 
things  that  are  not  found  in  this  book. 

It  is  stated  on  page  89  that  Xula  Panciianana.  the  great 
authority  on  genealogical  questions,  lived  a  hundred  and 
fifty  years  ago.  This  is  not  correct.  I  have  lately  discovered 
that  he  must  have  lived  about  three  hundred  years  ago, 
since  in  his  famil\-  the  present  is  the  tenth  genaration  in 
descent  from  him. 

On  page  950  ngain,  I  have  referred  to  the  gentleman 
known  as  Hindu  Stuart.  The  following  additional  parti- 
culars, taken  from  a  book  entitled  "The  story  of  the  Lai 
Bazar  Baptist  Church"  by  Kdward  J.  W'enger  ^p.  508)  may 
be  of  interest  in  connection  with  his  tomb  in  the  South  Park 
Street  cemetery. — "  This  tomb  is  that  of  Major  General 
Charles  Stuart,  who  died  on  the  31st  March  1828,  aged 
70  years.  He  is  generally  known  as  Hindu  Stuart, 
because  it  is  tiaditionally  stated,  that  he  became  a  Hindu  and 
had  his  residence  in  Wood  Street.  Calcutta,  full  of  idols.  It  is 
stat(Ml  that  Governn^ent  refused  to  allow  him  to  be  cremated 
as  a  ilindu  because  ut  his  position  as  a  general  officer  of  the 
British  army,  so  gave  him  a  burial  in  this  cemetery,  but 
allowed  his  tomb  to  be  constructed  n\  the  shape  of  a  Hindu 
temple  w  ilh  emblems    of   idulatrv    all    about    its    exterior.      In 

itself    it    is    a    very   curious-looking  structure Our  interest 

in  it  lies  more;  in  the  fact    that    he    was    one    of  the    bitterest 
opponents  of  the  missionaries  in  his  day." 


PREFACE.  7 

Ever  since  1897  wheti  my  Bengali  work  on  the  History 
of  Bengali  Language  and  Literature  first  saw  the  light, 
I  have  been  suffering  from  severe  nervous  ailments.  I 
have  never  since  been  fit  for  the  strain  of  steady  and 
continuous  work.  I  had  to  work  on  the  lectures  that  are 
contained  in  this  book  under  severe  and  trying  conditions. 
Twice  during  the  progress  of  the  book  through  the  press, 
my  condition  created  grave  anxiety.  In  this  state  of  health, 
I  had  to  revise  all  the  proofs  myself,  often  including  the  first 
readings.  I  am  not  at  all  an  expert  proof-reader.  This 
will  account,  though  it  may  not  be  a  sufficient  excuse,  for 
the  many  errors  that  will  be  found  in  the  following  pages. 
But  the  indulgent  reader  may  find  in  the  book,  in  spite  of  all 
its  defects,  the  results  of  lifelong  devotion.  There  are  many 
things  in  it  which  will,  I  am  afraid,  be  of  little  interest 
to  the  European  reader,  but  it  has  been  my  endeavour  to  make 
the  work  of  some  use  to  every  scholar  whose  curiosity  and 
interest  may  be  roused  in  regard  to  the  subject.  So  I  have 
taken  care  not  to  omit  any  point,  however  trivial  it  may 
appear  at  first  sight. 

My  esteemed  friends  Babu  Kumud  Bandhu  Basu  and 
Mr.  C.  S.  Paterson  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association, 
Calcutta,  have  very  kindly  looked  through  the  pages  of  this 
book.  I  take  this  opportunity  of  conveying  my  grateful  thanks 
to  them.  To  another  European  friend  also,  whose  name  I  am 
not  permitted  to  mention,  I  am  much  indebted.  x-\s  I  still, 
however,  had  to  make  considerable  additions  and  alterations 
even  after  these  revisions,  I  alone  am  responsible  for  the  many 
defects  of  the  work. 

During  the  long  years  of  my  research  in  the  field  of  old 
Bengali  Literature,  I  have  had  the  esteemed  patronage 
and  help  of  many  European  and  Indian  gentlemen, 
foremost  among  whom  I  may  mention  the  names  of  Dr.  G.  A. 
Grierson,  C.  I.  E.,  Mr.  F.  H.  Skrine,  Mr.  W.  C.  Mac- 
pherson,    C.  S.  L,     the    Hon'ble     Mr.  R.  T.  Greer,     C.  S.  L, 


8  PREFACE. 

Mr.  B.  C.  Mitra,  Mr.  K.C.  De,  (I.  C.  S.),  Mr.  G.  X.  Tagore 
of  Calcutta,  their  Highnesses  the  Maharajas  of  Mayurbhanja 
and  Tippera,  and  the  Hon'ble  Maharaja  of  Cossimbazar.  In 
the  early  years  of  my  research  I  had  obtained  considerable  help 
from  Mahamahopadhyaya  Hara  Prasad  Shastri.  To  these 
and  to  all  others  who  have  helped  me  in  times  of  need,  my 
heart  goes  forth  in  great  esteem  and  gratitude.  I  am  indebted 
to  my  friend  Mr.  Xagendra  Nath  Vasu  for  allowing  me  the 
use  of  his  valuable  library  of  old  Bengali  manuscripts  and 
helping  me  with  suggestions,  and  also  to  Mr.  Abanindra  Xath 
Tagore  for  lending  me  some  of  the  panels  with  old  paintings, 
which  have  been  reproduced  in  this  book. 

Before  I  conclude,  I  owe  it  to  myself  to  offer  my  special 
thanks  to  that  great  friend  and  patron  of  Bengali  litera- 
ture, the  Hon'ble  Mr.  Justice  Asutosh  Mookerjee,  \'ice- 
Chanrellor  of  the  Calcutta  University,  to  whose  ardent 
sympathy  and  unwearied  efforts  our  language  owes  its 
present  firm  footing  in  this  University.  It  is  to  his  constant 
encouragement  that  these  lectures  owe  their  origin  and 
completion.  If  I  have  been  able  even  in  a  small  measure  to 
prove  myself  worthy  of  his  distinguished  patronage,  I  shall 
consider  my  labours  amply  rewarded.  In  the  Convocation 
address  delivered  by  him  on  the  13th  March,  1909,  he  made 
the  following  kind  and  appreciative  reference  to  my  lectures. 
"  We  have  had  a  long  series  of  luminous  lectures  from  one  of 
our  own  graduates  Babu  Dinesh  Chandra  Sen,  on  the  fascina- 
ting subject  of  the  history  of  the  Bengali  Language  and  Litera- 
ture. These  lectures  take  a  comprehensive  view  of  the 
development  of  our  vernacular,  and  their  publication  will 
unquestionably  facilitate  the  historical  investigation  of  the 
origin  of  the  vernacular  literature  of  this  countrv,  the  studv 
of  which  is  avowedly  one  of  iho  fort^mo^t  nbjiH^s  of  the  new 
Regulations  to  promote." 
K),    KwiA  I'rKru  Laxk,  j 

J'iii^/HT.ar,  Calcutta.       J 


DIXESII  CHANDRA  SEN, 


HISTORY 

OF    THE 

Bengali  Language  &  Literature, 


CONTENTS* 


CHAPTER  I. 

Early  influences  on  the  Bengali  Language,  1-15. 

Early  Aryan  Settlement  in  Bengal  and  Buddhistic  and  Jain 
influences,  r-4. — Vernacular  writings  of  the  Buddhists — Oppo- 
sition by  the  Brahmins,  5-g. — Moslem  patronage  followed  by 
that  of  the  Hindu  Rajas,  9-15. 


CHAPTER   II. 

Ppe-Mahomedan  Literature,  16-91. 
Dak  and  Khana,  15-25. — Dharma-cult  and  its  exponent 
Ramai  Pandit,  26-37. — Sahajia-cult  and  its  exponent — Chan- 
didas — the  dangers  to  which  it  led  the  Vaishava  society, 
37-46.— Dharma  Mangala  poems,  47-55.— Songs  of  the 
Pal  Kings,  55-63.  The  Caiva-cult.— How  it  faced  Bud- 
dhism— Buddhistic  influences— Early  songs  in  honour  of  Civa 
— ^iva  as  a  peasant— the  domestic  virtues  in  Caivaism.  63-73. 
Genealogical  records— their  historical  value,  73-91. 

Supplementary  notes  to  Chapter  II,  92-114. 

Bengali,  a  form  of  Prakrita — How  it  was  sanskritised  by 
the  Pauranik  revivalists — Bengali  verbs  and  case-endings — 
Assamese,  Uryia  and  Bengali,  92-114. 


11  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  III. 

Chandidas  and  Vidyapati,  1 15-149. 

Chandidas^  II5-I35- — Parakiya  Rasa  or  worship  of 
women. — How  it  is  made  to  approach  spirituality.  — Chandi- 
das's  life — the  story  of  his  love — his  death,  i  15-123, — the 
spiritual  aspects  of  his  poems. — A  tendency  towards  idealiza- 
tion— a  brief  analysis  of  his  poems,  123-135. — Vidyapati^ 
135-149. — Our  claims  on  the  Maithil  poet — his  poems  recast 
by  Bengali  poets — the  authenticity  of  the  various  records 
bearing  dates — his  ancestry — his  interview  with  Chandidas, 
and  other  points  relating  to  his  life — a  review  of  his  poems. 
Vidyapati  and  Chandidas  compared,  149. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

The  Pauranik  Renaissance,  150-380. 

L  Leading  characteristics  of  the  Renaissance^  150. 
170.  Faith  in  God  and  in  the  Brahmin. — The  causes  that 
led  to  the  growth  of  Brahmanic  power. — Fables  about  them. 
— The  story  of  Loma^a — the  sage,  150-157. — The  dissemina- 
tion of  classical  ideas — the  popularisation  of  the  Pauranik 
stories. — The  Mangala  gans. — The  story  of  Hari^^a  Chandra 
— the  great  influence  of  the  Pauranik  stories  upon  the  masses, 
157.170. 

II.  Vernacular  Recensions  of  Sanskrit  works  : — 
170-235. 

{A)  Translations  of  the  Ramayana,  170-1^5. — Kritti- 
vasa  born  1424  A.D. — autobiographical  notice. — 
The  story  of  Rama's  exile,  179-183 — the  great 
popularity  of  Krittivasa,  1S6.  — Sastivara  Sen 
an(l(iangadas  Sen — Durga  Kania — Jagat  Rama — 
Rama    Prasada — Adbhutaeharyya — ^iva  Charana 


CONTENTS.  iii 

Kavi  Chandra — Laksmana  Bandyopadhyaya — 
Valarama  Bandyopadhyaya — Rama  ]\Iohana — 
Raghu  Nandana  Goswami — Rama  Govinda  Das 
and  other  translators  of  the  Ramayana,  185-195. 

{B)  Translations  of  the  Mahabharata^  196-220. — The 
Mahabharata — its  contents,  196-198. — Sanjay's 
recension,  198-201. — Mahabharata  translated  by 
Nasira  Saha's  order,  201. — Paragali  Mahabha- 
rata by  Kavindra. — A^vamedha  Parva  by  Cri- 
karaha  Xandi  compiled  at  Chhutikhan's  order, 
203-207. — A  list  of  31  writers  of  the  Mahabharata, 
— 207-209. — ^akuntala  by  Rajendra  Das,  Xitya- 
nanda  Ghosa,  209-214, — Kayi  Rama  Das,  214-220. 

(C)  Translations  of  Bhagavata,  220-225. — The  con- 
tents of  the  Bhagavata — their  pastoral  interest 
and  religious  meaning,  220-222. — Maladhara  Vasu 
and  other  translators,  220-225. 

{D)  Translations  of  Chandi  by  Markandeya^  225-235. 
Raja  Suratha  and  the  \'aiyya — the  theory  of  illu- 
sion— the  myth  of  .Chandi — the  Durga  Puja — 
Bhavani  Prasadathe  blind  poet. — Rupa  Narayafia, 
Vraja  Lai  and  other  translators  of  Chandi, 
228-235. 

IIL  The  conception  of  Civa  in  the  Renaissance  and 
songs  in  honour  of  him,  235-250. — The  impersonal  charac- 
ter of  Civa — Qaivaism  goes  to  the  back-ground — Development 
of  ^akta  and  Vaisnava  cults,  235-239. — ^iva  as  a  peasant 
in  the  earlier  poems — his  later  development  into  the  patriarch 
of  a  family — The  great  pathos  of  the  Agamani  Songs — A 
passage  from  Rame^wara's  ^ivayana — other  poems  in  honour 
of  Give  240-250. 

IV,  The  Cakta  cult  and  its  development  250-380, — 
God  as  mother — The  gradual  adoption  of  the  mother-cult  by 
the  Aryans  250-252. 


IV  CONTENTS. 

(a)  Poems  in  honour  of  Manasa  Devi — The  per- 
sonal element  in  the  deities  of  the  Cakta  cult, 
contrasted  with  the  impersonal  character  of  Civa. 
— The  Bhssan  Vatra,  252-257.— The  story  of 
Manasa-mangala — The  defiant  attitude  of 
Chand  Sadagara — The  superhuman  devotion  of 
Behula,  the  heroine  and  bride  of  Laksmindra. — 
The  ultimate  submission  of  Chand  the  merchant 
to  Manasa  Devi,  257-276.  Sixty  works  on 
Manasa  Devi — their  importance. — Hari  Datta 
and  Vijaya  Gupta,  276-284 — Narayana  Deva — 
Extracts  from  his  poems. — Extracts  from  Ketaka 
Das  Ksemananda's  Manasa  Mangala,  284-292 — 
A  list  of  the  writers  of  Manasa-mangala,  292-294. 

{b)  Songs    in    honour  of  Chandi  Devi^  294-362. — 

How  the  poems  originated  with  the  people  and 
gradually  improved. — The  History  of  the  Chandi- 
cult,  295-298. — The  story  of  Kalaketu,  the 
huntsman  and  his  wife  FuIIara — How  the 
poverty-stricken  pair  by  dint  of  their  devotion  ob- 
tained the  grace  of  Chandi  and  succeeded  in 
getting  possession  of  Guzerat. — The  end,  298-309 
— The  story  of  Crimanta  Sadagara — The 
marriage  of  Dhanapati  with  KhuUana,  the  damsel 
of  Uzani — Troubles  on  account  of  the  jeal- 
ousy of  his  first  wife  Lahana — Dhanpati's  sea- 
voyage — The  sight  of  the  lady  on  the  lotus — 
Disasters  brought  about  by  Chandi  Devi — 
Crimanta,  Dhanapati's  son,  goes  in  quest  of  his 
father  to  Ceylon — His  troubles — The  meeting  of 
the  father  and  the  son — the  happy  end,  309-333. 
— Janardana.  Msnik  Datta,  MadhavScharyya  and 
other  poets  who  wrote  ("handi  Mangala,  333-336. 
— Mukunda     Rama     Kavikankan    and    his 


CONTENTS.  V 

Chandi  Mangala — His  life  and  a  review  of 
his  works — The  intense  reality  of  his  poetry, 
336-359. — Poems  of  the  Chandi-cuU  written  by 
later  poets— Bhavani  ^ankara — Jaya  Narayana 
and  ^iva  Charana  Sen,  359-363. 
Poems  on  Ganga  Devi — Poems  on  Citala  Devi — Traces 

of  Buddhistic   influence  and  of  Hindu    Renaissance — Poems 

on  Laksmi  Devi — and  Sasthi  363-370. 

V.  Dharma  Mangala  poems  recast  by  the  Brah- 
min authors — Mayura  Bhatta — Manik  Ganguly — Ghanarama 
— SahadevaChakravarty — The  reasons  for  placing  them  under 
Pauranik  revival  371-377- 

IV.  Poems  in  honour  of  Daksina  Roy,  377-378. — 
Some  remarks  about  the  poems.  Poems  in  honour  of  the 
Sun,  378.380. 

Supplementary  notes  to  Chapter  IV,  381-398. 

Mixture  of  Arabic  and  Persian  words  in  Bengali — Conser- 
vativeness  of  the  Hindu  writers  and  Sanskritisation  of  Ben- 
gali— Correction  of  Orthography,  381-385. — The  five  Gaudas 
— Their  affinity  in  language — Agreement  in  habits  and 
costumes  -Often  under  one  suzerain  power — Pancha  Gaude- 
ywara,  385-390.— The  dialects  of  Eastern  and  Western  Ben- 
gal— Sanskritic  and  non-sanskritic  names,  390-392. — A  list  of 
obsolete  words  with  their  meanings — The  origin  of  '  Babu  ' — 
The  case-endings — The  plural  forms — Navigation  and  trade. — 
Old    Bengali    literature    treated    with    neglect,  393-398. 


CHAPTER  V. 

The  Literature  of  the  Vaisnavas,  398-565. 

I.      Vaisnavism    in    Bengal.™ Mahayanism    and    Vais- 
havism — The  lay  Buddhist  Society,  a  recruiting  ground  for  the 


VI  CONTENTS. 


Vaishavas — The  points  of  similarity. — The  message  of  Eastern 
India  and  the  apostles  of  Bengal. — The  environment  of 
Chaitanva,  398-409. — Navadvvipa  the  birth  place  of  Chaitanya 

A    seat    of    learning. — The  Navya  Nyaya. — The  flourishing 

condition  of  Navadwipa — Us  area — Sceptical  tendencies  of 
the  ao-e. — The  defects  of  the  Renaissance — Bengal  ready  for 
a  great  faith — The  advent  of  Chaitanya  Deva,  409-414. 

II.  The  life  and  teachings  of  Chaitanya  Deva, 
414-439. — Chaitanya's  asceticism  and  severity. — His  frenzied 
Lcstcisics. — Reorganisation  of  the  Vaisfiava  order — Chaitanya 
as  an  exponent  of  the  Renaissance,  439-444. 

III.  Vaisnava  biographies,  444-495. — A  new  start  in 
biography  and  the  ignoring  of  Caste,  444-446. 

(a)     Kadcha  or  notes  by  Govinda  Das,  446-464. 

(d)     Chaitanya     Bhagavata    by    Vrindavana    Das, 

464-471-  — Crivasa's  Angina — Attacks  on  the  non 
Vaisnavas  — Valuable  side-lights — Chaitanya's  con- 
temporaries, 464-497. — Chaitanya's  visit  to  Gaya 
and    the    '  lotus    feet ' — Meeting    with  ly wara  Puri, 

467-471- 

(c)  Jayananda's  Chaitanya  Mangala,  471-477.— The 
new  facts  brought  to  light  by  him — The  passing 
of  Chaitanya  Deva — The  Brahmins  of  Pirulya, 
471-477- 

{(/)  Chaitanya  Charitamrita  by  Krisna  Das,  477-489. 
— luirly  misfortunes  and  Vaisnava  inllucnce — 
Chaitanya  Charitamrita  commenced  when  the  author 
was  79. — His  vast  Scholarship — Defects  of  style — 
The  excellence  of  the  work. — The  last  days  of  Chai- 
l^;^nya — The  death  of  the  author  in  a  tragic  manner, 
477-4^9. 

(( )  Chaitanya  Mangala  by  Lochana  Das,  489-495.— 
Autobiographical    notes,    4^9-490. — A    good    poem 


CONTENTS.  Vn 

but  not  a  good  biography — Extracts  form  the 
work  490-494. — Further  particulars  about  the  poet, 
494-495- 
(j)  Brief  accounts  of  Vaisnava  devotees  995-511. — 
Nityananda  and  Advaitacharyya,  495-496. — The 
princely  ascetic  Gopi  Chand,  497-498. — Narottama 
Das,  498-499. — Raghunath  Das,  499-503. — Rupa 
and  Sanatana — ^rinivasa,  Haridas,  ^yamananda 
and  others,  503-51 1. — Bhakti  Ratnakar  and  other 
biographical  works,  511-514. — Theological 
works,  514-576. 

V.  The  Padas  or  songs  of  the  Vaisnavas,  545-545. 
Krisna  and  his  uncle  Karhsa,  King  of  Mathura,  517-520. — 
The  Gostha — The  lake-  Kaliya — The  Deva  Gostha — The 
Uttara  Gostha,  520-525.  Krisha  and  Radha — First  love — 
The  meeting,  525-529. — The  parting— Radha  forsaken  by 
Krisna — The  emotions  of  Chaitanya  Deva  attributed  to 
Radha — The  Gaur  Chandrika  and  the  influence  of  Chaitanya 
on  the  songs  of  Radha-Krisna — The  human  interest  and  the 
underlying  spirituality — The  Prabhasa,  532-545. 

The  Pada  Kartas — Govinda  Das  — Brajabuli— Jnana 
Das — Jadunandana  Das — Jagadananda  and  others,  545-557. — 
A  List  of  Pada  Kartas  with  the  number  of  Padas  they  wrote, 
557-559. — The  excellence  of  their  Padas— The  collections— 
Pada  Samudra — Padamrita  Samudra  and  other  works — 
Pada-Kalpataru,  559-565. 

Supplementary  notes  to  Chapter  V.— 566-613. 

The  organisation  of  the  Vaisnava  order — 'The  friend  of  the 
fallen' — Buddhists  surrender  themselves  to  Vaisnava  masters, 
566-567.  Chaitanya  and  his  companions  villified  567-568. — 
The  title  'Das' — Vaisnava  influence  in  the  Ramayana — in  the 
^akta  and  Qaiva  literature. — Bengali,  a  sacred  dialect  to  the 
Vaisnavas,    568-577.     The    disputes    between  the  ^aktas  and 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

the  Vaisnavas— A  satire  against  the  latter,  577-579.  Manahara 
Sahi  tune — The  origin  and  development  of  the  Kirtana 
songs — A  list  of  Kirtaniyas — ^ivu  Kirtaniya,  579-585. 
The  Kathikathas  -Set  passages  committed  to  memory 
by  them — Examples — A  short  history  of  the  Kathakathas — 
Their  extraordinary  influence,  585-590.  The  story  of 
^Dhara  and  Drona,  590-596. — The  preliminary  hymn  in 
Kathakatha,  596. — Mass  education — The  Bengali  JMss. 
preserved  in  tlie  house  of  rustics — The  influence  of  Hindi  — 
case-endings — The  metres — The  poetic  license,  597-602. — 
A  list  of  obsolete  words — The  pretenders. — How  the  Vais- 
navas gradually  merged  in  the  parent  society. — Material 
prosperitv — Cheap  living  and  poverty — The  merchants — 
The  Mahotsava  ceremony,  602-613. 


CHAPTER  YI. 
The  post-Chaitanya  Literature.— 613-775. 

I.  (a)  The  Court  of  Raja  Krisna  Chandra  of  Nadia 
— X'itiated  classical  taste  and  word  painting,  614. — The 
reaction  and  its  effects — Raja  Krisna  Chandra — The 
Sanskrit  and  Persian  models — The  Kutnis — The  depra- 
ved taste — The  Sanskritisation  of  Bengali  style  and  Bharat 
Chandra,  614-622. 

(b)  Syed  Alaol,  the  Mahomedan  poet,  who 
heralded  the  new  age — his  life  and  a  review  of  his  works, 
()22-635 — The  stvlc  and  the  taste,  636-637. 

(c)  The  story  of  Vidya  Sundara — Vidya  sends  a 
challtmge  to  her  suitors  for  a  husband — Her  love  with  Sundara 
— The  detection  and  punishment — The  happy  end  by  the 
grace  of  Kali,  637-653. 

(d)  Early  poems  about  Vidya-Sundara— Govinda 
Das  — Krisna-Kama,       Kama      Prasada,       653-662. — Bharata 


CONTENTS.  IX 

Chandra — His  life  and  a  review  of  his  poems — Onomatopoetic 
expressions  used  by  him,  and  other  points  about  style  and 
rhyming.    Prana  Rama  Chakravarty  662-678. 

IL  (a)  The  court  of  Raja  Rajavallabha  of    Dacca — 

Its  poets,  Jayanarayana  and  Anandamayl,  679. — Rajanagara, 
the  capital-town  of  Raja  Rajavallabha — the  catastrophe  of 
1 87 1. — Family  history  of  Jayanarayana  and  Anandamayi — 
Extracts  from  their  writings,  679-687 — The  poets  of  the 
school  of  Bharata  Chandra,  687 — Chandra  Kanta,  Kamini 
Kumaraand  other  poets — Their  bad  taste — Giridhara's  trans- 
lation of  the  Gita  Govinda,  687-691. 

III,  Poetry  of  Rural  Bengal  692, — The  villages  of 
Bengal — Renunciation,  the  goal  of  Hindu  life — The  songs, 
692-696. 

(a)  Kaviwalas  and    their  songs,  692. — Dafida  kavis 

— Raghu,  the  cobbler — Rama  Vasu— the  bashful 
Hindu  wife — Rasu  Nara  Sirhha — His  high  spiri- 
tual tone— The  mother-hood,  '692-703.— A  list  of 
Kavi wallas — Songs  by  Haru  Thakur — The  Portu- 
guese Kaviwala  Mr.  Antony,  703-709. 

(b)  Religious    songs— 710, — The     boatman's    song — 

The  rustic  songs,  710-712. 

(c)  Rama  Prasada  Sen,  and  the  poets  of  his  school, 

712, — Life  of  Rama  Prasada  Sen — Kali,  the 
mother — The  ^akta  interpreters — Kali,  a  mere 
symbol — The  image. — A  European  critic  on 
Rama  Prasada — His  songs,  712-721— Other  song- 
writers— Rama  Krisna  of  Nattore — Ram  Dulala. 
721.724. 

IV.  The  Yatras  or  Popular  Theatres,  724. — Their 
defects  and  incongruities — Redeeming  points — Lament  of 
Chandravali  and  the  interpretation  by  the  master-singer — 
The  grief  of  the  playmates,  724-730. — Vidya  Sundara  Yatras 
^ b 


X  CONTENTS. 

— Gopala  Uriya,  730-731. — other  Yatras — A    brief    history    of} 
the     Yatrawalas — Krisfia     Kamala — His    poems,    the    Bhava 
Sanmilan  or    Union  in  spirit — Extracts  from  Krisha  Kamalja's 
writings — Vatra  poems  with  prose — Farcical  episodes,  731-743. 

V.  Three  great  poets  with  whom  the  age  closed,. 
Dacarathi  Ray — His  panchali  and  other  poems,  743-752.^ — 
Rama  Nidhi  Gupta  (Nidhu  Babu) — His  life — His  songs, 
75^-758.— Icvara  Gupta — His  life  and  works,  758-769. 

VI.  The  folk-literature  of  Bengal — Malancha-mala 
and     Kanchanamala  — Buddhistic    and       Moslem     influences 

769-775- 

Supplementary  notes  to  Chapter  VI,  776-844. 

I.  Miscellaneous  poems^  776. — Historical  poems — Raja- 
mala — Maharastra  Purafia — Samser  Gazir-gan — Chaudhuris 
Ladai,  776-780. — Metaphysical  works — Maya  Timira  Chandri- 
ka,  Yoga  Sara— Hadamala — Tanu  Sadhana  and  other  works, 
780-782.  Translation  of  Kagikhanda  by  Raja  Jaya  Narayana 
Ghosal,  782-792. — The  interchange  of  ideas  beween  the 
Hindus  and  the  Mahomedans— A  common  god,  Satya  Pir — 
Hymns  to  ^iva  and  Sarasvati  by  Mahomedans — Musical 
treatises,  792-800 — Stories, — Buddhist  poems  recovered  from 
Chittagong — Moslem  writers  on  Radha  Krisfia,  800-804. 

IL     Mainly  on  style,  literary  tastes  and  language — 

The  Sanskrit  metres  in  Bengali — Bharata  Chandra's  signal 
success — Valadeva  Palit — His  attempts  to  revive  Sanskrit 
metres — Payara  Chhanda — Tripadi  and  its  off-shoots. — Folly 
in  alliterations  and  puns — Da^arathi's  style,  a  departure  from 
classic  al  model — Learned  discussions — The  meeting  of  the 
learned— The  education  of  women — Arabic,  Persian  and 
Hindusthani,  804-824. — Change  in  the  meaning  of  words, 
826. — Bengali  sculptors,  828. 

III.  Early  Prose  Literature — Bengali,  a  mixed  langu- 
age— Portuguese  elements,  828-830. — Causes  of  the  develop- 


CONTENTS.  XI 

ment  of  modern  prose — The  ^unya  Puraha — Deva  Damara 
Tantra-Chaitya  Rupa  prapti — Prose  works  by  Sahajias-Logic 
and  Law — Bhasa  Parichchheda — Kamini  Kumara  830-844. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
The  Modern  Ag-e,  845-1002. 
L  {a)  The  epoch  ushered  in  by  European  workers 
— missionaries  and  Civilians  845-850, — Hal- 
hed's  grammar,  848 — Punches  by  Wilkins — 
Panchanana  and  Manohara — Crude  printing  al- 
ready known  in  the  country,  848-850. 

{d)  Dr.  Carey  and  his  coIIegueSt  850-854. — Young- 
men  of  Bengal  ai>glicised  855. — Dr.  Carey's 
Bengali  works — The  story  of  a  thief — How  23 
fish  disappeared  855-867. 

fc)  Bengali  works  by  Europeans,  867-878. 

{d)   A    new    ideal    in    the    country    878-883.— The 

Pundits  of  the  Fort  William  college — Mrittunjaya 

— Rama  Rama   Vasu — Rajiva    Lochana — Krisna 

Chandra  Charita^  883-896.     The  contributions  to 

our  natural  literature  by  the  Pandits,  897. 

{e)     The  Rev.  K.  M.   Banerji    and   other   authors 

who   followed    in   the    wake   of   European 

writers, — K.   M.    Bannerjee,  his  works.     A    list 

of    publications    by  other  writers — Vocabulary — 

Grammar — History — Biography— Moral  tales  and 

other      subjects — Periodicals,      Magazines      and 

Newspapers  900-912. 

III.     General  remarks  indicating  the  characteristics 

of  the  new  age  and  its    contrast   with  the   earlier   one^ 

9I2,--rSpecimens  of  the  style  of  Bhattacharyas — Profulla  Jnana 

Netra— ^Sarvamoda-taranginl — Lipimala— Payara    Chhanda: — 

Tripadi  Chhanda — Bengali  style  of   European  writers— Babu- 


Xll  CONTENTS. 

Vilasa — the  Satire — The  high  price  of  the  printed  books — The 
excellence  of  the  Hindu  method  in  arithmetic,  912-931. 

IV.  (a)  Decadancc  of  the  high  speritual  ideal  in 
Hindu  Society  and  the  advent  of  Raja 
Rama  Mohana  Royr  931 — ^  ain  ostentations 
in  religion — Severe  codes  for  petty  offences — 
Leanings  towards  Christianity — Raja  Rama- 
mohana  Roy,  931-936. 

[d)   A  comprehensive  review  of  his  life  and  work^ 

936 — The  European  admirers  of  the  Raja 
936-943 — Evidence  before  the  select  commit- 
tee—  Broad  Sympathy  and  cosmopolitan  views 
— Respect  for  Hindu  Philosophy.  Auto-bio- 
graphical sketch  943-950  Popular  Hinduism — 
Hindu  Stewart  and  other  Europeans  admirers 
of  Hinduism  950-956 — The  Success  of  the 
Raja's  mission — The  Raja's  work  in  Bengali 
Prose  956 — Extracts  from  his  writings — His 
Bengali  Grammar — The  Suttee  movement — 
The  father  of  the  Modern  Bergali  Prose,  943- 
989. 

{c)  The  writers  that  followed  Raja  Ramamohana 
Roy — Devendra  Nath  Tagore — Aksaya 
Kumar  Dutta  and  others,  936 — Renewed 
activities  of  the  missionaries.  Devendra  Natha 
Tagore — Extracts  from  his  auto-biography — 
Aksaya  Kumara  Dutta — An  Extract  from  his 
writings — other  writers  989-1002. 

Supplementary  notes  to  Chapter  VII,  1002-12. 

i.  Three  early  centres  of  vernacular  writings,  1003-10 12. 
ii.  The  patronage  accorded  to  vernacular  writers,  1909-1912. 
iii.   Peace  and  her  boon,  191 2. 


List  of  Stories.'-'' 


The 


Page. 

Story  of  Manasa-Mangala 

...     257.276 

„       of  Kalaketu,  the  huntsman  and    hh 

;    wife 

Fullara 

...     298.309 

,,       of  ^rimanta  Sadagara 

•••     309-333 

,,       of  the  Pearl-plant 

•..     528-532 

„       of  Dhara  and  Drona 

...     590-596 

„       of  Vidya-Sundara 

...     6^^7.653 

„       of  a  thief 

...     861.864 

„       of  how  23  fish  disappeared    .. 

...     864-866 

List  of  illustrations. 

Chaitanya  Deva  listening  to    the    Bha- 

gabata 
Four  Panels  from  Book-covers  for   the 

decoration  of  Bhagabata  Literature 
Specimen  of  Book-cover,  17th  century 
Page  of  a  Bengali  MS.  of  Gita  Govinda, 

dated     1650,    written    by    Parvati 

Dasi 
Book-cover  taken  from  the  District  of 

Birbhum,  Early  17th  Century. 
Page  of  Bengali  M.  S.  of  Govinda  Lila- 

mrita,  dated  1701  A.  D. 
Page   of   a     Bengali     MS.    from    the 

Chittagong    District,    dated     1597, 

and    that   of    Harilila    written   by 

Gangamani  Devi 
William  Carey 
Raja  Ramamohana  Roy  ... 


Frontispiece. 
Facing  page 


220 
224 


!35 


528 


550 


685 
850 

931 


*  Minor  stories  are  not  included  in  this  list. 


HISTORY 

OF 

Bengali  Language  &  Literature. 


CHAPTER  I. 


Early  Influences  on  the  Bengali  Language, 

Bengal  was  a  very  ancient  centre  of  Aryan  settle-    Aryan 

ment  in    India.     The  pre-historic  kinordom  of  Prao-.    Settlement 
^  »  »       in  Bengal. 

jyotis,  which  extended  from  modern  Jalpaiguri  to  the 
back-^^•oods  of  Assam,  was  one  of  the  earliest  Aryan 
colonies  in  this  country.  '  Vanga  '  is  mentioned  in 
the  Aitereya  Aranyaka^  and  frequent  references  to 
this  land  are  found  in  the  great  epics — the  Ramayana 
and  the  Alahabharata.  According  to  Manu,  Bengal 
formed  a  part  of  the  Aryyavarta.t  The  two  great 
heroes  of  the  Dwapara  yuga,  who  are  said  to  have 
been  the  sworn  enemies  of  Qn  Krisfia — the  great  up- 
holder of  Brahmanic  power,  were  (i)  Jarasandha,  the 
King  of  Magadha  and  (2)  Poundraka  \'asu  Deva,  J 
the  King  of  Pandua  in  Bengal,  and  both  of  them  led 
expeditions  to  Dwaraka  to  subvert  the  power  of 
Krisna. 

*  Aitereya  Aranyaka  2.1.1. 

^^^t^<i^m^  U^m\^n^t%  f^^i^ts  h— Man... 

t  See  Hari  Vamp,  Bhavisya  Parva,  Chap.  19. 


'•2''  -•".BHijGALL'l.A^GUAGE   &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

Buddhistic  This    land    has,  from  very  early  times,  been  the 

\niluences.      f'i'adle  of  popular  movements  in  religion.   The  Bud- 
dhists and  the  Jains,  at  one   time,  converted  nearly 
the  whole  population  of  Bengal  to  their  new  creeds, 
and  the  Brahmanic    influence  .was  for  centuries  at  a 
very  low  ebb  here.     Some  of  the  greatest  Buddhist 
scholars  and  reformers  of  India  were  born  in  Bengal, 
among  whom  the   names  of  Atiya  Dipankara  (born, 
980  A.D.)  and  Cila-Bhadra  are  known  throughout  the 
Buddhistic  world,    ^anta  Raksit,  the  renowned  High 
Priest   of   the    monastery   of  Nalanda — a   native  of 
Gauda,  spent  many  years  of  his  life  in    Tibet    on    a 
religious  mission,  and  an  illustrious  band  of  Bengalis, 
within  the  first  few   centuries  of  the  Christian  era, 
travelled  to  China,  Corea  and  Japan,  carrving  there 
the  light  of  the  Buddhist  religion.     The  scriptures  of 
the  Japanese   priests  are   still    written    in    Bengali 
characters  of  the  i  ith  century,"^  which  indicates  the 
once-great  ascendency  of  the  enterprising  Bengali 
priests  in  the  Land  of  the  Rising  Sun.  The  marvellous 
sculptural  design  of  the  Boro  Buddor  temple  of  Java 
owed  its   execution,  in  no  inconsiderable  degree,  to 
Bengali  artists,  who  worked  side   by   side   with   the 
people  of  Kalinga  and  Guzrat,  to  whom   that    island 
was   indebted    for  its   ancient   civilization.     In   the 
vast  panorama  of  bas-reliefs  in  that  temple,  we  iind 
numerous  representations  of  ships  which  the  proplr 
of  lower  Bengal  built,    and    which    carrii'd   them   to 
Ceylon,  Java,  Sumatra,  Japan  and  Cliina. — countries 
visited    by   them   for   the    purpose   of   promulgating 

•  In  the  Horinzi  tempk-  of  japan,  the  manuscript  of  a  Buddhistic 
work  entitled  Usfilsa  Vijay  Dharinl,  has  lately  been  found.  The 
j)ri('sts  of  the  t(nii)Ie  unrship  tlic  manuscript,  a  fac-simile  of 
which  is  now  in  the  possession  t)f  the  O.xford  university.  It  is  written 
in  a  character,  which  we  consider  to  be  identical  with  that  prevalent 
in  Bengal  in  the  6th  century.     Vide  Anecdota  O.xiniensis,  Vol.  III. 


i,  i  BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.  3 

the  Buddhistic  faith  and  conducting  commercial 
transactions.  The  well-known  story  of  how  prince 
Vijay  Sirhha,  son  of  King  Sirhhabahu  of  Bengal, 
migrated  to  Ceylon  with  seven  hundred  followers  and 
established  his  kingdom  there  in  543  B.C.  is  narrated 
in  Mahavarri(;a  and  other  Buddhist  works.  Buddhism 
flourished  in  Ceylon  under  the  patronage  of  the 
kings  of  the  Sirhha  dynasty— and  the  island  is 
called  'Sirhhal'  after  them.  The  Ceylonese  era  dates 
from  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  Vijay  Simha. 
The  citizens  of  Champa  in  Bengal  had  already,  in  a 
still  earlier  epoch  of  history,  founded  a  colony  in 
Cochin  China  and  named  it  after  that  famous  old 
town."^  About  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century, 
Dhiman  and  his  son  Bit  Palo,  inhabitants  of 
Varendra  (North  Bengal),  founded  new  schools  of 
painting,  sculpture  and  works  in  cast  metal,  which 
stamped  their  influence  on  works  of  art  in  Nepal, 
from  whence  the  art  of  the  Bengali  masters  spread 
to  China  and  other  Buddhistic  countries. t 

In  Benoral  new  ideas  in  relis^ion  have  ever  found 
a  fit  soil  to  grow  upon,  and  it  is  interesting  to  observe, 
that  out  of  the  twenty- four  Tirthankaras  (divine 
men)  of  the  Jains,  twenty-three  attained  Moksa 
(salvation)  in  Bengal.  The  place  of  their  religious 
activity  was  Samet-gekhara  or  the  Pargvanath  hills 

*  See  Buddhist  India,  by  Rhys  Davids,  p.    25- 

f  Vide  Indian  Antiquary  Vol.  IV.  p.  loi,  and  also  Indian 
Painting  and  Sculpture  by  E.  B.  Havell  p.  79.  On  page  19  of  this 
work,  Mr.  Havell  writes  : — "  From  the  sea-ports  of  her  Western  and 
Eastern  coasts,  India  sent  streams  of  colonists,  missioneries  and 
Craftsmen  all  over  Southern  Asia,  Ceylon,  Syam  and  far  distant 
Cambodia.  Through  China  and  Japan,  Indian  art  entered  Japan 
about  the  middle  of  the  sixth  Century  "  The  Eastern  sea-ports, 
here  referred  to,  were  probably  Tamluk,  Chittagong  and  those 
on  the  Orissa  Coast."' 


4  BKNGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE    [  Chap. 

ill  tlic  district  of  Hazaribagh  and  many  of  the 
Tirthankaras,  such  for  instance  as  Crearhg^unath  and 
Vasupujya,  were  born  in  BengaL^  The  greatest  of 
the  Jaina  Tirthankaras — Mahavira  spent  eighteen 
years  of  his  life  preaching  his  faith  in  Rada  Deya 
(Western  Bengal). 
Bengal  The  country  was  for    centuries    in    open    revolt 

dieted  by  against  Hindu  orthodoxy.  Buddhistic  and  Jain 
influences  here  were  so  great,  that  the  codes  of 
Manu,  while  including  Bengal  within  the  geogra- 
phical boundary  of  Aryvavarta.  distinctly  prohibit 
all  contact  of  the  Hindus  with  this  land,  for  fear  of 
contamination. t  Ananda  Tlrtha,  the  famous  com- 
mentator of  Aitereya  Arahyaka,  declares  Bengal  to 
be  inhabited  by  Raki^asas  and  Pi^achas.  In  fact  it 
is  probable,  that  Bengal  was  mostly  peopled  by  the 
descendants  of  the  earlv  citizens  of  I\Ia£radah.t 
hence  Brahman  ism  could  not  thrive  for  many 
centuries  amidst  a  people,  who  were  the  pioneers 
of  Buddhism. 

Bengali,  a  ^\\\^   Buddhist  priests  had  already,   in   the  latter 

uo^'^^K-       P'^i'l-  <J'  1-^T-'  tenth  centurv,   becfun  to  write  books    in 

rTxi  ^  aC  n  I  '  .in 

PraKrita.  Prakrita  called  the  Gouda  Prakrita.  This  Prakrita 
was  called  by  the  grammarian  Krisiia  Pandit.  \\ho 
flourished  in  the  twelfth  century,  as  a  form  of 
I^iirachl  Prakrita  or  a  Prakrita  spoken  by  thi'  e\il 
spirits.  The  rules  specilied  by  him.  in  his  celebrated 
grammar     Prakrita-Chandrikii,     as    peculiar    to  our 

\'itlc  Jainamala  or  a  chronolo^iral  table  of  tht-  Tirthan- 
karas (|U()t((l  ill  the  Bencrali  EncvcIop;edia,  Vicvakosa  \ol. 
VI L  p.  i6S. 

t    "  ^5f  ^5?  5f  fc^^5f|  OW^\%  ^^\l^\  ^  I 

'^'1^^1:^t'^  mi  ^B^^^  -^J^l  ^V^-t^  S^tir,   l"  — Mann. 

X  Vide   Intliaii  I'undils  in  the  LaiuU)t"  Snow,   hy  Sarat  Chandra 
Das,  p  21. 


L] 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE. 


dialect,  apply  to  it  up  to  this  day.  According  to 
him  <J  and  «f  change  into  ^  and  '^,  and  ?[  is  pronoun- 
ced as  ^  in  this  form  of  Prakrita,  and  of  ^,  ^,  5f,  one 
form  only  is  found  in  current  use.  These  are, 
generally  speaking,  the  characteristic  features  of 
spoken  Bengali  up  to  this  day  and  our  old  manus- 
cripts are  full  of  examples  of  them.  The  reasons 
which  made  Krisha  Pandit  give  our  language  the 
contemptuous  name  of  Pai^achi  Prakrita,  are  not  far 
to  seek.  It  is  the  same  that  made  Manu"^condemn  all 
touch  with  this  land.  The  dialect  of  the  Buddhist 
people,  in  which  the  Buddhist  priests  were  writing 
books,  could  not  be  accepted  by  the  Sanskritic 
school  which  arose  with  the  revival  of  Hinduism. 

Several  works  written  in  the  tenth  and  the 
eleventh  centuries  of  the  Christian  era  in  a  very 
old  form  of  Bengali,  have  lately  been  discovered 
by  Mahamahopadhyaya  Hara  Prasada  Castri  in 
Nepal.  These  are  (i)  Charyyacharyya  Vini^chaya, 
(2)  Bodhicharyyavatara  and  (3)  Dakarnava.  The 
manuscript  of  Budhicharyyavatar  is  incomplete. 
They  appear  to  be  but  poor  fragments  of  a 
literature  which  ow^ed  its  origin  chiefly  to  the  earn= 
estness  of  the  Tantrika  Buddhists  for  popularizing 
their  creed.  Though  these  specimens  have  how 
been  nearly  all  lost,  we  hope  some  portion  of  them 
may  be  yet  recovered  by  careful  research  carried 
into  the  literary  archives  of  Nepal  and  Chittagong, 
— the  present  resorts  of  Buddhism  in  Eastern  India. 

This  effort  on  the  part  of  the  Buddhists  to  raise 
Bengali  to    the  status  of  a  written   language,    how- 

*Manu  lived  in  a  prehistoric  age,  but  as  the  laws  of  that  sage 
are  no  longer  to  be  found  in  the  form  in  which  they  originally 
existed,  our  remarks  apply  to  their  modified  version  given  in  the 
Bhrigu  sathhita  which  belongs  to  a  much  later  period. 


Earliest 

Bengali 

works  by 

the  Budd. 

hists. 


Revival  of 
Hinduism. 


Progress  of 

the  Verna. 

cular  re- 

tarded. 


)  BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

ever,  came  suddenly  to  a  standstill  on  the  revival  of 
Hinduism  in  Bengal,  Buddhist  works  were  carried 
by  the  vanquished  exponents  of  that  faith  to  Nepal 
and  Burma ;  and  all  traces  of  the  creed,  which  was 
once  ascendant  in  the  country,  were  obliterated 
there.  Whatever  may  be  urged  in  favour  of  the 
theory  of  "  the  gradual,  almost  insensible,  assimila- 
tion of  Buddhism  to  Hinduism  "  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  Buddhism  was  often  suppressed  in  India 
by  a  storm  of  Brahmanic  persecution.  The  follow- 
ing extract  from  ^ankara-Vijaya  regarding  King 
Sudhanva  will  show  the  ruthless  manner  in  which 
the   Buddhists  were  sometimes  persecuted  : — 

*'  Many  of  the  chief  princes,  professing  the 
wicked  doctrines  of  the  Buddhist  and  the  Jain  reli- 
gions, were  vanquished  in  various  scholarly  contro- 
versies. Their  heads  were  then  cut  off  with  axes, 
thrown  into  mortars,  and  broken  to  pieces  (reduced 
to  powder)  by  means  of  pestles.  So  these  wicked 
doctrines  were  thoroughly  annihilated,  and  the 
country  made  free  from  danger." 

With  the  decadence  of  the  power  of  the  Buddhist 
priests,  who  in  their  zeal  to  popularize  their  creed, 
had  not  considered  the  Vernacular  of  Bengal  as  an 
unworthy  medium  for  propagating  their  religious 
views,  Btrngali  lost  the  patronage  which  it  had 
secured  of  the  lettered  men  of  the  country ;  and  its 
future  seemed  dismal  and  uncheerful.  We  liave 
shewn  that  the  form  of  Prakrita  prevalent  in  Bengal 
was  in  disfavour  with  the  Sanskritic  school  which 
gave  it  a  contemptuous  epithet.     Sanskrit  scholars, 


[,  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  7 

who  brought  about  a  revival  of  Hinduism  in  Bengal, 
were  imbued  with  a  taste  for  the  hard  and  fast  rules 
of  classical  grammar,  and  had  an  unmixed  abhorrence 
for  the  laxities  of  Priikrita  adopted  by  the  Buddhists. 
Bengali  seemed  to  have  no  prospects  with  such 
scholars  : — nay  they  zealously  opposed  the  efforts 
of  those  who  offered  to  help  the  Vernacular  of  the 
country  to  assert  its  claim  as  a  written  language. 
The  following  well-known  Sanskrit  couplet  bears 
testimony  to  their  ill-will. 

"If  a  person  hears  the  stories  of  the  eighteen 
Puranas  or  of  the  Ramayana  recited  in  Bengali,  he 
will  be  thrown  into  the  hell  called  the  Rourava." 

There  is  a  corresponding  Bengali  couplet  which 
is  also  well-known  : — 

''Krittivasa  (Bengali  translator  of  the  Rama- 
yana),  Kayidasa  (Bengali  translator  of  the  Maha- 
bharata)  and  those  who  aspire  to  mix  with  the 
Brahmins  too  closely,  are  the  greatest  of  evil- 
doers." 

In  the  famous  controversy,  which  Raja  Ram- 
mohan  Ray  held  with  the  orthodox  Pandits,  he 
had  frequently  to  explain  his  conduct  in  regard  to 
his  publication  of  vernacular  translations  of  the 
Sanskrit  scriptures,  which  according  to  those 
Brahmins,  were  sacriles^ious.  This  shows  that  even 
as  late  as  the  early  part  of  the  19th   century,   when 


8  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.     [  Cha| 

Bengali  had  reached  a  high  stage  of  development, 
it  was  looked  down  upon  by  the  orthodox  Brahmins. 
Our  readers  are  likely  to  conclude  from  the 
above,  that  tlie  Brahmins  were  jealous  of  the 
gradual  development  of  Bi^ngali  and  its  recognition 
as  a  written  language.  They  wanted  all  truths  of 
their  religion  to  be  locked  up  in  the  Sanskrit  texts  ; 
any  attempt  to  promulgate  them  through  the  vehicle 
of  a  popular  dialect,  meant  a  loss  of  the  great  power 
\\hich  they  had  monopolized  ;  and  thev  thus  looked 
upon  all  such  movements  to  enrich  the  vernacular 
language,  with  jealousy  and  distrust.  But  it  admits 
of  another  explanation  also,  which  is  perhaps  the 
right  one.  The  Brahmanic  school  probably  sus- 
pected, that  the  hunters  after  cheap  popularity  who 
adopted  Bengali  for  conveying  the  truths  of  the 
Brahmanic  religion,  would  not  keep  intact  the 
purity  of  their  spiritual  ideal,  and  that  the  truths,  so 
dearly  prized  by  them,  would  be  sullied  in  the  pro- 
vincial versions  of  the  great  Sanskrit  works.  They 
therefore  decried  all  efforts  to  popularize  the  ^cis- 
tras  by  compiling  Bengali  translations.  Add  to 
this  their  contempt  for  Bengali  which  was  one  of 
the  most  lax  forms  of  the  Ardha-magadhi  Prcikrita. 
Xot  only  did  the  Sanskrit-knowing  people  hold  the 
\  (-macular  of  the  counlrv  in  disfavour,  but  even 
the  writers  of  IkMigali  themselves  had  no  high 
opinion  of  the  resources  of  this  language.  We 
tr'(|utiuly  come  across  such  lines  in  old  l^xMigali 
works,  as — "Naturally  BiMigali  poems  are  fault}' "^'' 
(X'ijay  gupta)  "  Xot  lit  to  be  discussed  in  a  verna- 
cular   poem"  t  (Kavindra) — implying,  that  Bengali 


T5CW  ^r^cft  ^?  ^t^1   C^K^^  I— Vijay  Gupta. 

"  'fm^^  m^  C^f^T^lVf  f '-^Kavindra  Parame^wara. 


I. 


BRNGAIJ    LANGUAGE    8:    UTERATCRP]. 


was  quite  an  untit  niediuin  for  conveyinor  any  serious 
or  high  til  ought. 

The  question  is  :  how  could  the  poor  X'ernacular 
of  Bengal  Hnd  recognition  in  the  courts  of  the  kings, 
inspite  of  this  opposition  of  the  Brahmins  ?  P^very 
Hindu  Court  gloried  in  keeping  a  number  of  Sans- 
krit scholars  attached  to  it.  From  the  time  of  X^ikra- 
maditva  it  grew  to  be  a  fashion  with  Hindu  kings 
to  keep  learned  companion^,  and  they  were  generally 
picked  men — finished  masters  in  Sanskrit  Poetry. 
Grammar  and  Logic,  who  revelled  in  the  high  flown 
style  and  in  the  niceties  of  rhetoric  which  abound  in 
the  latter-day  Sanskrit  works,  such  as  Kadamvari, 
DaCj^akumar  Charita  and  Qvi  Harsa  Charita.  The 
copperplate-inscriptions  of  the  Pal  and  Sen  Kings  of 
Bengal  bear  abundant  proofs  of  the  learning  and 
poetical  powers  of  some  of  these  gifted  men,  whose 
contempt  for  Bengali  was  as  great  as  was  their  scholar- 
shi))  in  Sanskrit.  How  can  we  account  for  the  fact, 
that  the  court  of  Krisha  Chandra  of  Navadwipa, — a 
glorious  seat  of  Sanskrit  learning — where  Hari  Rfim 
Tarkasiddhanta,  Krisnananda  V^achaspati  and  Ram- 
gopal  Sarbabhouma  were  the  professors  of  Logic — 
where  \7inecwar  Vidyalankara  won  his  laurels  in 
Sanskrit  poetry  and  ^iva  Ram  \'acaspati.  Ram 
Ballabha  Vidyavagi(;a  and  Vire^war  Xyaya- 
Panchanana  discoursed  on  philosophy. — such  a  dis- 
tinguished seat  of  classical  learning  as  Krisfia 
Chandra's  court  could  bestow  its  favours  and  titles 
on  Bharat  Chandra  and  Ramprasad— the  Bengali 
])oets  of  the  eighteenth  cenHiry  ?  Not  only  Krisna 
Chandra,  but  many  other  Kings  and  Chiefs  of 
Bengal,  who  preceded  him,  are  described  as 
having   extended    their     patronage    and    favour  to 


How  could 
Bengali  ob- 
tain fvaour 
in  the  Hin- 
du Courts  ? 


10  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

the  earlv  Bengali  poets.  Their  courts  were  guided  by 
Sanskrit-knowing  Pandits,  and  how  are  we  to 
reconcile  the  fact,  that  these  Brahmins  welcomed 
the  poor /^/^/^ — the  despicable  Paiyachi  Prakrita 
of  Bengal,  for  which  they  had  hitherto  only  a  feeling 
of  unmixed  contempt. 

Bengali  This    elevation    of    Bengali   to   a   literary  status 

by^vvosliem  ^^^'^'^  brought  about  by  several  influences,  of  which 
Chiefs.  ^i^g  Mahamrnadan  conquest  was  undoubtedly  one  of 
the  foremost.  If  the  Hindu  Kings  had  continued  to 
enjoy  independence,  Bengali  would  scarcely  have 
got  an  opportunitv  to  hnd  its  way  to  the  courts  of 
Kings. 

The  Pathans  occupied  Bengal  early  in  the  thir- 
teenth century.  They  came  from  a  far  distance — 
from  Bulkh,  Oxus  or  Transoxina,  but  they  settled 
in  the  plains  of  Bengal  and  had  no  mind  to  return  to 
their  mountainous  home.  The  Pa  than  F^mperors 
learned  Bengali  and  lived  in  close  touch  with  the 
teeming  Hindu  population  whom  they  were  called 
upon  to  rule.  The  minarets  and  cupolas  of  their 
Mosques  rose  to  the  sky,  adjoining  the  spires  and 
tridents  of  the  Hindu  temples.  The  sounds  of  the 
conch-shells  and  bells  emanating  from  the  latter, 
were  heard  while  the  new-comers  assembled  in  the 
Mosques  to  sav  their  e\cning  prayers.  1  he  pom- 
])Ous  processions  and  the  religious  rites  of  the 
Hindus — their  Durgapuja,  Rasa  and  Dolotsava— dis- 
plavcd  a  religious  (Mithusiasm  which  equalled  their 
own,  while  relebraling  the  Maharam.  Id.  Sabebarat 
and  other  festivals.  The  Kmperors  heard  of  the 
far-reaeliiug  fame  of  th(^  Sanskrit  epics,  the 
Kamavana  and   the    Mahabharata.  and  observed  the 


L]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  li 

wonderful  influence  which  they  exercised  in 
moulding  the  religious  and  domestic  life  of  the 
Hindus,  and  they  naturally  felt  a  desire  to  be 
acquainted  with  the  contents  of  those  poems.  The 
Pathan  Emperors  and  Chiefs  could  not  have  the  great 
patience  of  the  Hindu  Kings  who  were  inspired 
by  a  religious  zeal  to  hear  the  Brahmin  scholars 
recite  Sanskrit  texts  and  their  learned  annotations, 
step  by  step,  requiring  the  listeners  many  long 
years  to  complete  a  course  of  lectures  on  the 
Ramayana  or  the  Mahabharata.  They  appointed 
scholars  to  translate  the  works  into  Bengali  which 
they  now  spoke  and  understood.  The  first  Bengali 
translation  of  the  Mahabharata  of  which  we  hear, 
w^as  undertaken  at  the  order  of  Nasira  Saha,  the 
Emperor  of  Gauda  who  ruled  for  40  years  till 
1325  A.D.  This  translation  has  not  vet  been  re- 
covered, but  we  find  mention  of  it,  in  another  tran- 
slation of  the  epic  made  by  Kavindra  Parameywara. 
at  the  command  of  Paragal  Khan,  the  governor  of 
Chittagong.  Nasira  Shah  was  a  great  patron  of 
the  Vernacular  of  this  country.  The  poet  Vidyapati 
dedicates  one  of  his  songs  to  this  monarch"^  and  in 
another,  speaks  with  high  respect  of  Sultan 
Guisuddin.t 

The  name  of  the  Emperor  of  Gauda  who 
appointed  Krittivasa  to  translate  the  Ramayana,  is 
not  known  with  certainty.  He,  might  be  Raja- 
Karhsanarayana  or    a  Moslem  Emperor,  but  even  if 

— Nasira  Shaha  knows  it  well,  whom  cupid  pierced  with  his 
dart — the  poet  Vidyapati  says — Long  live  the  Emperor  of  the  '  five 
Indies.  ' 

t  "  ^1  ^^T^ft^  ^^^H  "—Vidyapati. 


■12  BENGAIJ    LANGL'AGK    <S:    IJIKKAIL'RK.    [  Chap. 

he  was  a  Hindu  King,  there  are  abundant  proofs 
to  show,  that  his  court  was  stamped  \\itli  Moslem 
influence.  The  Emperor  Husen  Saha  was  a  great 
patron  of  Bengali.  Maladhar  Vasu,  a  native  of 
Kulingrama.  and  one  of  his  courtiers  was  employed 
l)v  him  to  translate  the  Bhagavata  into  Bengali, 
and  after  two  chapters  of  this  work  had  been 
translated  bv  him.  in  1480  A.I).,  the  Kmperor  was 
pleased  to  confer  on  him  the  title  of  Gunaraj  Khan. 
\V\'  ha\e  already  referred  to  a  translation  ol  the 
Mahabharata  made  by  Ka\  indra  Parameywar  at  the 
behest  of  Paragal  Khan.  Jliis  Paragal  Khan  was 
a  general  of  Husen  Saha.  deputed  b\-  him  to 
conquer  Chittagong.  Frequent  references  are 
found  in  old  Bengali  literature,  indicating  the  esteem 
and  trust  in  which  the  Emperor  Husen  Saha  was 
held  by  the  Hindus.^  Kavindra  Paramecwar  had 
translated  the  Mahabharata  upto  the  Slnparva.  and 
Chhuti  Kiian  son  of  Paragal  Khan,  who  had  succeed- 
ed his  father  in  the  governorship  of  Chittagong.  em- 
ploved  another  poet  named  rnkaraha  Xandi  for 
translating  the  Avvamcdh  Parva  of  that  epic, 
^nkaran  Xandi's  translation  has  latel\-  been  pub- 
lished b\-  the  Siihilva  Parisada  of  Calcutta.  The 
|)()et  Alaol,  w  ho  li\ed  about  the  middle  o\  the  sex  en- 
teenth    centur\-,    translated    a   Hindi    work    entitled 


Padma   Purana  l)y  \'ijay_i;ui)ta 
Mahabharat  In  Kabindra 

{<j)  B^^  K^^,  5)*>i^  ^^«i.  c>i5  ^ft  ^^  ^H. 

Sony:  '>>  Ya^oraja  Khan 


[.  ]  BENGALI    l.ANGUAGK    &    LllKKArURE.  13 

Padmavat    by  Mir  Mahammad  in  a  highly  sanskrit- 
ised    Bengali  at  the  command  of  Magan   Thakur.   a 
Mahammadan   minister  of  the  court  of  the  Chief  of 
Aracan.    It  should  be  noted  here,  that  there  are  many 
instances     where     Mahammadans     adopted     Hindu 
names  and  the  name  Magan  Thakur  should  not  lead 
us  to  mistake  him  for  a  Mahamaden.     Alaol  was  also 
employed  by  the  Moslem  chief — Solaman.  to  translate 
a  Persian  work  into  Bengali.   Instances  of  like  nature, 
where  Mahammadan  Emperors  and  Chiefs  initiated 
and  patronised  translations  of  Sanskrit  and  Persian 
works  into  Bengali,  are  numerous,   and   we  are   led 
to     believe,      that      when      the     powerful     Moslem 
Sovereigns   of   Bengal   granted   this   recognition  to 
the    \''ernacular    language    in    their    courts,    Hindu 
Rajas  naturallv  followed  suit.     Tiie  Brahmins  could 
not   resist    the   influence    of    this    high    patronage  ; 
thev  were  therefore  compelled  to  fa\our    the    langu- 
age they  had   hated  so  much,  and  latterly  they  them- 
selves came   forward  to    write   poems  and   compile 
works  of  translation   in  Bens^ali.      From  the  account 
we  have  found  in  some  of  the  early  Bengali  works  ol 
translation,    we    can    have  a  glimpse  of  the  manner 
in    which    court  patronage     was     accorded     to    the 
Bengali  poets.      When  the  shades  of  twilight  settled 
on  the  dark  green  clumps  of  shrubby  trees  on  the  far 
Sonamura     ranges.    Para  gal     Khan    the    Governor 
used   to   call  his  ministers,  attendants  and  courtiers 
every    evening   to  his  palace  at  Paragalpur  in  P'eni, 
and  before  this  illustrious  audience,  the  translator  of 
the    Mahabharata   had    to    recite    portions    from  his 
poems — the     governor     himself    giving     cheers    in 
admiration    of  beautiful   and    interesting   passages. 
The  poet  flattered  his  noble  patron  by  calling  him  an 


14  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    cS:    LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

incarnation  of  Hari  in  Kaliyuga"^  and  it  is  curious 
to  note,  that  the  Pathan  chief,  who.  was  a  devout 
Mahammadan,  enjoyed  this  compliment  of  the 
Hindu  poet  and  did  not  take  it  as  an  affront. 

Thus  the  appointment  of  Bengali  poets  to  the 
Hindu  courts  of  fiindu  Rajas,  grew  to  be  a  fashion  after 
follcfw^the  ^'^^  example  of  the  Moslem  chiefs,  and  we  find  most 
Example.  of  the  works  of  our  best  poets  dedicated  to  the  kings 
and  noble  men  who  patronised  them.  Thus  the 
works  of  \'idyapati.  the  Maithil  poet,  are  inseparably 
associated  with  ^iva  Sirhha  and  other  sovereigns 
of  Mithila.  Mukundaram,  the  immortal  author  of 
Chandi.  had  for  his  patron  Bankura  Rai.  the  Raja  of 
Arah-Brahmanbhumi.  Rame^^vara  who  wrote 
the  "Civayana"  enjoyed  the  patronage  of  Ya90vanta 
Sirhha,  Raja  of  Karnagada.  Ghanaram,  the  author  of 
"  Dharmamangal  "  was  the  recipient  of  many  favours 
from  Kirlti  Chandra,  the  Raja  of  Burdwan,  and  who 
can  think  of  the  great  poet  Bharat  Chandra  with- 
out remembering  his  great  friend  and  patron 
Krisha  Chandra  of  Navadwipa?  Raja  Jay  Chandra 
em]:)loyed  the  poet  Bhabani  Das  for  compiling  a 
translation  of  the  Ramayana;  and  many  other  \alu- 
able  Sanskrit  works  were  translated  into  Bengali 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Kings  of  Tippera.  We 
shall  dwell  upon  all  these  works  in  their  proper 
places  hereafter. 

We  now  conlidently  i)resume  that  the  above 
))roofs  will  be  held  sulficient  to  support  the  view, 
that  the  ])atronage  and  favour  of  the  Mahammadan 
iMiiperors  and  chiefs  ga\i'  the  first  start  towards  re- 
cognition of  Bengali  in  the  courts  of  the  Hindu  Rajas 


^  "  ^f^^ti;^  ^^  c^^  f^  "^^^n  I  " 


I,]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  1 5 

and  to  establish  its  claims  on  the  attention  of  scho- 
lars. It  is  curious  to  observe  that,  more  than  once 
in  history,  we  have  owed  the  development  of  our 
language  to  the  influence  of  foreign  people  from 
whom  such  help  was  the  least  expected.  Mr. 
Nathanial  Prassy  Halhed,  a  European  member  of 
the  Indian  Civil  Service,  wrote  the  earliest  Bengali 
grammar  for  us  in  the  eighteenth  century ;  and 
Bengali  prose,  in  our  own  days,  owes  a  good  deal  to 
the  impetus  given  to  it  by  the  European  mis- 
sionaries. 

The   other  causes,  which  contributed  to  a  rapid         q.. 
development    of    Bengali    during    the    Mahomedan        Causes. 
period,  may  be  briefly  summed  up  as  follows  : — 

(2)  The   revival   of   Hinduism,  which  we  have 

called    in    this    book    as    the    Pauranik 
Renaissance. 

(3)  The   great  Vaisnava  movement  in  Bengal 

in  the  sixteenth  century. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Pre-Mahomedan  Literature* 


I.  Aphorisms  and  wise-sayings, — Dak  and  Khana. 
2.  Dharma-cult — a  form  of  Buddhism.  3.  Ramai 
Pandit  and  his  ^uhya  Purana.  4.  Sahajia-cult 
and  its  exponents.  5.  Dharma-mangal  poems 
and  the  story  related  in  them.  6.  The  ballads 
of  the  Pal  Kings.  7.  The  Qaiva-cult,  how  it 
faced  Buddhism.     8.  Genealogical  records. 

Before  dealing  with  the  literature  of  Bengal  that 
grew  up  after  the  Mahomedan  conquest,  we 
propose  to  dwell  here  upon  the  fragments  of 
literary  works  which  have  come  down  to  us, — from 
a  much  earlier  period.  They  consist  of  (i) 
Aphorisms  and  pithy  sayings  which  served  as  a 
guide  for  domestic  and  agricultural  purposes  to  the 
rural  folk  of  Bengal.  (2)  Hand-books  of  mystic 
doctrines,  based  on  Tantrik  forms  of  Buddhism.  (3) 
Ballads  and  songs  in  honour  of  some  of  the  Pal 
Kings  of  Bengal.  (4)  Hymns,  odes  and  songs  des- 
cribing the  prowess  of  Dharma  Thakur  and  other 
household  deities.  (5)  Genealogical  accounts  of 
the  Kulin  families  of  Bengal. 

1   Aphorisms  and  wise-sayings,   Dak  and  Khana. 

Referring  to  the  earliest  literature  of  Bengal, 
Vachana.  which  bears  the  stamp  of  Buddhistic  influence,  we 
light  upon  Dakarhava, — a  Tantrik  work  of  the  Bud- 
dhists, containing  aphorisms  and  wise-sayings  in 
old  Bengali  regarding  agriculture,  astrology,  medi- 
cine and  other  matters  of  interest  to  domestic  life. 
Mahamohopadhyaya  Haraprasada  ^astri  found  a 
copy  of  Dakarhava  in  the  custody  of  the  Buddhists 
of  Nepal.  Dakarhava  gives  specimens  of  a  very 
old  form  of  Bengali  which  may  be  traced  to  the  tenth 


11.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGR    &    LITERATURE.  1 7 

century  of  the  Christian  era.  Dak-Tantra  is  also  a 
book  of  authority  with  the  rural  folk  of  Bengal,  but  it 
is  popularly  known  here  as  '•  Daker-Vachana."  The 
latter  work  gives  a  smoothed  down  version  of  its 
precursor  and  prototvpe  preserved  in  Nepal  ;  but 
there  are  numerous  lines  to  be  found  in  the  editions 
of  the  book  published  by  the  Battala  Presses  of 
Calcutta^  which  retain  their  old  and  antiquated 
forms.  It  is  impossible  to  get  any  clear  sense  out 
of  such  lines  as  :  — 

\^i  if^^i  ^%  ^^  I 

^i^ft  ^^r«  ^i^ft  c^T^tf^  I 

^t^i  c^t^  nt?:^  ftR  i 
^t^T^^  c^t^  ntf^  mf'f  I  i 

Probably  the  last  portion  refers  to  the  rules  for 
settling  disputes  by  arbitration — a  practice  generally 
adopted  in  the  old  order  of  society.  There  are 
evident  traces  of  Buddhistic  views  in  these  saving-s.  Buddhistic 
Buddhism,  in  its  days  of  decline  in  India,  became 
identical  with  scepticism.  In  Daker-Bachana.  we 
come  across  such  views  as  these  : — 

"  When     we    get    a   good     palatable   thing     to 
eat,  it  is  not  wise  to  keep  it  for  to-morrow.     Enjoy 

*   Published  by  Benl   IVIadhab    De  &  Co.,  318,  Battala,  Upper 
Chitpore  Road,  Cah^utta. 


Views. 


:S  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      Chap 

curds  and  milk  ;  if  they  bring  on  disease,  get  it 
cured  by  medicine.  For,  says  Dak,  when  one 
dies,  there  is  an  end  of  his  connection  witli  the 
world. "^  This  is  quite  an  un-Hindu  idea.  The 
pleasures  of  the  present  moment  are  condemned  bv 
the  Hindu  ^astras  and  the  \  iews  quoted  above 
remind  us  of  Charvaka  and  other  free-thinkers, 
and  we  have  said  that  the  Buddhists  of  the  latter- 
day  school  had  turned  into  free-thinkers  like 
Charvaka.  The  Buddhistic  Dharma  ^astra  lays 
special  stress  on  charitable  works.  In  the  short 
epigrammatic  sayings  of  Dak.  there  are  many 
passages  calling  on  a  house-holder  to  perform 
works  of  charity  and  public  good. 

"  One  who  is  anxious  to  do  a  virtuous  act.  should 
dig  tanks  and  plant  trees  (for  the  benefit  of  the 
people).  One  who  founds  institutions  for  the 
distribution  of  rice  and  water,  never  goes  to 
Hell."t 

^^?f  fff^1  «f^t^  C^^"^  II 
V^  ?plC^  ^^  ^"^  I 

■X-  -K-  * 


11.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE. 


19 


We  miss  in  these  sayings,  the  familiar  injunc- 
tions for  prayer  and  worship,  indispensable  in 
a  book  of  rules  for  the  guidance  of  a  Hindu 
house-holder  ;  and  here  we  can  draw  a  clear 
line  of  demarcation  between  the  state  of  society 
before  and  after  the  revival  of  Hinduism  in  Bengal. 
All  rules  and  codes  framed  for  the  guidance  of  men 
and  women  in  our  society,  after  the  downfall  of 
Buddhism  have  a  distinct  and  unmistakable 
reference  to  the  metaphysical  side  of  religion. 
In  them  a  far  greater  stress  is  laid  on  devotion 
to  gods  than  on  principles  of  morality.  The 
Hindu  priests  even  go  so  far  as  to  declare,  that 
a  man  committing  the  worst  of  sins,  may  secure 
a  place  in  Heaven  by  uttering  the  name  of  God, 
a  single  time.  The  Daker  Vachana  evidently 
belongs  to  a  period  anterior  to  the  acceptance  of 
this  ideal  in  society. 

Daker    Vachana    is    not    the    only   book   of  its        Khanaf 

V^Ti  r*  h  ^  ti 

kind  in  old  Bengali.  Khanar  Vachana  furnishes 
an  equally  old  specimen  of  our  vernacular.  The 
latter  is  more  popular  with  the  masses  and 
has.  therefore  undergone  far  greater  changes 
than  Daker- Vachana.  We,  however  often  lisfht 
upon  old  and  antiquated  forms  of  expressions 
in  it,  which  remind  us.  that  though  simplified 
and  altered,  the  savino-s  must  also  be  traced 
to  an  early  age.  Though  the  subjects  treated  The  say= 
of,  in  the  two  books,  cover  a  varied  field,  by  mffnfy  de- 
far    the    greater    portion     of    them    is    devoted    to    voted  to  ag> 

^  ^  ricultural 

agricultural  subjects.      In   Bengal,  where  the  people    subjects. 

are  chiefly  of  the  peasant  class,  these  sayings 
are  accepted  as  a  guide  by  millions  ; — the  wisdom 
they    display    is    the    result    of    acute    obser\ation. 


20  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LLIEKATLRE.    [  Cliap. 

of  nature  and  lias  a  special  signiticance  in  regard 
to  the  soil  and  climate  of  Bengal.  Wc  quote  some 
of  them  below  : — ^ 

"  If  it    rains   in    the    monlh   of   Asfrahavaha.  the 
king  goes  a-begging. 

''  If  it  rains  in  the  month  of  Pousa,    money   may 
be  had  even  by  selling  the  chaff. 

^1^1  ^m^  ^r'li^  II 

^^  ^t^t?  ^5T  C^*t  II 

am  ^t^^tm^^Hii" 
"  f^m  cfitff  ^i^«  ^^  I 

'R1  ^:^  ^C^l  ^l^  II  '" 
"  ^^  ^t^5HH  c^^i  I  " 

'<H^ii^  f^^  m^^  ftfei  II 
^ti^^  ^^j  c^c^  c^^i  I 

^nn  ^^^  c^i^i  ^tt  I 


II.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  21 

"  If  it  rains  at  the  end  of  the  montli  of  Mairha, 
the  king  and  his  country  become  blessed. 

"  If  it  rains  in  Falgun,  the  millet  Chinakaon 
{Peanicuin  miliaceum)  grows  abundantly." 

"  Khana  says,  the  paddy  thrives  in  the  sun  and 
the  betel  in  the  shade." 

"  If  the  paddy  gets  profuse  sunshine  bv  day, 
and  showers  by  night,  it  rapidly  develops.  Khana 
says,  the  drizzling  rain  in  the  month  of  Kartic, 
does  immense  good  to  the  paddy." 

"  Hear,  O  son  of  ploughman,  iii  the  bamboo-bush 
put  some  smut  of  paddy,  if  you  do  so  near  the 
root  of  the  shrubs,  they  will  soon  cover  two  Kudas 
of  land  (about  174  cubits  square).'" 

"  O  son  of  ploughman,  plant  patol  {Trichosan- 
thes  dio'ca)  in  a  sandy  soil,  your  expectations  will 
be  fulfilled." 

''Sow  the  seeds  of  mustard  close,  but  those  of  rye 
[Sinapis  ramose)  at  some  distance  from  one  another. 
Cotton  plants  should  be  put  at  the  distance  of  a  leap 
from  one  another  and  jute  should,  bv  no  means,  be 
planted  near  them,  for  cotton  plants  will  perish  if 
they  come  in  contact  with  the  water  from  the  jute- 
field."  " 

There  are  numerous  rules  of  this  nature  laid 
down  on  agricultural  matters,  with  special  applica- 
tion to  the  products  of  the  soil  of  Bengal.  The 
books  serve  to  this  day  as  infallible  agricultural 
manuals  to  the  ploughmen  of  Bengal.  The  short 
sentences  rhyming  with  one  another  are  soon  com- 
mitted to  memory  ;  so  every  child  and  every  Avoman 
knows  them  in  rural  Bengal. 

The  following  rule  is  enjoined  for  building  a 
residential  house: —  building 


On  house^ 


22 


;ENGALI    LANGUAGE    (S:    LITERATURE.     [  Chap. 


On  the 

properties 

of  plants 

and  on  the 

c  u I  i  n  a  ry 

art. 


Study  of 

female  cha= 

racter  in 

Daker 
Vachan. 


"  On  the  east,  let  there  be  the  ducks  \i.c.  there 
should  be  a  tank)  ;  on  the  west,  an  avenue  of  bam- 
boos;  on  the  north,  a  garden  of  fruit-trees;  and 
the  south  should  be  left  open''"^ 

The  chapter  on  medicine  is  not  taken  from  an\" 
learned  Sanskrit  medical  work.  The  indigenous 
plants  and  herbs  of  rural  Bengal  are  prescribed  as 
remedies,  the  effects  of  which  seem  to  be  infallible 
on  the  human  system  and  were  known  by  direct 
experiment.  The  discourse  on  the  culinary  art  of 
Bengal  in  Daker  vachan  has  a  particular  interest 
to  us,  as  it  describes  the  simple  but  exceedingly 
delicious  fare,  cooked  by  our  village  women.  In 
plainness  and  in  delicacy  of  taste,  these  dishes  bear 
a  striking  contrast  with  the  rich  preparations  of 
meat,  introduced  in  the  later  times  by  the  Maham- 
madans. 

In  Daker-vachan  we  find  an  interesting  studv 
of  female  character  which,  I  am  afraid,  will  not  be 
fully  appreciated  b\'  peo])le  unaccjuaintcd  with  the 
lift'  in  our  zenana.  We  give  some  extracts 
below  : — t 

"  Tlu^  husband  is  inside  the  house,  the  wife  sit> 
out-doors,  and  turns  her  head  on  all  sides  and 
smiles.  With  such  a  wife,  says  Diik.  the  husband's 
life  is  not  secure." 


^Tf^  ntC^  ^K\  ^^f^  ^tC^  II 


II.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  23 

"  The  hearth  is  In  the  kitchen,  but  the  wife  cooks 
meals  outside,  she  swells  her  small  tresses  and  ties 
them  into  a  large  knot,  and  frequently  turns  back 
her  head  (as  if  to  see  somebody).  She  empties 
the  pitcher,  and  goes  to  the  pond  for  re-hlling  it, 
casts  side-glances  on  the  passers-by,  and  covertly 
glances  at  some  stranger  while  talking  with  neigh- 
bours on  the  road,  hums  a  tune  while  lighting  the 
evening  lamp.  Such  a  woman  should  not  be  kept 
in  the  house. "^ 

The  sky  of  Bengal,  clear  and  transparent  in  the  Vara  Masi 

early  spring,  foggy  in  winter,   and   full   of  frowning  Months  ^a 

clouds  and  anory  flashes  of  lio-htninors  in  the  rainy  favourite 
'      •        .                        r                    ,  subject. 

months,  ever  changing  its   aspects   from    month   to 

month,  cannot  fail  to  strike  a  keen  observer  of 
nature  with  the  clearly  defined  lines  of  its  varied 
weather.  The  various  seasons  produce  different 
results  on  the  human  system,  on  the  paddy-fields, 
and  on  the  variegated  flowers  and  leaves  of  trees 
with  which  the  villao-es  abound.  Life  here  chano-es, 
as  it  were,  from  month  to  month  and  Nature  pic- 
turesquely disports  herself  on  the  stage  of  this 
beautiful  country  throug^h   the  twelve   sub-divisions 

^  "^^^  ^t«n  ^itu  ^^1%  I 

^^  ^^  ^K^  fe^f^  ^t^  I 

^m  ^t^  vf]  ^ft«Tfc  5  ^^  ^wr?  11 

ntf^  c^f^^i  ntf^^¥  ^m  I 

^tR?  ^^  ^H  ^t?i  I 
n^  ^^c^  ^t^  ^r^  ^tf?  I 
n^  ^^t^^  ^u^  ^f^  II 
vii  ^itft  ^?:<i  ^1  ^ft  ii " 


^4  HF.NGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap.   ; 

of  the  year.  The  "  \'arainasi  "  or  a  description  of 
twelve  months  is  a  favourite  subject  with  our  old 
poets,  who  seem  to  be  never  weary  of  describing 
the  peculiar  pleasures  and  sorrows  of  each  of  the 
twelve  months.  Here,  in  these  two  manuals,  there 
are  frequent  references  to  the  conditions  of  weather 
foretelling  the  prospects  of  paddy  during  each  month 
of  the  year.  Food,  peculiarly  congenial  to  the  hum;in 
system  in  each  season  and  month,  is  detailed  in 
Daker  Vachana  in  strict  accordance  with  the  prin- 
ciples of  health.      I  quote  a  portion  below  : — 

"  In  the  month  of  Kartik,  take  the  esculent  root 
O/  [Ant HI  canipanulatiiiii).  In  Agrahayana  the  Bel 
fruit  will  prove  congenial  to  health.  In  Pous  take 
Kanji  i^a  kind  of  sour  gruel  or  sowens  made  by 
steeping  rice  in  water  and  letting  the  liquor  fer- 
ment). In  Magh,  a  free  use  of  mustard  oil  is  re- 
commended. In  Falgun  take  ginger  and  in  Chaitra 
vegetables  of  a  bitter  taste  (as  Nim  leaves)  will  do 
you  good.  In  V'ai^^akh  lYalifa  (a  pot  herb),  in 
Jyai.stha,  butter  milk. — in  Asa  da,  curds,  in  Cravana 
Khoi  (a  kind  of  fried-grain)  in  Bhadra,  palm  fruit 
and  in  Ayvina, — cucumber.  This  is  the  \'aramasi, 
says  Dak."^ 

■^  ^idc^  ^^,  s^W^  C^n  I 
c\\i^  ^^U  ^fi^  c^^  II 

¥tlC^  ^t«tl  l^U^  f^^l  I 
^^•ifC'IC^  f^^  ^tf^^l  I! 


i 


XL  1  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  25 

The  later  \'aramasis.  of  which  there  is  quite  a 
legion  in  our  old  literature,  are  mainly  devoted 
to  tender  feelings  experienced  by  lovers  in  the 
different  months  of  the  year,  especially  when 
separated  from  one  another. 

The    popularitv    of    the    two    books    is    not   ap-  The 

popularity 
proached  bv  any  other  writings  that  we  know  01,  in         of  the 

the    country,   as    even    illiterate   men    have  got   the  ^'   ^  * 

aphorisms  by  heart,  and  yet  they  have  been  handed 
down  to  us  from  a  remote  past, — it  may  be  the  tenth 
century  A.  D.  as  we  have  already  said  and  as  ap- 
pears from  tlie  language  in  which  their  older  ver- 
sions are  couched  and  from  the  spirit  of  the  age 
which  is  stamped  upon  them. 

Our  next  point  will  be  to  discuss  the  authorship  The  ques= 
of  these  aphorisms.  Khana  is  believed  to  be  a  thorship. 
historical  personage,— the  reputed  wife  of  \^araha- 
mihira  and  a  prodigy  in  astronomy,  in  the  days  of 
Vikramaditya,  the  King  of  Ujjayinl.  Even  accepting 
all  these  traditions  about  her  to  be  true, — it  is  absurd 
to  suppose,  that  she — a  native  of  Rajputana,  would 
compose  the  aphorisms  in  Bengali  or  dwell  upon 
subjects  which  peculiarly  applv  to  Bengal.  The 
Daker  V^achana  has  similarlv  been  ascribed  by 
popular  belief  to  a  milk-man  named  Dak.  In  the 
vanita  (signature)  of  these  sayings,  we  occasionaly 
come  across  the  words  "  Dak  goala  "  (Dak-the 
milkman.)  We  have,  how^ever,  found  that  they 
formed  a  part  of  the  Buddhistic  work — Dakarnava 
Tantra,  so  their  origin  is  easily  explained.  In 
some  of  the  sayings  we  find  the  vanita  of  Ravaiia. 
This  exceedingly  purile  notion  is  no  doubt  due 
to    the    belief    amongst    the    people  of  this  country 

4 


Hindus. 


26  13EXGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [Chap. 

that  a  knowledge  of  astrology  has  come  down  to 
us  from  the  Raksasas.  Inspite  of  all  these  tradi- 
tions, we  are  inclined  to  believe,  that  these  say- 
ings contain  the  accumulated  wisdom  of  the  Bengal 
peasantry, — they  are  the  heritage  of  an  agricultural 
race  to  which  the  unassuming  rural  folk  of  Bengal 
have  unconsciously  contributed  through  ages,  and 
that  no  particular  person  or  persons  should  be 
credited  with  their  authorship. 

_,,...  2.  Dharma-cult— a  form  of  Buddhism. 

Buddhistic 

recast  by  ^^^^    Moslem    conquerors    often    built    Mosques 

the  ^vith  the  materials  of  the  Hindu  temples  thev  had  des- 

troyed.  The  sculptural  representations  of  gods  and 
goddesses  and  other  carvings  on  bricks  indicating 
the  ancient  decorative  art  of  the  Hindus  have  been 
lately  discovered  from  dilapidated  Mosques  in 
various  places  in  India, — as  the  plaster,  v,hich  con- 
cealed them  from  view,  crumbled  do^^•n  from  the 
walls  in  course  of  time. 

Such  has  also  been  the  case  with  Buddhism  in  India. 
In  the  Buddhist  temple,  the  image  of  Buddha  is  often 
worshipped  as  Civa.  Buddhistic  religious  books  have 
been  so  recast  and  transformed  by  the  Hindu  priests, 
that  they  now  pass  for  religious  poems  of  the  Hindus 
in  the  eyes  of  the  people.  \'et  the\-  \\ere  unmistakab- 
ly Buddhistic  works  at  lirsl.  Such  for  instance  are  the 
poems  of  Dharma-mangal.  Dharma-thakur,  in  praise 
of  whose  might,  the  poems  were  originallv  com- 
posed, r('])resents  the  p()j)ular  idea  of  Buddha  and 
occupies  the  sec-i)U(l  j)lace  in  the  lUidhistic  group 
comprised  of  lUuldha.  Dharma  and  Sariigha.  The 
third  of  the  group  ^"3^,  changed  into  »f^,  is  also 
alluded    to,  in  the  (^iiiva  Purrina.  bv  Rumai  Pandit. 


II.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  27 

He  mystically  discourses  on  ^l^,"^  which  however,  is 

as    remote    from    '^^,    as  is  the  popular  conception 

of  Dharma-thakur,  from  that  of  the  historical  Buddha. 

There    are    passages    which     distinctly    prove     the 

Buddhistic    origin    of    the    poems.      In    the    Cunya     Evidences 

Purana,    which    lavs    down    rules   for  Dharma  wor-     „^t5f'?*'*. 

Buddhistic 

ship,   there     is     a   line, — "  ^I'^^tW   ^^   f^^l    ^^^ " —        origin. 
(Dharma  Raj    condemns    sacrifices).     This    sounds 
like  a    translation  of  the  well-known  line  in  honour 
of     Buddha    by    the      poet    Jaydeva — "  f^^f^     <f^ 

There  are  many  other  passages  which  clearly 
indicate  the  same  truth  ;  for  instance  ''  f^2^^«T 
BH^tW  ^^^  ^'irH  " — (Dharma  Raj  is  held  in  high 
veneration  in  Ceylon).  In  another  line  we  find 
''  ^t^*^^  fe«T^  ^^  ^f^^  ^^^t^" — (In  former  times 
Dharma  Raj  was  the  Lalita  Avatara).  The  most 
authoritative  biography  of  Buddha  is  called  the 
"  Lalita  Vista ra." 


cm^  ^i^\  ^m  ^U  ^U^  ^^t^  ^^^t^  1 

^f^  m  ^"v^  mn  ^^f^  II 

^ft^  "^ii^i  ^1  ctK^  itf^  11 
^f«[^  "^11^  ^tn  n^^tfs^  I 

C^  ^^  7j^  C^  ft«5?^  >\M  ^n  T'^^  ^t<^  ft^tt 


funya  Puran  PP.  83-84. 


28  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.      [  Chap. 

In  the  poems  of  Dharma-mangal    itself,  there  are 
frequent     references    to   Buddliist     saints,   such     as 
Minanath,  Goraksanath,  Hadipa  and   Kalupa.     The 
words  i%^??^  and  *j^3/  ^fl  with  which  the    readers    of 
the    poems    are    so   familiar,    are  words  taken  from 
the  Buddhistic  ^astras.     The     doctrine    known    as 
the    (Junyabad.    which    explains    the    origin    of  the 
universe  from  nothing,  became  a  popular  theory  with 
the  later  Buddhistic    school  ;  and    this    doctrine    is 
detailed  not  only  in  the  ^unya  Purana,  but  also    in 
the  poems  of  Dharma-mangal.     The  Hadis,   Domas 
and    other  low  caste  people  are  the  priests  in  manv 
of  the  Dharma  temples.     The  Doma  Pandits  at  one 
time  occupied  a  prominent  position  in  the  Buddhistic 
temples,  and  when  Buddhism  was  driven  awav  from 
this  country,  all  r(dig!0us  functions  in  manv  of  these 
Dharma  temples,  still  continued    to    be    discharged 
by    the    descendants    of   the    Doma  priests,  as  the 
Hindus  dared  not  oust  a  priestly  class,    revered    by 
the     people,    from    their    duties    in     temples.      We 
noticed,    that    the    poems    in    honour    of    Dharma- 
thakur    have   been   thoroughly  recast  by  the  Hindu 
priests,  and  Hindu  ideas  have    been    largely    intro- 
duced into  them  ;   but  even   as  late  as  1640  \.D.  the 
Brahmin    priests    would   not     venture    to    mix     too 
closel)-    w  ith  tlio  worshippers  of  Dharma-thakur  for 
fear  of  losing  caslc      In  the  above  Tear,  when  INIanik 
Kam  (janguli,  .'i  r)rahniin,  was  inspired  bv  Dharma- 
tliakur.    who     app(-"arc(l    t(^    him     in    a     dream    for 
c-ncour.iging    liiin    to    write    a  Dharma-mangal.  our 
poet  fell  prostr.ite  bclon-  him  in   dismav,    and    said 
"^tf^    ^n    2i^    'ifr    1^1   ^f^  '^m  1"—  I  shall  be-    an 
outcast,    if    I    sing    a    song    in    your  praise).     This 


II. 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE. 


29 


distinctly  proves  that  Dharma-thakur  had  origi- 
nally no  place  in  the  Hindu  Pantheon. 

As  the  popularity  of  these  songs  amongst  the 
masses  continued  unabated,  the  Brahmins  gradually 
took  them  up,  and  later  poems  of  Dharma-mangal 
have  been  so  greatly  transformed  in  their  hands,  that 
they  look  very  much  like  works  devoted  to  the  f-akta- 
cult ;  but  reading  between  the  lines,  the  readers 
will  be  able  to  discover  evident  traces  of  Buddhism 
in  them.  It  should  however  be  noted  here,  that  the 
Buddhism  indicated  in  these  works,  has  scarcely 
anything  in  common  with  the  pure  Buddhism  of 
Anoka's  time  ;  and  both  are  even  more  unlike  one 
another  than  the  Pouranic  Hindu  religion  of  the 
present  day  and  the  pure  religion  of  the  Upanisadas. 

The  Qunya  Purana  by  Ramai  Pandit,  Charva- 
charyavinigchay  by  Kanu  Bhatta,  the  poems  known 
as  Dharma-mangal,  and  ballads  and  songs  in  honour 
of  some  of  the  Pal  Kings  of  Bengal  bear  distinct 
stamps  of  Buddhism  on  them.  The  ballads  of  the 
Pal  Kings,  who  were  great  patrons  of  Buddhism^ 
indicate  the  marvellous  power  wielded  by  Gorak^a- 
nath  and  Hadisiddha,  the  great  Buddhistic  saints. 
The  latter  belonged  to  one  of  the  meanest  castes  of 
the  Hindu  society,  yet  his  power  is  said  to  have 
been  so  great,  that  the  gods  of  Heaven,  trembled 
in  fear,  when  the  saint  approached.  In  the  spgns 
of  Govinda  Chandra  Pal,  revised  by  the  poet 
Durlabha  Mallik,  the  King  is  said  to  have  asked 
his  religious  preceptor — the  far-famed  Hadisiddha, 
as  to  what  was  the  true  religion.  Hadisiddha 
said  : — 


The 
Brahmins 
gradually 
overcome 

their 
scruples. 


Early 

Bengali 

works 

by   the 

Buddhists. 


30         BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

(  O  Govinda.  my  son,  the  highest  act  of  religion   is 
to  abstain  from  destruction  of  life\ 

The  popular  notion  of  Buddhism  in  India  holds 
this  doctrine  of  ^f^'^Tl  as  the  most  essential  point 
in  the  religion  of  Buddha,  about  whom  the  poet 
Joydeva  has  said  :  — 

3.  Ramai  Pundit  and  his  ^unya  Purana. 

The  great  exponent  of  the  Dharma-cult  in  Bengal 
Ramai  •     t^       i-         i 

Pundit,        ^vas,   by    general    acceptance,     Kamai    randit — the 

wards Viie      '"^P'-^ted  author  of    ^unya    Puraha.     The    poems   of 

end  of        Dharma-mangal  also  make  mention  of  Ramai  Pundit 

Century       ^vith  great  esteem.      His  hand-book  of  Darma  Puja, 

*     *  called  the  ^unya  Purana,  has  been  edited  by   Babu 

Nagendranath    X'asu  and     lately    published  by  the 

Sahitya  Parisada  of  Calcutta.    Ramai  Pandit  was  a 

contemporary    of     Dharmapal    H,    who   reigned    in 

Gouda  in  thr    early    part  of   the    iith   century  A.D. 

RajendraChol'srock-inscription  (1012  A. U.j,  recently 

discovered  at  Tirumalaya,    makes    mention    of  this 

monarch.   Ramai  Pandit  was  born  at  Champaighat- 

on     the     river     I)\Narakev\var     in     the    District     of 

Bankura.     The  year  of    his  birth    is  not  kno\\n,  but 

he  was  born  on  the  5th  day  of  the  waxing  moon,  in 

the  month  of  \'aivakha,  to\\ards  the  end  of  the  lolh 

Centur)-  a.u. 

*rhe  i)nl)u  Xagcndianath  X'asu,  who  edits  the   ^un\a 

^"rhis"        •'^"'i'"'^'     acc(pLs     the     account    of      Krunai's      life 

pedijfree        furnislu'd  bv  his  descendants,  and  takes  him  to  be  a 
discussed 

lirahmin.      The     account    is    full    of    fables    and    is 

scarccU-    rntitlcd  to  crcdcnci'.       The  descendants  of 
Riiinai    Pandit,    who    still    dischargi-     the     priestly 


n.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.  31 

function  in  the  Dharma  temple  at  Maina,  are 
known  as  Dom  Pandits  and  not  Brahmins  ;  besides, 
there  have  been  so  many  attempts  in  Bengal  to 
raise  a  low-born  saint  to  the  rank  and  status  of  a 
Brahmin,  evidently  with  a  view  to  remove  the 
stigma  of  humble  origin  laid  on  his  descendants, 
that  we  can  hardly  accept  this  account  of  interested 
parties  as  true.  Haridasa,  the  great  saint  of  the 
\'aisnava  community,  was  a  Mahammadan  ;  but  he  is 
now  declared  by  some  Vaisnavas  to  have  been 
originally  a  Brahmin.  Even  in  the  accounts  furnished 
from  the  temple  of  Maina  by  the  descendants  of 
Ramai  Pundit,  there  are  points  to  throw  a  doubt 
on  the  pretensions  to  a  high  pedigree  advanced 
by  them.  Dharma-thakur  therein  is  said  to  have 
cursed  Ramai,  saying  that  the  people  of  higher 
castes  would  not  touch  water  given  by  the  Sairit. 
Ramai  Pandit  himself  is  said  to  have  cursed 
his  son  Dharmadas  for  a  fault,  not  clearly  stated, 
by  which  he  lost  his  caste  and  turned  a  Dom 
Pandit.  These  stories  are  evidently  got  up  to 
establish  the  point  that  they  were  originally 
Brahmins,  though  so  degraded  now.  The  writer 
of  the  sketch  very  forcibly  states  that  the  Dom 
Pandits  do  not  belong  to  the  Doma  caste.  His 
very  enthusiasm  in  establishing  this  point  betrays 
the  weakness  of  his  position  ;  for  the  people  of 
Bengal  know  Domas  and  Dom  Pandits  to  belong 
to  the  same  caste.  The  word  f^^  (twice-born) 
which  occasionally  occurs  in  the  Bhanita  of  Ramai 
Pandit,  is  a  later  interpolation  and  the  ^unya 
Purana,  in  its  present  shape,  bears  traces  of  many 
subsequent  hands,  as  Nagendra  Babu  has  himself 
admitted. 


;^2         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

His  Ramai  Pandit  was    eighty    years    old   when    he 

descen=        married.      His    son    Dharmadas    liad    four    sons, — 
dants. 

Madhava,     Sana  tana,    ^ridhara     and     Trilochana. 

The      members     of     Ramai      Pandit's     family  are 

authorised  priests  of  Yatrasiddhi  Roy— as  Dharma- 

thakur   of    the  temple  at  Maina  is  called — and  thev 

are    privileged     to    perform    the    copper-ceremony 

of  the  36   castes. 

The  The  Cunya  Purana  begins  with  a  description  of 

of  the  the  origin    of    the    universe     on     the    lines    of    the 

Cunya  Mahavana  School  of  the  Buddhists.   It  runs  thus^  :— 

Purana. 

''  There  was  no  line,  no  form,  no  colour,  and 
no  sign. 

"The  sun  and  the  moon  were  not,  nor  day,  nor 
niorht. 

o 

"The  earth  was  not,  nor  water,  nor  sky. 

"The  mounts  Meru,  Mandara  and  Kailasa  were 
not. 

"The  creation  was  not,  nor  \\ere  there  eods, 
nor  men. 

"  Brahmfi  was  not,  nor  was  Visnu,  nor  the  ethe- 
rial  regions. 

^  ^f^  a^,  ^T^  ^n  ^fk  r^n  ^^  f5^  I 
^ft  ^^  ^ft  fw^  ^fk  fk^  ^tf?  f^^  11 

^ft  f^^  ^?|  5il^  ^ft  f^^  ^t^t^  I 

^f^  fwi&  f^^  ^H  ^r^  ^^  5^^  I 

^^"1  r^fe^^  fk^  ^  (^-i  ^"r^  ti  7. 

vr^rvf=i5  '^1^  ^j%  r^i^  ^f?!!'^!*!  n  10. 
^^^  "^^"sm  ^^^?i  ^r.^  ^1%  ^^  II 

^unya  Puran. 


I 


II.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  33 

"  Heaven  and  earth  were  not,  all  was  emptiness. 
"  The  presiding  gods  of  the  ten   directions  were 
not,  nor  were  there  the  clouds,  nor  the  stars. 

"  Life  was  not,  nor  death,  nor  pangs  of  death. 

"  The  Lord  moved  in  the  void,  supporting  Him- 
self on  the  void." 

From  the  Lord,  says  tlie  Cunya  Purana,  sprang 
air;  and  as  He  drew  breath,  Ulluk  (owl),  a  bird  sacred 
with  the  worshippers  of  Dharma-Thakur,  was  creat- 
ed. The  owl  is  also  sometimes  called  a  Muni 
(sage).  The  next  creation  was  tortoise,  which  is 
also  sacred  with  the  Dharma-worshippers.  In  the 
temple,  dedicated  to  Dharma  Thakur  by  Lau  Sen — 
King  of  Maina,  in  the  nth  century,  Dharma  is  still 
worshipped  as  a  tortoise.  The  other  objects  of 
creation  were  the  serpent  Ananta,  and  the  earth  ; 
and  then  from  the  Lord  came  Cakti,  known  as 
Durga- 

We  need  not  proceed  further  with  this  catalogue 
of  theological  reveries.  The  Cunya  Purana  gives 
details  about  the  method  of  worshipping  Dharma. 
We  find  ^iva,  Visnu,  Brahma  and  a  host  of  Pauranik 
gods  mentioned  in  this  book  in  a  strange  way. 
Thev  discharofe  functions  which  have  little  in  com- 
mon  with  those  attributed  to  them  by  the  Hindus. 
Occasionally  we  come  across  the  word  ^^f«=^<^R, 
which  reminds  us  of  the  Nirvana  of  Buddha. 

Cunya  Purana,  published  by  the  Sahitya  Parisad, 
contains  altogether  56  chapters,  of  which  5  are 
devoted  to  an  account  of  the  creation  of  the  uni- 
verse. The  rest  detail  the  method  of  Dharma- 
worship  with  occasional  references  to  the  sacrifices 
made  by    Raja    Hari    Chandra    and    other    devout 


34  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    (S:    LITERATURE.    [  Chap.^  • 

t 
followers    of    Dharina,    for    the     sake    of    relieion.  - 

Specimens     'l^lu-re    are    several    passao^es    in   prose  in  the  booJJ^^ 
oi  passages  i  .-r>  r 

from  the      which  furnish  curious  specimens  of    very    old    Ben-^^^ 
original  ,..,.,,  .  ,     .  ^^  -**" 

work.         R''^'i    mixed  with  later  interpolations.     Our  readers 

will  admit  from  the  antique  forms  of  words    in    the 

following    lines   that    they    formed    a    part    of    the 

original  writings  of  Ramai  Pandit. 

"  c^  ^^^t'l  m^  '^rl  ^t^  ^tf^^  ^n  '^tf©  c^^  c^^^^ 
vn^  ^p5  y\-\%^^  c^]w\  ^t^f^  ^iijt^  ^f%  ^f^f^  I"  p.  70. 
^tf?i%^  U^^-^  7\]f^m  ^"^  f^?Ji  II "  p.  24. 
^^^  ^^  ^vf  ^^t^  ^1^1 1 " 

«?IH  ^nn  5^^  5^t^^  ^H  ^It^  v5^^  ^tf^^  ^^T^  I  ?^1 
"5(^^^  if?(^  ^^T^^^  I  "  p.  59- 

The  book  contains  many  passages  of  this  nature, 
and  the  learned  editor  has,  in  an  apologetic  tone, 
avowed  his  inability  to  explain  many  of  them. 

The  last  The  last  chapter,  which  is  headed  "  f^?^i:^^  ^F^l" 

subse=         (^^^^'  anger  of  Niranjan)  and  was  evidently  annexed, 

quently        ^^  ](,,^g|.  ^i^y,^^  centuries  after  the  comi)Osition  of  the 
inter»  ^ 

polated.        original    work,    refers    to    the   revival  of  I  linduism. 

— the  downfall  of  the-  followers  of  Sat-Dharma  or 
pure  religion  (Buddhism),  and  to  a  free  light  between 
the  Mahammadans  and  the  Brahmins  at  Jaipur, — 
the  Alahammadans  being  described  as  the  incarna- 
tions of  gods  and  goddesses  who  are  said  to  have 
come  down  for  wreaking  vengeance  on  the  Brahmins 
for  ()j)pr(>ssing  tht>  Sat-Dharmis.  We  gi\e  a  free 
aiul  abridged    translation    of    the    curious    passage 


II.]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE 


35 


below.^  In  all  probability  the  passage  was  written 
by  Sahadeva  Chakravarti.  one  of  the  authors  of 
Dharma-mangal,  of  whom  we  shall  have  to  write 
at  some  length,  hereafter. 


^ff  ^^  §^  1 

^'tn  f^^  t^t^  ^^^  I  ^ 
^^^  ^tl^i  ^^  ^^  ^^^  ^n  ^'^ 

^Wl^  C^T^  '^^^t^  1   « 
^tC^  CTtl^  f^M^  ^t^t^  I 

^^i^  ^^^^  ^^?t^  I 
^t^r'"^?:®  ^f<i^  Iwtf  II 


3^  BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.      [  Chap, 

The  ''  In      Jaipur     and    Maldah      sixteen      hundred 

Brahmins      ,       .,.  r       ,-     ,•       r.     i      •  i 

and  the       taniilies     ot       v  edic    Hranmins     mustered     strong. 

Dharmis        I^^'ing  assembled  in  groups  of   ten   or  twelve,  they 

killed  the  Sat-Dharmis   (Buddhists'  who  would  not 

pay  them  religious    fees,    by   uttering    incantations 

and  curses.     They  recited  Mantras  from  the  \'edas 

and  Hre  came  out  from  their  mouths,  as  they  did  so. 

The    followers    of    Sat-Dharma  trembled    with  fear 

at  the  sight  thereof,   and    prayed    to    Dharina;    for 

who    else    could    crive    them   succour  in  that  crisis  ? 

The  Brahmins  began    to  destroy  the  creation  in  the 

above  manner,  and  acts  of  great  violence  were  per- 

Dharma        petrated  on    the    earth.      Dharma    who    resided    in 
comes  as  . 

a  iVluha-        Baikuntha  was  grieved  to  see  all  this.     He  came  to 

punish  the      ^^^^-  ^^'o^'^*^  ^"^  ^  Muhammadan.    On  his  head  he  wore 
Brahmins.     ^  black  cap,  and  in  his  hand  he    held    a    cross-bow. 


c^mi  ^t^^  C^*.  ^^ff  ^t?[l    C^^ 

^^m  ^1^  ^^^]  I 

^It'-f^  ^f^^1  Cn^,  f^"^  C^ql  ^tm  ftr^ 

ntf^  nr*!^  c^tc^  c^t^  i 

(  liavi-    th.inycd    tin-    uDitl    "^li^    to    Wi^  in  the    second  line,  as  1 
cunsidcT  the  l.ittcr  tu  be  the  rurrect  readinjj) 

^unya  Purati,  p.  140 


II.] 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE. 


37 


He  mounted  a  horse  and  was  called  Khoda.  Xiran- 
jana  incarnated  liiinseH  in  Bhest  (heaven).  All  the 
ofods  beinor  of  one  mind,  wore  trousers.  Brahma 
incarnated  himself  as  Muhammad,  Visfiu  as 
Paigamvar  and  ^iva  became  Adamfa  (Adam). 
Gane^^a  came  as  a  Gazi,  Kartika  as  a  Kazi,  Xarada 
became  a  Sekha  and  Indraa  Moulana.  The  Rifis  of 
heaven  became  Fakirs.  The  sun,  the  moon  and  the 
other  gods  came  in  the  capacity  of  foot-soldiers,  and 
began  to  beat  drums.  The  goddess  Chandi  incarnat- 
ed herself  as  Haya  Bibi  and  Padmavatl  became 
Bibi  Xur.  The  gods  being  all  of  one  mind  entered 
Jajpur.  They  broke  the  temples  and  Mathas  and 
cried  "seize,"  "seize."  Falling  at  the  feet  of 
Dharma,  Ramai  Pandit  sings,  "O  what  a  great 
confusion  !" 

What  historical  incident  is  referred  to,  in  the 
description  given  above,  is  not  clearly  known.  But 
it  unmistakably  points  to  a  general  feeling  of  grati- 
fication, with  which  the  Buddhists  watched  the 
oppression  of  the  Brahmins  by  the  Muhammadans 
at  Jaipur,  which  they  attributed  to  divine  wrath, 
for  atrocities  committed  upon  themselves. 


The 
history  of 
the  fight 
unknown. 


4.  The  Sahajia=cult. 

When  Buddhism  declined  in  India,  and  Hindu- 
ism had  not  yet  risen  on  her  horizon  in  the  fulness 
of  its  elorious  revival. — when  the  idea  of  a  higher 
life  inspired  by  a  keen  sense  of  morality  and  in- 
trospection, which  was  the  dominant  spirit  of 
Buddhism,  declined  into  scepticism  and  sensuality, 
and  when  devotion  and  absolute  trust  in  God,  which 
characterised  the  Pauranik  Hinduism,  was  yet  un^ 
known — in    the    twilight   of    the    transition-period, 


The 

Sahajia 

creed 

started  by 

the 
Buddhists. 


38  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

mystic  rituals  of  Tantrikism  ruled  Buddhistic  and 
Hindu  communities  all  over  India.  The  \'amachari 
Tantriks  perpetrated  wanton  crimes  in  the  name 
of  religion  and  the  vast  literature,  they  have 
left  us.  lays  down  codes  for  those  initiated  in  the 
creed,  which  totally  upset  the  moral  fabric  of  society. 

The  Sahajia-cult  owed  its  origin  to  the  \^ama- 
charl  Buddhists.  Salvation  was  sought  for  by  a 
process  of  rituals  in  which  young  and  beautiful 
women  were  required  to  be  loved  and  worshipped. 
In  sexual  love  there  is  surely  a  higher  side  which 
points  to  love  Divine.  The  Sahajia-cult  was 
originally  based  upon  this  idea. 

Kanu  Bhatta— a  Buddhist  scholar,  who  lived  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  loth  century,  was  the  hrst 
apostle  of  love-songs  of  the  Sahajia-cult  in  Bengali. 
This  love  is  not  a  leoritimate  affair  sanctioned  bv 
society  ;  with  one's  own  wife  it  could  not,  accord- 
ing to  this  creed,  reach  a  high  stage  of  perfection. 
Kanu  Bhatta's  work  in  Bengali  which  formulates 
Charyya=      ^'^^  creed  of   N'ainachar  is  called    Charyya-Charyya 

Charyya       Vinicchava.       It    has    been    latelv    recovered    from 
Vini^chaya 
and    Bodhi      Nepal  by  Mahamahopadhyaya  Hara  Prasad    ^astri. 

vaU^ra'        Another    work   of  a  similar  kind  is  Bodhi-Charvya- 

vatara.  the  MS.  of  which,  as  I  have  said  elsewhere. 

is  incomplete. 

There  are  passages  in  the  love-songs  contained 
in  the  above  two  works  which  are  obscene  ;  but  they 
ari'  jxTineated  by  a  ni\stic  spiritual  significance 
and  are  ca])al)le  ot  a  higlK-r  interpretation. 

The  (l()ctrin(>s  promulgated  \)\  the  \'amrichan 
P>uddhists  did  not  pass  away  with  the  overthrow 
of     the    Buddhistic    iniluence    in    Bengal.       In    the 


IL  1  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE. 


39 


Sahajia  creed  of  the  Vaishavas,  the  old  doctrines 
re-appeared  amongst  the  masses,  and  its  great  ex- 
ponent   Chandidas    echoed  the    sentiments  of  Kanu    ^^^^ndi  Das 

.        .  ...  as  an  ex- 

Bhatta  in  his  love-songs,  giving  it  a  far  higher  spiri-      ponent  of 


tual  tone  than  they  had  ever  received  from  the 
Buddhists.  Chandidas  lived  in  the  14th  century, 
so  his  writings  do  not,  properly  speaking,  belong 
to  the  pre-Mahammadan  period  to  which  \\e  should 
have  confined  ourselves  in  this  chapter.  For  an 
exposition  of  the  Sahajia  doctrines,  however,  we 
find  it  necessary  to  refer  to  some  of  his  songs 
which  elucidate  the  essential  principles  of  this 
curious  creed.     Says  Chandidas  : — 

P  ''  Every  one  speaks  of  Sahajia, — alas,  who  knows 
its  real  meaning?  One  who  has  crossed  the  region 
of  darkness  (passions)  can  alone  have  the  light  of 
Sahajia.""^ 

Chandidas's  writings  on  this  point  occasionally 
appear  as  riddles, — and  indeed  all  writings  of  this 
class  are  so, — but  they  give  sufficient  glimpses  of 
the  purity  of  his  faith. 

t  "  The  woman  must  remain  chaste  and  never 
fall  ;  she  will  sacrifice  herself  entirely  to  love,  but 
outwordly  the  object  of  her  love  will  be   as    nobody 

^  1^  ^^,  ^^t^  ^^?[ 

^^  ^tf^i:^  C^  1 

^^^  C^C^^^  C'!  II      Chandidas. 


Sahajia. 


40  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

to  her.  Secret  love  must  he  indulged  in  secret; 
and  thereby  her  mind  should  be  purified  ;  but  she 
should  not  submit  to  desire.  She  must  plunge 
herself  headlong  in  the  sea  of  abuse,  but  at  the  same 
time  scrupulously  avoid  touching  the  forbidden 
stream  and  be  quite  indifferent  to  both  pleasure 
and  pain,  (she  will  allow  herself  to  be  abused  by 
others  remaining  true  to  herself)." 

To  play  with  passions, — to  indulge  freely  in  love, 
at  the  same  time  to  guard  oneself  against  a  fall,  is 
risky.     The  poet  knows  it  well  and  says"^ — 

"  To  be  a  true  lover,  one  must  be  able  to  make  a 
frog  dance  in  the  mouth  of  a  snake  " — (which  means, 
the  lover  while  playing  with  dangerous  passions, — 
nay,  while  apparently  running  even  to  the  very 
mouth  of  destruction,  must  possess  the  self-control  to 
return  unhurt).  "  This  love  may  be  attained  by  one 
who  can  suspend  the  highest  peak  of  Mount 
Sumeru  with  a  thread,  or  bind  an  elephant   with     a 

"  c^n^  ^ftfs  c^^nm  <[tf^r^ 
"  ^^f  Tt^i;^  Pi^m  ^ftft 

"  ^M^^  ^^t^  c^^^^  ^fMft 
"  c^^^  ^^<i.  ^^^?r'  c"i'i5 

^  ^1  fi^ia  ^R^  ir 


IL  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  41 

cobweb  ;"t — implying  that  it  is  not  in  an  ordinary 
man's  power  to  control  the  surging  passions  of 
love  and  remain  immaculate  in  his  vow.  The 
poet  says,  that  by  exercising  restraint  over  feelings 
and  desires  and  at  the  same  time  by  running 
though  great  sacrifices  for  its  cause,  salvation 
through  love  may  be  obtained. 

According  to  Chandidas,  the  initiated  people 
must  exercise  great  discretion  in  selecting  their 
objects  of  love.  The  lovers  should  be  both  pure 
in  heart,  spiritually  bent  and  immaculate  in  morals. 

"  If  a  young  maiden  (of  a  spiritual  temperament) 
falls  in  love  with  a  man  of  inferior  quality,  she 
shares  the  fate  of  a  flower  pierced  by  thorns  and 
dies  of  a  broken  heart.  If  a  youth  happens  to  fall 
in  love  with  a  maiden  of  lower  type,  he  becomes 
like  one,  who  is  under  the  influence  of  evil-spirits, 
— moves  about  in  great  unrest,  and  eventually 
succumbs  to  despair;  says  Chandidas.  "Such  a 
union  between  a  good-natured  person  and  one  who 
bears  an  opposite  character  may  be  compared  to  love 
between  the  tooth  and  the  tongue  ;  they  live  to- 
gether but  the  former  does  not  let  an  opportunity 
slip  to  bite  the  latter.""^ 

^f ^  c^5if%  ^ii)  i)^  ^tf5  ?ir5<[  '^t^i^  m  I 
^t^  '<u  ^R^  w:^  '^'^  fe^  f^^  5^^t^  ^^  II 

fsi^<i  fft^.  m^^  ^ftf^  ^^^  ^nm  ^t^^  !»'' 

(It  should  be  noted  here  that  the  word  -^^^  as  used  in  the  above 
extract,  meant  pure  love  in  Chafldldas^S  time.  Its  meaning  has 
since  degraded  and  it  now  means  a  low  carnal  gratification). 

6 


42         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

Chafididas  himself  loved  a  washer-woman 
following  the  rules  of  the  Sahajia  cult,  for  according 
to  Gupta  Sadhan  Tantra,  a  book  of  authority  with 
the  sect,  a  washer-woman  amongst  others,  is  a 
legitimate  subject  of  such  love  for  a  \'amachari 
Tantrik.     Here  is  the  text  of  the  above  Tantra.^ 

"A  dancing  girl,  a  girl  of  the  Kapali  caste,  a 
prostitute,  a  washer-woman,  a  barbar's  daughter,  a 
Brahmin  girl,  a  Cudra  girl,  a  milk-maid,  a  girl  of 
the  Malakar  caste — these  nine  are  recognised  as 
the  legitimate  subjects  for  Tantric  practices  ; 
those  that  are  most  clever  amongst  these,  should 
be  held  as  pre-eminently  Ht  ;  maidens  endowed 
with  beauty,  good  luck,  vouth  and  amiable  disposi- 
tion are  to  be  worshipped  ^^•ith  care  and  a  man's 
salvation  is  attained  therrby." 

In  purity  and  edifying  influence,  Chafididas's 
sentiments  made  a  near  approach  to  spiritual  love  : 
and  he  literally  worshipped  the  washer-\\oman 
with  the  ardour  of  a  devotee,  though  he  himself 
was  a  good  Brahmin.  Her  name  was  Rami,  and 
Chahdidas  says  of  her: — 

"O  m}-  love,  I  have  taken  refuge  at  they  feet, 
knowing,  they  have  a  cooling  effect    (on   my   burn- 


f^^«i^h^^T^^tS  ^#1  <il^  f  ^f^^tS  II 

Gupta  Sadhan  Tantra. 


11.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  43 

ing  heart).  I  adore  your  beauty  beaming  with 
holy  maidenhood  which  inspires  no  carnal  desire. 
When  I  do  not  see  you,  my  mind  becomes  restless  ; 
and  as  I  see  you,  my  heart  is  soothed.  O  washer- 
woman, my  lady,  you  are  to  me  what  parents  are 
to  helpless  children.  The  three  prayers  that  a 
Brahmin  offers  daily  to  his  God,  I  offer  to  you.  You 
are  to  me  as  holy  as  Gayatri  from  which  the  Vedas 
originated.  I  know  you  to  be  the  goddess  Sara- 
svatl  who  inspires  songs.  I  know  you  to  be  the 
goddess  Parvati. — You  are  the  garland  of  my  neck, — 
my  heaven  and  earth,  my  nether-worlds  and  my 
mountains— nay,  my  whole  universe! — you  are  the 
apple  of  my  eyes.  Without  you  all  is  dark  to  me. 
My  eyes  are  soothed  when  I  see  you.  The  day  I  do 
not  see  your  moonlike  face,  I  remain  like  a  dead 
man.  I  cannot,  for  a  moment,  forget  your  grace  and 
beauty.  O,  tell  me  how  I  may  deserve  your  favour? 
You  are  my  sacred  hymns  and  the  essence  of  my 
prayers.  My  love  for  your  maidenly  beauty  has  not 
any  element  of  physical  desire  in  it.  Says  Chandi- 
das, — the  love  of  the  washerwoman  is  pure  gold 
tested  by   touch-stone."^     Chafididas  was    himself 

*f^«i  ^t^n  ^tf^  I 

^  ^^f^^  ;5lt5lt<I  ^5(%,   ^f^T  5\G   ^tf   fn^   I 

U^%i]  ^^^^,  c^t^t^  ^^^,  ^ft  c^vf^f^i  'nn^  w 


44  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [Chap. 

convinced  that  sexual  love  leads  to  love  Divine. 
He  says  ''  Hear  me,  friends,  how  salvation  may  be 
attained  through  love  for  a  woman  :  Reduce  your 
body  to  a  dry  log  (make  it  such  as  to  be  quite  un- 
moved by  passions).  He  that  pervades  the  universe, 
unseen  by  all,  is  approachable  only  by  him  who 
knows  the  secret  of  pure  love.''t 

So  sang  Chahdidas — the  great  exponent  of  the 
Sahajia  cult  in  Bengal  in  the  14th  century,  more  than 
3  hundred  years  after  Kaiiu  Bhatta  had  composed 
his  love  songs.  It  goes  without  saying,  that  in  their 
earnest  efforts  to  attain  salvation  by  worshipping 
young  and  beautiful  damsels,  many  a  youth  turned 
moral  wrecks  in    this    country.     Chahdidas    rightly 

C^t'Jl  %^  C^n  31^^^  ^t^t^.  C^fc^  ^.?tTf  ^tR  I 

d  T^^  ^1  cwPf  V3  tt*f^5f^  ^'^{m  ^f^^i  ^tpp  1 1 

CIM^  ^T^V^  ^  I 

Chahdidas. 


II.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.  45 

says,  that  "in  a  million  it  would  be  difficult  to  find 
one"  ^  who  has  the  capacity  for  self-restraint  re- 
quired by  the  Sahajia  preachers. 

From     the    earliest    times     the     Hindu    society       xhe  dan= 

does     not    seem    to    have     offered    anv     refuse    to        ^^!'^.?1 

■"  ^  Sahajia, 

fallen    women.     The    dangers    of    admitting    fallen      the  harm 

women  to  a  society  with  a  severe    ideal    of    female       the  Vai^= 
purity  were  fully   realised  by  the  Hindus.     The  rite        society 
of  Sati,   and  an   uncompromising    form    of    ^^•ido^\'- 
hood,    sprang    up    in     our  social    organisation,    as 
natural  alternatives  for  women  on  the  death  of  their 
husbands.     The  Buddhists  reserved  a  place  in  their 
nunneries  for  fallen  women  and   for  those  who  took 
the  vow  of  life-lono-     maidenhood.       The    Buddhist 
Bhiksus  and  Bhiksunies  (monks  and  nuns)  who  pro- 
bably started  the  principles    of    salvation  by  sexual 
love  with  all    the   noble    intentions  of  Dona-Julia  in 
Don  Juan,  fell  victims  to  their  own  snares  and  rightly 
earned  the    contemptuous    title    of   C»r51    C»T^ — the 
shaved    couple.     This  epithet  is  now  applied  to  the 
fallen    men    and   women    of  the    Vaisnava   society. 
But    the    women    of    that    class    do   not    get    their 
heads    shaved    as    the   Buddhist  Bhiksunies  used  to 
do.     The   Buddhist   monks  and    nuns    who    formed 
improper   relationship    were    the  persons  who  were 
first  called  C^^  C^vst  l   The  Vaishavas  who  borrowed 
the  Sahajia  cult  from  the  Buddhists  were  not  spared 
these     nicknames.      Chahdidas    himself    kne^^    the 
dangers  of  the    creed    and    perhaps    he    stood    the 
severe  test.     But  latterly  it  became  debased  to  the 
extreme    and    produced    disastrous    results    on    the 
Vaisnava  community. 


^  i( 


C^li^^  C^ti^^  ^^  l"_.Chahdldas 


46  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

For  love,  a  little  out  of  the  way,  if  sanctioned 
by  religion,  offers  temptations  which  the  mass  can 
hardly  resist ;  and  it  is  no  wonder  that  taking  advan- 
tage of  a  wicked  interpretation  of  the  love  of  Radha 
and  Krisna,  this  cult  of  the  Buddhist  monks  found 
favour  in  the  lower  stratum  of  \'aishava  society,  the 
degeneracy  of  which  was  mainly  brought  about  by  the 
immoral  latitudes  of  the  Sahajia  Vaisfiavas.  The 
(j-reat  X'aisnava  leaders  were  conscious  of  this  draw- 
back of  their  society  and  so  condemned  the  creed. 
Chaitanya  Deva  would  not  allow  any  of  his  ascetic 
followers  to  mix  with  women,  and  Rupa,  Sanatana 
and  other  devotees,  who  followed  him.  were  unspar- 
in<:'-  in  their  hostile  attitude  to  ihe  Sahajia  Waisiiavas. 
— Yet  the  creed  numbered  its  votaries  by  hundreds 
amongst  the  Vaisnavas,  and  we  have  come  across 
about  thirtv  authors  in  old  Bengali  literature  who 
advocated  the  principles  of  Sahajia.^ 


In  Kri«nadas. 


*  The  following  books,  among  others,  give  an  exposition  of  the 
Sahajia  doctrines — sonie  of  them  were  written  nearly  400  years 
ago,  but  a//,  before  the  British  Conquest.  Most  of  them  contain 
prose-passages  which  may  be  taken  as  specimens  of  early 
Bengali  prose. 

1.  Svarupa  Varhan  "| 

2.  Vrindaban  Dhyan  | 

3.  Guru^isya  Sambad 

4.  Rupamanjuri 

5.  Prarthana 

6.  Rasa  Bhakti  Lahari 

7.  Raga  Ratnabali 

8.  Siddhinam 

9.  Atma  Sadhan 

10.  Amrita  Rasa  Chandrika 

11.  Prcmbhaba  Chandrika 

12.  Saratsar  Karika 

13.  Bhakti  Latika 

14.  Sadhya  Prem  Chandrika 

15.  Ra^a  Mala 

16.  Svarup  Kalpa  Latika 

17.  Prem  Nilas 
iS.  Tatva  Nirupan 
10.  Rasa  Bhakti  Chandrika 


[  .■iltributi'tl  to 

f     Norottam  Das 


» 


II.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  47 

5.  Dharmamangal-Poems. 

The  authors  of  Dharmamangal-pocMns,  writtcMi  Mayur 
in  honour  of  the  grod  Dharma,  unanimously  airree  Bhatta. 
in  declaring  Mayura  Bhatta  to  be  the  earliest  writer 
on  the  subject.  The  poem  which  is  said  to  have 
furnished  inspiration  to  the  succeeding  poets  of  the 
Dhurma-cult  was  called  the  Hakanda  Purana.  Babu 
Nagendranath  Vasu  considers  the  Cunya  Puraiia 
by  Ramai  Pandit  to  be  identical  with  the  Hakanda 
Purana."^  But  we  do  not  agree  with  this  theory, 
as  the  subject  treated  in  most  of  the  Dharmaman- 
gal-poems  is  quite  different  from  what  we  find  in 
the  Cunya  Purana.  Besides,  the  name  Hakanda 
Purana,  is  evidently  associated  with  the  superhuman 
sacrifices  of  Lau  Sen  at  Hakanda,  and  of  this  song 
Ramai  Pandit  was  not  certainly  the  apostle. 

Mayura  Bhatta's  time  is  not  exactly  known. 
In  all  probability  he  flourished  a  little  before  thi- 
Mahammadan    conquest.     Sita    Ram,   the  author  of 


20. 

21. 

ypasana  Patala 
Ananda  Bha'irava 

iby  Premdas 

22. 

Ananda  Lahari 

by  Mathura  Das 

23- 

Dinatnani  Chandrodaya 

by  Manharadas 

24. 

Siddhanta  Chandrodaya 

1 

25- 

Amrita  Rasa  Valli 

1 

26. 
27. 

Vaisnavamrita 
Saratsara  Karlka 

>by  Mukunda  Das 

28. 

Sadhan  Opaya 

29. 

Raga  Ratnavali 

J 

30. 

Totva  Katha 

by  Jodunath  Das 

31. 

Yogagam'a 

by  Jagat  Krisna  Das 

32. 

Bhandatatva  Sar 

by  Rasamaya  Das 

33- 

Rati  Vilas* 

bv  Rasik  Das 

34- 

Sahajatatva 

byRadhaBallavDas 

35- 
2^- 

Dipakojval 
Nikunja  Rahasya 

by  Vam^idas 

"^  attributed  toSanatana 

37.  Sidharati  Karika  (by  one    who  subscribes 

38.  Vivartta  Vilas  C  himself  as  a  desciplc  of 

)  Kri<<^nadas  Kaviraj. 

*  See  Preface  to  the  ^unya  Purana. 


48         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

a  Dharmamangal,  who  lived  early  in  the  fifteenth 
Century,  refers  to  Mayur  Bhatta's  songs,  as  already 
having  grown  obsolete  and  partially  lost  by  lapse 
of  years,  in  his  time.  Mayura  Bhatta  who  was 
admittedly  the  pioneer  in  the  field  and  deservedly 
very  popular,  preceded  Sita  Ram  by  at  least  3  or  4 
centuries.  We  learn  from  an  account  given  in 
Manik  Ganguli's  poem  that  Mayura  Bhatta  belonged 
to  a  respectable  Brahman  family  of  Bengal. 

These  poems  were  originally  Buddhistic  in  spirit 
but  they  passed  through  great  changes  in  the  hands 
of  the  Hindu  priests.  Most  of  the  Dharmamangal- 
poems  give  a  description  of  the  heroic  achieve- 
ments of  Lau  Sen,  the  King  of  Maina  who  flourish- 
ed in  the  iith  century.  I  briefly  summarise  the 
tale  below  : — 

The  story  In  the  reign  of  Gaude^vara.  son  of  Dharmapal  II, 

mangal.  J'^ing  ^^  Gauda,  there  lived  one  Soma  Ghosa, 
who  was  originally  a  menial  servant  in  his  palace. 
He  ingratiated  himself  into  the  confidence  of  the 
Emperor  and  secured  for  himself  a  landed  property 
at  Dhakur  on  the  river  Ajay.  The  son  of  Soma 
Ghosa  was  Ichai  Ghosa  who  was  a  great  warrior 
and  a  devout  worshipper  of  the  Goddess  Kali- 
He  gradually  asserted  his  independence  and  ins- 
pite  of  all  remonstrance  oft'ered  by  his  father, 
declared  war  against  the  Emperor  of  Gauda.  The 
Emperor  sent  several  expeditions  to  put  down  the 
revolt  but  all  failed.  Kania  Sen.  King  of  Maina- 
gada,  a  feudatory  chief,  was  summoned  to  help  the 
I^mperor  in  this  crisis.  Karna  Sen,  accompanied 
by  his  four  sons,  went  to  the  battle  field,  but  was 
vaiujuished    in    war    and    all    his    sons  were  killed. 


IL  1  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  49 

He  returned  to  his  capital  to  witness  the    death   of 
his    queen    who    succumbed    to    grief  owing  to  the 
loss  of  her  sons.     Karna  Sen,    who    was    now   okl, 
went  to  Gauda  under  these  overwhehning  bereave- 
ments, with  a  view  to  meet    the    monarch    and    ac- 
quaint him  with  the  dire  loss   that    had   befallen   him 
in  his  expedition.    The  Emperor  of  Gauda  was  natu- 
rally moved,  to  hear  the  sad  tale,  and   tried  to  think 
how  best  he  could  soothe  his  friend   in    the  despair 
thus  brought    upon  him  by  his  fidelity  to  the  throne 
of    Gauda.     The    Einperor  had   a   sister-in-law,    a 
young    maiden   of   remarkable    beauty.     He   asked 
Karna  Sen  to  marry  her.     Karha  Sen,    as  we  have 
said,    *  was  already   declined  in  the  vale  of  years'  ; 
but  he  obeyed  the  royal  command,  and  married  the 
beautiful    maiden,    whose     name     was     Ranjavati. 
Lau   Sen,  the   hero  of  Dharmamangal,  was  born  to 
this    married   couple.     It   is    said    that   his   mother 
Ranjavati  went  through  various  ordeals  and  super- 
human sacrifices  in  order  to  propitiate  Dharma,  one 
of   these  being   self-destruction  at  the  stake,  when 
she  was  to  be  restored  to  life  by  the  mercy  of  the  god, 
who  was  pleased  to  grant  her  the  boon  of  a  son. 

With  the  help  of  Lau  Sen,  the  Emperor  of 
Gauda  succeeded  in  putting  down  Karpurdhala  King 
of  Kamrup  (Assam)  who  had  rebelled  against  him. 
He  also  sent  Lau  Sen  to  punish  King  Haripal  who 
had  refused  the  old  Emperor's  proposals  to  marry 
his  young  and  beautiful  daughter  Kaneda.  A 
battle  ensued,  in  which  the  army  was  led  to 
the  field  by  the  lovely  princess  herself.  The 
encounter  between  her  and  our  hero  was  sharp 
and  animated,  but  she  could  not  long  with- 
stand   the    superior   skill   and  heroism  of   Lau  Sen, 


50  BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

and  King  Haripal  ^vas  ultimately  forced  to  submit. 
Kaneda  was,  however,  given  in  marriage  to  Lau  Sen 
with  the  consent  of  the  Emperor.  But  Lau  Sen's 
great  achievement,  was  the  conquest  of  Dhakur. 
Ichhai  Ghos-a,  who  had  baffled  all  attempts  of  the 
Emperor  to  bring  him  to  submission,  by  destroying 
the  vast  armies  sent  at  various  times  for  the 
purpose,  was  killed  by  Lau  Sen  in  a  pitched  battle. 

Besides  these  historical  events,  the  poems  give 
accounts  of  very  mean  plots  and  machinations 
to  kill  Lau  Sen,  by  Mahudya, — the  brother-in- 
law  and  prime  minister  of  the  Emperor  of  Cauda. 
Lau  Sen  was  Mahudya's  nephew,  being  his  sister's 
son.  The  marriage  of  his  sister  Raiijavati  with 
Karna  Sen,  who  was  old  and  decrepit,  had  not 
been  approved  of  by  him  and  though  it  had  been 
celebrated  under  the  orders  of  the  P^mperor,  yet 
her  brother  tried  his  best  to  dissuade  Ranja  from 
going  to  Mayna-gada  with  her  husband.  Ranja 
did  not  listen  to  her  brother's  counsel,  but  firmly 
told  him,  that  as  Karha  Sen  was  now  her  lord, — 
young  or  old,  it  mattered  not  to  her, — she  was 
bound  to  follow  him  wherever  he  might  go. 
In  great  anger  Mahudya  cursed  his  sister,  saying 
that  no  child  would  be  born  to  her.  Hence  when 
her  son  was  actually  born,  and  prince  Lau  Sen 
grew  to  be  a  handsome  young  hero  with  courage 
and  spirit  for  any  enterprise,  a  deep  seated 
rage  rcinkKnl  in  his  uncle's  bosom.  There  are 
hundreds  of  incidents  in  the  poems,  describing 
the-  plots  to  assassinate  Lau  Sen  formed  by 
Mclhudya  and  last  though  not  least  was  a 
command  issued  by  the  Emperor  of  Gauda  at  the 
instigation     of    the    j)riiii('     minister,    calling    upon 


IL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  51 

Lau-Sen  to  go  to  Hakanda  and  fulfil  certain  extra- 
ordinary conditions  for  the  propitiation  of  the  god 
Dharma.  These  involved  a  severe  course  of 
penances,  and  required  that  the  prince  should  make 
the  sun  rise  from  the  west.  If  he  should  not  be  able 
to  satisfy  the  King  by  this,  he  was  to  lose  his  head. 
When  Lau  Sen  had  gone  to  Hakanda  on  this 
strange  mission,  Mahudya  led  an  army  to  Mayna- 
gada  and  laid  siege  to  his  capital.  The  brave  and 
heroic  sacrifices  of  Lokha  DumanI,  wife  of  Kalu 
Doma,  and  those  of  his  son  ^aka,  with  the  wonder- 
ful spirit  of  devotion  to  truth  shown  by  Kalu  in 
the  sacrifice  of  his  life  at  this  crisis, — are  graphic- 
ally described  by  all  the  poets  of  Dharma-mangala. 
The  trials  and  temptations  which  beset  Lau  Sen 
in  his  early  youth, — the  court  of  Surikshya,  the 
coquettish  queen, — the  manners  of  NayanI,  the 
lewd  Varui  woman,  are  all  full  of  interest  for  us  as 
shedding  light  on  various  points  of  domestic  and 
court-life  as  it  prevailed  in  the  Bengal  of  those  days. 
Lau  Sen  eventually  comes  out  triumphant,  bv  the 
favour  of  Dharma,  and  by  dint  of  his  wonderful 
devotion  and  strength  of  character. 

Such,     briefly,    is    the    subject-matter    of     the       The  his- 
Dharmamangal-poems.     The  subject  is  an  historical       pe'cfs  of" 
one.     The    ruins   of  Lau    Sen's  palace  may  still  be     the  poems. 
seen  at  Mayna-gada  in  Tamaluk.     The  fort  of    the 
great  Ichhai  Ghosa,   who  offered   a  fierce  resistance 
to  the  Emperor  of  Gauda  in  the  i  ith  century,  is  also 
lying  in  ruins  on  the  banks  of  the  Ajay  in   the    dis- 
trict of  Bankura.     The  temple  of  Kali  called  ^yam- 
rupa,  worshipped  by  Ichhai,  is  also    to    be  seen    in 
that    place,  which  is  still  full  of  the  tradition  of  the 
prowebs  and   heroic   deeds   of   the   glorious   rebel. 


\2  BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap 

The  image  of  Dharma  Thakur  in  the  form  of  a  tor- 
toise, and  a  temple  dedicated  to  it  by  Lau  Sen, 
maybe  seen  in  Mayna-gada.  In  the  list  of  the  most 
prominent  Indian  Emperors  of  the  Kali  Yuga,  fur- 
nished by  our  household  almanacs,  the  name  of 
Lau  Sen  occurs  along  with  those  of  Rajah 
Yudhisthira,  Mahipal  and  Akbar.  Haripal  against 
whom  Lau  Sen  fought,  lent  his  name  to  his 
capital  in  Simulia  on  the  river  BrahmanL  The 
ruins  of  the  outer  courts  of  his  palace,  called  the 
Bahir-Khanda,  are  still  to  be  found  in  this  village 
of  Haripal.  The  river  Brahmani,  on  which  it 
once  stood,  has,  however,  been  completely  silted 
up.  Old  Simulia  is  now  indicated  by  Simul-gada, 
which  represents  the  once-fortified  portion  of  the 
capital  of  Haripal. 

That  the  names  Lui  Chandra,  IMahudya,  Loliata, 
Jallan-^ekar,  Kaneda,  Kalinga  and  Samola  are 
those  of  historical  personages,  appears  from  their 
very  antiquated  Prakrita  forms.  Thev  could  not 
have  been  invented  by  anv  poet  within  the  last 
seven  hundred  years.  The  refined  classical  taste 
of  the  poets  of  the  Renaissance  period  would 
not  have  permitted  them  to  adopt  these  names 
in  their  poems  if  the\-  had  not  been  historical. 

These  rustic  epics  of  Dharmamangala  \\ere 
recited  and  sung  b\'  rural  folk  in  early  times,  and 
as  such  can  not  perhaps  claim  any  high  literary 
merit.  P)ut  they  are  full  of  valuable  references  to 
the  period  before  the  Mahammadan  conquest,  and 
as  our  know  ledgt;  of  that  period  is  scanty,  they 
possess  an  undoubted  interest  for  the  student  of 
Mstory. 


IL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  53 

It  appears  from  them  that  the  Emperor  of  Gauda,     The  extent 

styled    '  ''li^^^'^^i^'Sf^ '     King    of    the    five   Gaudas.  or      k^nVcTom 

'  lord  of  the    live  Indies,' as  Beal   has    translated  it,        of  the 

Emperors 
was  the  actual  sovereign -head  of  Bengal,  Orissa  and      of  Gauda. 

Kamrupa.  The  kings  of  Cooch  Behar,  Assam, 
Barendra  De^a,  Shollipur,  Kainjhora,  Simulva. 
Maina-gada,  Doluipur  and  other  places,  were  all 
his  vassals,  and  assembled  under  his  banner  at  his 
summons.  The  royal  seat  of  the  kings  of  Gauda, 
was  at  Ramati,  which  is  an  abbreviation  of  the 
Ramavati  mentioned  in  the  copper-plate  inscrip- 
tion of  Madan  Pal.  This  was  either  an  earlier 
name,  or  a  part  of  the  city  of  Gauda.  We  also  find, 
in  the  feudal  organisation  of  the  Empire,  that 
Domas  and  Chandalas  formed  the  main  personal 
army  of  the  emperors  and  their  devotion  to  the  King 
furnishes  the  poets  with  many  extraordinary  exam- 
ples of  courage  and  heroism. 

We  have  read  of  the  Bara-bhuiias  or  twelve  '  lords  Bafa= 
of  the  land'  of  Bengal,  who  wielded  great  power  in  bhunas. 
the  country  during  Mahammadan  times.  But  the 
custom  of  having  twelve  sub-lords  attached  to 
a  paramount  court,  did  not  originate  in  India 
during  the  Mahammadan  period.  It  is  one  of  the 
oldest  institutions  of  the  Aryans.  In  the  codes 
of  Manu  and  ^ukracharyya,  we  find  references 
to  Dvvada^a  Mandalegvara,  which  show  that  a  great 
empire  used  to  be  divided  into  twelve  subdivisions, 
or  provinces  each  under  its  own  chief,  who  was 
bound  to  serve  the  emperor,  to  attend  his  court 
and  to  acknowledge  him  as  his  feudal  overlord. 
The  Dodecapoiis  of  the  Greeks  corresponds  to 
this     institution.      During     the    reign   of   Darius, 


54  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.      [  Chap, 

these  twelve  lords  became  so  powerful  as  to 
assert  their  independence  and  cause  considerable 
trouble  to  the  State.  The  custom  of  appointing 
twelve  chiefs  attached  to  the  Darbar  is  even 
now  prevalent  in  various  States  in  Rajputna, 
and  this  is  also  the  practice  in  the  court  of  the 
Maharaja  of  Hill  Tippera,  which  retains  some  of 
the  most  ancient  usages  of  early  Hindu  Kings. "^ 
In  all  the  ballads  of  Dharmamangal  we  hnd  frequent 
mention  of  these  t\velve  lords,  who  are  described 
as  discharging  important  political  functions  in 
the  court  of  the  emperors  of  Gauda.  They  would 
appear  to  have  been  the  pillars  of  the  state,  and  in 
the  confidence  and  honour  with  which  they  were 
treated  at  court,  seem  to  have  been  second  only 
to  the  Prime  minister  and  to  the  feudatory  chiefs. 
Certain  functions  were  theirs  which  no  one  else 
could  perform.  At  the  time  of  the  king's  corona- 
tion, for  instance,  it  was  their  privilege  to  pour  on 
his  head  the  sacramental  water  of  the  ahhiscka. 
At  the  time  of  marriage  of  the  emperor  or 
his  eldest  son,  they  had  the  right  of  garlanding 
the  newly-married  couple. 

The  descriptions  of  the  royal  courts,  with  which 
these  jjoems  abound,  give  us  glimpses  of  important 
administrative  forms  prevalent  during  the  Hindu 
period  of  Indian  history,  though  subsequent  writers 
did  not  fail  to  introduce  some  features  of  the  Ma- 
liammadiin  Durbar  in  their  descriptions. 


*  For  example,  it  is  customary  with  the  Tippera  Rajas  to 
enquire  if  any  person  dwelling  in' the  Raj,  has  not  had  his  daily 
meal  before  tlie  Raja  breaks  his  own  fast,  which  he  does  at  a  very 
late  hour  of  the  day.  This  practice  which,  no  doubt,  originated 
from  highly  humane  principles,  has  been  reduced  to  a  mere  formal 
observance. 


IL  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE. 


55 


Mayura    Bhatta,    as    we    said,    was    the  earliest      The  chief 
writer  of  Dharmamangal  and  probably  lived  in    the      ^'"'ters  of 
tweltth  century.      After  him,  came    Khelaram,    Ma-        mangal. 
nik  GangLili,  Rupram,  Ramachanadra,  f  yam  Pandit, 
Ramdas   Adaka,.  Sahadeva    Chakravarti,  Ghanaram 
and    other    writers,    who  gradually    Hinduised    the 
Buddhistic     tales     originally     written     to     glorify 
Dharmathakur.     We  shall'notice  their  works    in    a 
subsequent  chapter. 

6.    The  ballads  and   songs  in  honour 
of  some  of  the  Pal  Kings. 

In  Chaitanya  Bhagabata,  a  Bengali  work  of  great  The 

authority  with  the  Vaisnavas,  the  author  Vrindavan  Popu'arity 

T-\       /I  .       \       r        ,         ,  o^  the  Pal 

Das  (born  1507  A.U.)  refers  to    the    great  favour  in         Kings. 

which   the    ballads    in    praise    of    some    of  the  Pal 
Kings    were  held  in  Bengal.     The  copperplate-ins- 
cription of  Madan  Pal  corroborates  the  truth  of  this 
statement  so  far  as  Mahipal  was    concerned.      The 
inscription  says   that   the    valourous    and    chivalric 
career   of    Mahipal,    who    was  like  a  second  Civa, 
formed   a    favourite    theme    for    popular    songs    in 
Bengal.     We  have  an  old  Bengali  saying  "  For  the 
husking  of  rice  in  the  mortar,  the  songs  of  Mahipal !" 
Later,    when    ^aivaite    ideas    became    fashionable, 
the    name    0/   ^iva   was    substituted    for   that    of 
Mahipal.     All  these    things    go    to    show    that    the 
Buddhistic   monarchs  of    Bengal,   about    whom    no 
chronicler  came  forward  to    write    biographical    or 
historical  accounts, —  whom  the   Brahmanic  school, 
while  eulogising  a  Ballala  Sen  or  a  Laksmana    Sen 
beyond  all  measure,  completely  ignored, — must  have 
left  indelible  marks  on  the    popular    mind    by    the 
greatness     of    their    character    and    public    works. 
Immense   tanks,    for   instance,  in    the  Districts  of 


56  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.     [Chap, 

Dinajpur  and  Rungpur,  still  attest  the  philanthropic 
spirit  by  which  the  Pill- Kings  endeared  themselves 
to  the  millions  of  subjects  over  whom  they  ruled. 

The  Ji^e  popular  sons^s  in  honour  of  the    Pal    Kinofs 

language  r    r  o  & 

of  the         were,    no    doubt,      composed     shortly    after     their 

greatly        death.     The  shape    in    which    we    find  them    now, 

moder-        however,  is  certainlv  not  so  old.     The  lanoruas^e  has 
nised.  '  . 

been    considerably  modernised,  and  here,  as  in  the 

case  of  the  Cuyna  Puraha,  we  come,  now  and  again, 

on  traces  of  the  ancient  originals.  The  ballads  used 

to  be    sung    in    chorus    by    professional    ministrels 

amongst   the   admiring   rural   folk    with  whom  they 

were    so    popular,    and     this    fact  accounts  for   the 

changes  wrought  in  their  versions  from  age  to  age, 

to  suit  the  understanding  of  the  people. 

Manik-  Manik     Chandra   Raiar     Gan     or    the   song;    of 

Chandra  -^  ^  ,        '^ 

Rajar  Oan.     Manik     Chandra     Raja,     was     first     published   bv 

Dr.    G.  A.  Grierson  in  the  Asiatic  Society's  Journal 

(\'ol.  I,  Part  III  1878).     Manik  Chandra    Pal    ruled 

in  Northern  Bengal  during  the  first  half  of  the  iith 

century,  and  the  work  in    question  must  have    been 

composed  shortly  after  his  death. 

The  cru-  There  is  not  much    that  is  intrinsically  poetic  in 

deness  of  ,  -^   ^ 

the  song.  this  ballad.  It  displays  the  unrestrained  imagi- 
nation of  a  rustic  author.  The  miracles  attri- 
buted to  Iladi  Siddha  remind  one  of  the  wonders 
pcrfornud  by  Da}ih(js  or  some  other  dzinn  in 
the  Arabian  Nights,  (jods  and  men  alike  seem 
to  be  subject  to  the  influences  of  Tantrik  rites  which 
awaken  marvels  at  cNcry  strp.  But  we  occasion- 
ally catch  glimpses  of  historical  truth  from  inci- 
dental descriptions.  'i^he  Government  revenue 
uf  those  days,  was  collected  in    cowries    and    trade 


n.] 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE. 


57 


was  mainly  conducted  by  a  system  of  barter.  The 
higher  classes  seem  to  have  been  immensely  rich 
and  we  find  frequent  descriptions  of  food  being 
served  to  them  on  heavy  golden  plates.  Their 
dinners  were  considered  incomplete  without  at  least 
some  fifty  different  dishes,  the  tradition  of  which 
is  not  altogether  unknown  to  our  housewives  even 
to  this  day. 

The  similes  and  metaphors  used  in  the  descrip- 
tions are  very  commonplace,  and  show  that  these 
rural  folk  were  completely  ignorant  of  those  classical 
standards  which  now  permeate  even  the.  lower 
stratum  of  Hindu  society.  The  beautiful  teeth  of 
Raja  Gopi  Chandra's  wife  are  compared  to  Sola 
(bark  of  the  cork-plant).  Nowadavs,  any  peasant  of 
the  most  backward  of  Bengali  villages  would  com- 
pare them  to  the  seeds  of  a  pomegranate^  after  the 
classical  style. 

But  this  perfectly  artless  song,  in  spite  of  its 
crudeness,  is  redeemed  by  the  pathos  which  bursts 
forth  in  the  cry  of  love  of  Aduna  —the  abandoned 
wife  of  Gopi  Chand.  He  turns  ascetic  and  is  about 
to  leave  her  ;  she  falls  at  his  feet  in  tears,  and 
with  the  devotion  and  loving  entreaty  of  a  gentle 
Hindu  wife,  says  to  her  husband  : — ^ 


The 

redeeming 

feature. 

Queen 

Aduna's 

grief. 


^^^  ^K^  ^tf?  VQ  ^tTt^  ^«^1  ^tl<t%  II 
fm^^^  '^'^m  <JtSfl  ^^  wft>T^  I 

w»t  f'nh^  ^t^  ^?^  ^^^  ^1^  nti^  c^'ti^  I 


58  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

"  Leave  me  not  O.  King,  for  some  distant  exile. 

'*  For  whom  have  I  built  this  cool  house — this 
bungalow,  spacious  and  beautiful  bevond  descrip- 
tion !  Will  you  desert  me  in  my  youth  ! —  alas, 
vain  is  then  my  youth. 

"  How  often  shall  I  stretch  out  my  hand  and 
miss  you,  O  jewel  of  mv  heart  ! 

"  In  the  homes  of  mv  neio-hbours,  women  voune 
and  old  \\\\\  have  their  husbands  by  their  sides. 

"  My  lot  it  will  be  to  weep  alone  in  an  empty 
house. 

"  O  king,  let  me  go  with  you. 

"  If  only  I  am  with  vou,  I  can  guard  vour 
precious  life. 

"  I  shall  cook  for  you  when  you  are  hungry. 
''  I  shall  ofTer  you  water  when  you  thirst. 

"  With  laughter  and  gentle  play,  ho\\'  many 
hours  will  pass  ! 

^T^Iti:^  ^l^  ^fir  ^\'^\  ^f^  I 

^tPin  c'fr^^i  c'^n\\  ^-^.^  I 
^tt^  ^nn  c^Pi^^  ^^1  ^fei  ^ti  I 

Ti^  lift  f^i;«  c^ff^i  m  ^t^  I 


IL]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  59 

"  Walking  in  the  open  fields,  we  shall  talk 
merrily  and  know  no  weariness. 

"  But  when  we  approach  the  houses  of  men  I 
shall  declare  you  to  be  my  guru — my  master. 

*'  When  you  desire  to  rest,  I  shall  spread  a  cool 
mat  for  you,  and  you  shall  recline  on  a  pillow,  while 
I  in  happy  mirthfulness  slowly  press  with  my  hands 
your  hands  and  feet. 

*'  When  the  summer  is  hot,  I  shall  gently  fan 
you,  and  in  the  cold  month  of  Magha  I  shall  cover 
you  with  warmth." 

Gopi  Chand  remonstrates,  saying  that  an 
ascetic's  lot  is  hard,  and  he  will  have  to  traverse 
forests  infested  with  tigers  and  other  wild  beasts. 

The  queen  says  in  reply^  : — "These  are  false 
excuses  to  put  me  off. 

"  Who  would  believe  in  such  nonsense  as  this  ? 
«in  ^1  C^^  '^l^.^  ^t^  ^t^  ^tl  M  I 

iks  ^m^  ^^«i  ^^^  ^{-^^  nff^n  ii 

^t^fl  ^<l«l  C^f^Hl  ^\  m^t^lll  TT^C^Nl  I 

^^R  C^^  ^H  ?lt^1  ^1  CHl^^  ^^1^  ^^^  i> 
vfl*f^  ^t^  ^^^  ^tft  C^U<1  C^t^J'lt^  I 


6o  BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LLFERATURE.    [  Chap. 

''  When  was  it  ever  heard  of,  that  a  woman  was 
killed  by  a  tiger  while  in  the  company  of  her 
husband  ? 

"  But  even  if  a  tiger  kills  me — I  fear  it  not.  I 
shall  die  without  stain  in  the  eyes  of  the  people, 
and  at  the  feet  of  my  husband. 

"  You  will  be  to  me  as  a  fig  tree  and  I  as  a 
creeper  unto  you. 

"  I  cling  to  vour  beautiful  feet,  O  how  can 
you  desert  me? 

"  While  I  was  yet  a  maiden  in  my  father's  house, 
whv  did  you  not.  O  my  pious  prince,  turn 
ascetic  and  renounce  the  world  ? 

"  Xow  I  have  attained  to  womanhood  and  am 
worthy  of  your  love. 

*'  If  you  leave  me  now.  I  shall  kill  myself 
with  sorrow." 

Govinda  In  a  similar  ballad,   which  gives    an    account   of 

Rajar  g§n      Govinda  Chandra  Rajah,  whom  we  consider    to   be 

^    ^,y..         identical     with     Rajah     Gopi     Chandra,   the     poet 
Durlabna  -  i  » 

Mallik.  Durlabha  Mallik,  recasting  the  song  in  compara- 
tively modern  times,  describes  Queen  Aduna's 
sorrows  in  somewhat  the  same  wav. 

\Mien  all  importunities  had  failed  and  the 
king  could  not  be  moved  from. his  resolution  to  go 
alone"^ :  — 


"^^^U  ^'^^^]^  <It^1  ^t^^  5t^1  I 


II.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  6l 

"Queen  Aduna  fell  on  the   earth,    crying    alas! 
alas  ! 

"  Her  lamentations  would  have  melted  a  stone. 

"  The    citizens   assembled    and    began    to    shed 
tears  for  their  king's  departure. 

"  Children,    old    men,    youths,    and    women    all 
began  to  weep. 

*' The  very  ocean  seemed    to    move    in    surging 
waves,  at  the  sight  of  the  sorrow  of  the  Queen. 

''  The  horses  and  elephants    wept  silently  in  the 
stables. 

"The     birds     'Cari'     and     '  Cuka '     wept     in 
their  cages  and  would  not  touch  their  foOd. 

"  The     maidens    who    attended    on    the  Queen 
began  loudly  to  lament. 

"  The    Queen    herself    threw    away    her    orna- 
ments. 


I 


^u^^  c^^<T  c^in  "^m^  ?^%^  II 
c^t^i  nc5f  ^t^  ^t^i  c^*imc^  ^^  \ 


The 
doctrine 
of  Cunya- 

bad. 


The 
capital  of 
Gopi 
Chand. 
His  jfreat 
renuncia- 
tion—a 
subject  of 
national 
interest. 


62  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [Chap, 

''  In    great     affliction     she      threw     away 


A  promised 
edition  of 
the  songs. 


iier 


jewels. 


Ikihu  l')ii;\\((;\\ara  Bliattacharyya  H.A..  sub- 
(li\isi()nai  Maj^istratr  of  Xilphaniari  in  the  District 
ul  Rungpur,    is    at    present    collecting  and    editing 


"She  wiped  away  the  sacred  vermilion  from 
her  forehead. 

"  From  her  face  she  drew  off  the  Besara.  and 
from  her  feet  she  threw  away  the  Xupura. 

''  In  utter  woe  she  fell  at  the  king's  feet, 
covering  them  with  her  dishevelled  hair  and, 
crying  again  and  again  '  O  king  let  me  go 
with  you  !' 

The  ^unyabada.  or  doctrine  of  primeval 
nothingness,  which,  as  we  have  said  in  a  preceding 
paragraph,  characterises  the  Mahayana  school  of  I 
Buddhists,  is  preached  in  this  poem  by  the  great 
sage  Hadipa  and  there  are  numerous  other  evi- 
dences of  Buddhistic  influence  in  it. 

The  capital  of  Govinda  Chandra  Rajah  is  des- 
cribed as  situated  at  the  town  of  Patika  which  has 
been  identified  with  FaitkaPara  under  the  police- 
station  of  Jaldhaka  in  the  District  of  Rungpur.  The 
renunciation  of  Rajah  (jopi  Chand  created  a  sensa- 
tion all  over  India,  which  even  at  this  distance  of 
time,  continues  to  be  echoed  in  poems  and 
dramas  written  in  the  Hindi  and  Maharatti 
languages.  A  recent  picture,  by  Ravi  \'arma 
representing  (iO[)i  Chand  on  the  [)oint  ol  deserting 
his  (|ueen  and  palace,  commands  a  large  sale 
all  o\'er  India. 


I 


II.    ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  63 

a  number  of  old  and  rare  songs  in  honour  of  the 
Pal  Kings  from  Northern   Bengal."^ 

7.  The  ^aiva-cult,  how  it  faced  Buddhism. 

^i^a  as 
It  was  to  the  growing    influence    of    the    ^aiva         Rudra 

religion    that    Buddhism    eventually    succumbed  in  ^^^" 

India.  The  conception  of  ^iva.  as  we  find  it  in 
the  Puranas,  is  grand  beyond  all  description.  In 
the  \*edic  literature,  he  had  been  known  as  Rudra 
Deva.  There  he  was  the  God  of  destruction,  awe- 
inspiring,  with  four  arms,  each  of  which  held  a 
different  weapon,  and  amongst  which  his  trident 
and  the  Pinak  carried  at  their  points  the  grim 
terrors  of  death.  The  movements  of  this  god,  in 
infinite  celestial  space,  made  the  great  planets 
crush  each  other,  and  his  trident  pierced  the 
elephants  who  supported  the  ten  points  of  the 
compass.  All  other  gods  fell  on  their  knees,  and 
cried  for  protection,  when  ^iva  danced  in  wild  and 
destructive  ecstacy  at  the  time  of  the  final  dissolu- 
tion of  the  universe. 

But    the   Puranas  completely  changed  the  Great  Pauranik 

God.     We  have  heard  of  the  fiery  planets   growing  ^''o^r'ro^xv^id" 

cold   with  lapse  of  time  in  the  celestial  recrions.  the  from  t3ud- 

,  -      t      ,  11  dhism. 

pleasant    verdure    ot    shrubs    and    plants    covering 

those  orbs  from  which  once  emanated  sparks  of 
living  hre.  The  God  Civa  has  passed  through  a 
similar  transformation.  In  the  Pauranik  age  he  is  re- 
presented as  the  very   personification    of  calmness. 

*  Very  lately  Babu  Nagendranath  Vasu  has  discovered  several 
versions  of  songs  about  Govinda  Chandra  Raja,  in  the 
villages  of  Orissa.  These  versions  appear  to  be  more  correct  and 
reliable  than  their  Bengali  prototypes.  The  custodians  of  the 
songs  there  have  been,  as  in  Bengal,  the  Yogis  who  were  doubtless 
an  important  class  of  men  in  the  Buddhist  society. 


64  BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.       [Chap, 


^ivadrinks 

poison  to 

gave  the 

world. 


The  destructive  elements  have  all  been  eliminated, 
and  he  is  now  quiet  and  dignified,  absorbed  in 
Samadhi.  This  Samadhi  is  akin  to  the  Nirvana  of 
the  Buddhists.  The  Great  God  is  above  all  desire, 
as  was  Buddha.  Civa  kills  Madana,  the  God  of 
Love,  of  whom  another  name  is  Mara;  and  Buddha's 
struggles  with  Mara  and  eventual  conquest  over 
him  are  well-known.  He  is  represented  as  an 
ascetic  with  the  beggar's  bowl  in  his  hand.  He 
has  a  golden  palace  at  Kailasa;  and  Kuvera,  the 
Lord  of  Wealth,  is  in  charge  of  his  store.  But  the 
Great  God  has  nothing  to  do  with  wealth.  He 
lives  by  begging,  sleeps  in  the  burning  ground  and 
remains  absorbed  in  contemplation.  In  this 
respect  also,  he  was  verily  like  Buddha,  who,  though 
a  prince,  left  the  palace  of  Kapilavastu  to  embrace 
the  life  of  a  bhiksu.  ^iva's  company  is  sought 
for  by  the  resplendent  gods  of  heaven,  but  ghosts 
and  goblins  are  his  companions.  Buddha,  though 
a  prince,  mixed  with  the  poor  and  the  lowly,  and 
thus  showed  that  he  scorned  none. 

When  the  ocean  was  churned  by  the  gods, 
Laksml,  the  Goddess  of  wealth,  arose  from  it. 
Vishu  seized  her  as  his  prize  ;  the  great  diamond 
Kaustuva,  also  fell  to  his  share.  The  majestic 
elephant  Airavata.  the  incomparable  horse 
Uchchaih^rava,  and  the  celestial  Parijata  tree,  which 
arose  next  from  the  ocean,  were  given  to  the 
God  Indra.  Last,  though  not  least,  appeared  that 
ambrosia  which  had  the  effect  of  giving  immortality 
to  him  who  partook  of  it.  This  was  divided 
amongst  the  assembled  gods  equally.  Civa 
meanwhile,  remained  in  Kailasa,  absorbed  in 
samadhi,  caring  not  whether  the  universe  were  lost 


II.]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  65 

or  gained  by  the  other  gods.  But  at  a  second  churn- 
ing of  the  ocean  from  which  the  gods  had  expected 
yet  more  prizes,  streams  of  deadly  poison  issued  from 
it  in  overwhehning  quantities,  with  clouds  of  smoke 
that  looked  like  curling  snakes.  This  threatened 
to  flood  the  universe  and  destroy  it.  The  g-ods 
were  awe-struck.  They  knew  not  how  to  protect 
the  world  from  the  destruction  which  seemed  to 
be  impending.  In  their  despair,  they  •  called  on 
^iva  to  save  creation.  The  Great  God's  heart 
was  moved  with  compassion.  He  gathered  the 
floods  of  poison  in  his  out-stretched  hands  and 
drank  it  all  up,  in  the  presence  of  the  wondering 
gods.  But  the  poison  he  drank  left  a  blue  mark  on 
his  throat,  and  he  is  called  Xilakantha  or  the  Blue- 
throated.  This  episode  is  narrated  in  such  a  manner 
in  the  Puranas,  that  it  seems  to  me  to  be  analog-, 
ous  to  the  story  of  pain  and  sacrifice  undergone 
bv  Buddha,  who  suffered  for  the   sake    of    sufferino- 

o 

humanity. 


Let    us    picture  to  ourselves    the    image    of  the      His  figure 
great  Civa.     He  is  like  a  mountain  of  white   marble,      to  Mmi'nt 
tranquilly  seated  in  the   posture    of    Samadhi.     On      Himalaya. 
his    forehead     is     the    crescent    moon.      From    his 
matted  locks  flows  the  pure  stream    of  the  Ganges, 
that  goddess  whom  his  mercy  melts  into  an  unceas- 
ing   fountain  of  white    waters.      In  this  attitude  he 
may  be  compared  very  aptly  to  some   mountains  of 
the  Himalayas,  with  the  young  moon  shining  above 
its   cloudy    height,   and  the   perennial   flow    of   the 
Ganges  pouring  over  its  steep  regions.     The  heads 
of  venomous    snakes  peep  out  of  the  locks  of  ^iva, 
as  they  do  from  the  recesses  of  the  great  mountains. 


66  BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

The  image  of  Civa,  as  made  in  clay  and  marble,  in 
the  villages  shows  the  quietness  and  composure  of 
Buddha,  and  both  are  now  so  like  one  another !  Yet 
nothing  could  have  been  more  dissimilar  than  the 
original  conception  of  Rudradeva — the  ^iva  of 
the  \'edas. 

Myth  and  ^^^  ^^^^  points  of  Buddha's  life  are  ascribed  to 

history        Civa.     The  Purahas  represent    him    as   embodvino^ 

confounded     ^  ,  ,        \  '      ^ 

jn  India.       all  the  attributes  ot  Buddha's  greatness.     One  point 

may    be   urged    in    favour    of   Buddha.     He   was  a 
living  person  of  flesh  and  blood,  and    as    such,    the 
influence    of    his    sternly  real  personality  might  be 
presumed  to  produce  far  greater  results    than    that 
of    a  mythological    God.     In    India,    however,  this 
matter    is    viewed  in   a  different  light.    Here,  when 
a     saint    or   great     religious    teacher    dies,     he    is 
at  once  deified.     He    becomes    one    of  the  glorious 
gods   and  in  popular  estimation  he  occupies  a  place 
not  far  remote  from  that  ascribed  to  the    celestials. 
On  the  other  hand,  thousands  of  men  and  women  in 
India,    believe    in    every  word  of  the  Puranas.     To 
them  ^iva  is  as  real    as    any   historical   personage. 
Buddha,    though  deified,  could  not  claim  the  grand- 
eur of  the  back-ground  which   sets    forth    the   lumi- 
nous   iigurc   of  the  grt\'it  (iod  o{  the  Hindu  Trinity. 
Infinite  space,  the  whole    of  heaven    and  earth  and 
the  solar  regions,    are  represented  as  the    incidents 
of  that  back-ground,     ^.iva  has    no  birth,  no  death  ; 
his     eyes    never    close,     tliey    are     raised     heaven- 
ward, lost  in  celestial  reverie,  and  they  scarcely    look 
down  towards  this  mundane  world  of    ours,    except 
for  the  sake  of  mercy.     Buddha,  already  divested  of 
his  original  glory,  and  reduced  to   Dharma   Thakur, 


f 


ii.  ] 


BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE. 


67 


became  quite  lustreless  in  the  eyes  of  the  people, 
before  this  great  and  resplendent  divinity  of  the 
Hindus. 

Civa  has  one  element,  however,  which  is  wanting 
in  the  conception  of  Buddha.  This  is  the  sanctity  of 
the  nuptial  vow,  which  sheds  glory  on  his  abode  at 
Kailas.  Buddha's  emancipation  could  not  be  com- 
plete without  deserting  a  devoted  and  loving  wife. 
But  ^iva  and  Durga,  the  ideal  couple,  cannot  be  dis- 
sociated from  one  another.  Durga.  who  is  also  called 
Sati  and  Annapurnn,  is  the  goddess  who  distributes 
rice  to  the  hungry.  To  the  world  she  is  as  mother,  who 
cares  not  for  herself,  but  for  her  children  only  ;  and 
^iva  is  the  ideal  of  a  Hindu  householder,  never 
ruffled  in  temper,  immoveable,  immaculate  and 
merciful,  their  union  representing  the  fulfilment  of 
the  spiritual  vows  given  and  accepted  in  marriage, 
that  two  will  live  for  one  another  and  for  others. 
How  perfect  this  mutual  love  was.  is  proved  in  the 
death  of  Sati.  Her  devotion  to  ^iva  was  so  great 
that  she  could  not  bear  to  hear  him  abused  by  her 
father  Daksa.  Feeling  that  the  blood  of  the 
defamer  of  her  lord  ran  in  her  own  veins,  she  con- 
sidered her  body  itself  as  unholy,  and  gave  it  up 
in  a  flash,  to  be  born  again  as  a  daughter  of  Himabat. 
In  this  new  life  she  passed  through  severe  penances 
and  sacrifices  to  be  worthy  of  being  united  in 
marriage  to  Civa.  In  the  stoical  asceticism  of 
Buddha,  these  domestic  features  find  no  place,  and 
while  assimilating  the  quintessence  of  Buddhism, 
the  ^aiva  religion  has  this  point  in  addition,  which 
at  once  appealed  to  the  Hindus  a  people  conspicu- 
ous for  their  strons:  domestic  instincts. 


The 

domestic 

virtues 

extolled  in 

the  ^aiva 

religion. 


68         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [Cahp. 

BuddliisiiL  as  presented  to  us  on  tlie  eve  ol  its 
downfall,  combined  sceptical  views  with  gross 
superstition.  The  light  that  it  had  given  to  India, 
had  spent  itself  in  ages  gone  by.  and  in  the  shape  in 
which  it  existed  latterlv.  could  scarcely  commend 
itself  to  the  Indian  people,  accustomed  as  they  were, 
to  live  in  a  highly  spiritual  atmosphere.  Dharma 
and  ^iva  in  the  popular  notions  of  the  period,  ap- 
peared as  very  humble  deities,  whose  function  suit- 
ed the  requirements  of  the  rustic  folk  who  worship- 
ped them. 

^        .  .    ^  The    oldest   sonsfs    relatinof   to    Civa.  whicli  fall 

The  oldest  ^  ^  r 

songs  of       within  the  scope  of  this   chapter,    shew    nothing  of 
^'^  '  that  high  conception  of  him  which  distinguished  the 

period  of  the  Faurahik  Renaissance.  Thev  ^^ere 
meant  for  Bengali  villagers,  and  Civa  figures  in 
them  as  assisting  in  the  work  of  the  rice-fields, 
and  even  ploughing  them  himself  like  any  peasant. 
Even  in  the  Tuiiya  Purana,  there  is  a  song  devoted 
to  (^iva  in  his  agricultural  capacity,  from  w  hich  we 
may  take  the  following  extract  ^  : — 

^u  ^u  f^'II  ^tf^f^l  ^-^^  ^^^  n 

^G^  ^^^1  ^t^^  ^ft  fff^nt^  I 

^U  ^f^  'llf^^^l^  ^^^  ^l^  ^'?l  *It^  I 
^fi^  f^^m  n^^  ^^  ^2*1  1R  II 


II.  ]         BENGALI    LA.vjGUAGE    8:    LITERATURE.  69 

"  The  Lord  is  withuut  an\-  lainunt.  (^iva 

figures  as 
"  Me  begs  trom  door  to  door.  a  peasant. 

"  At  dawn  of  day  he  rises,  and  goes  out  to  beg. 

"Some  people  give  him  ahiis  :  by  others  he  is 
refused.  Sometimes  he  li\'es  on  bavra  "^  and 
harilaki\  only.  But  Oh,  how  happy  is  he  when 
they  give  him  the  begger's  rice  ! 

''  I  say  unto  you,  O  Lord,  why  don't  you  plough? 
"  Bv  beo^orinor,  vou  often  have   to    fast,    and    vou 
iret  rice  onlv  now  and  then. 

"You  must  select  a  muddv  soil  for  cultivation, 
but  if  you  can't  secure  this,  and  dry  lands  fall  to 
your  share,  you  should  ^^•ater  them  well. 

"  When  you  have  rice  at  home,  how  glad  uill 
you  be  to  take  your  daily  meal !  How  long  will 
you,  O  Lord,  suffer  for  want  of  food  ? 

"  \\\\\  not  cultivate  cotton.  O  Lord  ;  How  lonu 
\\'\\\  you  wear  a  tiger's  skin  ? 

"You  besmear  your  body  with  ashes  (Bibhuti). 

"  Why  not  cultivate  mustard  and  fila.  %  {'^^ 
that  yon  may  have  oil  to  anoint  yourself).  And  be 
sure  to  grow  plenty  of  vegetables.     Above  all,  don't 

^tm^  ^^^  n<i?  "^r^^  ^tn?  I 

^^  ^1  nft^  c^if'iti  c^^B^i  ^tc^^  m  11 

f^ffj  ■^\^^\  ^H  ^?r  om\\  ^Pt  ^^  nt^  ! 

^^n  ^tn  ^^  ^^f  ^t^  ^'1^  ^^1  I 

>l^^  ^^  ^tt  C^-l  ^'^  ^^T!I  C^^^1  II 

^unya  Purana. 


•  Terniinalia  Belcrica. 
t  Terminalia  Chabula 
if  Sesamuni  Orentale. 


t  Terminalia  Chabula.  \ 


70 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 


The  agri- 
cultural 
capacity  of 
9iva 
retained 
in  the  late  • 
^ivayanz-ii. 


forget    banana    plants,  so  that  for  the  Dharma-puja 
nothintr  mav  be  wantinor." 

In  the  C-i^ay^ii^'  o^"  songs  of  ^iva  by  later 
\\ Titers,  who  ^^  ere  the  exponents  of  the  ^aiva  cult  in 
liengal,  we  Hnd  a  chapter  devoted  to  Civa's  agricul- 
tural speculation  and  experiences.  The  traditions 
about  Civa  related  in  the  Furahas  have  no  bearing 
whatever  upon  these.  We  shall  here  quote  a 
passage  from  the  ^ivayana  of  Rame^war.  a  writ- 
er of  the  1 8th  centurv.  which  will  at  once  recall 
the  anecdotes  of  ^iva  related  in  the  Cunya- 
Purana.  Ramesywar,  Kavichandra  and otiier  writers, 
though  their  own  idea  of  Civa  was  of  the  high 
classical  type,  could  not  help  embodying  these 
humble  episodes  in  their  descriptions.  This  shows 
how  greatly  the  rural  people  of  Bengal  favoured 
them.  A  song  in  honour  of  ^iva,  though  noble 
in  all  respects,  would  not  be  perfect  in  the  popular 
estimation  unless  it  included  these  humbler  aspects 
of  his  character,  that  had  found  favour  in  the 
country  for  centuries.  In  that  chapter  of  the 
rivavana  to  which  we  are  referrinor,  Bhnna.  who  tirst 
appeared  in  the  (^.unya  Puranaas  a  devoted  servant 
of  Civa  in  the  rice-lields.  still  retains  the  tradition 
of  this  character,  co-operating  with  (^i\d  in  his 
lield-hibour.^ 

"Cixa  sits  in  the  field  and  says  to  Bhnna  the 
ploughman  : — 


^itfs  ^i^  ^M^  nm  *i^^t^  <^h  i 
^t'5  ntft  tirar^  ^t^t^-  f^^t*i  II 


II.]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  71 

''  Good.  In  four  Danda's  time"^  you  must  level 
the  ground  perfectly  on  all  sides." 

"  The  rice  was  planted  in  several  places  on 
the  ridges  between  the  furrows,  and  Civa,  kneeling, 
applied  himself  to  work  with  a  weeding  hook. 

"The  grasses  called  Dala-durba  and  Cvama,t 
Tri^ira  J  and  Kesur  §  were  weeded  out  with  care, 
and  the  straw  in  the  held  was  quickly  cleared. 
The  old  fellow  ||  would  not  leave  the  field  for  one 
moment,  but  kept  watch  over  it  like  a  tiger.'' 

Altogether  it  is  a  long  description,  giving  everv 
detail  of  the  held-work  of  the  Bengali  peasantry  from 
which  we  have  taken  only  the  above  short  extract. 
Means  are  suggested  for  the  destruction  of  the 
mosquitoes  and  leeches  with  which  the  marshy 
fields  of  Lower  Bengal,  are  infested,  and  other 
precautions  are  given  by  which  the  peasant 
may  secure  a  o^ood  harvest.  From  the  laneuag-e  in 
which  these  episodes  are  couched,  I  am  inclined 
to  believe,  that  they  formed  part  of  some  old  song 
of  ^iva  which  Rame^war    was  incorporating    in  his 

^f  mft  Tin  c^^  ^fT  ^r^^  ^^1  1 1 

^ivayana  by  Rame^war. 

♦  A  Danda  is  24  minutes.  7I  Dandas  make  a  Prahara  and 
4  Praharas  make  a  day  (12  hours).  Time  is  reckoned  in  Bengal- 
villages  by  this  standard  even  now. 

t  Species  of  Cyperus. 

i  Grass  with  three  blades 

^  Scirpus  kyseer. 

^iva  is  here  meant. 


72  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [Chap. 


The  story 

of  the 

Bagdini 

woman. 


poem  without  mucli  rtnision.  There  are  manv 
passages  such  as— 

whicli  it  is  difficult  to  explain,  because  of  the  aiui- 
t|uated  words  and  provincialisms  used — peculiar  to 
the  locality  in  which  the  author  lived.  The  some- 
what revolting  story  of  the  intrigue  with  Durga,  in 
the  guise  of  a  Bagdini  woman,  which  is  told  of  Civa 
by  these  writers  must  also  be  referred  for  its  origin 
to  the  late  Buddhistic  age.  They  incorporated  in 
their  songs  tales  which  had  been  prevalent  amongst 
the  rustic  people  of  Bengal  at  that  period  when 
moral  ideas  become  confused  under  Tantrik 
influences. 

11iree  elements  are  found  in  the  later  ^iva- 
poems.  (i)  Hiere  is  the  Pauranik  element,  with  its 
grand  conception  of  C^iva,  which,  as  I  have  said  in 
the  foregoing  pages,  shews  traces  of  the  spiritual 
influence  of  Buddha's  life  (2)  We  have  the  humbler 
attributes  of  the  divinity,  ascribed  to  him  by  villagers 
and  peasants  under  Tantric  influences.  (3)  and 
again,  counteracting  these  last,  we  have  the  purit\- 
and  perfection  of  family  relationships,  as  re- 
presented in  the  ideal  Hindu  household.  Here 
inspite  of  manv  conflicting  interests  of  the  un- 
divided family,  the  prescence  of  its  head  brings 
harmonv  and  peace,  the  result  of  that  spirit  of  for- 
bearance that  he  has  gaini^d  by  the  long  habit  of 
\  iewing  all  mundane  ("oncerns  from  a  lofty  sj)iritual 
stand-i)oint.  1  lere  th'  mistress  of  the  house-hold 
lives  entirely  for  her  lord,  for  her  children  and  for 
others,    without    a    thought    of     personal    comforts 


IL  ]         RENGAIJ    LANGUAGF    8:    MTERATURH:. 


73 


inspired  only  by    holy    love — a  perfect    picture    of 
patient  sufYering  and  unflagging  devotion. 

In  l^engali  songs  of  ^iva,  this  last  trait 
reaches  a  high  stage  of  development,  showing 
the  peculiar  bent  of  our  vernacular  genius  in 
conceiving  and  idealising  purely  domestic 
subjects. 

Kailasa,  the  City  of  Civa.  is  the  abode  of  bliss, 
where  gold  and  lead  have  the  same  value, 
where  the  tiger  and  the  lamb,  the  mongoose  and 
the  serpent  are  friends,  and  drink  from  the  same 
fountain,  forgetting  their  natural  enmity.  The  love, 
harmony  and  tranquility  which  pervade  Mount 
Kailasa,  are  all  inspired  by  Mahadeva  himself, 
whose  holy  dwelling-place  is  thus  strangely  unlike 
the  heavens  of  other  gods,  glittering  with  gold  and 
making  the  impression  of  the  aggrandised  capital  of 
some  worldly  monarch. 

8.    Genealogical  records. 

If  I  am  asked  as  to  what  is  the  chief  basis  of 
that  Paurahik  Hinduism  which  triumphed  over 
Buddhism  and  has  since  ruled  supreme  in  India, 
I  should  say  x\chara.  This  word,  I  find  difficult 
to  translate  into  English.  It  means  rules  for 
the  guidance  of  every  day-life  to  which  every 
Hindu  should  conform  ;  yet  this  dehnition  does  not 
fully  express  the  idea.  The  word  Achara  refers  only 
to  the  details  of  daily  life  and  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  questions  of -ttiorality.  A  man  may 
not  be  very  moral,  and  still  his  life  may  be  Achara- 
puta,  or  pure  as  regards  the  observance  ot  the  rules 
laid  down  by  the  Castras. 

lo 


The 

domestic 

elements 

develop  in 

Bengali 

poems. 


Kailas, 

the  heaven 

of  ^'^a. 


Achar. 


74  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap, 

Raghu-  The    great    compiler    of    these  rules  in  the   i6th 

"h"s'*g!?eat'*     century  in  Bengal  was  Raghunandan  Bhattacharyya 
work.  3^,-,  J  ije  is  up  to  the  present  the  greatest  authority  in 

the  country  with  the  orthodox  community.  To  a 
superficial  observer,  the  Herculean  efforts  made 
by  Raghunandan  in  collating  a  vast  body  of  ancient 
Sanskrit  works,  in  order  to  settle  very  minor  points 
in  the  every-day  life  of  a  Hindu,  will  appear  like 
lost  labour;  but  diving  deeper  into  the  subject,  and 
applying  the  principles  of  historical  evolution  to 
it,  the  reader  will  find  a  rational  explanation  for 
the  popularity  of  Astavirhsati  Tattva — the  great 
work  of  Raghunandan,  and  have  to  admit  that  the 
age  w^as  in  eminent  need  of  such  a  scholar.  If 
the  country  had  not  wanted  him.  why  should  his 
book  have  been  accepted  by  the  people  of  Bengal  ? 
He  did  not  possess  any  arbitrary  power  to  enforce 
his  code  upon  the  multitude.  They  submitted  to 
his  yoke  willingly. 

The  con-  On  particular  lunar  days,  particular   foods  prove 

tentsof  uncons^enial  to  the  human  svstem.  This  is  the 
sati  Tatta.  current  belief  of  Indians.  Raghunandan  devotes  an 
important  chapter  of  his  work  to  a  consideration  of 
this  point.''^  The  details  of  methods  for  performing 
(^raddha  and  other  religious  ceremonies,  for  observ- 
ing fasts  and  vigils,  the  restrictions  against  marriage 
between  the  people  of  the  same  caste,  and  against 
long  journeys  by  sea  or  land. — such  are  the  subjects 
which  have  hvcn  treated  with  patient  scholarship  in 

♦  For  instance,  one  shoiiKl  not  cat  a  pumpkin  or  its  gourd 
(cucurbita  popo'l  on  tlu-  2n(l  day  of  a  Lunation  ;  Brihati  (Solanu- 
inhirsatumi  on  the  tliird  ;  Fatal  (Trichosanthes  dioeoa)  on  the  4th  ; 
Radish  (Raphanus  Sativus^  on  the  5th  ;  Nimba(Melia  Azadirarhta) 
on  the  6th  ;  and  so  on. 


IL  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  75 

this  celebrated  work.     He  quotes  chapter  and  verse 

from    Manu,    Yajnavalkya    and  a    host    of  ancient 

sages  in  support  of  his  views  with    regard    to    very 

small    matters.     A    giant's  labour  was  given  to  the 

raising  of  a  mole-hill.     The    point  that  puzzles    an 

enquirer,    is    how   to    account    for    the  iron  grip  in 

which    these    rules,    occasionally    so    puerile,    have       ^,^^  '^  **^ 

,  that  the 

held  the   orthodox    Hindu  community  for  centuries,     book  carri- 

4         1  ,     TT-     1  11  11^  es  SO  great 

A      devout    Hmdu     would     consult     tiie     Castras  an 

to    know    if    on    a     particular    day    he     could    eat    ^"     onty  :• 

a  certain  vegetable.     If  in  the  month    of  Alagha    a 

person    takes     radish,    he     will    be    pronounced    a 

non-Hindu.     What  could  be  the    reason  that    made 

people     submit     to       such     laws     with     religious 

veneration  ? 

To    answer    this     question,    we      must     survey  Free= 

our  social  condition  during  the  decline  of  Buddhism.      ^^^^  j^-g  ^^^ 
The    great    vice,    which    undermined  the  unity  and 
strength  of  our   society  in  the    last    days    of    Bud- 
dhism,   was    that  of  free-thinking  carried  to  excess. 
The  Buddhists  preached  : — 

"  There  isnoheaven.  no  hell,  no  vice,  no  virtue. 
None  created  the  world,  none  has  the  power  to  des- 
troy it.  No  other  evidence  is  to  be  recognised  than 
what  appeals  directly  to  our  senses.  There  is  no 
soul,  our  body  alone  is  subject  to  pleasure  and 
pain — the  result  of  good  and  bad  actions.  When 
we  see  that  children  are  produced  by  the  agency  ot 
parents,  clay  models  by  potters,  and  pictures  by 
painters,  such  evidence  is  enough  to  shew  how 
things  come  into  existence.  Then  why  should 
we  ascribe  them  to  an  imaginary    Creator  .-^     Don  t 


suit  on 
society. 


76        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.       [  Chap* 

give  pain  to  yourself  or  to  others.  Not  depending 
upon  others,  is  salvation.  Heaven  lies  in  eating 
tood  of  delicious  taste. "^ 

It  is  further  preached  that  immorality  is  no  vice, 
but  this  particular  passage  need  not  be  quoted. 

Now  let  us  imagine  the  effect  of  such  free-think- 
ing on   society.     The  Tantriks  who  were  dominant 
minate"       ^^''   ^^^^"  ^'^^^^  in  the  age  of  which  we  are  speaking. 
food.  ^vere  known  to  banquet    on    things    so   horrible   as, 

for  instance,  a  putrid  corpse.  They  wanted  to 
shew  that  in  their  eyes  nothing  in  creation  was 
unholy.     The    marriage    system    had    become    lax. 

Laxity  of       louring    the     flourishing    davs    of    Buddhism,     the 
marriage-       ,.n-  ^  r     \    •     i      i  i  i  ,      •  , 

laws.  (iitrerent  races  of  Asia  had  been  brought  nito  close 

touch  with  one  another.  The  monasteries  were 
Hlled  with  men  and  women  of  alien  race,  and 
when  standards  of  morality  sank  low  in  Buddhistic 
society  in  course  of  time,  a  population,  consist- 
ing of  children  disowned  by  the  communities 
of    both    their    parents    came    into     existence,  and 

*  The  above  is  the  translation  of  a  passag-e  from  Vidyonmad- 
Tarangihi  a  well-known  Sanskrit  work  by  Chiranjiv  Bhatta- 
Charyya.  The  author  gives  an  interesting  desrription  of  rfligioiis 
controversies  amongst  the  various  sects  of  Hindus.  The  above 
arguments  are  put  in  the  mouth  of  a  Buddhist.  Vidyonmad- 
Tarangini  was  translated  into  English  by  the  late  Raja  Kail 
Kri«ha  Dev  of  Shobha  Vazar,  Calcutta  in  1834.  The  Sanskrit 
Text  of  the  passage  is  given  below  :  — 

^si  ^^^I'SJ  ^f*5s  ^f^^r?  ^^?:^1  Z^^  ^fi  ii  ^^1  I 
f^fffju  2i"»^p?  ^^^^ff^^vf^imft^sii" 


II.  ]  BENGALI    LAXGUAGh:    &    LlTERATUKli.  77 

the  purity  of  the  four  original  castes  of  the  Hindus 
was  lost.  On  an  examination  of  skulls,  the  Mon- 
golian type  lias  been  discovered  in  high-caste 
Hindus  of  various  places  in  India.  The  Buddhists 
had  no  strict  code  of  marriage-laws.  In  the  Ambatto 
Sutta  of  the  Buddhists  we  find  that  pratiloma — 
that  reversal  of  ranks  in  marriage  which  is  so 
highly  condemned  by  Hindu  law-givers — was  at 
one  time  greatly  in  vogue  in  India.  In  the  drama  of 
Mrichchhakatika  written  by  a  Buddhist  prince,  we 
find  Charu  Datta,  a  good  Brahmin,  paying  court 
to  Vasanta  Sena — a  courtesan.  In  the  Da^aratha 
Jataka  of  the  Buddhists,  Sita  is  represented  as  the 
sister  of  Rama,  who  at  the  same  time  marries  her. 
These  and  similar  tales  are  told  in  a  plain  way 
without  any  comment,  thus  shewing  that  in  "^  d- 
dhistic  societv,  rules  of  marriage  were  extremely 
loose. ^ 

The  revival  of  Hinduism  in  Bengal,  between  the 
9th  and  the  13th  century,  meant  war  against  these 
laxities  brought  by  a  set  of  free-thinkers  who 
would  submit  to   no    leader,    but    would    wreck   the 

whole  fabric    of   society  on    the  quicksands  of  their  The 

.         .  propaganda 

own  cynicism.      To  preserve  the  purity  of  the  Aryan  of  the 

blood    after   the    admixture  and  corruption   it    had     ^^^^^^  '^  ^• 

already  passed  through,  to  counteract  the  influence 

of   the    Tantrikism    ^\  ith     its     obnoxious    idea    of 

indiscriminate    food,    in  a  word,   to    undo  the  great 

evils  of  that  age,  strict  rules  regarding  marriage  and 

eating  required  to  be    enacted,  if  society  was  to  be 

ordered    and   disciplined    and  led  to    accept  a  pure 

ideal. 


*  Similarly  in  the  history  of  Java,  we  find  the  Buddhist  Kin^ 
Jayalankar' niarrving  his  own  sister  Chandra-Sura  in  675 
A.D. 


78         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.      [  Chap. 

When  the  Hindu  revivalists  began  their  task 
of  reformation,  ihey  found  the  original  caste- 
system  shattered  by  the  indiscriminate  union  of 
men  and   women.       Society    was    in    a   thorouglily 

disorganised  state.     Tiie  children    born    of  couples 
The  origin  ^  ,  , 

of  the  sub-    ^^  ho  came  from  dinerent  castes,  were  not  owned  by 

castes.  either  of  the  oricrinal  castes.  The  new  builders  of 
society  classified  them,  and  admitted  them  into  the 
new  order,  allotting  to  each  a  fixed  status  in  society. 
This  accounts  for  the  origin  of  so  many  sub-castes 
in  India.  They  came  into  existence  by  the  break- 
ing of  marriage  rules. 

Hard  and  Hindu     society,     after     admitting   this    hetero- 

fast  rules  ,   ^.  '        ,     ,   v  .1  •      ^ 

laid  down      geneous  population,  shut  its    portals    against    new- 

by  Raghu-     vomers,  and  no  breach  of  the  hard-and  fast   rules  of 
nandan. 

marriage  now  enforced,  was  again  to  be  tolerated. 
Regarding  indiscriminate  food,  which  had  been  taken 
in  utter  disregard  of  rules  of  health,  minute  details 
were  now  settled.  But  the  vices  to  which  human 
nature  tends,  cannot  be  checked  by  codes  of  law.  A 
high  ideal  of  spiritual  life  set  before  the  people, 
keeps  them  in  the  right  direction  in  these  matters, 
and  our  society  busied  itself  only  in  framing 
rules  for  the  direction  of  the  details  of  daily 
life.  These  rules  hold  their  sway  till  now.  If  a 
person  opcniv  avows  Jesus  Christ  to  be  the  son  of 
(iod.  or  Mahomet  to  be  the  onl\-  prophet  of  God. 
Hindu  society  will  not  war  against  him.  Our 
toleration  goes  so  far.  lUit  there  are  hundreds  of 
])ettv  rules  in  regard  to  eating— especially  cooked 
foods — tlu>  infringement  of  any  one  of  which  will 
render  him  liable  to  be  excommunicated  from 
soeietv  or  make  him  undergo  severe  penances. 
Marriage  rules  again  ha\e  been  made  so  severe,  that 


II.  ]  BEN-GALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE. 


79 


even  in  the  narro\\'  groove  of  one's  own  caste,  the 
selection  of  a  bride-groom  has  grown  to  be  a  serious 
problem  with  Hindu  parents.  The  reactionary  move- 
ment, as  is  natural  in  such  cases,  ran  to  excess,  and 
small  points  took  exaggerated  proportions  in  the 
eyes  of  the  people.  Besides  the  Tantriks,  there 
were  other  people  near  at  hand,  who  disregarded 
prejudices  of  all  kinds,  in  using  meat  as  food. 
Buddhism,  as  I  have  said,  had  brought  into  India, 
a  vast  number  of  foreigners  belonging  to  different 
Asiatic  races.  There  were,  amongst  these,  snake 
and  cockroach  eaters,  not  to  speak  of  those  whose 
daily  food  was  ham  and  beef.  The  Hindu  com- 
munity had  to  be  guarded  against  adopting  the  ways 
of  such  alien  peoples,  and  as  the  Muhammoden 
conquerers  could  not  be  expected  to  take  any 
interest  in  these  matters,  touching  the  well-being 
of  the  people,  the  leaders  of  society  became  their 
natural  guardians  and  dictated  their  actions. 
Raghunandan  compiled  a  treatise  which  was  much 
needed  in  an  age  of  vice,  resulting  from  unrestrained 
conduct. 

I  believe  I  have  now  explained    what    I    under- 

_  ^  Achar,  «.. 

stand  by  the  word  Achara,  which,  I  said,  is  the  outcome  of 
chief  basis  of  our  modern  Hindu  society.  Achara  '"measures?' 
is  a  deliberate  disavowal  of  this  spirit  of  free-think- 
ing. It  is  a  reactionary  step,  taken  to  bring  a  loose 
and  disorganised  society  into  order  and  unitv  ;  and 
however  absurd  it  may  appear  on  a  superficial  view, 
it  had  a  mission  at  the  time  when  its  strins^ent  rules 
were  first  enacted  ;  and  it  cannot  be  declared  with 
certainty  that  the  good  results  which  the  revivalists 
had  in  view,  are  fully  exhausted  even  now. 


an 


^o 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [Chap. 


The 

qualities 

required  of 

a  Kulin. 


Kulinism 


The  topics  discussed  above  should  not  be  consi- 
dered as  a  digression  ;  for  upon  a  knowledge  of 
some  of  the  essential  features  of  the  revival  of 
Hinduism,  will  depend  a  right  appreciation  of  the 
ideals  set  up  by  the  succeeding  literature. 

X'allala  Sen  who  ruled  from  1119  to  1169  A.D. 
conferred  Kulinism  upon  people  of  various  castes 
in  Bengal.  Ihe  qualities  required  to  entitle  one  to 
the  status  of  a  Kulina  were  nine  :  viz.,  (i)  achara, 
(2)  humility,  (3)  learning,  (4)  good  repute.  (5)  the 
visiting  of  sacred  places,  (6)  devotion,  (7)  good 
conduct,  (8)  religious  austerity  and  penance,  and  (9) 
charity.  Achara,  of  which  we  have  spoken  already, 
heads  the  list  of  these  qualities. 

V'allala  Sen,  while  bestowing  Kaulinya,  or  the 
made  here-  status  of  a  Kulina,  on  a  few  select  people  of  the 
higher  castes,  enacted,  that  after  a  fixed  period,  new 
men  endowed  with  the  above  qualifications,  would 
be  admitted  into  the  grade  of  Kulinas,  and  that 
these  were  to  be  the  recognised  heads  of  the 
different  sections  of  the  Hindu  community  in  all 
social  matters.  But  his  son  Laksmana  Sen  after- 
wards ruled,  that  the  descendants  of  the  Kulinas 
were  to  enherit  Kulinism  irrespective  of  their 
p(^rsonal  qualilications.  and  thus  the  Kulina  classes, 
as  th(^y  arc  now  found,  became  stereotyped  in 
society.  Many  books  have  been  preserved  in 
Sanskrit  and  Bengali,  shewing  the  genealogy  of 
the  higher  classes  of  the  Hindu  community  ;  and 
some  of  th«\se  may  be  traced  to  X'allala  Sen's 
time.  These  give  a  glimpse  at  the  inside  of  our 
social  organisation,  and  indicate  the  changes 
which  it  has  undero^one  during  the  last  one  thousand 


Genealogi- 
cal records. 


the 
Kulinas. 


II,  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    cS:    LITERATURE.  Si 

years.  The  son  of  a  Kulina  became  by  right  a 
Kulina.  This  contravenes  the  wholesome  prin- 
ciple of  rewarding  the  meritorious  members  of 
society,  on  which  Vallala  Sen  had  wanted  to 
base  Kulinism.  Kulinism  thus  became  an  artificial 
institution,  but  it  had  one  aspect  which  still  evoked - 
the  greatest  sacrifices,  by  developing  a  peculiar  ins- 
tinct of  family-honour.  The  Kulinas  and  the  non- 
Kullnas  of  a  communitv  were  often  bound  together 
by  marriage-ties.  There  were,  however,  many  or- 
thodox families  in  Bengal  who  would  on  no  account  The 

,        ,     .        ,  .         ^,  ,  sacrifising 

recognise  such  relationships.    1  hey  were  prepared  to       spirit  of 

sacrifice  every  earthly  consideration,  even  their 
lives,  to  guard  the  purity  of  their  Kaulinya  status  or 
Kulinism.  The  lay  men  of  different  communities  on 
the  other  hand  never  lacked  patience  in  their  efforts 
to  persuade  such  orthodox  Kulinas  to  marry  with 
them,  by  offering  huge  sums  of  money.  We  find 
that  a  scion  of  the  Vaidya  Gana  family  of  Tenai 
in  Faridpur  was  persuaded  to  marry  a  girl  of  the 
Dasara  Dutt  family  on  a  dowry  of  sixty-four 
villages  in  the  subdivision  of  Manikganja  in  the 
District  of  Dacca.  The  ancestors  of  the  Naikasya 
Kulinas  amongst  Brahmins  of  the  present  day  passed 
through  tests  and  sacrifices  such  as  only  martyrs  in  a 
great  cause  would  be  supposed  capable  of  under- 
going. We  find  one  of  the  lay  Vaidyas  coming  to 
Senhati  to  induce  a  Kulina  of  that  caste  to  form  a 
matrimonial  alliance  with  him,  and  }jersevering  in  his 
attempts,  inspite  of  repeated  refusals,  till  some 
banyan  trees,  planted  by  him  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Bhairavaon  his  first  landing  at  the  place,  grew 
so  laro^e  as  to  orive  shade  to  travellers. — when  at  last 
the  Kulina  agreed  to  give  a  daughter  of  his  family  in 
u 


2  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [Chap 

marriage.  I  find  in  the  preface  to  a  translation  of 
Chandi  by  Rupanarayaiia  Ghosa  (born,  1579  A.  D.) 
that  a  lay  Kayastha  named  Jadavendra  Ray,  Ze- 
mindar of  Amdala,  in  the  District  of  Dacca,  took 
away  two  young  men  belonging  to  a  Kulina  family 
in  a  boat  on  the  river  Padma  ;  and  there  he  made 
a  proposal  of  marriage  between  them  and  his  two 
daughters.  If  they  would  not  agree  to  his  proposals, 
they  were  to  be  drowned  in  the  river.  The  elder 
of  the  two,  Varjinatha,  preferred  death  to  the  disgrace 
that  would  be  brought  upon  his  family  by  such  a 
connection.  He  was  drowned  accordingly.  But  the 
younger,  Ruparama,  succumbed  to  the  fear  of  death 
and  accepted  the  alternative.  We  find  in  the  Kula- 
Paiijika  by  Kavi  Kanthahara,  that  a  Kulina  Vaidya 
died  broken  hearted,  from  having  been  obliged  to 
marry  a  tyrant's  daughter."^  Such  instances  are 
numerous  in  the  genealogical  books.  This  goes  to 
show  to  what  excesses  the  reactionary  movement 
in  regard  to  marriaore  rules  was  carried.  The 
eenealoofical  books  also  show  our  kt^en  desire 
to  follow  ideals  of  purity  and  truth  in  life,  and 
they  record  the  struggle  that  Hindu  society 
made  to  ward  off  the  harm  that  the  overtures 
of  an  arbitrarv  Mahammadan  aristocracy,  were 
constantly  making  upon  their  quiet  life.  If  any 
one  w  ants  to  study  the  character  of  the  people 
of  this  country,  and  to  understand  their  aims  and 
aspirations  instead  of  summarily  dismissing  them  as 
mysterious  beings,  he  would  do  well  to  study 
these  works  carefully. 

Kavi  Kanthahar. 


II.  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  ^;^ 

Kulinism  has  often  been  abused  ;  but  the  sacri- 
fices and  martyrdoms  undergone  for  its  sake  in 
our  society  cannot  but  evoke  feelings  of  wonder 
and  admiration. 

The  object  of  such  sacrifices  may  be  considered 
trivial  but  the  qualities  of  self-denial,  of  utter  dis- 
regard for  earthly  prosperity,  and  of  devotion  to  a 
cause  which  distinguished  these  Kulinas  are  not 
to  be  despised.  Just  think  of  a  man  preferring  to 
wear  rags,  to  depend  on  a  single  meal  a  day,  and 
to  live  in  a  hut  of  reeds,  while  his  brother  was  made 
the  owner  of  sixty-four  villages  and  a  palace,  the 
same  ofTer  coming  to  him  but  being  refused  with 
indififnation.  Yet  bv  marriage  with  a  fellow  caste- 
man's  daughter,  of  non  Kulina  rank,  he  would  not 
be  excommunicated  from  society;  only  a  very  slight 
stain  would  be  left  on  his  family  honour.  Social 
prestige  has  in  the  past  occupied  the  same  place  in 
popular  estimation  in  India  as  a  sense  of  political 
rip-ht  does  in  western  countries ;  and  unless  this 
difference  is  taken  into  consideration,  the  ideals  of 
the  Indian  people  cannot  be  fully  realised. 

I  said,  that  some  of   the    crenealos^ical    treatises     ^ 

'  '^  ^  Specimesn 

mav    be   traced  to  Vallala  Sen's  time.     The  follow-        of  early 

^  .    .  .  .  ^        ,    .  composi- 

ing  Bengali  lines  which  occur  in    a    Sanskrit    work     tion  in  the 

by  Chaturbhuja,    a  Vaidya,    written   three    hundred 

seventy-five  years  ago,  were  evidently  already  very 

old:— 

^K^  ^^5f  yjt^  ^tfe  l" 


records. 


84  BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

There  are  many  such  lines  to  be  found  in  other 
works  of  this  class,  which  show  in  their  style,  a 
striking  similarity  to  Daker  vachana  and  other  early 
compositions. 

Early  Early  genealogical  books  in   Bengali  are    mostlv 

genealogi-     ^vTitten    in    prose.     The  field   has  not  vet  been  pro- 
cal  records  ^  ^  i 

in  Bengali,  pcrly  explored  ;  yet  the  Sanskrit  works,  that  have 
already  come  to  light  containing  the  genealogical 
records  of  the  three  upper  classes  of  our  commu- 
nity form  a  vast  literature.  It  is  not  however  with- 
in our  scope  to  refer  to  Sanskrit  works.  Of  Bengali 
books    on    the  subject,    which  are    also    numerous, 

A  list  of       ^yQ  name  some  below.     Thoucjh  fragrments  of  these 
some.  _  .  . 

writings  seem  to  be  ancient,  yet    their   composition 

as    a    whole    covers    a  period  of  not  more  than  four 

hundred    years,     closing    in    the     middle     of    iSth 

century. 

A  few  of  these  Bengali  works  on  our  social 
history  are  as  follows  :  — 

1.  Melabandha  by  Devivar  Ghatak. 

2.  Prakriti  Fatal  Niriiaya  by  the  same  author. 

3.  Kularhava  by  \'achaspati   Mi^^ra. 

4.  Mela-rahasya  by  Danujari  Mi^ra. 

5.  Da^a  Tantra  Prakav^-  hy  Harihar  Kavindra. 

6.  Melaprakriti  Xirnaya. 

7.  Melamala. 

S.  Mela-chandrika. 

9.  Mela-prakava. 

10.  Da^avatL 

11.  Kulatath'a  Prakfivika. 

12.  Kula  Sara. 

13.  Pirali  K'Tirikfi   by  Xilkanlha  r)hatta. 

14.  (josMiikathfi  and  K'nriks  l)y  Xula  l\anchanana. 


IL  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  85 

15.  Radhiya  Samaj-nirhaya. 

16.  Kula  Panji  by  Ramadeva  Acbaryya. 

17.  Radhiya  Graha  Vipra  Karika  by  Kulananda. 

18.  Graha  Biprakula  Bichara  by  the  same  author. 

19.  Dhakura  by  Cuka  Deva. 

20.  Kula  Panji  by  Ghataka  Vi^arad  KantiRam. 

21.  Dakuri  by  ^yama. 

22.  Daksin  Radhiya  Karika   by  Maladhar  Glia- 
taka. 

23.  Karika  by  Ghataka  Ke^arL 

24.  Karika  by  Ghataka  Churamani. 

25.  Kula  Panjika  by  Ghataka  Vachaspati. 

26.  Dhakuri  by  Sarvabhauma. 

27.  Dhakuri  by  Vachaspati. 

28.  Dhakuri  by  ^ambhu  Vidyanidhi. 

29.  Dhakuri  by  Ka9inath  Vasu. 

30.  Dhakuri  by  Madhava  Ghataka. 

31.  Dhakuri  by  Nandaram  Mi^ra. 

32.  Dhakuri  by  Radhamohan  SaraswatL 

33.  Maulika   Vamga    Karika    by  Dwija    Rama- 
nanda. 

34.  Daksin  Radhiya  Kula  Sarvasva. 

35.  Ekjaya  Karika. 

36.  Vaugaja  Kulaji  Sara  Sarhgraha. 

37.  Vangaja  Kulaji  by  Dwija  Vachaspati.  . 
^H.  Vangaja  Dhakuri  by  Dwija  Ramananda. 

39.  Maulik  Dhakuri  by  Ramnarayaha  Vasu. 

40.  Dhakuri   of    Varendra    Kayasthas    by    Kayi 
Ram  Das. 

41.  Varendra  Dhakur  by  Yadu  Nandana. 

42.  Kulaji  of  Gandha  Vaniks  by  Tilak  Ram. 

43.  Do.  by  Parayu  Ram. 

44.  Kulaji  of  Tamvula  Vaniks   by    Dwija    Palra 
Parayuram. 


I 


86  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

45.  Kulaji    of   the    Tantu    Bains    (weavers)    by 
Madhava. 

46.  Satdharmachara  Katha  by  Kinkar  Das. 

47.  Sadgopa  Kulachara  by  Mani  Madhava. 

48.  Tili  Panjika  by  Rame^war  Datta. 

49.  Suvarna  Vanika  Karika  by  Mangal. 

50.  Raja    Mala    (completed    in    1439    A.D.)   by 
^ukre^war  and  Vane^wara. 

This  last  is  a  genealogical  history  of  the  Rajahs 
of  Hill  Tippera. 

Important  These  genealogical  works  preserve  the  traditions 

^^^^^?  r     of    an    ancient  race,  and  thous^h  the  composition  of 
student  of  ? 

history.  many  of  them,  as  we  have  said,  belongs  to  com- 
paratively recent  times,  yet  they  embody  facts 
regarding  our  social  condition  which  have  been 
transmitted  from  distant  ages.  They  are  therefore 
entitled  to  the  consideration  of  those  interested  in 
the  history  of  Bengal.  Not  only  do  they  give 
accounts  of  our  social  movements,  but  they  are 
full  of  incidental  references  to  contemporary 
events. 

An  Exam-  ^  shall  here  refer  in  some  detail  to  a    genealogi- 

D^If'i!^^'"       cal    account    written    bv    a    Brahmin  named  Nalu- 
Fanchanan 

on  the         Paiichanana.  ^^•ho  is  an  admitted    authoritv    on    the 
question  of         ,  .  „,,  ,  .  •  1     1        /         •      • 

the  caste       subject.      1  he    style    ot  writing  and  the  description 

^  Kings^of""    ^^  ^'^^  subject  clearly    show    that    the    author,    who 

Bengal.        lived     about    one     hundred     hfty    years    ago,    had 

embodied  facts  in  it  found  in    older    records.     The 

book  is  called  Gosthikatha  Karika.     It  is  chosen  here 

for   reference,    because   the    genealogical    accounts 

will    not    again    be    touched  upon,  and  because  the 

matter  contained   in    the   Karika    is    important,    as 


II.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  87 

giving  the  solution  of  a  very  knotty  problem  in  the 
history  of  Bengal.  The  Sena  Kings  of  Bengal  were 
formerly  believed  to  have  belonged  to  the  Vaidya 
or  medical  caste.  In  all  the  genealogical  works 
written  by  the  Brahmins,  Vaidyas  and  Kayasthas, 
they  were  described  as  Vaidyas.  In  fact  Raja  Rajen- 
dra  Lai  Mitra,  who  was  the  first  to  dispute  the  point 
of  their  caste,  had  to  admit.  ''  The  universal  belief 
in  Bengal  is  that  the  Senas  were  of  medical  caste 
and  families  of  Vaidyas  are  not  wanting  in  the  pre- 
sent day  who  trace  their  lineage  from  Vallala  Sen."  "^ 
But  in  the  copper-plate  inscriptions  of  the  Sena 
Kings,  lately  discovered  in  various  parts  of  the  count- 
ry, they  have  been  found  to  declare  themselves  as 
Brahma-Ksatriyas.  In  the  face  of  their  own  decla- 
ration on  this  subject,  the  traditions  and  written 
accounts,  which  were  formerly  considered  as  per- 
fectly reliable,  lost  all  authority,  and  the  Sena 
Kings  were  generally  accepted  by  scholars  as  having 
been  Ksatriyas.  Now  the  descendants  of  those 
Brahmins,  Kayasthas  and  persons  of  other  castes,  on 
whom  Vallala  Sen  had  bestowed  Kaulinya,  knew 
him  to  have  belonged  to  the  Vaidya  caste,  and  they 
were  in  possession  of  written  records  substantiating 
this  point.  Yet  nothing  was  now  considered  more 
reliable  than  a  declaration  on  the  part  of  the 
princes  themselves  as  to  the  caste  to  which  they 
belonged,  preserved  in  the  lasting  impression 
borne  by  the  copper-plates.  The  Karika,  to  which 
we  have  referred,  however,  unravels  the  history  of 
these  aspirations  and    proves    them    to    have    been 


*   Indo-Aryans,  page  265, 


IS  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

mere  pretensions.     \Vc  quote  a  part  of  this  interest- 
ing record  below^  : — 

^^t^^s*f  f  ^^  ^it^  ft^  c^\r^u  II 

f^^  ^1^^  ^^  ^f^  t^f'^kl^  aft  II 

f^^^^  '^f^^^  ^f^^,  ^f^  1^  m^  II 
^tf^l;^  ^tsfi  h^  ^^^  ^t^  ^tf%  I 

m'lj^tft  ^\^^t5  ^f^Ti^f%  II 
^t^i  ^i'^  ^1^^  en  ^\  ^^^  -^^5^1 1 

^f^^  ^tl^t^tfff  0\]Z^  ^^  ^«^1  II 

^tf«  ^1,  '^^■?J  ^^^  ^t^^  ^^^  II 
:3f^^  ^^fft^i  ^t^»f^  cm  cu^  II 

V^^  fns^^t'^  '^^1  ^  ^^T#t^  II 

ci'^«i  ^t;^  fe^vfi  ?f?(i  ^  c^f'Ri  II 
c|'^«i  ^KSf  ^-^^1  hi^j^?r  ^f^'i^  II 


IL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  8c 

"  One  day  the  King  asked  the  Brahmins  of  five 
Gotras  (families},  some  of  whom  were  great  Kulinas, 
and  other  ^uddha  Crotriayas,  "O  Pandits  who 
adorn  my  court,  tell  me  why  have  you  deserted  the 
X'aidvas,  whereas  formerlv  you  used  to  discharoe 
priestly  functions  in  their  families  ?  "  Mahe^a  and 
other  learned  men  said  in  reply,  "  We  are  not  pre- 
pared to  do  the  daily  work  of  priests  in  any  house. 
We  perform  priestly  offices  for  occasional  ceremo- 
nies only.  The  Brahmins,  who  discharge  ten 
set  functions  in  one  house,  and  eat  the  rice  offered 
to  the  dead  in  the  (pradh-ceremony  are  generally 
illiterate.  We  act  as  priests  in  the  '  Homa'-ceremo- 
nies  of  the  Brahmins  only,  and  do  not  act  as  priests 
in  the  houses  of  ^udras.  King  Adi9ura  was  a  Vaidya. 
He  belonged  to  the  \'aicya  caste.  He  was  an  em- 
peror paramount,  and  therefore  assumed  the  status 
of  a  Ksatriya.  Indra  Dumna  was  a  Buddhist  King. 
He  founded  the  Jagannath  Temple.  He  did  not 
believe  in  castes,  yet  he  called  himself  a  Ksatriya. 
W^hoever  becomes  a  king  aspires    to  the  status  of  a 


^  -H-  -Jf  4f 

^r^n  ^ti^  ^^H  ^M\  ^^  ^^  I 

cnl^^  c^^ "  ^m^i "  ^^[^  ^5  ^n  II 

^  7(-  7f  ^ 

Sambandha  Nirhaya,  by  Lalmohan 
Vidyanidhi  (2nd  Edition)  p  p.  584-89 


go  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap 

Ksatriya  without  considering  other  points.  Simi- 
lar instances  are  to  be  found  in  the  cases  of  out- 
castes  like  the  Kambojiasin  Gauda.  Bhupal,  Anan- 
gapal  and  Mohipal  were  not  Ksatriyas,  they  were 
out-castes.  But  they  w^ere  great  Kings,  hence  they 
could  marry  girls  from  the  three  highest  classes. 
Look  at  the  Sat-^ati  priests,  they  discharge  priestly 
functions  in  all  houses,  hence  they  have  lost  all  know- 
ledge of  the  Vedas.  They  eat  the  rice  offered  to  the 
dead  in  the  Cradh  ceremony.  When  X'allala  Sen 
tried  to  pass  into  society  a  low-caste  woman  named 
Padmini,  his  son  Laksmafia  Sen  informed  the 
Brahmins  of  his  action  and  cried  it  down.  Vallala 
in  great  rage  dismissed  Laksmana  Sen  from  his 
court,  and  Laksmaha  in  order  to  protect  the  \'aidyas 
from  his  father's  ire,  made  them  give  up  the  sacred 
thread.  Thus  the  Vaidyas  who  belonged  to  the 
party  of  Vallala  Sen  and  those  that  belonged  to 
that  of  his  son,  became  \>atyas  (fallen). 

Raja  Adi^ura  belonged  to  the  \'aidya  caste,  but 
he  adopted  the  ways  of  a  Ksatriya.  Whoever  be- 
comes a  king  wants  to  be  called  a  Kji'atriya,  and, 
for  his  own  glorilication.  declares  himself  as  a  Ksatriya 
everywhere.  Every  one  aspires  to  a  higher  position 
than  he  enjoys.  The  Devas*  want  the  position  of 
Brahma  the  Great  God.  According  to  the  ^astras, 
Adi^urais  a  Brahmin  (since  the  \'aidyas  are  traceable 
to  an  original  Brahmin  father),  but  by  custom  he 
was  a  Vaivya." 

The  last  lines  account  for  the  Sena  Kings  calling 
themselves  l^irahma-Ksatriyas  in  the  copper-plate 
inscriptions. 


Minor  Gods  or  angels. 


II.  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  91 

These    genealogical     works   give    us,    then,     in         An  in- 
terse   and  epigrammatic  prose  and    poetry,  the  sali-      worke^*'-'^ 
ent  points  in  the  social  history    of    Bengal    for    the       the  field. 
last  one  thousand  years.     The  Bengali  scholar  \\hose 
indefatigable  labour  has  brought  to   light    hundreds 
of  Mss.    of    sfenealoorical    works    in     Sanskrit    and 
Bengali,    and    who    has    drawn  the  attention  of  his 
fellow-countrymen     to    an     altogether     unexplored 
field    of    literature,    is    Babu  Nagendra  Nath  Vasu, 
the    learned  editor   of    the    Bengali   Encyclopedia, 
the  \'i9vakosa. 


Supplementary  Notes 

TO 

CHAPTER  II. 


Bengali—  The  Bengali  language  was  known  to    our    early 

a  form  of  .  -  .   '      ,    .  ,y,,  , . 

Prakrita.      ^\■rlters    as    a    lorm  oi  rraknta.      1  he  name  \  anga- 

Blia?a  is  of  recent  origin.     They  called  it  Prakrita,"^ 

or  merely  Bhaea- 

*  The  old  Bengali  writers  usually  designated  our  language  as 
Prakrita.  There  are  numerous  instances  of  it  in  our  old 
literature.    A  few  are  quoted  below  :  — 

"  ^1^^^<r  ^j:«ij^5t1   2}fi1  ^^  mil  I 

^^tf^  '^^^1%  ?tl^3  ^fT  ^l^  II" 

Adi-Parva  by  Rajendra  Das. 

Krisna  Karnamrita. 

Qovinda  Lilamrita,  translated 

by  Jadunandan  Da5. 

Chaitanya  Mangala, 

by  Lochan  Das. 

A^vamedha   Parva 

by  Ram  Chandra  Khan 

In  an  old  Bengali  translation  of  the  Gita  Govinda,  wc  come 
across  the  following  lines  in  Sanskrit  by  way  of  conclusion  of  a 
chaptir. 


il.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE. 


93 


It  has  already  been  said  in  a   foregoing    chapter  The 

that    our  language,  under  Buddhistic  influence,  had    *^^?^^",'^^. 

lapsed  into  a  very  lax  form   of    Prakrita.    and    was  tize 

.  Bengali, 

on  that  account   treated  with  contempt  by  the  Brah- 

manic  school.  I  have  already  referred  to  some  of 
its  chief  sources  of  development  after  the  downfall 
of  Buddhism.  Within  the  last  one  thousand  years 
there  has  been  a  movement  for  the  enrichment  of 
our  language  by  importing  Sanskrit  words,  and  by 
correcting  the  current  forms  of  words  according  to 
the  rules  laid  down  in  Sanskrit-grammar.  Curiously 
enough,  in  this  process  of  the  resuscitation  of 
words,  our  language  offers  a  striking  resemblance 
to  the  Romance  languages,  which  also  passed 
through  a  similar  process,  almost  at  the  same  peri- 
od of  history.  If  we  look  into  the  works  noticed 
in  the  foregoing  pages,  this  fact  will  be  apparent. 
In  spite  of  many  portions  of  these  works  having 
been  recast  in  subsequent  times,  there  are  numer- 
ous instances  in  them  of  words  belonging  to  a  very 
lax  form  of  Prakrita,  which  are  no  longer  in  written 
use.     I  quote  some  such  words  below  : — 

^ffe — the  month  of  Kartika  (Last  half  of  October 
and  rtrst  half  of  November),  '^^U — wings,  ^^^51 — 
stars,  -s^f^ — again,  "^^1 — crane,  C^ — body,  ftpf — with- 
out. '^']f^ — I,  N^f^— you,  ^f^t — a  dunce,  ft^l — mar- 
riage, ^ — a  flower,  ^^ — thunder,  ^^i\ — a  mirror. 

The  influence  of  the  written  forms  of    words    in     The  resus- 
!•-  1  •        r  n  1  •      •  1  ciation 

a  literary    language,  is  orten   reflected  in  its  spoken      of  words. 

forms,  and  if  we  study  the  Prakrita  writings  of  the 
5th  and  6th  centuries,  we  shall  find  numerous  inst- 
ances of  «Tt^,  fffr^.  F(^^^,  '5«T^  and  similar  words 
being  used  for  ^t^.  Vfft:^,  "5t^'W^,  ^^«l  <&c.  These 
loose    forms    are  no  longer    in  use    in    any  spoken 


94  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

dialect  of  India  within  the  knowledge  of  the 
\\riter  of  the  present  treatise.  In  the  translation 
of  the  Ramayana  by  Krittivasa  (born,  1432  A.  D.) 
there  is  one  curious  passage,  which  he  certainly  did 
not  find  in  the  original  poem  of  \'almiki,  referring 
to  this  process  of  the  recovery  of  words  from  their 
lax  Prakrita  forms.  Valmiki,  when  he  was  a  robber 
could  not  say  <lt^  but  pronounced  the  word  as  cTt^. 
The  sage  Narada  attributed  this  inability  to  the 
vices  that  he  had  practised  in  life,  and  declared 
with  much  force  that  no  vicious  man  would  ever  be 
able  to  pronounce  ^.  This  story  may  be  understood 
as  an  instance  of  the  way  in  which  the  later  Brah- 
manical  school  attacked  and  overcame  the  loose 
forms  of  Prakrita  current  in  the  Buddhistic  period. 
No  Bengali  peasant,  however  illiterate,  would  now 
be  excused  if  he  could  not  pronounce  the  ^  in  ^t^- 

The  correction  of  words  in  the  written  forms  of 
our  language  has  continued  even  up  to  the  present 
day.  Every  year  the  correctness  of  a  number  of 
current  words  is  called  in  question,  being  measured 
bv  tlie  severe  test  of  Sanskrit  grammar.  If  anv 
flaw  is  found  in  the  writings  of  modern  Bengali 
authors,  judging  by  this  standard  of  the  Sanskrit 
grammar,  he  is  unsparingly  abused  by  the  purists, 
and  the  Bengali  language  is  gradually  growing 
ornate  and  classical.  In  this  respect  it  approaches 
Sanskrit  as  does  no  other  language  of  modern  India. 
Bengali  was  formerly,  however,  extremely  colloquial,"^ 

*  That  formerly  the  language  of  Bengal  was  the  furthest  re- 
moved amongst  Indian  languages  from  the  standards  of  Sanskrit 
will  be  proved  inspite  of  its  present  very  highly  Sanskritised  form, 
by  the  fact  that  even  now  ^,  ^  &  ^  are  not  rightly  pronounced  by 
us,  and  for  this  defect  the  Sanskrit  schools  of  Benares,  Bombay 
and  other  important  centres  of  Sanskrit  learning,  treat  us  with 
contempt. 


no 


BEiNGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE. 


95 


and  the  reactionary  spirit  has,  perhaps  for  this  very 
reason,  taken  an  extreme  form.  Within  the  Last  ten 
years  |f%5lC«fr,  n^si,  ^WTJ^S,  f'l^tf,  fi^iin^T^'t,  ^^f'^t. 
Cntfi^l,  n^^C^J,  n^^t^,  "^-^H^  and  similar  words 
which  were  in  every  day  use,  have  lost  their  status  in 
the  written  language,  because  they  have  not  been 
found  to  conform  to  the  rules  of  Sanskrit. 

Now  Bengali  is  a  highly  artificial  language.  I 
quote  here  a  Bengali  hymn  by  Bharata  Chandra, — 
the  great  Bengali  poet  of  the  i8th  century.  One 
may  take  this  as  a  piece  of  pure  Sanskrit,  and  if 
written  in  Devnagri  characters  it  \vill  be  read  by 
Sanskrit  scholars  all  over  the  world  as  a  Sanskrit 
poem.  They  will  certainly  be  surprised  to  hear, 
that  it  is  a  Bengali  poem,  quoted  from  the  Bengali 
work  Annada  Mangala.  This  goes  to  shew  to 
what  an  extent  written  Bengali  has  approached 
Sanskrit. 

M  ^m^r^^,  ft^t*^^t^¥,  ^^t«r^t^^  ^^^<i  ii 

One  word  more  ought  to  be  said  here  regard- 
ing this  process  of  the  resuscitation  of  words. 
Several  P'uropean  scholars  have  found  fault  with 
Bengali  authors  for  writing  in  a  high-flown  artifi- 
cial style,  and  for  their  tendency  to  use  Sanskritic 
words  in  Bengali,  in  place  of  the  corresponding 
current  forms  which  are  intelligible  to  the  masses. 

We  must,  however,  proceed  to  enquire  why 
such  a  style  is  daily  growing  in  favour  ^^•ith  Bengali 
writers,  if  it  is  so  artificial.     No  one  has    power    to 


Bengali 
now  a 
highly 

artificial 
language. 


The  causes 
analysed. 


^6  BENGALI    LAN  GUAGE   &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

dictate  arbitrary  rules  for  the  growth  of  a  language. 
This  w  ill  always  develop  naturally  inspite  of  op- 
posing influences.  Only  so  long  as  our  efforts 
help  the  natural  course,  will  the  rules  laid  down 
by  grammarians  and  purists  be  accepted  by  the 
people.  Arbitrary  forms  may  be  excused,  if  used 
by  a  genius  ;  they  can  never,  however,  claim  a  place 
in  common  language.  Language  steadily  changes 
according  to  its  inherent  requirements.  It  will  not 
follow  any  capricious  course  which  may  be  dictated 
bv  individuals.  This  principle  applies  to  the 
written  and  spoken  forms  of  a  language  equally. 

If  this  view  of  the  matter  is  correct,  we  ought 
to  see  what  influences  tended  to  develop  our  lan- 
euasre  after  the  model  of  Sanskrit,  and  how  lono^ 
those    influences    are   likely    to   work  in  the  future. 

Though  Buddhism,  as  we  have  said,    gave  Ben- 
}(anda  of       g^^i    its  first    impetus    towards  the  attainment  of  a 

the  Paura-    Jiterarv    status,    the    Sanskritic    School    afterwards 
nik  religion 

familiarN     took  it  up  in  right  earnest   and    set    themselves    to 

sed  Sans-        ,  •        r         i     n-  i  •        •         t  .1 

krit  texts,     the    task    ot  embellishing  it.      Let  us  take  a  survey 

of  Hindu  society  in  its  entirety,  after  the  downfall 
of  Buddhism.  The  attempts  of  the  revivalists  to 
introduce  the  spirit  of  Paura hik  religion  amongst 
the  masses  were  directed  in  various  channels. 
There  were  the  Yatras.  or  popular  theatres  ;  Ka- 
thakatas  or  narratives  and  recitations  to  which  we 
shall  have  to  refer  hereafter  ;  the  Pathas,  or  read- 
ings from  Sanskrit  texts  ;  the'  Kirfanas,  singing 
bv  the  \'aisha\  as  ;  and  other  similar  organised 
eflorts  to  popularise  the  creed  of  the  Paurahik  reli- 
gion all  over  Bengal.  The  influence  of  these  institu- 
tions   upon    the    jiopular  mind    was  immense.       No 


II.  i         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE. 


97 


The  views 

of  foreign 

Scholars 

open  to 


village  in  Bengal,  however  humble  it  might  be, 
was  without  them.  Not  only  did  they  form  a  perennial 
source  of  amusement  to  the  people,  but  they  form- 
ed the  mission  and  the  propaganda  of  Pauranik 
religion.  The  whole  atmosphere  of  Bengal  was 
permeated  by  these  influences  ;  and  as  Sanskrit 
texts  formed  their  main  basis,  a  greater  number  of 
Sanskrit  words  was  every  day  imported  into  Bengali 
and  a  closer  contact  with  Sanskritic  forms  made  the 
ear  constantly  keener  in  the  perception  of  faultly 
expression.  Thus  the  process  of  self-correction 
held  an  uninterrupted  course. 

The  view  generally  taken  by  foreign  scholars, 
that  this  process  of  Sanskritising  made  the  litarary 
language  incomprehensible  to  the  masses,  is  not 
tenable.  When  a  village  yatra,  or  popular  theatri-  objection 
cal  performance,  is  going  on,  ploughmen,  shop- 
keepers and  other  illiterate  people  will  stand 
patiently  for  hours,  witnessing  the  scenes.  And 
what  do  they  hear?  ^^^^^«1,  ^^^^^t^,  f^fi?^t^^, 
^^t^-^tf^^,     ^^^f%-^f«,    ->5|^^^-f^^,    -^^^t^,    ^^^- 

^1^^,  ft^?^,  ^"tc^tsn^,  ^^  ^ft^^,  ^^-^1%,  ^ft^t^, 

"^r^f^^,  '^''ilC^^,  and  hundreds  of  such  words  which 
are  never  used  in  their  current  dialect,  come  pour- 
ing in  upon  their  ears,  and.  these  they  enjoy 
immensely.  The  Ramayana  of  Krittivasa,  and  the 
Mahabharata  of  Ka^idas  are  read  by  peasants, 
and  artizans,  and  in  these  works  learned  expressions 
like  "f^^rff  f^^^"^  ^^^^'?^"  are  so  numerous 
that  one  would  wonder  how  the  illiterate  men  and 
women  who  hear  them  recited,  could  appreciate 
them.  Yet  there  is  not  the  least  shadow  of  doubt 
that  they  do  so.  For  in  Bengal  100,000  copies  of 
the  Ramayana  published  from  Bartala  are  sold  every 


'3 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE,    [  Chap. 


The  people 
not  in  awe 

of  the 

Sanskrit 

vocabulary. 


Anglicised 

Bengali 

troubles 

them. 


year,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  a  hundredth  part  of  these 
copies  is  sold  to  the  Bhadralokas  or  gentlefolk. 
Our  masses  are  not  at  all  in  awe  of  the  Sanskrit 
vocabulary.  On  the  other  hand  they  seem  to  be  in 
love  with  it.  They  are  fond  of  pedantic  words  and 
when  they  commit  mistakes  in  using  such  words  in 
their  conversation,  our  scholarly  people  smile  in 
derision.  Our  Calcutta  theatres  have  many  farcical 
scenes  in  which  the  rural  folk,  attempting  a  high 
flown  style,  are  held  up  to  ridicule,  for  the  inappro- 
priate use  of  words.  Thus  the  artificial  style  of 
the  present  day  originates  in  a  variety  of  causes 
attending  the  revival  of  Hinduism,  and  so  long  as 
the  rich  vocabulary  of  Sanskrit  is  not  fully  exhaust- 
ed, this  process  of  the  recovery  of  words  and  the 
importation  of  choice  expressions  from  it  for  litera- 
rary  and  technical  purposes,  is  not  likely  to  cease. 
No  one  would  leave  a  precious  store  until  it  has  given 
him  all  that  he  needs.  The  genius  of  our  language 
moves  towards  the  Sanskrit  ideal,  being  attracted 
to  it  by  its  unparallelled  wealth  of  expression,  and 
until  it  has  taken  full  advantage  of  this  treasure,  it  is 
not  likely  to  change  its  present  course.  Our  learned 
men  desire  this  and  our  rural  folk  desire  it  no 
less.  Broad-based  as  is  the  movement  of  our  lan- 
guage towards  the  classical  model,  on  the  natural 
requirements  of  the  Pauranik  renaissance,  we  cannot 
forcibly  retard  this  stream. 

Our  masses,  as  I  have  said,  are  not  afraid  of 
encountering  Sanskrit  words.  The  very  nature  of 
their  environment  has  accustomed  them  to  this.  If 
the  modern  literature  of  Bengal  affords  them  any 
difliculty,  it  is  found  in  those  modes  of  expression 
and    of    constructintj  sentences    in    which    Beni^ali 


IL  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE. 


99 


tain  earlier 
forms. 


Examples. 


follows  the  model  of   English  that    appears  strange 
and  unintelligible  to  them. 

The  Bengali  works,  to  which  I  have  referred  in 
this  chapter,  mainly  form  what  may  be  called  a 
rustic  literature.  They  were  in  many  cases  recast 
and  revised    in    subsequent    times,    but -as    I    have        Though 

already  said  there  are  many  evidences  indicative  of     »*ecast,  the 

.  .  works 

the  early  period  to  which  their  composition  is  to  be  often  re- 
referred.  There  are  quaint  terms  and  expressions 
which  have  not  only  grown  obsolete  but  are  in 
many  cases  unintelligible  to  us.  The  literature  of 
the  period  shews  that  our  language  was  as  remote 
from  classical  Sanskrit  in  those  days,  as  it  is  akin 
to  it  now.  I  quote  several  passages  here  from  the 
works  mentioned  in  this  chapter  which  will  illus- 
trate these  facts. 

^1  C?ftr^  ^^  ^1  ^tft  II 
C^  ^t^^  C^ft  ^K'^  I 
C^  ^1  ^U^  C*[R  "^K^  II 

'^^m  ^w  ^^  ^us  ci3#l  ir 

Dal< 

^-^)  ft^  ^^^t5  ^^t«i  ^t^  nt^^  I 


100        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [Chap. 

^^^  ft^  ^«i^  ^^^^  nt^^  I 

^unya  Purana 

*'  ft<(f^Q  f^t^S  ^f^?l  ^^  ^1^1  l^f^  '. 

Songs  of  Manik  Chandra. 

^t%  c^t%  c^t^i  T^^  ^^^  ^[ft^i  II 
^^  ^%i  '{^'i  ft^  ^^^^  ^t^^^i  I 

^jci  <>|^tl*l  ^W^  ^^51  IC'I^  'I^^T  ft^1  II 

^t^  h^  ^rm  ^^^  f^^o]  ^-^^  f^^i  II 
^H  ^^J  i^i^  f^ii  ^  ^t^«i  ^ftui  I 

Songs  of  Manik  Chandra. 

A  list  of  Here    follows  a  list  of  words,  found  in  tlie  books 

words  with     nientioned     in    this    chapter,    which    have    become 
meaning.      obsolete,    with    their    meaning.      A    still  more  com- 
plete list  of  such  words  will  be  found  in  my  I')engali 
work — "  Vanga  Bha^a  O  Scihitya.'' 

^^  ...     To  him. 

^^  ...     Aloe   wood    (Atjuilaria  agal- 

locha). 
^gft^^^  •••      Of  wonder,  on  a  sudden. 


II.  ]  BENGALI   LANGUAGE    &    LIFLRATURE. 


loi 


^^U^ 

.     Of  a  scholar. 

^f^^ 

.     Not  rooted  out. 

^T^Tf 

.     Horse. 

^^l^^ 

Many. 

^\^^ 

.     Beginning. 

^i^i^ 

.      In  a  crooked  way. 

^^9 

.     Sound. 

■^n^ 

Food. 

^t^fi 

.     Air. 

^in5<i 

..      Guard,  watch. 

^t^ 

. .     One's  own. 

^tft^q 

..     The  span  of  one's  life. 

^■pft^f^ 

..     A  stick. 

^tft^i 

..     Bath. 

^^^ 

..     A  sugar  cane. 

..     God. 

viir^S^  C^¥«^    . 

.     Some  how  or  other. 

*D^tT[ 

.     Now. 

^^ 

..     Without  bank.  sea. 

fe#l 

Good  fortune. 

^ft 

. .     A  writer. 

^t^l 

Small. 

l*[^t^^ 

. .     A  well-wisher. 

c^mi 

..     Fat. 

^m^i 

. .     Those  that  move  in  the  air. 

^fe 

..     Followers. 

■^rf^^ 

. .      Strong,  youthful. 

^t\^i% 

..     Youthfulness. 

W^ 

..     House.     . 

^t^^ 

The  chief,  singer  in  a  chorus 

c^Tt^'^i 

. . .     Cow-dung. 

^t^fi 

...     Of  the  front. 

11 

...     Empty 

^^^ 

Long  live. 

102  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [Chap. 


Agnates. 
...     A  wallet. 

...     A  big  cudgell. 

...      Low  marshy  lands. 

v5t^^1 

...     A  sort  of  chain. 

^f^^i 

By  binding. 

...     A  great  tumult  and  uproar. 
...     To  proclaim  by  beat  of  drum 

^I^^ 

...     Rice. 

C^^l^ 

So  much. 

^n 

Character,  name. 

W"TO1 

...      Drum. 

Two. 
A  thinor. 

'  ...      Gate-keeper. 
Two. 

^^ 

...     White. 

%^tf^ 

A  musical  instrument. 

...      In  contemplation. 
...     Navadwip. 

Spoiled. 
...     Sleep. 
...     Without. 

...      Dance. 

To  ascertain. 

...      Right. 
...     Plank. 

To  Believe. 
...      Pond. 

nt^t^ 

...      Ikink. 

n^vf^ 

...      Foot  Soldiers. 

^t^«i 

...     A  broom. 

i^t 

...      A  Drizzle. 

II.] 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE. 


10 


^^ 

Bramha. 

?T^fNO 

One  who  plays  on  a    musical 

instrument. 

^t^ 

A  musical  instrument. 

a^itft 

Difference. 

v^^5f 

...     Ashes. 

^tV3 

...     Mother. 

^1^^ 

...     A  big  boat. 

^nfif 

Food. 

5ltv5t^ 

...      Path. 

^ 

...     Sweet. 

^M^ 

A  musical  instrument. 

c^c^ 

...     To  the  place. 

^^ 

A  run. 

^!f^ 

...     All. 

^TO^ 

...     To  understand. 

^t^^ 

...     To  Sign. 

^tVQ 

A  snake. 

d^HT^ 

...      Pertaining  to  evening. 

It^ 

...      Without. 

Bengali  verbs  are  easily  traced  to  those  of 
Prakrita.  From  C^t^,  l^f,  "ft-'Tt,  ^!lt,  CTt^t,  1^, 
^^,  '511^,  «lt^,  ^5^,  ft^,  ^t^,  ^'^^,  ^  &c.,  the  trans- 
formation is  easily  made  to  ^?[,  ^1^5,  C^^.  "^^^^  ^C^t 
^•\15,  C^t&1,  ^tV3^1,  «^t^1,  1^1,  C5^1,  ^t^l,  ^fm, 
C^t^l  &c. 

The  participle  forms  in  Prakrita  ^f^^,  clf%^, 
^^,  '^fk^  pass  through  slight  changes  in  Bengali. 
Prakrita  ^fe^  changed  to  ^ff^  and  ^TC^.  joins  it- 
self to  other  verbs,  and  forms  the  origin  of  the  present 
participle  in  Bengali.  Such  forms  as  ^Rl^1  +  ^t^^, 
^niTO^,  ^^<I^^  and  ^l^  are  thus  accounted  for. 
The  Sanskrit  form  ^t^^-  changed    to    the    Bengali 


Bengali 
verbs. 


I04        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

^tfl^  forms  in  the  same  manner  the  suffix  of 
Bengali  verbs  in  the  past  tense,  such  as  ^ft<[1  + 
^tf^^.  ^ft^tf^^,  and  Ctff^l![1  +  ^tf%?[,Cff%tr^^  etc. 
In  the  backward  villages  of  Bengal  the  two  words 
are  still  often  used  separately  in  the  present  parti- 
ciple forms,  such  as  ^^sf^C^  — ^t^^,  ^f|^^  — ^tT^  | 
There  are  numerous  instances  of  Prakrita  and  Sans- 
krit forms  of  verbs  being  used  in  the  works  which 
we  have  dealt  with  in  this  chapter.  Such  for 
instance  as  ^l^\f^,  '^nf%  ^^1%  &c.,  We  quote  some 
examples  below  : — 

I.     ti  C^^^l  d^  ^gfft  I      Dak. 

^unya  Purana 

These  forms  are  now  quite  obsolete  in  Bengali."^ 

The  Sanskrit  forms  ^C^tf^  a.nd  ^^2  have 
both  been  adopted  in  Bengali,  subject  to  certain 
changes.  In  Eastern  Bengal  ^^^  (a  form  of 
^^tPl)  i^  in  colloquial  use.  Western  Bengal 
favoured  the  form  ^f~^^  =  ^^  (from  ^^s) ;  and  many 
instances  of  both  are  found  in  old  literature.  \\x^ 
quote    a    few    lines    below    to  shew  the  use  of  ^fi[^ 

*   In  later  works    written  in  the    15th,    i6th    Sc    17th    centuries 
instances  of  such  use  were  numerons, — as  in 

Mahabharata  by  Sanjaya. 

Visma  Parva  by  Kavindra. 

Caitanya  Charitamrita. 

^ri  Krisna  Vijaya, 


11.]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATliRP!.  I05 

(a  form  of  ^^s).  The  various  forms  derived  from 
^i:?ftf^  are  very  frequently  met  with  in  old  Bengali 
Literature. 

Dulv 

^unya  Purafia. 

^^\  is  changed  to  ^p"^  and  this  form  has  been 
adopted  in  \\Titten  Bengali  both  in  Eastern  and 
Western  Bengal.  The  appearance  of  ^  in  ^^, 
^t^^,  "^ti^^  etc.  is  difficult  to  account  for.  Dr. 
Grierson  traces  it  to  Sanskrit  f^'S{^  In  old  Bengali, 
there  are  frequent  uses  of  verbs  without  this  fami' 
liar  suffix,  as  in, — 

I.    " ^^.  #i^  ^n^  ^'^  fw^^  ^^  1" 

Manik  Chandra  RajSr  Qan, 

Chaitanya  Bhagabat. 

The  verbal  termination  ^  in  the  old  imperative 
forms  ^f?^,  ^1^^  (changed  to  ^1%y3,  "?ItlM3)  is  traced 
to  Sanskrit  f?[ ;  and  examples  of  fk  changed  to  ^  are 
numerous  in  Prakrita.  The  ft  often  changes  to 
^'  in  Prakrita,  as  in  s^^  ^U^  in  Pingal.  This  C 
forms  a  suffix  of  verbs  in  Hindi. 

In  Ben  oral  i  and  in  Prakrita.  words  are  generally      Softening 
f5  ^  of  words, 

softened, 

(0  by  changing  the  double  letter  to  a 
single  one.  The  lonor  vowel  ^1  in  such  cases  is 
introduced  to  coalesce  with  the  preceding  letter,  as 

^f%=^fr^,  ^^=l^t^,  ^^=^f^,   ^^=^K,  '^?i=^m- 


Io6        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 


Bengali 
case- 
affixes. 


The 

nominative 

case. 


^f^  =  ^jf?f.  ^^^=^\7^^ — sometimes  the  long  vowel 
■3it  also  joins  with  the  last  letter,  as'^3J  =  '^^1,  5^^= 
^m,  ^W  =  Wh  '=1^  =  ^t^1.  n^:=nt^1  I  There  are 
also  instances  of  the  vowel  ^1  of  the  termination 
being  dropped  as«1^1  =  cjt^,  7fi^^  =  7ft^,  ]^^\  =  \^-\^  \ 

(2)      By  elision  of  a  letter,  as 

(?p  elided,)  ^^<^H  =  OT^t^,  ^^5^1^  =  51^^,  ^^f^  = 

(^  elided),  \^]  =  \) 

(51)  ft^.el  =  ^c;^1,  ^f5t%  =  ^f^i^  =  C^R  I 

(^)  ^\^]=:^x^,  "511^1  =  "511.  ^f^^^'-r  I 

fe"  and  \5  of  Sanskrit  words  often  change  to  n5  in 
their  corresponding  Bengali  forms,  and  ^  to  ^  or 
^;  as  CTffe^  =  CTr?h  ^^  =  ^1,  ■&^Fl  =  n\5f^,  ^9  =  ^'tv5, 

The  case-affix  in  Bengali  of  the  nominative 
(lirst  person,  singular)  is  generally  formed  by  omit- 
ting the  aspirate  or  the  nasal  5,  of  Sanskrit.  The 
affix  (i)^  of  the  Sanskrit  instrumental  nominative, 
is  reduced  to  *il  in  Prakrita  and  used  in  active 
forms;  as  "v«)^i:«lq  f^^t'i^'^r^P  *f{^M  t^^ni^pT 
C«fU^r^''  (Mricchakatika,  Canto  III).  Instances  of 
this  ^  forming  the  affix  of  nominatives  in  active 
forms  are  numerous  in  old  Beno-ali  Mss.,  as  : — 

I.   "  <5f^Tn  ^mtvfl  c^K^  ^,!ii  cA"^^  r' 

Sanjoy. 
2.     "  C^t^si^^  f^^t^Kl  ^ft^^  ft^^t^  I" 

Rame^war's  Mahabharata. 


IL  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  107 


In  the  current  dialect  of  Bengal  this  k£\  is  often 
used  as  ^\^]^  ^Tft^t^,  ^\V^  ^fil^f^^,  &c.  It  is  to 
be  noted  that  the  Bengali  sentences,  in  active  forms 
owe  their  construction  rather  to  Sanskrit  passive 
forms.  The  difference  in  the  dual  and  plural 
numbers  is  not  preserved  in  Prakrita.  The  usual 
affix  in  the  plural  forms  being  '^1'.  ^*{J1^1  for 
^^*N^Ti.  %^'^\  for  ^Is  and  like  forms  are  frequent- 
ly found  in  Prakrita.  In  old  Bengali  also  ^  forms 
the  affix  of  the  nominative  plural ;  as  in  : — 

Khana. 

Trump  traces  the  C^  of  the  Bengali  accusative  to 
the  Sanskrit  tF^vS,  used  in  the  locative.  But  Max- 
muller's  view,  tracing  C^  to  the  Sanskrit  pleonas- 
tic   ^,    is    evidently  correct.       In    the    Gatha    and 

Prakrita   lans^uaofes   the    instances    of    the    affix    ^  The 

1       ,  .    ^,  ,  Bengali 

used   pleonastically   are  so    numerous,   that    some-     accusative. 

times     we    find    it    occurring    in  many  words  in  a 

sentence — as  in  the  Lalita  Vistara  : — 


o8 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 


Where  the  affix  ^  forms  the  termination  of 
words  in  both  nominative  and  accusative  forms,  it 
often  becomes  difficult  to  distinguish  between  the 
two.     In  sentences, — like, 

"  CTlft^^  ^5^  ^«^^  ^^^«|  ," 

Kavindra. 
a  doubt  may  naturally  occur  as  to  who  the  person 
addressed  is.  It  is,  therefore,  probable  that  for 
avoiding  this  difficulty,  the  form  C^  was  adopted  to 
denote  the  accusative  and  dative  cases.  In  the 
Gatha  and  Prakrita  languages  instances  of  the  affix 
C^  in  the  accusative  and  dative  cases  are  not 
wanting,  as  in  — 

Mricchakatika,  Sth  Canto. 

The  pleonastic  ^  formerly  served  as  the  mere 
termination  of  a  word  and  was  not  reckoned  as  a 
case-affix.  Hence  in  old  Bengali  this  r^  is  often 
affixed  to  words  in  various  cases  ;  as  in  ''  'sj^iIK^ 
^tii^«T  ^"^  ^i^l^^I  l"  (Chaitanya  Charitamrita)  and 
"^t^C^  ^^i«T  ^U  ^t>n:^  ^^ift  "  (Qrikrisha  \'ijayaj, 
where  it  forms  the  termination  of  the  words  in 
the  locative  case. 

Thi;  plural  In    old   Bengali  writings,  7|^.  y\^r\^  -^j^  and  simi- 

number.        ,  ,  ,,  1.1^41 

Kir    words    wen:     trcnerallv     used     to     denote     tlie 

o 

plural  number.  The  word  "  ^ff^  "  (beginning  with) 
was  also  often  used  with  a  noun  to  imj)!}-  pluralit)'. 
The  following  extract  from  Xarottama  \'ilasa  will 
shew  numerous  instances  of  the  usc^  of  ^tfvf  in  the 
aboNc  manner. 


[II.  ]  13ENGAL1    LANGUAGE    &    IJTERATUKK.         109 

^T^m^  f^^,  SiTf>i  ^t5U^fc^  II 

The    genitive    sign    ^    being   affixed  to  ^f^NSff^,  The 

^f^^l^tfif     'Oims     '^1\^^trW<I,     ^ft^It^tf*!^,     and     the       ^fo"rmsr 
current  genitive  forms  ^f^o^Vf^,  ^ft<lt^^5f!l  are  thus 
easily  explained.     The  pleonastic   affix    ^    is    often 
found   to  be  joined  with  ^ft^tf^,  <?f^^t^tf^  &c.     In 
the  Narottama  Vilasa  we  find 

This  f^^  is  changed  to  ftf^  and  we  may  thus 
account  for  fvf'j^  and  fffX^t^ — formed  by  joining  the 
genitive  affix  <.  to  the  above  words.  Some  Bengali 
scholars  are,  however,  of  opinion  that  the  genitive 
plural    "  ■pf?:'>f^"    comes    directly    from    the    Persian 

The  current  Bengali  form  in  Eastern  Bengal  in  the 
genitive  plural  is,  however,  formed  not  by  affixing 
'fe^^'  but  by  '  cn\  '  or  '  cm  '  to  the  words.  The 
forms  ^mi^nt^,  C^Hf^nt?!,  ^t^Ii^t^;  ^T^HH,  are  no 
doubt  derived  by  the  genitive  post-position  ^  being 
affixed  to  the  pleonastic  '^'  changed  to  ^. 

There  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  any  particular  ^he  iiistru- 
affix  in  Bensrali  to  denote  the  instrumental  case.  mental 
The  Sanskrit  ^]m^  changes  to  ^^^>{^:  I  have  said 
that  the  Bengali  active  forms  were  akin  to  the 
Sanskrit  passive  voice.  The  sentences  '  ^^,X^  ^1 
^lfe<in^'  *^1^1!I  ^f^?]t^^,'  still  in  current  use  in 
different  parts  of  Bengal,  shew  how  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Sanskrit  passive  changes  into  Bengali 
active  forms. 


case. 


no        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [Chap. 


The  dative 
case. 


Ablative 
case. 


The  geni- 
tive case. 


The  loca- 
tive case. 


Asamese, 

Uriya  and 

Bengali. 


There  is  no  difference  in  Bengali  between  the 
dative  and  the  accusative  cases,  the  affix  C^  being 
used  for  both. 

The  Prakrita  sign  for  the  ablative  case  isf^^^\5l. 
The  Bengali  ^^U5  is  derived  from  ft^i!:^1.  In 
old  Bengali  we  find  this  word  to  be  ^l^,  as 
in,—"  ^t^  ^l-^  f^Pl^l  ^^!I  ^  ^t5  "  (  PadmavatI  by 
Aloal;.  and  often  as  ^^^,  as  in, — "C^^  ^^  v2lt«(  C^H 
^K'^  ^1  ^1  ^tft  I  ''    (San  jay  a). 

The  genitive  post-position  «1  of  Prakrita  changes 
to  ^  in  Bengali.  In  the  place  of  Prakrita  ^^«1  we 
have  Bengali  "^ife  ;  "^  often  changes  to  '^'  or  '^'  and 
and  examples  of  this  are  numerous  in  the  Uriya 
dialect.  Bopp,  however,  considers  the  genitive 
affix  ^  to  have  been  derived  from  the  Sanskrit  affix  ^ 
in  the  genitive  plural  froms  as  ^'Slt^^,  ^t^^  &c. 
Dr.  Hoernle  traces  this  <J  to  Sanskrit  ^^,  changed 
into  C^^^,  C^5,  ^^  and  other  forms  in  the  Prakrita 
and  Hindi  dialects.  Raja  Rajendra  Lai  is  of 
opinion  that  the  Bengali  ^  comes  from  the  Sanskrit 
genitive  affix  ^. 

The  locative  C^  in  Bengali  is  probably  to  be 
traced  to  the  Sanskrit  ^f>|c=[,— The  locative  in 
Bengali  is  often  the  same  as  in  Sanskrit,  as  ^r.^. 
■*T-1^t^,  ^C^  &c.  Sanskrit  ^m'^%  C^^U]X,  "^Vll  &c. 
changes  to  *|[^t3,  C^^t<I.  ^f^^  &c.  and  in  old  Ben- 
gali such  forms  were  in  general  use.  In  modern 
Bengali  the  ^  changes  to  ^  I 

Let  us  say  a  word  r(\garding  Asamese  and  Uriya 
in  relation  to  Bengali,  the  three  now  forming  distinct 
lanofuaor<^'s.  Before  the  lirst  Bensfali  crrammar  \\as 
written  by  Mr.  Ilalhead,  Bengali — which  was  called 
"  Gaudiya  SadhQ  Bhasa"  by  the  people — presented 
different     provincial     dialects     even     in     literary 


IL  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  i  i  i 

compositions.  The  same  author's  works  were  read  all 
over  a  vast  tract  of  country,  \\hich  geographically 
transcended  the  limits  of  Modern  Bengal  and  the 
Eastern  Provinces.  But  words  were  changed  by 
those  who  copied  the  manuscripts,  conformably  to 
the  dialectical  peculiarities  of  each  district,  so  that 
one  reads  '«Tt^'  in  the  old  manuscripts  of  Krittivasa 
found  in  Western  Bengal  where  ^t^  would  be 
the  usual  form  in  a  manuscript  of  the  same  work, 
recovered  from  the  Eastern  Provinces.  The 
\^aishava  works  written  in  Bengali  found  readers 
in  Orissa  and  Assam.  The  people  of  those  coun- 
tries occasionally  changed  words  in  those  works 
to  suit  the  peculiar  forms  of  their  dialects.  Many 
Bengali  work^  have  lately  been  found  in  manus- 
cript forms  in  Orissa.  Bengali,  therefore,  in  the 
various  forms  charecteristic  of  provincial  dialects 
presented  a  literature  which  used  to  be  read  and 
written  by  the  people  of  a  vast  area  bounded  by 
the  sea  on  the  South, — extending  to  the  Himalayan 
forests  on  the  North  of  Old  Gauda, — stretching  so  far 
as  Magadha  and  Mithila  in  the  West  and  reaching 
to  the  backwoods  of  Assam  and  the  out-skirts  of 
Burma  on  the  East.  The  differences  of  dialect 
described,  could  have  been  easily  synthetised  by  a 
common  grammar,  including  Assamese,  Uriya  and 
Bengali  in  one  group.  Bengali,  recognised  as  the 
most  advanced  language  in  Eastern  India,  and 
fast  assimilating  the  forms  of  different  provincial 
dialects,  for  the  purpose  of  propagating  the  \^aisnava 
creed,  might  have  been  taken  as  the  common 
vehicle  for  the  expression  of  the  thought  of  these 
three  provinces ;  and  in  fact  on  the  principle  of 
natural     selection,     it     had    already,     before     the 


115         BENGAIJ    LANGUAGE    8i    LITERATURE.    [Chap, 

beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  advanced  its 
claim  toxA'ards  that  end,  But  Asgniese  and  Uriva 
have  nu\v  alienated  themselves  from  Bengali.  The 
people  of  those  provinces  declare  that  they  possess 
a  distinct  literature  of  their  own  which  is  as  old  as 
Bengali  literature  ;  and  indeed  they  do.  The 
people  of  Chittagong.  Tippera  and  Sylhet  also 
possess  old  literatures  stamped  with  provincialism 
of  dialect,  which  now  form  a  valuable  part  of  our 
literature  ;  but  which  are  by  no  means  any  wav 
nearer,  in  style  aiidform,  to  the  old  literature  of  the 
Burdwan  and  Bankura  districts,  than  are  Asamese 
and  Uri\a.  The  vanity  of  preserving  the  pecu- 
liarities of  a  small  province  may  be  natural  amongst 
its  own  people,  but  it  does  not  indicate  a  healthy 
state  of  feeling.  The  literary  language  of  England 
has  now  reached  a  wonderful  development  because 
the  American,  the  Irish,  the  Scotch  and  the  Austra- 
lian have  all  adopted  it.  There  is  no  want  of 
peculiarities  and  dialectical  differences  in  the  forms 
of  this  language  as  spoken  in  those  countries; 
but  these  differences  of  the  spoken  language 
are  not  recognised  in  writing,  and  all  these 
countries  have  submitted  to  a  single  grammar. 
The  language  has  thus  gathered  strength  from 
the  co-operation  of  its  votaries  who  recognise 
this  unitv  in  their  literature,  though  politically  manv 
of  them  are  not  under  the  same  yoke,  fiere  is  a 
passage  which  I  quote  as  a  specimen  of  the  spoken 
dialect  of  Chittagong.  No  f^engali  of  the  Western 
districts  would  understand  a  line  of  it  and  in  the 
peculiar  from  which  it  exhibits,  it  would  appear 
more  remote  from  current  Bengali  than  is  Uriya  or 
As&mese. 


II.  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  113 

From  an  advertisement  on  a  patent  medicine. 

^%  1    ^f?   ^^<r   ^T5?i   ^5f!i^;yg?f^<j^    cwnit^^ 

^  Mt  I 

^%  1    ^^--sin:!!-^! !   I^t  ^t^tl  ^1 !  t^i  ^^  ^'i 

^^  ^^  ^t^  I 

^%i    tm?i  ^t5[  ^'f^fij-f^:gf^  1'^  ^t^vii^n^n 

^r^'i  I    c^f%^  c^fec^n  ^^.— ^^^  ^t^s^  ^?!i 
15 


114        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.    [Chap, 

Yet  the  people  of  Chittagong  are  proud  of 
Bengali  \\hich  they  acknowledge  as  their  mother- 
tongue  ;  and  some  of  our  greatest  modern  poets, 
writers,  and  speakers,  come  from  that  district. 
Unity  in  language,  as  in  all  other  matters,  contri- 
butes to  the  glory  of  our  national  life,  and  this 
point  should  not  be  ignored  by  our  brethren  who 
speak  only  different  forms  of  the  same  language. 


IILl 


CHAPTER  III. 

I.     CHANDl  DAS.     II.     VIDYAPATI. 


1 — Chandi  Das. 

The  Bengali  works  to  which    we    have    referred 
in    the    last    chapter,    scarcely    rise    to  the  level  of 
of    decent    literature.       They    were    composed    by 
peasants  and  villagers,  and  these  were    the    people 
who    loved    to    read    them    and    hear  them  recited. 
This  fact  must  be  held  to  account    for   their  some- 
what gross  turn  of  humour.  Our  language,  as  I  have 
said  in  the  first  chapter,  was  greatly    stimulated   by 
the  attention  it  received  from  the  Moslem  Sovereiofns 
of  Gauda  with  their    inevitably  anti-Sanskritic   cul- 
ture.    But  it  possessed  inherent  qualities  of  its  own 
which    were    bound   to    have    been   recognised    in 
course  of  time,  even  if  chance  had  not    brought   the 
Mahammadans    to    this    country.     With    poets  like 
Chandi  Das  and  Vidyapati,  the  vernaculars  of  Bengal 
and  Behar  could  not    long   have   been    allowed    to 
languish    in    the  cold  shade  of  Brahmanical  disdain. 
These  songs  revealed  its  innate    stength   and   gave 
unmistakable  proof  of  its  capacity    to    express    the 
highest     thoughts    of    the     human    mind.     At   the 
very  time    when    rural    folk    were    amusing    them- 
selves    by   a     display     of   coarse    wit    in    halting 
rhyme; — when  no  better  themes    than  the    plough, 
the    furrow  and    the    rice-field    were   to   be    found 
for   the     awakening    of    poetic    inspiration  ;    when 
the  tales  of  the    Siddhas — and    their   powers    were 
being  sung  in  the  villages,  and  gave  the  same  amus- 


The  poems 

of  Chandi. 

das  and 

Vidyapati 
contrasted 
with  other 
vernacular 
writings  of 

the  age. 


Il6         BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

menl  to  illiterate  people  as  fairy  tales  do  to  child- 
ren ;  at  that  \  ery  period  of  fantastic  and  uncouth 
composition, — now  more  valued  for  philological 
and  historical  considerations  than  for  any  intrinsic 
poetic  merits, — the  vernaculars  of  Bengal  and  Behar 
were  suddenly  lit  up  by  the  rays  of  two  brilliant 
stars,  the  precursors  of  an  illustrious  host  who 
appeared  on  our  literary  horizon  with  the  advent  of 
Chaitanya  Deva  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

In  order  to  understand  the  subjects  treated  bv 
these  two  poets,  one  should  first  know  what  Para- 
kiya  Rasa  is. 

Parakiya  Parakiya    Rasa    wliich    is   sometimes    identified 

with    Madhura    Rasa,     forms    the     essence    of    the 
Vai?hava  theology.     It    is  akin  to  the  Sahajia  cult, 
which,  as    explained    in    a  previous  chapter,  means 
the    romantic   worship  of  a  \\oman  other  than  one's 
own  wife.     By  a  strange    combination    of   circums- 
tances,   this    form  of  idialism,  thougli    to  the  Hindu 
mind     it    seems    lawless    and    unhallowed,     rapidly 
attained     a    highly    spiritual    form    in    Bengal.     In 
a    country     where     the     portals    of     the     Zenana 
remain    ever  closed  to  the  outside  world, — where  in 
the  words  of  a  Bengali  poet,  "  the  rays  of   the    sun 
mav  not  touch  and  even  the  moon  is  not  allou  ed  to 
see    the    fair    one" — in    sucli    an      environment    as 
that    of    the    Hindu    household,    society    admits    of 
no    opportunity    for    the    free    meeting  of  men  and 
women.     Yet    human    nature    is    every   where    the 
same,   and    here    as  elsewhere  stringent  social  rules 
are  ineffective  to    defeat    the    impulse    of    personal 
choice  and  romantic  love.      The  greater  the  opj)osi- 
tion,    the    stronger    is  the    impulse    which  cries  for 


III.]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.         117 

expression.  In  this  country  a  blind  Providence 
joins  the  hands  of  a  mute  pair  who  promise  iidelity. 
often  without  knowing  each  other.  When  the 
situation  grows  monotonous,  losing  colour  and 
poetry,  both  men  and  ^^•omen  are  treated  to  lectures 
on  the  purity  of  the  nuptial  vow,  and  to  promises 
of  rewards  in  the  next  world.  They  fully  believe 
in  the  sanctity  of  marriaore,  and  are  ready  to 
sacrifice  sentiment  to  stern  duty.  But  human 
passion  cannot  be  altogether  repressed,  and  where 
it  over-rides  the  ordinances  of  the  Castras,  it 
rushes  forward  with  extraordinary  strength,  all 
the  greater  for  the  attempt  at  forcible  sup- 
pression. 

The  Parakiya  presents  insurmountable  difficulties       ^    ^}}^ 

•^     '  feelings 

in  this  country.     Those  who    love    have  scarcely    a       approach 
1  .  •  I  1  r  1  •    1  spiritu= 

chance  01   meeting  ;   they    may    long   tor    tiie    siglit  ality. 

of  one  another's  faces,  yet  this  good  fortune  not  be 

theirs    for    davs    and    weeks    tos^ether.     There    are 

numerous    descriptions   of     the     romantic   feelings 

which  this  peculiar  situation  creates,  in  the  Vaisnava 

sonofs.     Here  are  a  few  short  extracts: — 

"  If  he  happens  to  see  a  single  letter  that  forms 
my  name,  he  pores  over  it  in  an  ecstasy  of  joy.""^ 

^'  He  wanders  about  like  a  mad  man  and    kisses 
the  prints  of  my  feet."t 

*  "  ^t^<I  ^M-^  ^-^^  -^\m  ^t^t^  5KT  C^  I'' 

Raic(^khar. 

Govinda  Das. 


Il8        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    6c    LITERATURE,      [Chap. 

"  If  he  hears  my  name  incidentally  mentioned  by 
any,  his  face  is  lit  up  with  strange  emotion  and  in 
vain  does  he  try  to  hide  the  joy."^ 

In    cases    where    this    feeling  has   arisen,   and 
the  persons  concerned  possess    noble    moral    quali- 
ties— social    and    moral    barriers    continuinor  to  ex- 
cercise    their    full    power,    it    is  easy    to    see    that 
the    highest     romantic    idealism    is    the    inevitable 
result.     We    then    tind  that    the  very    restrictions 
imposed,    only   accentuate  the  poetry  of    the  pas- 
sion.    There    is    nothing   which    the  lovers  are  not 
prepared    to    lay  on  the  alter    of  this    their  highest 
dream.     Such    love    is    the    nearest   approach    in 
cammon      life     to    the     mystic    longings      of     the 
devotee's    soul,    for  the    realisation    of    God  :    and 
in  fact,  in  the  purity    of    its  sentiment,    and    in    its 
capacity  for  devotion  and  selfsacrihce.  it  approaches 
spirituality.     Hence  Vaisfiavism  in  Bengal   adopted 
Paraklya    as    a    symbol    for    the    representation   of 
divine  love.    Radha.  the  Princess,  daughter  of  king 
Vrisa    Bhanu   and  wife  of  Ayan  Ghosa,  falls  in  love 
with  Krisfia — the    shepherd    boy.       But    Radha    is 
thought    of   by    X'aisfiavas    as    the    human  soul  and 
Krisha  as  the  incarnation  of  the  Love  of  god.   From 
this  story  every  suspicion  of  grossness  is  understood 
to  be  eliminated,  and  the  drama   played  out  amidst 
the    pastoral    scenery    of    the    banks  of  the  Jumna, 
conveys  only  the  purity  and  holiness  of  a    hymn    of 
worship. 

Chandidas. 


ni.  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.  119 

Chandl  Das  and  Vidyapati  followed  Jay  Deva, 
and  took  this  allegory  for  the  expression  in  the  verna- 
cular of  the  highest  form  of  the  spiritual  ideal. 

From   a  reference"^  given  in  one  of  Chandi  Das's 

1  1     r  A   T-x      1        1      1         Chandi- 

poems,  it  appears    that    before    1403    A.D.    he    had      das's  life. 

composed  996  songs.  He  was  born  in  the  village 
of  Chhatna  in  the  district  of  Birbhum,  but  in  early  life, 
settled  at  the  neighbouring  village  of  Nannura,  ten 
miles  to  the  south-east  of  Bolpur — a  station  on 
the  East  Indian  Railway.  The  site  of  his  home — 
now  reduced  to  a  mere  mound — is  still  to  be  seen 
at  Nannura,  where  he  discharged  priestly  functions 
in  the  temple  of  Va9uli  DevL  This  temple  coll- 
apsed in  course  of  time,  and  a  new  one  has  lately 
been  built  on  the  old  site  where  the  goddess  Vayuli 
is  still  worshipped. 

Chandl  Das,  in  the  popular  estimation  was  one 
of  those  souls  who  turn  love-mad.  In  Eastern  Chandi.' 
Benoral  a  man  of  eccentric  tendencies  is  somtimes 
called  '  ^\'^m  ^^  '  or  '  a  mad  ChandL  '  The  word 
'  "^t^^l  '  or  '  mad  fellow '  is  not  rightly  translated 
by  the  bold  English  word  '  mad,' — for  in  Bengali 
it  is  tinged  with  a  feeling  of  tenderness.  '  ^'^\  ^^ ' 
and  '  ^f't^ll  f^^t^ '  are  adored  by  the  people  of 
Bengal.  The  epithet  "^]^^V  is  akin  to  'Dewana' 
in  Persian.  They  imply  the  poetic  excesses  of  a 
ofreat  eenius  and  are  far  from  being  terms  of  con- 
tempt. 

We  have  already  alluded   to    Chandl  Das's  love 

-^  Chandidas 

for    Rami,    the     washerwoman.      At  Nannura  there  & 

is  a  spot  which  is  pointed  out  as  the  site  of    Rami's 
717^^  ^7^^'  ^7f  ^^  nfil^ltl  ll    Chandidas. 


Rami. 


120      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [Chap. 

home-stead.  The  way  in  which  the  poet  hrst  fell 
in  love,  as  related  by  the  people  of  the  locality,  is 
curious.  By  one  of  those  echoes  from  the  future 
which  are  heard  by  the  human  mind,  on  that  very 
day  in  his  life  when  the  stars  were  set  for  his 
meeting  with  Rami,  he  had  a  foregleam  of  his  com- 
ing experiences  in  love.  He  had  gone  to  pur- 
chase fish  in  the  market.  There  he  offered  a  certain 
price  to  a  fish-\N'ife  for  the  fish  he  wished  to  buy,  but 
at  that  very  moment  she  gave  a  greater  quantity  for 
the  same  price  to  another;  Chandi  Das  was  struck 
bv  this  inequality  of  treatment  and  asked  the  fisher- 
woman's  reason.  She  smiled  and  said  "  Oh,  but 
his  case  is  altogether  different.  We  love  each  other!" 
Chandi  Das  stood  silent  for  sometime,  brooding 
over  this  reply.  The  sweetness  of  such  a  feeling 
attracted  him,  and  it  so  happened  that  on  that 
very  day,  Rami,  the  young  washerwoman,  in 
all  the  beauty  of  her  maiden-hood  came  into  his 
sio-ht  and  he  fell  over  head  and  ears  in  love  with 
her. 

The  result  was  disastrous  from  a   worldly    point 
faTlen  from     of  view.      He  was  a  Brahmin  and  the  washerwoman 
mhii/orl      could  take  only  the    dust   of    his    feet.     Any    other 
^^^'  relation    between    them    was  not  to  be  tolerated  by 

society.  Chandi  Dcis  has  told  us  in  his  songs  that 
his  love  for  Rami  was  pure,  there  being  in  it  no 
lUmicnt  of  passion.  In  his  devotion  to  his  lady, 
however,  he  would  not  now  brook  any  restraint. 
He  ojjrnly  avowed  his  lo\c  in  songs,  and  remained 
absorbed  in  a  sort  of  n-verie,  neglecting  the  duties 
of  his  priestly  calling.  The  love  of  Tasso  for 
Leonara  or  even  of  Dante  for  Beatrice  can  scarcely 
l.iy  claim  to  comparison  with  the  martyrdom  endured 


Declared 


III.  ]       BENGALI   LANGUAGE   8:    LITERATURE.  i:>T 

by  this  Bengali  poet  for  the  lady  of  his  heart.  Mis 
songs,  though  in  one  of  them  he  addresses  Fxami 
as  "  mother,"  were  considered  very  offensive  by 
Hindu  Society,  and  he  was  excommunicated,  and 
dismissed  from  his  oftice  in  the  temple  of  Nav^li 
being  proclaimed  by  beat  of  drum  as  fallen  from 
the  Rrahmanic  order.  A  Brahmin  in  love  with  a 
washerwoman  !  It  was  monstrous,  and  as  if  he 
had  been  a  putrid  corpse,  all  contact  with  him  was 
declared  unholv. 


Now  Chandi  Das  had  a  brother  named  Nakula, 
who  enjoyed  great  popularity  with  the  Brahmin 
community.  By  his  earnest  intervention  on  behalf 
of  his  brother  it  was  settled,  though  after  repeated 
Opposition,  that  Chandi  Das  could  be  taken  back 
into  caste,  if  he  would  give  an  undertaking  of  good 
conduct  in  future  and  provide  a  feast  for  the 
Brahmins.  Nakula  arranged  the  feast,  and  when 
the  Brahmins  assembled  at  the  dinner  party, 
information  reached  Rami,  the  washerwoman,  that 
C'handi  Das  was  being  restored  to  caste  on  the 
promise  of  deserting  her  for  ever.  She  fainted 
at  the  news,  and  when  consciousness  returned, 
began  to  weep,  in  violent  paroxysms  of  grief.  In 
great  agony,  she  went  to  the  Vokul  groves  where 
she  had  so  often  waited  to  catch  a  glimpse  of  Chandi 
Das's  face.  But  she  could  not  by  any  means 
control  her  feeling  and  rest  here  ;  she  went 
onward  to  the  place  where  the  invited  party  were 
partaking  of  the  banquet  served  for  them.  She 
gazed  at  Chandidas  and  tears  flowed  from  her  eyes 
in  unceasinor  stream.  Never  before  had  Kami 
looked    in    public    upon    the    face    of    Chandidas  I 

l6 


Nakul 
intercedes. 


Ham!  and 

the 
wonderful 

vision 
about  her. 


122       BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &  LITERATURE.    [  Chap 


Holy  as  the 
Qayatri 


Chandi- 
d^s'sdeath. 


Chandidas  forgot  all  the  promises  he  had  given  to 
the  Brahmins  and  in  the  worshipful  manner  of  a 
priest,  who  approaches  his  house-hold  goddess, 
appeared  before  her  craving  a  thousand  pardons. 
It  is  said  that  a  wonderful  vision  was  at  this  mo- 
ment vouchsafed  to  only  a  few  of  the  assembled 
Brahmins.  They  saw  the  four  arms  of  the  Divine 
mother  of  the  universe  shining  forth,  behind  the 
supposed  washerwoman  ! 

But  the  rest  oft  he  Brahmins  were  very  angry, 
and  Chandidas  remained  an  outcast  as  before. 
His  boldness  became  far  greater  now.  He  openlv 
addressed  Rami  as  C^^'lt^l  ^l^fk — Gayatri  the 
mother  of  the  Vedas  !  Imagine  the  folly  of  this 
comparison  !  Gayatri  the  great  hymn  of  the  Brah- 
mins is  to  them  the  holiest  thing  on  earth  or  in 
heaven.  For  a  Brahmin  to  say,  therefore,  that  a 
washerwoman  was  as  holy  in  his  eyes  as  the  Gayatri, 
was  an  affront  to  the  whole  orthodox  community, 
the  degree  of  which  can  scarcely  be  conceived  by 
one  outside  the  pale  of  Hindu  society.  But  Chandi- 
das had  meant  no  more  offence  than  a  bird  in  its 
warblings  ;  in  the  fulness  of  his  heart  the  mouth  had 
spoken.  In  his  dreams  of  love,  thoughts  of  caste, 
of  Brahminhood  or  of  any  other  earthly  considera- 
tion had  no  place."*^ 

Chandidas  met  ^^'ith  a  tragic  death.  While  he 
was  amusing  his  audience  by  a  recitation  of  his 
lov(Nsongs  in  the  house  of  a  friend  at  the  village  of 
Kirhahar  near  Nannura,  the  roof  of  the  house  is 
said  to  have  collapsed  ;  and  the  great  poet  who  had 


*  For  some  of  Chandl  DSs's  Songs  on  Rami,  see.  pp, 
43  —  44. 


ilL]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  123 


suffered    so    much  because  of  his  love,  passed  away 
from  the  earth. 

I  have  said  that  love  in  its  most  abstract  and 
refined  form  was  the  theme  of  Candidas's  songs. 
His  poems  on  Radha  and  Krisha  fall  under 
the  classification  usual  to  the  love- poems  of  the 
Vaishavas.  The  Parva  Raga  or  dawn  of  love ; 
Dautya  or  message  of  love  ;  Abhisara  or  secret 
going-forth,  and  Sambhoga-milana  or  meeting  of 
the  lovers,  Mathur  or  the  final  separation,  caused 
by  Krisha's  going  to  Mathura  ;  Bhava-sanmilana 
or  union  in  spirit,  and  so  forth. 

,  Krisha  is  the  Divine  Incarnation  worshipped  by 
the  Vaisnavas.  He  is  represented  as  having  a  dark 
blue  complexion.  Dark  blue  suggests  the  predo- 
minating colour  of  the  universe.  We  find  it  in  the 
azure,  in  sky  and  ocean,  in  distant  landscapes  and 
in  the  immense  verdure  of  pastoral  meadows.  On 
the  head  of  Krisha  is  a  crown  of  flowers  and  a  plume 
of  peacock's  feathers  reminding  us  of  the  rainbow. 
This  symbolizes  the  various  colours  which  adorn  the 
main  dark-blue  pervading  the  earth  and  the  sky. 
He  has  a  flute  in  his  hand,  and  when  he  plays  on 
it,  the  very  Jumna  bends  out  of  her  course  signi- 
fying that  with  a  person  who  has  heard  the  call  of 
his  God,  the  result  is  irrestible,  the  course  of  his 
life  is  sure  to  change.  The  human  soul  is  sym- 
bolized in  Radha,  the  soul  that,  with  its  five  finer 
senses,  becomes  instinct  with  new  life,  the  moment 
God  appears  to  it  in  all  His  glory. 

This  is  how  the  enlightened  Vaishavas  inter- 
pret the  love  of  Radha  and  Krisha.  Let  us  explain 
this  idea  a  little  more  elaborately.  The  devout 
Vaishava   believes    that   there  is  no  paradise  higher 


The  sub- 
jects of  his 
poems. 


Krisha  and 
Radha. 


A  iurthet 
analysis  of 
the  subjecti 


24         BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LLFERATURE.    [Chap. 


Vatsalya 
Bhaba.' 


' Sakhya ' 
*  Dasya' 

and 
•  ^anta.' 


Madhur 
Bhaba 


than    the    home,    witli    all    the    social   relationships 
which  centre  there.     To  take  the  motherly    instinct 
first ;    when    the    child  was    helpless    and    entirely 
dependent    on    mercy,    who    gave    it  food  ?     Who 
watched    over    it    and    protected  it  with  the  utmost 
care  ?     It  was  the  mother.     Now  a  \'aishava,  would 
sav    that    it    was  not  in  the  power  of  a  frail  woman 
to    undergo    such  sacrihces  ;    it    was    God's    mercy 
needed    for  the  protection  of  the  helpless  child  that 
manifested    itself    in    her    motherly    love.     So    the 
Vaishavas  see  Him  in  the  mother.     This  is  Tf's'l^- 
^t^.'     But  this  has    also    another    aspect;    when   a 
man    is    made  a  father,  he, — rough,  rude-tempered, 
cruel  man,  becomes  tenderness  itself  at  the  sight  of 
the    baby.     Now   such    kindness    was    not  inherent 
in  his  nature  ;  and  the  Xaisfiava  sees    in    the    child, 
who    can    evoke    these    feelings,   the    love    ot    (iod 
Himself.     So    in    friendship    also,    which    is  called 
'^*I]';   in  the  devotion  of  a  servant,  which    is    called 
'^t^'    or    in    »f[^    that    quietness    of  soul    which    is 
attained  by  the  elders  of  the  familw  living   the    life 
of    the    religious  n-cluse,  we  have  only  other  forms 
of  the  realization    of  divinity.    Thus,  the  \  aiviiava's 
environment  throbs  with  a  new  life  as    he    becomes 
conscious  of    di\ine    love,  and  realizes  the  i)resence 
of  (lod  everywhere.      Mis  social  and    domestic    ties 
only    bind    him    \\h\\    his   god  and  in  the  \oices  of 
affection  all  around,    he    iliscovers    the    lo\ing    call 
of  Him  who  wants    all  souls  to  come  near  Him,  but 
whose  voice  is  not  heard  by  ears  deafened  with  the 
tumult  of  ihe  world. 

Hut  higher  than  any  where  elsi- is  the  manifesta- 
tion ol  (iod  known  to  us  in  the  lo\c  ol  man  and 
^voman.    This  embodies  in  itself  the  (juintessence   of 


of  Krisna. 


IIL:]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.         125 

all  lofty  emotions.  This  is  the  '(^^t^  which  Chandi 
Das  has  expressed  so  beautifully  in  his  songs. 
In  all  this,  a  clue  will  be  found  to  the  point  of  view 
which  accepts  the  love  songs  of  the  Vaisfiavas — 
displaying,  as  these  do,  every  form  of  intrigue  and 
passionate  idealism,  between  man  and  woman — as 
hymns  of  religious  adoration. 

In  Chandi  Das's  'dawn  of  love,'  Krisha    appears      The  dark- 

.  .  blue 

before    the    mind    of    Radha   as   a  spritual    vision,     complexion 

She  has  caught  a  glimpse  of  his  dark-blue  com- 
plexion. It  has  acted  on  her  almost  like  some 
infatuation.  She  sits  alone — lost  in  thought.  The 
poet  says^  : — 

"  O  what  pain  has  overtaken  Radha  !  She 
likes  solitude.  She  sits  alone,  and  will  listen  to 
none.  Pensive,  she  looks  up  to  the  sky  and  watches 
tiie  clouds,  her  eyes  do  not  move.  She  wants  no 
food.  She  wears  the  yellow  garb  of  a  nun  and 
looks  like  one.  She  unlooses  the  garlands  from 
her  hair,  and  pores  over  the  beauty  of  her  own 
dis-hevelled  locks.  With  longing  eyes,  she  be- 
holds the  clouds  and  stretching  out  her  hands,  what 

^  ^t^t^  f%  l^^  ^m  ^Jt^l  I 
t^tl  Cn!ItC^,  ^^  C^^  ntC^ 

ft^f^  ^t^ra,  ?t5fi  ^t^  ^^^ 


126        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.    [  Cliap. 

does  she  say  to  them  ?  Her  glance  becomes  Hxed 
on  the  neck  of  the  peacock.  Love  for  Krisha,  says 
Chandl  Das,  has  dawned  on  her  heart." 

Love  for  Krisha — the  shepherd  god,  who  wears 
the  crown  of  peacock's  feathers, — Krisha,  whose 
beautiful  dark-blue  colour  so  soothes  the  eves ! 
It  is  this  which  accounts  for  her  reveries  about  the 
clouds,  her  own  hair,  and  the  neck  of  the  peacock, 
referred  to  in  the  poem.  All  alike  remind  her  of 
Krisha.  She  drinks  deep  of  their  beauty.  She  is 
indifferent  to  her  physical  comfort.  She  fasts  and 
lives  like  a  holy  maiden — a  Yogini,^we  find  in  the 
lines !  It  is  a  strange  abstract  love,  and  symbolises 
also  the  spiritual  love  of  the  Vaishavas  !  For  this 
dark-blue  complexion,  as  I  have  said,  is  taken  to 
mirror  the  pervading  colour  of  the  Infinite,  and. 
as  an  emblem  of  the  divine  presence,  is  sacred  to  all 
Vaishavas.  Many  a  time  and  oft  it  is  told  of  Chai- 
tanya  Deva,  the  God-man  of  Nadia  that  he  saw  the 
dark-blue  clouds,  reminding  him  of  God  and 
swooned  away  in  an  ecstasy  of  love.  To  him  the 
very  contact  with  matter  conveyed  a  spiritual 
idea.  The  objects  of  the  senses  were  mere  signs 
of  the  presence  of  One  who  was  above  the 
senses  ;  form  indicated  in  his  eyes  the  formless, 
colour,  the  colourless,  and  all  knowledge  of  the 
outword  world, — the  great  Unknowable.    This  is  the 


^f^^'  ^^l^.  ^l^  C^^  "ItC^T 

pP  ^l^  ^^t^  ^f^  II 
v£l^  ftfS  ^ft.  ^\^  m,f\ 

'Ftft^l  ^1^  TC=T  II 


III.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  127 


distinctive  characteristic  of  Indian  thought.  It  has  a 
constant  tendency  towards  idealization.  The  river 
Jumna  and  the  village  Vrindavana  will  be  found 
on  any  Indian  map.  They  are  sanctified  in  the  eyes 
of  ordinary  Vaishavas.  To  them  Krisna  lived  in 
the  flesh  and  sported  with  the  milk-maids  in  the 
groves  of  Vrindavana,  ever  hallowed  by  the  love- 
making  of  the  Divine  shepherd.  But  the  gross 
aspect  changes,;^the  whole  matter  becomes  abstract, 
in  the  eyes  of  an  enlightened  devotee.  To  him 
the  human  mind  is  Vrindavana,  and  there  the 
enternal  play  of  the  Divine  love — the  'f^^jT^^I' — is 
ever  going  on.  Radha  was  married  to  Ayan  Ghosh 
but  she  belonged  to  Krisha,  as  our  souls,  though 
bound  to  this  world,  repudiate  these  bonds  on 
their  spriritual  awakening,  and  cling  to  God  alone. 
I  may  give  an  instance  of  this  spiritualization 
of  ideas  even  by  rural  and  illiterate  people  in 
Bengal.  In  1894,  I  was  residing  in  Tippera.  It 
was  early  in  June  ;  the  clouds  had  gathered  on  the 
horizon,  and  round  the  Cataratan  Matha  of  Comilla 
they  had  made  the  darkness  of  night  a  shade  more 
black.  An  illiterate  Vaishava  devotee,  an  old 
man  of  seventy,  was  singing  the  following  song  of 
Chandi  Das,  playing  on  a  lute  made  of  a  long 
gourd."^ 

*'  Dark  is  the  night  and  thick  are  the  clouds, 
''  How  could  you,  my  beloved,  come  by  the  path 
in  such  a  night  ? 


A  tendency 
towards 
idealiza- 
tion 


An  example. 

The  story 

of  an  old 

man. 


128        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

"There  in  the  orarden.  I  see  him  standing  in 
the  rain  ; 

''  iMy  heart  breaks  at  the  sight  thereof. 

"  I  say  to  you,  O  maidens,  for  many  virtues  of 
mine,  my  love  has  graciouslv  come  lierr  to 
meet  me. 

"Within  the  liouse  there  are  th(^  elders  and  m\- 
sister-in-law  is  very  cruel  ;  I  could  not  immediately 
run  out  to  meet  him. 

"  Alas  what  anguish  and  pain  have  I  not  caused 
him  by  beckoning  him  to  come  ! 

"  WHien  I  see  how  earnesth-  he  loves  me, 
fain  would  I  bear  the  load  of  infamy  on  my  head 
and  set  tire  to  my  house  ! 

c^\^  m^  c^^  ^u  : 


IIL]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LFTERATURE.  I  2^ 

"All  the  troubles  suffered  for  my  sake  he 
takes  as  happiness  and  he  is  only  sorry  if  he  sees 
me  sad. 

''  The  story  of  this  love,  says  Chandidas,  will 
gladden  the  world." 

While  the  old  man  was  singing,  I  suddenly 
heard  his  voice  become  choked  with  tears,  and  he 
could  not  proceed  any  more.  On  his  coming  to 
himself  after  this  display  of  feeling,  1  asked  him 
the  cause  of  his  tears.  He  said,  it  was  the  song. 
The  song,  I  said,  described  a  secret  love-affair, 
and  where  could  be  the  pathos  in  it  that  gave 
occasion  for  such  an  out-burst  of  feeling  in  an 
old  man  ? 

He  explained  to  me  that  he  did  not  consider 
the  song  as  an  ordinary  love-song.  Here  is  his 
interpretation, — "  I  am  full  of  sins.  My  soul  is 
covered  wath  darkness.  In  deep  distress  I  beck- 
oned Him  to  come  to  me.  The  merciful  God 
came.  I  found  Him  waiting  for  me  at  the  gate  ot 
my  house.  It  cannot  be  any  pleasure  to  Him  to 
come  to  a  great  sinner  like  me, — the  path  is  so 
foul,  but  by  my  supreme  good  fortune  the  merciful 
God  took  it.  The-  world  I  live  in,  has  left  no  door 
open  for  Him.  Relations  and  friends  laugh,  or 
even  are  hostile,  but  remembering  His  great  mercy 
what  can  a  sinner  do,  except  desert  his  house 
and  all,  court  any  abuse  of  the  world,  and  turn  a 
sannyasin  !"  The  thought  of  His  mercy  choked  my 
voice — "Oh  dark  is  the  night  and  thick  are  the 
clouds,  how  could  you,  my  beloved,  come  by  the 
path."  But  He  exposes  Himself  to  the  rain,  because 
in  order  to  help  the  sinner  He  is  ready  to  suffer." 

'7 


Chandidas 


130        BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

Tears  were  still  dropping  from  the  eyes  of  the 
old  man  and  as  with  his  right  hand  he  was  still 
playing  on  the  lute,  he  hummed  again  and  again 
"  Dark  is  the  night  and  thick  are  the  clouds." 

Chandidas's  songs  omit  no  particulars  of  human 
omits  no      sentiments.     The  longing    regret   at    parting ;    the 
human        pleasure,  even  ecstasy,   of  stealthy  meetings  at  odd 
love,  moments  and    the    devices    used   for  such  meetings 

are  described  by  him  in  simple  and  unadorned 
style,  without  many  classical  figures.  Indeed  the 
scantiness  of  these  is  what  strikes  the  reader.  But 
the  descriptions  are  vividly  realistic,  at  once  pre- 
senting a  picture  to  the  mind.  Krisfia  comes  to 
Radha  in  the  guise  of  a  woman-physician  and 
touches  her  hand  to  feel  the  pulse.  He  comes  as  a 
magician  and  the  women  of  the  village  assemble  be- 
hind the  screens  to  witness  his  feats.  His  labours 
are  rewarded  by  one  stolen  glance  at  Radhas  face. 
He  comes  to  her  as  the  barber-wife  and  obtains  a 
minute's  interview  ;  as  a  nun,  and  on  the  pretext 
of  giving  a  blessing,  whispers  a  word  of  love  to  her. 
Radha  also  goes  to  meet  him  in  the  disguise  of  a 
shepherd-boy,  and  the  pastoral  scenes  are  enlivened 
by  a  poetic  touch  describing  their  talk,  in  all  this, 
as  I  have  said,  Chandidas  repudiates  classical 
similes  and  the  language  of  convention.  \W'  quote 
some  extracts  from  his  w  ritings. 

I.     ^''  Of  such  love    no    one  ever  hoard.     Their 

Nothing        ht\arts    are    bound    to    each     other    by     their    very 
to  compare  ,  11. 

with  this       nature.      I  hay    are    ni    each    other  s    presence,  yet 

^^^^'  they    weep    fearing   a   parting.     If    one    is    hidden 


III.   ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.        I3I 

from  the  other  for  half-a-second,  they  feel  the  pangs 
of  death.  Just  as  a  fish  dies,  when  dragged  from 
the  water,  so  do  they,  if  parted  from  one  an  other. 
Among  men  such  love  was  never  heard  of.  You 
say  that  the  sun  loves  the  lily,  but  the  lily  dies  in 
the  frost,  and  the  sun  lives  on  happily.  You  say 
the  bird  Chataka  and  the  clouds  are  lovers,  but  the 
clouds  do  not  give  a  drop  of  water  to  the  bird  before 
their  time.  The  flower  and  the  bee,  it  is  said, 
adore  each  other;  but  if  the  bee  does  not  come  to 
the  flower,  the  flower  does  not  go  to  the  bee.  It  is 
foolish  to  describe  the  bird  Chakora  as  a  lover  of 
the  moon — their  status  is  so  different.  There  is 
nothing,  says  Chandidas,  to  compare  with  this 
love." 


^^  fttf  ffj?  ^  ^^i  ^t  ^^  I 

^t^  ¥^^  ^f^  c^  c^^  m^  I 
%^  ^^^  ^i^  ^1^  m^  m^  II 
M^^  ^^^?  ^k  (Tf  ^^  ^^5?1 1 
1^^  ^  ^tm  ^  c^^  ^^  ^ni  II 
f  ^K  ^iz:^  ^f^  c^^  m^  ^sy  I 
^1  ^tfe^  ^^^  ^tnf^  ^  m  ^^  II 


1^2        BENGALI    LANGUAGE  &  LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

Parting.  2.     "^Such  love    was    never   seen    or    heard    of. 

Moments  to  them  are  years.  In  each  others' 
arms,  they  yet  feel  the  pangs  of  the  apparaching 
separation.  With  the  edge  of  his  cloth  he  fans 
her,  and  if  she  turns  her  head  a  little,  he  trembles 
with  fear  apprehending  a  parting.  When  the 
meeting  comes  to  an  end,  my  soul,  as  it  were, 
leaves  my  body.  My  heart  breaks  to  relate  to  you, 
O  maidens,  the  pangs  of  parting.  I  quite  believe 
you,  says  Chandidas.*' 

3.  t'  May  1  go,  now,'  he  speaks  this  thrice. 
O  how  many  kisses  and  embraces  with  these  words  ! 
He  proceeds  half  a  step  and  looks  back  to  gaze 
at  me.  He  looks  at  my  face  in  such  anguish  as  I 
cannot  describe.  He  places  his  hands  in  mine 
and  asks  me  to  swear  by  himself.  O  how  he 
flatters  me  to  get  the  promise  of  another  meeting ! 
His  love  is  so  deep  and  his  prayers  are  so  earnest, 
says  Chandidas,  let  him  remain  in  the  heart  for 
ever." 

•^2.     ^£i^^  ^M'S  ^^  C«fR  ^T^  ^f^  I 
^^^  ^^^  J2^C^  ^t^^  feB  I 

cvf5  T^f^  c^^  cm  ^n  ^f^  ^n  II 

5^*ft>T  ^r^  ^U  >!^  ^^^t*1  II 

t  3-     ^lf^  ^t^  ^lf^  ^  ^^^  r^^  CTI^  I 
^^  ^1  1^^  CW^  <P^  C^^  C^H  II 


III.    ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.         133 

We  are  only  too  conscious  of  'the  fact  that  the 
beauty  of  the  original  is  lost  in  the  translation.  It 
is  always  difficult  to  translate  deep  sayings  into 
another  language.  Underlying  the  modes,  ex- 
periences and  make-shifts  of  human  love  with  ^,,g  ^  j^l. 
which  these  songs  apparently  deal,  there  is  a  mighty  tual  side. 
current  of  love  divine,  which  originates  here,  and 
streams  out  along  its  heavenward  course.  Some  of 
Chandidas's  songs  sound  like  hymns  to  God,  Here 
is  one. 

^''Thou  art,  O  Beloved,  my  very  life. 

"  My  body  and  mind    1    have    offered   unto    thy 
service, 

"  My    family  prestige,  my  good  name,  my  caste 
my  honour  and  all. 


U^  ^ftfi  Htih  ^T<lf%  ^^  I 

^1  ^tf^  ^^^  ^^^  I 

fetfk  c^t^  n\^  I 
^ft  cm^  ^fe,  ^f^  c^^  nfs, 


134        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

*' Thou  art  the  lord  of  the  universe,  O  Krisna, 
adored  by  the  Yogis. 

"  I  am  but  a  poor  milkmaid  and  know  not  how 
to  worship  thee  ! 

"  ^'et  do  I  offer  myself,  my  soul  and  body,  unto 
thee  as  the  sacrifice  of  love. 

"Thou  art  my  lord,  thou  art  my  path, — My 
mind  seeks  not  for  any  other  object. 

"  The  world  scorns  me  because  of  this  love,  yet 
do  1  not  regret  it. 

"  Abuse  is  like  a  garland  of  flower  about  my 
neck  for  thy  dear  sake. 

''Thou  alone  knowest  whether  I  am  pure  or 
impure. 

*'  I  know  not  even  what  is  good  or  bad  for  me. 

"Virtue  and  vice,  says  Chandidas,  are  alike 
to  me.    I  know  them  not,  but  know^  thy  feet  alone. '^ 

Some  of  Chandidas's  songs  of  Bhavasanmilana 
(Union  in  spirit)  have  been  adopted  with  slight 
changes  by  the  Brahmo  Samaj  of  Bengal  and  are 
sung  in  their  churches  during  divine  service. 

God  as  ^^^^  paradox  that  has  to  be  understood    is    that 

lover.  Krisha    througout  such  passages  means    God.     Vet 

he   is    represented    as    a  youth,  standing  at  a  gate, 

^mz^  ^]k^  ^2«l  I 

^^^  b-^vft^,  nr^  t*iT  ^^^ 


III.  ]         BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.         135 

trying  to  waylay  the  beloved  maiden,  attempting  to 
entrap  the  soul,  as  it  were,  into  a  clandestine 
meeting.  This,  which  is  so  inconceivable  to  a 
purely  modern  mind,  presents  no  difficulty  at  all  to 
the  Vaishava  devotee.  To  him  God  is  the  lover 
himself  ;  the  sweet  flowers,  the  fresh  grass,  the  gay 
sound  heard  in  the  woods,  are  direct  messages 
and  tokens  of  love  to  his  soul,  bringing  to  his  mind 
at  every  instant  that  loving  God,  whom  he  pictures 
as  ever  anxious  to  win  the  human  heart. 


2.    Vidyapati. 


Vidiyapati    is    not,  strictly    speaking,  a  Bengal 


Vidyapati 


poet.  He  belonged  to  Mithila  (Dwarbhanga)  not  a  Ben- 
and  composed  his  songs  in  the  Vernacular  of 
those  districts.  Yet  we  include  his  name  in  a 
history  of  Bengali  literature.  This  will  appear 
anomalous,  but  our  people  have  established 
their  claims  upon  this  Maithil  poet  in  a  manner 
that  leaves  no  room  for  disputing  our  action. 
Vidyapati's  songs  have  found  a  prominent  place 
in  all  the  compilations  of  the  Vaishavas  cur- 
rent in  Bengal,  and  they  are  sung  here  by  the 
Vaisnub  singers  on  all  occasions.  In  fact  a  quarter 
of  a  century  ago,  it  was  believed  by  Bengali  readers 
that  Vidiyapati  was  a  Bengali  poet.  Recently, 
however,  when  a  true  account  of  his  life  was  un- 
earthed by  the  researches  of  scholars  like  Babu  Raj 
Krisha  Mukherjee  and  Dr.  Grierson,  we  began  to 
question  the  propriety  of  our  claim.  Vidyapati's 
songs,  as  known  to  Bengalis,  are  in  many  respects 
different  from    the   versions    found  in    the   Maithil 


136         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [Chap. 


Vidyapati's 

poems 

recast  by 

Bengali 

poets. 


language.  The  days  of  X'idyapati  were  the  days 
of  the  glory  of  the  Mithila  university  and  at  that 
time  there  was  a  great  interchange  of  thought 
between  Mithila  and  Bengal.  Hence  Bengali  poems 
dealing  with  the  love  of  Radha  and  Krisna  found 
entrance  into  Mithila  and  the  versions  of  those 
poems  current  there  are  full  of  Maithil  idioms 
and  expressions.  The  poems  of  Govinda  Das,  the 
great  Bengali  poet,  are  still  known  in  Behar,  al- 
though the  people  there  have  changed  their  lan- 
guage by  introducing  many  Maithil  words  and 
idioms  which  sound  strange  to  the  Benorali  ear.  In 
the  same  manner,  Vidyapati's  poems  have  passed 
through  changes  in  the  hands  of  the  Bengali  poets 
who  recast  them.  The  reader  may  compare  the 
recensions  current  in  the  two  countries  from  a 
collection  of  Vidyapati's  poems  made  by  Dr.  Grier- 
son.  One  looks  very  much  like  a  translation  of 
the  other,  yet  the  Bengali  recension  is  sometimes 
marked  by  as  much  genius  as  the  original  itself. 
It  not  only  retains  the  sweetness  but  occasionally 
improves  upon  it  by  introducing  new  sparkling 
thoughts.  Some  of  the  best  songs  attributed  to 
Vidyapati— as  ''^^^  ^^f^  ^^  ?ftn  C^^ft^"  are 
found  only  in  the  Bengali  recension  and  the 
people  of  Mithila  have  not  preserved  them  in  their 
collection,  nor  even  heard  of  them.  It  is  the 
popular  belief  that  \'asanta  Rai.  uncle  of  Raja 
Pratripfiditya  of  Jessore  prepared  the  Bengali  re- 
cension of  \'idyr»pati  in  the  i6th  century.  Vidya- 
pati's songs  in  Bengali  glow  with  poetry,  colour, 
and  wealth  of  exprt^ssion,  and,  as  we  have  said,  are 
quite  equal  to  their  Maithil  originals.  Under  these 
circumstances     Vidyapati      must     be     counted    as 


IIL  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  137 


Bengali  poet,  at  least  in  this  xersion,  and  it 
would  be  impossible  now  to  expunge  his  poems 
from  the  compilations  current  in  Bengal,  where 
they  have  for  the  last  three  centuries  found  a 
prominent  place. 

Vidyapati  x\'as  a  resident  of  \'isti — a  village  in 
the  Sub-division  of  Sitamari,  near  Jarail,  in  the 
district  of  Durbhanga.  This  village  he  obtained  as 
a  grant  from  Raja  Civa  Sirhha.  Vidyapati  enjoyed 
the  patronage  of  Civa  Sirhha,  Lacchima  Devi, 
Vi^was  Devi,  Narasimha  Deva  and  other  sovereigns 
of  Mithila.  The  copper-plate  grant  by  which  Raja 
Civa  Sirhha  is  said  to  have  conferred  on  the  poet 
the  title  of  Naxa  Jay  Deva  together  with  the  owner- 
ship of  the  village  Visfi  is  dated  1400  A.D.^  Some 
scholars  consider  this  copper-plate  to  be  forged. 
The  date  in  the  inscription  is  given  in  Hijra  era 
along  with  other  eras,  but  the  Hijra  era  was,  by  the 
unanimous  opinion  of  historians,  introduced  at  a 
much  later  period  by  the  Emperor  Akbar.  The 
characters  of  the  inscription,  besides,  do  not  bear 
the  stamp  of  that  early  period  when  the  grant  is 
said  to  have  been  made.  The  copper-plate,  has 
been,  on  these  grounds,  declared  to  be  unreliable. 
There  is,  however,  no  doubt  that  the  village  Visli 
was  granted  by  ^iva  Sirhha  to  Vidyapati.  The 
poet  himself  speaks  of  this  grant  in  one  of  his 
poems  ;t  and  the  descendants  of  Vidyapati  have  for 


And  are 
now  in- 
separable 
from 
Bengali 
songs. 


The  date 
of  the 
copper- 
plate 
grant. 


In  293  of  Laksmafi  Sen's  era. 

18 


138        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 


The  dates 
of    RaJ- 
Panji  not 
reliable. 


long  years  held  possession  of  the  village.  The 
tradition  prevalent  in  the  country  also  supports 
the  grant.  The  probable  causes  of  the  anomalies 
found  in  the  copper-plate  inscription  may  be  thus 
explained.  The  copper-plate  would  be  naturally 
in  the  custody  of  the  eldest  member  of  the  family, 
and  the  other  descendants  interested  in  the  endow- 
ment uould,  according  to  custom,  be  permitted  to 
retain  copies  of  it.  Supposing  that  the  original 
copper-plate  was  lost,  the  descendants  were  no 
doubt  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  preparing  an- 
other from  the  copies  they  had  with  them,  in  order 
to  satisfy  Rajah  Todar  Mall  who  surveyed  the  lands 
during  Akbar's  time.  If  this  supposition  is  correct, 
it  accounts  for  the  introduction  of  the  Hijra  era 
into  it,  and  also  for  the  comparatively  modern 
style  of  the  characters  used  in  the  inscription. 

The  court-register,  or  Raj  Panji  of  Mithila, 
records  the  year  of  Rajah  Civa  Simha's  ascent  to 
the  throne  as  1446  A.D.  This,  however,  is  also 
open  to  objection,  as  in  a  poem  of  \'idyapati  we 
have  a  mention  of  the  date  of  Rajah  ^iva  Simha's 
coronation  as  1400  A.D.  There  are  also  other 
reasons  which  make  the  dates  given  by  the  court- 
register  of  Mithila  of  doubtful  authenticity.     There 


ft^P?  5!t^,  Tft^  ^^^  ?^,  ^^^^  ^t^-lf^TT^  I 

My  father's  name  Is  Gafiapati  Thakur,  and  we  are 
natives  of  Mlthi!a.  ^Iva  S:mha,  the  Lord  of  *five  Indies' 
took  me  to  his  court  through  kindness.  Me  made  a 
gift  of  the  village  Visfi  to  me,  and  my  poetry  flows  at 
the  contemplation  of  the  feet  of  Lacchima  Devi 
^the  Queen  . 


in.  ]  BENGAL!    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         I39 

are  conflicting  opinions  about  these  dates.  But 
recently  there  has  come  to  light  another  document 
which  refers  to  a  date  in  regard  to  Vidyapati  and 
which  we  believe  to  be  of  unquestionable  authenti- 
city. The  MS.  of  an  annotated  copy  of  Kavya  Pra- 
kaya  in  Sanskrit  lately  recovered,  shows  that  it  was 
copied  by  one  Deva  ^arma  by  the  orders  of  the 
poet  Vidyapati  in  November  1398  A.D.  The  MS.  of  1393  A.D. 
Bhagavata  in  Vidyapati's  own  handwriting  is  also 
preserved  :  but  the  date  of  the  copy  given  on  the 
last  page,  has  not  yet  been  deciphered.  The  two 
pundits,  deputed  by  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal 
for  the  purpose,  disagree  in  their  readings. 


From  the  various  evidences  which  we  have 
come  across,  we  can  declare  with  certainty  that 
Vidyapati  was  born  towards  the  end  of  the  14th 
century  and  lived  to  a  good  old  age,  probably  cover- 
ing the  whole  of  the  15th  century.  He  was  a 
contemporary  of  Chandldas  and  was  attracted  by 
his  great  rival's  fame  to  undertake  a  journey  to 
meet  him.  Many  of  the  later  Vaishava  poets  have 
described  the  interview  between  these  two  eminent 
men,  which  is  said  to  have  taken  place  on  the 
banks  of  the  Ganges  in  the  spring  season.  The 
talk  in  which  the  poets  are  said  to  have  indulged 
was  appertaining  to  love  and  its  higher  flights.  It 
is  said  that  Chandidas  made  an  impression  on  the 
Maithil  poet  which  is  distinctly  traceable  in  his 
later  poems,  chiefly  about  Bhaba  Sammilana.  In 
the  biography  of  Adwaitacharyya  of  ^antipur — the 
vetern  saint  of  the  Vaisfiava  community,  written  by 
I^an  Nagara  in  1  560  A.U..  it  is  related  that  the  saint, 
while    touring    in    Mithila,     saw    \'idyapati    there. 


Lived 
probably  a 

whole 
century. 


Interview 

between 

Chandidas 

and 
Vidyapati. 


140        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 


Adwait 

met 
Vidyapati 

in 
1458  A.D. 


His  patron. 


Vidyapati'j 
ancestors. 


His  Sans- 
krit 
works. 


The  poet  is  described  as  a  person  of  handsome 
appearance,  and  an  excellent  singer.  This  meet- 
ing between  Adwaita  and  \'idyapati  took  place 
about  the  year  1458  or  27  years  before  Chaitanya 
Deva  was  born.  Vidyapati  refers  to  Giasuddin 
Toglak  in  one  of  of  his  songs  and  in  another  to 
Nasir  Saha.  Rut  with  very  few  exceptions  his 
songs  as  a  whole  are  dedicated  to  Rajah  ^iva  Sirhha 
— his  great  patron  and  friend. 

Vidyapati  was  a  scion  of  a  distinguished  family 
of  scholars.  His  father,  Ganapati  Thakur  dedica- 
ted his  celebrated  Sanskrit  work  '  Ganga  Bhakti 
Tarangini'  to  the  memory  of  his  deceased  illustrious 
patron  Maharaj  Ganeywara  of  Mithila.  (lahapati's 
father,  Jaya  Datta  was  not  only  a  great  Sanskrit 
scholar,  but  was  distinguished  also  for  his  piety 
and  saintliness  of  character.  He  obtained  the 
title  of  '  Vogecwara '  for  these  qualities.  The 
father  of  Jaya  Datta  and  the  great  grandfather  of 
Vidyapati  was  the  illustrious  Vlre^wara  who  com- 
piled a  code  of  rules  for  the  guidance  of  every 
day-life  of  the  Maithil  Brahmins.  The  \'irey\\ara 
Paddhati,  as  his  great  work  is  called,  is  almost  as 
much  revered  in  Mithila  as  the  Astavirhyati  Tatfva 
of  Kaghunandan  in  Bengal.  Another  point  show- 
ing the  social  rank  of  our  poet  is  that  for  several 
generations,  his  ancestors  had  discharged  minis- 
terial functions  in  the  court  of  the  Maithil 
sovereigns. 

\  i(lyri])ati  was  a  xohiininous  writer.  Besides  his 
ballads  in  the  \'ernacular,  of  which  nearly  cSoo  are 
now  recovered,  he  wrote  the  following  Sanskrit 
works  : — 


III.  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         I^t 

I.  Purusa  Pariksa-  ^-  ^aiva  Sarvaswasara. 
3.  Dana  Vakyavali.  4.  Vivadasara.  5.  Gaya- 
Pattan.  6.  Ganga  ViksyavalL  7.  Durga  Bhakti 
Tarangini.     8.      Kirtilata- 

My  own  criticism  deals  however  with  his  \'erna- 
CLilar  poems  alone. 

\Tdvapati    sang    much    in    the   strain  of   Chandi      His  songs 
das  ;  as  a  Sanskrit  poet  of  eminence,  he  was  held  in      Radhaand 
great  admiration  in  the  court  of  Rajah  Civa  Sirhha.       Krishna. 
His   own    heart,    however,    was  in  the  songs  which 
he   composed    in  the  X'ernacular.     In  the  brilliance 
of  his  metaphors  and  similes,  in  the    choice    of    his 
expressions,    and    in  the  higher  flights  of  his  poetic 
fancy,  he  over-shadows  all    Vernacular  poets  ;    and 
Chandidas,   the    child    of    nature,    is  no    match   for 
him.     When  one  reads  the  songs  of  both  the  poets, 
the  ordinary  ear  is  charmed    with    the    elegant    ex- 
pressions   of   the    Maithil    bard  ;   but   to  those  who 
dive   deeper  into  the  inner  yearnings  of  the  human 
soul,  Chandidas    will  seem  a  far    greater  apostle    of 
love  ;     his    simple    words    will  leave  a  more  lasting 
impression,  than  all  the  literary  embellishments  and 
poetic   flights    of    Vidyapati.     Yet    Vidyapati    also 
sometimes    scales    the    heights  attained  by  Chandi 

das.    In  the  'Purvaraiia,'  'Sambhog^a  Milana,'  'Abhi-      ^. 

^  ^  His  meta= 

Sara'  and  '  Mana'^  \'idyapati  is  more  of  a  poet  than      phors  and 

a  prophet.     There  is  not  much  of  spirituality,  but  a 

good  deal  of  sensuality,  in   his    earlier    love    songs. 

He    ransacks    the    whole    classical    store  to  find  an 

apt  simile  and  is  never  weary  of  applying  as    much 

of    these   as  is  within  his  knowledge,  like  the  sound 

scholar  of  rhetoric  that  he  is.     To  give  an  example  ; 


*    Lover's  quarrels. 


142         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 


Radha's 
eyes  com- 
pared to 
lotus   and 
to  bee. 


Vayas 

Sandhi  or 

Dawn  of 

youth. 


the  eyes  of  Radha  are  compared  to  a  lotus, — to  a 
bee.  These  are  commonplace  and  stereotyped 
similes  ;  but  the  poet  observes  for  himself  in  what 
aspect  the  comparison  holds  good  and  makes  his 
descriptions  greatly  interesting. 

"  The  pupil  of  her  eye  is  like  a  bee  resting  on 
the  lotus,  the  breeze  driving  it  into  a  corner, "t  — 
this  refers  to  the  sidelong  glances  of  Radhas  playful 
eyes. 

"  The  pupil  of  her  eye  is  like  a  bee.  so  intoxi- 
cated with  the  honey  of  the  lotus  that  it  can  not 
fly  away, "J — this  refers  to  the  absorbed  looks  of 
Radha  while  brooding  over  her  love. 

"  Her  eyes  beautified  with  Kajjala.  have  assum- 
ed a  purple  hue,  they  look  like  the  petals  of  lotus 
coloured  with  vermilion, "§ — this  is  a  picture  of 
Radha  just  after  bathing  when  the  eyes  grow 
reddish.  The  Indian  poets  are  lavish  in  using 
metaphors  to  indicate  the  beauty  of  the  eyes, — of 
those  glances  which  bear  messages  to  lovers,  for 
their  subjects  can  hardly  find  an  opportunity  to 
speak  or  write  to  each  other.  The  stolen  glances 
are  the  only  means  of  intercourse  of  soul,  they  are 
the  speech  of  love,  and  are  minutely  watched  by 
the  poets — ^^^  s?^^^^^  C^^t<I%  is  a  significant  point 
in  all  such  stories. 

The  poet  begins  wdU  Radha 's  ^^:^f%  or  dawn 
of    vouth.     This    is    the   time  when  she  is  to  fall  in 


III.]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         143 


love  with  Krisna.  She  has  reached  an  age  when 
one  would  not  mistake  her  for  a  child,  yet  would 
hesitate  to  call  her  a  women.  If  at  times  she  moves 
with  the  blithe  steps  of  a  child,  she  immediate- 
Iv  mends  her  motion  and  walks  slowdy,  with  the 
CTrace  of  a  maiden.  The  merry  ring  of  her  laughter 
may  remind  one  of  a  child's  voice,  but  she  controls 
herself  quickly,  and  a  sweet  smile  such  as  behts  a 
modest  damsel  is  displayed  in  the  soft  curve  of  her 
coral  lips.  The  beauty  that  has  come  so  newly 
to  her  person  is  a  surprise  to  herself.  The  free- 
dom oi  childhood  is  gone  ;  and  her  eyes  become 
dow-n.'ast  if  a  wliisper  is  heard.  While  busy  with 
her  toilet,  in  the  company  of  her  maidens,  she 
silently  listens  to  their  talk  of  love  ;  and  if  any  of 
them  notices  this,  she  rebukes  hrr,  with  mingled 
smiles  and  tears. 

Vidyapati's  Radha  is  a  special  creation  of  beauty. 
She  is  a  dream  seen  in  the  flesh.  Where  her 
gentle  steps  may  tread,  water-lilies  spring  up  at 
the  touch  of  her  feet.  The  charms  of  her  person 
are  a  revelation  ;  she  can  hardly  hide  the  jov,  that 
a  consciousness  of  it  brings  to  her  mind.  Her 
smile  is  like  the  nectar  which  gives  life  and  immor- 
tality. Her  glances  are  Cupid's  own  arrows,  not 
hve,  but  a  hundred  thousand — shot  forth  on  all 
sides  ! 

When  she  goes  on  Abhisara  to  meet  her  lover, 
the  poet  creates  a  wilderness  of  lavish  metaphors. 
The  idea  is  here  overloaded  with  classical  and 
conventional  hgures.  Yet  through  this  cloud  of 
imagery,  appears  a  vision  of  beauty.  She  is,  says 
the  poet,  like  a  luminous  wand,  created  by  the 
lightning  ;    like    a  golden  tendril  ;  the  rich  clusters 


Radha  a 

creation 

of  beauty. 


144      BENGALI    tANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         [Chap. 

of  her  hair  fall  loose  behind,  black  as  the  clouds 
or  as  the  bees,  but  soft  and  curling  like  the  tender 
Caibala  (moss.)  Her  eye-brows  are  bent,  in  the 
graceful  curves  of  a  bow,  and  her  forehead  beams 
with  the  lustre  of  the  moon.  The  playfulness  of  her 
eyes  reminds  one  of  the  bird  Khanjana  ;  her  beauti- 
ful nose  is  like  the  Tila  flower  ;  her  lips  have  the 
hue  of  coral,  and  so  on.  Radha's  lovelv  form  elows 
with    shy    happiness     at    the    thought   of    this  first 

The  first      meetinor.     She  gfoes  out  in    the  dark  nigfht  to  meet 
meeting.  ;  .  ,  . 

her  lover,  covering  herself  with  a  Sadi  of  dark  silk. 

She  trusts  to  her  guides,  but  when  brought  to  the 
bower  made  by  the  maidens  for  the  interview,  she 
hesitates  ;  she  fears  to  enter  ;  her  heart  is  full  of  ten- 
derness and  love,  but  a  feeling  of  shyness  and  deli- 
cacy holds  her  back.  The  maidens  lead  her  in,  inspite 
of  her  gentle  protests,  and  she  finds  herself  face  to 
face  with  Krisfia.  Her  eyes  droop  ;  she  dares  not 
lift  them  even  to  see  that  beautiful  face  at  which  she 
could  never  be  weary  of  gazing.  The  tender- 
ness of  the  meeting  is  indescribable.  The  delicate 
maiden  cannot  say  one  word  in  response  to  the 
many,  with  which  she  is  greeted ;  and  when  she 
comes  back  she  is  overwhelmed  with  remorse  at 
the  recollection  of  her  own  failure.  By  degrees, 
Krisiia's  howe\cr,  all  this  is  changed.  In  a  subsequent 
visits.  canto  she  is  found  relating  to  her  maidens  the 
manoeuvres  adopted  by  Kri.sha  in  order  to  meet 
her,  such  as  at  the  moment  when  her  sister-in-law 
was  asleep,  resting  her  head  on  her  lap,  and 
he  came  gently  from  behind  her,  to  steal  a  kiss. 
In  these  descriptions,  as  1  have  said,  there  is  an 
exuberance  of  sensuousness,  and  songs  ot  \'idya- 
pati  would  never  have  passed  for  religious  writings. 


Illt]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  I45 

if    in   the  last  canto  he  had  not  suddenly  risen  liigli 

above  such  sentiments  and  repeatedly  given  to    the 

whole   story    a    spiritual    interpretation.     Of  this,  I  Jhe 

^  .  ^  .  5piritual 

may  give    a     few     specimens.       Radha     describes        aspect. 

Krisha.  He  is,  she  says,  a  flower  to  be  placed 
upon  her  head  ;  he  is  the  collyrium  (^^^)  that  makes 
her  eyes  beautiful  ;  he  is  a  precious  necklace 
clinging  about  the  neck ;  she  cannot,  she  says, 
conceive  of  life  without  him, — he  is  to  her  what 
water  is  to  the  fish,  or  wings  to  a  bird — the  very 
breath  of  her  being  and  the  only  object  of  her  life. 
By  a  torrent  of  such  similes  which  arise  sponta- 
neously, but  are  bound  to  lose  their  beauty  in  tran- 
slation, she  describes  herself  as  altogether  merged 
and  lost  in  the  consciousness  of  her  love.  Alas,  she 
has  told  all,  but,  though  loving  with  all  her  might,  she 
has  failed  to  grasp  him  ;  giving  all  that  her  soul  is 
capable  of  offering,  she  feels  that  Krisha  remains 
unrevealed  to  her,  as  ever.  In  the  last  line  she 
turns  suddenly,  with  the  cry,  'Tell  me,  O  Krisha, 
what  art  thou  ?'  This  touching  cry  '*  ^^  u^r^  'It^^ 
^^f^  C^t^''  is  wholly  spiritual  and  mystic,  it  is  the 
agonised  expression  of  the  infinitely  little  in  pre- 
sence of  the  infinitely  Great. 

In  the  songs  called  Mathura,   Vidyapati   creates       Krisha's 
tender   pathos   by    describing  Krisha's  desertion  of     ^^  Qokula. 
Gokula.     The  shepherd  has  left  the    groves    of    his 
childhood. 

^"  Kri?ha    has    gone  to  Mathura.     Alas,  Gokula 
is  deserted. 


C^tftf^  f^2fa  «^^.  C«f^  «ft^^  ^t1^  \^^l  1 


ly 


146       BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap' 
*'  The  bird  ^uka  weeps  in  its  cage. 

"The  cows  look  up  wistfully,  and  all  their 
gestures  point  to  Mathura- 

"  No  longer  do  shepherds  and  milkmaids  meet 
on  the  banks  of  the  Jumna. 

"O  maids,  how  can  I  go  to  those  banks  again 
and  bear  to  see  the  pleasant  bowers  without  him  ! 

"The  beloved  groves  where  he  and  the  maid- 
ens played  amongst  the  flowers,  how  do  they  rise 
before  me  and  yet  I  bear  to  live  !" 

The  maidens  speak  of  Krisha's  return,  but 
Radha  feels  that  she  is  about  to  die,  and  says  : — 

"  If  the  lily  has  been  withered  by  the  cold  rays 
of  the  winter-moon,  what  joy  can  it  have  in  the 
coming  of  the  spring  I 

^^  It  ^^^tf^  ^^,  Cntn  C^^  5?Tf^  ^^  \" 
"  t"^^  ^f^^  ^^51  ^^,  i^^^  C^^T?!^  ^3?^5l?[  I 

^^slt  m^  ^t^  ^^  ^  c^rft  I 

^^i\^^  ^fw  C^)^^  C^t^^.  *f«fn?l  ^^R^  ^tf^  I 

*  *  ^  f^  o\\^  ^^^  ^^tflt  I 

2[T^«t  3lt^  ^5T,  ft'^  5?1  ^^«t^.  ^5^^  ^f^  T>  ^K*tT  I 


ill.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE   ^   LliERATUKE.  147 

"  If  the  seeds  have  been  destroyed  by  the  sum- 
mer sun,  what  will  it  avail  that  there  be  showers 
afterwards  ! 

"  Dying  of  thirst  I  came  to  the  ocean.  Alas  !  not 
a  drop  had  I  to  quench  my  thirst  ! 

"  Weary,  I  came  to  the  sandal  tree,  but  the 
sweet  scent  ceased. 

*•  I  came  for  soothing  to  the  light  of  the  moon, 
and  it  began  to  scorch  me  with  fire. 

"  The  month  of  ^ravaha  with  its  raining  floods 
had  not  a  drop  for  me. 

'•  The  Kalpataru"^  is  barren  for  me. 

"  O  Krisha,  O  Lord  of  my  soul  !  1  sought  refuge 
in  thee,  but    found  it  not. 

"  The  poet  X'idyapati  is  silent  from  wonder." 
Though  Radha  speaks  in  the  language  of  des- 
pair,  she  is  nevertheless  conscious  of  the  all-per- 
vading  mercy  of  God.  The  images  here  are  all 
similes  for  Krisna  himself.  He  is  the  ocean,  the 
sandal-tree,  the  moon-light  &c. 

The  mourner  is  about  to  die  of  her  longino-  for 
the  return  of  Krisna.  Here  are  a  few  beautiful 
familiar  lines  : — 

t"  I  shall  surely  die,  says  Radha,  but  to  whom 
can  I  trust  my  Krisha  ? 


*  The  Tree  of  Plenty  in  Indra's  Heaven. 
t    "  ^Ti^  ^^^  yfR  ft5!l  ^ft^, 


The 

touching 

appeal^ 

when  death 

seems  near 


148        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

"  O  ye  maidens,  my  companions,  cover  me,  in 
my  last  hour,  with  the  name  of  Kri§ha  (lit.,  write  on 
me  the  name  of  Krisha.) 

"  O  Lalita,  friend  of  my  heart,  let  the  last  sound, 
I  hear,  be  the  name  of  Kri?ha. 

"  Burn  not  my  body,  O  maidens,  nor  float  it  on 
the  stream  ;  but  bind  it  on  the  boughs  of  a  Tamala- 
tree  ;  and  let  me  rest  for  ever  in  its  dark  blue 
colour. 

"  If  it  should  sometime  chance  that  Krisfia  come 
to  these  groves  again,  I  shall  be  called  back  to  life 
at  the  sight  of  him. 

''  Sing    in    my    ears,    O    maidens,   the    name  of 

Kris'na,  that  hearing  it,  I  may  expire." 

Xhe  The  writing  of  the  name  of  Krisha  on  the    body 

^siziim-         "^'^^'    ^^   ^   strange    idea  to  my  foreign  readers,  but 

cance  those  who    have    visited    India    will    perhaps    have 

seen    the  name  of  Krisha  inscribed  on  the  forehead. 

breast    and    arms    of     manv    X'aishavas.      At    the 


^tii  c^^  lf^5  a^  f  ^  ^1^  ^l'^  II 

^fkm  ^fft^l  C^^  '^'in^ft  ^tC^  II 
dl  ^  '5'It^  ^^  f^  ^'f^^  I 
^ft^^  ^^  CH'\^  "^K^  C^^  ^^  II 


IIL  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITEKATUKE. 


149 


moment  of  death,  it  is  a  duty  always  observed  by 
the  relatives  to  recite  the  name  of  Krisfia  in  the 
ears  of  the  dying.  These  love  songs,  therefore,  as 
I  have  said,  cannot  be  dissociated  from  their  pervad- 
ing religious  idea. 

Of  Chandi  Das  and  Vidyapati,  it  may  be  said 
that  the  one  sings  as  impelled  by  nature, — his  is  a 
cry  from  the  depths  of  the  soul  ;  literary  embellish- 
ments are  lost  sight  of;  poetry  wells  up  like  a 
natural  fountain,  whose  pure  flow  contains  no 
coarse  grain  of  earth.  The  other  is  a  conscious  poet, 
and  a  hnished  scholar,  whose  similes  and  meta- 
phors are  brilliant  poetical  feats  ;  they  at  once 
captivate  the  ear,  and  the  boldness  of  colour  in 
the  pictures,  presented  to  the  mind,  dazzles  the 
eyes.  The  scenes  of  sensuality,  and  lust  are  re- 
deemed by  others  which  are  platonic  and  spiritual, 
— a  strange  combination  of  holy  and  unholv,  of 
earthly  and  heavenly.  His  earlier  poems  are  full  of 
sensualism, — his  later,  of  mystic  ideas.  Chandi 
Das  is  a  bird  from  the  higher  regions,  where  earthly 
beauties  may  be  scant,  but  which  is  nearer  heaven, 
for  all  that.  Vidyapati  moves  all  day  in  the  sunny 
groves  and  floral  meadow^s  of  the  earth,  but  in  the 
evening  rises  high  and  overtakes  his  fellow  poet.^ 

*  Complete  editions  of  the  love-songs  of  Vidyapati  and 
Chandldas  are  expected  shortly  to  be  published  with  copious 
annotations  by  two  Bengali  scholars.  Vidyapati  is  being  edited  by 
Babu  Nagendra  Nath  Gupta  under  the  patronage  and  directions 
ofBabu  Sarada  Charan  Mitter,  late  Judge  of  the  Calcutta  High 
Court  and  the  credit  of  collecting  a  large  number  of  hitherto 
unknown  poems  of  Cliandidas  belongs  to  Babu  Nilratan 
Mukherjee,  Head  Master,  Kirnahar  School  in  the  district  of 
Birbhum.  Each  of  the  two  compilations  will  contain  about  a 
thousand  poems  or  padas.  This  is  far  ahead  of  the  number  of 
padas  hitherto  extant  in  the  country. 


Chandidas 

and 
Vidyapati 
compared. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


reaction 
ary  move 


THE  POURANIK  RENAISSANCE. 

1.  The   Leading  characteristics  of   the    Renaissance. 

Faith  in  God  and  in  the  Brahmin. 

2.  Vernacular  recensions  of  Sanskrit  works.     General 

remarks. 

(a)  The  Ramayaha. 

(b)  The  Mahabharata. 

(c)  The  Bhagabata. 

(d)  The  Chandi  of  Markandeya. 

3.  The    conception    of   9>^a   in  the    Renaissance   and 

songs  in  honour  of  him. 

4.  The     ^akti-cult    and    its   development    in    Bengal. 

Poems  in  honour  of 

(a)  Manasa  Devi. 

(b)  9^^"^'  Devi. 

(c)  Ganga  Devi. 
(d;  9itala  Devi. 

(e)  Laksmi    Devi,    Saraswati     Devi    and 

Sasthi  Devi. 

5.  Dharma  Mangal  poems  recast  by  the  Brahmins. 

6.  Poems  in  honour  of   Daksina    Rai   (God   of    tigers). 

Some  remarks  about  the  poems. 


1 .     I  he  leading  characteristics  of  the  Renaissance. 
Faith  in  God  and  in  the  Brahmin. 

The  i  luive  tried  to  shew  that  the  revival  of  Hinduism, 

which    had    readied    full   development  amongst  the 
ment  \(i  na(  ular-reading  classes  in    Bengal    by    the     15th 

century,  was  effective  in  bringing  society  back  into 
discipline  and  order,  thus  counteracting  those  vices 
of    free-thinking  and  gruss  'rantrikism  to  which    it 


Creed  of 


IV,]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  15! 

had  succumbed  during  the  last  days  of  Buddhism. 
In  written  language,  metrical  forms,  aiming  at  ryth- 
mical perfection  gradually  found  favour,  and  Sans- 
kritic  expressions  were  preferred  to  the  loose  Prakrita 
which  in  the  Buddhistic  age  had  been  the  current 
dialect  of  this  country.  Everywhere  a  reactionary- 
movement — a  tendency  to  correct  and  embellish 
the  current  forms — was  observed.  Both  social  and 
literary  movements  were  imbued  with  this  spirit. 

But  the  chief  point  in  the  revival  of  Hinduism 
was  the  promulgation  of  the  creed  of  devotion  and  devotion. 
trust  in  God,  which  tended  to  balance  the  scepti- 
cism of  the  later  forms  of  Buddhism.  Buddhism 
had,  in  its  flourishing  days,  observed  a  strict  moral 
code.  The  metaphysical  side  of  religion  was  rejec- 
ted by  Buddha  as  vain  speculation.  In  the  Ambatta 
Sutta,  he  declares  theological  discussion  to  be  utterly 
fruitless,  and  advises  his  followers  to  stick  to  the 
practical  matters  of  high  moral  principles  and 
works  of  philanthropy  and  charity. 

When,  however,  Buddhism  with  its  noble  laws  of 
character  declined,  the  masses  felt  that  the  moral 
code  was  unavailing  without  faith.  From  one  ex- 
treme, the  human  mind  always  runs  to  the  other. 
In  the  natural  evolution  of  spiritual  thought,  the 
negative  aspect  changes  till  it  takes  a  positive 
character.  The  Hindu  reaction  put  faith  in  place  of 
laws.  Thus  moral  principles,  self-dicipline,  and 
introspection,  the  watch-words  of  Buddhism,  were 
thrown  into  the  back-ground,  and  faith  in  God 
became  the  motto  and  the  catch-word  of  the 
Pourahik  Ranaissance.  The  Hindu  revivalists,  in 
running  to  such  an  extreme,  perhaps    overdid    their 


152        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 


The  growth 
of  the 

Brahmanic 
power. 


part.  They  preached  that  man,  being  essentially  a 
creature  of  circumstances,  could  not  at  all  depend 
on  self-help.  He  needs  divine  grace  at  every  step. 
Faith,  they  said,  was  the  only  thing  to  be  sought 
for, — not  only  in  order  to  attain  salvation,  but  for 
the  purpose  of  building  up  character.  They  went 
so  far  as  to  declare  that  it  was  not  in  the  power 
of  a  human  being  to  commit  so  many  crimes  in 
life  as  could  not  be  expiated  by  utterring  the  name 
of  God  once  in  sincere  faith  ! 

The  dissemination  of  such  ideas  was  neces- 
sarily accompanied  by  the  growth  of  the  Brahmanic 
power.  As  a  set-off  against  the  lawlessness  of  the 
Buddhistic  free-thinkers,  absolute  obedience  to  the 
leaders  of  society  was  enforced.  The  Mahammo- 
dans,  as  the  new  ruling  race,  did  not  enterfere  \\ith 
the  social  and  spiritual  movements  of  the  Hindus. 
Full  powers,  thus,  came  to  be  vested  in  the  leaders 
of  society.  Witliout  a  reverence  for  the  promul- 
o-ators,  truth  loses  much  of  its  force.  Hence  in 
the  Pourahik  Renaissance  the  Brahmin  came  to 
the  front,  and  stood  next  to  God  in  popular  estima- 
tion. Hinduism  thus  became  in  a  far  greater  sense 
than  ever  before,  Brahmanism.  or  a  Brahmanic 
cult 

A  creed  of  faith  has,  often,  much  in  it  that  is 
peculiar :  it  has  its  weak  points  which  everv 
rational  man  can  laugh  at.  Yet  a  man  of  faith, 
blindly  devoted  to  his  faith,  is  often  a  better  man 
than  the  rationalistic  sceptic.  There  were  many 
absurdities  in  the  propaganda  of  the  Hindu  reaction. 
The  following  lines  in  Ka^iram  Das's  Mahabharata 
shew   the    nature    of    tb.^    romances    invented    and 


IV,]         BENGAIJ   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.         153 

the  modifications  introduced  into  older  stories,  at 
this  time,  in  order  to  raise  the  Brahmins  above 
the  level  even  of  the  Gods. 

■^''  It  is  a  Brahmin's  anger  which,  like  fire,  burnt  Fables 
down  the  great  dynasty  of  tiie  Yadavas  and  of  Brahmins. 
Sagara — the  distinguished  king  of  the  Lunar  race. 
It  is  a  Brahmin's  anger,  again,  which  has  placed  a 
blot  on  the  Moon's  surface.  Even  the  god  of  fire, 
Agni  Deva,  and  the  god  of  the  sky,  Indra  Deva, 
have  been  subject  in  their  turn  to  a  Brghmanical 
curse.  A  Brahmin's  anger  has  made  the  waters  of 
the  great  sea  saline.  Even  the  greatest  of  the  gods, 
Visfiu,  bears  the  mark  of  a  Brahmin's  kick  on  his 
bosom." 

Kavii'a"!  Das  describes  the  incident  of  the  curse 
of  a  Brahmin,  under  which  Raja  Pariksit  was  to  die 
of  snake-bite  within  a  week.  The  snake  had  not 
yet  appeared  at  the  fixed  hour.  The  Raja  grew 
restless,  and  when  a  worm  was  found  in  a  fruit 
presented  to  him,  he  cried  out,  "  Let  this  worm 
become  a  snake  and  bite  me,  rather  than  that  a 
Brahthin's  word  should  prove  untrue. "t     There    is 

^H  c^m  ^T^  ^t.^  ^f^^ft  II 
^t^  c^u^  ^^^  ^^  >i^^^  1 
^m  nwft]^  ^u  ^nn^^"^  ii" 

Ka^idas's  Mahabharata. 
t  "  vil't  cm^l  '^'SP^  ^^^  ^^^  I 

Ka^idas's  Mahabharata. 
20. 


!54        BENGALI    I.ANCrAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [Chap, 


The  reason 

of  Brah. 

min=wor= 

ship. 


The  Yogis. 


The  Saints. 


nothing  corresponding  to  this  line  in  the  orginal 
epic,  which  makes  it  only  the  more  significant  in 
Bengali,  as  shewing  to  what  an  extent  Brahmin- 
worship  was  developed  in  this  country  in  a  sub- 
sequent age. 

A  Brahmin  was  called  Bhudeva  or  god  on 
earth.  In  the  period  of  the  Upanisadas,  the  glory 
of  a  Brahmin  lay  in  his  knowledge  of  the  Supreme 
Being.  In  the  Paurahik  age  he  claimed  reverence 
equal  to  that  offered  to  the  gods,  by  virtue  of  his 
birth  alone. 

But  ho\^•  are  we  to  account  for  the  meek  sub- 
mission of  the  people  to  the  Brahmanical  yoke? 
Why  did  thev  allow  a  class  of  their  own  community 
to  usurp  the  reverence  due  to  their  gods,  on  the 
claim  of  birth  alone,  and  how  could  such  wild 
stories  about  their  powers  obtain  credence  with 
the  laity  ? 

In  explanation  of  these  startling  facts,  we 
have  to  remember  that  the  highest  type  of  Brahmin 
was  that  of  the  Yogi,  who  had  renounced  the 
world,  and  developed  the  mystic  powers  of  the 
soul  by  communion  with  God.  These  were  un- 
approached  and  unapproachable.  The  people  of 
Hindustan  believed  in  the  miraculous  po^^■er  of  the 
Yogis  and  offered  a  reverence  to  them  which  was 
not  less  than  that  they  gave  to  the  gods.  The 
next  class  amongst  the  Brahmins  was  that  of  pious 
saints,  who  ^^•('re  gieat  scholars,  caring  onh-  for  a 
pure  and  stainless  life  and  totally  indifferent  to 
worldly  considerations.  Such  men  took  no  thought 
for  the  morrow,  even  as  Jesus  taught.  One  of  these 
was  tempted  by  Maharaja  Krisha  Chandra  of  Nava- 


IV.  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LlTEKAtb'KE.  155 

dwipa  to  accept  a  grant  from  him,  but  the  Kaja 
received  only  a  rebuke  in  return  thougli  the  Brahmin 
was  in  an  utterly  destitute  condition. 

Besides    these,    there    were    lay   Brahmins,  who         fhe  lay 

could    not    boast    of    any    particular   merit    beyond     Brahmins. 

that  of  birth.      But  the  whole    Brahmin    community 

was  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  the  Brahmanical  ideal 

on    which   the    reverence    of    the    people     for    the  The 

T->     I  -11  ,       T     •       ,  ,  Brahmini- 

Brahmms  was  mainly  based.     It  is  absurd    to    sup-       cal  ideal 

pose  that  men  who  had  no  political  power  could  t^g  society 
enforce  obedience,  without  first  inspiring  regard 
through  their^character  and  high  attainments.  The 
stories  invented  to  glorify  the  Brahmins  beyond 
all  measure,  were  due  to  a  vas^ue  and  exao-Sferated 
idea  of  the  powers  of  the  great  Risis  of  old — the 
ancestors  of  the  modern  Brahmins.  In  the  back- 
woods of  Bengal  one  meets  even  now  with  wonder- 
ful instances  of  belief  in  the  Brahmin.  There 
are  people  there  who  will  not  touch  food  before 
tasting  water  mixed  with  the  dust  of  a  Brahmin's 
feet.  Before  a  Brahmin,  they  will  tell  no  lie  nor 
commit  any  other  sinful  act.  Blind  faith  sometimes 
raises  the  character  of  illiterate  people,  in  a  way 
which  it  is  easy  to  undo,  but  difficult  to  replace  by 
the  spread  of  education. 

Yet  it  is  the  Brahmanical  ideal  and  not  the 
Brahmin  of  flesh  and  blood  that  is  really  worship- 
ped by  Hindu  society.  It  is  love  of  truth,  abso- 
lute trust  in  God,  utter  indifference  to  worldly  con- 
cerns, wonderful  devotion  and  universal  charity 
which  are  still  the  governing  principles  in  the  ideal 
Brahmin's  life.  The  indifference  of  a  Brahmin  to 
worldlv  concerns  is    shown    in    lh(*    follow  ing    story 


156       BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITEKAIURE.     [  Chap, 

related  in  the  Chahdi  Kavva  by  Madhavacharyya  of 
Bengal. 

An  ex-  Lomaca  the  ^reat  Brahmin,  was  passino^  throucrh 

ample  from  ^  ^.  ..... 

Chahdi  the  austere  duties  of  the  religious  lite  on  the  sea- 
coast.  There,  immaculate  and  pure,  he  was  firm  as 
a  rock  in  his  high  pursuit  and  exposed  like  the  rock 
The  sage  to  the  inclemencies  of  the  weather.  He  cared  not 
^  *  though  the  burning  rays  of  the  tropical  sun  beat  on 
his  bare  head  and  was  indifferent  alike  to  the 
violent  rain  and  the  howling  wind  that  came  roar- 
ing in  from  the  surging  sea.  Nilamvara.  a  son  of 
the  God  Indra,  one  day  approached  him  and  said. 
''  Great  sage,  I  want  to  build  a  hut  here  in  order  to 
give  you  a  little  shelter.''  Lomaya  replied.  *'  Xo 
need  of  a  hut  since  life  is  transitory."  Nilamvara 
asked  the  sage,  ''How  long  then  will  you  live  in 
this  world?"  Lomaya  said  "  My  body  is  covered 
with  hair  as  you  see  ;  the  fall  of  each  hair  will  take 
the  whole  cycle  of  an  Indra's  reign  ;  when  all  the 
hair  thus  falls  off.  my  death  will  surely  come."  That 
is  to  say.  the  sage  would  live  for  ages  and  ages, 
and  yet  he  would  not  allow  others  to  build  a  hut 
for  him.  '  P^or',  said  he,  '  when  death  was  certain, 
sooner  or  later,  what  good  could  there  be  in  covet- 
ing the  small  comforts  ot  lite'. 

Though  couched  in  the  form  of  an  exaggerated 
Pauriiriik  story,  this  supreme  indifference  to  the 
world  and  devotion  to  the  cause  of  the  highest 
good  which  is  everlasting,  is  the  true  Brfihrninic 
ideal  which  has  been  the  cherished  dream  of  the 
whole  Indian  community  through  ages. 

(lifts  to  a  Accordini:^  to  the  Castras.  it    is    a    great    act    of 

Brahmin.  ,  •.  ,       i.     i       •  mm 

\irlue    to    make  gilts  to  the  Brahmins.       I  hey  were 

prohibited  from  pursuing  any  avocation  tor    money. 


IV.] 


BENGALI    LANGL'AGli    &    LllEKAlUKE. 


57 


Their  lives  were  to  be  devoted  to  religious  work, 
to  study  and  to  other  disinterested  pursuits,  cal- 
culated to  contribute  to  the  happiness  of  mankind. 
And  as  the  State  would  not  take  charge  of  them,  it 
was  enjoined  as  a  part  of  the  duty  of  every  man  in 
society  to  provide  for  their  maintenance. 

I  have  tried  to  indicate  the  lines  on  which  the 
Pauranik  P.enaissance  attempted  to  build  up  Hindu 
society.  The  literature  that  grew  up  in  this  at- 
tempt at  a  proper  exposition  of  the  spirit  of  Hindu- 
ism, promulgates  the  creed  of  faith  in  God  and  in 
the  Brahmin  which  constitutes  its  essential  features. 
We  shall  next  deal  in  detail  with  those  Bengali 
translations  of  Sanskrit  works  which  first  gave  an 
impetus  towards  popularising  the  doctrines  of  the 
Pauranik  religion. 


The  Chief 
character- 
istics of 

the 

Pauranlc 

Literature. 


Transla- 
tions. 


2.    Vernacular     recensions  of    Sanskrit    works. 
General  remarks. 

lai    The  Ramayana. 
(b)    The  Mahabharata. 
C'    The  Bhagabata. 
(d      The  Chahdi  of  Markendeya. 


General  remarks. 

Bengali  translations  of  Sanskrit  works  at  this 
period  did  not,  as  a  rule,  follow  the  text  too  closely. 
They  were  meant  for  the  masses.  Learned  people 
read  the  originals,  and  did  not  at  all  care  to  see 
them  again  in  Bengali.  In  order  more  effectually 
to  work  on  the  impressionable  mind  of  the  common 
people,    as    also    to     suit    their    intellectual     capa- 


Transla=« 
tions  were 
not  literal. 


158       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.      [  Cha.p. 

city,  the  original  texts  required  moditication  in 
Bengali.  The  Kathakatas  or  recitatives  with 
songs,  which  became  verv  popular  during  these 
times,  introduced  stories  and  descriptions  not 
contained  in  the  original  Sanskrit  writings,  but 
much  appreciated  by  the  people,  since  the  narrators 
invented  them  for  the  very  purpose  of  making  a 
greater  impression  on  their  audience.  The  tran- 
slations of  the  period,  though  mainly  agreeing  with, 
not  seldom  deviated  from,  the  spirit  of  their  origin- 
als. These  literary  sins  again  were  not  always  of 
commission  merelv,  but  sometimes  of  omission  also. 
The  higher  truths  and  more  advanced  literary  com- 
positions of  the  Sanskrit  originals,  were  not  always 
translated  because  thev  were  not  likely  to  be  under- 
stood by  those  accustomed  only  to  the  Bengali  re- 
censions. So.  inspite  of  fresh  accretions,  the  tran- 
slations were  generally  less  in  length  than  the 
Sanskrit  texts. 
Dlssemina-  ^"  ^^^*-'  fleclining  days  of   Ikiddhism,    the    masses 

tion  of         i^.^^i  lo^t  all  touch  with  Sanskrit  learning.     \\'e  have 
Classical 
ideas.         seen  that  the  teeth  of  Queen  Aduna  were  compared 

by  the  rustic  bard  to  the  bark  of  the  cork  plant  (sola) 
in  order  to  signify  their  whiteness.  The  metaphors 
ol  that  period  appear  to  the  1  )engal  people  of  this  age 
as  neither  refined  nor  edihing.  in  sj)ite  ot  thier  apt 
and  homclv  character.  With  the  revival  of  a  taste 
for  Sanskrit,  the  metaphorical  expressions  with 
which  that  language  abounds,  were  freely  borrowed 
for  tin-  cmbt'llishinent  ot  the  \ernacular.  and  they 
became  familiar  vww  to  the  rustic  people  ot 
the  ^■illages.  I'hese  nu-taphors  were  often  tran- 
slated without  anv  idea  of  appro])riateness.  A 
>\ Oman's  gait  would    be    compared,  lor   instance,  to 


IV.  ]         HEXGALI    [.ANGUAGE    &    IJTRRA TltRK.         15^ 

the  movements  of  an  elephant.  The  beauty  of  the 
nose  was  indicated  by  the  beak  of  an  eagle.  Arms 
that  reached  down  to  the  knee-joints  were  held  as 
signs  of  manly  beauty.  The  graceful  steps  of  a 
girl  were  compared  to  the  movements  of  a  swan, 
and  these  and  numerous  similes  like  them  became 
quite  a  craze  with  Bengali  poets.  Whenever  a 
woman's  beauty  was  to  be  described,  the  reader  Not  always 
was    certain    to  meet  with  such  stereotyped  figures  ate.     " 

of  speech,  which  in  more  modern  times  became 
extremely  hackneyed  and  tiresome.  We  must  re- 
member that  this  country  was  once  covered  with 
forests,  and  in  such  ages  when  men  lived  closer  to 
nature  than  they  now  are,  the  march  of  the  elephant, 
slow  and  majestic,  would  attract  the  eyes.  In  a 
sight  so  familiar,  they  might  well  discover  points 
^\  hich  would  remind  them  of  the  stateliness  of  a 
graceful  woman.  On  the  Jungly  banks  of  the 
beautiful  Indian  Jhils,  the  grace  of  a  swan's  move- 
ment was  a  frequent  sight  that  attracted  the  eyes. 
But  ages  passed  and  the  forests  were  cut  down  ; 
the  wild  elephants  passed  out  of  sight,  and  the 
swan  ceased  to  be  a  common  object,  hence  those 
similes  were  no  longer  thought  applicable  to  the 
idea  of  beautiful  maidenhood.  But  where  they 
thus  naturally  failed,  convention  came  to  the  rescue. 

Conventional    phrases    from  the  classics  had    great    ^ 

^  ^  Convention 

attractions  for  our  poets,  and  with  those  who  keeps 
did  not  themselves  possess  keen  eyes  for  the  fashion. 
observation  of  nature,  they  commanded  an  over- 
whelming influence.  I  quote  below  a  stereotyped 
description  of  beauty.  However  ludicrous  it  may 
appear  in  translation,  the  cadence  of  the  rhythmical 
lines,    added    to    the    sweetness    and  sonorousness 


l6o        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    8i    LITERATURE.      [Chap, 


A  Stereo- 
typed des- 
cription of 
beauty. 


The 

translators 

enrich  our 

languag:e 

from 
Sanskrit. 


of  the  words,  makes  the  description  attractive 
in  Bengali.  What  may  strike  a  foreigner  as  some- 
what grotesque,  is  to  us  excusable,  or  even  elegant, 
because  the  similes  are  classical  and  convention- 
ally correct,  in  accordance  with  the  highest  taste 
of  a  former  period. 

■^"  Her  eyes  reprove  the  bird  Khanjana  in  their 
playfulness.  Her  eye-brows  are  like  the  bow  of 
the  God  of  Love,  bent  to  aim  the  arrows  of  her 
side-long  glances.  The  beak  of  an  eagle  would  be 
no  match  for  her  beautiful  nose.  The  crimson  hue 
of  her  lips  reminds  one  of  the  \'anduli  flower.  Her 
teeth  are  like  pearls,  and  her  smile  like  a  flash  of 
lightning,  which  dispels  the  darkness.  By  it  she 
sheds  ambrosia  all  around.  Her  waist  is  slender 
like  the  lion's,  and  her  motion  slow  and  graceful  as 
a  swan's." 

If  classical  fio^ures  occasionallv  overloaded  ver- 
nacular  poetry,  the  efforts  of  the  translators,  how- 
ever, did  immense  service  towards  the  development 
of  our  language,  by  gradually  enriching  it  with  a 
supply  of  choice  expressions    from    Sanskrit.     Our 

t^^^  'H^Ti  7\T[^  ^-ii^  (I 
'^f^<[  ^fii^^  ^w^  ^tf»r  II 

^tW  ^IT]  f^^  nf^  f^^^  II     Alaoh 


IV.  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         l6l 


poor  despicable  patois  rose  to  the  dignity  of  a 
finished  and  mellifluous  tongue,  and  a  vast  litera- 
ture  was  brought  into  existence,  comprising  nu- 
merous  translations  and  expositions  of  Sanskrit 
works.  The  influence  thus  exerted  upon  the  mass- 
es produced  results  of  inestimable  value.  There 
is  now  not  a  rustic  in  a  Bengal  village  who  does 
not  know  how  Ram  nobly  courted  all  misfortune 
and  gave  up  the  throne  which  by  right  belonged  to 
him,  because  his  father  Da^aratha  in  a  moment 
of  weakness  had  given  a  pledge  to  Kaikayl,  his 
queen  ;  how  the  great  Bhisma  took  the  vow  of 
celibacy  because  his  father  King  ^antanu  could  not 
win  SatyabatI  for  his  bride  unless  he  promised  the 
throne  to  her  sons  ;  how  the  King  Civi  offered  his 
own  flesh  in  fulfilment  of  a  promise  ;  how  Prahlada, 
son  of  Hiranyaka9ipu,  was  true  to  his  faith,  in  the 
midst  of  the  cruel  persecutions  by  his  father;  how 
the  sage  Dadhichi,  for  the  good  of  the  world  died 
by  fire,  to  create  the  Thunderbolt  ;  how  the  young 
prince  Dhruva  attained  final  beatitude  in  the  heart 
of  the  forest,  and  dwells  for  ever  in  the  Polar  star  ; 
how  Alarka  the  king  of  spotless  fame  put  out  his 
own  eyes  for  the  sake  of  a  vow^ ;  how  Ekalavya,  the 
great  archer  cut  off  the  thumb  of  his  right  hand  at 
the  desire  of  his  teacher,  Drona  ;  how  Janaka  the 
princely  saint  ruled  his  kingdom  as  a  true  servant  of 
God,  unmoved  through  weal  and  woe  ;  how  Yudhis- 
thira  would  even  choose  hell  for  the  sake  of  others  ; 
and  how  Nala,  King  of  Nisada,  suffered  for  the  sake 
of  truth  all  that  a  human  being  could  suffer,  and  yet 
did  not  swerve  from  the  righteous  course.  The 
devotion  and  sacrifices  of  woman  as  related  in  the 
Puranas    are    even  greater.     Half  a  century  ago  no 


The  Paur§. 
fiik  stories 

grow 
familiar. 


Ram, 


Bhisma. 


^ivl. 
Prahlada. 


Dadhichi. 

Dhruva, 

Alarka. 

Ekalavya. 

Janaka. 


Yudhis. 
thira. 

Nala. 


21 


i6. 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap* 


Sits. 


SSvitri. 

Damayati' 
ti. 

Chinta. 


Kau^alya, 


Transla- 
tions 

reached 
the  humbl- 
est Bengali 

cottage. 


Profession- 
al singers. 
The  Manga! 
(iaviiks, 


woman  in  Bengal,  however  illiterate,  was  ignorant 
of  the  sufferings  of  the  faultless  Sita,  her  trial  and 
her  exile  ;  of  the  \\'onderful  devotion  of  Savitri,  who 
followed  her  husband  Satyavana  even  in  death ; 
of  Damayanti  and  her  wonderful  resourcefulness  in 
the  recovery  of  her  husband,  Nala  ;  of  Chinta,  the 
devoted  wife  of  King  ^rivatsa  ;  of  ihe  calm  courage 
of  Queen  Kaugalya  who  could  say  to  her  son  Ram 
on  the  eve  of  his  exile,  "  Go  thou  to  the  forest  for 
the  cause  of  virtue  ;  and  may  the  virtue  and  truth, 
which  thou  hast  so  faithfully  followed,  preserve 
thee!"  Such  were  the  stories  and  traditions  by 
which  the  minds  and  characters  of  the  masses  were 
formed.  When  we  read  in  the  Chahdi  Kavya  by 
Mukundarama.  of  Kalketu,  the  illiterate  huntsman, 
referring  to  texts  from  the  Bliagvata,  in  his  soliloquy 
on  the  banks  of  the  Ajoy  ;  of  his  wife  Phullara  ex- 
plaining to  the  Goddess  Chandi  the  imprudence  of 
visiting  at  strange  houses,  and  illustrating  her  argu- 
ment by  chapter  and  verse  from  the  Ramayana  ;  or 
of  KhuUana,  the  beautiful  wife  of  Dhanapati,  freely 
quoting  from  the  Purahas,  as  she  talks  with  her 
co-wife  Lahana,  one  need  not  be  surprised  at  this 
display  of  learning  even  by  people  who  sprang 
from  the  lower  classes  of  Hindu  society.  The 
translations  of  the  Purahas  had  by  this  time  reach- 
(h1  the  humblest  cottage  in  Bengal.  The  way  in 
which  they  were  made  familiar  to  illiterate  men  and 
women  is  interesting.  The  translated  works  were 
recited  to  them  by  those  amongst  themselvt^s  who 
were  able  to  read,  but  a  far  greater  popularising  of 
Paurahik  stories  was  carried  out  by  the  perfor- 
mances of  the  jirofessional  singers.  These  people, 
Mangal     (iii\aks,   as      th('\     are    called,    give    their 


iV.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITEUATUKE.         163 

renderings  of  the  ancient  stories  to  this  day  during 
winter  evenings  by  the  roadsides  and  in  the  villages 
of  Bengal.  The  performers  may  be  as  many  as 
eleven  or  twelve  in  number,  of  whom  one,  the  Gayen 
is  the  leader  or  soloist,  while  the  rest  act  as  a  kind 
of  subdued,  humming  chorus.  The  Mangal  or  reci- 
tation is  held  in  some  large  court  or  in  the  open  air. 
The  Gayen  stands  in  a  prominent  position,  often 
wearing  a  crown  on  his  head  and  Niipura  or  cym- 
bals Oil  his  feet,  while  his  chorus  sits  crouching  in 
a  semi-circle  behind  him.  He  begins  to  narrate 
a  Paurahik  story,  singing  the  metrical  verses  of  a 
vernacular  translation  froiH^ome  Sanskrit  poem.  He 
acts  as  he  sings,  and  the  Nupuras  make  a  jingling 
accompaniment  to  his  measured  and  rythmical 
movements  ;  even  now  and  then  his  recitation  is 
interrupted  by  some  moral  or  theological  digression 
of  his  own,  which  is  often  of  extraordinary  depth 
and  beauty.  This  will  end  with  a  song,  in  which, 
at  a  given  signal,  the  chorus  joins,  dwelling  on  a 
low  droning  note,  and  giving  to  the  main  narrative 
a  major  or  minor  character  according  to  the  musi- 
cal interval  they  maintain  between  themselves  and 
the  solo. 

In  this  quaint  spectacle — which  will    draw    hun- 
dreds   or  even  thousands  of  men  and  women  to  see     The  Mangal 

Gansgive 
it,  night  after  night,  for  months    at    a    stretch, — we      a  glimpse 

catch  a  glimpse  of  a  world  so  old  that  even  the  ancient 
Pauranik  Renaissance  itself,  beside  it,  seems  to  be  world. 
a  thing  of  yesterday.  The  intellectual  history  of 
India  ever  since  ^ankara chary ya  in  the  end  of  the 
Seventh  century  has  been  one  long  story  of  the  pro- 
gressive democratising  of  the  Vedanta  philosophy; 
and     the     theological     and     devotional     profundity 


64         BENGALI    LANGUAGfc:    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

of  these  Indian  Mangal  Gayaks  is  a  result  of  this 
fact,  a  characteristic  peculiar  to  themselves  and  to 
their  age.  But  in  the  Mangal  Gan  itself,  we  can- 
not doubt  that  we  have  preserved  to  us  the  mode 
by  which,  in  a  remotely  ancient  past,  the  ballads  of 
Homer  were  handed  down  amidst  the  villagers  of 
Greece  ;  the  mode  adopted  by  Damayanti  in  one  of 
the  oldest  portions  of  the  Mahabharata,  when  she 
sent  out  the  Gayaks  to  search  for  the  lost  Nala  ; 
nay,  a  mode  not  unprecedented  in  medieval  Europe 
itself,  when  the  parties  of  strolling  minne-singers 
performed  simple  dramas  like  '  Ancassin  and 
Nicolette'  in  the  manor  hall. 

There  are  many  classes  of  Indian  rhapsodists, 
but  these  ballad  singers  are  undoubtedly  the  oldest 
and  most  primitive.  Even  before  the  period  of  which 
we  are  now  speaking,  in  the  time  of  the  Pal  Kings, 
as  we  have  already  mentioned,  Bengal  was  ricli  in 
such  ballad-chronicles.  It  is  perhaps  from  the  great 
patronage  which  the  Gayaks  received  from  this 
particular  dynasty,  that  a  single  performance  of 
any  narrative  is  called  a  Pala  to  this  day.  I  he 
one-stringed  lyre  which  was  used  by  a  ballad- 
singer    while  singing    the    glories    ol    Gopi   Pah    is 

Oopi-yan<      still    known    as    the  Gopi-vantra,  after  the  name  of 
tra  ^     '  ,    , 

that  monarch.       I  he  poets  who  composed  the  songs 

of  tht;  Pal  Kings  were,  in  this  respect,  different 
from  the  court-bards  of  Delhi  of  a  later  period. 
rh«;  Renunciation  of  (iopi  Chand.  for  instance,  was 
obviousK-  not  a  subject  that  a  man  was  hired  and 
paid  to  sing.  Us  po])ularity  and  persistence  were 
direcllv  due  to  the  way  in  which  it  struck  the 
imagination  of  the  people  and  was  taken  up  by  the 
village    Mangal    (iayaks.     The    ballads    of    Behula, 


Pala 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LilEHATURE.        165 


A  story  In 

honour  of 

^ani. 


or  Manasa  Mangal,  have  a  similar  source.  Old 
systems  of  worship  seem  to  fly  before  us,  as  \\e 
begin  to  thread  the  mazes  of  the  history  of  the 
Mangal  Gans.  For  instance,  we  have  the  worship 
of  the  Planets,  probably  introduced  by  the  Sythic 
Brahmins  in  a  very  remote  age.  It  is  my  own 
belief  that  the  story  of  ^rivatsa  and  Chinta,  which 
occurs  in  most  of  the  Bengali  versions  of  the  Mah&- 
bharata,  and  cannot  be  traced  to  any  known 
Sanskrit  original,  represents  an  attempt,  fashionable 
at  a  certain  period,  to  popularise  the  worship  of 
Saturn  or  ^ani,  through  these  Mangal  Gans. 

When  we  consider  how  much  of  the  recitation, 
at  any  given  performance,  may  be  the  rhapsodist's 
own  composition  and  what  portion  is  derivative  or 
traditional,  we  are  able  to  realise  the  way  in  which 
this  particular  form  must  have  contributed  to  the 
growth  of  the  great  Epics.  The  Mangal  Gayak  is 
accountable  to  none,  for  the  source  from  which  lie  The  Qayak 
draws  his  narrative.  He  may  take  one  part  of  his  Chorus. 
recitative  from  one  version  of  the  stor^^  and  another 
from  another,  at  his  own  sweet  will.  His  only 
responsibility  is  to  please  his  audience.  The  songs 
with  which  his  religious  and  descriptive  passages 
are  interspersed  may  be  his  own,  or  traditional,  or 
lyrics  of  unusual  beauty  that  he  has  picked  from 
other  poets  of  the  countryside.  The  chorus  is  in 
such  nipport  with  him,  that  they  will  often  begin 
the  accompaniment,  in  hushed  fashion,  on  the  last 
words  of  his  recitation,  bursting  into  fuller  music  as 
he  enters  on  the  song.  Sometimes,  again,  they  will 
be  silent  until  the  song  gives  the  signal. 

All    this,    which    mav   seem  to    thoughtk-ss   ob- 
servers crude  and  unliterary,  in  actual    fact    consti^ 


l66         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  ChapJ 

The  Man-  tutes  the  great  value  of  the  Mangal-gaii.  The  fullest 
create  Eotc  ^^^^^^  ^^  ^^^^  ^^  individual  genius,  and  that  fame  and 
poets.  appreciation  which  are  the  main  stimulus  to  poets, 
are  given  in  their  utmost  measure  by  the  rapt  audi- 
ence vastly  experienced  in  this  form  of  composi- 
tion and  ready  to  listen,  spell-bound,  for  hours,  if 
necessary  to  a  Gayak  of  unusual  powers.  It  is  thus 
easy  to  see  how  every  performance  of  a  Mangal 
represents  the  net  result  of  the  whole  past  ex- 
perience of  the  Chief  Gayen  and  his  chorus,  In 
appealing  to  their  audiences.  Each  has  acted  and 
reacted  on  the  other  for  many  years,  and  a  very 
successful  form  of  Mangal  will  become  more  or 
less  stereotyped,  though  not  beyond  the  possibility 
of  added  refinement,  and  will  be  handed  down  from 
father  to  son,  from  teacher  to  disciple,  from 
master-singer  to  student  or  apprentice,  generation 
after  generation.  Supposing  now  some  great  poet 
to  arise, — some  Homer  or  \'almikl — these  floating 
tales  and  songs  and  ballads  will  be  woven  bv  him, 
w  Itli  his  unique  combination  of  critical  and  creative 
genius.  Into  a  strong  coherent  shape.  Definition 
and  form  are  given  to  this.  At  such  a  moment  it 
may  be  written  down,  weeded  of  its  vernacular  Im- 
purities, Its  popular  grossness  or  chance  vulgarities, 
but  throbbing  with  the  strong  s\mpathies  and  dra- 
matic instinct  of  the  common  people  who  gave 
birth  to  it.  At  this  point,  it  appears  as  If  the  im- 
possible had  taken  place.  The  world  receives  a 
new  epic  and  it  bears  on  Its  front  a  single  poet's 
name. 

It  is  owing  to  this  popularization  of  old  storie* 
1)\-  the  j)rofessIonal  rhapsodlsts  that  there  is  still  a 
possibllily    of    (.-pic    [)Oems    being    written    in    this 


iy»  ]         BENGALI   LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE..       167 


country.  Not  only  the  subject, 'but  the  poetical 
features  of  a  connected  narrative  become  quite 
familiar  to  all  classes  of  people,  and  when  the  s^reat 
poet  comes,  he  has  the  double  advantage  of  linding 
a  vast  body  of  raw  poetical  material  at  hand,  and  a 
willing  audience  educated  to  appreciate  liis  subtlest 
acts  of  creative  fancy.  The  poems  of  Chandl 
Mangal,  Mana?a  Mangal,  and  the  like,  though  they 
certainly  do  not  bear  comparison  with  the  great 
Indian  Epics,  have  thus  a  truly  epic  quality  about 
them.  They  are  expressions  of  all  the  poetry  of 
the  race  and  hence  we  find  them  read  and  admired 
by  millions — the  illiterate  masses  forming  by  far, 
the  most  devoted  of  their  admirers. 

At  every  stage  of  our  past  history,  these  ballad- 
singers  have  risen  up  from  amongst  the  masses. 
New  features  have  been  introduced,  in  accordance 
with  the  taste  and  fashion  of  the  period,  the  nature 
of  the  changing  environment.  As  the  Gopiyantra 
or  one-stringed  lyre  of  the  old  rhapsodists  was 
supplanted  in  a  later  age  by  the  behala  or  violin 
and  khanjan  or  cymbals,  of  our  present  Mangal 
Gayaks,  so  also  the  crown  of  the  Chief  Gayen  is 
perhaps  a  new  departure. 

It  is  but  natural  that  the  Hindu  Renaissance 
should  have  adopted  this  most  convenient  and 
powerful  method  for  popularising  Pauianik  stories, 
and  we  have  seen  that  it  did  so,  with  the  utmost 
vigour,  improving  the  old  ways,  which  had  been 
natural  only  to  rustic  singers,  and  adding  such 
touches  of  heightened  poetry  as  were  inevitably 
demanded  by  the  deeper  culture  of  the  present 
audience.     Under  this  head,  of  additions  in  accord- 


New  fea- 
tures intro- 
duced. 


The  Hindu 
Renais- 
sance 
adopt  the 
Mangal 
Gans  for 
popularis- 
ing  Paura- 
fiik  stories. 


1 58      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   k   LITERATURE.        [Chap, 

ance  with  new  tastes,  will  fall  those  passages  of  des^ 
rription  and  devotion,  which  are  now  expected, 

I  have  already  referred  to  the  subject-matter  of 
these  songs.  The  vast  literature  of  the  Paurahik 
stories  furnished  the  Gayaks  with  inexhaustible 
stores  of  inspiration.  Most  of  these  stories  are 
wrought  by  the  Mangal  Gayaks  in  high  strung- 
pathos.  The  story  of  the  Great  Haric;  Chandra, 
for  instance,  is  one  of  their  favourite  subjects. 
The  Story     ^^^^'>     mighty    king,    after    having    performed    the 

!^\.^^I^^       Acwamedha  and  other  sacrifices,  felt  that  there  was 
Chandra.         ^  » 

no    monarch    in    the  world  who  was  as  righteous  as 

he.     He  was  indeed    one    of   the    most    truthful    of 

men,  but  the  vanity  that  he  secretly  indulged  in  the 

recesses    of   his     heart    was    to   be    rooted    out    in 

order  to    make  him  a  perfect  man.     A    severe  trial 

follows  : — Vi^wamitra,  the  sage,  seeks   to    complete 

and    manifest    Hari^    Chandra's    passion   for  truth. 

He  appears  before  the  king  and  seeks  gifts.     Hari^^ 

Chandra  whose  bounty  is  unlimited  promises  to  give 

him  whatever  he  would  seek.  The  sage  asks  for  his 

whole  kingdom.     The  king  has  already  pledged  his 

word  and  there  is  no  escape.     He  leaves   the  kinor. 
The  King  ^       .  ,      ,  .    '^ 

gives   his      dom  and  with   his    Queen    ^aibya    and    the    prince 

king^dom.       r^    ,  .  ,  •  o\    ^i  '^]       4. 

Rohitaywa    goes  a-begging.      Hut    the  sage  will  not 

let  him  alone  even  in  this  plight.      He  comes  to  the 

king  and  asks  for  dakshin§,  the   religious  fee   which 

must    be    added    to  all  kinds  of  gifts  to  a  Brahmin. 

He  could  not,   he    said,    accept    the    kingdom    if    a 

fixed    sum    was    not      paid    on      this      head.       The 

Sells  him-      King  finding  no  renu-d)  sells   his    wife  and  son  to  a 

self,  his        Brahmin  ;    and    he    himself    becomes  the  slave  of  a 
wife  and 

#on,  Dom.  one  of  those  lo\\-born  mvn,   who  serve  in   the 


IV»]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  169 

funeral    ground,    and    thus    "meets    the    demand    of 
Vigwamitra. 

He  is  bidden  by  his  master  to  watch  and  serve 
in  the  funeral  ground  during  the  night.  It  is  a 
cloudy  night  and  the  rays  of  stars  shine  feebly 
over  the  grounds  from  which  appears  here  and  there 
the  lurid  light  of  funeral  pyres  that  only  increases 
the  gloom  of  the  place.  A  mourner  comes,  carrying 
a  young  lad  in  her  arms,  and  implores,  in  a  petious 
tone,  help  for  cremating  the  dead  child.  Harif 
Chandra  at  once  recognises  in  her  his  beloved 
Queen,  the  dead  body  being  of  his  own  son,  the 
prince  Rohitaywa  who  died  of  snake-bite  on  that  very 
day.  The  interview  between  the  royal  couple  in 
that  plight  becomes  heart-rending;  the  King  of  the 
world  in  the  guise  of  a  Dom  in  rags,  and  the 
Queen  ^aibya  whose  beauty  and  character  were 
the  themes  of  the  songs  of  the  Maghada  bards, 
lowly  at  his  feet  in  the  agonies  of  insupportable 
grief. 

The  whole  story  is  tragic  and  full  of  tender 
pathos.  Raja  Hari^  Chandra  suffers  for  the  sake  of 
truth.  There  is  no  other  compulsion  throughout 
all  these  trials  than  that  w^hich  springs  from  within, 
— from  a  sense  of  duty,  which  with  men  of  high 
character,  always  carries  the  strongest  force. 
The  Gayen  sings  in  a  melodious  strain  and  his 
voice  trembles  with  tender  emotion,  as  he  describes 
the  sufferings  of  the  King.  The  pathos  created  by 
the  woes  of  the  Queen  and  of  the  Prince  melt  the 
audience  to  tears,  and  the  silence  that  prevails  over 
that  vast  congregation  is  only  interrupted  by  occa- 
sional sobs — the    Chief    Singer's    tone    ringing    in 


Serves  in 

the  funeral 

ground. 


The  pathe- 
tic meet* 
ing. 


22 


lyo         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [Chap. 

The  great     strains    of    tender    wail    which    is    heard     in    that 

^thfe'^  au  "      assembly   like   the    plaintive    sound  of  a  single  lyre 

dience.        and  the  story  becomes  more  real  than  any  history. 

In  all  this,  I  have  tried  to  show  how  great  an 
influence  was  exercised  on  the  minds  of  the  people, 
by  the  Bengali  versions  of  the  Puranas.  I  shall 
now  proceed  to  deal  with  some  of  the  popular 
translations  themselves  which  have  helped  to  edu- 
cate the  masses  of  Bengal,  and  also  to  form  their 
character,  for  the  last  five  centuries. 

(fl)    Translations  of  the  Ramayafia. 

Kr'tt'   "sa  ^^^  translation  of  the  Ramayana  by    Krittivasa 

and  his  is  by  far  the  most  popular  book  in  Bengal.  Five 
larity.  hundred  years  have  gone  by,  since  the  date  of  its 
composition,  and  still  nearly  a  hundred  thousand  of 
copies  are  annually  sold  in  Bengal.  I  found  the  hill 
people  of  Tippera,  who  speak  the  Tippera  dialect, 
purchasing  copies  of  this  work  when  they  came  down 
to  the  plains.  It  is  in  fact  the  Bible  of  the  people 
of  the  Gangetic  Valley,  and  it  is  for  the  most  part  the 
peasants  who  read  it. 

Krittivasa  has  left  a  orraphic  account  of  his   own 

His  r 

autobiogra-  ancestry,  and  of  tlie  earlier  portion  of  his  life. 
Owing  to  the  omission  of  certain  names,  however, 
from  this  autobiographical  notice,  an  important 
problem  touching  his  career  remains  unsolved.  It 
has  not  been  definitely  ascertained  who  the  Em- 
peror of  Gour  was,  referred  to  by  him  as  his  patron, 
by  whose  order  he  translated  the  Ramayana. 

We  know  for  certain  that  he  was  born  in  Febru- 
Born  I  346  ,        -    ,        r^ 

A.  D.  ary,  1346  A.l).,  on  the  30th  ot  the    Bengali    month 

Magh — the  Cri  PanchamI  day,  when  Saraswati,  the 


IV.]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  171 

goddess  of  learniiii^,  is  worshipped  in  Bengal.  The 
goddess  no  doubt  looked  with  a  benign  smile  upon 
the  new  comer,  who  heard  at  his  birth  the  hymns 
recited  by  the  Brahmins,  and  the  sound  of  the 
conch-shells  blown  by  the  women.  We  may  pre- 
sume further  that  the  goddess  granted  the  baby  the 

boon  of  immortal    fame.     Krittivasa   eives    an    in-     '^"*;f*.^^r^ 

°  of  Kritti- 

teresting    history    of     Ins    ancestors.     They    were  vasa. 

Kullna  Brahmins  descended  from  (Jriharsa  who  came 
to  Bengal  from  Kanouje  at  the  call  of  King  Adigur 
in  732  A.D."^  Nara  SirhhaOjha,  lyth  in  descent  from 
Criharsa,  was  the  prime  minister  of  King  Vedanuja, 
whom  we  identify  with  King  Danuja  Madhava  of 
Swarnagrama.  Nara  Simha  Ojha  left  Eastern  Bengal 
and  settled  in  the  village  Fulia  in  24  Paraganas  pro- 
bably in  1248  A.  D.,  owing  to  the  disturbance 
which  followed  an  invasion  of  Suvarfiagrgma  by 
Emperor  Fakiruddin.  Nara  Simha's  son  Garveswara 
was  known  for  his  large-heartedness  and  his  son 
Murari  Ojha  was  by  far  the  most  distinguished 
scion  of  his  illustrious  family,  if  we  are  to  believe 
the  accounts  given  by  Krittivasa.  He  thus  says  of 
Murari  Ojha. 

t  "  Murari  was  a  orreat  man,  and  was  always  en-        ,. 

gaged  in  religious  pursuits.     He  was  known  for  his      Ojha,  his 

grand- 
extreme    piety  and  was  esteemed  by   all.     xNo    one        father. 


^  ''  C^^TT^TOTC^  "—654  ^aka  or  732  A.D. 
^^4^  ^t^  ^^  ''tm  ^^^  l— -Krittivasa. 


172      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.      [Chap. 

ever  saw  him  moved  by  the  vicissitudes  of  life  or 
by  passion.  He  was  handsome  in  appearance. 
His  scholarship  in  religious  literature  was  as  great 
as  that  of  Markandeya  or  of  Vyas." 

Other  Murari  Ojha's  son  Vanamali  was  the    father    of 

partfculars.    ^^^  poet.  In  his  autobiographical  sketch  Krittivasa 

gives  details  about  the  position  held  by    his    uncles 

and  cousins,    together    with    a   description  of  their 

personal    qualifications     which    we    omit.       When 

Krittivasa  entered  his  eleventh  year  he  went  to  read 

in  a  Tola  on  the  banks  of  the  Bara  GanCTa."^     There 

he    read    Sanskrit,    Grammar  and  poetry,  for  many 

years.     When     he    completed    his    education,    he 

waited  on  the  Kin  or  of  Gaud  a  with  a  view  to  obtain 

He  com-       some  recoofnilion  of  his  scholarship. t     He  had  com- 
pletes edu-  '^  ^ 
cation  and     posed    five     elegant    verses    in    Sanskrit,    praying 

Emperor  of  fo^  ^'^  interview  with  the  king  and  had  sent  this 
Gauda.  through  one  of  the  officers  of  the  royal  guards. 
At  about  7  o'clock  in  the  morning,  the  guard  came 
back  carrying  with  him  a  golden  staff.  He 
approached  Krittivasa  and  informed  him  that  his 
prayer  was  granted  and  that  he  was  ordered  to 
lead  him  to  the  Emperor.  Krittivasa  followed  the 
officer  through  nine  successive  gates,  and  came  to 
the  presence  of  the  king,  \\ho  sat  on  a  throne,  lion- 
like in  his  majesty.      On  his  right  sat    the    minister 


*     The  river  Padma. 


1V»  ]        BEiNGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  1 73 

Jagadananda  and  behind  •  him  was  Sunanda,  a 
Brahmin.  On  his  left  was  Kedar  Khan.  The 
sovereign  was  talking  gaily  with  his  ministers  and 
courtiers.  Amongst  these  was  Gandharva  Raya, 
handsome  as  a  Gandharva,  who  was  held  in  great 
esteem  by  the  whole  court.  Three  of  the  ministers 
were  standing  by  the  king  who  was  in  a  humorous 
mood.  There  were  also  Sundar,  Crivatsaand  other 
Justices  of  the  peace  ;  Mukunda,  the  Court-Pandit, 
with  attractive  looks,  and  Jagadananda  Ray,  son 
of  the  prime  minister.  The  Durbar  of  the  king 
shone  like  the  presence  of  the  gods,  and  I  was 
charmed  with  the  sight.  The  King  was  in  a  jovial 
mood,  many  distinguished  people  were  standing 
beside  him.  In  several  parts  of  the  palace  songs 
and  dances  were  going  on,  and  all  the  people  were 
moving  to  and  fro  in  a  great  hurry.  A  red  mat  was 
spread  in  the  courtyard  and  over  it  there  was  a 
striped    cotton     sheet ;     a     beautiful    silk    canopy 

?rtsit^  ^tcf[*f  fe^  ^?^  ^^N II 

f^^v^  ^^  c^f^r  it^i  f^^s^H^  ni:^  ii 

^t^^  nt^»f  ^fn^t^w  ^t^«i  ^^^  II 
"^K^^  c^m  'I1  ^^fkm  ^i^n^  i 

'^^^  am  ^'^n  ^t^^  ^^^  ^^  zu  I 


174      BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.      [Chap, 

haug      overhead,    and    the    monarch    was     there 

enjoying    the    sunshine    of   the  month    of  Magha. 

The  I     tQQj^    j^y    stand    at    some    distance     from    his 
tmperor  •' 

receives  majesty,    but    he    beckoned    me    with    his   hand  to 
him  kindly  a        •    •  ,       ,, 

and   asks  come  nearer.     A  mmister    loudly    pronounced    the 

translate      ^^>'^^   order,    requiring   me  to  approach    the    King, 

the  Rama-     which  I  did  in  all  haste.     I  stood  at  a    distance    of 
yana. 

four    cubits   from    him.     I    recited  seven  verses  in 

Sanskrit,  to  which  he  listened  attentively.  Five 
gods  inspired  mc,  and  by  the  grace  of  Saraswatl,  the 
rhyme  and  metre  came  spontaneously.  Sweet  were 
the  verses  and  varied  were  their  metres.  The  king 
was  pleased  and  ordered  me  to  be  garlanded.  Kedar 
Khan  sprinkled  drops  of  sweet-scented  sandal  on 
my  head.  The  King  presented  me  with  a  silk-robe. 
He    asked    his   courtiers    what    o-ift  would  best  be- 

h^  nt^  tt^^^l  ^tc^  ^f^t^  ^t^^  I 

^t^  fe  ^?l^1  ?t^1  -^U  '^f^^\U\  II 

^^^  S^^5T  ^if^  jffrf^^tft^  II 
^T^^  ^m^  ^f^s  ^f^m  ^m  I 

^t^f^  ^^t^R  c^^  c^^-^t^^-m  I 
cwf«(^i  "^uu  f^v^  ^u^  ^^\^-\^  II 

-^m^  c^^  wt^i^^i  ^tm^  >i^  ^'1 II 


IV.]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.        1 75 

come  the  occasion.  They  replied,  "  Whatever  your 
majesty  may  deem  fit.  The  recognition  of  your 
majesty  is  the  only  true  reward  of  merit.  "  Then 
they  advised  me  to  ask  of  the  king  whatever  I 
might  want.  I  replied,  "  Nothing  do  I  accept  from 
any  one.  Gifts  I  avoid.  Whatever  I  do,  I  care  for 
glory  alone.  No  scholar,  however  great,  can  blame 
my  verses." 

The  King  was  pleased  with  my  answer  and    re-  '•  Blessed 

quested  me  to  compose  the  Ramayaha.     With  this  o.SchoIar 

token  of   recognition    from    him    I    left    the    court.  ^^  Fuiia." 
People    from    all    parts    of   the  capital  thronged  to 

m^^  5K^t^i  c^rtrs  ^t^f^  ^n<r  I 
U^i^  ^tv^  ^im  ft^  ^t^  ^K^  II 

^^'^^  ^^m  c?ft^  \^\  ^i^  "^u  II 

^1^  'K^  ^T^1  C^f^  <1p5^t1  ^nt^  I 

c^^t^  i\  %^  ^i^  ^m-^  w^\  I 

*ft3l  fe  ^^  ^t^t  Tl  ^TI  pl^^  II 


176      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.       [Chap, 

have  a  sight  of  me,  deeming  me  a  wonderful  man. 
They  said,  "  Blessed  are  you,  O  scholar  of  Fulia, 
you  are  amongst  the  scholars  what  Valmiki  was 
amongst  the  sages."  By  the  blessings  of  my  parents 
and  with  the  authority  of  my  master,  I  completed 
seven  cantos  of  the  Ramayaha." 

In  the  genealogical  work  Mahavam9avali,  by 
Dhruvananda  Mi9ra,  written  in  the  year  1495,  we 
iind  this  mention  of  Krittivasa.  "  Krittivasa  the 
wise    poet,    who    is    of    a  quiet   nature,   and  peace- 

nt-^  fe  ^ui  ^r*^  ^^  f^'^fft^^  I 

m^l  ^^  ^^  ^1^1  ^t^  ^V^K'^  II 

^^1  ^ft  ^'^[^  c^^^  ^^  ^t^  II 
^^  ^^  ^^\  ^f^^  ^i^a  TNTtr^  I 
^t^t^  ^ft^t  c^^  f^T^i^  ^1  ntc^  II 
^-%>.  ^^?i  <ri^i  f^i^^  ii^t^  I 

^tm^«1  ^f5t^  ^^5^1  ^5[^^t^  II 

^^r.^  ^ft^  ^tf^  cm^  ^tJ{f^5  I 

^i^  ^i^  ^^  «j^  ^r^^i  ^P9"5  II 
\f^  MV  Tf^rtf^  ^tlft  T^^f^  I 

^fQ^©5  'IC^T  ^fe^m  ^%  II 

?jt^  ^i^tTi  ^i^  %^  ^n  ^t^  f  t^  II 


IV.]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  177 

loving  disposition,  and  very  popular."     The    court, 

referred  to  in  the  autobiographical  account,    was  in 

all  probability  that  of  Kamsa  Narayaha  of  Tahirpur.    A"  histori- 
^  -^  .    .  .  ^  cal  review. 

Jagadananda,  the  minister  referred  to  by  the    poet, 

was  a  nephew  of  the  Raja.  Mukunda,  the  chief 
Pandit  of  the  court,  was  probably  Mukunda 
Bhaduri  whose  son  Crikrisna  was  the  prime  minis- 
ter, and  whose  grandson  Jagadananda  was  a  minis- 
ter of  the  court.  They  were  all  Varendra  Bralimins. 
The  title  Khan  affixed  to  the  name  of  a  courtier 
named  Kedar  shews  the  court  of  this  King  to  have 
been  already  subjected  to  Mahammadan  influence. 
In  a  manuscript-copy  of  the  Arafiyakanda  of  the 
Ramayana,  we  find  Krittivasa  lamenting  over  his 
failing  health  and  his  sufferings. 

The  Ramavaha  by   Krittivasa,  as  we  find    it    in      The  inter- 

.  .  '  '  ,  polations 

print,    is     not    at     all    the     book    that     Krittivasa     &  changes 

wrote.  In  Bengal,  where  the  vernacular  was  adopt-  poem. 
ed  as  a  means  of  popular  teaching,  all  good  works 
used  to  be  recast  by  those  who  copied  them  at 
subsequent  periods.  The  words  which  grew 
obsolete,  and  forms  of  expressions  that  became 
unfashionable,  in  course  of  time,  were  changed  by 
copyists.  There  were  also  interpolations  and 
omissions  on  a  large  scale,  by  reason  of  which  after 
a  few  centuries  the  whole  work  would  present  a 
form  in  many  points  different  from  the  original. 
But  the  general  tone  was  as  a  rule  preserved,  and 
those  who  made  changes,  or  otherwise  added  to  the 
poem,  adapted  themselves  more  or  less  to  its  style. 
Krittivasa  and  Chaucer  were  nearly  contemporary. 
But  what  a  difference  between  them  !  The  Rama- 
yana of  Krittivasa,  passing  through  constant  changes 
to    suit    the    tastes    of   the    moderns,    is  even  now 


23 


17S        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [Chap. 

a  fountain  of  inspiration  to  millions  of  people, 
whereas  '  The  Canterbury  Tales'  lies  on  the  shelf 
amongst  the  classics,  and  is  approached  by  the 
learned  only.  Historically  of  course  such  a  state  of 
things  does  not  commend  itself.  What  the  ori- 
ginal poem  of  Krittivasa  was  like,  can  now  be  only 
dimly  guessed  under  the  mass  of  later  interpola- 
tions and  alterations.  By  the  efforts  of  the  Vangiya 
Shahitiya  Parisada,  a  number  of  very  old  Mss.  of 
the  Ramayana  have  been  secured  with  a  view  to 
the  recovery  of  the  genuine  poem  of  Krittivasa. 
Their  different  readings,  however,  are  a  puzzle  to 
our  scholars.  But  when  we  consider  the  vast 
influence  that  this  poem  in  its  modernised  form  is 
still  exerting,  after  the  lapse  of  500  years,  on  the 
education  of  the  masses  in  Bengal,  we  do  not  really 
know  how  far  we  should  regret  the  loss  of  the 
original  poem,  the  quaint  and  antiquated  form  of 
which  could  afford  only  a  philological  interest. 
It  must  be  stated  here  that  the  poetry  of  the 
original  work  has  not  suffered  at  all  by  these 
changes.  The  country  people,  true  to  their  strong 
poetical  instincts,  have  preserved  the  really 
beautiful  and  interesting  passages  while  they 
simplified  and  modernised  the  style.  Interpolations 
and  changes  have  been  made  chiefly  with  the 
object  of  introducing  into  the  poem  leading 
thoughts  of  the  succeeding  ages.  Vaishava  poets, 
particularly,  have  enhanced  the  charm  of  the  book 
by  adding  a  devotional  element,  which,  in  the 
present  shape  of  the  poem,  forms  one  of  its  chief 
features. 

The  changes  wrought  in  the    poem    have    been 
great,     We    can    now  trace  in  it  the  interpolating 


iV^  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  1 79 

hands  of  Vaishavas  as  well  "as  ^aktas — followers  of 
those  two  different  cults  who  shewed  such  bitter 
animosity  towards  each  other  for  so  many  cen- 
turies. The  work  being,  as  I  have  said,  the 
most  popular  in  Bengal,  different  religious  sects 
missed  no  opportunity  to  introduce  their  own 
various  doctrines,  and  pass  them  on  in  the  name 
of  Krittivfisa.  These  are  like  the  advertisements 
on  the  cover  of  a  shilling-novel.  There  could  not 
be  a  better  method  for  propagating  a  religious 
creed,  and  Krittiv5sa  not  only  helped  the  circula- 
tion, but  his  name  added  weight  to  the  doctrines 
themselves. 

Krittivasa's  Ramayana  at  the  present  day  is  a 
curious  medley,  in  which  the  different  elements  of 
Paurahic  religion  have  found  a  place,  and  it  does 
not  follow  Vslmiki's  original  poem  very  closely. 
As  far  as  Krittivasa  was  concerned,  he  was  pro- 
bably faithful  to  Valmiki,  though  he  abridged  him. 
We  come  to  this  conclusion  on  comparing  the 
earlier  manuscripts  ;  the  older  the  Ms.,  the  nearer 
it  is  to  Valmiki's  Epic. 

The  story  of  Ram's  exile  which    forms  the  main 

theme  of  the  Ramayana  is  briefly  this: — Ram  is  to 

ascend    the    throne    by  the  wish  of  his  father  King 

Dagaratha.     He  is  dressed  gorgeously,    his    person 

decked    with  jewels,    his  rich  apparel  diffusing  the 

sweet  scent  of    sandal  ;    he  is    delighted    with    the 

prospect  of  his  coronation  ;  the  people  applaud  his     ^^^^^^^^^ 
^        ^  ...  of  Ram's 

virtues  and  look  forward  to  his  being  crowned  a  king.         exile. 

Ram  is  talking    gaily  about  his  good    fortune    with 

his    beautiful    bride     Sita,     when    he    is    suddenly 

called,  at  dawn  of  day,  to  the    appartments    of   his 


l8o        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

The  com-  royal  father,  old  Da^aratha  He  passes  through 
nation."  the  streets,  which  ring  with  the  joyous  shouts  of 
men  and  women  greeting  him.  The  capital  is 
decked  with  flowers  and  banners.  The  air  is  frag- 
rant. Everywhere,  throngs  of  people  wait  to  catch 
sight  of  Ram,  whose  beauty  of  person,  matchless 
valour,  truthfulness  and  anxiety  to  help  the  poor 
and  needy,  have  endeared  hiin  to  all  hearts.  Ram 
comes  into  the  presence  of  the  old  monarch,  but 
there  he  meets  with  a  strange  spectacle  ;  the  king 
is  shedding  tears  and  dares  not  look  at  his  dear 
son.  Ram  is  awe-striken,  like  a  traveller  treading 
on  a  venomous  snake  that    lies    in    his    path.     His 

step-mother  Kaikevi,  the  favourite  Queen  of  Daca- 
Fhe  ba-  ^  ^  .  . 

nishment.      ratha,  sits  beside  her    husband    in    an    attitude    on 

which  the  firmness  of  a  fell  purpose  is  apparent — her 

features  inspired  with  strange  emotions,    \Nhich    do 

not  betray  any    softness  of  heart.     Ram  makes  his 

usual  obeisance  to  both.     The  king    weeps    like    a 

child,    and    hangs    his    head  ;  but  the  queen  speaks 

out.     Taking  advantage  of  an  old  vow  which  Da^a- 

ratha  made  to    her,  she    has    extorted  a  promise  to 

banish  Ram  for  fourteen  years,  and  to  place  her  own 

son,  Rharata,    on    the  throne  of  Ayodhya.     To  this, 

Da^arat-ha  adds  in  great  grief  that,    promise-bound 

as    he  is,  he  is  helpless  ;  but  his  son  can  easily  take 

the  throne  bv  force  ;  and  this  he  ouorht  to  do.     The 

people  of  Uttara  Ko^ala  will  give  him    full    Support 

in    such    an  attempt.     Ram   for  a  moment     stands 

silent    as  a  statue.     Onlv  a  moment  ago  he  dreamt 

of  an  Empire.     Now  he  feels,  with  the  ascetics,  that 

man's    true  greatness    lies  in  the  sacrifice  that    he 

makes,  and  that  earthly  magniticence  cannot   really 

give  him  glorv.      At  this,  he  throws  away  his  jewels 


iV.  i       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  l8i 

and  his  rich  apparel,  dismisses  the  state-carriage 
that  brought  him  here,  waives  aside  the  royal  um- 
brella and  with  a  firmness  of  purpose  which  is  dig- 
nity itself,  he  puts  on  the  bark  of  a  tree,  turns  an 
ascetic,  and  leaves  the  palace.  His  half  brother 
Laksmaha  and  the  beautiful  princess  Sita,  of  whose      Laksmafi 

fair    face  even  the    Sun    and    Moon  were  scarcely    f«^,"  „,^j£ 

J      follow  nim. 

hitherto  allowed  to  have  a  peep,  follow  him.  This 
daughter  of  the  pious  and  revered  Janaka,  the  King 
of  Mithila,  can  by  no  means  be  persuaded  to  live 
in  the  palace  without  her  Lord  ;  she  throws  away 
her  jewels,  and  her  tender  feet,  coloured  with 
beautiful  Alta,  tread  the  bare  earth  with  its 
thorny  paths,  Avhile  the  people  of  Ajodhya  lament 
wildly,  as  they  see  the  royal  couple,  and  the  prince 
Laksmana  leave  the  capital  in  such  a  sad  plight. 
The  old  King  Dayaratha  is  crushed  to  death  under 
the  heavy  burden  of  sorrow.  Bharata,  son  of 
Kaikeyl,  comes  to  Ajodhya,  and  hears  of  the  machi- 
nations of  his  mother  only  to  be  struck  with  grief. 
Followed  by  the  loyal  subjects  of  Ayodhya,  he  over- 
takes Ram  in  the  forest  ;  abandoning  his  own  royal 
dress,  he  walks  on  foot  and  falls  at  his  brother's  feet, 
begging  him,  with  tears,  to  take  the  kingdom.  But 
Ram  will  not  accept  this.  Bharata,  however,  cannot 
be  persuaded  to  return  without  Ram.  Ram  pre- 
vails upon  him  at  last,  giving  him  his  sandals,  which 
he  carries  on  his  head  and  places  on  the  throne,  pro- 

claiminor  .  himself  to  be  the  reo;-ent  of  Ram's    shoes, 

^  ^  ^  Bharata 

and     ruling  the   kingdom    in    that    capacity.     Ram    rules  as  the 
goes  to  the  Dandakarahya  groves,    where    the  lofty         Ram's 
peaks  of  Chitrakuta,  the  beautiful   lake  Pampa,  the        shoes. 
'  silver  streams  of  the  Mandakini  girdling  the  foot  of 
Chitrakuta, —  the  manifold  beauties  of  the  picturesque 


l82         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [Chap, 

scenery  of   the    Daksinatya  and  the  ever-changing 

seasons  allay  their  heart's  grief,  and  the  royal  couple 

and  the  prince  Laksmaha  pass  their  days,  restored 

to  peace  of    mind,  and  even  to  happiness.     In    the 

Sita  '4^^  y^^^  ^^  exile,  Sita  is  carried  off  by  Ravaha,  the 

carried    off     Raksasa  King   of  Lanka  ;  and  Ram  with  the  help  of 

Sugriva,  King  of  Kiskindhya,  wages  a  dreadful  war 

to  recover  his  wife.      In  Lanka,    Sita    resists  all  the 

persuasions,    threats    and    oppressions    of   Ravaha. 

She  is  resigned  in  her  forlorn  condition  but  firm  and 

resolute  in  her  mind.    Ram  obtains  victory    over  the 

Raksasa  King  and  recovers  Sita,  and  returns  with  her 
The 
victory.        to  the  capital  after  fourteen  years.      He  ascends  the 

throne    of    Ayodhya,     but    his     subjects     express 

their  doubt    about  Sita's  fidelity    during    her    stay 

at    Ravaha's     palace;    and    Ram     only    to    satisfy 

the    people,     banishes     her,     thoug;;h     he       knows 
Sita's  exile  it-'  '  s 

her  to  be  faultless.  For  the  purpose  of  the 
Ayvamedha  or  horse-sacrifice  ceremony  which  he 
holds  after  a  time,  the  subjects  hope  that  the  king 
will  marry  again,  as  without  a  queen  such  cere- 
monies cannot  be  performed.  But  K§m  makes  a 
golden  image  of  Sita,  and  says  that  he  has  but  one 
wife  ;  she  has  been  true  to  him  in  all  his  sufferings 
and  he  does  not,  for  one  moment,  suspect  her  to  be 
faithless.  He  knows  her  to  be  pure  as  purity 
itself;  and  he  has  banished  her  only  because  he 
could  not  prove  his  own  conviction  to  others.  In 
the  capacity  of  a  king  whose  principal  duty  is  to 
win  the  good  wishes  of  his  people,  he  has  sacri- 
ficed all  the  happiness  of  his  life  and  he  is  more 
miserable  by  doing  so  than  the  most  miserable  of  bis 
subjects.  He  performs  the  horse-sacrilice  ceremony, 
sitting    beside  the    golden    image    of    Sita.       Not 


IV.]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  183 


long  after  this,  she  is  brought  by  the  sage  Val- 
miki,  in  whose  hermitage  she  was,  to  the  court  of 
Rcim.  There  she  stands,  with  down  cast  eyes  like 
the  young  moon,  the  poet  says,  in  its  second  day. 
The  people  are  struck  dumb  at  the  sight  of  the 
lovely  queen — that  beautiful  Sita  who  in  her  youth 
went  to  the  forest  of  her  own  free  will,  out  of 
devotion  to  Ram,  and  triumphed  over  the  unheard- 
of  persecutions  of  Ravana,  and  who  now,  though 
subjected  to  repeated  wrongs  by  her  husband,  is,  as 
ever,  a  suppliant  of  his  grace.  When  the  question 
of  her  trial  is  again  raised,  however,  the  queen  calls 
upon  her  mother,  the  Earth,  to  open  and  take  her 
to  herself.  Verily  she  has  been  her  true  daughter, 
ever  since  she  was  found  by  Janaka,  the  King,  in 
the  furrow  of  a  field,  and  she  is  a  patient  sufferer  of 
wrongs  even  as  the  Earth  herself.  A  cavity  opens, 
at  these  words,  and  the  Earth  in  the  guise  of  a  stately 
woman  appears  from  within.  Sita  throws  herself 
into  her  arms,  and,  with  her  last  looks  fixed  on 
Ram,  enters  in,  and  disappears. 

This  is  in  brief  the  story  of  the  Ramayana.  It 
is  full  of  tender  and  pathetic  interest.  Its  tales  of 
righteousness,  of  life-long  devotion,  of  holy  ad- 
her(*nce  to  one's  vows  and  consequent  sufferings 
have  an  ennobling  influence  on  the  people  at  large, 
and  they  are  never  weary  of  hearing  them  recited. 

One  point  need  be  mentioned  here.  The 
stories  of  the  Puranas  never  involve  their  readers 
in  a  merely  tragic  interest.  The  sufferings  that 
raise  a  man's  character — martyrdoms  for  the  sake  of 
virtue,  are  the  subjects  which  they  take  up.  The 
poem   attracts  the  reader  by  its  literary  excellence, 


Sita  vani= 
shes  away 

in  the  arms 
of  her  mo= 

ther  Earth. 


The  ennob- 
ling influx 
ence  of  this 
and  other 
Pauranic 
stories. 


184        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [Chap, 

by  some  romantic  motive  appealing  to  the  ordinary 
mind  ;  But  in  addition,  there  is  a  great  purpose 
to  be  traced  in  this  Pauranic  literature,  underlying 
and  hallowing  the  realistic  scenes.  This  purpose  is 
not  made  inartistically  prominent,  but  it  works  half- 
revealed  as  the  great  Moral  Law  that  runs  through 
the  affairs  of  men  in  this  world.  In  India  religion  is 
not  dissociated  from  any  department  of  thought ; 
in  poetry,  in  philosophy  and  even  in  logic,  the 
chief  point,  the  Indian  writers  have  in  view,  is 
spirituality,  which  to  their  eyes  is  the  finer  essence 
of  life  and  without  which  life  sinks  into  grossness. 
Their  earthly  habitations  are  meant  as  temporary 
residences  which  always  have  lattices  and  apertures 
open  towards  heaven. 

Details  of  the  clianges  which  have  been  made 
by  later  poets  in  the  original  work  of  Krittivasa 
will  be  dealt  with  in  the  chapter  on  Vaisfiavism. 

The  great  The  great  popularity  of    Krittivasa    cannot    but 

of  Kritti=      strike;    any    one    who    visits   Bengal.     Through  the 

vasa's         cocoanut  and  mano^o  orroves  which  half  conceal  the 
Ramayana.  ^     ^ 

thatched    roofs    of  the  villages,  let  one  pass  by  the 

narrow  muddy  road,  in  the  stillness  of  the  night, 
when  nature,  as  it  were,  drowses,  with  the  droop- 
ing leaves  of  the  trees  and  the  waning  light  in  the 
cottages,  and  he  will  mark  here  and  there  some 
small  merchant  or  craftsman,  sitting  beside  his 
lamp  and  i)oring  over  the  pagt^s  of  the  Ramayana, 
wliich  he  chants,  as  he  reads,  in  a  sing-song  voice, 
that  chiinrs  in,  with  the  droning  of  the  beetles  and 
the  sound  of  the  falling  leaves. 


IV.]         BENGALI   LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  1S5 


Numerous  writers  after  Krittivasa  translated 
the  Ramayana  into  Bengali,  but  none  of  them 
could  ever  rival  his  popularity  or  throw  his  great 
work  into  the  shade,  though  some  of  the  subsequent 
translations  display  a  highly  finished  style  of  com- 
position. The  reasons  which  have  determined  this 
preference  for  Krittivasa  are  two-fold,  (i)  Kritti- 
vasa, of  all  the  translators  of  the  Ramayana,  has 
made  the  nearest  approach  to  reproducing  that 
pathos  which  is  admittedly  the  strength  of  Valmiki's 
great  epic.  (2)  The  unmatched  simplicity  of  Kritti- 
vasa's  translation  commends  it  to  the  masses  more 
than  anv  other  literary  quality.  This  simplicity  of  the 
Bengali  recension  is  also  on  the  lines  of  Valmiki. 

Of  the  other  translators  of  the  Ramayaha,  we 
must  first  name  Sastivara  Sen  who  was  born  at 
Jhinardwipa,  the  modern  Jhinerdi  in  Vikrampur  in 
the  district  of  Dacca.  He  belonged  to  the  Vaidya 
or  physician  caste  and  lived  more  than  three  hun- 
dred years  ago.  Sastivara  and  his  son  Gangadas 
were  voluminous  writers.  The  son  completed 
what  the  father  had  left  unfinished.  They  tran- 
slated not  only  the  Ramayana,  but  also  the  Maha- 
bharata,  and  wrote  poems  besides  in  honour  of 
Manasa  Devi.  Sastivara  is  precise  and  short. 
Gangadas  is  rather  elaborate  and  more  poetic  in 
his  descriptions.  Here  are  a  few  lines  from 
Gangadas.  Sita  prays  to  be  taken  to  the  bosom  of  her 
mother,  Eearth,  when  her  sufferings  grow  unbearable. 

■^  "Tear-drops  finer  than  pearls  fell  from  her  eyes 
as  she  addressed    Ram,  her  husband,  in  a  tone  that 

24 


Other 
transla- 
tions of 
the  Rama* 
yafia. 


Sastivara 

and 
Qangadas. 


Sita's  last 
prayer. 


lS6      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.        [Chap, 

trembled  with  great  grief.  '  You  are  the  Lord  of 
the  world  and  the  help  of  the  helpless,  O  King ! 
You  know  best  whether  I  have  been  true  or  not.  I 
am  the  daughter  of  Earth  and  I  am  your  wife. 
God  created  me  for  the  personification  of  sorrow. 
You  desire  to  place  me  under  public  trial,  as  many 
times  as  you  please,  before  the  people,  even  as 
one  might  do  to  a  harlot.  Such  an  insult  as  this 
trial  my  heart  will  no  longer  bear.  Sita  bids  you 
a  life  long  farewell,  and  begs  permission  at  your 
feet  to  depart  for  ever.  None  in  this  world  could 
I  count  upon  as  my  refuge,  excepting  you.  May 
you.  Oh  lord,  be  my  husband  in  all  my  future 
births  ! '  Saying  this,  Sita  in  deep  distress,  began  to 
cry,  '  O  mother,  mother !  you  can  bear,  O  mother, 
the  burden  of  all  mortal  things,  but  not  the  sorrow 
of  your  own  daughter  ! '" 

ft^ft^i  ^r^^  c^K^  "^u  ^^ft[%  I 
^Hi^n  ^tf^  ^t^n  cvf-m  ^J^  nf^  n 

^nm^  5(^t^2^  ^1  Til  ^^K*t  I 

"^m  ^f^  ^i^  ^t5  ^ih  oiv^  'tfs  I 
^i^  ®^  "^tfl  5;^  ^ft  ^^^fe  II 

^TTHI  ^H  m  C^^  ife^  ^1  "It^  II 


IV.  ]         BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.         187 

If  this  had  been  a  translation  from  the  original, 
I  would  not  have  cared  to  quote  it.  But  all  who 
know  the  Sanskrit  epic  will  attest  the  imperious 
tone  of  the  brief  expressions  that  fell  from  Sita  in 
the  moment  of  deserting  the  world.  In  the  extract 
quoted  above,  on  the  other  hand,  she  speaks  like  a 
simple  Bengali  woman  and  though  we  may  miss 
here  the  lofty  reticence  and  composure  of  the 
original,  yet  one  cannot  fail  to  admire  the  great 
insight  and  refinement  with  which  Gangadas  has 
pourtrayed  Sita's  mingling  of  pride  and  sweet- 
ness. 

The    date  of  the  composition  of  Dwija  Durga-         Dwija 
ram's    translation  of    the    Ramayana  is   unknown;     DurgarSm 
but  this  author  flourished  after  Krittivasa  of  whose 
poem  he  speaks  with  great  respect  in  the  preface. 

Jagat  Ram,  the  next  great  translator  of  the  jagat  Ram, 
Ramayaha,  was  born  in  the  village  Bhului,  three  I  655  A. D. 
miles  to  the  south-west  of  Raniganj,  a  station 
on  the  East  Indian  Railway.  Close  to  this 
village  on  the  south  are  the  Vehari  Nath  Hills. 
On  the  west  rise  the  historic  ranges  of  Panchakota. 
On  the  north  flows  the  strong,  though  narrow, 
current  of  the  Damodara  like  a  silver  line  through 
sandy  banks.  The  scenery  of  the  village  is  beauti- 
ful and  the  place  is  "  a  meet  nurse  for  the  poetic 
child."  Jagat  Ram  was  a  gifted  poet.  He  was 
set  to  the  task  of  translating  the  Ramayaha  by 
Raghunath  Sinha  Bhup,  Raja  of  Panchakota,  and 
completed  the  work  in  1655  ^-  ^-  ^^  ^^^°  began  to 
write  another  book  called  Durga  Pancharatri  which 
he  did  not  live  to  complete.  The  last  cantos  of 
this  were  written  by  his  son  Ram    Prasad    Ray    in 


l8S        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap^ 


Ram 

Prasad, 

1680  A.D. 


^iva^ 
Charafi. 


Adbhuta- 
charyya, 
1742  A.D. 


Kavi- 

chandra's 

Ramayaha 


1680  A.  D.  Jagat  Ram's  Ramayaha  has  a  racy 
and  sparkling  style  and  was  at  one  time  much 
appreciated. 

Next  comes  Sarada  Mangala  by  Civa  Charah 
Sen,  a  Vaidya,  born  in  the  village  of  Kathadia  in 
Vikrampur  in  the  district  of  Dacca.  This  recen- 
sion of  the  Ramayaha  was  composed  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  18th  century. 

This  author's  real  name  was  Nityananda  and 
Adbhutacharyya  was  his  title.  He  bagan  the  work 
of  translation  when  he  was  yet  a  boy  and  brought 
his  work  to  completion  in  1742  A.  D. 

Kavichandra  was  the  title,  Cankara  being  the 
name  of  the  poet.  Many  chapters  and  passages 
from  this  Ramayaha  have  been  added  to  that  of 
Krittivasa,  and  in  the  shape  in  which  we  find  the  latter 
poem  now,  it  owes  largely  to  these  additions.  The 
well-known  humourous  canto  of  Angada  Raybar  or 
Interview^  between  Angada,  as  ambassador,  and 
Ravaha,  which  is  now  inseparable  from  Krittivasa's 
Ramayaha,  was  written  by  Cankara  Kavichandra. 
Besides  this  translation  of  the  Ramayaha,  he  wrote 
many  other  poems,  all  of  which  are  characterised 
by  a  lively  poetical  spirit.  Kavichandra  was  one 
of  the    most    voluminous    of  old  Bengali    writers.* 

*    I  have    found    46  poems  in  all  by  this  author.      Kavichandra 
translated  the  Ramayaha,  the  Mahabharata,  and  the  Bhaga 

bata  in  Bengali.  The  46  poenis,  nuinerated  below,  fall  under 
one  or  the  other  of  these  three  groups.  I  mention  in  the  list  the 
dati:s,  where  available,  on  which  the  MS8.  that  I  found  were 
copied. 

(1)  Akruda  agamana  1683  A.  U. 

(2)  Ajamiler  I'pakhyan  680  A.  D. 

(3)  Arjuner  Darpa  Churha  1847  A.  D. 

(4)  Arjuner  Band  bandha  Pala  1O91  A.  D. 
(5)  Unchhabritti  Pala  1654  A.  Dj 


liV.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.         189 

He  was  born  in  Panna,  "a  village  near  Logo 
in  the  district  of  Bankura.  Babu  Makhan  Lai 
Banerjee,  a  descendant  of  ^ankara  through  one  of 
his  daughters,  has,  at  great  pains,  collected  a    com- 

(6)  Uddhaba  Sambad  1654. 

(7)  Ekada^brata  Pala  1680  A.  D. 

(8)  Kangsabadha. 

(9)  Kahvamunir  Parafi  1813  A.  D. 

(10)  Kapila  Mangal. 

(11)  Kuntir  ^iva  Puja  1672  A.  D. 

(12)  Krisner  Swargarohana  1678  A.  D. 

(13)  Kokilsamgbad  1859  A.  D. 

(14)  Qedu  Churi  1873  A.  D. 

(15)  Chitra  Ketur  Upakhyan, 

(16)  Da^am  Purafia. 

(17)  Data  Karfia  1655  A.  D. 

(18)  Diva  Rasa. 

(19)  Draupadir  Vastra  Harana  1702  A.  D. 

(20)  Draupadir  Sayambara. 

(21)  Dhruva  Charitra. 

(22)  Nanda  Vidaya  1758  A.  D. 

(23)  Pariksiter  Bramha  ^apa. 

(24)  Pariyata  Harafia. 

(25)  Prahlada  Charitra  1664  A.  D. 

(26)  Bharata  Upakhyana  1673  A.  D. 

(27)  Vafia  Parva  1678  A.  D. 

(28)  Udyoga  Parva. 

(29)  Bhisma  Parva. 

(30)  Karfia  Parva. 

(31)  ^alya  Parva  1673  A.  D. 

(32)  Gada  Parva. 

(22)  Radhika  Manga!  1660  A.  D. 
(34^   Lanka  Kanda. 
(35)  Ravafibadha  1839. 
{26)  Rukmihi  Harafia. 

(37)  9'^^*'amer  Yuddha. 

(38)  ^ivi  Upakhyan. 

(39)  Sita  Harafi. 

(40)  Haric  Chandrer  Pala  1796  A.  D. 

(41)  Adhyatma  Ramayafia  1743  A.  D. 


igo        BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

plete  manuscript  of  ^ankara's  works  which,  however. 
he  is  not  able  to  publish  for  want  of  funds.  Kavi- 
chandra  lived  about  the  end  of  the  i6th  centurv. 

Lak^man  The  Ramavana  by    Laksman    Bandvopadhava. 

padhaya.       ^^^^  composed  in  the  middle  of   the  17th  centun*. 

Valaram  The    Ramavana.  bv   \'alaram    Bandvopadhava. 

Bandvo-  .  •     '  '    .      ,  ,  .  ,     ' 

padhiya,      ^^^^  written  in  comparatively  modern  times,     ft  was 

1838  A.  D.    completed  in  1838  A.  D.     Valaram  Bandyopadhaya 

was  born  in  the    village  of  Meteri  in  the  district  of 

Xadia :    he    dedicated    his    works    to  Madhava.  his 

household  God. 

Ram's  Ii^  the    original  poem  of  Valmiki,    Rsm    chiefly 

character      tiorures  as   a    ofreat    man  only.      In    Adikanda  and 
loses  o  t.  J 

human        Uttarakanda. — the     first     canto     and    the     last — 
interest.  ,     i  i-  1  r 

which,  according    to  scholars,  did   not  torm    part  ot 

the  original  poem,  there  are  incidents  that  prove 
him  to  be  an  incarnation  of  Vishu.  In  the  other 
five  kandas,  or  cantos,  however,  which  we  believe 
to  be  the  genuine  epic  of  \'almlki.  he  mainly 
appears  to  us  as  a  g^eat  man  guided  by  the  noblest 
of  impulses,  and  this  high  character  requires  no 
help  of  a  mythological  kind  to  commend  him  to  the 
reverence  of  the  people.  The  Hindu  mind,  how- 
ever, has  undergone  a  change  since  the  original 
epic  was  composed.  Ram  has  now  become,  in  the 
eyes  of  the  people,  an  incarnation  of  \'ishu  and  his 
name  for  millions  is  a  synonym  for  God.    To  a  writer 

(42)  An  gad  RSybar. 

(43)  Kumbha  Karfier  Raybar. 

(44)  Draupadir  Lajjani\  araha. 
(45;  Durvasar  Parafi. 

(46)  Laksmaner  ^akti  ^ela. 

Beside";      thf-e      Kiivir'nar.rir.i    urotr     a    vol;,  mi  nous    uork      :i. 
honour  of  ^iva. 


IV.]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         IQI 

who  believes  in  the  divinity  of  Ram  with  all  his 
heart,  the  epic  is  no  longer  a  mere  poem,  everv  \Nord 
of  it  is  divine.  The  Bengali  rescensions  of  the 
Ramayana,  as  also  the  Hindi  Ramayaha  by  Tulasi 
Das,  differ  in  this  point  from,  the  original  Sanskrit 
epic.  Whenever  the  vernacular  poets  attempt  to 
describe  any  episode  of  Ram's  life,  the  expressions 
thev  use,  in  the  excess  of  their  devotional  fervour, 
verge  on  the  phraseology  of  sernions  and  prayers, 
and  we  miss  in  them  the  vigorous  realistic  descrip- 
tions   of    the    original.      Here    is  an  account  of  the 

rainv  season  bv   Ram    Mohan  who  lived  in  thc^   last        ..^^"^ 

Mohan. 

part  of  the  eighteenth  century.     The    poet    labours 

under  an  overwhelming  idea  of  Ram's  divinity, 
and  cannot  forget  this  even  while  giving  an 
account  of  natural  scenery  at  a  particular  season. 

■^  "  In  the  month  of  Asadha  the  newlv  formed  a  descrip 
clouds  appear  in  the  sky.  and  I  iind  the  beautiful 
dark  blue  complexion  of  Ram.  mirrored  in  them. 
It  thunders  continually.  The  sound  falls  upon  my 
ear  like  the  twanging  of  Ram's  bow-string.  The 
lightning  flashes  at  intervals.  Even  so  flashes  the 
flgure  of  Ram  in  the  mind  of  a  devotee.  At  the 
sight  of  the  newborn  clouds,  the  peacocks  dance 
for  joy.  So  are  goodly  men  overjoyed  at  the  sight 
of  Ram.  Rain  pours  incessantly  on  the  earth. 
How  like  the  tears  that    Ram   shed,  in  his  grief  for 

c^n^  ^ti^  w  ^vi^^  ^^  II 


tion  of  the 
rains. 


r92        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

Sita  !  The  lotus  blooms  in  the  lake,  as  shines  the 
image  of  Ram  in  the  minds  of  his  devotees.  The 
bees  suck  honey  never  leaving  the  lotus.  Even  so 
do  the  minds  of  the  spiritual  cling  to  the  feet  of 
Ram  Chandra.  The  thirst  of  the  bird  Chataka  is 
allayed  by  the  rain  as  it  falls.  So  are  the  pas- 
sions of  the  flesh  soothed  by  the  presence  of  Ram. 
The  rivers  and  streams  run  swiftly  to  lose  them- 
selves in  the  ocean,  as  the  universe  moves  onward 
to  lose  itself  in  Ram.     The    rain-drops  soothe    the 


^Pl  C^f^f  1"^^  C^^^  ^?  ^^  II 
^JJ^tC^f  "IV^  ^f^  ^'T  ^?  cmi^  I 

^^mc^  ^T^^^^i  ^^1  ^^  ^m  I 
^n  c^c^  ci^^  Tf^^  ^^  nn  II 

^^^f\  ^fo  c^?:^  ^^cB  f5i*ft^  I 


dan  GoS' 
wami. 


IV.  ]         BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.        193 

heart  of  the  earth,  as  the  weary  and  the  heavy  laden 
are  soothed  by  Ram's  name." 

In  spite  of  its  ingenuity,  which  might  have 
made  it  artificial,  this  poem  is  full  of  simple  faith. 
But,  however  this  be,  there  is  nothing  to  be 
found  in  the  original  Sanskrit  poem  of  Valmiki 
which  would  give  any  opportunity  to  the  poet  for 
indulging  in  such  fancies. 

Of  all  the  translations  of  the  Ramayana  Raghunan. 
which  followed  Krittivasa's  work,  that  by  Raghu- 
nandan  Goswami  is  decidedly  the  best.  This  has 
been  published  by  the  Battala  publishing  firms  in 
Calcutta.  It  commands  a  good  sale.  The  author 
was  a  learned  man,  and  his  writings  display  fault- 
less rhyme,  and  a  great  command  over  language. 
It  is  a  work  which  attracts  more  by  the  richness 
of  its  rythmical  expression,  its  finished  style  of 
composition,  and  its  variety  of  metre  than  by 
pathos  or  power  of  delineating  character  and  feel- 
ings. It  is  based  not  only  on  the  Ramayana  of 
Valmiki  but  also  on  the  Hindi  recension  by  Tulasi 
Das,  and  on  some  ol'  the  Puranas  in  which  the 
story  of  Ram  Chandra  is  re-told. 

The  author  was  born  in  the  village,  Mar,  in  the 
district  of  Burdwan  and  completed  the  Rama- 
rasayana,  as  his  poem  is  called,  in  the  middle  of  the 
1 8th  century.  He  belonged  to  the  illustrious  family 
of  Nityananda  ;  and  his  father's  name  was  Kigori- 
mohan  Goswami.  He  dedicated  the  book  to  Radha 
Madhava,  the  tutelary  deity  of  his  family. 

It  is  difficult  to  shew  in  translation  the  rythm 
and  the  elegance  of  metre  of  a  particular  language, 

25 


194      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.     [Chap, 

and  these  are  the/<7r/^  of  Raghunandana's  writings. 
He  pleases  the  ear  more  often  than  he  touches 
the  heart.  I  shall  make  an  attempt  to  trans- 
late a  short  passage,  from  the  Rama  Rasayafia, 
below. 

*  "  Now  Ram  made  himself  ready  for  the  battle 
with  a  gladsome  heart.  With  the  tender  bark  of  a 
tree  he  girded  himself  tightly.  His  thick  matted 
hair  he  circled  about  his  head.  Hard  armour  he 
wore  that  fitted  him  close." 

We  feel  that  in  this  translation,  the  rich  has 
become  poor.  When  a  very  ordinary  idea  is  made 
to  sparkle  by  mere  wealth  of  expression,  it  loses 
all  its  beauty,  as  soon  as  it  is  stripped  of  that 
particular  garb  ;  and  Raghunandan  will  be  a  poet 
only  to  those  who  know  Sanskrit  well,  or  speak  a 
Sanskritic  language. 

Ramgoyin-  The  Ramayaha  by  Ramgovinda  Dels  consists  of 

da  Das.  j  '•     n         r  i        • 

25,000  flokas  or  verses  and  is  thereiore  volummous 

in  size.     The  author's  grandfather's  name  is  Kuhja 

Viharl    Das    and  his    father's  name,  Civaram  Das. 

The    date    of   the    composition  of  this  poem  is  not 

known. 

'^U^\  ^fSc^  ^ti^^i  I 
A\f^^  c^f?^i  c^ft^i  I 


IV.  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         195 

In  my  researches  -amongst  the  Bengali  villages, 
and  from  other  sources  was  derived,  in  addition,  a 
large  number  of  translations  of  particular  episodes 
or  portions  of  the  Ramayana.  Again  there  are 
many  other  poems  which  treat  of  the  story  inci- 
dentally.    Of  these  we  name  some  below  : — 

(i)     ^ri  Dharma  Itihasa  by  Gunaraj  Khan. 

{?.)     Kau^alya  Chauthiga  by  Ramjivan  Rudra. 

(3)  Sitar  vanavasa  by  one  who  subscribes  himself 
as  a  son  of  Guha  Chandra. 

(4)  Lobkuger  Yuddha  by  Loka  Nath  Sen. 

(5)  Parijat  harana  by  Bhavani  Nath. 

(6)  Rayvara  by  Dwija  Tul^i  Das. 

(7;     Ramer  Svargarohana  by  Bhavanichandra. 

(8)  Laksmaha  Dikvijaya  by  Bhavani  Das. 

(9)  Ramayana  by  Dwija  Dayarama. 

(10)  A  story  of  the  Ramayana  by  Kagiram. 

(11)  Jagat  Ballava's  Ramayana. 

(12)  Bhusandi  Ramayana  by  Raja  Prithi  Chan- 
dra of  Pakur. 

([3)  Lanka  Kan  da  by  Fakir  Ram  (Ms.  copied  in 
1602    A.D.). 

(14)  Aranya  Kanda  by  Vikan  ^ukla  Das. 

(^15)  Kalnemir  Rayvara  by  Kayl  Nath. 

The  above  works,  on  the  subject  of  the 
Ramayana,  were  written  between  the  14th  and  the 
1 8th  centuries. 


i96      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap 


(6)    Translations  of  the  Mahabharata. 


The  Maha- 
bharata, an 
epitome  of 
Indian 
thought. 


The  story  of  the  Mahabharata  is  not  so  compact 
as  that  of  the  Ramayana.  It  is  by  no  means, 
however,  the  less  popular  of  the  two.  The  Maha- 
bharata is  an  encyclopedic  collection — an  epitome  of 
Indian  thought  and  civilisation,  the  successive  stages 
of  which  are,  as  it  were,  mirrored  in  it.  There  is  a 
Bengali  adage  which  says  '*  What  is  not  found 
in  the  Bharata  (the  Mahabharata)  is  not  in  Bharata 
(India)."  Round  about  the  main  plot— the  great 
w^ar  between  the  Kauravas  and  the  Pandavas, — 
there  is  a  wild  orowth  of  wonder-tales  in  which  the 
current  literature  and  traditions  of  ancient  India 
are  undoubtedly  entangled.  P>om  the  din  of  war- 
fare to  the  quiet  and  contemplative  philosophy  of  the 
Gita,  the  reader  is  carried  without  an  apology  ;  and 
descriptions  of  heroic  exploits  and  unmatched 
chivalry  are  interspersed  with  accounts  of  austeri- 
ties and  penances  undergone  for  the  sake  of  reli- 
gion and  with  mythological  accounts  of  gods.  To 
add  a  chapter  to  such  a  work  is  the  easiest  thing 
that  one  can  do.  One  has  simply  to  put  a  query 
in  the  mouth  of  Janmejaya  and  that  never- wearied 
narrator,  the  sage  Vaiyampayana,  is  sure  to  relate 
whatever  may  be  asked  him  in  earth  or  heaven. 
The  poem  is  like  the  fabled  Sadi  of  Draupadi  which 
may  be  dragged  out  indefinitely  to  any  length. 
In  the  Bengali  versions,  the  poets  lost  no  oppor- 
tunity to  introduce  new  stories  and  incidents  from 
comparatively  modern  life.  The  pathetic  tale  of 
Crivatsa  and  Chinla  is  their  addition  ;  and  it  is  not 
the  only  one  which  they  have  added  to  the  epic  in 
its  Bengali  garb. 


IV»  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE. 


97 


We  need  not  proceed  with  the  tale  of  the 
Mahabharata  at  any  length.  The  main  story  is  not 
the  whole  preoccupation  of  the  poem.  The  Gita  in 
the  Udyoga  Parva,  together  with  the  moral  and  the 
spiritual  discourses  of  Bhisma,  in  the  Canti  Parva, 
yields  to  no  episode  of  the  main  plot,  in  the  interest 
which  they  evoke  in  the  mind  of  the  readers.  The 
story  of  Nala  and  DamayantI,  of  ^akuntala,  of 
^armista  and  hundreds  of  such  engrafted  pieces, 
which  are  now  inseparable  from  the  main  poem, 
have  little  bearing  on  the  incidents  of  the  Great 
War.  An  account  of  the  Kauravas  and  the  Pan- 
davas  only  would  convey  a  very  inadequate  idea 
of  the  contents  of  the  epic.  Briefly  speaking,  the 
story  is  as  follows  : — The  princes  of  the  lines  of  Kuru 
and  of  Pandu  were  born  and  brought  up  under 
circumstances  which  led  to  feelings  of  animosity 
on  either  side,  ultimately  bursting  into  the  most 
sanguinary  warfare  on  the  fields  of  Kuruksetra. 
The  five  brothers,  Yudhisthira,  Bhima,  Arjuna, 
Nakula  and  Sahadeva,  tried  by  all  possible  means 
to  avert  the  war.  They  w^ere  the  rightful  heirs  to 
half  the  kingdom ;  but  Duryyodhana  and  his 
brothers  would  not  part  with  this.  Yudhisthira,  the 
eldest  Pandava,  asked  of  King,  Duryyodhana,  a 
grant  of  five  villages  only,  so  that  the  five  brothers 
might  have  some  refuge  in  the  world.  Even  this 
Duryyodhana  refused  to  give,  saying  "  Not  half 
the  earth,  that  may  be  covered  by  the  point  of  a 
needle,  will  I  give  without  war."  Added  to  this 
were  the  great  wrongs  committed  against  the 
Pandavas  by  Duryyodhana  from  boyhood  upwards, 
— the  conspiracies  to  assassinate  them,  from  each  of 
which  they  had  a  narrow  escape,  and   the  last  act, 


The  con- 
tents. The 
main  story. 


198        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.     [Chap» 

surpassing  all  the  rest, — the  atrocious  insult  upon 
Draupadi,  the  wife  of  the  Pandavas.  A  war  was 
inevitable  and  the  Ksatriya  Princes  of  India  rallied 
on  either  side  when  it  actually  broke  out.  The 
Pandavas  with  the  help  of  Krisna  gained  the  victory, 
though  nearly  the  whole  race  of  Ksatriyas  was  extir- 
pated, in  a  terrible  battle  that  raged  for  eighteen  suc- 
cessive days  incessantly  on  the  plains  of  Kuruksetra. 
Yudhisthira  was  afterwards  smitten  with  remorse  for 
having  waged  a  cruel  war  which  had  resulted  in  the 
death  of  his  relations  and  friends.  This  grief  was 
accentuated  by  the  news  of  the  death  of  Krisna — 
the  incarnation  of  Visnu  and  the  great  friend  of  the 
Pandavas.  Yudhisthira,  with  his  brothers  and  Drau- 
padi, made  the  great  pilgrimage  up  the  snowy  ranges 
of  Himalays  to  Mount  Meru.  On  the  way  each  of 
the  brothers  dropped  dead  ;  and  Yudhisthira  was 
alone  left  for  the  crowning  scene  of  the  Mahabharata, 
his  ascent  into  heaven  in  mortal  form. 
5anjaya's  The  earliest    Bengali    recension    of  the    Maha- 

recension.  i^jigi-ata,  that  we  have  come  accross,  is  by  a  Brahmin 
poet,  named  Sanjaya  who  belonged  to  the  illus- 
trious family  of  Bharadwaja  whom  Adi9ura  of  Gauda 
had  brought  to  Bengal.  The  task  of  translating 
the  eighteen  Parvas  of  Vyasa's  Mahabharata  was 
immense  and  Sanjaya  justly  claims  the  credit  due 
to  the  pioneer  in  this  held.  He  frequently  refers 
to  his  work  in  the  following  strain  in  his  Vanita. 

■^  "  The  Mahabharata,  \\  hich  was  like  an  ocean  of 
impenetrable  darkness,  is  now  unveiled  to  sight 
(made  accessible  to  the  masses)  having  been  render- 
ed into  Bengali  verses  (Panchall)  by  Sanjaya." 

'ftM^  ^m  ^t^  ^ftn  ^^^  II  San  joy. 


[IV»  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE. 


199 


Yet  Sanjaya's  work  is  one  of  the  shortest  epi-  The  honour 
tomes  of  the  Mahabharata  that  we  know  of ;  it  is  '^pi^oieer^'' 
characterised  by  simplicity  of  style,  and  does  not 
even  possess  any  uncommon  poetic  merit.  The 
manuscripts  of  Sanjaya's  Mahabharata  have  been 
recovered  from  all  parts  of  Eastern  Bengal.  The 
great  popularity,  it  once  commanded,  is  explicable 
only  by  reason  of  its  being  the  earliest  Bengali 
recension.  Generally  speaking,  manuscripts  of  San- 
jay's  Mahabharata  are  very  voluminous,  as  chapters 
written  by  subsequent  poets  have  been  added 
I  to  them  at  different  times.  The  Adiparva  by 
Rajendra  Das,  the  Dronaparva  by  Gopi  Nath 
Datta  and  numerous  compositions  by  other 
writers  are  now  inseparable  factors  in  many  of 
such  manuscripts ;  and  these  two  poets  at  least 
excel  Sanjaya  in  the  wealth  of  their  descrip- 
tions and  in  the  beauty  and  elegance  of  their 
style.  Sanjaya's  antiquated  forms  of  expres- 
sion give  him  no  advantage  in  contrast  with 
Rajendra  Das's  racy  and  poetic  lines ;  yet  the 
whole  manuscript,  about  two-thirds  of  which 
belongs  to  other  writers,  is  popularly  known  as  the 
^Mahabharata  of  Sanjaya.  This  writer  evidentlv 
then  enjoys  precedence  because  he  was  the  first 
in  point  of  time.  Sanjaya  takes  care  in  his  Vahita 
that  his  name  may  not  be  confounded  with  that 
of  the  great  Sanjaya,  gifted  with  clairvoyance, 
who  relates  the  incidents  of  the  war  to  the  blind 
monarch  Dhritara?tra  in  the  Mahabharata  itself, 
and  frequently  emphasises  on  the  point  of  his 
authorship  of  the  work  as  distinguished  from 
their  recitations  by  Sanjaya.  We  however  know 
very  little  of  his  life, — the  autobiographical  account 


200        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 


San  jay, 
probably 
a  contem- 
porary of 
Krittivasa. 


which  was  undoubtedly  appended  to  the  work 
as  we  find  in  every  old  Bengali  book,  has  not 
yet  been  recovered  ;  and  we  are  in  utter  darkness 
about  Sanjaya.  From  the  early  date  of  some  of 
the  manuscript-copies  of  his  works  that  we  have 
been  able  to  secure,  we  are  inclined  to  believe  that 
he  lived  at  about  the  time  of  Krittivasa  and  was 
probably  his  contemporary. 

Though  some  of  the  later  poets  excel  Safijoy  in 
the  elegance  of  expression,  the  earlier  poet  fre- 
quently displays  a  highly  forcible  style.  Safijya 
particularly  excels  in  describring  martial  feats. 
Here  is  a  passage  shewing  his  vigorous  and 
animated  style  : — 

*  "In  order  to  excite  the  anger  of  Karna,  Calya 
says  '  If  you  are  once  hit  by  Arjuna's  arrow  you 
will  cease  to  boast  in  such  way.  There  is  no 
friend,  0  Karna,  to  advise  you  rightly.  When  a  fly 
willingly  rushes  into  a  flame,  none  can  save  it. 
A  child  in  the  arms  of  its  mother  stretches  his 
arms  out  to  catch  the  moon  ;  your  aspiration  is 
like  that  of  the  child  ;  you  want  to  drag  Arjuna 
down  from  his  chariot.   Like  a  mad  man  you  attempt 

^ftn:?  ^^5f  ^"s  "^m  c^^i  ^m  ii 
^^t^  'm:^^  c'^K^  ^tf^i^  it^^tc^  I 

c^^  ^i-^  ^<  ^f^  m^u  m^'^i  I 
^^  l^i^  nif^^K^  5T^f%  "^^^  II 


IV.] 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LMERATURE.       201 


to  scratch  your  own  body  with  a  sharp  spear.  Like 
a  fawn  challengins^  a  lion,  you  call  Arjuna  to  fight  with 
you.  You  are  like  a  jackal  swollen  (with  pride)  by 
eating  a  corpse,  and  challenging  the  majesty  of  a 
lion.  Oh  son  of  a  charioteer,  how  foolish  it  is  for 
vou  to  challenge  the  son  of  a  king  to  fight  with 
you.  You  are  like  a  gnat  defying  the  elephant. 
The  venomous  snake  whose  bite  is  deadly,  while 
unharmed  lies  coiled  up  in  a  hole,  and  you  are 
teasing  it  with  a  stick.  Like  a  snake  going  out 
to  fight  the  bird  Garuda  (which  lives  upon  snakes) 
you  aspire  to  fight  Arjuna.  The  moon  appears 
on  the  furthest  limits  of  the  sea,  you  want  to 
cross  the  sea  without  a  boat  and  catch  the  moon. 
A  frog  mimics  the  thunder.  I  set  the  same 
estimate  upon  all  your  fretting.'' 

The  next  Mahabharata,  to  which  we  have 
already  alluded,  was  written  at  the  order  of  Nasarata 
Saha.  This  translation  is  referred  to.  in  the 
Mahabharata  of  Kavindra  Parame(j'vara  in  the 
following  couplet. 


Mahabha- 
rata tranS' 
lated  at 
Nasarata 
Shaha's 
order. 


^^  ^ttf  ^tt^  "jnt^  ^-5  %^  I 
'^"n  ^^?n  -^^^i)  5T^  '^1%  c^5?  II 

c^^  ^  ^T^  ^^  'Itfe^  ^%^  !1 

W^  c^^m  nn  ^'c^  ^^Pf  ^T#?r  I 

C^^  W.^  ^f^  C^^  C^^^ff  ^^5^  II 


26 


202      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.       [  Chap, 

"  Nasarata  Salia  blessed  with  all  good  qualities 
had  a  translation  of  the  Mahabharata  compiled  in 
Bengali  verses  (Panchali)."^  We  have  not  yet  been 
able  to  recover  this  Mahabharata. 

Paramec-  Reference    has    also    been     made    in    the    first 

vara  A.^**'"    chapter  to  the  next  two  Mahabliaratas,  one  of  which 

was  written  by  Kavlndra  Pararne9varaand  the  other 

by  Crikarna  Nandi.     Kavindra  Parameyvara  began 

his  poem  with  the  following  preliminary  account  : — 

t  "The  Emperor  Husen  Saha  was  a  high  minded 
monarch,  prised  by  all  throughout  the  Five  Gaudas 
(Panca  Gauda}.  He  was  expert  in  the  use  of 
arms  ;  and  was  like  a  second  Krisna  in  the  Kaliyuga. 
Laskara    Paragal,    a    commander  of  the    army    of 


Kavlndra  Parameyvara. 
^H  ^  CT^tnf%  ^^^  ^^^  II 

^tte^tic^  ^ft  c^^  ^f^^  l^]  II 
^^  c'^V'^  ^w  ^u  ^H  ^^nf^  I 

tt3t«l  '^^^  f^f^  ^^ft^  'ife  II     Kavindra. 


IV,]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  203 


Husen  Saha,  the  Emperor  of  the  Gauda,  was 
a  generous-minded  noble  man.  He  obtained 
royal  presents  in  the  shape  of  a  golden  dress, 
and  horses  of  the  speed  of  the  winds  ;  and  he 
was  further  endowed  with  a  grant  of  an  extensive 
estate  in  Chittagong  where  the  high  minded  Khan 
settled.  He  enjoyed  his  territories  with  his  sons 
and  grandsons." 

At   the    command    of  Paragal    Khan    Kavlndra 
Parame^vara    undertook   to  translate  the  Mahabha- 
rata.    This  Mahgbharata  which  comes  down    to  the 
StriParva,  contains  17,000  ^lokas  or  verses.  It  was 
composed    during    Husen    Saha's  reign   (1494-1525 
A.D.).     Close  to  the  sub-division  of  Feni  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Noakhali  lies  Paragalpur,  founded  by  Husen 
Saha's  great  general  who  had  conquered  Chittagong 
and    had    obtained    a   grant    of    the    neighbouring 
provinces    as    a    reward  for  his  valour.     There  is  a 
tomb  in  the  village,  raised  in  honour  of  Rasti  Khan 
(father    of    Pars  gal)    whose     name    we    also    find 
mentioned  in  this    Mahabharata.     Paragal    Khan's 
son    was   the    valourous    prince  Chhuti     Khan.     In 
Paragalpur,  tanks  dug  by  the  orders  of  the  illustri- 
ous father  and  the  son  still  exist  and  are  called  after 
them,    '^?[T'n^  <T^  ftf^  and  ^^  ^H  ftf^  respectively. 
Kavindra  Paramegvara,  as  I  have  said,  translated  the 
Mahabharata    down    to    the    Strl    Parva.     Paragal 
Khan  had  in  the  meantime  died  and  .his  son  Chhuti 
Khan  succeeded  him.   He  followed  in  the  foot-steps 
of  his  noble  father  and    appointed    a    poet    named 
^rikarana  Nandi  to  translate  the  A^vamedha  Parva. 
We    find    the    following    historical    account    in  the 
introductory  chapter  of  his  book.  . 


Paragal 
Khan. 


Chhuti 

Khan 

appoints 

^rikarana 

Nandl. 


204        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

■^  "  The  father  of  Nasarata  Saha  (Husen  Saha)  was 
a  great  king.  He  ruled  the  kingdom  like  a  second 
Ram.  Husen  Saha,  the  great  monarch,  ruled  the 
earth  by  Sama  (preserving  of  peace),  Dana 
(offering  of  gifts),  Danda  (punishment)  and  by 
Bheda  (bringing  about  division  amongst  his  ene- 
mies). Laskar  Chhuti  Khan  was  one  of  his  generals. 
He  settled  near  Tipperah  on  the  north  of 
Chittagong, — in  the  valley  of  the  Chandra  Cekhara 
Hills.  The  abode  of  his  father  had  been  in  the 
Charlol  Hills.  The  town  is  so  beautiful  that  only 
a  god  could  have  built  it.  People  of  four  castes 
and  various  races  live  there.  The  place  is  almost 
surrounded  on  all  sides  by  the  River  Fani  (modern 
Feni,  lit.  a  snake).  On  the  East  are  seen  vast 
mountainous  ranges  without  a  limit.  Chhuti  Khan, 
the  son  of  Paragal  Khan,  is  dauntless  in  battle. 
His    manly   arms    reach    to    his    knee-joints.     His 


Tt'lWt^W^^CW  ^K^  ^^K^  II 

Uf^^  ftf^^  ^^  ftj  ^ft^  ^f^  II 

^t^ll  ^C«l  ^^1  >l^  ^^U  ^^t^  II 


IV.  ]      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  205 

eyes  are  like  full-blown  lotuses.  He  moves  ma- 
jestically like  the  elephant.  Sixty  four  qualities  dwell 
in  him  and  God  has  granted  him  world-wide 
renown.  In  magnanimity  of  soul  and  in  his  charity 
he  matches  Vali  and  Karha.  In  his  great  war- 
like qualities  and  in  the  dignity  of  his  mien, 
however,  there  is  none  with  whom  he  may  be 
compared.  On  a  report  of  his  excellent  qualities 
reaching  the  Emperor  (Husen  Saha)  he  was  called 
to  his  court.  He  received  great  honour  from  the 
Emperor  and  obtained  those  rewards  to  which  only 
the  distinguished  generals  of  the  court  are  entitled. 
Chhuti  Khan  began  to  rule  his  kingdom  by  Sama, 
Dana,  Danda  and  Bheda.  The  King  of  Tipperah 
left  his  country  being  afraid  of  Chhuti  Khan.  He 
took    refuge    in    the    mountain  (of  Udaypur).     He 

15%  ^^m  ^ff^  C#^  Mf^m  I 

^  fmn  -^^Uf^  "iH  ^^k  ^t^  i 
f^^Ti^TOi  '(^ni^s^'i^  II 

^f^ft  f^^T^  C^  C^  f^<t^^  ftf^  II 

^\^fm  ^tf^^^^  f  ^2^^^f^  II 
c^T^^  mi^  ntt^  0  «ft^  11 


206      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap, 

further  sent  elephants  and  horses  as  tribute  to 
Chhuti  Khan  and  built  his  palace  in  the  midst  of  a 
dense  forest.  Chhuti  Khan  has  not  yet  done 
anything  to  inspire  fear  in  him.  Yet  he  lives  in 
constant  alarm.  Chhuti  Khan  gave  friendly  assu- 
rance to  the  King  of  Tipperah  and  he  dwells  happilv 
in  his  own  capital.  The  khan's  royal  glory  is 
increasing  every  day  and  he  looks  upon  the  people 
of  the  country  as  his  children. 

^^i\  ft^!f  nttm  i^Hf^  I 

f3it^  ^^fs  ^n  ^^  ^i^  c^»i  I 
n^^  'mi^  f^^i  ^ft^  ^^  II 

'l^T^JT  ^C^J  ^t^  ^%  f^'Sr^l  II 

^ffirfn  ^  ^1  f?^  m^T'^  ii 
^5itfn  ^1^1^  ^^^'r  ftn^  ^^f^  ii 

^^«f  ^^^  ^^!l  ^tn^t^  a^'^f  II 
fifC^  fsf^^  ^^  ^T^  ?im  T'^^  I 
^N^  ^5|f|  !?|t^^  Jf^f^  ^t^t^  II 

nfbrs  ^f^^^  5f«t«f^  ^"Nf^  I 

^^f^^  ^f^l^^  ^T^^  ^^^  II 

^5l^f^   ?^^^    'Pf?^    ^-sft^1    II 

«i^^«j  ^'^  ^f^  ^»i^^![  I 
5i^m^  ^ttvffn^  ^m  'i^'f^  II 

^^^UTi^  ^^  c^t^  ^t^  T^Tt^  II 


IV,  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  207 


"  One  day  while  Chhuti  Khan  was  seated  in  his 
court  in  the  company  of  scholars  and  friends,  he 
seemed  to  be  much  delighted  on  hearing  the  story 
of  the  sacred  Mahabharata.  He  heard  the  A9va- 
medha  Parva,  written  by  the  great  sage  Jaimuni, 
and  expressed  a  wish  to  his  courtiers  that  the  book 
might  be  translated  into  the  vernacular  dialect.  If 
any  courtier  of  his  would  undertake  and  complete 
the  task,  it  would  add  lustre  to  his  glory  through- 
out the  country.  Placing  the  garland  of  royal 
order  upon  the  head,  ^rikarana  Nandi  composed 
the  poem  in  Payara," 

The  reference  to  the  king  of  Tipperah  in  the 
above  extracts  is  a  distortion  of  historical  facts 
made  by  the  poet  to  please  his  master.  Early  in 
the  1 6th  century  Dhanya  Manikya  vvas  the  king 
of  Tippera.  He  was  a  powerful  monarch  who,  with 
the  help  of  his  celebrated  general  Chaichag,  had 
successfully  checked  the  advance  of  the  invading 
Muhammadan  armies  into  his  territories  by  adopt- 
ing prompt  and  vigorous  measures  ;  and  Chhuti 
Khan  had  to  remain  contented  with  his  possessions 
in  the  Chittagong  hills. 

We  have  come  across  thirtyone  old  writers  in  all, 
who  compiled  translations  of  tiie  whole  or  portions 
of  the  Mahabharata.  We  give  a  list  of  them 
below  : — 

(i)  Mahabharata  by  Safijaya. 

(2)    Bharata  Panchali  written  by  the  orders  of 
Nasarata  Saha  (not  yet  recovered). 

('3)   Mahabharata  by  Kavindra  Parame^vara. 

(4)  Afvamedha  Parva  by  Crikarana  Nandi. 

(5)  Do  do    by  Dwija  Abhirama. 


The  poet's 
flattery. 


A  list  of 

thirty-one 

writers. 


208      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.      [Chap 

(6)  Canti  Parva  by  Krisfiananda  Vasu  (Mss. 

found  dated  1694  A-D.^i 

(7)  Agvamedha  Parva  by  Ananda  Mi^ra. 

(8)  iM  aha bha  rata  by  Nityananda  Ghosa. 

(g)  A^vamedha  Parva  by  Dwija  Ram  Chandra 
Khan. 

(10)  Mahabharata  by  Dwija  Kavi  Chandra. 

(11)  Adiparva  to  Bharata  Parva  by  Caraha. 

(12)  Bliarata  by  Sasthlbara. 

(13)  Adiparva    and     A(;vamedha     Parva    by 

Ganga  Das  Sen. 

(14)  Adiparva  by  Rajendra  Das. 

(15)  Drona  Parva  by  Gupi  Nath  Datta. 

(16)  Mahabharata  by  Rame^var  Nandl. 

(17)  Do  by  Kas"!  Ram  Das. 

(18)  Bhisma  Parva,   Droha  Parva  and    Karfia 

Parva  by  Nandaram  Das  (adopted  son 
of  Ka^iram  Das  . 

(19)  Mahabharata  by  Trilochana  Chakravarti. 
{20)  Do  by  Nemai  Das. 

(21)  Drona  Parva  by  Dvaipayana  Das. 

(22)  Bharata  by  Ballava  Das. 

(23)  A(;vamedha  Parva  by  Dwija  Kriafiaram. 
^^24)  Do         by  Dwija  Raghunath. 

(2^)  The  Nala  Upakhyan  by  Loknath  Datta. 
1 26)  Do  by  Madhusudan 

Napit. 
(27)   The    story  of  Savitrl  by    ^iva    Chandra 
Sen. 


IV.  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LIIERATURE.  2og 

{zS)    Bharata  by  Bhriguram  Das. 

(29)  Ac^vamedha  Parva  by  Dvvija  Ramakrisna. 

(30)  Do  by  Bharat  Pandit. 

(31)  Mahabharata  compiled  by   the    order    of 

Dharma  Msnikva.  king  of  Tippera. 

( )f  these  writers  Kavindra  Parme(7vara,  as  we  have  The  orlgi 
said,  translated  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Mahabharata,  transla- 
and  amongst  others, — Sasthivara,  Ramec^^var  Nandi,  tions, 
Trilochan  Chakravarty,  Xit\ananda  Ghosa,  Nimai 
Das,  BallabhaDev.  and  Bhriguram  Dasalso  attempted 
to  translate  the  whole  of  the  epic.  Translations,  in 
those  days,  as  I  have  said,  were  not  closelv  re- 
stricted to  the  texts.  Besides  omissions  and 
changes,  stories  and  incidents  were  freely  added 
to  the  poems  bv  the  writers.  The  Bengali  recen- 
sions, as  compared  with  the  original  of  Vyasa,  appear 
to  be,  in  many  respects,  quite  different  poems. 
One  would  hardly  find  in  many  of  these  works  a 
^core  of  lines  together  which  would  conform  to 
the  Sanskrit  text.  The  Ramayaha  and  Maha- 
bharata were,  so  to  speak,  reborn  in  these  Bengali 
recensions,  which  resembled  the  Sanskrit  epic  onh- 
as  the  child  does  its  father.  They  offer  many  strik- 
ing points  of  difference  which  cannot  be  ignored. 
In  the  history  of  these  differences  is  to  be  found 
the  peculiar  bent  of  the  Bengali  genius  which, 
moulding  the  great  epics  in  its  own  way,  gave  the 
Bengali  recensions  an  air  of  originality  of  which 
we  shall  have  to  speak  hereafter. 

Of    the    episodes    translated     from    the     Maha-      ^akuntala 
bharata.    the    story  of  ^akuntala  bv  Rajendra  Das.       j^^^  Dis!" 
who  flourished  in  the  middle    of    the    17th    century. 
is    one  of  the  best  that  we  have  found  in  the  wholf 

^7 


210        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [Chap. 

book.  Though  mainly  following  the  Sanskrit  text 
of  Vyasa.  the  poet  is  indebted  to  Kali  Das's  Qakun- 
tala  and  to  Bhatti  Kavya,  from  which  he  culls  many 
beautiful  blossoms  to  adorn  his  tale.  The  fine 
poetical  touch  in — "  There  was  no  tank  without  its 
wealth  of  lilies,  no  lilies  without  bees,  and  no  bees 
that  did  not  hum  under  the  enchantment  of  the 
honey," — is  evidently  borrowed  from  a  well-known 
passaore  in  Bhatti  Kavya. 

Draupadi  In  the  Drona  Parva  bv   Gaplnath    Datta.    Drau- 

fights.  .  •  ' 

pad],  the  wife  of  the  Pandavas,  comes  to  the  battle- 
field and  fights.  We  do  not  find  anything  of  this 
nature  in  the  Sanskrit  Epic.  The  author  probably 
wrote  from  his  imagination. 

Min"al  ^"  ^^^^  ^•^-  ^^J^'^    Prithvi    Chandra  of  Pakur 

wrote  a  poem  in  Bengali  named  Gauri  Mangal.  The 
work  is  interesting  to  us  for  its  preface,  in  which 
he  takes  a  bird's  eve  view  of  old  Bengali  literature, 
and  gives  us  a  list  of  some  of  the  noteworthy 
Bengali  writers,  who  had  preceded  him.  He 
refers  thus  to  the  translations  of  the  Mahabharata  : — 

*'  Eighteen  Parvas  of  the  Mahabharata  were 
rendered  into  Bengali  verses  by  Kaciram  Das  and 
b<'fore  him  by  Nityananda." 

Nltyanan=  In  P^astern  Bengal,    the    Mahabharata    by    San- 

Mahabha-  j'^)"^  ^"^^  ^Y  I^avindra  Parmeyvara  once  enjoved 
great  popularity,  but  in  Western  Bengal  Nitya- 
nanda (jho.'?'s  Mahabharata  was  in  high  favour 
with  the  jjcople  until  the  ad\ent  of  Kaciram  Das. 
We  know  very  little  of  Nityananda  Ghos  ;  but  that 
Kavlram  Das,  whose  Mahabharata  yields  to  no 
Bengali  hook  in  its  popularity  amongst  the  masses 
('xce|)ting    perhap'^    tlu"    Kgniayan:;    by    Krittivasa. 


rata. 


IV.]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.         2tf 

drew  largely  from  Nityaiianda  Ghos's  work, 
which  was  earlier  in  the  field,  admits  of  no  doubt. 
The  Kathakas  and  the  professional  singers  of  the 
Puranas  had  already  popularised  the  story  of  the 
Mahabharata  in  the  country.  Those  amongst  them  Why  do  the 
who  attained  celebrity,  by  their  proficiency  in  the  recensions 
art  of  recitation  and  singing,  found  numerous  en-  ^^azr?e '^ 
gagements  all  over  the  province.  In  their  pro- 
fessional tours  they  visited  all  the  important  villages 
of  the  country,  and  thus  the  very  language  they 
used  became  familiar  to  the  people.  It  is  pro- 
bably owing  to  this  reason,  that  in  all  the  Bengali 
recensions  of  the  Mahabharata,  from  Sanjaya  and 
Kavindra  to  KagI  Das  and  even  to  more  modern 
writers,  we  frequentlv  come  across  the  same  lines 
almost  word  for  word,  as  if  the  authors  w^hose  fields 
of  activity  lay  at  different  places  and  who  lived  at 
remote  distances  of  time  from  one  another,  had 
copied  from  the  same  source.  If  this  is,  generally 
speaking,  true  of  the  different  Bengali  recensions 
of  Sanskrit  works  in  our  old  literature,  it  is  most  of 
all  so  in  the  case  of  Kaylram  Das's  work  and  that 
of  Nityananda  which  preceded  it.  We  often  find 
page  upon  page  of  the  two  works  to  be  almost 
identical,  the  slight  difference,  observable  in  the  Ka^iram 
two  works,  is  no  more  than  what  we  may  find  in  Nitya- 
two  different  manuscripts  of  the  same  book.  We  nanda. 
have  evidence  to  prove  that  Kayiram  Das  did  not 
himself  write  the  whole  of  the  Mahabharata,  the 
authorship  of  which  is  attributed  to  him;  and  in 
many  portions  he  simply  revised  Xityananda's 
compositions  and  incorporated  them  in  his  work. 
Ka9iram  Das  was,  however,  an  expert  recension- 
ist  and  showed  much  originality  in  his  work.     This 


212        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

point  will  be  dealt  with  hereafter.  In  the  mean- 
time let  us  refer  our  readers  to  tw'o  stra\-  passages 
of  the  two  recensions  (vi^.  one  by  Nityananda  and 
the  other  by  Ka9iram  Das)  to  shew  how  closely  the 
two  texts  agree  with  each  other.  One  extract 
will  be  sufficient  for  both,  the  slight  difference 
being  indicated  in  the  footnote  :  — 

The  Lamentation  of  Gandhari. 

■^  "  When  Krisha's  consoling  words  she  heard, 
she  was  restored  to  consciousness.  The  chaste 
Gandhari.  daughter  of  X'ichitraviryya  and  Queen 
of  Dhritarastra,  said  again  to  Krisfia,  "  Behold 
Krisfia — my  hundred  powerful  sons  lie  dead 
on  the  held,  struck  by  the  iron  mace  of  Bhmia. 
O,  look,  my  daughters-in-law,  all  princesses, 
are  crying  most  bitterly — those  whom  the  sun 
or  the  moon  could  not  see, — whose  body  is 
tender  as  ^irisa  flower,  and  whose  beauty  is  a 
wonder,  which  the  sun  stops  his  chariot  in  the  sky 
to    observe — these    ladies    have  come  to  the  field  ol 

©^!n  ^f'l^i  c^fl  c^^^  ntl'?ii  n 
^^:  ^c^  f^i^  ^f^tft  nf^^^i  I 

cm  ^^  vf!^5  *^r?}  ^^\^  I 

"iim^  ^^H  ^r^^"  ^^^  ^^?i  II 
c^f'^^^  ^1  ^K^  ^t^^  "^tf  ^tij  tt^w  n 


IV.]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  213 

Kuruksetra,  poorly  dressed  and  with  hair  dishevell- 
ed. Look  at  them,  they  are  singing  wildly — owing 
to  excess  of  grief — their  voice  is  heard  like  the 
sound  of  the  lute  of  Narada,  There,  some  widows, 
maddened  by  grief,  have  taken  weapons  in  their 
hands  and  hero-like  are  dancing  wildly, — I  cannot 
bear  it  ;  I  cannot  find  peace  anvwhere.  O,  where 
is  my  son  Duryyodhana  !  Where  has  he  gone  leav- 
ing his  mother  !  Look  at  his  condition  now,  O  Krisha. 
Over  his  head  the  regal  umbrella  of  gold  used  to  be 
spread.  His  body  which  was  bedecked  with  pearls 
lies  Io\\  in  the  dust  !" 

^  c^^  ^^j  ^z^  ^tlt  ni%ft^i  I 
^^f^*f^  ^T^  a^  ^m^  ^ni  I! 

<^  C«f^  35^  ^r^  ^K^  ^5f  ^ft  n 

"QVi  f^  c^?f  cff^  nj.^^  ^^v  I 
^t^t^  ^"^i^  fw^  ^^<^  ^t"«i  II 
^T^i  ^t^5^«i  ^  ^?5  ^*n^^  I 
en  ^^  ^tii  <^  cwf  ^nn^  w 

Prom  Nltyananda  Qhos's  Mahabhdrata. 

Kav^  Das  gives  exactly  the  same  poem  with  the 
following  alterations.   In  the  3rd  line,  in  the  place  of 


214        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

This  almost  verbatim  agreement  cannot  be  ex- 
plained by  the  fact  of  the  two  works'  being  equally 
translations  from  a  common  Sanskrit  original.  As  1 
have  said.  Bengali  recensions  scarcely  ever  follow 
their  texts  closely ;  and  in  this  instance  the  differ- 
ence between  the  original  and  what  is  belived  to 
be  its  translation,  is  really  similar  to  that  between 
the  deep  and  measured  tone  of  a  European  organ 
and  the  soft  and  melodious  lav  of  an  Indian   lute. 


.,     ,  _  We  now  come  to  Kaciram  Das,    admittedlv  the 

Ka^iram  ^ 

Das,  a  poet  best  of  all  recensionists  of  the  Mahabharata.  He 
people.  draws  largely  from  the  preceding  writers.  Indeed 
his  purpose  is  to  revise  their  works  and  incor- 
porate them  in  his  own.  But  in  spite  of  this,  his 
poetic  individuality  is  deeply  impresed  on  many 
of  those  lines  with  which  he  illumines  their 
compositions.  But  this  is  not  all.  He  introduces 
episodes  not  to  be  found  in  the  original  Maha- 
bharata, nor  in  any  extant  translation  earlier  than 
his  own  :  and  it  is  mainly  in  these  additions  that  he 
displays  the  peculiar  traits  of  his  poetry.  Kagiram 
Das  was  a  poet  of  the  people.  Indeed  his  educa- 
tion, scope  of  intelligence  and  mode  of  treatment 
of  his  subjects  were  all  such  as  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  masses.  Those  deep  problems  of 
Ihe  soul,  which  are  worked  out  in  so  many 
c  hapters  of  the   original    Mahabhsrata,    he  scarcely 

^31  ^^c^.  we  find  ^^  ftl :  the  I2th  line  reads  f^5- 
C^"(  ^NS?;i«f  C^^i  ^f^  C^^  ;  ill  the  1 6th  line,  we  read 
^i*f^  for  ^t'ft;*!^ ;  in  the  2oth  line,  there  is  ^if^ 
for  *Df^  ;  in  the  2ist,  ^^fe  for  ^^'^1  :  and  in  the  22nd 
^Tf^  for  ^t^l  I 


IV.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  215 

notices,  or  if  he  touches  them  at  all,  he  dismiss- 
es very  briefly.  He  narrates  a  storv  in  an  intensely 
popular  fashion.  His  dog-matic  pronouncements 
on  relio^ious  matters  and  great  reverence  for  the 
Brahmins  are  all  characterestic  of  the  views  and 
beliefs  of  the  crowd,  and  he  scarcelv  ever  rises 
above  their  level  in  the  narration  of  the  story  of  the 
great  epic.  He  often  worries  the  readers  by  repeti- 
tion of  common  places  ;  his  exaggerations,  besides, 
are  such  as  sometimes  to  verge  on  the  grotesque. 
But  throughout  his   writings   one    feels    a  constant      xhe  devo- 

current    of     devotion,      which    flows    like     a    noble      tional  ele- 
ment. 

stream  purging  and  refining  all  grossness,  and 
beautifying-  what  is  awkward  and  inelegant.  The 
strength  of  popular  Indian  Literature  lies  in  the 
vehemance  of  faith  which  underlies  its  somewhat 
vulgar  humour. 

There  are  many  passages  in  Ka^iram  Das's  Insult  to 
Mababharata  which  bear  testimony  to  his  ardour  of  ^'^hisan. 
belief,  and  in  such  passages,  the  Bengali  recension - 
ist  wonderfully  develops  the  materials  at  his 
command.  The  episode  of  the  insult  to  Bibhisafi, 
which  does  not  occur  at  all  in  the  original  of  Vyasa, 
is  introduced  by  Kayiram  with  singularlv  happy 
effect.  The  piece  shews  the  grandeour  of  Judhis- 
thir's  Rajsuya  sacrifice  which  was,  it  is  said,  attended 
by  all  the  princes  living  in  the  vast  continent, 
bounded  on  the  North  by  the  North  Kurus,  on  the 
West  by  the  dominions  of  the  Jadavas,  on  the  East 
by  the  Sea  and  on  the  South  by  Ceylon.  Here  had 
come  King  Joy  Sen  of  Giribraja  (Bhagalpurj 
with  his  gigantic  array  of  boats  tliat  "  covered 
sixty  miles  of  the  Ganges."     Here  was   the  Lord  of 


2l6  BENGALI    LANGUAGE  #&    LITERATURE.    [Chap, 

Chedi  with  numerous  feudatory  chiefs  who  waited  at 
the  gate  for  days  till  he  could  obtain  entrance  into  the 
Great  Hall.  Here  the  King  Dirghajangha  of  Ayodhya 
(Oudh),  with  a  picturesque  array  of  noble  steeds, 
elephants,  and  camels,  patiently  awaited  the 
command  of  the  Great  Etnperor  ;  and  other  mighty 
princes,  too  many  in  number  to  be  mentioned, 
approached  Yudhisthir  with  presents  of  immense 
gold,  silver,  pearls,  diamonds,  corals,  invaluable 
stuff  made  of  silk,  fur  and  cotton,  —  big  tuskers, 
musk-bearing  deer  and  curious  animals  as  horses  with 
horns, — nay  the  very  gods  of  Heaven  were  present 
here  to  do  honour  to  Yudhisthira.  In  this  grand 
assembly  Bibhisan,  the  King  of  Lanka,  declined  to 
bow  down  before  Yudhisthira.  saying  that  he  never 
bowed  to  any  body  on  the  earth  except  to  Krisna 
— the  divine  Incarnation.  Insulted  at  every  gate, 
in  which  the  king  of  Rakshasas  witnessed  the  grande- 
our  of  the  Rajsuya  Sacrifice,  he  still  persisted  in 
his  determination  not  to  do  homage  to  the  para- 
mount Emperor.  Krisna  vainly  tried  to  convince 
.  him  of  the  greatness  of  Widhisthira  and  when 
Bibhisan  was  still  inexorable  in  his  attitude  of 
pride,  the  Lord  took  to  a  device  to  humiliate  him. 

Entering  the  great  Hall,  Krisna  found  ^'u(lhisthira 
seated  on  his  throne  situated  on  a  flight  of  loo  steps, 
and  himself  taking  his  stand  above  fifty  steps  mani- 
fest ed  himself  in  his  \'iywa-Rupa.  ^  udhisthira  seated 
behind  him  could  not  see  this  manifestation  of  his 
(livinilw  hut  all  others  ])resent  saw  it.  vSuddenlv 
tiaras  of  gold  cr(n\  ns — a  thousand  of  them — shone 
forth  from  the  Divine  Head.  The  astonished  multitude 
saw  thousands  of  arms  holding  resplendent  weapons, 
thousands    of  eves,  that    looked    like    solar    orbs- — 


IV.]        BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  217 

the  diamond  Kaustava — the  great  bow  Saranga— 
the  conch  Panchajanya,  the  mace  and  the  lotus — 
the  sacred  enblems  of  Divinity.  This  appeared  as  a 
vision  too  glorious,  not  only  for  human  sight,  but 
even  for  that  of  tiiegods.  Tlie  great  god  Civa  had 
come  to  see  the  Rajsuya  Sacrihce  under  the  guise 
of  a  Yogi,  but  the  sight  made  him  unconscious,  and 
he  revealed  himself  to  all  by  falling  at  the  feet 
of  Krisna.  Brahma  also  fainted  there  and  his 
rosary  and  kamandalu  dropped  from  his  hands 
as  he  fell  prostrate.  Indra,  the  holderof  the  thunder- 
bolt, with  his  host  of  gods,  fell  stunned  by  the  sight, 
at  the  feet  of  Krisna,  and  all  the  princes,  Bibhisan  not 
being  excepted,  that  had  assembled  there,  fell  pros- 
trate at  this  glorious  vision  which  even  the  gods  could 
not  bear  to  look  upon.  Thus  Krisna  made  the  vast 
assembly  of  gods  and  men  bowed  down  in  rever- 
ence apparently  before  the  royal  throne  on  which 
sat  Judhisthira  in  full  glory.  Pointing  to  this 
phenomenal  sight  of  the  bowing  down  of  all,  Krisna 
addressed  Judhisthira  calling  him  the  mightiest  of 
all  monarchs,  to  whom  even  the  great  gods  had 
made  their  obeisance.  The  humble  reply  of  Judhis- 
thira shewed  his  devotion  to  the  Lord,  his  great 
meekness  and  piety.  The  story  thought  crude  in 
many  respects,  is  a  masterpiece  of  tender  faith 
and  it  is  in  this  point  that  Ka9i  Das  always 
excels. 

Ka9iram      Das    was     born    in     the     village    of        a  brief 

Singi  in  Peror.  Indrani  in    the    district  of  Burdwan.     account  of 
^  ^  the  poet. 

This    village   is    situated    on    the    river    Brahmani, 

and  it  was  formerly  known  as  Siddha  or  Siddhi. 
The  poet  belonged  to  the  Ksyastha  caste,  and  his 
brothers  and  son  were  all  gifted  with  poetic    talent. 

28 


The  latter 
portion  of 
the  Maha- 
bharata 
written 
by  others. 


2l8      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap» 

His  elder  brother  Krisha  Das    wrote    a   poem    des- 
cribing  the    events    of    Krisna's    life.     The     third 
brother,  Gadadhara,    wrote    a  very  elegant  book  in 
honour  of  Jagannath    of  Puri    in    1645    A.  D.    and 
named  it  "  Jagat  Mangala."      From  a    reference    to 
the    jMahabharata    by    Kfi^iram    Das   in   the  above 
poem,  we  conclude  that  tlie  former  work  was  written 
before    1645   A.  D.  ;    and   in  fact    we    have    furtlier 
evidences  of  this,  which  will  be   dealt    with    here- 
after.    Ka9iram  Das's  adopted   son  Nandargm  Das 
(a  son  of  tlie  poets'  brother    Gadadhar)    wrote    the 
Drona    Parva,    which    we    find    incorporated    with 
Ka^iram's    Mahabharata,  though  the    authorship  of 
that  Parva  is  popularly  ascribed  to  Kaciram.     There 
is    a    saying    current    in    the  country    to   the  effect 
that    Ka9iram  Das    died   after  having   finished  the 
Adi,  Sabha,  Rana  and  portions  of  the  Virata  Parvas. 
The    easy     flow     of    verses     characterised    by    its 
Sanskritic  expressions,    which    indicate    the  poetic 
individuality    of    Kaciram  Das  is  traceable  in  those 
cantos  which  are  ascribed  to  him  in  the  saying;  and 
we  believe  that  the    latter  part  of  the  Mahabharata 
consists     mostly    of    Nityananda     Ghos's    writings 
revised  and  incorporated  into  the  work,  a  few  more 
chapters  having   been   added    by  Nanda  Ram,    the 
son  of  Kaciram  Das.     In  these  we  miss  the   genial 
flow  of  Ka^i    Das's   style    and    that    sprinkling    of 
choice  Sanskritic    expressions  which   abound  in  his 
compositions.* 

♦  Evidences  have  quite  recently  been  found  to  substantiate  this 
point.  In  an  old  M.S.  of  this  MahftbhSrata,  NandarSm  says  that 
his  uncle  and  father  KSci  DSs  at  the  hour  of  his  death  regretted 
the  circumstance  of  not  beinor  permitted  to  live  to  complete  the 
great  work  he  had  undertaken,  and  piteously  asked  Nandarftm  to 
do  the  task  left  unfinished  by  him. 


IV»  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       219 


We  know  every  little  of  the  life  of  Kgciram  Dgs. 
It  is  said  that  he  was  a  school-master  in  the  village 
of  Awa-^hgarah  in  the  district  of  Midnapore  ;  and 
that  the  above  village  having  been  an  important 
resort  of  the  Pandits  and  Kathakas,  who  recited 
the  Purahas  in  the  house  of  the  local  Raja, 
Kayi  Das  first  conceived  the  desire  to  undertake  a 
translation  of  the  Mahabharata  in  their  learned 
company.  In  Singi,  the  native  village  of  the  poet, 
there  is  a  tank,  which  is  called  C<^^*f  ^^  after  him. 
We  are  in  possession  of  several  dates  wiiich  have 
a  bearing  on  his  time.  The  year  in  which  "  Jagat 
Mangal"  was  written  by  his  brother  Gadadhar 
has  already  been  referred  to.  We  know  of  a  manus- 
cript of  Ka9iram  Das's  Mahabharata  in  the  hand- 
writing of  Gadadhar;  it  was  written  in  the  year  1632 
A.  D.  Nanda  Ram  Das,  made  a  deed  of  gift 
to  his  family  priest  in  1678  A.  D.  This  must  have 
been  drawn  up  after  Ka9i  Das's  death,  as  during 
the  lifetime  of  his  father,  Nanda  Ram  could  not 
possibly  have  made  a  gift  to  the  priest — a  duty 
generally  devolving  upon  the  head  of  the 
family.  From  these  dates  we  may  safely  conclude 
that  Kagiram  Das  was  born  tawards  the  latter  part 
of  the  i6th  century  and  lived  till  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth.  At  the  instance  of  some  young  men 
of  the  village  Singi,  the  Vangiya  Sahitya  Parishat 
of  Calcutta  is  shewing  great  activities  in  raising 
subscriptions  for  erecting  a  suitable  memorial  in 
honour  of  the  poet  in  his  native  village. 

Ka^iram  Das's  Mahabharata  and  Krittibasa's 
Ramayana  are  the  two  books  which  have  been,  for 
some  centuries,  par  excellence^  the  great  educative 
agencies  of  Bengal.     What  may  appear   as    incon* 


Date 
and  other 
particu- 
lars. 


A  memo- 
rial in 
honour 
of  the 
poet. 


220      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap, 


The  two 
great  epics 

have 

raised  the 

character 

of  the 

Bengali 

nation. 


gruous,  crude  and  unpolished  in  them  is,  as  1  have 
said,  due  to  the  poets  having  adapted  their  works  to 
the  humble  intellectual  capacity  of  our  uncultured 
peasantry,  whom  it  was  their  aim  to  elevate.  These 
poets  have  been,  for  ages,  the  fountain-heads  from 
which  have  flowed  wisdom  and  spirituality,  strik- 
ing the  finer  chords  in  the  hearts  of  multitudes  of 
Bengal,  and  their  works  are  up  to  the  present,  a 
living  source  of  inspiration  throughout  the  country. 


Bhagavata 
has  a  pas- 
toral inter- 
est ;  its  con- 
tents. 


Krhna 
encoun- 
ters 
Putana, 
Trifiavarta, 
Vaka,  Kri. 
mira  and 
other 
demons. 


{c)  Translations  of  the  Bhagavata. 

Next  to  the  Ramayafia  and  the  Mahabharata 
comes  the  Bhagavata  in  order  of  popularity  through- 
out Bengal.  The  two  epics  have  a  universal  interest 
for  all  the  Hindus,  but  the  Bhagavata  is  mainly  res- 
tricted to  the  Vaishavas.  Though  its  circulation  is 
thus  narrower,  yet  its  votaries  admire  it  the  more 
highly,  in  fact  it  is  looked  upon  by  them  as  the  only 
sacred  book  and  is  revered  with  the  Vedas.  The 
Bhagavata  has  passages  of  high  poetic  merit  ;  its 
descriptions  of  the  pastoral  scenes  and  rural  sports 
of  Krisha  particularly  are  greatly  admired  ;  they  have 
found  peculiar  favour  in  Bengal.  The  scene  is  laid  on 
the  banks  of  the  Jumna.  Krisfia,  here,  is  not  only  the 
god  of  love,  but  retains  his  omnipotent  character, 
even  as  a  shepherd  boy.  King  Karhsa  of  Mathura, 
bent  on  killing  him,  stmds  the  demon-nurse  Putana, 
who  with  poison  in  her  nipples  tried  to  kill  the 
child,  but  Krisfia  while  sucking  her  breasts  draws 
out  her  life-blood  and  kills  her.  The  great  demon 
IVinavarta  comes  riding  on  a  whirl-wind,  and  the 
shepherds,  who  were  grazing  their  cows  on  the  banks 
of  the  Jumna,  are  awe-struck,  when  Krisha.  who  is 
with    them,    p^iH^  the  demon  down  by  his  hair,  and 


Four  ranels  from  Bjuk  Cjvcis,   taken  from   the  district  of  Birbb.um.      These  [pictures 

were  painted  in  lacquer  on  wocden  Loard-.     Tliey  dote  from  the  iClh  to  early 

17th  cei.t.ries.     Tioducsd  for  the  decoration  of  Eha^abaia  Literature, 


IV.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.  221 

destroys  him  in  the  severe  fight  which  ensues.  The 
demons  Vaka,  Krimira  and  a  host  of  others,  sent  by 
Karhsa,  are  killed  in  succession  by  Krisna.  The 
God  Indra,  whose  worship  was  forbidden  by  him, 
dooms  Vrindavana  to  destruction,  by  sending  heavy 
showers  of  rain  for  seven  consecutive  days  and  nights 
and  exposing  it  to  thunder-storms.  But  Krisha 
holds  up  the  mount  Govardhana  with  the  tip  of  his 
finger  and  so  makes  it  a  shelter  for  the  village.  The 
thunderer  is  weary  ;  the  stormy  winds  crash  against 
the  rock  ;  the  lightning  makes  deep  cavities  in  it;  hail- 
stones destroy  the  trees-,  but  beneath  lies  Vrinda- 
vana snug  and  cozy, — not  one  of  its  herbs  is 
touched,  nor  a  leaf  nor  a  petal  of  its  sweet  Kadamva 
flowers  is  broken  under  the  surging  floods  which  pass 
over  the  rock  Govardhana.  The  accounts  of  these 
exploits  and  victories,  however,  are  but  of  minor 
interest  in  the  poem  ;  its  main  attraction  being  the 
pastoral  occupation, — the  sports  and  the  domestic 
scenes,  descriptions  of  which  are  interspersed 
amongst  those  of  the  valourous  exploits  of  Krisha 
undertaken  to  protect  his  friends  who  resigned 
themselves  to  his  care.  The  tender  love  of  his 
mother  Ja9oda,  unwilling  to  part  with  him  in  the  morn- 
ings, (when  his  comrades  and  fellow-shepherd  boys 
call  him  to  join  their  games  and  his  elder  brother 
Valarama  invites  him  to  the  groves  by  sounding  his 
horn)  lest  he  fall  into  the  snares  of  Karhsa,  ever 
plotting  against  his  life ;  the  beautiful  pastimes 
indulged  in  by  the  shepherds,  in  which  Krisha  takes 
a  prominent  part  ; — his  love-making  with  the  milk- 
maids ;  and  above  all  the  deep  religious  meaning  given 
to  each  passage  by  the  enlightened  Vaishava  inter- 
preters   who   invest    the   poem  with  high  devotional 


He  holds 
up  the 
mount 
Govar- 
dhana. 


The 
domestic 
and  pas- 
toral 
scenes. 


The  deep 
religious 
meaninga 


M§ladhar 
Vasu, the 
first  tran. 

slator, 
1473  A.D. 


222      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.      [Chap 

significance  even  in  apparently  realistic  descriptions, 
— all  these  combine  to  make  the  Bhagavata  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  poems  of  the  world.  But  as 
it  is  written  in  very  academic  Sanskrit,  it  is  likely 
to  lose  its  main  charm  by  translation  into  non- 
Sanskritic  languages. 

Maladhar  Vasu,  the  first  translator  of  the  Bhaga- 
vata  in  Bengali  and  a  K§yastha  by  caste,  was  a 
courtier  of  the  Emperor  Husen  Saha  at  whose 
orders  he  commenced  translating  the  tenth  and  the 
eleventh  cantos  of  the  Bhagavata  in  1473  A.  D.  and 
completed  the  work  in  1480  A.D.  The  work  is 
named  ^rikrisha  Vijaya.  Husen  Saha  conferred  on 
the  poet  the  title  of  Gunaraja  Khan  as  a  reward  for 
his  literary  services.  Maladhar  Vasu  was  a  native  of 
Kulingrama  and  belonged  to  the  Vasu  family  of  that 
place,  who  at  the  time  wielded  great  influence  and 
power.  The  village  was  fortified  and  the  pilgrims  to 
Puri  were  required  to  take  a  Duri  or  a  kind  of  pass- 
port from  the  Vasus  of  KulinagrSma,  without  which 
no  one  was  allowed  to  visit  the  shrine.  Maladhar 
Vasu  wrote  his  work  with  a  facile  pen.  The  easy 
and  graceful  flow  of  his  style  is  very  marked 
throughout   the  book.     I    quote  here  a  passage"^  : — 


iij^.Tj  ^r?T  'y\i^  ^?^H  ^z^  I 

^^t?:^  c^tf^^i  'f^^r.*)  ^tsr  ^c?  I 
'^t^  ^C5f  ^tw  ^r.?  cw?  ^wt»fr?  II 
^^K"^  1^^  f»f^^  ^-pp  c^  ilCSf  I 
C>[t  '^l^  ^fll  f  ^  ^l^'??  ^l^  II 


^.1 

Wliei 
sounds 

Onthf 
pressic 
andKi 
fferel' 
comra 

t'le  Ja 

'M 

iW: 

.T! 

sliouli 


poeli 
mi 

^'aist 


IV.  ]        BENGAIJ    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  22^ 


"When  they  had  finished  eating,  the  shepherds 
sounded  the  horn  and  marched.  The  cows  followed 
them,  and  all  assembled  on  the  banks  of  the  Jumna. 
On  the  way,  the  spirit  of  fun  found  many  kinds  of  ex- 
pression. Here  the  cuckoos  were  bilthely  singing 
and  Krisna  imitated  their  notes.  There  the  monkeys 
were  leaping  from  bough  to  bough  and  he  and  his 
comrades  went  climbing  and  leaping  with  them. 
Again,  the  peacocks  were  dancing  and  the  lads  copied 
the  dance.  The  birds  were  flying  in  the  sky,  and 
their  shadows  on  the  earth  were  pursued  by  Valarama 
and  Krisha  who  danced  as  they  did  so.  The  trees 
abounded  with  flowers  which  they  gathered  as 
they  went ;  some  Krisha  wore  on  his  head  and 
some  he  placed  on  his  heart." 

The  Bengali  translation  of  Maladhar  Vasu,  it 
should  be  said,  is  not  literal,  and  Radha,  whom 
we  do  not  find  mentioned  in  the  Bhagavata,  is 
introduced  in  this  Bengali  recension  where  the 
poetic  passages  describing  her  deep  spiritual  love 
awake  the  loveliest  interest.  By  this  innovation, 
Maladhar  Vasu  strikes  the  key-note  of  those  love- 
poems  on  Krisha  and  Radha,  with  which  the 
Vaishava  works  of  later  times  abound. 

^r?i  ^t^i  ^i^  mi^  ^t^  ^t^t  H 

^^  ^^  I^C^  2|^^-T  CPH  ^ft  II 

Bhagavata  by  Maladhar  Vasu. 


The  merry 
sports  of 

the  she. 

pherds. 


Radha 

introduced 

In  the 

poem. 


224      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

Other  tran-  After  Maladhar  Vasu    came  a    host    of    Bengali 

^'^th*"^  °'      recensionists    of    the    Bhagavata.     They  generally 

Bhagavata.    restricted    themselves    to    the    tenth    canto    of  the 

work.     I  give  a  brief   notice    of  these    authors    and 

their  works  below  : — 

2.  ^rikrisna  Mangala  by  Madhavacharyya. 
This  work  was  dedicated  to  Chaitanya  Deva.  The 
author  was  a  pupil  of  the  Tola  founded  by  Chaitanya 
and  was  related  to  him.  This  work  was  written 
early  in   the  f6th  century. 

3.  ^rikrisna  Mangala  by  Nandaram  Dss. 

4.  Crikrisha  Vijaya  by  Krisha  Das,  a  brother  of 
Ka9iram  Das.  Krisha  Das  was  decorated  with  the 
title  of  Krisha  Kihkar,  on  his  writing  this  work. 

5.  Gopal  Vijaya  by  Kavivallabha. 

6.  Govinda  Mangal  by  ^ahkara  Kavichandra. 

7.  Gokul  Mangal  by  Bhaktarama. 

8.  Krisha  Mangal  by  Dwija  Laksminath. 

All  the  above-named  works  are  voluminous  in 
size,  and  were  written  more  than  three  hundred 
years  ago.  Govinda  Mangala  by  Cahkara  Kavi- 
chandra was  the  most  popular  of  all  of  these.  We 
have  alread)  referred  to  the  other  works  of  ^ahkara 
Kavichandra.  Of  other  writers  who  translated  por- 
tions, I  name  some  below. 

9.     Bhagavata  by  Nandaram  Ghose. 

10.  Do.  by  Aditya  Rama. 

11.  Do.  by  Abhirama  Das. 

12.  Do.  by  Dwija  Banikantha. 

13.  Do.  bv  Daniodar  Diis. 

14.  Do.  by  Kavi  Cekhara. 

15.  Do.  by  Yadunandana. 

16.  Do.  by  Ja^vachandra. 


vr  ■  r**'^^ 


''■^- 


^^■ 


r 


^';tj®(^ff 


rt"-.     ^ 


r4P«-.'-£*' 


BooU-cov...  r .1,.  ,K„M..«H 0  -■  Bi.lJ H,..,  .nd  e.,-.y  .yti.  ";';--     ^'^' 

picture  proper  i.s  genc-raUy  cnu.ined  on  the  inner  fece  of  .be  cover.     TIk  fl..,.: 
de-i^n.  .re  front  tbe  o„„ide  ,o,igin.llv)   in  coloured   lacquer   on   wo,„l. 


IV.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITRRATURE.  225 

Here  is  a  list  of  translators  of  episodes  from  the 
Bhagavata. 

ry.      Hansaduta  by  Narasimha  Das. 
I  8.        Do.  by  iMadhava  GunSkara. 

19.  Do.  by  Krisha  Chandra. 

20.  Prahlad  Charitra  by  Dwija  Kartisari. 

21.  Do.  by  Sitaram  Das. 

22.  Uddhava  Sarhyada  by  Madhaya. 

23.  Do.  by  Ram  Sarkar. 

24.  Do.  by  Ramtanu. 

25.  Dliruya  Charitra  by  Para^urama. 

26.  Do.  by  Dwija  Jayananda. 

27.  .Sudama  Charitra  by  Jivana  Chakravarti. 
2S.       Do.  by  Goyinda  Das. 

29.  Do.  by  Para9urama. 

30.  Usaharana  by  Pitambar  Sen. 

31.  Do.  by  Crikantha  Deya. 

32.  Gajendra  Moksana  by  Dwija  Durga  Prasad. 

33.  Do.  by  Vamana  Bhiksu. 

34.  Do.  by  Bhabani  Das. 

.35.     Maniharana  by  Kamala  Kantha. 

36.  Vastraharana  by  Ramtanu  Kayiratna. 

37.  Gurudaksina  by  Vipra  Ruparam. 

38.  Do.  by  ^yama  Lai  Datta. 

39.  Do.  by  Ayodhyaram. 

40.  Do  by  ^ankaracharyya. 

Of  the  manuscripts  of  the  aboye  works,  none 
was  copied  later  than  the  eighteenth  century  ; 
and  the  composition  of  most  them  is  no  doubt  to  be 
referred  to  a  much  earlier  period. 

(d)  Translations  of  Chand!  of  Markandeya.  Markan- 

We  now  come  to  another  Sanskrit  work  held  in        Chandi 

hie^h  esteem  as  a  sacred  book.      Numerous    transla-         ^"^  *J* 
**  contents. 

29 


22^       BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

tlonsofthis  work  are  also  to  be  found  in  old  Bengali 
literature.  This  is  the  Chandi  by  Markandeya.  It  des- 
cribes how  the  goddess  Chandi  first  manifested  herself 
in  heaven.  Raja  Suratha  was  driven  fromhiskingdom 
by  his  enemies,  who  had  already  subdued  the  Kols. 
The  Raja  rode  a  horse  and  wandered  near  the  hermi- 
tage of  Markandeya  where  he  met  a  Vaigya  named 
Samadhi.  This  man  had  immense  wealth  but  his 
Raja  wife    and    children   had   taken  possession  of  it  and 

ancTthe  driven  him  away.  In  the  hermitage  the  King  and 
Vai^ya.  [\^^  Vaiyva  with  hearts  heavy-laden  with  grief  met 
and  related  to  each  other,  the  sad  story  of  their 
misfortunes.  They  both  brooded  over  their  condi- 
tions, the  king  upon  his  lost  kingdom,  and  the  Vaigya 
on  his  wife  and  children  who  had  so  cruelly  treated 
him.  The  king  asked  Markandeya,  the  sage,  as  to 
why  he  could  not  find  peace  of  mind.  What  was  it 
that  caused  him  so  much  pain  !  He  knew  that  it  was 
unavailing  now  to  grieve  over  what  could  not  be 
recovered.  He  referred  also  to  the  condition  of 
his  friend  the  Vaigya, — his  mind  still  yearning  for 
the  sight  of  his  wife  and  children,  though  they  had  ill- 
treated  him.  Markandeya  said  that  it  was  that  power 
Theory  of  of  (lod,  which  producing  phenomena  that  bear 
^^  ^"'  a  semblance  of  truth  without  being  true,  blind- 
folded all  living  beings.  By  this  power  which  pro- 
duces illusion,  men  are  confounded  and  become 
unable  to  distinguish  what  is  true  from  what  is 
not  true.  The  phenomenal  and  unreal  world  seems 
as  real  to  them  ;  and  they  ignore  (jod,  the  only  Great 
Realitv.  This,  the  sage  said,  is  the  cause  of  all 
human  woes.  This  Power  of  the  Supreme  Deity 
is  Mahamaya  (lit.  (ireat  illusion)  or  Chandi — pt^r- 
sonated  as  a  goddess   whose    mercy    alone,    it    was 


IV.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LllERATURE.         227 


urged,  could  assuage  the  pain  of  troubled  hearts. 
We  need  not  enter  into  the  philosophy  of  this 
faith.  It  is  a  solution  of  the  problem  of  evils, 
arrived  at,  from  a  point  of  view,  other  than  that  in 
which  a  god  of  evil  matches  his  power  against 
a  god  of  good.  Being  asked  how  this  goddess  came 
into  existence,  Markandeya  said  that  she  who 
appears  as  the  phenomena  of  the  Universe  is 
eternal,  but  people  trace  her  origin  from  that  time 
when  she  first  became  manifest  to  the  gods.  Here 
the  sage  gives  a  mythological  story.  At  one 
time  the  demon  Mahisasura  became  so  power- 
ful that  he  took  possession  by  force  of  the  king- 
dom of  heaven,  driving  away  Indra  its  king, 
and  the  god  of  death,  of  wealth,  and  of  ocean 
who  were  his  associates  and  officers.  Crest- 
fallen and  humiliated  they  wandered  for  a  time 
on  earth,  bemoaning  their  lot,  and  then  went 
to  Vaikuntha,  with  Brahma  at  their  head,  and  applied 
to  Vishu — the  greatest  god  of  the  Hindu  Trinity, 
for  help.  Vishu  heard  the  story  of  the  misfortunes 
that  had  befallen  them  and  anger  flashed  from 
his  brow.  Simultaneously  on  the  angry  faces  of 
Civa  and  Brahma,  appeared  the  same  terrible 
light.  Tiie  other  gods  were  also  moved  by  sudden 
anger  and  from  that  vast  assembly  sparks  of 
fire  arose  like  a  terrible  conflagration  and  ex- 
tended to  the  farthest  limits  of  the  firmament. 
This  fire,  which  appeared  as  a  destructive  force, 
gradually  gathered  itself  together  and  took  the 
shape  of  a  goddess  resplendent  in  glory,  who  stood 
majestically  before  the  mighty  host  of  gods.  The 
sparks  of  godly  power  from  ^iva  created  the 
tj[ueen-like     majesty    of  the    face  of  the    goddess^ 


The 
mytho- 
logical 
story. 


228        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

those  from  Varna  created  her  mass  of  black 
hair  wliich  fell  behind  her  like  the  clouds.  Her 
arms  were  made  by  the  sparks  that  immanated  from 
Vishu.  The  Sun  god  saturated  every  pore  of  her 
body  with  his  rays  ;  her  eye-brows  were  created  by 
the  power  of  Sandhya — the  goddess  of  evening,  and 
her  third  eve  on  the  forehead  which  shone  fiercely 
was  born  of  the  power  of  Agni — god  of  fire.  Earth 
trembled  under  the  feet  of  this  majestic  goddess 
and  her  crown  touched  the  skies.  The  gods  in 
concert  chanted  her  glory.  Krisna  gave  her  his 
divine  discus,  Qiva  his  great  trident,  \'aruna 
his  conches,  Indra  his  thunder-bolt  and  Brahma  his 
rosary.  Vi(,^vakarma  gave  her  his  axe,  a  necklace 
and  a  pair  of  Nupura.  The  god  of  ocean  gave  her 
a  garland  of  lotuses  which  never  fade.  The  goddess 
who  was  thus  an  outcome  of  the  united  power  and 
glory  of  all  the  gods,  challenged  Mahisasura  to  a 
fight,  and  killed  him  in  the  severe  contest  which 
ensued.  In  subsequent  times  when  the  gods  were 
pressed  by  the  demons  ^ambhu  and  Ni^ambhu, 
she  again  came  to  their  rescue  and  killing  the 
demonic  brothers,  restored  Indra  to  his  throne. 
Suratha,  the  king  and  Sainadhi  the  X'ai^ya,  after- 
wards obtained  their  lost  possessions  by  the  grace 
of  this  goddess.  This  is  briefly  the  tale,  as  related 
in  the  Chandl  bv  M§rkandeva.    .Though  it  gives    a 

Vedantic       mythological  account,  it  contains  high    metaphvsical 
philosophy         '  .      .    .       .      .  f    1      AT     1 

in  Chandl.      truths  cmbodyingin  them  the  essence  ot  the  VedSntic 

philosophy.      The  Durgapuja  festival,  which  is  held 

with    trrcat    cc/af    in      Heniral,    commemorates    the 
The  Durga        .  . 

Puja.  victory  of  C'handi  or  Durga  over  Mahi^^asura. 

Of   those  who  translated    '  Chandl'  into    Bengali 

we     shall    here     mention     a     few.     The     first    of 


IV.  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  22g 


them  was  Bhav§ni  Prasad  Kar,  a  Vaidya  by  caste 
who  lived  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  i6th  Century. 
Here  are  a  few  lines  from  the  long  autobiographi- 
cal account  that  he  gives  of  himself. 

"  1  was  born  in  a  Vaidya  family  of  Kahthalia 
(in  the  district  of  Mymensing).  1  have  attempted 
to  compose  this  poem  in  honour  of  DurgS  (Chandi). 
She  has  made  me  miserable  from  my  birth.  Pro- 
vidence did  not  grant  me  eyes.  1  have  taken 
refuge  at  the  feet  of  Durga,  having  no  place  to  stand 
on  in  this  world. ""^ 

After  having  described  his  domestic  troubles 
chiefly  brought  about  by  the  wickedness  of  his 
nephew,  he  says, — "  I  was  born  in  the  Kar  family  of 
Kahthalia.  My  father's  name  is  Nayan  Krisha 
Kar.  God  created  me  without  eyes.  So  I  do  noL 
know  the  alphabet  and  cannot  write. "t 

His  translation  of  Chandi  is  very  close  to  the 
text, — a  novel  feature  in  a  work  of  this  class,  for 
which  we  ought  to  be  thankful  to  the  blind  poet, 
but    as    he   did  not  know  how  to  read  or  write,  and 


^in  ^^^  C^K^  ^^lft2f>iTSf  II 
^^^t^  i^Z^  ^Tft  #<I^1  ^sf^^  I 

tt'Sit^^  ^tir^  ^]f^^  c^i^  ^t^  II 
^^^^^  ^Mn  ^n  ^w^  >i^f^  II 


The  tran- 
slators of 
Chandi. 
Bhavani 
Prasad" 
the  blind 
poet. 


230        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.      [Chap. 


Defect  in 
rhyming. 


The  subli. 
mity  of 

the  classi- 
cal poem 
retained. 


had  to  depend  upon  Iiis  ear.  to  acquire  the  art  of 
poetical  composition,  his  rhyming  is  not  faultless. 
There  is  a  nice  distinction  between  ma  and  na,  ta 
and  tha,  and  ta  and  da  in  Bengali  which  at  once 
strikes  the  eye  when  looking  over  a  written  page 
but  which  we  often  miss  in  the  spoken  form  of  the 
language.  Thus  poor  Bhavani  Prasad's  poem 
displays  faults  which  in  his  case  were  almost 
unavoidable ;  yet  his  work  is  creditable  notwith- 
standing these  drawbacks,  and  though  he  is 
not  a  blind  Homer  or  a  blind  Milton  of  Bengal, 
yet  he  is  our  blind  Bhav5ni  Prasad  for  aught  he  is 
worth,  and  deserves  our  praise.  We  quote  below 
a  passage  from  his  translation  to  shew  how  the  blind 
poet  often  retained  the  sublimity  of  the  classi- 
cal poem  by  the  very  unassuming  simplicity  of 
his  style  which  closly  immitated  the  original. 

"  Thou,  O  Goddess,  that  dwellest  in  all,  manifest- 
ing thyself  in  the  intelligence  of  the  created  beings, 
a  hundred  times  do  I  salute  Thee. 

"Thou  that  dwellest  in  the  hearts  ol  all  mani- 
festing Thyself  in  human  kindness,  a  hundred  times 
do  I  salute  Thee. 

"  Thou  that  revealest  Thyself  in  all  pervading 
motherly  love,  a  hundred  times  do  I  salute  Thee."^ 


^'I^?  ^'l^l^  ^51^?  "^K^  II 

^^^n  ^^^An  ^^m^  ^mt:^  ii 

^^^^  ^^1^  ^^(^15  ^K^  II 


IV.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.  23I 

The   next  writer    who    translated  '  Chandi'    was 

Rupanarayan    Ghosa — a    Kayastha.      Rupanaravan 

was    born    about    the    year    i '>Q7    A.  D.      He  was  a  Rupa- 

T  .  narayan 

native  of  Aindala  in  the  sub-division  of   Manikganj         Qhosa 

in    the    district    of    Dacca.     He  was  well-versed  in  j^^q^ 

the  Sanskrit  classics  but  did  not  closely  follow 
the  text.  He  showed  his  erudition  and  poetical 
powers  by  importing  poetical  ideas  from  vaiious 
Sanskrit  poems  into  his  translation  to  which  he  also 
added  passages  from  his  own  fancy. 

We  next  came  across  Chandi  by  Vrajalal.  Judg-  Vrajaiai. 
ing  by  the  language,  it  appears  that  this  poem  was 
written  about  the  same  time  as  Ropnarayan's.  But 
the  next  work  on  Chandi  by  Yadu  Nath  displays  a  JaUunath. 
far  greater  power  than  most  of  the  preceding  works 
of  this  class.  Yadu  Nath  was  born  in  Carkhabari  on 
the  river  Ghagat  in  Perg.  Andhu  (Police  Station, 
Mithapur)  in  the  district  of  Rangpur.  His  work  was 
written  in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  century.  We 
quote  a  passage  from  the  poem  in  which  he  describes 
the  union  of  Civa  and  Uma  who  are  so  blended  as 
to  form  one  figure.  This  figure  is  known  in  Hindu 
mythology  as  Ardhanari^vara.  Bengali  poets  and 
painters  alike  have  applied  their  talent  to  the  naricMTa'r. 
representation  of  this  figure  which  seems  to  have 
a  peculiar  charm  for  them.  There  are  three  figures 
in  our  pantheon  which  illustrate  such  a  blending:  (i) 
^iva  and  Uma,  (2)  ^iva  and  Vishu,  (3)  Krisha  and 
Radha.  We  quote  from  Yadunath  to  illustrate  the 
first,  and  from  Ka^idasto  shew  the  second. 

''My  life  has  to-day  been  made  blessed  by  seeing 
^ivaand  Uma  united  in  a  single  form.  On  onesideare 
beautiful  black  locks  and  on  the  other  a  thick  array 


232  BRNGALI    LANGUAGR    8l    LITERATURE.    [Chap. 

of  loosely  hanging  matted  hair.     On  half  the  breast 

hani^s    a    garland    of  heavenly    Parijat  flowers,    on 

the  other  half,  beads  of  Rudraksa  strung  together  to 

from  a  rosary.    The  left  half  of  the  figure  is  scented 

with  rich    sandal    }3erfumes,    and    the    right    half   is 

covered  with  the  dust  of  the  funeral  ground.   On  the 

left  half  the    finest    apparel    appears    whose   colour 

shines    like    the    sun  and  on  the  other  a  tiger's  skin 

brought  from  the  forests  ! — Uma  and    ^iva    blended 

in    one.     To    the    feet    of  both  Yadunath  offers  his 

humble  worship  in  the  cadence  of  Goura  Sarang."* 

This  image  carries  a    mystic    significance    amongst 

enliglitened  Caivas.     The  form  of   Uma  represents 

the  fineness  and  delicacy  of  earthly  life  and  that  of 

Life  and       Civa,  the  grimness  of  death.    Here,  as  in  the  actual 

^^^}\         world,  life  and  death  are  united  ; — from  the   smiles 
united. 

of    vouth  the    wrinkles    of    age  are  inseparable, — ■ 
the    flower    that  blooms    and  the  flower  that  fades 

7\'^  rswU?i  ^^^^5f  C^  II 
^tf  n?r^ft^  ft^^tsf  ^^t^  II 

ft'^i^P'i^ci  fue^n^r^^  II 

^^t^?[  f  t^  if^^^^  C^'151  II 

Jadunath. 


IV,  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.  233 

appear  on  the  same  bough.  This  embrace  of 
life  by  death  is  a  common  phenomenon,  and  the 
Hindu  devotee  does  not  see  in  it  anything  to  strike 
terror  to  his  heart  or  make  him  sad.  He  takes  it  as 
a  fact  of  the  immutable  law  of  nature  and  views  it 
with  a  feeling  of  reverence  which  inspires  his  songs 
with  poetry. 

The  next  figure  of  this  sort  is  that  of  Civa    and       ^iva  and 
Visnu.     V^isfiu  here  is  the    God  of  glory — of  power 
and  of  life,  and  Civa  that  of  death.  They  are  united 
in  one  image.^ 

"  They  merged  one  in  the  other  and  became  uni- 
ted in  one  form.  Half  the  body  v/as  covered  with 
ashes  and  the  other  half  with  sweet  scented  Kasturi. 
From  one  half  the  head  hung  matted  locks,  and 
from  the  other  flowing  curls  of  finest  hair.  Over 
one  half  the  head,  the  serpent  hissed,  the  other  was 
illumined  bv  a  glorious    crown.     On  half  the    brow 

^  ^'^{f ^1  i^^  ^^ft  w.i^  (I 

'^^  'nc^  V^V^  ^^  ^^^If^  II 

%<^^r|t^^  ^%  C'^tfe^  m^  II 

^^  ^nt^  ^^  ^t  ^^^^  II 
^^  '^i^  ^^  ^z^  ^^^  ^l^  I 

^^^:^  ^^  C^\V^  ftt^^^f^  H"      Kaci  Das. 

30- 


234      Bengali  language  &  literature.    [Chap. 

appeared  the  sweet-scented  print  of  the  Kasturi 
and  on  the  other  blazed  flames  of  fire.  Half  the 
neck  was  wreathed  with  flowers,  about  the  other 
half,  hungf  bones.  From  one  ear  hung  the  pen- 
dants and  the  glorious  earing  bearing  the  emblem 
of  Makara,  and  from  the  other  small  serpents, 
coiling  into  the  form  of  a  ring.  On  half  the  neck 
there  was  the  brilliant  diamond  Kaustuva  and  on  the 
other  the  blue  mark  of  poison.  Half  the  figure 
scented  with  sandal  perfumes  and  the  other  half 
covered  with  the  dust  of  the  funeral  ground.  From 
half  the  body  hung  a  loose  tiger's  skin  and  the 
other  half  was  apparelled  in  rich  purple.  On 
one  of  the  feet  was  the  sweet  sounding  Nupura 
and  on  the  other  a  ring  of  serpents.  T^^  o  hands 
held  conch  and  discus  and  the  other  two  the 
trident  and  the  Dumbura." 

Here  also  the  world  is  emblemed  in  a  highly 
poetic  language  and  in  a  manner  which  appeals 
seriously  to  the  Hindu  mind.  The  sublime  and 
the  beautiful  in  nature,  the  elegance  and  glory  of 
life,  pass  into  the  desolation  of  the  cremaiion- 
o-round.  This  figure  is  sacred  amongst  Hindus  as 
embodying  the  facts  of  life  without  ignoring  those 
of  death,  and  both  are  placed  side  by  side  in  their 
natural  harmony,  instead  of  that  grim  contrast  in 
which  they  are  jjeneraliy  regardt^d  elsewhere. 

The  union  Another    signilicaiit    point  in  the    concej)tion  of 

^^cu^Its^"^  this  blending  of  the  deities  is  that  it  could  only  be 
possible  when  tin-  various  sc^cts  of  the  Hindus — the 
C.dyas,  tiie  Cakias  and  the  Vaisnayas  were  so  far 
reconciled  as  to  accept  one  another's  ideal  in 
religion. 


^ 

^ 

^ 

^ 


IV.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  235 


It  should  be  smd  that  the  description  of  Ardha- 
nari9war  given  from  the  peom  of  Yadunath  does 
not  occur  in  the  original  Chandi  by  the  sage 
Markandeya. 

The  next  translation  of  Chandi  was  from  the 
pen  of  Kamalanarayana,  a  son  of  Yadunath.  This 
poem  contains  many  passages  which  are  truly 
poetic.  It  was  written  about  the  year  17 17.  The 
Mahammadan  Governor  of  Bengal  to  whom  he 
refers  in  his  book  was  probably  Saha  Suja,  son  of  the 
Mogal  Emperor  Saha  Jahan. 

The  translations  of  other  works  such  as  Padma- 
vata  by  Alaol  and  Gitagovinda  by  Rasamaya  and 
Giridhar.  do  not  fall  within  the  scope  of  the  Pauranic 
Renaissance,  so  we  shall  refer  to  them  in  a  future 
chapter. 

The  writers  of  the  w^orks,  dealt  with  in  this 
chapter,  did  not,  as  I  have  already  said,  proceed  on 
the  plan  of  literal  translation  ;  that  would  have  given 
them  only  a  literary  interest.  The  translations  were 
reproductions  of  ancient  ideas  with  modern  accre- 
tion of  thought,  meant  to  act  as  a  living  force  for 
the  education  and  ennoblement  of  the  people, — the 
element  of  philosophical  interpretation  was  an  in- 
novation which  gave  them  a  stamp  of  originality 
peculiar  to  the  Bengali  genius. 


Chandi  by 
Kamalana- 

rayana 
[7  17   A.D. 


Other 
transla- 
tions. 


Transla^ 

tions 

stamped 

with  origi' 

nality. 


3.    The  conception  of    §iva  in   the    Renaissance 
and 
Songs  in  honour  of  him. 

The  later  form  of  Caiva-literature  contains  the 
leading  characteristics  of  the  Renaissance  period, 
though  it  lost  a  good  deal  of  its  importance  as  the 
songs    of  Civd  no  longer  formed  the  main  tueme  ot 


The  later 

^aiva-liter- 

ature. 


236      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.     [  Chap, 


Other 
deities 
lavish 
favours 
upon   their 
worship- 
pers. 


Bengali  songs.  We  require  to  write  in  some  detail 
how  Caivism  was  gradually  pushed  into  a  corner 
by  the  advancing  Sakta  cult. 

The  inertness  of  ^iva  in  old  Bengali  poems  is 
very  well-marked.  Cliandi  in  that  literature  is  an 
extremely  active  deity;  so  is  Manasa  Devi,  and  all 
those  other  divinities  in  whose  honour  poems  were 
composed  in  old  Bengali.  These  Gods  and  Goddess- 
es would  not  have  borne  to  see  a  tear  in  the  eyes  oi 
their  worshippers  •,  whenever  they  fall  into  danger 
they  are  sure  to  obtain  succour.  A  Chandi,  a  Manasa 
Devi,  even  a  ^itala  or  a  Satyanara}ana  is  always 
devising  plans  as  to  how  a  devotee  may  be  rescued 
from  danger,  how  scoffers  may  be  put  down  or  how 
the  earthly  prosperity  of  believers  may  be  increased. 
But  Civa  the  Great  God  is  inert  and  immovable. 
In  the  poem  of  Chandi,  Dlianapati  Sadagara  is 
exposed  to  all  imaginable  dangers  ;  he  is  thrown 
into  a  gloomy  dungeon,  where  a  stone,  heavy 
enough  to  crush  the  strongest  man  is  placed  on  his 
person.  At  the  moment  when  his  sufferings  are  the 
greatest,  Chandi  appears  to  him  and  calls  upon  him 
to  have  faith  in  her,  prouiising  liim  great  reuaids. 
Dhanapati  replies — "  Even  tliough  in  this  dungeon 
my  life  goes  out,  I  will  not  worship  any  other  deity 
than  Civa.""^^  In  Manasai*  Bhasana  we  find  Chand 
Sadagara  put  through  the  most  harrowing  trials  be- 
cause he  will  not  worship  Manasa  Devi.  Yet  he  re- 
mains iirm  in  his  devotion  to  ^iva.  "  I  will  not  de- 
file the  hand  with  which  I  worship  ^iva  by  offering 
worship  to  Manasa  Devi,  that  goddess  who  is  blind 


mV^  ^t^3  f^l^  "^^  ^ff^  ^ff^  '•"    Kavi  Kank.n 


iv.] 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE. 


237 


of  one  eye.""^^ — he  said  in  great  contempt  when  he 
was  offered  prosperity  and  happiness  provided  he 
agreed  to  worship  Alanasa  DevL  King  Chanch-a- 
Ketu  in  ^italamangal,  inspite  of  his  great  troubles 
would  not  worship  Qitala  Devi  and  remained  true 
to  Civa.  But  what  do  the  followers  of  Civa  gain  as 
the  reward  for  their  heroic  devotion  to  his  cause  ! 
The  great  Civa  passive  and  inert,  cares  not  for  the 
sufferings  of  his  followers.  So  it  is  no  wonder 
that  the  followers  of  other  deities  who  lavished 
favour  upon  the  believers  and  undertook  to  destroy 
their  enemies  and  confer  wealth  and  prosperity 
without  being  asked,  increased  daily  in  number,  till 
the  poems  in  honour  of  ^iva,  though  formmg  a 
part  of  the  earliest  literature  of  Bengal,  were 
gradually  overshadowed  by  larger  and  more  poetic 
compositions  in  honour  of  Mana^a  Devi,  Chanui 
and  Satyanarayaha. 

The  iMuhammadans  with  their  vigorous  living 
faith,  had  by  this  time  come  to  Bengal.  Their 
Koran  which  they  believed  to  be  inspired,  lays  it 
down  that  the  God  of  Islam  helps  believers  and 
destroys  unbelievers.  The  strong  belief  of  Islam  in 
a  personal  God  had  to  be  counteracted  in  this 
country  by  forms  of  religion  in  which  the  personal 
element  of  divinity  predominated.  So  the  ^akta 
and  the  V'aishava  religions  flourished  and  the  ^aiva 
religion  with  iLs  impersunal  ideal  and  mysticism  in 
which  man  rose  to  the  level  of  his  God  in  the 
Advaitabada,  was  graduall}-  thrown  into    the    back- 


■X-    (( 


c^  ^fsr  5  ^^  ^rf^  cw^  *j;nnif*i. 

c>!  ^z^  ^1  ^f^^  c&5f  ^f^  ^if«i  r 

Ketaka  Das. 


While  9iva 
is   indiffer> 
ent  to  his 
worship- 
pers. 


^aiva^liter^ 

ature  goes 

totheback^ 

ground. 


The  Strug- 
gle to  coun- 
ter act 
Islamite  in 
fluence 
and  the 
develop^ 
ment  of 
the  ^akta 
and  Vais  = 
fiava  cults. 


238         BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

ground,    as    the    masses    did    not    comprehend    its 
speculative  features. 

The  enlightened  ^aivas  attempted  to  reach  a 
stage  wliere  the  liuman  soul  is  said  to  become  so 
Caivaism.  elevated  as  to  be  identical  with  the  divine  spirit. 
Hc^Ks  i'iC^f^^,  I  am  ^iva,  1  am  ^iva,  was  uttered 
by  the  great  propounder  ot  the  ^aiva  cult  ^ri 
Cahkaracharv  va  in  the  7th  century,  and  his  fol- 
lowers tried  to  imitate  Inm. 

Civa  represents,  in  the  eyes  ut  the  enlightened, 
a  spiritual  principle,  which  to  use  a  pliiiosopliical 
expression,  may  be  called  the  noumenon.  1  he 
^iva  and  phenomenal  world  is  attributed  to  Cakti — the 
goddess  Chandi,  of  whom  I  have  already  spoken, 
^akti  is  ever- active,  creating  the  never-ceasing 
illusions  of  the  visible  universe.  All  that  we  see 
around,  is  produced  by  ^akti,  who  acts  upon  our 
senses  and  causes  our  sorrows  and  pleasures.  But 
^iva  is  inactive— passionless,  feelingless,  unknown 
and  unknowable.  nirgu7ui  or  without  qualities. 
Yet  Qakti  could  not  produce  the  visible,  ever- 
changing  forms  ot  this  universe  without  coming 
in  touch  with  ^iva,  the  noumenon  or  the  permanent 
principle.  To  the  shifting  phenomena  of  the  world  — 
to  our  cverchanging  visible  environment,  Civa  gives 
a  permanence  ; — so  that  w  hen  one  spring  is  over, 
its  permanent  princi])le,  uorked  by  ^akti,  brings  on 
a  new  spring  in  the  place  of  the  old, — the  blooming 
(lower  in  the  place  of  the  faded  (j\\l\  (j^iva,  then, 
is  the  great  bridge  thiit  conmnts  the  lost  with  tlie 
found, — the  univer.sc  that  changes  with  the  universe 
that  is  unchanging.  The  Furanas  represent  the 
figure  of  Civa  as  lying  like  a  corpse  on  which  dances 
Cakti    or    Kali   in  destructixe  testacy.      One  of  her 


IV.  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  239 

four  hands  holds  tlie  severed  head  of  a  demon,  the 
other  a  sword,  implying  the  punishment  of  sin,  but 
the  third  is  stretched  out  in  the  act  of  driving  a 
boon  and  the  fourth  offers  benediction.  The  last 
two  indicate  her  protection  of  those  who  resign 
themselves  to  her  care. 

Tliis  world,  ever-moving  towards  destruction,  is 
svmbolised  in  Cakti  ;  but  she  oives  hope  also  that 
the  virtuous  will  be  saved.  Beyond  the  sphere  of 
virtue  and  vice,  of  pleasure  and  pain,  is  the  perma- 
nent principle  of  the  spiritual  world — ^iva  who  is 
immovable  representing  Eternity  in  the  midst  of  all 
that  shifts.  The  Yogis  who  try  to  attain  a  stage 
where  pleasure  does  not  please  and  sorrow  does  not 
cause  pain,  aim  at  the  spiritual  condition  of  Civa. 
Thus  they  arrive  at  the  permanent  and  abiding 
principle,  and  are  not  subject  to  the  joys  and  pains 
that  flesh  is  heir  to.  At  this  stage  one  mav  sav  that 
he  is  one  with  the  divine  spirit  or  f«|^^?  f*fW?"v 
(I  am  ^iva,  I  am  Civa.^ 

The  noble  qualities  of  ^iva  to  which  we  alluded 

in  a  previous  chanter,  acted  on  the    multitude  as   a 

great  attraction,  but  gradually    as  this  religion  took 

a  subtle  and  mystic  form,  it  grew   unintelligible    to  The 

1  T  1  .  popular 

the    massf^s.     Let    us    here    deal    with   its   popular      ^aivism. 

aspects  as  they  are  found  in  our  old  literature. 

We  referred,  in  a  previous  chapter,  to  the  songs 
of  Qiva — ^iva  according  to  popular  notions,  divest- 
ed of  all  glory,  sunk  into  a  peasant,  a  beggar  and  a 
Ganja  smoker.  He  drank  Siddhi  and  ate  the  fruit 
of  the  Dhutura.  An  agricultural  character'' was 
attributed  to  him  by  those  rustic  bards  who  com- 
posed the  pastoral  songs.  The  Paurgnik  conception 


240      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.     [Chap. 

of  ^iva  as  a  Bhiksu, — probably   borrowed  from  the 

Buddhistic     idea     of      renunciation, — degenerated 

amongst  the  masses,  and  the  Great  God  was  reduced 

to    the    level    of    a    beggar.     The   mythology,   that 

the^pea^       narrated    the    story    of  Civa,    swallowing  poison  to 

sants.         protect  the  universe  from  destruction,  lent  credulity 

to  the  story  of  his  taking  profuse  doses    of  Siddhi 

and    Dhutura. — thus    the    peasants  of  Bengal  gave 

Addicted  to    a  form  to  the  Great  God  that  mirrored  the  condition 

i'ne^d'rugs  ^^  ^^^^^^  ^^^'^"^  ^^^^'  ^"^  '^^^  edifying  character  was 
not  altogether  lost,  in  this  humble  delineation.  In- 
difference  to  the  world,  and  an  ever  contented  dis- 
position, not  ruffled  by  circumstances,  befitting  a 
Yogi,  could  yet  be  discovered  in  the  character 
given  him  by  the  rustic  poets. 

But  Bengali  literature  gradually  grew  more 
refined  as  it  attracted  the  notice  of  scholars  ;  and 
Civa  as  represented  in  the  popular  compositions, 
could  no  longer  satisfy  the  enlightened  taste  of  the 
multitudes  who  listened  to  the  ^aiva  songs.  These 
songs  fell  into  popular  disfavour  as  the  elements  of 
the  personal  God  were  found  more  or  less  wanting 
in  Civa,  and  only  a  few  writers,  latterly,  took  up 
the  subject  for  poetry.  The  character  that  had  been 
attributed  to  Civa  by  the  people  in  the  days  of 
Buddhistic  degeneracy,  was  still  retained  in  these 
The  new       songs,  hut  a  new  element  was  introduced  i?Uo  them. 

^'^'?fr.,^o      which  served  as  an    attraction  to  {he  risinor  orenera- 
in  yaiva  -^  ^ 

literature,      tions  inspired  bv  the  superior  ideals  of  the  Pauranik 
Renaissance. 

The  domestic  ehMivnt  is  prominent  in  the    later 
^Iva  as  the  ^-^..^        j,^    ^1,,.,,,  |^^,      ,.^^,^  ^|^^,  ^.^,^  ^f   ^i^^ 

patriarch       -  "^    &  "h  ^     • 

of  a  family,    patriarch  of  a  familv,   where    Kgrtika    and    Gane9a 

his    sons.     T.nksmi    and    Saraswati    Ids     dau£,diters. 


IV,  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE  &   LITERATURE.  241. 


Nandi  and  Bhrincri  his  savao^e-servants,  and  above 
all  Uma,  his  devoted  wife,  figure  conspicuously. 
Uma  was  married  to  Civa  when  she  was  merely 
a  child.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Mount  Himavata, 
who  gave  her  to  Civa,  in  his  old  age  owing  to 
the  pleading  and  intercession  of  Narada.  The 
poets  who  wrote  on  the  subject  of  this  marriage 
had  before  them  the  scenes  of  a  Bengali  home.  In 
such  homes  girls  of  a  very  tender  age,  were  occa- 
sionally given  in  marriage  to  old  men  and  the 
situation  created  pathos  too  deep  for  expression. 
Uma,  a  girl  of  eight,  was  married  to  the  old  ^iva — 
who  was  a  beggar,  hopelessly  addicted  to  intoxi- 
cating drugs  and  so  poor,  that  he  could  not  give  a 
pair  of  shell-bracelets  to  his  bride.  There  are 
innumerable  songs  in  Bengali,  describing  the 
pathetic  situation.  In  the  month  of  Acvina  (October- 
November)  the  whole  atmosphere  of  Bengal, 
rings  with  the  Agamani  songs,  sung  by  the  Vairagis 
which  describe  the  meeting  of  Uma  with  her  mother  ; 
and  there  is  no  Bengali  to  whom  they  do  not 
appeal  most  tenderly.  The  domestic  scenes  of 
Bengal — the  sorrows  of  Bengali  parents — are  really 
the  themes  of  the  songs,  though  they  profess  to  deal 
with  mythological  subjects,  which  bear  a  realistic 
interest,  full  of  deep  pathos.  There  the  queen  of 
Himavata  in  the  month  of  Ayvina,  says  to  her  lord 
— ''  Go  thou  and  bring  my  Uma,  I  know  not 
how  she  fares  in  Kailasa  without  me.  I  heard  from 
Narada  that  she  wept  and  cried  'o  mother,  o  mother.' 
^iva  takes  profuse  quantity  of  Bhang  and  Siddhi  ; 
he  loses  his  senses  under  their  influence,  and  rebukes 
Uma  for  no  fault  of  hers,  ^iva  has  sold  all  the 
clothes    and  valuable  ornaments  that  vou  sfave  Uma 


The  Joys 

and  sor- 
rows of 
Bengali 
homes 

under  a 
mythologi" 

cal  garb. 

The    Aga- 
mani 
songs 


242        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

to  purchase  intoxicating  drugs. ""^  In  another  song 
the  queen  of  Himavata  says — "  O  Lord  of  the  moun- 
tains, my  Uma  came  to  me  in  a  dream  and  when  my 
heart  swelled  with  joy  at  the  meeting,  she  disap- 
peared. Alas  !  how  cruel  is  she  to  her  mother  !  then  I 
felt  that  it  is  no  fault  of  hers,  O  mountain,  she  is  a 
true  daughter  of  thee  to  inherit  that  heart  of 
stone. "t  In  another,  when  Uma  grew  older  and 
gave  birth  to  Kartika  and  Gahe^a  the  queen 
says,  '  O  Himavata,  all  that  you  said  about  my 
Uma,  has  pierced  my  heart  as  with  a  sword.  My 
poor  Ganeya,  you  said,  was  crying  and  going 
from  door  to  door  in  hunger,  and  Kartika,  my 
darling,  when  almost  starved  fell  on  the  dusty  earth 

^  "  ^tv3  ^rG  f^ft  -sitf^^^  c-nW, 

^m  c^c^  c^t^i  ^u  fff^^^, 

^t5iT<  ^mi^  ^^  ft?  ^mi^  II 

^1^  cii5  ^i^r  c«n:K^  ii"    oid  song, 
t  "f^ft  c^M)  "^w^  ^nfe,  '^^  Ci^^1  fe^i. 

c?«ii  fffa  c^^  ^"5  ^?1  ^t^  I 

vu^  vf^  ^w  ^tft  i^t^irTit^  II 

fn^cfrU'f  c^^  ntMt^  ^'^  ii"    Old  song. 


IV.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.         243 

and  cried  for  fopd.""^  Yet  Uma  was  the  daughter  of 
a  king.  The  household  of  Civa — a  scene  of  extreme 
indigence  is  painted  in  contrast  with  that  of  king 
Himavata  and  the  sorrows  of  the  queen  who  was 
in  affluence  herself,  at  the  recollection  of  Uma's 
sufferings  and  those  of  her  sons,  find  expres- 
sion in  the  old  songs  which  at  once  appeal 
to  the  heart.  Innumerable  songs  of  this  class 
are  sung  every  year  in  Bengal  by  the  profes- 
sional singers  who  visit  almost  every  house  in  the 
month  of  Agvina  ;  and  where  is  the  heart  so  hard 
that  it  can  refrain  from  tears,  while  hearing  them. 
The  girls  here,  of  too  tender  an  age  to  play  the 
wife,  are  often  taken  away  from  the  custody  of 
parents.  With  veils  over  their  faces  they  have  to 
stay  in  their  husband's  home,  speak  in  whispers  and 
subject  themselves  to  the  painful  discipline  of  the 
daughter-in-law.  At  an  age  when  they  should  skip 
and  bound  like  wild  deer,  these  tender  beings  have 
to  live  in  a  home  to  which  as  yet  they  are  strangers, 
subject  to  possible  censure  at  every  step,  and  cut 
off  from  their  parents  and  playmates.  When  the 
Agamani  songs,  describing  the  sorrows  of  Menaka 
— the  queen  of  Himabata  and  of  Uma,  her  daughter 
are  sung  by  professional  singers,  the  eyes  of 
many  a  child-wife  glisten  behind  her  veil,  and 
the  hearts  of  their  mothers  cry  out  for  the  daughters 
who  have  been  taken  away  from  them.  The 
^ephalika    flower    falls    to    the    ground   in  showers 

^tTi^  '<ni^'\fi^  ^if^  ^^w^  ^m^  c^ff  c^c^  c^vst^  I 

Old  song. 


244      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.        [Chap. 

under  the  clear   autumnal  sky    of  Bengal    and   the 

breeze   blows    softly   in   the  season  of  these  songs. 

Song  dur-     'pj^g    sino^ers    ijenerally    have    an    Ekatara    or  one- 
ing  the  .  .  ... 

Puja  time     stringed  lute  with  iheni,  which  chimes    in  well   with 

month  of      their    plaintive    voice   in    the    modulation    of  grief. 

Asvina.  j|^^  month  of  Agvina,  in  the  eyes  of  every  Hindu, 
is  inseparably  associated  with  these  songs  even  as 
it  is  with  the  ^ephalika  flower  and  the  clear  sky  of 
autumn.  During  the  Pujas  which  take  place  in 
this  month,  friends  and  relations  meet  in  Bengali 
homes,  the  joyful  tears  of  many  a  mother  are 
mingled  with  her  daughters'  while  they  narrate  tu 
one  another,  how  the  bitter  days  of  separation  were 
passed.  The  pictures,  drawn  by  our  village-painters 
are  pleasant  to  us  on  account  of  many  delicate  asso- 
ciations. In  them  the  queen  Menaka  stands  \Nith 
arms  out-stretched,  and  Uma  comes  to  her  with  her 
sons  and  daughters — the  scene  suggesting  the  suffer- 
ings of  the  whole  year.  But  old  Civa.  it  must  be 
remembered,  is  the  Great  God.  He  can,  at  his  will, 
assume  a  young  and  handsome  appearance  and 
Uma,  inspite  of  her  yearnings  to  meet  her  mother, 
is  a  devoted  wife.  ^iva.  beggar  and  eater  of 
intoxicating  drugs  though  he  is.  is  tenderly  devoted 
to  Uma.  He  cannot  bear  separation  from  her. 
When  she  iroes  to  her  father's  house,  there  in  the 
picture,  the  Great  God  follows  her  above,  through 
the  skies,  with  looks  indicating    immeasurable    lo\e 

Reverence  .^,^,^j    tenderness,    and   in  the  Aiiamani  sonys,  rever- 

for  ^iva.  ... 

The  cha-  cnce  is  not  wanting  for  Ci\a    inspite  of  the  humble 

racter  of  a  .     .                  i          ,         ,  • 

Yogi  re-  characteristics    attributed  to  him.      Here    is  a  song 

tSi"songs.     i"  '''^'''^^'  H^'^'^""  Menaka  says:— 

"  ()  Himavata,  1  ha\ethis    desire    in    my    heart. 
Let  me  brini--  mv  daughter  with  m\-    son-in-law  and 


IV.  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  J45 

give  them  a  home  in  this  mountainous  region.  He 
will  be  here  my  adopted  son,  and  this  moun- 
tain,— capital  of  ours  will  be  a  second  Kailasa  (the 
abode  of  ^iva).  I  shall  see  my  Uma  and  ^iva  for 
all  the  twelve  months  of  the  year  and  the  pain  of  my 
heart  w^ill  be  assuaged.  My  son-in-law  is  ever  con- 
tented. It  is  so  easy  to  please  him  I  If  1  offer  him 
the  flower  Kunda  and  leaves  of  Bel,  he  will  make 
this  place  his  home  and  will  not  wish  to  go  away.""^ 

\et  everv  one  knows,  while  hearinii'  or  sinsfinir 
such  songs,  that  ^iva  cannot  be  bound  to  any 
earthly  object.  He  is  addicted  to  nothing  ;  it  is  his 
compassion,  that  people  mistake  for  love.  He 
cares  not  for  either  raiment  or  food, — his  content- 
ment springs  from  within.  He  is  absorbed  in 
contemplation,  he  is  immaculate  and  above  all 
desire.  Uma  tries  to  bind  him  by  a  thousand  ties 
of  affection.  But  home  and  the  funeral  ground  to 
him  are  alike — he  aims  at  the  superior  delight  which 
is  derived  from  Yoga. 


^tft  ^tT!^1  Tfe^.  ^tf^^  ^fe'^ 

%^  ^1^^  ^MI  'TC^^  ^t^^l, 

^T:^  ^^^  C^t^1  (M^  mi:^  ^1  II"     Old  song. 


246        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 


Uma   the 
house-wife. 


A  passage 
from  Ra- 
me^vara's 
^ivayana. 


The  domestic  element  in  the  descriptions  of 
Civa,  lends  a  charm  to  ^iva-songs  in  Bengali.  Umg 
in  Kailasa  plays  the  housewife,  the  perfect  prototype 
of  the  Hindu  wife,  ever  accustomed  to  patient  and 
strenuous  self-denial  and  labour,  cheerfully  borne 
for  the  sake  of  others.  Her  highest  delight  lies  in 
distributing  food  to  her  husband,  children  and  ser- 
vants. She  herself  eats  nothinor  till  everyone  in  the 
house,  nay  every  guest  has  been  satisfied  ;  but  this 
pleasure  of  serving  others  while  fasting  herself 
invests  her  with  a  heavenly  charm, — which  is 
indicated  in  the  following  passage  quoted  from 
Civayana  by  Rameyvara  : — "^ 


^  ''  fej{  ?jfer  C^t^l  ^£1^1  ^^  C^^^  Tfi\  I 
*il|  f»f^^  ^1  s^t^,  ttfe  ^t^^  ^n  II 

^5^^^  ^m  ^t^i  h^f  ^u  «I1  II 

^^#1  ^^^  ^t^T  CT^\^  ^U  ^^  I 

^\^7]  ^^^,  ^^  ^f^fl?f  cn^&  I 
^  nt^  ^^  ^t^  Iw  ^l-^  "^l^  w 
^tf^^1  ^^^91  «la  f^^^«l  ^^  I 

^^^T^r^  ^c^  ^^  ^^*n^^^  ft  I 

^n  ^^  ^15f  ^|S^  ^t^  ^U^  f^  II 

vrvB^fs  C^^t  ^^^  f^^l  ^Ten  ^*f  I 
ai'^  C«iC^  f^lfH  0*51^1^^  ^H  ^*[  II 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.         247 

"  With  his  two   sons    Civa    sits    down    to    dine. 

Three  sit  to  eat  and  Uma  serves  food  to  them.     As 

soon  as  she  has  served  food,  the  plates  are  emptied 

and    thev    look    into    the  cooking  pot.     Padmavati 

(the    maid    of    Uma)    observes    how    eagerly    Civa 

eats  and  smiles.     Sukta  (the   first  curry)  is  finished 

and  they  fall  upon    broth.      Meantime  the    plates 

are  all    emptied    of  rice    and    they    all    want    more 

"Mother!"     says     Kartika,     "Give    us    rice"     and 

Ganega  also  repeats  the  request,  while  the   Lord    of 

Destruction    (^iva)    says — "  Oh    Uma    bring   more 

rice."     Uma    says    to    her    sons,   "My  darlings,    be 

patient :    Gahega   becomes    silent  at  these  words  of 

his  mother  but  Civa  suggests  a  joke  to  Kartika  who 

says — ^  Our  father  and  mother  are   Raksasas.     We 

know    only    how    to    eat   and    know  not  how  to  be 

patient.'     Uma  smiles  and  distributes  rice.     Ganega 

says  '  I  have  finished  my  curry,  what  more  have  you 

in  store  ?'  Hastily  she  comes  and  serves  ten  different 

kinds    of  fried    food.     Civa    is    much    pleased  and 

praises    her    for    her    good    cooking.     The    fried 

Dhutara  fruit  and  cups  of  Siddhi  are  given    to    the 

Great    God  and  he  nods  his  head  in  approval  as  he 

sips.  WHien  all  the  curries  are  finished,  they  all  call 

at    the    same  time  for  more  ;   Uma  comes  hastily  to 

fill  their  plates  and  the  wind  play-fully  catches    her 

^^  C^C^  ^W  ^K^  C^^^t<r  ^tWl  II 


$48         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 


A  prayer 
for  shell- 
bracelets 
and  the 
Sequel. 


Poems  in 

honour  of 

^iva. 


draperies.  The  musical  Nupura  tinkles  sweetly  on 
her  feet  as  she  goes  rapidly  to  and  fro  and  her  brace- 
lets sound  in  harmonv  with  them.  She  hnds  it 
hard  to  serve  so  manv.  The  drops  of  sweat  look 
like  pearls  on  her  beautiful  face.  As  a  skilful  dancing 
girl  moves  gracefully  to  the  sound  of  the  musical 
instruments,  so  does  Uma  move  brisklv  about 
while  serving  food  to  her  lord  and  children.  She 
next  serves  Payasa  (pudding)  of  pleasant  flavour, 
and  then  a  sauce  both  sweet  and  sour.  Her  hair 
becomes  dishevelled,  and  her  dress  grows  loose. 
With  sweetmeats  of  milk  and  rice,  the  dinner  ends. 
The  domestic  element  again  becomes  pathetic 
in  the  description  of  Uma's  wanting  a  pair  of 
shell-bracelets  from  her  husband.  Her  lord  says 
that  he  is  too  poor  to  give  them  and  a  quarrel  ensues, 
the  sequel  of  which  is  that  Uma  sets  out  in  anger 
for  her  father's  home.  Civa  then  disguises  himself 
as  a  bracelet-maker  and  goes  to  his  father-in-law's 
house.  There,  with  tears  and  begging  of  forgiveness 
on  both  sides,  the  devoted  pair  are  reconciled  and 
once  more  lirought  together. 

A  considerable  part  of  the  ^unya  Purana.  to 
which  we  have  already  referred,  consists  of  songs 
about  Civa  and  these  dating  from  the  ninth  century 
or  thereabout  form  the  oldest  specimens  of  Caiva- 
lltcrature  that  we  possess.  Of  other  poems  in 
honour  of  this  nod,  which  have  come  down  to  us,  we 
notice  some  below  : — 


^^  fT5<T«1  ^^?I  :3V  i^^  d^  \\' 


IV,]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  249 

(2)  ^ivayana  by  Ram  Krisha,  a  voluminous 
poem. 

(3)  Mriga  Byadha  Sarhvada  by  Ram  Raj. 

(4)  Do.  by  ^yama  Roy. 

(5)  Mrigalubdha  by  Ratiram.  (This  poet  was 
a  Brahmin  and  a  native  of  Suriiha  Dandi  in  Chitta- 
gong.     He  composed  the  poem  in  1674  A.  D.) 

(6)  ^iva  Chaturdagi  by  Raghu  Rama. 

(7)  Vaidyanath  Mangala  by  ^ankara  Kavi 
Chandra,  composed  in  the  17th  century. 

(8)  ^ivayana  by  Rame^vara.  This  is  a  volu- 
minous work  and  was  written  about  1750  A.  D. 
Ramegvara  was  appointed  by  Raja  Yafovanta 
Siriiha  of  Karnagada  to  write  his  Civayana.  It 
enjoys  great  popularity.  The  poet  was  a  native 
of  Yadupur  near  the  police  station  of  Ghatal  in  the 
district  of  Midnapur  where  a  zemindar  named 
Hemayata  Simha  oppressed  him  so  greatly  that  he 
was  oblisred  to  leave  his  ancestral  home  and  settle 
at  Karnagada  in  the  same  district.  Ra  meg  vara 
belonged  to  the  Radhiya  Brahmin  class.  His 
father  was  one  Laksmana  Chakravarty  and  his 
mother's  name  was  RopavatL 

Of  all  the  poems  in  honour  of  ^iva — this 
Civayana  by  Ramegvara  enjoys  the  greatest  popu- 
larity. It  was  published  by  the  Vangavashi  Press 
of  Calcutta  some  years  ago,  and  a  portion  of  it, 
called  Vagdinir  Pala,  is  re-issued  from  the  Battala 
presses  every  year,  a  large  number  of  copies  being 
bought  by  the  common  people. 

Though  the  number  of  poems  dealing  with 
Civa  exclusively  is  comparatively  small,  yet 
there  are    manv  others  which  treat  of  his  marriage 


32 


250      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

Incidental      with  Uma  and  their    domestic    life  in  detail.     Such 

tions  of        incidental     descriptions    of    ^iva     and    Uma     are 

^rn/h?       found  in  all  the  Chandi  Mangalas,  in  the  Ramayafia 

other  by  Krittivasa,   in  the   Manasa    Maneala    by    Viiay 

poems.         .:  ,    .  ^  J         J  J 

Cjupta,    and    in    many    other   old  Bengali  poems  in 

which  they  might  be  least  expected.     This  of  course 

shows  that  they  are  relatively  older. 

4.    The  Sakta-cuit  and  its  development  in  Bengal. 

The  idea  of  the   femininity   of  God    may    have 
Ood  as  ..-..".... 

mother.       been    characteristic    or  primitive  Asiatic   races — of 

Mongolians  and  Dravidians  in  particular,  whose 
civilization,  according  to  some  scholars,  preceded 
that  of  the  Aryans.  In  the  Vedas  which  represent 
the  pure  creed  of  the  Indo-Aryans  before  it  had  any 
admixture  of  the  religion  of  the  primitive  races  of 
India, — we  do  not  find  any  pronounced  worship  of 
god  as  mother.  But  the  whole  country  was  full  of 
such  worship  and  the  Aryan  settlers  had  erelong 
to  recognise  and  adopt  it.  We  find  in  the  Tantras 
that  some  forms  of  the  Sakta-cult  were  imported  in- 
to the  religious  system  of  the  Aryans  from  China. "^ 

The  great  war  between  Chandi  and  Mahisasur  is 
war  said  to  have  occurred  in  the  earliest  part  of  the  Satya- 

between       y^ora^      'pb^.  Hindus  thus    s^ive    it  a  date  anterior  to 
Chandi  t>  '^^ 

and  Mahis.  ^^ny  event  related  in  their  own  history,  though  there 
is  no  mention  of  this  war  in  the  Vedas.  This  fact 
is  suggestive  of  the  origin  of  the  worship  of  the 
mother  in  a  very  primitive  age  and  the  non-mention 
of  it  in  their  earliest  literature — the  \'edas,  only 
leads  to  the  hypothesis,  that  it  did  not  originally 
interest  the  Aryans. 


In  tlu'  Kiidra-N'amala  and  other  Hiinlu  Tantras. 


IV.  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  25 1 


But  the  Aryans  could  not  help  adopting  this 
creed  in  their  religious  worship  after  they  had 
settled  in  the  country  for  some  time,  because  it  had 
such  a  wide-spread  influence  and  also  because  by 
its  great  tenderness,  this  faith  is,  religiously  ex- 
tremely attractive.  When  the  Sakta-cult  thus  came 
to  be  recognised  by  the  Indo-Aryans,  they  raised  it 
into  a  highly  refined  and  spiritual  faith,  Sanskritized 
its  vocabulary  and  Aryanized  its  modes  of  worship, 

Eiut  this  worship  took  centuries  to  reach  such  a 
state — Delai  Chandi,  Lakhai  Chandi,  Vayuli,  Tha- 
kurani — are  some  of  the  non-sanskritic  names  of 
the  mother  as  worshipped  in  different  localities  — 
which  still  remind  us  of  the  primitive  faith  of  the 
people,  before  they  came  in  contact  with  Aryan 
civilization.  The  worship  of  the  snake-goddess  and 
of  Chandi  once  prevailed  in  all  parts  of  the  ancient 
world  and  recent  discoveries  made  in  Crete  by 
Dr.  Evans  attest  that  it  existed  there  as  early  as 
3000  B.  C. 


^akta  cult 
was  lat= 
terly  re= 

cognised. 


Some  of 

the  non- 

Sanskritic 

names  of 

the 
mother. 


But  though  ^akti-worship  was  recognised  early.      The  local 
— the    local    divinities    in  all    parts  of  India    could      were  not 

not  receive  similar    recog^nition    and   homao^e    from    recognised 

=>  ^  without  a 

the  Indo-Aryan  settlers    without  a  great  struggle —      struggle. 

especially  as  the  worship  of  these  deities  had  much 

in  itthat  was  crude  and  unht  for  admission  by  Hindus 

into  their  organised  cults.    The  Qaivaism  which  was 

the  earlier  of  the  two  to  become  an  organized  creed, 

had  great  fight  with  the  creed  of  the  people  believing 

in    various  forms  of  the   mother  worship.    Bengali 

Literature  begins,  so  to  speak,  with  this  account  of 

a  fight  between  the  ^aivas  and  the   worshippers  of 

those    local    deities    who    claimed    to  be  ^akti.  but 


252      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.       [Chap, 

whom  the  worshippers  of  Civa  called  witches  and 
regarded  as  quite  unworthy  of  worship.  At  a  later 
time  the  Caiva  creed  was  blended  with  the  ^akti- 
cult  even  in  its  crude  local  forms,  but  this  could 
not  happen  before  a  hard  contested  fight  on  either 
side. 

This  chapter  will  concern  itself  with  the  history 
of  such  struggle  and  the  gradual  elaboration  of 
these  local  cults  under  the  shadow  of  a  clearly 
organised  doctrine  of  the  relation  between  Civa 
and  Cakti. 

(«)    Poems  in  honour  of  Manasa  Devi. 

In  Chaitanya  Bhagavata,  a  work  written  in  1536, 
we  find  it  mentioned  that  many  people  at  the  time 
took  pride  in  worshipping  Manasa  Devi,  the  snake- 
goddess.  The  songs  in  honour  of  this  deity  may 
be  traced  back,  as  I  have  said,  to  a  very  early 
period  and  they  have  a  ^\'idc>  circulation  all  over 
Bengal,  especially  in  the  East  where  the  earliest 
writer  of  these  sonu^s,  llari  Datta  lived.  The  s^reat 
respect,  commanded  by  this  deity  in  the  lower 
Gangetic  valley,  is  not  difficult  to  explain.  The 
plains  of  Bengal,  especially  the  portions  adjoining 
the  sea,  are  infested  \\ith  snakes,  and  deaths  from 
snake-bite  during  the  rainy  season  become  so  com- 
mon as  to  cause  considerable  alarm  to  the  people. 
The  cottages  of  the  poor  villagers,  offer  no  protection 
to  them  from  the  \enomous   enemy    and    when  the 

....     .  floods    come    upon     the    mu(l-ho\els   and    thatched 

I  he  fear  ' 

of  snakes,      roofs,    snakes   and    otlu-r    venomous    reptiles    take 

shelter  there,  and    are    not   infrecjuently  discovered 

hidden  in  l)i"ds  or  coiled  up   in    pitchers    and    other 

household    utensils.     The      poor    people     have    no 


[V.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE. 


!53 


means  of  cutting  down  the  jungles  and  keeping  the 
village-paths  clear.  In  their  utter  helplessness  they 
are  driven  to  take  refuge  in  God.  The  God  of  the 
snakes  is  also  the  God  of  men  and  by  propitiating 
him  they  hope  to  avert  the  danger  with  which 
unaided  they  cannot  cope.  A  consolation  comes 
to  them  surely  when  thus  resigned  to  His  mercy. 

The  goddess  Manasa  Devi  who  represents  the 
divine  power  as  seen  in  snakes  has  been  a  popular 
deity  from  very  early  times,  but  before  her  worship 
was  recognised  as  a  form  of  ^akti-worship,  the 
followers  of  the  ^aiva-religion  offered  a  great 
resistance  to  it,  as  indeed  they  did  to  the  worship 
of  all  other  local  deities  of  the  later  ^akta-cult. 
The  history  of  the  struggle  of  the  ^aivas  w'ith  the 
worshippers  of  ^akti,  w^hich  was  long  protracted, 
is  shrouded  in  the  dark  past.  The  flowers  offered 
to  Cakti,  as  Acoka  and  Java  for  instance,  are  not 
acceptable  to  the  great  ^iva  even  now  when  that 
strife  is  over.  The  heroic  firmness  with  which  Chand 
Sadagara,  Dhanapati  Sadagara  and  other  followers 
of  ^iva  adhered  to  their  faith  and  offered  resistance 
to  the  spread  of  the  worship  of  the  local  deities  of  the 
Sakta-cult,  found  in  our  old  poems,  opens  a  vista 
through  which  we  have  a  glimpse  of  the  struggle, 
which  at  one  time  split  the  w^hole  Hindu  community 
of  Benoral. 

There  is  much  that  is  crude  in  the  poems  on 
Manasa  Devi  and  those  on  Chandl.  This,  however, 
proves  that  they  once  formed  a  part  of  the  popular 
literature  of  the  country  before  the  people  had 
come  in  contact  with  the  refined  classical  taste 
of  the  Renaissance.  The  readers  will  have  patientlv 


Local  dei= 
ties  recog- 
nised in 
the   9akta= 
pantheon 
after  a 
severe 
fight  with 

the 
^aivites. 


The 

personal 

element  in 

the  divi= 

nitie5. 


254      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.      [  Chap< 

to  go    through    the    manoeuvres  and    plots  formed 
by  the    deities    that    would    often  appear    undigni- 
fied    and    unworthy   on     their    part.     The    propa- 
ganda of  the   ^akta-cult    howev'er    was  to    restore 
faith    in    a    personal    divinity   in    the    place  of  the 
impersonal  ^iva.     All  through    these    poems  one  is 
sure  to  find    the  mother's    heart    in    the    divinities, 
eager    to    stretch    out    protecting    hands    to    those 
children  that  clino:  to  them.      Into  whatever  damper 
a  believer    may  fall,    he   cries  out  for  the  motherly 
help  of  the  divinity  whom  he  worships  in  a  patient 
and  prayerful  spirit,  and  she  is  sure   to    appear    to 
him    with   anxious    solicitude    to  protect  him.     In- 
stances of  this    personal    element  in  the  deities  are 
to    be    found    throughout   the  vast  literature  of  the 
Saktas.     The  characters  of  ^rimanta  and    Kalketu 
in  Chandi  Kavya,  of  Sundara  in  X'idya  Sundara,  of 
Lau  Sen  in  Dharma  Mangal,  as  recast  by  the  Hindu 
preists.    and    of  Rehula    in    Manasa    Mangal.  have 
been  all  depicted  as  attaining   great  success  in  life 
by     force    of    their     devotion     alone.      When     all 
resources    failed    and     the    great  characters  were 
reduced    to    utmost    straits — some    of    them     being 
doomed  to  die  on  the  scaffold,  they  fixed  their  whole 
heart  on  the  mother  and    solicited    divine  help  \\  ith 
tearful    eyes,    despairing    of  saving    themselves    by 
their  own  power,  and  the   mother  was  sure  to  come 
to  her  devotees  stretching  out  the  hand  of  succour. 

Chauti^a.  One    ol   the    familiar    ways   adopted   by  the  old 

Bengali  poets  in  describing  such  mystic  situations 
was  to  put  in  the  mouth  of  a  devotee  a  hymn  ad- 
dressed to  her  bv  names  beginning  with  each  (^f  the 
thirtv-four    letters    of  the  Bengali     alphabet.     The 


IV*  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.       255 

gods  and  goddesses  in  our  mythology  are  often 
known  to  their  worshippers  by  hundreds  of  names 
and  these  hymns  addressed  with  34  names,  of 
which  there  is  quite  a  legion  in  our  literature,  are 
called  Chauti(;a  (lit  34). 

This  idea  of  a  personal  divinity  as  contrasted 
with  that  of  the  impersonal  Civa  is  the  predomi- 
nant feature  in  the  literature  of  the  Cakta  cult. 


.0 


In  the  month  of  ^ravana  (July-August)  the 
villages  of  Lower  Bengal  present  a  unique  scene. 
This  is  the  time  when  Manasa  Devi  is  worshipped. 
Hundreds  of  men  in  Sylhet,  Backergunge  and 
other  districts  throng  to  the  river  side  or  to  the 
temples  to  recite  the  songs  of  Behula.  The  vigorous 
boat-races  attending  the  festivity  and  the  enthu- 
siasm that  characterises  the  recitation  of  these  songs 
cannot  but  strike  an  observer  with  an  idea  of  their 
vast  influence  over  the  masses.  There  are  some- 
times a  hundread  oars  in  each  of  the  long  narrow 
boats,  the  rowers  singing  in  loud  chorus  as  they  pull 
them  with  all  their  might.  The  boats  move  with 
the  speed  of  an  arrow,  even  flying  past  the 
river-steamers.  These  festivities  of  Manasa  Puja 
sometimes  occupy  a  whole  month,  during  which 
men  keep  vigil  and  recite  the  songs  before  the 
goddess,  and  are  generally  known  as  Bhasan  Yatra.  The 

The      wonderful     devotion     of      Behula     to      her        Yatrl." 
husband     is     the    theme    of  these    songs ;    and   a 
vast    poetic    literature   has    sprung    up    in    Bengal 
during   the    last   thousand  years  in  commemoration 
of  the  events  of  her  life  and  that  of  Chand-sadae^ara 


256      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.      [Chap. 


Villages 
and  towns 
claiming 
connec- 
tion with 
the  charac- 
ters of 
Manasa- 
Mangal. 


who  offered  detiance  to  Manasa  Devi  for  long 
years,  yet  ultimately  was  driven  by  strange  cir- 
cumstances to  worship  her.  How  wide-spread  is 
the  popularity  of  these  songs  in  Bengal  may  be 
imagined  from  the  fact  that  the  birth-place  of  Chand- 
Sadagara  is  claimed  by  no  less  than  nine  districts, 
all  equally  proud  of  the  hero  of  the  Manasa  Mangal. 
It  reminds  us  of  the  seven  cities  which  disputed  the 
honour  of  Homer's  birth.  I  may  name  here  some  of 
the  places  that  claim  a  connection  in  one  shape  or 
another  with  the  chief  characters  of  Manasa - 
Mangala. 

(i)  Champaka  Nagara — said  to  have  been  the 
capital  of  Chand  Sadagara,  in  the  district  of 
Burdwan  and  close  to  Champaka  Nagara  is  a  small 
river  which  is  called  Behula,  after  the  reputed 
heroine  of  Manasa  Mangala. 

(2)  Champaka  Nagara  in  Tippera. 

(3)  Dhubri  in  Assam.  People  here  believe  that 
Chand  was  a  resident  of   the  place 

(4)  Mahasthana  in  the  district  of  Bogra. 

(5)  The  people  of  Darjeeling  believe  that  the 
scene  of  the  IManasa  Mangal  was  laid  on  the 
banks  of  the  river  Ranit  close  by. 

(6)  Sanaka  Gram  near  Kanta  Nagar  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Dinajpur  ;  Sanaka  was  the  queen  of  Chand 
Sadagara  and  Sanaka  Nagar  is  believed  to  have 
been  named  after  her. 

(7;     Champai  Nagar  in  the  District  of  Maldah. 

(8)  The  Mela  (exhibition)  held  in  honour  of 
Behula  in  the  District  of  Birbhum  is  said  to  have 
originated  during  Behula 's  life-time. 


IV.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERAl  URE. 


57 


(9)  III  Chittagong,  there  is  a  spot  pointed  out 
as  the  site  of  the  house  of  Kalukgniar — the  builder 
of  a  steel  house  for  Laksmindara,  and  there  is 
besides  a  tank  in  the  place  which  bears  the  name 
of  Chand  Sadagara. 

We  orive  here  the  story  of   Manasa  Devi  : — • 


It  was  ordained  by  the  great  god  Civa  that 
unless  and  until  Chand  Sadsgar,  the  merchant- 
king  of  Champaka  Nagar.  worshipped  Manasa  Devi, 
her  claims  to  obtain  piija  amongst  mortals  would 
not  be  recognised. 

At  first  she  tried  by  gentle  persuasion  to  prevail 
upon  Chand  Sadagar  to  worship  her,  but  the  hero 
of  the  poems  lent  a  deaf  ear  to  her  words.  He 
carried  in  his  hand  a  huge  stick  made  of  hintal 
wood  and  with  it  he  tried,  several  times,  to  assault 
the  goddess.  The  god  whom  Chand  worshipped  was 
the  great  ^iva.  Could  he  brook  the  idea  of  offer- 
ing flow^ers  at  the  feet  of  the  deity  who  merely  pre- 
sided over  snakes  ?  He  hated  her  from  the  bottom 
of  his  heart  and  called  her  ill  names. 

The  wrath  of  the  goddess  of  snakes  knew  no 
bounds  at  this  defiant  attitude.  She  determined  to 
revenge  herself  by  some  means,  fair  or  foul. 

Chand  had  made  a  beautiful  garden  outside  the 
city,  which  was  called  ''  Guabari."  He  had  spent 
many  lakhs  of  rupees  in  making  it  an  earthly  para- 
dise. Now^  Manasa  Devi  commanded  her  retinue 
of  serpents  to  destroy  this  fair  garden  bv  their 
venomous  bites.  Thev  did  so  ;  and  lo  !  this  elv^sium 


The  story 

of  Manasa 

Mangal. 


Chand 
Sadagar's 
defiance. 


Guabari 
destroyed 


33 


258        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [Chap 

of  Chand,  so  rich  in  fruit  and  flowers,  was  reduced 
to  smoke.  The  guards  in  great  consternation  went 
to  Chand  and  acquainted  him  with  the  fate  of  his 
far-famed  Guabari.  Chand  came  to  the  spot  and 
smiled. 

The  garden  To  the  wonder  of  all,  there   present,  he    uttered 

revived.       some    inantras    and  the    ofarden   revived,    wearing 
the  fresh  hues  of  its  original  verdure. 

Manasa  Devi's  plot  was  thus    foiled    by   Chand, 
Jnan.  ^^^"'O  possessed  Maha  Jna7i—2i  power  bestowed    by 

^iva,  by  which  he  could  give  life  to  the  dead  and 
revive  all  that  was  destroyed. 

It  was  useless  for  the  goddess  to  try  other 
experiments.  She  felt  that  so  long  as  Chand  pos- 
sessed this  power  he  was  practicallv  invincible. 

The  loss  She  now  appeared  before  the    merchant    in    the 

inan.^'  gi^iise  of  a  youthful  maiden.  The  poets  who  com- 
posed the  songs  have  vied  with  one  another  in 
describing  the  beauty  of  this  celestial  maiden. 
Earthly  beauty  was  as  nothing  compared  to  hers  ; 
even  the  moon  sank  behind  the  clouds  in  shame, 
being  smitten  by  the  superior  light  that  emanated 
from  the  face  of  this  exquisite  creature.  Chand 
fell  in  love  with  her  at  first  sight,  but  the  fair 
maiden  would  not  listen  to  any  proposals  from  him 
unless  he  dispensed  with  his  Maha  Jnan  and  bes- 
towed that  power  on  her.  The  infatuated  merchant, 
not  suspecting  that  she  was  Manasa  Devi  in  dis- 
cTuise,  ao-reed  to  her  condition  ;  when  lo  !  like  a 
shooting  star  slie  vanished  froni  the  place,  and 
appearing  in  the  skv  in  h(M- own  form,  related  the 
storv  of   her  triumph. 


IV.]  BENGALF   LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         259 


]^)ut  though  deprived  of  his  great  power,  Chand 
was  not  a  whit  daunted. 

The  next  step  of  Manasa  Devi  was  again  to 
destroy  the  beautiful  garden  upon  which  her  curse 
had  already  fallen  so  ineffectually. 

Chand  Sadagar  had  an  intimate  friend  in  the 
city  of  Sankoor.  He  was  called  Sankoor  Gadudia. 
I  le  also  possessed  Maha  Jnan  and  Chand  sent  a 
messenger  forthwith  to  fetch  him  to  his  palace. 
The  great  physician,  for  such  was  his  calling,  came 
Lo  Champaka  Xagar  and  in  a  moment  restored  the 
garden  to  its  original  form. 

Manasa  Devi's  attempts  were  thus  frustrated  a 
second  time,  but  her  resources  were  inexhaustible. 
By  a  contrivance  which  for  ingenuity  and  diplo- 
macy may  be  called  a  great  intellectual  feat,  she 
succeeded  in  killing  Sankoor  Gadudia,  the  physician 
and  friend  of  Chand. 

The  latter  was  now  friendless  and  helpless. 
Manasa  Devi  not  only  did  again  destroy  the  Guabari, 
but  the  serpents  appointed  by  her  also  killed  one  by 
one  all  his  six  sons. 

Sanaka,  the  queen  of  the  merchant-king,  fell  on 
her  knees  and  implored  her  husband  to  put  an  end 
to  this  unequal  quarrel  ;  for  after  all  Manasa  Devi 
was  a  goddess  and  he  was  a  man! 

The  six  wives  of  the  deceased  sons  of  Chand 
wore  the  widow's  white  sari^  wiped  awav  the  beau- 
tiful marks  of  vermilion  from  their  foreheads,  broke 
their  shell-bracelets  and  filled  the  house  with  wild 
lamentations.  But  with  a  hrmness  which  was  more 
than  human,    he    was    the    more    conhrmed  in   his 


Not  a  whit 
daunted. 


His  friend 

conies  to 

the  rescue. 


Santcur 
Gadudia 
is  killed. 


The  terri- 
ble reta- 
liation. 


The  grief 
of  Sanaka 


Chand 

undertakes 

a  sea> 

voyage. 


26o        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

resolution  not  to  worship    Manasa  Devi.     He    was, 
however,  greatly  troubled  by  the  constant    wailings 
of  the  women  of  his  house,  and  also  by    the    unso- 
licited advice  of  his  friends,  who  came  from  distant 
countries  to  offer  him    consolation   in    his    distress. 
He  resolved  to    undertake    a    sea-voyage   with   the 
intention    of  escaping    for    some  time  from  his  un- 
congenial surroundings.    Seven  great  ships,  headed 
by  "  Madhukar,"  the  royal  vessel,  started    one    fine 
morning  for  the  great  sea,  and   Chand    had    a    very 
successful  voyage  ;  he  went  as  far  as    Ceylon,    and. 
loading    his    ships    with    valuable     treasures     and 
feeling  once  more  fresh  and  lively  for    the    change, 
was    on    his    way    home,     when      upon     the    dark 
w^aters  of  the  lake  Kalidaha,   a    great   storm    over- 
took   his   ships.     This  storm  was  raised  by  Manama 
Devi.     The  ship  ''Sea-foam"    sank    first,    next    the 
"King's  Darling"  and  then  the     "Royal    Fish"    and 
so  on,  till  the  six    ships    were    all    wrecked   in    the 
bosom     of    the    lake    Kalidaha.      But    the    stately 
"Madhukar,"  on  board  which  Chand  was,  defied  all 
storms  and  as    often    as     the     winds     inspired     by 
Manama  Devi  tried  to  overthrow  it,  it  struggled  and 
rose  to  the  surface  of  the  w^aters  like  a  playful  fish. 

The  ships  Manasa  Devi  sought  the   aid   of    Hanuman,    the 

wrecked.  great  monkey,  immortal  through  all  ages,  and  with 
his  aid  at  last  succeeded  in  upsetting  this  ship 
also.  Chand  fell  into  the  great  lake  and  was  about 
to  be  drowned.  Manas§  Devi  would  not.  however, 
allow  the  victim  of  her  wrath  to  perish  ;  because 
unless  she  was  worshipped  by  him,  she  could  not  be 
recoijnised  amoiiijst  men.  She  tlii'ew  the  crreat  lotus 
wi)ich  formed  her  own  seat  down  into  the  lake,  and 
it  floated  near   ("lignd.      He  was  struoirline  tu    sa\e 


&r5        j> 


IV.]      BENGALI  Language  &  literature.        261 


himself  and  at '  the  sight  of  ihe  padma  flower, 
stretched  out  his  arms  to  catch  hold  of  it  as  a 
support;  but  one  of  the  names  of  Manasa  Devi 
was  Padma  and  the  flower  also  bore  the  same 
name,  so  he  contemptuously  turned  back,  preferring 
death  to  her  aid.  But  Manasa  Devi  now  appear- 
ed and  begged  Chand  to  submit  to  her.  She  would 
in  that  case  pardon  him  and  reward  him  Avith  all 
that  he  had  lost,  including  the  lives  of  his  six  sons. 
But  Chand  said,  he  could  not  defile  his  hand,  re- 
served for  the  worship  of  Mahadeva,  by  ofl^ering 
flowers  to  the  one-eyed  goddess  of  snakes. 

Somehow  or  other  the  merchant    king   escaped 

death,    and    after    three    days    of    severe    struggle 

reached  the  shore.     It  was  the  beautiful  city  of    his 

old  friend    Chandraketu    where    he    touched    land. 

Completely  stripped  of  clothes,  as  he  found  himself. 

he  picked  up  some  rags  from  the  cremation-ground, 

which  he  warpped  round  his  waist,  and  straightway 

went  to    his    friend's    palace.     Chandraketu    gave 

him  a  warm  reception,    and    as    the    merchant   had 

not  tasted  any    food    for   three    days,    he  at    once 

ordered  a  rich  repast  to  be  served  to  him  ;   he    also 

presented  him  wilh  a  valuable  attire  becoming    his 

rank.     When  the    hungry    merchant    sat   down    to 

dinner,  Chandraketu  incidentally   remarked   that    it 

was  not  well  for  him  to  quarrel  with  Manasa   Devi, 

and  in  the  course  of  an  animated  discussion  on  the 

point,  Chand  came  to  learn  that  Manasa  Devi    was 

the  household  deity  of  Chandraketu,  and  that  there 

was  a  temple  adjoining  the  palace  dedicated  to  her. 

On  this  he  would  not  touch  anv    of  the  food.    In    a 

fit  of  rage  he    threw    away    the    clothes    presented 

to  him  by  his  friend  ;     and.  wearing  his  former  rag.i 


Prefers 

death  to 

Manasa 

Devi's  aid, 


He  is 
warmly 
received  by 
Chandra- 
ketu. 


262         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [Chap, 


Begs  from 

door  to 

door. 


Eats 
plantain- 
skins. 


Is  dis- 
missed 
from  the 
Brahmin's 
house. 


Throws 
down  the 
load  of 
valuable 
sandal- 
wood. 


again,  left  Cliandraketu's  palace,  remarking  that  it 
was  a  pity  he  had  entered  that  cursed  abode,  but 
he  did  not  wish  longer  to  disturb  a  fool  in  his  para- 
dise. He  then  begged  alms  from  door  to  door, 
and  when  a  sufficient  quantity  of  rice  and  vege- 
tables was  collected,  went  to  the  river  to 
bathe  after  carefully  placing  his  little  store  in  a 
secure  place.  But  Alanasa  Devi  in  the  meantime 
sent  a  large  mouse  which  ate  up  the  grain  and 
vegetables,  and  Chand  on  returning  had  to  appease 
his  hunger  by  swallowing  raw  plantain-skins  which 
some  children  had  left  by  the  river-side.  He  next 
got  admittance  to  a  Brahmin's  house  in  the 
capacity  of  a  servant,  and  his  master  appointed 
him  to  reap  the  harvest  in  his  fields,  and  pile  up 
the  grain.  But  Manasa  Devi  created  a  bewilder- 
ment in  his  brain  so  that  he  could  not  distinguish 
the  o-rain  from  the  chaff,  and  threw  awav  the  for- 
mer  and  piled  up  the  latter.  When  the  Brahmin, 
his  master,  saw  this,  he  was  very  angry  and  dis- 
missed him  at  once.  He  next  went  with  the  wood- 
men to  gather  wood  from  the  neighbouring  hills. 
He  knew  the  quality  of  wood  better  tlian  the  wood- 
men. So  he  collected  a  large  quantity  of  valuable 
Sandal  wood,  and  was  on  his  way  to  the  market 
with  it.  At  Manasa  Devi's  order,  however,  Hanu- 
man  touched  with  his  toe  the  load  which  was  being 
carried  bv  Chand.  It  immediately  became  so  heavy 
that  (liand  had  to  throw  it  down  and  go  empty- 
handed.  In  this  ]:)light.  when  he  was  moving  about 
tlu'  forest  like  a  disconsolate  mad  man,  he  could 
not  help  cursing  Manasa  Devi.  Now,  at  this  moment 
some  birds  had  come  near  the  traps  placed  there  by 
tlu;  fowlers  to  catch  them.      Being   startled    by    the 


IV.]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  263 


careless  steps  of  the  merchant,  they  flew  away. 
The  fowlers,  in  great  disappointment,  came  up  to 
Chand,  and,  taking  him  for  a  mischievous  knave, 
assaulted  him. 

After  suffering  all  imaginable  ills  at  the  hands 
of  the  infuriated  Manasa  Devi,  Chand  was  able  to 
return  to  Champaka  Nagar,  to  his  own  great  relief 
and  to  the  delight  of  his  queen  Sanaka- 

Soon  afterwards  another  son  was  born  to  him. 
It  was  a  remarkably  handsome  child,  and  they  called 
hin  Laksmindara  or  favourite  of  the  goddess  of 
wealth.  Chand  consulted  astrologers  and  they  were 
unanimous  in  declaring  to  him  privately  that  the 
boy  was  destined  to  die  on  the  night  of  his  mar- 
riage-day, by  snake-bite. 

Chand  had  how  given  up  all  hopes  of  worldlv 
happiness.  Night  and  day,  he  worshipped  the  great 
Alahadeva  and  prayed  for  strength  to  keep  up  his 
determination.  Now  Laksmindara,  who  grew  to 
be  a  most  handsome  and  accomplished  prince,  came 
of  that  age  when  youths  of  his  caste  generally  mar- 
ried, and  the  queen  Sanaka  sought  for  a  suitable 
bride  for  her  son.  The  family  priest,  Janardan, 
brought  information  that  in  the  whole  world  there 
was  not  another  creature  in  womanly  form  so  lovelv 
and  beautiful  as  Behula — the  accomplished  daughter 
of  Saha,  the  merchant  of  Nichhani  Nagar.  Behula's 
face  was  like  a  full-blown  lotus,  her  eyes  were  soft 
and  playful  as  those  of  a  wild  gazelle,  her  hair 
wore  the  tints  of  summer  clouds  and  when  dis- 
hevelled, fell  down  her  back  and  reached 
the  ankles.  She  sang  like  a  cuckoo  and  danced 
better  than  any  dancing-girl  in  the  whole  city  of 
Champaka  Nagar. 


Is  assault- 
ed by  the 
fowlers. 


Returns 
home. 


Another 
son  born 
to  him. 


Doomed  to 

die  in  early 

youth. 


Behula, 
the  accom- 
plished 
daughter 
of  Saha, 

the 
merchant. 


264        BENGALI    LANGL'AGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 


The  steel 

house  on 

mount 

Santali. 


The  builder 
makes  an 
opening. 


The  fir5t 

ominous 

sign. 


Chand  knew  that  he  would  lose  his  dear  son 
on  the  marriaa-e-(iav  vet  could  not  resist  the  wishes 
of  his  poor  queen.  He  built  a  house  of  steel  on 
mount  Santali,  taking  precautions  that  there  was  no 
crevice  left  in  it  for  even  a  pin  to  pass  through. 
The  steel-house  was  guarded  by  armed  sentinels  ; 
weasels  and  peacocks  were  let  loose  all  around  it 
to  kill  snakes,  should  they  come  into  its  neighbour- 
hood. All  kinds  of  medicinal  herbs  which  were 
known  to  be  antidotes  to  snake-poison  and  the  strong 
scent  of  which  would  make  snakes  and  reptiles 
shudder  and  shrink  into  a  corner,  were  strewn 
round  the  house,  and  snake-charmers  and  phy- 
sicians were  assembled  there  from  all  parts  of  the 
world,  to  guard  the  place  against  all  species  of 
creeping  animals. 

Manasa  Devi  paid  a  visit  to  the  man  who  had 
made  the  steel-house,  and  asked  him  to  keep  an 
openinr^  in  it  through  which  a  hair  might  pass.  The 
builder  said  that  the  house  was  now  complete  and 
that  he  had  received  wages  and  rewards  from  the 
merchant  king  ;  how  could  he  again  go  there  and 
mako  an  opening?  Th'^'  goddess  threatened  to  kill 
him  and  all  the  members  of  his  family  on  the  spot. 
So  he  obeyed.  He  went  back  to  mount  Santali  on  the 
pretext  of  inspecting  the  building  more  thoroughly 
and  with  a  few  strokes  of  his  chisel  niacU^  a  small 
opening,  ^^•hich  he  filled  up  with  powdertMl    coal. 

When  Lak.smindara  was  about  to  set  out  with  the 
nuptial  party  for  marriage,  the  bridegroom's  crown 
that  he  wore,  bctlecked  with  jewels  and  fiowers, 
fell  from  his  head:  and  this  was  the  first  ominous 
sign. 


IV,  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         265 


When  the  marriage  ceremony  was  being  celebra-    The  second 
ted  in  the  great  pavilion  which  had  been    built    for  ^"^' 

the  occasion,  the  golden  umbrella  over  the  bride- 
groom's head  gave  way — the  silver  rod  which  sup- 
ported it,  having  suddenly  broken  from  some 
mysterious  cause ;  and  this  was  the  second  inaus- 
picious sign. 


When  Behula,  the  bride,^  was  being  carried 
round  Laksmindara,  she  carelessly  wiped  from  her 
forehead  with  her  own  hand  the  sacred  vermilion- 
mark,  the  sign  of  the  married  woman  whose  hus- 
band is  living.  This  was  the  third  inauspicious  sign. 

As  soon  as  the  marriage  was  over,  Chand  took 
Laksmindara  and  Behula  to  the  steel-house  on 
mount  Santali. 

This  was  the  terrible  night,  when  the  question 
of  life  and  death  for  Laksmindara  would  be  solved  ; 
the  astrologers  had  said,  if  his  life  could  be  saved 
that  night,  he  would  live  a  hundred  years. 

There  Behula  and  Laksmindara  were  left  to 
themselves.  The  coy  maiden  beheld  her  husband  : 
the  garland  of  rangan  flowers,  which  he  wore,  hung 
loosely  round  his  neck  touching  his  right  arm  and 
breast, — his  silken  attire  of  deep  scarlet  half  cover- 
ed his  handsome  person,  and  Behula  looked  upon 
her  husband  with  that  feeling  of  adoration  which  a 
Brahmin  feels  when  he  approaches  his  household- 
god.  Laksmindara's  eyes  also  drank  deep  of  the 
beauty  of  the  maiden,  and  he  asked  her  to  come 
closer  to  him  so  that  he  might  embrace  her.  The 
bashful  maiden  would  not  listen  to  any  such  thing — 
she  hid  her  face  with  her  tender  hands  and  turned 
away.       Fatigued     by    the     labours     and     fasting 


The  third 
one. 


The  pair 

taken  to 

the  steel. 

house. 


The  couple 
left  to 
them- 
selves. 


34 


266      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [  Chap. 

required    for  the  marriage    ceremony,  Laksmindara 

fell  asleep.     But  Behula,  though    equally    fatigued, 

sat  near  him  on  the  bed  and  watched   him — for    he 

appeared  to    her    as  a   priceless    treasure   and    she 

must    not    trust    too    much    to    her    good    fortune. 

After  a  while,  Laksmindara  awoke  and  said  to  Behula, 

"  My  darling,  I  am  very  hungry;  can  you    prepare 

some  rice  for  me  ?"   Saying  this  he  again  fell  asleep. 

Behula  did  not  know  what  to  do.     How    could    she 

prepare  rice  there  ?  But  her  resources  never   failed 

Behula        her.     The  plate  required  for  the    sacred    ceremony 

cooks  rice.  ,  *■  ^  ^ 

contained  some   cocoanuts ;    there    were   also    rice 

and  some  coloured    earthen  cups  there.     She    took 

three  cocoanuts  and  made  a  hearth  with  them.  One 

earthen  cup  w-as  filled  with  the  sweet  milk  of  a  co- 

coanut  and  rice  was  placed  in  it.   She  took  a  silken 

robe  and  with  that  kindled    a    hre    to    prepare    the 

rice.     There  she  sat,  like  Annapurna,  cooking    rice 

for  her  husband. 

At  this  moment  Manasa  Devi  called  to  her  all  her 
snakes, — great  reptiles  and  venomous  adders, — and 
asked  who  \vould  undertake  to  bite  Laksmindara. 
The  difficulties  were  great,  and  many  hesitated ; 
but  the  snake  Bankaraj,  whose  poison  was  as  drops 
of  liquid  hre,  came  forward,  and  obeying  the  com- 
mand of  the  goddess,  glided  towards  mount  Santali. 


All  of  a  sudden  Behula    saw    that    a  mysterious 
opening    was    being    made    in  the  steel  wall,  and  a 


A  mys- 
terious 
opening 

and  a  snake  entering  the  room.      She  took  a  cup  of  milk, 

with  a  ripe  plantain  in  it,  and  offered  it  to  the  veno- 
mous intruder.  The  snake  stooped  low  to  drink 
the  milk,  and  Behula.  with  a  ij;olden  hook,  caucrht  it 


snake. 


•&■ 


fast  and  made  it  a  ])risoner.     While  again  watching 


IV»]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  267 


the  cup  on  which  rice  was  boiling,  she  saw  another 
snake  coming  through  the  same  passage.  It  was 
the  great  Udaynag  with  fiery  eyes.  Behula  made 
him  a  prisoner  also,  following  the  same  device  ;  and 
after  a  while  the  snake  Kaladanta  shared  in  the 
same  way  the  fate  of  its  predecessors.  Then  for 
some  time  nothing  more  was  seen  ;  the  rice  was 
ready  and  she  called  to  her  husband  to  rise  and 
partake  of  the  meal.  But  Laksmindara  was  fast 
asleep  and  did  not  respond. 

Fatigued  with  labour,  fast  and  vigil,  Behula  at 
this  moment  felt  an  irresistible  inclination  to  sleep. 
She  sat  beside  her  Jiusband  with  her  eyes  still  fixed 
on  the  mysterious  crevice  in  the  wall.  The  three 
serpents  lay  under  a  large  pot  and  could  not  stir. 
Behula's  eyes  became  closed  in  sleep  but  at  times 
opened  wide,  gazing  at  the  small  opening.  Towards 
the  last  watch  of  the  night  when  everything  was 
still  and  when  even  the  rustling  sound  of  leaves 
was  not  heard  in  that  mountainous  region,  Behula 
yielded  to  the  fatal  influence  of  sleep  and  reclining 
on  a  pillow  near  the  feet  of  her  husband,  lay  like  a 
flower,  innocent  and  beautiful. 

Now  came  Kalnagini,  that  snake  who  had  des- 
troyed .he  Guabari,  and  killed  Chand's  eldest  son, 
Cridhar,  and  approached  with  the  speed  of  lightning 
the  bed  of  Laksmindara.  At  this  very  moment  the 
sleeping  prince  touched  the  snake  with  his  foot  and 
it  at  once  turned  and  bit  him  in  the  toe.  Laks- 
mindara cried  out.  ''  Ho,  daughter  of  the  merchant 
Saha,  dost  thou  sleep  ?  I  am  dying  of  a  snake's  bite !" 
Behula  rose  from  the  bed  and  perceived  the  snake 
passing  out  swiftly  through  the  opening  in  the  wall. 


The  snake 
Udaynag 

The  snakel 
Kaladanta. 


Behula 
sleeps. 


The  fatal 
bite. 


268         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.      [Chap. 

Laksmindara  died.  The  next  moment  th3  sun 
rose,  shedding  its  golden  hues  over  the  mountain- 
forests  and  the  birds  began  to  sing  blithely  on  the  wild 
trees.  Queen  Sanaka  with  her  maids  of  honour 
came  to  the  house  and  saw  a  most  heart-rending 
sight.  Prince  Laksmindara  lay  there  dead,  and  the 
widowed  girl  was  sobbing  over  him.  With  dishe- 
velled hair,  she  was  bending  over  the  departed 
prince.  Sanaka  swooned,  and  the  maids  said — "Oh 
luckless  wretch,  it  is  to  thine  evil  fortune  we  owe 
this  crushing  bereavemen..  The  vermilion-marks 
on  thy  brow  have  not  lost  their  lustre, — they  have 
still  a  deep  scarlet  hue,  the  tint  oialakta  on  thy  feet 
is  yet  unsoiled  by  dust,  thy  marriage  attire  of  silk  is 

^.     .     ,        as  fresh  as  new,  and  vet  thou  art  already  a  widow  ! 

The  luck-  '  '  ... 

less  bride.      No    snake    could    have    done    this,  it  is  thy    breath 

that  has  extinguished  the    life's    fire  in   the   prince, 

wretch    that   thou  art."     Behula  did  not  hear  these 

reproaches;  for  her  mind  was  working  on  far    other 

th  jmcs.    The  prince  had  asked  her  to  embrace  him, 

he  had  asked  her  to  prepare  rice  for  him  :   the    first 

and   the    last    requests  of  one  who  was  all  in  all  to 

her !   How  unfortunate    was    she    that    she  had   not 

been  able  to  fulfil  these  wishes  !  At  this  recollection 

the  tears  again  flowed  from  her  eyes  unceasingly. 

g  .    .-  The    body    of   Laksmindara    v.-as    taken    to  the 

on  the  raft    burning  ghat.    But  Behula  insisted  that  it  should  not 
with  the        1        ,  T-1  1 

corpse.         be    burnt.      1  he    custom    m  the  country  m  cases  ot 

snake-bite  was  to  place  the  corpse  on   a   raft   made 

of  plantain  stems  ciled  a  hhela  and  leave  it  on  the 

river,  in  the  hope  that  the  skill  of  a  physician    or  a 

snake-charmer  might  bring  it  back  to  life.    Behula'^ 

arguments  were  appreciated,  and  a  raft  of  plantain - 

stems  was    prepared.     The   corpse    of    the    prince 


IV.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  269 

was  placed  on  it,  and  it  was  floated  on  the  river 
Gangoor.  At  this  moment,  to  the  wonder  of  all  there 
assembled,  Behula  herself  stepped  on  the  raft  and 
sat  down  beside  the  corpse,  expressing  her  intention 
to  accompany  her  husband's  body  over  the  waters 
and  not  to  leave  it  until  it  should  be  restored  to  life. 

They  called  her  a  mad  woman  who  had  lost  her  Her 

senses  under  the  great  shock  received  immediately  "reserve^" 
after  her  marriage,  and  entreated  her  to  return 
home.  The  maidens,  who  had  so  bitterly  reproached 
her,  were  now  sorry  for  her  misfortune  and  tenderly 
said  how  very  foolish  it  would  be  for  a  woman  of 
her  youth  to  set  out  for  unknown  regions  with  a 
corpse.  Where  was  it  ever  heard  that  a  dead  body 
was  restored  to  life !  But  she  sat  like  a  fairy  or  an 
angel  w^atching  over  the  dead  prince  with  eyes  full 
of  infinite  affection  and  infinite  sorrow.  The  queen 
maddened  w^ith  grief  lamented  bitterly  and  begged 
the  beautiful  girl  to  desist  from  her  foolish  inten- 
tion. Behula  only  said,  ''  Adoredmother,  you  will  find 
the  rice  I  prepared  in  the  golden  plate  in  the  steel- 
house  on  mount  Santali.  There  the  lamp  is  still 
burning.  Go  mother,  cease  weeping,  and  close  the 
door  of  that  room.  So  long  as  that  rice  remains  fresh 
and  that  lamp  burns,  know  that  my  hopes  of  restoring 
my  husband  to  life  will  not  be  abandoned."  The 
people  of  Champaknagar,  who  had  all  assembled 
there,  shed  tears  and  cried,  "  Oh  honoured  lady, 
adopt  not  this  mad  course  !"  Behula  only  said, 
"  Nay,  bless  me,  sirs,  that  I  may  have  my  husband 
restored  to  me  once  more  !" 

The  raft  passed  swifty  down  the  stream  and 
Champaknagar  soon  vanished  out  of  sight.  The 
news    reached    her   father's    house,    and    her    five 


270      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.     [  Chap. 

brothers,  of  whom  Hari  Sadhu  was  the  eldest,  came 
to  the  river  side,  to  take  her  back  to  their  home.  The 
brothers  wept  bitterly  as  they  saw  the  forlorn  girl 
sitting  beside  a  corpse,  and  said,  "  We  will  burn  the 
corpse  of  the  prince  with  sandal  wood,  alight  on 
shore.  Though  you  cannot  wear  shell-bracelets, 
yet,  we  will  give  you  golden  ones  ;  though  sacred 
vermilion  will  be  refused,  yet  we  can  adorn  your 
forehead  with  red  powder ;  though  you  may  not 
take  fish  and  meat,  we  will  feed  you  with  all  kinds 
of  dainties.  You  are  our  only  sister.  You  will  be 
adored  in  our  home,  come  then  to  the  bank  !  How 
heartless  were  these  people  of  Champaknagar!  they 
felt  no  compunction  at  allowing  you  to  accompany 
a  corpse  alone  on  the  bosom  of  deep  waters  in 
this  condition."  Behula  could  not  answer  for  some 
time,  for  tears  choked  her  voice,  but  when  she 
spoke,  she  was  resolute  and  firm.  She  asked  them 
to  return  and  give  her  respects  to  her  poor  parents. 
She  could  not  bear  the  idea  of  living  in  a  world 
without  her  husband.  Even  the  dead  body  of  the 
prince  had  for  her  an  attraction  which  nothing  else 
possessed  in  her  eyes.  She  was  determined  to 
restore  it  to  life. 

Preserved  The    brothers     went    away    overwhelmed    with 

grief,  and  poor  Behula.  fasting  and  sorrowing  over  her 
lot,  went  on  over  the  waters, — she  herself  knew  not 
whither.  Wicked  men  amongst  whom  the  chief  were 
Goda,  Dhana  and  Mana  became  enamoured  of  the 
extraordinary  beauty  of  the  devoted  creature  and 
tried  to  carry  her  away  by  force,  but  God,  who  pre- 
serves the  children,  preserved  her  also  who  was 
equally  helpless,  and  resigned.  They  could  not 
touch  her  person. 


IV.]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.         27 1 


When  she  drew  near  to  a  place  called  Bhagher 
Bak,  the  corpse  began  to  decompose.  Decay  set 
in  and  the  form  of  the  beautiful  bridegroom  be- 
came swollen  and  rotten  ;  an  intolerable  stench 
came  out  of  it  and  swarms  of  flies  and  maggots 
gathered  round  the  putrid  body.  Behula  saw  before 
her  eyes  the  workings  of  the  immutable  law  of 
nature — the  end  reserved  in  the  normal  course  for 
all  human  beings,  and  seeing  this,  she  grew  indiffer- 
ent to  bodily  pain.  She  washed  and  cleansed  the 
corpse,  she  ate  nothing,  and  when  her  grief  was 
great,  she  wept  alone  in  that  forlorn  condition.  She 
passed  the  ghat  of  Noada  and  Srigalghata.  People 
came  to  see  her  from  the  neighbouring  villages  and 
called  her  a  mad  woman  who  had  lost  her  senses 
from  grief. 

Whence  came  the  strength  and  hope  that  sus- 
tained her  in  this  distress  ?  She  chanted  the  name 
of  Manasa  Devi  a  hundred  thousand  times  a  day 
and  remained  absorved  in  prayer,  till  her  body 
became  inert  and  motionless.  Pale  and  emaciated 
with  the  dear  relics  of  the  prince's  body  by  her 
side,  she  suffered  intensely.  In  dark  nights  the 
winds  rose  and  crocodiles  slathered  round  her  raft, 
eager  to  devour  the  decomposed  body.  Jackals 
also  came  to  carry  it  off  whenever  the  raft  drew 
near  the  banks,  but  she  was  preserved  by  Provid- 
ence from  their  attacks. 

Being  completely  resigned,  in  her  extraordinary 
devotion  to  Manasa  Devi,  and  passing  through 
unheard-of  sufferings,  she  felt  that  a  power  was 
growing  in  her,  which  she  could  not  define,  but 
could  feel  nevertheless  to  be  more  than  human. 
Sometimes  she  saw    the    evil   spirits    of  the  air    in 


The 
decom- 
posed 
corpse. 


The  force, 
of  prayer 


Complete- 
ly resign* 
ed. 


272         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 


Neta 
strangles 
her  child. 


horrid  shapes  dissuading  her  with  threats  and  men- 
aces from  her  extraordinary  course,  at  others 
angelic  faces  peeped  through  the  sky  trying  to  win 
her  to  a  life  of  ease  and  luxury,  but  she  sat  like  a 
marble  statute,  unmoved  either  by  fear  or  by  temp- 
tation— sounding  the  very  depths  of  suffering  and 
praying  with  unfaltering  faith  for  the  life  of  her  dear 
■husband. 

Six  months  passed  in  this  way;  the  boat  touched 
the  ghat  of  Neta,  the  washer-woman  of  the  Gods  ; 
and  in  the  fine  morning  air  when  she  came 
there,  Behula  saw  Neta  washing  clothes  on  the 
bank  of  the  river  Gangoor.  Behula  felt  that  she 
was  no  human  being,  for  her  head  was  incircled  by 
a  halo  of  light.  A  beautiful  child  was  teasing  her 
as  she  washed,  and  to  the  wonder  of  Behula,  she 
strangled  the  child  and  kept  it  beside  her. 

Behula  said  nothing,  but  sat  on  her  raft  by  the 
skeleton  of  her  husband,  silently  watching  this 
mysterious  woman. 

^t.      ....^  When,  however,  the  last  rays  of  the    sun    faded 

The  child  ,  •    1  1    i       r        j 

comes  back    from  the  western   sky,    Neta   sprmkled  a  tew  drops 

of  water  over   the    face    of  the    child,    and    lo  '    it 

smiled  as  if  just  awakened  from  sleep. 

Neta  was  just  about  to  ascend  to  the  divine 
regions  with  the  clothes  and  the  child,  when 
Behula  landed  and  fell  at  her  feet  weeping.  She 
uttered  no  word,  but  shed  unceasing  tears. 

Neta  raised  her  from  the  ground  and  assured 
the  unfortunate  maid  that  she  would  carry  her  to 
the  heavenly  regions  where  the  gods  might  be 
moved  to  grant  her  prayer. 


to  life. 


Behula 
and  Neta 


IV,]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  273 


There  in  high  -  heaven  Behula  was  ordered  to 
dance  before  the  assembled  gods,  and  she  did  her 
part  so  well  that  the  gods  were  mightily  pleased, 
and  Manasa  Devi  was  requested  by  them  to  restore 
Laksmindara  to  life.  Manasa  Devi  complied  with 
this  request  after  having  extorted  a  promise  from 
Behula  that  she  would  induce  her  father-in-law  to 
worship  her.  Manasa  Devi  was  pleased  with  her 
devotion  and  wished  to  know  if  she  had  any  other 
boon  to  ask.  With  clasped  hands  and  tearful  eyes, 
she  said,  "The  sight  of  my  widowed  sisters-in-law 
will  pain  me,  Divine  mother!  In  your  mercy  restore 
my  husband's  brothers  to  life."  This  Manasa  Devi 
did  and  further  rewarded  her  by  giving  back  the 
seven  ships  loaded  with  treasures,  which  Charld  had 
lost  in  the  waters  of  Kalidaha.  The  Guabari  of 
Chand  was  also  restored  to  its  oriofinal  condition. 


Manasa 

Devi 
grants  all 

that 
Behula 
seeks. 


Behula  embarked  with  her  husband  and  his 
brothers  on  board  the  ships  and  started  homewards. 
She  related  to  her  husband  the  story  of  her  suffer- 
ings, pointing  to   the    places  of  their  occurrence  as 

t  they  sailed  back  up  the  noble  river  Gangoor,  and 
her  beautiful  eyes  swam  with  tears  at  their  recollec- 
tion.    But  the    heart  of  Laksmindara    was    like    to 

'  break  for  pain  as  he  listened  to  the  story  of  all  she 
had  endured. 


On  her 

way 

home. 


When  the  ships  came  near  Nichhaninagar, 
Behula  besought  her  husband  to  allow  her  to  pay 
a  flying  visit  to  her  poor  parents,  striken  with  grief. 
To  this  Laksmindara  readily  consented,  saying, 
"  Let  us  both  go  there  under  the  guise  of  a  Yogi 
and  Yogini."  Behula  agreed  gladly  and  immediately 
adopted    the     earings,   the  ochre-coloured     clothes 

35 


Behula 

and  LakS" 

mindara 

visit 
Nichhani- 
nagar  in 
disguise. 


274      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [Chap. 


The 
meeting. 


To 

Champak 
Nagar. 


Behula 
disguised 

as  a 

sweeper. 

girl. 


and  the  knotted  hair  distinctive  of  Yoginls.  Laks- 
mindara  took  a  kamajidalu  in  his  hand,  and  covered 
his  beautiful    body   with  ashes  like  a  YogL 

The  seeming  ascetics  passed  through  Baruipara 
and  other  places,  and  came  to  the  home  of  Saha, 
the  merchant  of  Nichhaninagar.  They  entered  the 
house  by  the  back-door,  and  came  directly  to  the 
inner  apartments.  At  that  moment,  Amala,  the 
mother  of  Behula,  was  coming  out  of  the  kitchen 
with  a  golden  plate  full  of  rice,  for  the  dinner  of 
Hari  Sadhu,  her  eldest  son,  when  the  sight  of  the 
Yogi  and  Yogini  made  her  tremble  with  grief,  the 
golden  plate  fell  from  her  hand,  and  she  wailed 
aloud,  ''This  Yogini  is  just  like  my  Behula!"  she 
could  say  only  this  and  no  more.  She  ran  up  to  the 
supposed  Yogini  throwing  her  arms  about  her  and 
swooned  away.  Behula  held  her  mother's  head  in 
her  arms  and  tenderly  caressed  her,  weeping  pro- 
fusely. When  Amala  came  to  her  senses,  Behula 
softly  said,  "We  are  come  back,  mother,  once  more  to 
your  arms.  Yonder  Yogi  is  your  son-in-law  restor- 
ed to  life." 

The  people  of  the  whole  village  came  to  see 
them,  but  Behula  would  not  stop  there  even  for  a 
day.  She  was  eager  to  go  back  to  Champak  Nagar, 
and  in  spite  of  their  affectionate  remonstrances, 
embarked  once  more  on  board  the  ship  ''  Madhukar" 
and  started    for  Champak  Nagar  that  very  day. 

When  they  reached  that  city,  however,  she  played 
another  trick.  Slu^  disguised  hersidf  as  a  sweeper- 
girl.  While  on  her  way  back  from  heaven  she  had 
employed  an  artist  to  prepare  a  fan  bedecked  with 
precious  stones  in    which    the    pictures    of    all    the 


IV.]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  275 

members  of  Chand's  family  were  painted  in  living 
colours  represented  by  the  natural  hues  of  precious 
stones. 

With  this  fan  in  her  hand,  Behula  landed  on 
the  banks  of  the  river  Gangoor.  At  that  very 
moment  her  widowed  sisters-in-law  were  coming  to 
carry  water,  and  were  attracted  by  the  fan,  no  less 
than  by  the  beauty  of  the  sweeper-girl.  While 
examining  the  fan  closely,  they  were  struck  with 
wonder  to  see  the  likenesses  of  the  members  of 
their  own  family  painted  upon  the  fan.  They  wanted 
to  know  who  this  sweeper-girl  was  and  what  she 
meant  to  do  with  the  fan.  Behula  said  that  she 
was  called  Behula,  the  sweeper-girl,  her  husband's 
name  was  Laksmindara,  the  sweeper,  and  his 
father's  name  was  Chgnd,  the  sweeper,  and  her  own 
father's  name  w^as  Saha,  the  sweeper.  The  fan  was 
for  sale,  and  its  price  was  one  lakh  of  rupees. 

At  this  strange  story  the  widows  wept  and  went 
speedily  home  to  acquaint  queen  Sanaka  with  what 
they  had  seen  and  heard.  Sanaka  ran  to  the  house 
of  steel  and  to  her  surprise  found  the  lamp  still 
burning  and  the  rice  still  fresh  on  the  golden  plate. 
Then  she  came  to  the  bank  of  the  river  and  seeing 
the  pictures  on  the  fan  and  the  face  of  the  sweeper- 
girl,  which  reminded  her  of  Behula,  she  fell  to 
the  earth  and  began  to  rend  the  air  with  loud 
lamentations.  Behula  then  said,  "  Mother,  do 
not  weep.  Look  at  your  sons.  Manasa  Devi 
has  restored  them  to  life.  But  we  cannot  enter 
Champak  Nagar  until  my  father-in-law  worships 
Manasa  DevL  So  I  have  brought  all  of  you  here 
by  a  device." 


276'     BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.       [Chap, 

-Once  more  the  seven  sons  stood  near  their 
sorrow- stricken  parents,  and  the  tears  that  were 
shed  were  holy,  for  Behula's  wonderful  devotion 
more  than  anything  else  caused  them  to  flow. 

Chand  Chand    could    not     resist    all    this.     Events  had 

worships      been  too  much  for  him.     He  saw  in  the    sweet    and 
Devi.         resigned  countenance  of  Behula  that  Manasa  Devi's 
victory  was  complete,  and  that  it  would    be   impos- 
sible for  him  to  resist  the  appeal    silently  expressed 
in  the  eyes  of  his  beloved  daugliter-in-law. 

Chand  worshipped  Manasa  in  the  month  of 
Sravan  on  the  nth  day  of  Liie  waning  moon.  Some 
say  that  he  offered  flowers  to  Manasa  Devi  with  his 
left  hand  as  a  mark  of  contempt,  turning  his  face 
away  from  her  all  the  while.  But  however  this  be, 
Manasa  Devi  was  pleased  and  granted  him  wealth 
and  prosperity.  His  friend,  Sankoor  Garudia  was 
restored  to  life. 

Behula  and  Laksmindara,  who  were  Usha  and 
Aniruddha  in  Heaven,  and  had  been  obliged  to  take 
a  mortal  frame  under  a  curse,  went  back  after  a 
while  to  their  celestial  home. 

Manasa  Devi's  claims  to  obtain  puja  among 
mortals  have  ever  since  been  an  established 
fact.^ 


works^on  About    sixty  works  on  Manasa  Devi,  written  by 

Manasa  dilterciit  writers  at  various  times,  but  all  before   the 
Devi. 

Their  uStlf    century    have    been    brought    to    light  by  the 

import-  ,-t;searches   of    scholars    within    the    last    15  years. 


ance. 


Vijay  Gupta's  work,  published  by  Ihe  Adar^a    press 

*  Originally  written  for  the  Modern    Review    from    which    the 
story  is  now  rtprinted. 


IV,  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       277 

of  Backergunge  in  1896,  contains  232  pages  (royal 
octavo.)  printed  in  double  columns.  It  contains 
15,000  lines  and  exceeds  Milton's  Paradise  lost  by 
half  its  bulk.  Many  of  the  other  works  referred  to 
above  are  equally  voluminous.  Some  of  them 
contain  graphic  accounts  of  the  sea  voyage  of 
Chand  Sadagara  and  descriptions  of  the  manner 
in  which  commercial  enterprises  were  undertaken 
by  the  Bengalis  in  ancient  times,  with  in- 
cidental references  to  the  flourishing  condition  of 
Bengal  and  her  industry.  The  geographical  notices 
of  places,  the  names  of  which  are  to  be  found  in 
many  of  these  works,  bear  witness  to  the  changes 
constantly  brought  about  in  the  plains  of 
the  Gangetic  valley  by  its  ever-shifting  river 
courses. 

The    earliest    writer  on  Manasa  Devi  in  Bengal    Hari  Datta 

the  earliest 
was    Hari    Datta,    who  was  blind  of  one  eye.     We      writer  of 

have    come    across   only    20  lines    of  his    composi-        songs 

tion.     They  describe  the  ornaments  made  of  snakes 

which  decorated  the  person  of  Manasa  Devi.     Hari 

Datta  was  born  in  the  district  of  Mymensingh    and 

probably   lived  in    the    12th    century.      We     have 

come    across   a    description  of  him  in  a  later  poem 

written  by  Vijay  Gupta  in  honour  of  Manasa  DevL 

Manasa  Devi  is  said  to  have  appeared  before  Vijay 

Gupta  in  a  dream  and  said  :  — 

'•  An    illiterate    man    first    wrote    a  poem  in  my  xhe 

honour:    but  he   had    no    idea    of    my    power    and     defects  of 

•'     ^  his  poems. 

glory.     He   was    Hari.  Datta,  the    one-eyed.     His 

irregular  and  metreless  doggerel  became  ob- 
solete and  were  lost  in  course  of  time.  His  words 
were    vulgar,  his  lines  did  not  rhyme  and  his  songs 


278      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

had  no  merit  by  which  to  attract  the  people.  The 
singers  tried  to  please  by  rude  gestures  and  clown- 
ish leaps."^ 

Vijay    Gupta's    work  was  written  in  1484,  when 
He  probab-     Hari  Datta's  poems,    once   so  popular,    had  already 
in  the  12th    grown  obsolete.     The  ungracious  references    made 
century.       to    his    deficiencies    in    metre   and  rhyme  and  to  a 
preponderance  of  rude  words   in    his    poems,    only 
prove    them    to    be    antiquated    specimens    of    the 
earliest  form  of  written  Bengali.    We  may,  on  these 
grounds,    safely    declare    Hari   Datta  to  have  lived 
a  few  centuries  before  Vijay    Gupta.     We    are   in- 
clined to  place  him  in  the  12th  century  A.D. 

Vijay  Vijay    Gupta's    Manasa    Mangal    is  one   of  the 

Gupta.  most  popular  works  of  its  class.  In  Eastern 
Bengal,  especially  in  the  district  of  Backergunge, 
it  is  esteemed  sacred  and  always  read  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  worship  of  Manasa  DevL  There  they 
call  poems  about  Manasa  Devi,  RayanL  This  word 
is  a  corruption  of  the  word  Rajani  or  night,  and 
the  word  Yagaraha  which  is  often    used     for    these 


l[ftlW^^^  ^^  ^®  ^  ^^^  ^K^  I 

cTt^T^rf^i  ^tft  f^i  "^m  c^K^  w:^  ii 
y£\^  'n]ti^  "^H  TO  ^tf  ^^n-^  II 

?[tC«  ^r^  ^1  C^^  f^%  ft^l  ^1^  ¥T51  I 

c^ft^ii  ^%i  c^\^  fencer  c^^t^  n 

Bijay  (iupta's  l^adma  Puran. 


IV.  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  279 


songs,  means  yigil.     These  facts  imply  that   poems 

about  Manasa  Devi  used  to  be    recited    during   the 
night. 

This  happens  during  the  whole  of  the  Bengali 
month  of  Cravana. 

Vijay  Gupta  was  born  in  the  year  1448  in  the 
village  of  Fulla^ri  in  the  district  of  Backergunge. 
The  pot  with  which  he  worshipped  Manasa  Devi  is 
still  preserved  there  in  the  temple  dedicated  to 
the  goddess.  Fulla^ri  is  a  well-known  village,  and 
is  the  birth  place  of  many  scholars  whose  names 
are  not  unfamiliar  to  the  literary  world.  Kavindra 
TrilochanaDas,  Janaki  Nath  Kavikanthhara,  Bhavani 
Nath  Das  Saraswati,  Raghu  Ram  Das  Kanthabharna 
and  Kavikarhapur  were  all  inhabitants  of  this 
particular  village  and  Vijay  Gupta  with  just  pride 
speaks  of  it  as  Pandit  Nagar  or  City  of  scholars. 
Here  are  some  of  his  opening  lines  : — 

"In  ^aka  1406  (1484  A.D.)  Husen  Saha  is  the 
Emperor  of  Gauda,  and  Raja  Arjuna  as  the  morn- 
ing sun  of  war  rules  Muluk  Fateabad  (the  modern 
Faridpur  and  a  part  of  Backergunge)  which  ex- 
tends up  to  Bangrora.  On  the  west  lies  the  river 
Ghagara,  on  the  east  the  river  Ghantegvara,  and  bet- 
ween them  the  village  of  Fullagrl,  City  of  scholars. 
Brahmins  versed  in  four  Vedas,  and  Vaidyas  skilled 

^V  ^3l  <5t\^  np9«^^  II 


Rayani 

and 

Yagarana. 


Fulla^ri— 

the  native 

village  of 

tlie  poet. 


His  open- 
ing lines. 


28o      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 


in  their  own  ^astras,  and  Kayasthas  who  are  expert- 
writers  all  live  in  this  place.  Whosoever  dwells  in 
this  blessed  spot  has  a  share  in  its  glory.  In  such 
a  place  is  the  home  of  Vijay."  Ghante^vara  and 
Ghagra  have  both  been  silted  up,  though  traces  of 
them  may  yet  be  discovered  and  the  site  of  the 
village  Fulla9rl  has  become  changed  in  course  of 
time.  The  more  important  part  of  the  village  is 
now  calld  Gaila. 
The  con=  Vijay    Gupta    belonged  to  the  Vaidya  caste,  his 

his  Manasa  father's  name  being  Sanatana  and  his  mother's, 
Rukmini.  His  Manasa  Mangal  is  divided  into 
the  following  cantos  : — 

Consultation. 

Hymns  to  the  gods. 

Dreams. 

The  garden  house  of  Chand. 

Birth  of  Manasa  DevL 

An  introductory  notice  of  Manasa  Devi. 

The  lamentations  of  Chandi 

The  beginning  of  the  quarrel  with  Chand. 
9.     Quarrel  with  Chandi. 

0.  Chandi  restored  to  consciousness. 

1.  Marriage  of  Manasa  Devi. 


S^^T  ^tfe  S^'!  ^^1  »IK^^^  f^^ 
^t^  ^l"^  C^t  ^l^  C^t  ^-•I't^  I 

C5ST  ^?ia  ^\m  fi^^c^  f^^^  II 


Vijay  Gupta's  Padina  Puran. 


IV.]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  281 

12.  Separation  from  her  husband. 

13.  Birth  of  eight  snakes 

14.  The  churning  of  the  sea. 

15.  Curse  of  ^iva  on  Manohara,  the  cow. 

16.  Necter  produced  by  churning. 

17.  Civa  loses  his  senses  by  swallowing  poison. 

18.  Civa  restored  to  his  senses. 

19.  Manasa  Devi  exiled  to  the  forest. 

20.  Manasa  Devi  worshipped  by  the  shepherds, 

21.  The  story  of  Hasan  Husen. 

22.  Chand's  birth  under  the  curse  of  Padma. 

23.  The  insult  offered  to  Sanaka. 

24.  The  destruction   of    the    Guabadi  ( garden 

of  Chand). 

25.  Manasa  Devi  disguised  as  a  milk-maid. 
26^.     A    heated    discussion     between      Manasa 

Devi  and  the  disciples  of  ^ankar  Gaduria. 

27.  Manasa     Devi     makes     friendship      with 

Kamala,  the  wife  of  ^ankara  Gaduria. 

28.  The  story  of  a  chaste  woman. 

29.  Death  of  Cankara  Gaduria. 

30.  The  destruction  of  Chand's  garden. 

31.  The  Mahajfiana  or    knowledge    by    which 

life  can  be  restored,  is  lost. 
1^2.     Manasa  Devi  kills  the  six  sons  of  Chand. 

33.  Manasa  Devi  is  worshipped  in  the  house  of 

a  fisherman. 

34.  Usa  abducted  by  Aniruddha. 

35.  Manasa     Devi's     fight    with    the    king    of 

death  (Yama). 

36.  Chand  undertakes  a  commercial  tour. 

37.  Trade  by  barter. 

38.  The  distress  of  Chand. 

39.  Fourteen  ships  of  Chand  destroyed. 

36 


2^2      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [  Chap. 

40.  Chgnd  introduces  himself. 

41.  Birth  of  Laksmlndara. 

42.  Manasa  Devi  disguised  as  an  ant. 

43.  The  building  of  the  house  of  steel. 

44.  Manasa  Devi's  conversation  with  TaravatL 

45.  Laksmindara  sets  out  for  his  marriage. 

46.  The  gods  attend  the  marriage  ceremony. 

47.  The  canopy  falls. 

48.  Laksmlndara  sets  out  for  home. 
4Q.  Eight  snakes  made  prisoners. 

50.  A  message  sent  to  the  serpent  Kali. 

51.  Kali  goes  to  bite  Laksmindara. 

52.  Laksmindara  is  bitten. 

53.  His  dying  words. 

54.  The  dream  of  Behula. 

55.  The  lamentations  of  Behula  and  of  Sanaka. 

56.  A  white  crow  bears  the  message  to  Ujani. 

57.  Hari  Sadhu    marches    to    meet    his     sister 

Behula. 

58.  The  interview. 

59.  Dom  ghat. 

60.  Dhana  and  Mana  ghats. 

61.  The  ghat  of  a  knave. 

62.  Neta  comes  as  a  tiger  and  a  vultur*'. 

63.  The  washerwoman's  ghat. 

64.  Behula  dances  before  Civa. 

65.  Padma  sent  to  Manasa  DevL 

66.  Their  meeting. 

67.  Grievances  of  the  past  twelve  months. 

68.  Laksmindara    and  his  brothers    restored  to 

life  and  the  ships  recovered. 

69.  Cankar  Gaduria  restored  to  life. 

70.  Behula  returns  home. 


IV.  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  283 

71.  The   ghats  of  Neta,  of  a  knave,  of  Dhana 

and  Mana,  of  a  man   with   elephantiasis, 
and  of  Hari  Sadhu. 

72.  Behula  disguised  as  a  sweeper-girl. 

73.  The  trial  of  Behula- 

74.  The  meeting. 

75.  Manasa  Devi  worshipped. 

76.  The   ascent   into    heaven    (of  Behula    and 

Laksmindara.) 

These  chapter-headings  roughly  indicate  the 
contents  of  other  poems  on  tlie  same  subject  also. 
The  literature  in  honour  of  Manasa  Devi  is  vast 
and  varied  and  is  interesting  from  many  different 
points  of  view.  We  have,  however,  no  space  to 
consider  all  these  points  with  that  thoroughness 
which  they  deserve. 

Contemporary  with  Vijay  Gupta  was    Narayaha      ^.^  . 
Deva,  another  poet  who  lived  in  Boragram  in  the  sub-         Deva. 
division   of    Kishoreganj  in  the   district  of   Mymen- 
singh.     The    Manasa  Mangal  of   Narayaha  Deva  is 
almost  as  popular  as  that  of  Vijay  Gupta  in  Eastern 
Bengal  though  a  greater  sanctity  is  attached  to  the 
latter's  poem,  owing  to  the  preservation  of  his  wor- 
ship-pot in  the  village  temple  of  Phulla^ri.  Narayaha 
Deva  belonged  to  the  Kayastha  caste.   His  father  was 
Narasimha  Deva.     The  ancestors  of  the  poet   were 
originally    inhabitants  of  Magadha.     Latterly    they 
came  down  to  Rada  Deya  and  settled  there.     From 
Rada  they    made    another    move    and    settled    in 
Mymensingh.       Some     descendants    of    Narayaha 
Deva  still  dwell  in  Boragram,  being  17th  in  descent 
from  the  poet, 


284      BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.      [  Chap. 

Narayaiia  Narayans  Deva  was  a  fine  poet.     The  following 

poetrv.        passage  will  show  something  of  his  pathos  :   Behula 
is  lamenting  for  the  death  of  Laksmindara  :^ — 

"  Where  art  thou  gone,  my    lord,    without    me  ? 

Awake    beloved,    lift  up    thine  eyes  and  look  upon 

thy    Behula.       Alas  !    that    beauty    which  shone  so 

bright,  putting  the  sun    and    moon   to    shame,    has 

been  stolen  away  by  the  bite  of     Kali,    the    snake. 

My  Sari  of  silk  must  now  be  torn  off,  my  bracelets 

Behula        of    shell    must   now   be  broken,  and  I,  unfortunate 
laments. 

that  I  am,  must  wipe  off    the    vermilion    from    my 

fore-head.      Oh  my  lord  I  how  long  will  you  sleep  ? 

Will  you  not  wake  and  speak    to    me  ?       Will    you 

not  look  ao-ain  at  my  face  ?     Oh  !    what  fault   have 

I    committed  against  you,    that    you   should    make 

me  wretched  for  ever  !     To    whose    care    have  you 

left  your  miserable  Behula  ?" 

Again,  Behula    is   on    the    raft  with  the  body  of 

her  husband,  and  her  brother    Narayani    Sadhu   is 

trying  to  dissuade  her  from  the  insane  course  she  is 

followingt  : — 

*  ^^5  ^^^^  ^^u  c^tw  '^iv^^  ^1%  I 
^l'^^  *f^  ^tfsf^  ^^«i  ^ft^  g^  I 

M^Tff  ^ft^1  ^'^  ^.^^^  C«t5(t^  C^T'l?!  ^?f%  I 
f^  ^Hl'\  ^^^1  ^1^  ^*f^J  ^<t5?  II 


1V«]      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  285 


"  Hearing  Behula's  words,  Narayani  Sadhu,  her 
brother,  says,  *'  Why  do  you,  O  sister,  follow  a  wild 
fancy  that  could  never  be  carried  into  practice  ? 
How  did  such  an  idea  seize  you  ?  Where  was  it  ever 
heard  that  god^'  and  men  can  meet  ?  Allow  me,  O 
sister,  to  burn  your  dead  husband.  How  can  you  all 
alone  reach  heaven,  the  abode  of  the  gods.  How  can 
we  let  you  drift  out  to  sea  !  Where  is  the  abode 
of  the  gods  that  you  would  reach  ?  With  precious 
sandal  and  scented  bark  I  will  burn  Laksmindara's 
corpse  and  perform  here  the  ceremony  of  his 
funeral.  Come  back,  O  sister,  to  your  childhood's 
home.  You  may  fast  like  a  widow,  but  we  shall  feed 
you  with  every  dainty.  Your  shell-bracelets  may 
be  broken,  and  the  vermilion  gone  from  your  head. 
This  is  no  matter  !  for  we  shall  give  you  other  and 


Narayani 

entreats 

her  to 

return 

home. 


ft^si  ^111^  ^^^  t^'^]  f^  <Pt5«l  I 

off^^i  'if^^  c^t^  5|c^  vf^*r^  II 

^tc^ft  ^^5T  ^K^  m^k  n^j  I 
^Hm  ^"t  ^^  ^t  ^tz^  ^^^  I 

^U^^^  C^-siVS  ^ttr^  C5f^^^  I 


Behula's 


286      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.       [Chap, 

richer  ornaments  to  wear.  When  my  mother  asks 
me  about  you.  how  can  I  tell  her  that  we  left 
her  Behula  drifting  on  tht;  water?"  At  this  point 
the  brother's  emotion  overcomes  him  ;  Behula  to 
soothe  him,  said — 'But  I  have  come  here  determin- 
ed to  restore  my  husband's  life,  and  you  ask  me  to 
reply.  leave  him  to  be  devoured  by  the  beasts  of  prey 
that  live  in  the  water  ?  Our  relations  at  Champak 
Nagar  would  ask  me  what  I  have  done  with  his  body, 
and  what  should  I  say  to  them  in  reply  ?'  Hearing 
these  w^ords  Narayani  Sadhu,  weeping,  said,  ''Oh 
sister,  I  cannot  leave  you,  I  cannot  go.  That  mad- 
man Chand  Sadagara    has    no    proper    feelings    his 

Narayani      mind    has    o;one    astray.     He   has  floated  down  the 
laments.         ... 

living  with  the  dead  !     On  the  turbulent  river,    the 

waves  rise  and  fall.  If  you  should  fall,  you  will  be 
devoured  by  sea  Fish  and  shark.  O  how  shall  I 
answer  our  mother  when  she  asks  me  about  you  ! 
What  shall  I  say  to  our  friends  in  Ujaninagar  'i" 
Thus  by  his  lamentations  Narayani  Sadhu  strove 
to  soften  her  heart,  and  bring  her  back  to  home.  The 

^il  fw^%cT  ^fl  ft  ft^  ^  I 
ft^t^l  ^tft^l  ^11^1  W^'^  ^n^T  I 

c^t3)  mf^  "^w^  ^^^  ^'H I 


IV.]       BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  287 

poet  Narayaha  lays  down  these  verses  at  the  feet  of 

Manasa  DevL 

When  however  havinsf  tried  every  means  in  his        Behula 

bids  fare- 
power,    he  failed  to  dissuade    Behula,    then,  with  a    well  to  her 

grieved  heart  he  left  her,  and  she  bidding   farewell         ^^     ^^' 

to    her   brother,    sailed    on  and  on.     The  raft  flew 

swiftly,  like  a    shooting-star,    and    she    came    to    a 

place  called  the  Bagher  Bank.'' 


^^ft  m^Hn  cm^^  ^^  'ft^t^  i 
^!i^i  ^Hpitl^i  %w  'Ttr^  ^t^  I 

ftc^  C^^\  ft^l  Tt^  C^^^l  ^W^^l  I 
^'ip^  Tfl^  ttl^  f^'Tl  W^"(^  I 


288      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.       [  Chap, 

Ksemanan-  The  next    Manasa    Mangal   that  we  light   upon 

was  written  by  Ksemananda — a  Kayastha,  who 
adopted  also  the  name  of  Ketaka  Das.  Ketaka 
occurs  in  the  poem,  as  a  name  of  Manasa  Devi, 
thus  Ketaka  Das  means  'servant  of  Manasa  Devi.' 
In  his  autobiographical  notice  the  poet  refers 
to  Bara  Khan,  as  the  ruler  of  Selimabad  in  the 
district  of  Rurdwan.  Now,  this  Bara  Khan,  as  we 
know  from  other  sources,  made  a  deed  of  gift  of 
twenty  bighas  of  land  to  one  Civaram  Bhatta- 
charyya  in  the  year  1640  A.  D.  Ksemananda 
regrets  the  circumstance  that  the  Khan  has  been 
killed  in  battle.  Hence  his  Manasa  Mangal  must 
have  been  written  at  some  date  later  than  1640. 
Ksemananda  was  born  in  the  village  of  Kanthra  in 
the  district  of  Burdwan  and  held  lands  in  the 
Taluk  of  one  Oskarha  Ray. 

Ksemananda's  Manasar  Bhasana  contains  5,000 
lines,  and  forms  rather  a  brief  version  of  the  stor\- 
as  compared  with  other  poems  on  the  same  sub- 
ject.    But  it  happens  to-day  to  be  the  most  popular 

poem    on   Manasa  Devi.       Its    poetical    merits,    no 
The  reason  .... 

of  his         less    than    its    brevity,    account    for    this  extensive 

popu  arity.    popularity.     I  give  here  an  extract  from  it  : — "^ 
*  srm^n  ■fe'^1  'Itl^  C^^l  J^^tt  I 

f^f^  ^^u  rm^  c^  ftn  5itt  I 
c^^i  ^Tt^.  ctn:^  c^t^  ^T?  cTtf^%  i 

^^^  ^^  ^K'^  f^'api  ^f  ^1  ^rtTti^J^  I 

^^  ft^T  ^f^^l  ^OT5  f^"^^  I 
C^q^l  ^^Tf  f%^  ^K'ft  ^tft  ^VS)  I 


IV.  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.         289 

Laksmindara  and  Behula  are  disguised  as 
a  Yogi  and   YoginL 

"  Laksmindara  and   Behula  in  disguise,  begged      Yogi  and 
from    door   to    door.       But  the  people  of  Nichhani  oi:»n>- 

Nagar  did  not  recognise  them.  They  visited  every 
house  begging  alms,  and  they  sounded  the  horn 
as  they  passed,  reciting  the  name  of  Civa.  People 
threw  rice  and  cowries  on  their  plate;  but  as 
soon  as  they  were  given,  the  alms  disappeared  and 
no  one  could  tell  how  they  had  vanished.  Behula's 
father  was  Saha — the  merchant.  His  house  stood 
in  the  centre  of  the  village  ;  around  it  were  large 
and  beautiful  straw-built  sheds,  which  were  like 
lofty  walls,  and  inside  was  a  house  that  sparkled 
with  gold.  There  lived  Saha  the  merchant  with 
his  wife  Amala.  Behula  went  to  see  her  parents. 
As  she  was  disguised,  no  one  recognised  her. 
It  was  mid-day  and  the  sun  was  up.  The  seeming 
Yogi  and  YoginI  entered  the  inner  appartments. 
The  Yogi  sounded  his  horn  and    Amala    came   out. 

^f%c^  ^1  vz^  c^^  ^z^  ^U]  ^t?;^  I 
c^w^i^  ^n  f^r^  ^n  ^^n^  i 

^]^^  ^^z^  m  c^w^  f^^f^  I 
^m  i«ft^^  ^t?:^  ^5(^1  c^?:# ! 

m\  ^u\  c^^  "su-^  ^1  ^^z^  fef^c^  i 
37 


290         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.     [  Chap. 

On  a  golden  plate  she  brought  rice  and  cowries  to 
present  to  the  supposed  ascetics.  But  Laksmin- 
dara  hid  his  face  for  a  moment  on  seeing  his 
mother-in-law.  Behula  smiled  softly  ;  the  smile 
on  her  lips  was  as  sweet  as  necter.  Amala  placed 
cowries  and  rice  on  her  plate,  but  tliey  disappeared 
as  soon  as  given,  through  the  spell  cast  by  Manasa 
Devi.  Amala  saw  this  and  asked  the  reason  say- 
ing '  Tell  me,  O  Yogini  ! — who  vou  are  !  There  does 
not  dwell  a  creature  in  the  three  worlds  more 
unfortunate  than  I  !  Beholding  you  my  grief  over- 
powers me.  There  was,  O  Yogini — a  daughter  of 
mine,  who  strangely  resembled  you  ;  but  she 
sailed  away  with  her  husband's  dead  body,  and 
I  know  not  to  what  region  she  has  gone.  On  seeing 
you,    O    Yogini,    my    grief    for    her    is     rekindled. 


^1  ^'<^  C^^l  ^^^  n^«!  ^^l^  I 

^"^i^^  ^rm^  fe^^  M^  ^f^  I 

^^i\t  ^^^  ^t^  C^R^1  1t<5n5  I 

^'!tt  f^?'i  it^  ^^^  ^^n  I 
^m  ^^  of^  ^T^1  c^rpT%?r  ^K^  I 


IV.]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         2g 

Tell  me  then  in  your  mercy,  how  is  it  that  the 
rice  and  cowries  have  disappeared.'  Behula  said 
'  We  are  Yogi  and  Yogini,  "-e  live  unaer  the 
trees.  We  beg  alms  in  the  day-time  and  at  even- 
ing we  return  to  our  resting  placc.  We  know 
nothing  more  than  this.'  But  Amala  her  mother 
looked  intently  at  the  face  of  Behula,  beautiful 
as  a  lotus,  and  said  '  No,  you  are  Behula — my  own 
Behula  ;  Oh  !  my  heart  breaks  to  see  you;  my  Behula 
and  Laksmindara,  stand  before  me  !  Tell  me 
truly  that  you  are  no  other.'  '  O  mother'  Behula 
said  '  what  introduction  do  we  need  to  you  ? 
We  are  your  own  Beiiula  and  Laksmindara,  cry  no 
more,  O  mother.  Here  is  the  husband  of  my  heart, 
restored  to  life  !  '  At  these  words,  Amala  broke  into 
sobs,    and   hearing   her    weep,    tiie    people    of    the 

CT>^^'1  (,^Tm\  c^\i^  ^-m^  ^^  ^n  > 
C^ff''l%  wt^K^  c*it^  c^^^i  ^^-^  I 

ftt»l^  ^fel  (J{\U  ^^  M^  I 
^M^  fe^  ^Itt  C^iT  ^f?  ^T^  ^^=T  I 

t^i  f^5^i  ^t^  cn^i  f^i  ^ft  ^tf^  I 
^'^^'\  c^^?n  \'^\m  c^  c^Vii^  I 


292        HENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.      [Chap. 


Other 
authors 
of  Mansa 
Mafigal. 


village  ran  to  her  house.  They  asked  her 
what  it  was  that  made  her  cry  !  Some  said  that 
Behula  had  returned.  People  were  struck  with 
wonder, — the  dead  Laksmlndara  had  come  to  life 
again  !  Said  they  '  we  never  saw  or  heard  of  such 
a  thing — Behula  has  restored  her  husband  to  life.' 

The  names  of  most  of  the  other  authors  of 
Manasa  Mangal  known  up  to  now,  ar^  here 
enumerated.  The  latest  of  these  writers,  Raja 
Rajsirhha  of  Susung  Durgapur  in  the  district  of 
Mymensing  lived   125  years  ago. 

4.  Ramajivana  (1770  A.  D.) 

5.  Raja  Rsjsiriiha. 

c^^i  ^^  ^ft^^  fw^  T^  I 
c^i^  c^m  ^fitl  CTtf^%  c^t^  f^  I 

^f^^)  ^^1^1  ^n:i?f  mt^i  ri^  cil^  I 

C^^  ^H  CiR  ^f^  '^'^)  C^^^%  I 

c^5  ^t:^  c^^  'Tf^^  c^^^i  ^ig%  I 
cytTm]  ^f^^i  c^K^  ^K"^  ^'is't^  " 

From  Behula's  visit  to  her  father's  house 
by  Ketaka  Das  K§emananda. 


IV.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  293 


6. 

Anupa  Chandra. 

7- 

Krisnananda. 

8. 

Gangadas  Sen. 

9- 

Gopi  Chandra. 

10. 

Pandit  Gangs   Das. 

1 1. 

Golaka  Chandra. 

12. 

Govinda  Das. 

^3- 

Chandrapati. 

14- 

Jagat  Vallabha. 

15- 

Vipra  Jagannatha. 

16. 

Jagannath  Sen. 

17- 

Jagamohan  Mitra. 

18. 

Jaydev  Das. 

19. 

Dvvija  Jay  Ram. 

20. 

Vipra  Janakinath. 

21. 

Janakinath  Das. 

22. 

Nanda  Lai. 

23' 

Narayana. 

24. 

Dwija  Valarama. 

25- 

Valarama  Das. 

26. 

Vane9war. 

27. 

Madhusudan  De. 

28. 

Yadunath  Pandit. 

29. 

Raghunath. 

30- 

Viprarata  Dev. 

3^- 

Ramakantha. 

32. 

Rati  Kanthasen. 

33. 

Dwija  Rasik  Chandra 

34. 

Radha  Krisna. 

35- 

Ramchandra. 

36. 

Vipraram  Das. 

37- 

Ramdas  Sen. 

38. 

Ram  Nidhi. 

39- 

Ram  Vinoda. 

294      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [  Chap. 


Behula 
typifies 
the  ideal  »f 
NNOtnan- 
hood  in 
Bens:al. 


40. 

Dwija  Vam9i  Das 

41- 

Varh9idhana. 

42. 

Vanamall 

43- 

Vardhaman  Das. 

44- 

Vallabha  Ghose. 

45- 

Vijaya. 

46. 

Vipra  Das. 

47- 

Vi9ve9var. 

48. 

Vi§nu  Pal. 

49. 

Sasthibara  Sen. 

50. 

Sitapati. 

51- 

Sukavi  Das. 

52. 

Sukha  Das. 

53- 

Sudam  Das. 

54- 

Dwija  Hari  Ram. 

55- 

Dwija  Hridaya. 

56. 

Kamal  Narayana. 

57- 

Kavi  Karnapur. 

58. 

Haridas. 

In  closing  this  account  of  the  literature  of  the 
Manasa-cult,  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  a 
country  where  women  commonly  courted  death 
on  their  husband's  funeral  pyre,  this  story  of 
Behula  may  be  regarJ.ed  as  the  poet's  natural 
tribute  at  the  feet  of  their  ideal. 


kelig:ioil 

the  main 

spring  of 

our 

activity. 


(6)     Songs  in  honour  of  Chandi  Devi. 

Religion  has  been  the  main -spring  of  activity 
in  this  country  from  the  earliest  times.  Astronomy 
originated  with  us,  from  the  necessity  for  calculating 
the  auspicious  times  for  holding  sacrifices.  Geo- 
metry   came    into    existence    in    order  to  settle  the 


IV*  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  295 


shape  and  size  of  altars.  Poetry  welled  up  for  the 
singing  of  hymns  to  God.  Mundane  considerations 
never  seriously  occupied  the  attention  of  Indians  or 
served  as  any  inspiration  to  them. 

Bengali  poetry  was  employed  in  its  earlier 
stages  for  religious  purposes.  Poems  in  honour  of 
Manasa  Devi,  Chandi  and  other  local  deities  testify 
to  the  same  inspiring  motive  in  their  writers. 
The  songs  in  honour  of  the  house-hold  deities 
had  to  be  recited  on  the  occasions  of  their  worship. 
This 'was  enjoined  as  a  part  of  the  religious  func- 
tion itself.  Men  and  women  assembled  in  great 
numbers  in  places  of  worship,  inspired  by  faith, 
and  the  poets  who  wrote  the  poems  gradually 
felt  the  need  to  make  their  performance  really 
interesting  and  attractive.  The  earliest  specimens 
of  songs,  in  honour  of  the  tutelary  deities  of  Bengal, 
are  generally  short.  They  gave  stories  in  brief 
form  illustrating  the  might  and  grace  of  particular 
deities.  For  this  purpose,  a  short  and  simple  tale, 
without  any  pretensions  to  scholarship  or  poetical 
merit,  was  first  composed  ;  the  next  poet  sought  to 
improve  upon  this  work,  and  as  particular  religious 
sects  gained  ground  and  counted  increasing  num- 
bers of  votaries,  their  religious  poems  also  improv- 
ed, till  the  mere  outlines  of  the  earlier  writers  grew 
into  elaborate  poems  in  the  hands  of  later  poets. 

Here,  in  Bengal,  people  lived  in  straw-built  huts 
themselves,  while  the  oratory  of  their  tutelary 
deity  was  often  made  of  bricks,  and  rich  people 
living  in  brick-built  mansions,  always  spent  far 
larger  sums  of  money  on  their  chapels  than  on  their 
own  dwelling  rooms.     The  finest  touches  of  decora- 


How  the 

poems 

gradually 

improved. 


Religion 

Inspires 

art  and 

poetry. 


296      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.     [  Chap. 

tive  art  they  could  command  were  employed  to 
adorn  the  temple.  The  idea  of  luxury  could  have 
no  hold  upon  a  people  who  lived  plainly  themselves 
but  applied  their  aesthetic  talents  and  capital  to 
religious  purposes.  It  could  not  produce  any  heart- 
burning by  creating  a  sense  of  social  inequality, 
as  the  ownership  of  a  Matha  or  temple  could  not 
give  rise  to  jealousy,  however  great  and  costly 
might  be  its  decoration.  The  portals  of  a  temple 
were  open  to  all  equally.  At  the  same  time  art  re- 
ceived its  highest  impetus  from  religious  motive, 

Bengali  poetry  also,  like  these  chapels,  had  for 
its  chief  and  primary  object  the  worship  of  deities 
till  it  gradually  become  intermixed  and  enriched  with 
romantic  incidents  of  the  human  world,  even  as  the 
walls  and  door-ways  of  a  temple  were  decorated 
with  fresco-paintings  and  sculptures  on  bas- 
relief  representing  scenes  from  life. 

However  crude  may  be  the  poetic  literature 
dealt  with  in  these  chapters,  it  always  makes  an 
attempt  to  give  expression  to  the  truth  that  righti- 
ousness  is  upheld  by  the  Almighty's  law,  that  faith 
conquers  in  the  long  run  and  that  the  sceptic  with 
all  his  brilliance  and  power  ultimately  sinks  into 
insignificance. 

The  songs  to  which  we  have  referred,  formed 
the  popular  literature  of  Bengal  and  existed  in  some 
crude  shape  in  the  country  before  the  Pouranik 
Renaissance.  Though  latterly  taken  up  by  the 
Brahmanic  School,  their  subjects  had  been  con- 
ceived   and  worked  out  by  the  people  in    an  earlier 

The   poems    epoch    of      our    history     when     Brahmanic    power 
orij^inated 
with  the      luid    not   yet  asserted    itself.     The    Brahmins    im- 

people.        proved  these  compositions  by  introducing  Sanskrit 


IV.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  297 

words  and  many  fine  passages  of  classical 
beauty  into  them,  but  the  subject-matter  of 
the  poems  proves  that  it  was  the  people  who 
gave  them  their  original  shape.  The  chief  charac- 
ters do  not  belong  to  the  highest  castes  and  the 
Brahmin  has  hardly  any  part  in  the  drama  of  the 
poems.  Dhanapati,  Crimanta,  Lahana,  Khullana, 
Chand,  Behula, — the  main  personages  in  all  these 
poems,  belong  to  the  merchant-classes,  which  do 
not  hold  a  very  high  position  in  Hindu  society. 
The  hunter  Kalaketu  comes  from  one  of  the  lowest 
castes.  In  the  manner  in  which  the  deities  are 
represented  to  help  their  votaries,  there  is  evidently 
a  coarse  and  rustic  element  which  indicates  that 
the  poems  originated  with  the  populace,  rather  than 
with  the  more  refined  classes.  In  any  case,  it  is  the 
people  who  still  patronise  them,  for  by  far  the 
larger  number  of  the  Mss.  of  these  poems  I 
recovered  from  the  houses  of  carpenters,  black- 
smiths and  other  artizans.  The  Sanskritic  School 
of  poets,  while  embellishing  the  style  and  diction 
of  these  works,  could  not,  at  the  same  time,  rebuild 
the  plot  or  otherwise  improve  their  subject-matter. 

The  history  of  the  origin  of  the  Chandi-cult  is  History  of 
not  easy  to  trace.  Whether  she  was  originally  the  ^^^ Jj.^^^ 
deity  of  the  Mongolians  and  Dravadians,  latterly 
admitted  into  the  Hindu  pantheon,  as  we  have 
supposed, — or  she  represents  in  an  altered  garb  the 
mythological  tradition  of  Semeremis,  the  queen  of 
Assyria,  who  conquered  Bactria  about  2000  B.  C. — 
or  as  the  Indian  Anna  Purna  she  is  to  be  identified 
with  Anna  Perenna  the  goddess  of  the  Romans, 
distributing  cakes,  whose  festivals  were  celebrated 
on    the    15th    of    March,  is  a  problem    which  is  not 

38 


298        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

within  the  scope  of  this  treatise  to  solve.  The  late 
discovery  made  in  Crete  by  Dr.  Evans  of  the  image 
of  a  goddess  standing  on  a  rock  with  lions  on  either 
sides,  which  is  referred  to  a  period  as  remote  as 
3000  B.  C.  has  offered  another  startling  point  in 
regard  to  the  history  of  the  Chandi-cult.  The  mother 
in  the  Hindu  mythology  rides  a  lion,  and  in  Mar- 
kandeya  Chandi  there  is  a  well-known  passage 
where  she  stands  on  a  rock  with  a  lion  beside,  her 
for  warring  against  the  demons. 

As  heretofore  mentioned,  there  was  latterly  an 
attempt  on  the  part  of  the  Brahmin  poets  to 
connect  the  humble  deities  worshipped  by  rural  folk 
with  the  gods  and  goddesses  of  the  Pauranic 
pantheon.  Mangal  Chandi — a  popular  deity,  was 
thus  associated  by  the  later  poets  with  that  Chandj 
who  was  described  by  Markandeya. 

There  are  two  stories  which  from  the  subject- 
matter  of  all  poems  in  honour  of  Mangal  Chandi. 
The  first  one  is — 

The  story  of  Kalaketu. 

Nilambara,  son  of  Indra,  was  born  into  this 
world  under  a  curse,  as  Kalaketu.  the  hunter.  He 
married  Phullara,  daughter  of  Sanjayaketu,  who 
used  to  sell  in  the  market  the  venison  and  other 
flesh  that  he  brought  by  hunting,  and  thus  the  pair 
earned  their  livelihood.  The  wild  beasts  of  the 
forest,  with  the  lion  at  their  head,  applied  to  Chandi 
for  protection,  as  Kalakt^tu  seemed  bent  on  annihi- 
lating them.  The  lion  liimself  was  somewhat 
Kalaketu      crest-fallen    as    he    could      not     give    effective    aid 

and  the       ^q  those  who  owed  alleo-iance  to  him  as  their  Lord. 
beasts.  ^ 

Chandi  was  moved  to  compassion   and  granted    the 


IV*]        BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.  299 


boon   that    Kalaketu    should    no    longer  be  able  to 
molest  or  destroy  them. 

It  was  morning  and  the  dairy  maids  were  carry- 
ing their  curds  in  pitchers  to  the  market  for  sale. 
On  the  riglit  the  cows  were  grazing  in  the  pastures 
and  the  village  looked  lovely  under  the  morning 
breeze.  Kalaketu  the  hunter,  with  his  quiver  on  his 
back  and  a  great  bow  in  his  hand,  and  crystal 
ear-drops  in  his  ears  went  forth  on  his  usual  hunt- 
ing excursion.  As  he  was  about  to  enter  the  dense 
forest,  he  saw  a  lizard  of  a  golden  colour.  This 
lizard,  he  thought,  was  not  a  good  omen.  He 
tied  up  the  animal  with  the  string  of  his  bow  and 
thought  it  would  serve  for  a  meal  if  no  other  should 
be  forthcoming  that  day. 

By  the  will  of  Chandi,  a  dense  fog  covered  the 
forest  that  morning,  and  though  Kalaketu  wandered 
all  round  it  in  quest  of  a  quarry,  he  could  find 
none.  Growing  hungry,  as  the  day  advanced,  with 
his  fruitless  search,  he  returned  home,  and  ac- 
quainted his  wife  Phullara  with  the  tale  of  his  dis- 
appointment. He  suggested  that  she  should  go  to 
their  neighbour  Bimala  and  ask  for  the  loan  of  a 
few  seers  of  khiid  or  rice-dust  and  some  salt,  and 
pointed  out  the  lizard  which  lay  bound  with  the 
string  of  his  bow  ;  this  might  also  be  killed  and 
cooked,  as  no  better  could  be  found,  to  appease 
their  hunger  for  the  day. 

Phullara  went  to  her  friend  Bimala  for  the  loan 
and  in  the  meantime  Kalaketu  found  in  the  cottage 
a  small  quantity  of  flesh  left  unsold  the  day 
before.  He  carried  this  to  Gola  ghat  to  try  if  any 
purchaser  could  be  found  for  it. 


The  lizard 
tied  up. 


Kalaketu 

returns 

home. 


Goes  to 
Gola  Ghat. 


300        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [Chap, 


The  lizard 
was  Chandl 
in  disguise. 


Phullara  Is 

bewild' 

ered. 


She  misun- 

derstaads 

Chandl. 


She  advises 

her  to 

return  to 

her  own 

home. 


The  lizard,  who  was  no  other  than  Chandi  her- 
self, now  came  out  from  the  noose  in  which  she 
was  tied  and  assumed  the  form  of  a  beautiful 
woman.  Her  complexion  was  of  the  colour  of 
Atasi  flower  and  her  dark  hair  fell  down  her  back  in 
luxuriant  curls.  She  looked  like  a  damsel  of  sixteen. 
Her  silk  sdriy  her  golden  bracelets,  her  necklace 
sparkling  with  precious  diamonds,  her  bodice  em- 
broidered with  gems  inset  by  Viyva  Karma  himself, 
the  god  of  art,  the  majesty  of  her  demeanour — all 
indicated  her  noble  rank,  seemingly  that  of  a  queen. 
When  poor  Phullara  came  back  to  her  hut,  she 
could  not  trust  her  own  eyes.  Bewildered,  she 
made  a  low  obeisance  to  the  lady,  asking  her  who 
she  was  and  why  she  had  condescended  to  grace 
their  lowly  dwelling  place  with  her  august  presence. 

Chandi  gave  her  story  in  language  which  had  a 
double  meaning.  She  said  that  her  husband  was 
old  and  poor  and  showered  his  favour  on  her  co- 
wife,  whom  he  placed  on  his  head,  while  she  was 
treated  with  great  indifference.  This  referred  to 
^iva,  the  co-wife  being  the  Ganges,  who  is  re- 
presented as  borne  on  the  head  of  the  Great  God. 
But  Phullara  understood  the  statement  in  its 
ordinary  sense  and  did  not  at  all  suspect  her  guest, 
to  be  the  goddess  Chanch. 

Poor  Phullara,  living  in  great  poverty,  prided 
herself  on  the  love  of  her  husband  and  was  con- 
tented. She  did  nut  now  wish  the  beautiful 
damsel  to  be  seen  by  Kalaketu  ;  so  hiding  her  jeal- 
ousy as  best  she  could,  with  smiles,  she  advised  her 
to  return  to  her  own  home.  *'  l^^or  "  said  she  ''  the 
night  is  approaching,  and  it  is  not  safe  for  one  of 
your  position  to   spend    ihe    night    in    a    stranger's 


IV.]  BENGAL!    LANGUAGE    &   LilERATURE.        30t 

house."  "You  call  your  husband  a  stranger  to 
me  ?"  Said  Chandi,  ''but  he  is  devoted  to  me  !" 
and  indeed  it  was  true  that  Kalaketu  the  hunter 
was  a  worshipper  of  ChandL  At  these  words  of 
the  goddess,  Phullara's  voice  became  choked  with 
tears  ;  but  without  manifesting  any  external  sign  of 
her  emotion,  she  quoted  from  the  ^astras  to  show 
the  grave  indiscretion  of  staying  in  a  strange 
house  without  permission.  "  Think  of  Sita  "  she 
said  "  how  faultless  she  was,  yet  she  was  put 
to  shame,  because  she  had  lived  in  Ravana's  house 
for  a  time  ;  Renuka,  the  wife  of  Bhrigu,  was  behead- 
ed because  her  husband  suspected  her.  If  your 
co-wife  quarrels  with  you,  you  can  surely  give  tit 
for  tat.  Why  should  you  leave  your  husband's  roof 
for  that  ?" 


*'  I  understand  my  own  affairs,"  said  Chandi,  '*  it 

is  not  for  you  to  instruct  me  in  my  duty."     At  this, 

a  feeling  of  great  unrest  overtook  Phullara,  and  she 

tried  by    a  description    of    her    abject    poverty   to 

work  upon  her  guest's  mind,  that  she  might  give  up 

the  idea  of  staying    with    them.     She    said,    '*  only 

look,    lady,   at  my  poor  hut,  the  roof  made  of  palm 

leaves,  supported  on  a  single   post  made   of   ricinus 

tree  !     It  breaks  every  year  in    the    summer-storms. 

In  the  month  of  Vaigakha,  the  fierce  sun  glares  over 

head  and  its  rays  are  like  living  fire.       There  is  no 

shade  to  be  found  under  the    trees,  my  feet  burn  on 

the  hot  sands,  as  I  go  to  the  market  to  sell  the  meat. 

My  torn  rags  are  so  scanty  that  I  can  scarcely  draw 

them  up  to  cover  my  head.     If  I  leave    my    basket 

in  the  market  for  a  moment,  the  kites    fall   upon    it, 

and    empty    it    immediately.     Through  the  days  of 


Phullara 
describes 

her 
poverty, 


The  Vara- 
Masi. 


302        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap< 

Jyaistha  we  have  scarcely  any  food,  and  live,  for 
the  most  part,  on  wild  berries.  In  the  months  of 
Asadha  and  Cravana,  when  the  newly  formed  clouds 
cover  the  sky,  the  village  roads  become  muddy  and 
pools  full  of  water,  a  host  of  leeches  bite  me  as 
I  go  out,  though  a  snake-bite  would  be  more 
welcome,  for  it  would  end  my  miseries.  In  the  month 
of  Bhadra,  our  whole  village  is  flooded  and  scarcely 
can  1  And  a  customer  for  my  meat.  At  the  approach 
of  Ayvina,  every  one,  seems  to  be  happy,  and  the 
goddess  Uma  is  worshipped  in  big  houses.  There 
is  dance  and  merry-making,  and  people  are  dressed 
in  beautiful  raiment.  But  goats  are  sacrificed  to 
the  Goddess  at  every  house,  so  our  meat  will  not 
sell  in  the  market,  and  in  this  hut  we  have  so  often 
to  fast.  In  the  winter-months,  the  little  fire  that  we 
kindle  with  stray  fuel  gathered  from  the  woods 
scarcely  warms  us.  For  want  of  clothes,  I  often 
wear  the  skin  of  a  deer,  which  but  ill  protects  me 
from  cold.  Then  comes  the  spring  season,  when  the 
jasmine  blooms  and  the  bee  whispers  love  to  it 
gathering  its  honey.  With  the  spring's  soft  influ- 
ence in  their  hearts,  maidens  and  youths  are  love- 
sick. But  poor  Phullara  feels  only  the  pain  ot 
iiunger.  Why  do  you,  Oh  noble  lady,  court  a  life 
so  AN'retched  as  must  be  that  of  a  hunter's  wife." 
Her  eyes  glistened  with  tears  as  she  related  the 
story  of  her  woes. 

Love's  Xor  did  she  at  all  exaggerate  her  miseries  ;  only 

amends.        i^    i    i         .     ,  i  i  i       r  i        •,,         - 

Kalaketu  s  love  made  such  amends    tor    the    ills  ot 

life     thai    she    did     not   mind     them.       When    the 

hunter's    w  I'll-formed     strong    arm      served     as     a 

pillow    to    her    in    the  night,  what  she  did  she  care 

lor  want  of  a    nice    bed  ?     When    eating  what    she 


IIV.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  303 

had  cooked,  Kalaketu  praised  her  for  her  good 
cooking,  what  did  she  care  that  no  food  was 
left  for  her !  Did  she  not  feel  gratified  that  her 
husband  was  happy,  though  she  might  have  to  fast 
all  day  herself  ?  And  who  was  this  woman  that 
came  now  to  rob  her  of  her  husband's  love — the 
only  thing  she  prized  in  life?  Alas,  exposure  and 
hardship  had  sullied  her  youthful  beauty  ;  could  she 
ever  be  a  match  for  this  paragon  of  beauty  !  She  Phullar§ 
had  no  qualifications  to  commend  her   to    her   hus-  lousy. 

band,  except  her  love  for  him.  What  will  she  do 
now?  Her  heart  broke  at  these  thoughts.  But 
Chandi  was  not  at  all  moved  by  the  accounts  of 
poverty.  "Very  well  Phullara,"  she  said,  "  from  this 
day  there  will  be  no  more  poverty  in  this  house. 
You  see  my  jewels?  With  them  I  can  buy  a  king- 
dom. Come,  do  not  grieve,  you  will  have  a  share 
of  my  wealth  and  I  shall  not  be  blamed  for  coming 
here:  for  Kalaketu  himself  brought  me,  drawing 
me  hither  by  his  noble  qualities.  " 

This  was  what  Phullara  understood  her  to  say. 
But  indeed  her  words  bore  another  sense,  and  in 
that  sense  were  true  ;  for  she  said  Kalaketu  himself 
had  brought  her  there  bound  with  the  string  of 
his  bow.  The  word  ^^«j  in  Bengali  means  both  a 
bow-string  and  noble  qualities. 

Grief  was  like  to  rend  Phullara 's  heart  at  these 
last  words  of  ChandL  She  could  no  longer  suppress 
her  feelings.      Great  tears  fell  from    her    eyes,    and 
she  turned  and  went  weeping  all  the  way    to    meet      lous  wife 
Kalaketu  at  Golaghat.     There,  as  the    hunter    was        hungry^ 
negotiating  the  sale,  Phullara  approached  him  with  lord. 

tearful  eves.     He  was  struck    with    wonder — never 


304        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [Chap. 

having  seen  her  moved  in  such  a  manner — and 
asked  what  was  it  that  caused  her  so  much  pain. 
''You  have  no  co-wife,"  he  said  ''and  no  sister-in-law 
nor  mother-in-law  to  quarrel  with  you  in  the  house. 
Why  then,  O  my  darHng,  do  you  weep?"  Phullara 
repHed,  "I  have  none,  my  lord,  to  quarrel  with.  It  is 
true  that  you  are  my  all.  But  it  is  you  who  have 
caused  me  this  pain.  What  fault  did  you  Hnd  in  me 
that  you  have  become  a  villain  like  Ravana  !  Whose 
wife  have  you  brought  to  our  house  ?  The  king  of 
Kalihga  is  a  cruel  tyrant.  He  will  kill  you  and 
rob  me  of  my  honour  by  force,  if  he  gets  the  slight- 
est inkling  of  your  act." 

Kalaketu  stood  wonder-struck  for  a  moment 
and  then  said  "  This  is  no  time  for  joking.  I  am 
dying  of  hunger.  If  what  you  charge  me  with  is 
false,  I  shall  cut  off  your  nose  with  a  knife.  Kala- 
ketu's  address  was  rough  but  straight-forward,  as 
befitted  an  illiterate  huntsman  of  his  class.  It  is 
difficult  for  the  foreign  reader  to  understand  the 
abhorrence  with  which  the  huntsman  is  regarded  in 
Bengal  life.  He  is  something  of  a  poacher,  some- 
thing of  a  trapper  and  altogether  a  savage.  Through- 
out this  poem,  the  poet  seeks  to  deprive  Kalaketu 
of  any  refinement  as  will  appear  from  this  coarse 
threat  to  his  wife.  Phullara,  of  course,  was  far  from 
being  sorry  at  his  abuse  ;  for  his  words  indicated  his 
innocence.  Both  of  them,  therefore,  hurried  home, 
and  when  near  the  hut,  Kalaketu  saw  a  strange  sight, 

as  though  ten  thousand  moons  illumined  the  vault  of 
A  Strange  ,  .      ,  ,  ,111 

sight.         night.     A  damsel  whose  beauty    dazzled    the    eyes, 

was  standing    with  gaze    fixed    on    the    sky.     The 

glowing  light  of  evening  fell  on   her   profuse    black 

hair,  tinting  it  with  a  golden  hu(\     She   looked  like 


IV.  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  305 

a  statue  of  stainless  marble  carved  in  relief  against 
the  azure.  She  wore  a  crown  on  her  head  which 
shone  in  the  light,  the  diamonds  sparkling  with 
wonderful  brilliance.  The  majesty  of  her  form 
struck  the  huntsman  dumb.  He  fell  to  the  ground, 
bowing  down  to  her  in  reverence.  After  this,  he 
asked  her  who  she  was  and  what  was  her  mission 
there.  Chandi  stood  silent  without  a  word.  Then 
Kalaketu  said,  "  The  home  of  a  huntsman  is  deemed 
unholy.  The  bones  of  animals  lie  strewn  around  it, 
and  it  is  filled  with  the  smell  of  rotten  meat.  For  any 
one,  of  your  position,  this  is  not  a  fit  place  to  come 
to.  It  will  require  you  a  bath  in  the  Ganges  to 
cleanse  you  of  your  sin,  in  coming  to  visit  such 
foul  quarters.  Why  is  it,  O  mother,  I  ask  again, 
that  you  have  come  here  ?"  Chandi  still  gave  no 
reply.     The  hunter  continued  : — 

"  The  world  will  speak  ill  of  you  if  you  remain 
in  this  house  ;  and  infamy,  you  know,  is  death  to 
woman.  Come  with  me,  leave  the  house  and  I  am 
ready  to  lead  you  back  to  your  home.  But  I  shall 
not  go  alone  with  you  ;  Phullara  will  accompany  us, 
and  we  shall  select  a  path  frequented  by  our  friends. 
In  reply  to  this  Chandi  uttered  not  a  word,  and 
Kalaketu  said  impatiently  ''  You  are  no  doubt  the 
daughter  of  a  rich  man  and  a  rich  man's  wife  too.  I 
am  only  a  poor  huntsman  whose  touch  is  avoided  by 
all.  What  business  can  there  possibly  be  that  would 
bring  you  to  my  house  ?  I  humbly  beg  that  you 
should  leave  this  house  at  once."  But  Chandi  smiled 
and  did  not  at  all  seem  inclined  to  move.  Then  the 
huntsman  said  '  Be  witness,  O  setting  sun,  that  this 
woman  means  mischief;"  and  taking  his  bow  he 
aimed  an  arrow  at  her.      To    his    great  surprise  he 

39 


306      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 


He  alms 

an  arrow 

at  her. 


A  painted 
archer. 


Chandi 

appears 

Jn  her 

own  form. 


found,  however,  that  he  could  not  shoot.  His  hands 
seemed  to  be  controlled  by  a  mysterious  power.  The 
arrow  could  not  be  released  and  both  it  and  the 
bow  became  rigid  in  his  hands.  Phullara  came  to 
his  rescue,  but  could  not  take  away  either  the  bow  or 
the  arrow  from  her  husband's  hands.  Kalaketu  stood 
like  one,  turned  to  stone,  and  for  causes  unknown 
to  himself,  tears  fell  from  his  eyes.  He  trif:d  to 
speak  but  could  not.  He  seemed  to  be  fixed  to  the 
spot  by  a  spell  and  stood,  looking  like  a  painted 
archer. 

Chandi  said,  *'My  son,  I  am  ChandL  I  have  come 
to  help  you  in  your  poverty.  You  will  worship  me 
on  the  third  day  of  every  week.  Only  place  my  ghat 
in  your  home  and  there  will  be  no  end  to  your  pros- 
perity. 

Kalaketu,  now  restored  to  speech,  said  "  Par- 
don me,  but  how  can  I  believe  you  to  be  Chandi  ? 
My  whole  life  has  been  spent  in  wickedness.  I 
have  killed  numberless   animals — in  fact    killino-    is 

o 

my  avocation.  You  probably  know  some  spell  by 
which  you  have  overpowered  me.  If  you  are 
really  Chandi  then  mercifully  show  yourself  to  me, 
O  Divine  Mother,  in  that  form  in  which  you  are 
worshipped  by  the  world." 

In  a  moment  the  figure  of  the  damsel  grew  in 
size.  The  crown  on  her  head  seemed  to  touch  the 
starry  regions  of  the  sky,  and  her  ten  arms  holding 
the  lotus,  the  discus,  the  triand,  and  other  weapons 
were  extended  outwards  in  the  ten  directions.  Her 
gracious  face,  full  of  majesty  and  glory,  smiled  on 
him  with  motherlv  love.  Her  apparel  bedecked  with 
jewels,  fluttered    in    the  eveninir    breeze.     One    of 


IV*  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  307 

her  feet  was  placed  on  a  lion  and  the  other  on  the 
demon-king  Mahisasura.  Thus  sublime  and  awe- 
inspiring,  she  revealed  herself  to  the  sight  of  the 
mortal  couple  and  the  winds  threw  treasures  of  the 
flowers  to  the  feet  of  the  gracious  mother  of  the 
universe. 

Kalaketu  and  Phullara  with  folded  palms  stood 
before  Chandl,  tears  still  flowing  from  their  eyes. 
Gradually  the  form  of  Chandi  faded  away  in  the 
sky.  The  whole  thing  appeared  to  have  been  an 
illusion.  The  tint  of  the  Divine  Mother  was 
merged  in  the  colour  of  the  Atasi  flower  which 
abounded  in  the  place.  Her  hair  vanished  in  the 
clouds.  Her  majesty  spread  itself  in  the  quiet  glow 
of  the  firmament,  and  slowly  the  glorious  vision 
passed  away.  The  earth  and  heaven  appeared 
like  the  sacred  emblem  of  her  divine  presence. 
Then,  once  more  she  stood  before  them  in  the  form 
of  the  beautiful  damsel  standing  at  the  cottage  door, 
and  asking  what  boon  the  couple  would  beg  of  her. 
Kalaketu  only  half  articulately  said,  "  Oh  Mother, 
we  want  nothing  more,  our  life  is  made  blessed  ; 
our  wants  are  all  satisfied." 

Chandi  now  bestowed  a    valuable    ring    on   the        Chandi 
1  1111  ,     .  1         gives  them 

huntsman  and  showed  where  a    great    treasure   lay       wealth. 

buried  in  seven  jars.  She  also  helped  him  to  carry 
the  treasure  to  his  cottage.  Her  command  was,  that 
Kalaketu  should  found  a  kingdom  in  Guzrat.with 
the  money  and  there  rule  his  subjects  justly,  and 
introduce  the  worship  of  Chandi  amongst  them. 

Next  morning  Kalaketu  went  forth  with  the  ring      Kalaketu 
to  turn  into  hard-cash.  The  money  changer  to  whom        Murari 
he  applied  was  Murari  ^ila,  a  dishonest  fellow,  who  V»  ^' 


3oS      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.       [Chap. 


Kalaketu 
becomes 
king  of 
Gujrat. 


Bharu 
Datta. 


Kalaketu 
Is  con- 
quered by 

the  king 
of  Kalinga. 


tried  to  cheat  him  of  the  precious  possession  by 
paying  him  a  nominal  value.  But  the  diamond  in 
the  ring  was  peerless  and  Chandi  had  told  Kalaketu 
of  its  value.  After  much  haggling  the  price  was 
settled  at  seven  crores  of  rupees. 

With  this  money,  and  the  treasure  found    in  tb.e 
jars,  he    proceeded    to    Guzrat    where  he  cut  down 
the  forests  and  founded  a  city  in  honour  of  Chandi. 
A  great  flood  in  the  meantime   overtook    the    king- 
dom   of    Kalinga    and    the    people    there    became 
homeless.     With  Vulan  Mandala  at  their  head   they 
came    to    Guzrat  in  crowds  to  inhabit  it.     Amongst 
them  came  Bharu  Datta — a  knave  who,  with  his  glib 
tongue  and  high    sounding    phrases  won    his    way 
into   the    confidence  of  King  Kalaketu  ;  but  Bharu 
grievously  oppressed  the    people,    and  so    he   was 
turned  out  of  Guzrat  by  order  of  the  King.     While 
in  this  plight  he  uttered  a  mysterious  threat,  saying, 
"  Phullara  the  Queen  will  soon  be  reduced  again  to 
her  old  position  as  the    wife    of  a  huntsman.     She 
will  once    more    carry    baskets  on    her  head  as  she 
used  to  do."   He  went  to  Kalinga  and  there  gaining 
access  to  the  court  of  the   king,     gave    information 
as    to    how    Kalaketu  formerly  a  poor  huntsman  in 
his  dominion,  had  now  founded    a  new  kingdom  in 
Guzrat  by    taking  away  with    him,    ncarlv    half  the 
population  of  Kalinga.    At  this  report  the  monarch's 
anger  knew  no  bounds.      He  led  an  hostile    expedi- 
tion and  Kalaketu  was  conquered  and  thrown    into 
prison.     TIuti'     in     deep     despair,     the     huntsman 
offered  prayer  to  Chandi.      He  was  to  be    beheaded 
the  next  morning.   In  this  desperate  pliglit  he  looked 
up  to  heaxen  and  praved  with    all    his  heart  to  have 
once  more  a  siglit  of  that  Mother    of  the    Universe 


IV,]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE. 


3og 


who  had  condescended  to  visit  his  cottage  when  he 
was  a  huntsman.  She  came  again  and  held  out  her 
gracious  hand  offering  him  her  benediction.  That 
night  a  terrible  dream  was  dreamt  by  the  king  of 
Kalinga  that  his  army  was  destroyed  mysteriously 
by  some  unseen  agency.  He  was  so  impressed  that 
next  day  he  restored  Kalaketu  to  his  kingdom,  and 
his  own  army  was  restored  to  life  by  the  grace  of 
ChandL  Bharu  Datta  was  turned  out  from  both  the 
kingdoms  and  the  two  kings  became  fast  friends. 

Shortly  after  this,  Kalaketu  died  and  went  to 
heaven,  as  Nilamvara,  son  of  Indra  the  period  of 
the  curse  having  expired.  Phullara  who  had  been 
Chhaya,  Nilambara's  wife  and  had  been  born  as  the 
daughter  of  Sanjayaketu  with  the  object  of  sharing 
the  misfortunes  of  her  husband,  accompanied  him 
to  heaven,  on  the  expiration  of  her  self-imposed 
term  of  life  on  earth. 

Puspaketu,  son  of  Kalaketu  and  Phullara,  then 
became  the  King  of  Guzrat. 

We  now  pass  to  the  second  of  these  two  compa- 
nion-stories, which,  although  different,  always 
form  a  single  volume  : 


Restored 

to  his 
kingdom. 

Bharu 
punished. 


The  term 

of  curse 

over. 


Puspaketu 
succeeds. 


The  Story  of  ^rlmanta  Sadagar. 


Ratnamala,  a  nymph  of  Indra ^s  heaven  was, 
under  a  curse,  born  on  earth  as  Khullana. 

The  merchant  Dhanapati  was  in  the  full  vigour 
of  his  youth.  He  was  a  well  built  man  of  hand- 
some features,  well-versed  in  the  fashionable  learn- 
ing of  the  day  and  immensely  rich.  He  had  a  wife 
named  LahanS. 


Khullana. 


Dhanapati 

and  his 

favourite 

play. 


3fO      BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

His  favourite  amusement  was  playing  with  pi- 
geons. The  male  pigeon  was  taken  to  the  forest 
and  there  let  loose  while  its  mate  was  kept  in  the 
house  of  our  hero — many  miles  off.  The  male  pi- 
geon would  then,  inspite  of  obstructions,  fly  back 
home  to  join  his  companion  and  the  homeward 
flight  of  the  bird  through  the  sky  would  be  en- 
thusiastically watched  by  the  young  men  who 
sported  with  them.  One  day  DhanapsLti  had  loosed 
his  male  pigeons,  as  usual,  in  an  adjoining  wood. 
All  of  them  returned  except  one  who  was  pursued 
by  a  kite.  Seeing  no  other  way  to  escape  from  his 
enemy,  the  pigeon  dropped  to  the  ground  and  hid 
itself  in  the  outer  garments  of  a  very  young  and 
fascinating  maiden.  This  lady  was  no  other  than 
Khullana — the  daughter  of  Laksapati — the  mer- 
chant. The  girl  was  much  pleased  with  the  beauty 
of  the  bird  and  gave  it  shelter. 

Now,  Dhanapati  waited  some  time  for  his  favou- 
rite pigeon  but  when  it  grew  late  and  the  wanderer 
was  not  forthcoming,  he  commenced  a  vigorous 
search  with  his  companions.  He  ran  along  the 
steep  edge  of  the  hills,  through  thorny  plants  and 
brierS;  till  breathless,  coming  to  the  limits  of  a 
village  named  Ichhaninagar,  he  heard  that  Laksa- 
pati's  daughter  Khullana  had  taken  possession  of 
his  pet-bird.  He  at  once  hied  to  the  mango  groves 
where  Khullana  was  gaily  rambling  with  her  maids. 
Khullana  knew  that  Dhanapati  was  the  husband  of 
her  cousin  Lahana-  This  relationship,  gives  a  wo- 
man liberty  in  Hindu  society  to  make    a    little    fun 

The  and  Khullana  did  not  allow  the  opportunity  to  slip. 

merchant  ,      •  i    t-^ 

and  the        In  coquettish  tones,  she  argued  with  Danapati — now 

damsel.        ^^^ggi^g  ^^^  '^i-^  ^i'**^^-  ^^^^^  ^^   ^^^^    ^^^""'*^    ^^  ^^^    ^^^'" 


IV.]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  311 

accord  and  she  could  not  give  it  up.  The  kite  would 
have  killed  it  and  as  she  had  saved  its  life,  Dhana- 
pati  had  no  right  over  it.  The  more  the  young 
merchant  argued  this  point,  the  more  did  she  smile 
sweetly  and  stood  firm  in  her  resolve  not  to  return 
the  pigeon. 

The  charming  smiles  of  this  young  and  lovely 
damsel  made  Dhanapati's  head  giddy.  He  forgot 
all  about  his  pigeon  and  stood  rooted  to  the  spot 
lost  in  a  reverie.  The  girl,  however,  returned 
the  bird  and  disappeared  with  her  maids.  But  the 
echo  of  her  joyous  laughter  rang  in  Dhanapati's 
ears  after  she  had  gone. 

His  first  act  on  returning  home    was    to    depute      to^arry 
Janardana,    a   Brahmin   and     a    match-maker,     to 
propose  to  Laksapati  that  he  should    give    him    his 
daughter  in  marriage. 

Laksapati  could  make  no  objection  to  such  a 
proposal.  Considering  all  points,  where  could  he 
expect  to  find  a  better  birde-groom  than  Dhana- 
pati  ?  He  had  already  a  wife,  it  was  true,  but  peo- 
ple of  his  rank  and  position  were  scarcely  expected 
to  remain  contented  with  one  wife,  and  this  could 
not  be  held  as  a  disqualification.  Laksapati's  wife 
however,  objected  to  give  her  fair  daughter  to  Dha- 
napati,  because  she  knew  his  wife  Lahana,  to  be  a 
termagant.  '^  It  would  be  better,^\  she  said,  '/  to 
drown  our  Khullan§  in  the  Ganges  than  to  give 
her  away  to  a  man  who  has  already  a  wife  and  that 
wife  of  the  temper  of  Lahana."  The  astrologer 
was  called  in  ;  he  examined  the  marks  on  the  palm 
of  Khullana  and  prophesied  that  if  she  were  not 
S^iven    to  a  man  w^ho  alreadv   had  a  wife,     she    was 


312      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 


Lahana 
is  won 
over. 


The 
marriage. 


The 

merchant 

is  sent  to 

(jauda. 


sure  to  become  a  widow.  Now,  widowhood  in  India 
is  held  more  terrible  than  death.  So  the  frightened 
mother  immediately  gave  her  consent.  But  Dhana- 
pati  himself  had  to  obtain  the  permission  of  Laha- 
na to  marry  a  second  wife.  The  news  of  these 
negotiations  had  already  reached  Lahana,  and  she 
sat  in  one  corner  of  her  room  as  angry  as  the 
summar-clouds  when  it  is  ready  to  hurl  the 
thunder-bolt.  But  though  a  shrew  and  obstinate, 
she  could  be  weak  to  the  verge  of  folly.  Dhanapati 
had  nothing  else  to  plead  than  to  say  a  few  sweet 
words  to  her  ;  "  You  are  so  beautiful,  my  darling  ; 
but  having  no  one  to  aid  you  in  the  duties  of  the 
kitchen,  you  are  growing  sickly.  How  I  pity  your 
lot !  If  you  do  not  mind  it,  dear  wife,  I  shall  find  for 
you  one  who  will  be  like  a  maid-servant  in  the  kitchen 
and  carry  out  all  your  orders  in  domestic  affairs."  He 
shewed  her  also  five  tolas  of  gold  which  he  intend- 
ed to  give  to  the  goldsmith  to  make  a  pair  of 
bracelets  of  a  wonderfully  beautiful  pattern  for 
her.  Lahana's  anger  was  dispersed  like  the 
summar-clouds  at  these  sweet  words  from  her  hus- 
band and,  accepting  his  gift,  she  readily  gave  her 
consent  to  the  proposed  match.  Thus  Khullana  was 
married  to  Dhanapati. 

At  that  very  time  a  pair  of  birds  called  (,  uka 
and  sari  was  purchased  by  the  king  of  Ujani. 
These  birds  had  a  marvellous  gift,  they  talked  like 
men.  As  there  was  no  artist  in  the  country  who 
could  make  a  beautiful  cage  of  gold  for  the  birds, 
and  as  the  artists  of  Gauda  were  noted  for  their 
skill  in  making  gold-cages,  the  king  asked  Dhana- 
pati to  go  to  Gauda  and  give  orders  for  a  first-class 
gold    cage  ;    he    was    to  see  it  done  and  carry  it  to 


IV.]         BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.        313 


Ujani.  While  giving  this  order,  the  King  smiled 
and  said,  "  I  depute  you  for  this  task  because  I 
know  that  you  have  recently  married  a  very  beautiful 
bride,  and  you  will  not  wish  to  stay  long  at  Gauda  ;  I 
shall  therefore  have  the  thing  done  in  the  shortest 
possible  time." 

Dhanapati  Sadagara  left  Ujani  for  Gauda  con- 
signing young  and  lovely  Khullana  to  the  care  of 
Lahana. 

Now  Lahana  bore  Khullana  no  grudge.  True  to 
the  promises  she  had  made  to  her  husband,  she 
treated  the  girl  with  great  kindness,  taking  parti- 
cular care  to  prepare  dainties  for  her,  and  looking 
to  her  comfort  with  the  watchful  eyes  of  a  loving 
sister.  But  Durvala,  the  maid-servant,  did  not  like 
this  state  of  things.  As  long  as  there  was  no 
quarrel  between  the  co-wives,  thought  she,  the 
task  of  the  maid-servant  was  but  thankless  drudgery. 
''As  soon  as  there  is  a  quarrel  betw^een  such  per- 
sons, either  will  hold  my  services  dear  if  I  can 
abuse  the  other."  Thinking  in  this  strain,  she 
privately  warned  Lahana  against  indulging  in 
such  affection  for  the  co-wife.  "  Your  dark  thick 
hair  is  already  strewn  with  gray,"  she  said,  '*  the 
hair  of  Khullana,  on  the  other  hand,  is  as  black  as 
a  cluster  of  bees  and  as  pleasant  to  see  as  the 
plumes  of  a  peacock.  Your  cheeks  are  darkened 
by  the  shadows  of  passing  youth,  whereas  young 
Khullana's  face  glows  with  the  freshness  of  the 
dawn  ;  while  her  beauty  is  gradually  brightening, 
yours  is  waning.  When  the  merchant  returns,  he 
will  be  drawn  by  the  fresher  charms  of  his  young 
wife    and    your  position  will  be  permanently  in  the 


Durvala 

poisons 

Lahana's 

mind. 


The 
contrast. 


40 


314      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.        [Chap, 

kitchen.  Why  not  take  early  steps  to  save  yourself 
from  such  coining  danger?  You  are  feeding  a 
venomous  snake  with  milk.  Take  care,  or  it  may 
bite  you  and  so  put  an  end  to  your  life." 

Now,  Lahana,  as  already  said,  was  rather  stupid. 
She  lent  a  credulous  ear  to  this  mischievous  advice, 
and  asked  Durvala  if  she  could  help  her  with 
any  device  by  which  she  might  get  rid  of  her  co- 
wife  or  otherwise  bring  her  husband  completely 
within  her  own  control.  Durvala  went  in  her  turn 
to  Llla,  a  Brahmin  widow,  versed  in  the  charms  by 
which  a  wife  may  fully  control  her  husband.  She 
prescribed  a  charm  which  required  the  following 
ingredients:  tortoise-claws,  raven's  blood,  dragon's 
scales,  shark's  suet,  bat's  wool,  dog's  gall,  lizard's 
intestine,  and  an  owlet  dwelling  in  the  cavity  of 
The  a  rock."^  Ending  her  advice,  however,  Llla  said  "This 

charm  will  doubtless  have  its  due  effect  ;  but  I 
am  not  sure  how  far  it  will  help  you  to  gain  your 
end.  In  some  cases  it  fails  and  I  cannot  say,  with 
certainty,  that  in  yours  it  will  be  infallible.  There 
is  one  thing,  however,  which  I  can  assure  you,  will 
help  you  to  win  your  husband's  love,  and  is  better 
to  my  mind,  than  all  these  medicinal  charms  put  to- 
dismisses  gether."  "What  is  that?"  asked  Lahana  with  eager- 
^  ness.    "  It  is  sweet  words,"  Lila  said,  "  and  a  loving 

temper  that  will    net   best    of  all    to    win    the    love 


charm 


*  These  extraordinary  ingredients  for  the  preparation  of 
charms  were  used  by  the  Indian  gypsies  who  wandered  all  over  the 
world  during  the  middle  agrs,  and  were  thus  known  to  the  people 
of  Fast  and  West  alike.  We  fmil  them  again  in  the  description 
of  the  witch's  broth  in  Macbeth  which  includes  among  other 
things,  adder's  fork,  eye  of  newt,  scale  of  dragon,  maw  of  shark, 
wool  of  bat,  gall  of  goat,  lizard's  legs  and  wings  of  owlet.  This 
list  strikingly  tallies  with  that  given  in  this  Chandi  Kavya  by 
Mukundar§m  who  was  a  Bengali,  contemporary    of   Shakespeare. 


IV.  J 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE. 


315 


of  your  husband."  Lahana  said  :  "  Bui  it  is  absurd  ! 
I  have  hitherto  ruled  my  house  alone.  If  I  find 
that  he  grows  indiffierent  to  me,  while  KhuUana  is  in 
high  favour,  I  shall  not  be  able  to  brook  it.  My  course 
has  always  been  like  this.  If  I  found  a  flaw  in  my 
husband,  however  small  it  might  be,  I  made  much 
of  it,  and  continually  harped  upon  his  weak  point.  I 
cannot  consent  to  live  here  like  a  tame  lamb.  It  was 
foolish  to  send  for  you,  Llla,  in  order  to  receive  this 
advice!"  She  then  dismissed  the  wise  woman,  and 
after  consultation  with  Durvala,  had  recourse  to 
another  device.  She  had  a  letter  written,  pur- 
porting to  have  been  addressed  to  herself  by 
Dhanapati,  from  Gauda.     It  ran  as  follows  : — ■ 

"  My  blessings  on  you,  my  loving  wife,  Lahana  ! 
I  hope  you  and  all  with  you  are  all  well.  I  am  at 
Gauda  and  shall  probably  stay  for  sometime  longer. 
I  have  some  misgivings  about  Khullana,  and  my  de- 
cision is  deliberate.  I  feel  that  my  marriage  with 
her  has  not  been  approved  of  by  the  gods.  It 
was  an  inauspicious  affair.  No  sooner  was  I 
married  to  her,  than  there  came  a  command  from 
the  Raja  of  Ujani  requiring  me  to  leave  home  and 
to  sojourn  in  distant  parts  ;  and  since  then  I  have 
had  no  peace  of  mind.  It  is  not  safe  or  desirable  to 
treat  Khullana  with  love  and  affection,  lest  Provi- 
dence be  further  enraged  and  hurl  more  miseries 
upon  me.  You  must  do  as  I  say.  As  soon  as  you 
get  this  letter,  strip  her  of  all  ornaments  and  fine 
apparel.  Give  her  a  rag  of  coarse  khuea  cloth  to 
wear,  and  appoint  her  to  tend  the  sheep  in  the 
fields.  Give  her  half  a  meal  of  coarse  quality  and 
let  her  sleep  in  tlie  place  where  the  rice  is  husked. 
Do    not  omit  to  carry  out  these  orders." 


Another 
device. 


The  false 
letter. 


3l6       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

Lahana  thought  if  KhuUana  were  treated  in 
this  way,  her  beauty  would  fade  and  she  would 
never  be  able  to  gain  full  control  over  her  husband's 
heart.  This  would  happen  as  a  matter  of  course 
from  hardship,  starvation  and  exposure. 

Lahana  This  letter  was  enclosed    in    an    envelope,    and 

great  love.  Lahana,  with  tearful  eyes,  professing  great  love  for 
Khullana,  met  her  and  showed  it  to  hor,  at  the 
same  time  saying,  that  she  was  bound  to  carry  out 
her  husband's  orders,  though  she  would  do  so  with 
the  greatest  reluctance  and  her  heart,  in  fact,  was 
breaking  at  the  thought  of  what  was  before  her. 

Now,  Khullana  was  very  intelligent,  and  though 
not  a  shrew  like  Lahana,  she  could  not  be  so  easily 
made  to  yield  to  the  stratagem  without  resistance. 
She  saw  the  letter  and  pronounced  it  a  forgery, 
declaring  it  impossible  that  her  husband  should 
write  in  such  a  manner  about  her.  The  hand-writ- 
ing  was  not  his,  and  the  wholt-  thing  \\  as  thr  work 
of  Lahana  inspite  of  this  great  love  whi^  h  she 
proffssed  lor  her.  A  hot  discussion  was  soon  fol- 
of  blows^  lowed  by  an  exchange  of  blows.  Lahana  was 
the  stronger  of  the  two.  So  Khullana  could  not 
long  maintain  the  fight  and  had  to  yield  to  superior 
force. 

Thereupon  the  youthful  Khullana,  as  beautiful 
tends  the  '^^  picture,  clothed  in  rags  and  with  only  the  K-at 
sheep.  ^£  ^  1^^^  ^j.^^  ^Q  protect  her  head  from  the  sun,  went 
out  to  the  lirlds  to  tend  the  sheep.  LInaccustomed 
to  w  alking,  she  grew  tired  and  weary  and  she  could 
not  manage  the  animals.  They  ran  into  the  rice  fields 
and  ate  up  the  plants,  while  the  owners  reproached 
her.   She  wiped  away  her  tears  with  one  hand,  while 


IV,  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  317 

the  Other  held  the  shephard's  crook.     By   this  time 

the  spring  had  come.     The  trees    were    hung    with 

blossoms  and  the   fields    were    covered    with    fresh 

green  verdure.     The  bees  hummed  in  concert  with 

the  songs  of  the  birds;  and  the  Madhavl,  the  A9oka, 

and  the  Malati  flowers  looked   like    fringes    on    the       ^^^  ^^^ 

border-line    of    the    sky.     Amidst  all    this  beauty,     spring  and 
r  ,         ,        ,  ,  •  r  ,  1         •  Khullana. 

KhuUana,  mspite  of  her    hardships,    felt    a    longing 

to   see    her    husband.      She    went    up   to    the    bee 

and  begged  it  not  to  hum.     She  prayed   the  Kokila 

to   go    to    Gauda   and    bring    her,    by    its  cooings, 

to  her   husband's    recollection.     She    caressed    the 

tender  Madhabi    creeper,   rich    with    the    treasures 

of   the  spring  that    clung    to    the  A9oka   tree   and 

called    it  most  fortunate  to    have    its    supporter   at 

hand. 

A  few  days  passed  in  this  manner  and  her  beau- 
ty gradually  faded.  She  could  not  eat  the  coarse 
food,  she  could  not  sleep  on  the  hard  ground,  she 
could  not  manage  the  sheep  that  were  placed  in 
her  charge.  One  day  at  noontide,  as  she  was  re- 
posing in  the  shade  of  a  tree,  Chandi  appeared 
before  her  in  a  dream  in  the  guise  of  her  mother. 
"  The  sight  of  your  misery  rends  my  heart, 
O  Khullana,"  she  said.  "  The  sheep  named  SarvagI 
has  been  eaten  up  by  a  fox.  Lahana  will  all  but 
kill  you  to-day."  The  girl  awoke  with  a  start  and  ^*ost  ^* 
sought  for  Sarva^I.  Alas!  SarvagI  was  gone.  Tears 
rolled  down  her  cheeks,  as  she  cried  ''  Sarvagi, 
i  Sarva^I,"  all  about  the  field.  She  did  not  abandon 
her  search  till  evening.  But  the  sheep  was  not 
found.  Khullana  did  not  venture  to  return  home, 
for  fear  of  Lahana's  punishment.  In  the  evening 
strolling   all    round    the     held    with     tearful    eyes, 


3l8        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LllERATURE.    [Chap. 

famished,  worn-out,  and  fatigued    as   she    was,    she 

could   no    longer    walk.     The    shades    of     evening 

spread  over  the  earth.     It  was  all    so  cool !     There 

was    a    consolation    in    the   very    darkness    of    the 

night — a  healing  breath  in   the  breeze  and  Khullana 

thought  she  was  safe    from   the    sight    of   men   and 

began     to    weep    in    silence,    resigning    herself  to 

ChandL  when  suddenly  she  saw  at  a  little  distance, 

lights  kindled  by  five  beautiful  damsels.  They  were 

Khullana       doing  some  thing  which  she  could    not  understand, 
worships       ,,,.  ,      ,  ,  .L  1     • 

Chandl.        Wiih  slow  pace  she  came    up   to    them    and    mtro- 

duced    herself    to    these    damsels,     who    were     no 

other  than  five  nymphs    of  Indra's    heaven.     They 

were  grieved  to  hear  of  the    miseries    of  Khullana, 

and  asked  her  to  worship  Chandl  as  they  were  there 

doing,  giving  her  every  assurance  that  the  cause    of 

her  grief  would  be  removed  thereby. 

There,  with  heart  cleansed  of  all  sin  by  her  mani- 
fold sufferings, — with  the  resignation  and  faith  of  one 
who  is  helpless, — she  offered  flowers  to  Chandl,  and 
a  feeling  of  pure  satisfaction  and  complacency  stole 
over  her  which  she  had  never  known  before.  She 
felt  contented  with  her  lot  and  now  cared  not  what 
might  befal  her.  She  slept  at  night  with  the  five 
nymphs  and  had  a  quiet  and  undisturbed  rest  Next 
morning  she  looked  prettier  than  she  had  ever 
done  before. 

As  Kluilhina  did  not  return  home  at  night.  Laha- 

na  felt  great  anxiety   about   her  safety.      **  Has   any 

evil,"    she     thought,     "befallen     Khullana?     Who 

knows  what  has  come  upon  her,  she  may  have  been 

Lahana's       i^iHod  hy  some  wild  beast,  or  which  would  be  worse. 
fears.  J 

she  may  have  been    taken   away    by    wicked    men, 

voung  and  beautiful  as    she    is !     My    husband    will 


I   IV.]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         319 


shortly  return  and  what  shall  I  say  to  him  ?  He 
especially  commended  her  to  my  charge."  Lahana 
felt  uneasy  and  could  not  sleep  all  night. 

That  very  night  Dhanapati,  the  merchant,  had  a 
dream,  in  which  Khullana  seemed  to  appear  before 
him,  and  tenderly  censure  him  for  forgetting  her 
so  long.  He  felt  a  great  desire  to  meet  his  young 
wife,  and  as  the  cage  was  now  ready,  set  out  for 
home,  the  very  next  morning. 

In  the  meantime  Lahana  had  sent  her  people 
to  search  for  Khullana.  In  the  morning  she  came 
of  her  own  accord  and  Lahana  having  repented 
of  her  wickedness,  received  her  with  open  arms, 
and  began  once  more  to  show  her  all  that  loving 
care  with  which  she  had  treated  her  before  Durvala 
had  poisoned  her  mind  against  her. 

Dhanapati  returned  to  Ujanl.  There,  after  an 
interview  with  the  king  Vikrama  Ke^arl,  from  whom 
he  received  praise  and  rewards,  he  came  home,  and 
went  straight  to  the  inner  appartments  of  his  house. 
After  a  formal  interview  with  Lahana,  he  hastened 
to  meet  Khullana.  She  was  dressed  in  the  finest 
attire  and  looked  exceedingly  beautiful !  The 
merchant  addressed  her  with  loving  words  but  the 
coy  damsel  would  give  no  response,  which  only 
enhanced  his  eagerness  to  enjoy  her  company. 
When  they  were  alone  together,  in  answer  to 
his  words  of  endearment,  tears  flowed  from  her  eyes. 
Her  confidence  was  gradually  won,  and  then  she 
produced  the  letter  given  her  by  Lahana,  command- 
ing that  Khullana  should  be  sent  away  to  the 
forest  to  tend  the  sheep.  Dhanapati  was  taken  by 
surprise  at  this  disclosure,    and    heard    with    anger 


Dhanapati 
sets  out 
for  home. 


Lahana's 
repentence. 


Dhanapati 

and 
Khullana. 


The 
co-wives 
become 
friendly 
to  one 
another. 

The 

quarrel 
amongst 
clansmen. 


320        BENGAL!    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

and  regret  the  sad  tale  of  the  miseries  endured 
by  Khullana  in  his  absence.  Being  now  convinced 
of  her  husband's  affection,  Khullang  willingly 
forgave  the  wickedness  of  the  co-wife  and  gave 
free  expression  to  the  sweetness  of  her  own  feeling, 
while  Dhanapati  bitterly  repented  having  left  her 
in  the  care  of  so  dangerous  a  woman  as  Lahana. 

Next  day  Khullana  was  asked  by  Dhanapati 
to  provide  a  banquet  for  some  friends  whom  he  had 
invited;  and  Lahana's  anger  knew  no  bounds  at 
being  thus  passed  over  in  her  own  house.  The  in- 
vited guests  thoroughly  enjoyed  the  viands  prepar- 
ed for  them  by  Khullana,  and  lavished  praise  on  her 
skilful  cooking.  This  further  wounded  the  feelings 
of  Lahana,  who  had  eaten  nothing  the  whole  day. 
In  the  evening,  however,  Khullana  went  to  her  and 
fell  at  her  feet,  asking  forgiveness  for  any  unknown 
offence  she  might  have  given  her,  and  matters  were 
mended  by  this  kindly  act. 

The  poets  here  introduce  an  episode  describing 
the  snid  ceremony  of  the  father  of  Dhanapati,  in 
which  all  his  caste-men  were  invited  to  his  house  ; 
there  a  dispute  arose  as  to  which  of  them  should 
receive  precedence  as  the  head-Kulin  in  that  assemb- 
ly. Dhanapati  himself  assigned  the  preference  to 
Chand  the  merchant,  but  at  this,  the  argument  wax- 
ed so  hot  that  many  of  the  host's  clansmen  for- 
sook him.  At  this  stage  some  wicked  men  present 
in  the  meetiuL^,  who  wanted  to  lower  Dhanapati 
in  the  estimation  of  all,  seemed  to  cast  a  slur  on 
the  honour  of  his  family  by  their  insinuations 
against  KhuUana's  character,  as  she  had  been,  for 
a  period,  deprived  of  the  protection  of  Zenana-life, 


IV.]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  32I 

aiui  seat  to  the  fields  to  tend  the  sheep.  Dhanapati 
was  naturally  indignant  at  this  ;  but  as  the  party 
against  him,  who  were  jealous  of  his  wealth  and 
power,  grew  strong,  KhuUana,  inspite  of  her  hus- 
band's strong  objections,  stepped  forward  on  the 
scene  and    declared  her    unshaken  resolve   to  pass  ^^^^ 

through  a  number  of  ordeals  with  a  view  to  estab-  ordeals. 
lishing  her  innocence.  The  ordeals  began.  A  venom- 
ous snake  was  let  loose  to  bite  her,  but  she  appear- 
ed livelier  after  the  bite,  Chandi  having  herself  pro- 
tected her  favourite.  Her  enemies,  however,  said  that 
it  was  all  a  trick,  the  snake  was  a  harmless  one.  Next 
she  was  branded  with  a  red-hot  iron  ;  but  by  the 
grace  of  Chandi,  it  did  not  leave  any  mark  on  her 
person.  The  relations  again  said  that  this  was  also 
a  trick.  The  iron-bar  was  made  red  by  some  device 
without  being  heated. 

Next  a  house  of  lac  was  built  and  Khullana 
WIS  placed  inside,  and  it  was  set  on  fire.  The  lire 
spread  with  fury  ;  the  lac-house  was  destroyed. 
Dhanapati  grew  mad  with  grief  ;  he  offered  to 
throw  himself  into  the  fire  and  put  an  end  to  his 
life,  as  without  his  loving  wife  Khullana  who  had 
suffered  great  ills  in  life  and  now  met  a  tragic  death 
all  for  his  own  fault,  life  would  be  unbearable.  But 
just  as  he  stepped  forward  to  fling  himself  into  the 
burning  embers,  there  appeared  Khullana  fresher 
and  livelier,  than  ever,— -her  red  apparel  shining  in 
the  glare  of  the  fire,  and  not  a  hair  of  her  head 
touched  by  the  flames  with  which  she  was  sur- 
rounded. 

The  relations  and  friends  stood  wonder-struck 
at  this  spectacle.      Instinctively  they  bowed  to    her 

41 


The  sea- 
voyage. 


Dhanapati 
offends 
Chandi. 


The 
disaster. 


The 

wonderful 

virion. 


322      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap.i 

in  reverence,  and  the  matter  came  to  an  end,  Khul- 
lana  having  aquitted  herself  triumphantly  in  all 
the  trials. 

Dhanapati  next  undertook  a  sea-voyage  for 
trade.  He  fixed  a  day  for  setting  out  from  home 
and  called  in  an  astrologer  to  say  whether  that  date 
would  be  auspicious  or  not.  The  fortune-teller 
ventured  to  say  that  he  disapproved  of  the  day, 
but  such  a  contradiction  seemed  to  Dhanapati  like 
impertinence,  and  he  ordered  his  servants  to  turn 
him  out  of  the  house  with  contumely.  Khullana 
meanwhile  was  worshipping  Chandi  in  order 
to  gain  her  favour  and  win  her  blessings  for  her 
husband  on  the  eve  of  his  departure. 

When  Dhanapati  came  to  bid  farewell  to  his 
wife  and  found  her  engaged  in  this  worship  of 
Chandi,  he  grew  very  angry  and  saying  "  What 
witch  is  this  you  are  worshipping,  wife  !"  he  kicked 
over  the  o^hat  and  went  awav  with  a  frown. 

On  the  high  sea.  the  six  ships  of  Dhanapati 
were  all  wrecked  by  a  storm,  which  was  sent  by 
Chandi, — all,  save  the  Madhukara — that  is  to  say, 
the  flag-ship  in  which  the  merchant  himself 
had  embarked.  After  this  disaster  he  went  to  Ceylon. 
Near  that  Island  in  the  great  Indian  ocean  he  saw 
a  strange  sight.  Lotuses  with  red  petals  and 
large  green  leaves  were  s})ringing  up  all  over  the 
blue  waters,  and  moving  gentlv  in  the  breeze.  On 
the  noblest  and  lost-liest  of  these  flowers  was 
seated  a  woman  of  unparalleled  beauty.  Her 
majestic  looks  and  the  light  that  shone  about  her 
face  spread  a  (\\\'\v\.  glow  over  the  blue  waters,  and 
she  look(Hl  as  if  painted  against    the    blue    horizon. 


IV.]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  323 


The 
king  dis- 
believes the 
story. 


One  might  almost  have  imagined  that  the  lotuses 
blushed  for  shame  at  being  eclipsed  by  her  resplen- 
dent beauty.  And  what  was  this  woman  doing  ? 
Wonder  of  wonders!  she  had  caught  with  one 
tender  hand  a  huge  elephant  which  with  the  other 
she  was  putting  into  her  mouth.  The  stem  of  the 
lotus  was  shaking  under  its  strange  load,  in  which 
the  beautiful  and  the  grotesque  were  fantastically 
blended,  and  Dhanapati  cried  out  in  wonder  :  *'  But 
how  can  the  weak  lotus  bear  so  heavy  a  burden  !" 

He  landed  in  Ceylon  and  had  an  interview  with 
the  king  to  whom  he  related  this  wonderful  vision. 
The  king  only  smiled  and  said  it  was  a  mad  man's 
story,  and  all  the  courtiers  laughed  at  him.  It  was 
a  marvel,  added  the  king,  that  his  ship  itself  had 
not  been  swallowed  up  by  the  lady  !  But  when 
the  merchant  insisted  on  his  point,  and  talked  in 
all  other  respects  like  a  sane  man,  he  entered  into 
an  agreement  with  him,  to  the  effect  that  he  would 
forego  half  his  kingdom  and  bestow  it  on  Dhana- 
pati if  he  could  show  him  the  same  phenome- 
non. Should  it  prove,  however,  that  all  was  a 
mere  fantasy,  as  the  king  thought,  his  ships  and  all 
his  property  would  be  confiscated  and  he  would 
be  thrown  into  a  dungeon  for  life  for  putting  a 
monarch  to  such  trouble. 


They  both  embarked  on  a  ship  and  reached  the 
spot  where  Dhanapati  had  witnessed  the  extra-  Dhanapati 
ordinary  spectacle.  But  a  wide  space  of  blue  waters  into  prison. 
confronted  them,  huge  blue  waves,  rolling  in  from 
the  blue  sea, — blue  waves,  moving  to  the  blue 
horizon,  and  nothing  more — »no  lady,  no  lotus,  no 
elephant    met   their   eyes.      The    merchant  looked 


The 
contract. 


3^4      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap, 

everywhere  in  vain  for  Lhcni.  Alas,  he  was  thrown 
into  a  dungeon,  and  condemned  to  be  there  in 
chains  for  the  remainder  of  liis  life. 


The 


play  of  At  Ujani,  a  son  was  born  to  Khullana,   a    lovely 

the  boys.  .  .  . 

child    whom    everyone    in    the  village  loved  dearly. 

He  was  named  ^rimanta.  He  played  manly  games 
with  his  comrades.  The  play  of  Ha-do-do,  by 
which  the  muscles  become  strong,  was  his  favourite, 
but  the  pastoral  games  of  Crikrisna  were  the  craze 
of  the  young  men  of  that  period.  One  of  the 
boys  would  act  the  part  of  the  demon  of  the  whirl- 
wind— Trinavarta.  He  would  sweep  down  like  a 
whirl-wind  and  surprise  the  others  who  were 
acting  the  parts  of  the  \'rindavana-shepherds, 
and  ^rimanta,  figuring  as  Krisiia,  would  kill 
Trinavarta  after  a  severe  battle.  Sometimes  a  boy 
would  take  the  part  of  Jasoda,  but  Crimanta,  the 
young  Krisna,  proved  too  heavy  for  this,  when  the 
former  tried  to  lift  him  in  her  arms.  Poor  Jasoda 
fell  to  the  ground  with  her  Krisna  and  the  sound 
of  laughter  was  heard  among  the  boys,  who  enjoy- 
ed failure  and  success  with  equal  zest.  At  one  time 
Xarasimha  Das,  one  of  the  companions  of  ^rimanta, 
became  Bramha,  the  god  with  four  faces,  and 
took  away  a  kid  belonging  to  the  shepherds. 
Crimanta,  as  Krisna,  produced  an  illusion  and  in  a 
mysterious  way  the  kid  was  made  to  napprar 
and  I'randiS's  attempt  to  thwart  Krisna  was 
fuikd. 

Thus  all  that  Krisna  did  with  the  she|)herds  in 
tin-  groves  of  Nrinda  was  rc-rnacted  in  I'jani,  and 
no  one  there  played  his  ])art  so  well  as  ^rimanla. 
the  son  of   Dhanapati. 


IV.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  325 


Then  he  was. sent  to  a  day-school  belonging  to 
Dwija  Janardana.  The  boy  acquired  Sanskrit 
rhetoric  and  gramiiuir  in  no  time.  He  displayed 
wonderful  intelligence  and  power  of  grasping  the 
texts.  Whatever  he  laid  his  hands  on,  he  did  with 
marvellous  grace,  for  surely  his  birth  had  been  the 
result  of  a  boon,  granted  by  Chandi  to  his  mother 
Khullana,  as  a  reward  for  her  life-long  devotion  to 
that  goddess  in  the  midst  of  many  sufferings. 

Much  as  ^rimanta  was  loved,  however,  his 
fathers  long  and  unexplained  absence  from  home, 
cast  a  gloom  on  the  family  ;  and  going  to  school  at 
the  age  of  twelve,  the  sensitive  child  was  wound- 
ed by  a  slight  levelled  against  his  birth,  by  his 
teacher  on  the  score  of  his  father's  long  absence 
from  home. 

Now  ^rjmanta  was  loved  by  all,  he  had  never 
been  accustomed  to  harshness.  His  teacher's 
remarks,  therefore,  cut  him  to  the  quick.  He  was 
now  a  lad  of  some  twelve  years.  He  made  for 
home  straight  way  and  going  there  shut  himself 
up  in  a  room  alone,  not  even  seeing  his   mother. 

Khullana  made  enquiries  about  him  and  dis- 
covered him  in  his  solitude  sobbing  out  his  misery, 
and  when  his  mother  had  asked  him  again  and 
again  what  was  the  matter,  he  told  her  what  the 
teacher  had  said,  weeping  all  the  while  vehemently  ; 
he  expressed  his  desire  to  go  at  once  in  search  of 
his  father,  wherever  he  might  be.  nor  would  he 
touch  food,  until  his  mother  gave  him  permission 
to  set  out  on  this  quest. 

Poor  Khullana  did  not  know  what  to  do. 
Her  dear  lord  had  been  away  for  more  than  twelve 
years.     She  bore  a  sorrow  in  her    heart   for    which 


The  doting 

mother  and 

her  child. 


Resolved 
on  sea 
voyage 


326      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

there  was  no  cure.  Every  night  when  others  were 
asleep,  she  would  lie  and  weep  for  long  hours 
till  her  eyes  closing  in  sleep,  she  sometime 
dreamt,  that  her  husband  had  come  back,  and 
was  speaking  sweetly  to  her.  Rut  when  morn- 
ing dawned,  she  knew  no  joy,  for  it  woke  her  up 
to  stern  reality  taking  from  her  this  sweet  inter- 
view. When  her  neighbours  would  talk  of  their 
husbands,  she  would  retire  to  her  room,  with  pale 
face,  to  hide  her  tears.  The  only  consolation  of 
her  life  was  her  son  ^rimanta.  When  she  saw  him 
in  such  distress  about  his  father, — she  felt  that  her 
heart  would  break.  She  was  wounded  at  a  vital  point 
and  could  only  cry  helplessly  without  trying  to  hide 
her  tears.  How  would  she  be  able  to  live  without 
her  son — a  mere  lad.  who  was  the  onlv  solace  of 
her  lonely  life  !  Rut  the  boy,  though  so  young, 
possessed  unflinching  determination.  Khullana, 
Lahana,  Durvala  and  other  inmates  of  the  house 
tried  all  that  was  in  their  power  to  dissuade  him 
from  his  course,  but  in  vain  ;  and  when  nothing 
could    shake    his    resolve,    Khullana    sent  informa- 

_.     .  .  tion    to  Kinor  X'ikrama  Kecari    with    a   piteous    re- 

The  king  '^  ^  ^  .  . 

intervenes,     presentation    of    her   case    and    asked    his  help  in 

l)ringing  ^rnnanta  to  his  senses.    The  King  readily 

consented    to   give    his    aid    in  counselling  the  boy 

to  a  right  course  ;    but  ^rimanta   would    not    touch 

food  and  seemed  resolved  to  starve   himself  if  per- 

missi(>n  were  not  granted  him  for  going.      When  the 

But  to  no      king  called    him    into    his    presence,  he    could    not 

avail.  reply  to  him,  lii>  voice  being  choked  with  tears. 

The  'l    ^^'^"^    ^'^''*y    difficult   to  deal  with  such  a  head- 

'"I!!,*^^^'^'      slron<r],ov.      Khullana  at  last    in    deei)    aiii^uish    of 
consent.  .•-.        .  it) 

heart    gave    him    permission    to    undertake    a  sea- 


IV.  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  327 

voyage,  and  youii'g  ^rlmanta  gladly  made  himself 
ready  for  the  journey.  Khullana  gave  him  sound 
advices  as  to  how  he  should  proceed  with  his 
mission,  and  so  did  the  king,  who  also  ordered 
seven  good  ships  to  be  built  for  him.  They  were 
made  ready  in  a  short  time,  and  ^rimanta  set  sail 
in  them  on  an  auspicious  day. 

Khullana  all  the  while  was  engaged  in  worship- 
ping ChandL  What  else  could  she  do  in  her  utter 
despair  ?  Her  husband  was  gone  and  now  her 
child  also  was  to  be  parted  from  her.  The  ghat 
of  Chandr  was  her  only  solace  in  this  deplorable 
condition.  When  the  ships  sailed,  she  stood  look- 
ing, with  wistful  eyes  at  the  southern  skies  at 
which  the  unfurled  sails  seemed  to  be  aiming. 
She  resigned  herself  to  the  will  of  Chandi  and  re- 
mained fixed  to  the  spot  like  a  statue. 

^rimanta  was  overjoyed  as  the  sea-wind 
touched  him.  He  was  determined  to  find  his 
father  or  die  in  the  attempt.  He  had  felt  all  along 
that  his  mother  was  sad,  without  being  able  to 
divine  the  reasons.  He  had  always  marked  the  melan- 
choly expression  of  her  lovely  face,  and  he  now 
understood,  that  her  sorrow  was  all  for  the  absence 
of  her  lord.  If  he  could  not  make  his  mother 
happy,  what  was  the  good  of  his  living  at  all. 
"O  divine  mother  Chandi,  do  thou  help  this  poor 
boy  to  gain  his  object," — he  prayed  day  and  night 
and  the  ships  went  on,  towards  Ceylon. 

There  is  here  a  long  catalogue  of  the  cargo  and 
a  detailed  description  of  the  voyage.  Last  of  all  he 
came  to  Ceylon,  but  near  the  Island,  upon  the  waters 
of    the   great    Indian    Ocean    the    same    spectacle 


He  departs. 


328      BENGALI    LANGl'AGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 


The  same 

spectacle 

again. 


And  a 

similar 

contract. 


Doomed 
to  execu 
tion. 


that  had  caused  his  father's  trouble,  met  his 
eyes  also.  A  large  space  of  blue  water  was  cover- 
ed with  lotuses  and  upon  the  finest  and  noblest  of 
them,  sat  the  same  mysterious  and  beautiful 
woman  with  dishevelled  hair.  She  also  was  swall- 
owing an  elephant. 

The  wonder  which  a  spectacle  like  this  naturally 
creates  in  one's  mind  had  its  effect  on  ^rimanta  and 
when  he  landed  in  Ceylon,  in  an  interview  with  the 
king  Calibahana.  the  very  first  thing  that  he  related 
was  concerning  the  woman  seated  on  the  lotus. 
''Why,  this  is  another  crazy  head  !"  cried  the  king,  and 
he  tried  to  convince  the  boy  that  it  was  a  silly  storv. — 
a  mere  fantasv  of  his  brain  ;  but  ^rimanta  would  not 
stop  till  an  agreement  was  made  that  if  he  suc- 
ceeded in  showing  it  to  the  king,  he  would  give  him 
his  onlv  daughter  in  marriage  with  half  the  king- 
dom as  her  dowry,  but  if  it  proved  a  failure  he 
should  be  beheaded.  The  king  alreadv  loved  the 
boy  for  his  handsome  appearance  and  keen  intel- 
ligence, but  as  Crimanta  seemed  determined  to 
bring  ruin  upon  himself,  there  was  no  help  for  it. 

They  sailed  to  the  spot  on  board  a  ship.  But 
alas  !  the  illusion  was  not  there.  By  order  of  the 
king.  Crimanta  was  now  taken  to  the  place  of  exe- 
cution. He  was  now  a  young  and  beautiful  bov  of 
twehe,  so  lovely  that  the  women  shefl  tear.'i  as 
they  saw  him  carried  for  execution.  Crimanta  re- 
collected his  mother's  face  and  tears  came  into 
his  eyes.  I !«'  had  come  to  seek  his  father,  but  he 
was  not  destined  lo  meet  him  in  this  world.  I  bi 
thought  of  his  })hiynKites  of  Ujani.  ot  the  fair 
fields  and  meadows,  where  thev  sported.— of 
Purvala,   the     maid-servant,     of    his     step-mother 


IV.  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         32^ 


;Lahana,  of  his  grand-mother,  and  of  every  other 
person  and  object  associated  with  his  dear  home, 
and  tears  which  he  could  not  check,  streamed 
down  his  cheeks.  On  the  scaffold  he  clasped  his 
hands,  and  cried  "  Chandl,  Chandl,  O  divine 
mother  !  look  at  your  child  !  O  Chandi,  I  would 
by  your  grace  find  out  my  father, — I  am  now  going 
to  be  taken  away  from  both  my  parents."  He 
collected  himself  in  a  moment, — the  growing 
emotions  were  checked,  and  he  named  all  the 
names  of  Chandi,  beginning  with  each  of  the  34 
characters  of  the  Bengali  Alphabet,  and  offered 
hymns  to  the  goddess.  There,  like  a  statue,  he 
sat  and  looked  like  a  yogi,  though  a  mere  lad. 
In  his  distress  the  boy  attained  the  resigned  spirit 
of  an  old  man,  and  God  being  both  father  and 
mother  to  us,  comes  to  man  when  he  is  thus  re- 
signed ;  \vhen  we  know  that  we  are  mere 
tools  in  the  divine  hand,  and  that  He  is  the  main 
actor  on  this  stage,  and  knowing  so  cling  unto  Him 
as  a  helpless  child  does  to  the  mother,  then  the 
divine  grace  becomes  unfailing. 

Chandi  appeared  on  the  scaffold.  The  divine 
mother  took  Crimanta  in  her  arms  and  the  execu- 
tioner was  overawed  by  her  presence.  Information 
was  sent  to  king  Calivahana  that  a  mysterious 
woman  was  protecting  Crimanta,  and  the  king 
ordered  that  the  boy  should  be  taken  from  her  by 
force,  if  necessary,  and  executed  without  delay. 


Prays  to 
Chandi. 


Chandi 

Kills  the 

King's 

Army. 


But    the    men    who    tried    to  apply  force,  were 

killed    on   the    spot.       Others    were    sent    to   their 

succour.     They  also  shared  the  same    fate,    and    a 

vast    army,    belonging    to    the    king,    came    to  the 

42 


330         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap 

field.  Strange  and  mysterious  creatures  rose  from 
underground,  rending  the  very  entrails  of  the  earth, 
some  with  more  heads  than  one  and  others  without 
any  head  at  all.  Goblins  called  Kavandhas  and 
Veials  worked  destruction  on  the  royal  forces,  whose 
heroic  feats  in  arms,  seemed  like  child's  play  before 
the  destructive  agencies  unloosed  by  Chandl.  The 
goblins  took  the  skulls  of  dead  soldiers,  and  filling 
them  with  warm  blood,  drank  from  them  in  wild 
and  horrid  ecstacy.  They  picked  up  heads  that 
rolled  in  the  fields,  and  with  human  entrails  threaded 
them  into  ghastly  garlands  and  put  them  on 
and  danced.  The  witches  cut  corpses  to  pieces  like 
butcliers  and  dressed  them,  and  sold  them  to  new 
comers  of  their  own  sort.  The  heads  of  ele- 
phants were  used  as  balls,  witli  which  a  horrid-faced 
hob-goblin  played,  and  others  came  to  join  the 
party,  who  like  the  fabled  anthropophagi,  had  heads 
beneath  their  shouUlers.  There,  aloof  from  the  field 
of  destruction,  sat  Chandl  like  a  mother,  and 
^rlmanta  clung  to  her,  like  a  hel[)less  child,  filled 
with  courage  and  confidence,  as  is  the  baby  by  its 
mother's  side. 

King  Calivahana  heard  the  story  and  himself 
came  to  the  field.  There  he  witnessed  this  spec- 
tacle of  destruction,  and  felt  tliat  it  was  Cliandl's 
wrath  that  had  overtaken  his  army.  He  presented 
himself  with  reverence  and  humilation  before  the 
goddess,    and    worshipped   her,  praying  a  thousand 

forcfivcness'S.   Chandl  was  i^ronitiated.   She  restored 
Chandl  is        ,  .  .      , 

propi-         ^'1^    army    to    life    and    kmg    ^slivahana    gave  his 

tiated.         daughter    in    marriage    to    (^rimanta    with   lialf  his 

kingdom    for   do\\ry.       Bv    the    grace    of    Chandl, 

the    king    now    also    saw    the    wonderful   spectacle 


V.  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    ik    LITERATURE.         33 1 

which  she  had  created  as  an  illusion  to  bewilder 
the  father  and  the  son  on  the  waters  of  the  sea  ; — 
the  thick  array  of  lotuses  blooming  on  all  sides  and 
the  mvsteriously  beautiful  woman  in  the  act  of  swal- 
lowing an   elephant. 

Next    came    the    pithetic      interview     between      ^he  dun- 
father   and    son.       Diianapati  was    imprisoned  in  a      S^on  hor- 

^  rible  and 

horrible     dungeon.       The    prison    house    extended    Its  inmate. 

two  miles  in  length  and  was  almost  without  any 
breadth,  and  so  low  that  a  child  could  not  siand 
upright  in  it.  Tlie  floor  was  covered  with  w^orms. 
Here  in  chains  for  twelve  years  with  the  coars(rst  of 
grain  for  food,  the  princely  merchant  Dhanapati 
had  lain  like  an  earth-worm.  For  these  twelve  years 
he  had  not  shaved.  So  his  beard  fell  down  to  his 
knees.  His  nails  looked  like  the  claws  of  a  wild 
beast  and  his  eyei  were  almost  blind  with  catar.ict. 
Tne  foot  with  which  he  had  kicked  the  Wz^/  of 
Chaadi  was  heavy  with  elephantiasis. 

By  order  of  Qrimanta  the  merchant  was  brought    The  father 

before  him.     Khullana  iiad  described  his    father    to       and  the 

son. 

him  before  he  left  Ujani.  The  merchant,  she  said, 
had  seven  moles  on  the  breast,  and  a  black  mark 
on  the  left  side  of  his  nose.  He  was  tall,  his  eyes 
were  large,  and  the  grace  of  his  person  was  like 
that  of  a  god.  Though  so  aged  and  afflicted  with 
unsightly  diseases,  ^rimanta  was  yet  able  to  see 
instinctively  that  it  was  his  father  who  stood  before 
him  in  chains.  He  felt  a  satisfaction  which 
brought  tears  of  joy  to  his  eyes.  He  had  the  chains 
removed  at  once.  The  matted  locks  were  combed 
and  cleansed.  The  barber  was  employed  to  shave 
the  beard  and  cut  the  hair,  and  anoint  the  body  with 
perfumed    oil.      ^rimanta    now    asked     Dhanapati 


332   BENGALI  LANGUAGE  ik   LH  ERATURE,   [  Chap. 

who  he  was,  and  what  had  brought  him  to  Ceylon. 
Dhanapati  said  "  My  name  is  Dhanapati  Datta.  I 
am  a  native  of  Ujani  in  Mangalakota  in  Burdwan. 
I  came  here  to  trade  but  owing  to  an  optical  illusion 
which  completely  overpowered  me^  I  brought  about 
my  own  misfortunes.  The  tale  would  be  a  long 
one,  and  you  need  not  listen  sir,  to  its  details.. 
How  thankful  am  I  to  you,  O  prince  !  for  my  release. 
If  you  permit,  I  may  now  start  for  my  home  to 
meet  my  beloved  and  long  lost  family." 

^rimanta  asked  if  he  had  left  any  children  be- 
hind him.  "  I  had  two  wives  "  said  Dhanapati  "the 
younger  Khullana  was  to  give  birth  to  a  child,  but 
I  could  not  wait  at  home  to  see  it  born.  If  a  child 
were  born  to  her  in  due  course,  that  one  must  be  now 
a  little  more  than  twelve  years  of  age  "  and  here 
Dhanapati  manifested  extreme  anguish  of  heart. 
Crimanta  showed  him  the  letter  written  by  Dhana- 
pati to  Khullana  in  which  the  merchant  had  alluded 
to  the  child  that  would  be  born  to  her.  Dhanapati 
wept  bitterly  over  the  letter.  It  brought  to  his  re- 
collection his  dear  wife  and  all  the  sufferings  he 
had  passed  through  during  these  twelve  years.  He 
implored  ^rimanta  to  tell  him  how  he  came  into 
possession  of  an  article  which  belonged  to  his  wife, 
and  if  he  knew  anything  about  Khullana  and  other 
inmates  of  his  house.  hinallv  he  said,  "  the  sight 
of  you,  dear  sir,  I  do  not  know  why,  has  tilled  my 
heart  with  great  delight.  If  I  had  had  a  son,  he  would 
have  been  exactlv  of  vour  aire."  I  his  was  too 
mu{  h  lor  Crimanta.  who  at  these  words  fell  pros- 
tratt;  at  his  father's  feet,  and  said  "  Father!  I  am 
vour  unfortunate  son.  I  started  from  home  with 
fcven  ships,    with  the  object  of   Inuling    you.      Gra- 


iV*.  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE. 


333 


cious  Heaven  has  at  last  granted  my  prayers.  But 
how  it  pains  me  to  see  you  in  this  condition  !  " 

Dhanapati  would  by  no  means  agree  to  worship     Dhanapati 

Chandi,  but  Crimanta's  entreaties  became    irresist-      worships 
^  ^  Chandi. 

ible  and  eventually  he  yielded  to  them.  As  soon 
as  he  offered  a  flower  to  the  cup  of  Chandi,  his 
diseases — the  cataract  in  his  eyes  and  the  elephanti- 
asis in  his  foot,  were  cured,  and  he  became  once 
more  prince-like  and  full  of  the  glory  of  vigorous 
manhood. 

King  ^alivahana  came  with  a  hundred  excuses  The  happy 
and  entertained  the  father  and  the  son  with  all 
manner  of  courtesy.  Crimanta  sailed  homewards 
with  Cu^ila  the  princess,  whom  he  had  married, 
and  with  immense  riches  and  a  good  number  of 
ships  that  he  had  received  as  a  dowry,  together 
with  the  riches  and  ships  of  his  father,  returned  by 
the  king  with  interest.  In  due  time  he  reached 
Ujani.  There  king  Vikramke9ari  of  Ujani  also 
gave  ^rimanta  his  own  daughter  in  marriage.  So 
with  two  wives  he  lived  in  happiness  and  pros- 
perity, and  Khullana's  happiness  knew  no  bounds 
at  having  her  dear  lord  back.  They  all  lived 
many  years  in  enjoyment  of  all  kinds  of  earthly 
fortune,  and  zealously  did  they  worship  Chandi  whose 
grace  had  given  them  prosperity  and  happiness.  In 
due  time  Khullana,  who,  as  has  been  already  said, 
was  a  nymph  of  Indra's  heaven,  and  ^rimanta  who 
was  the  Gandharvya  named  Maladhar,  both  born 
on  earth  under  a  curse — came  to  the  end  of  their 
earthly  careers.  They  then  ascended  into  heaven, 
and  the  worship  of  Chandi  spread  in  the  country. 


334        BE.NGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap« 

The  Asta-  These  two  stories  form  the   subject  matter  of  all 

manga  a.  p(j(jnis  on  Chandi.  In  the  Chaitanya  Bhagbata, 
a  work  to  which  we  have  already  alluded,  we  find 
that  these  devotional  ep'cs  were  generally  sung  at 
night.  They  were  generally  allowed  to  take  eij^ht 
nights.  Hence  a  poem  in  honour  of  Chandi  Wr^s 
divided  into  eight  parts,  or  Astamangala,  each 
part  being  sung  in  a  night.  The  poems  must  have 
been  fairly  long,  to  engage  the  audience  for  eight 
successive  nights. 

I.  &  2.  We  have  also  a  few  short  poems  on 
Chandi  which  seem  to  be  the  earliest  known 
specimens  of  such  poetry.  One  we  find  with  the  sig- 
nature of  Dwija  Janardana,  and  another  with  that  of 
Manick  Dutla.  The  latter  refers  to  the  temple  of 
Dvaravasini  in  Gouda.  Dvaravasini  was  worshipped 
and  Manik  ^^ith  great  pomp  by  the  Hindu  and  Buddhist  kings 
Dutta.  Qf  Gouda.  With  the  fall  of  their  power,  ihe 
temple  of  the  goddess,  where  hundreds  of  pilgiims 
from  different  parts  of  the  country  flocked  lo  offer 
prayers,  became  deserted  and  eventually  in  the 
1 6th  century,  was  reduced  to  a  heap  of  bricks. 
Manick  Dutta  refers  to  the  flourishing  condition  of 
this  temple  which  must  have  belonged  to  an  age 
not  earlier  than  the  13th  century.  His  poem 
also  gives  an  account  of  creation  on  the  lines  of  the 
Cunya  Purana,  with  obvious  traces  ol  Buddhism. 
\\\;  must  remember  that  the  later  writers  of  poem 
on  Mangala  Chandi  tried  to  identify  this  goddess 
with  Chandi  as  describetl  by  Markahdeya.  but  ori- 
ginally she  hail  no  connection  whatever  with  the 
Pauranic  deity.  Mangal  Chandi  was  a  popular  deit) 
worshipped  in  the  villages  by  the  rustic  people, 
mostly  women,  and  the  Pauranic  element  introduced 


v.]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    k    LITERATURE.         335 


into  it,  is  the  worlv  of  subsequent  writers.  This  will  be 
evident  from  a  perusal  of  the  short  poem  by  Manick 
Dutta  which  possesses,  as  I  have  said,  far  greater 
traces  of  Buddhistic  influence  than  of  Paur^nic 
religion. 

Manik  Dutta  and  Dwija  Janardana  lived  pro= 
bably  towards  the  end  of  the  13th  century. 

3.  A  third  poem  on  Mangala  Chandl  was  written 
by  Madan  Datta. 

4.  Sarada  Mangal  is  another  poem  on  Chandi 
by  Muktarama  Sen — a  Vaidya  who  settled  in 
Devagram  in  Chittagong.  He  wrote  his  poem  in 
1547.  His  mother  with  heroic  devotion  ascended 
the  funeral  pyre  of  her  husband.  '  This  sight," 
says  the  poet,  "  gave  me  a  religious  tendency  from 
my  childhood.  Since  that  time  I  have  cared  not 
living  for  earthly  objects  ;  hence  I  desire  to  write 
this  religious  poem." 

Some  other  authors  of  poems  on  Chandl  are  : — 

5.  Devi  Das  Sen. 

6.  ^iva  Narayana  Dev. 

7.  Kirti  Chandra  Das. 

8.  Balarama  Kavi  Kankana, 

9.  Madhavacharyya. 

Madhavacharyya's  Chandi  Mangal  was  pub- 
lished some  years  ago  by  Pundit  Chandra  Kantha 
of  Chittagong.  Madhavacharyya  wrote  his  poem 
in  1579.  He  was  a  native  of  Triveni.  His  father 
Parasara  was  a  man  of  great  scholarship  and  piety, 
he  was  also  wealthy,  and  spent  much  in  charity. 
We  find  in  the  poem  of  Madhavacharyya  a  re- 
ference to    the    Mogal    Emperor    Akbar    of    Delhi 


Madan 
Datta. 


Mukta- 
rSm  Sen. 


Other 
Authors. 


Madhava- 
charyya. 


33^        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [Chap. 

who  was  a  contemporary  of  the  poet  and  of  whom 
he  speaks  in  terms  of   high  regard. 

Madhavacharyya's  poem  was  first  sung  by  a 
glee-party  consisting  of  recruits  from  the  lower 
classes  and  he  prays  to  Chandl  in  the  preliminary 
chapter  that  she  may  not  be  offended  with  him  for 
their  incorrect  pronunciation.  It  is  said  that 
Madhavacharyya  later  on  came  and  settled  at  Navin- 
gour  (modern  Nanpur)  in  the  district  of  Mymen- 
sinof.  It  will  be  seen  that  Mukundarama  Kavi 
Kankan's  Chandi  Alangal  is  a  great  improvement 
on  the  poem  by  Madhavacharyya  as  indeed  it  is 
upon  all  other  poems  of  this  cult.  In  dealing  with 
Mukundarama  we  shall  touch  on  all  the  important 
features  of  the  literature  of  the  Chandi  cult,  so 
a  separate  notice  of  them  is  unnecessary.  Madhav- 
acharyya's poem  was  up  till  lately  extensively  read 
in  Chittagong.  and  in  the  back-woods  of  Bengal. 
But  the  printing  of  Mukundarama's  work  has 
carried  it  to  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  it  has 
now  almost  driven  the  former  poem  out  of  its 
strongholds  in  those  backward  regions  where  it 
h(^l(l  undisputed  sway  for  more  than  three  centuries. 
Mukundaram  Kavikankan  and  his  Chandi-mangal. 
We  have  now  come  to  consider  one  of  the 
greatest  of  Bengali  poets.  Mukundarama  was 
not  given  to  idealism  ;  he  depicted  what  he  saw 
with  his  own  eyes.  One  who  reads  his  poems 
poet.  closely   will     find    the    Bengali    home    of    the    i6th 

centurv  mirrored  in  his  pages.  They  are  full  of 
realistic  interest.  It  is  for  tin-  intense  realism  of 
his  description  that  Prof.  Cowell  calls  him  the 
Cnibbe  of  In-ngal  and  Dr.  (irit^son  speaks  of 
his    poetry    "  as  coming    from  the    heart    and    not 


IV.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  337 

from  the  school,  and  as  full  of  passages  adorned 
with  true  poetry  and  descriptive  power."  But 
before  dealing  with  his  composition,  we  propos«' 
here  to  give  an  account  of  his  life. 

In  the    autobiography    af^fixed    to    his    poem    he       His  life. 
says    that    he    was    a    native    of    Damunya    in  the 
district  of  Burdwan.     He  held  some  lands  under  one 
Gopinath  Nandi  who    owned    considerable    estates 
in    Pergunnah     Selimabad.        Unfortunately      for 
the  people,  a  Muhamadan  governor  named   Mamud 
Sherif    was    entrusted    with    the   administration  of 
the      Pero-unnah.        Under     his     rule    the    traders 
groaned.     He  made  false  measurements  of    lands  ; 
a   kura  was  measured  as  fifteen  kathas ;  and  rents 
were    assessed    on    waste    lands.     The  poor  man's 
prayer  was  not  heeded.       The    money-lenders    be- 
came exacting.    Each  Rupee  was  short  by  2\  annas. 
No  purchasers  were  to  be  found  for  cattle  or  stock. 
The    landlord    Gopinath    Nandi  was  made  prisoner 
and  the  poor  people  became  stunned  with  fear  and 
grief.      Lest   they  should  abscond,  constables  were 
appointed  to  keep  watch  over    every    cottage.       In 
deep  distress  the  poor  people  sold  their  spades  and 
every    utensil    they    possessed.       Things    worth    a 
Rupee    were    sold  at  ten  annas.     The  poet,  helped 
by  ^rimanta  Khan,    an    inhabitant    of    Chandibati. 
and  being   counselled    by   Muniva  Khan  as  to  the 
course    he    should    follow,    left    Damunya  with  his 
brother    Ramananda.       He    reached  Bhetna  where 
Ruparay   helped   him  with  some  money  and  where 
afterwards  Jadu  Nandi  of  the  Teli  caste  opened  his 
hospitable  doors  to  the  small    family    of    our    poet. 
There  he  spent  three  days.    Then,  sailing  down  the 
stream  of  Godai  he  reached  Teywettya  and,  passing 

43 


338        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [Chap 


He  com- 
poses his 
}?reatpoem. 


His  great 

love  for 

his  native 

\  illage. 


D\varuke(jVar,  crossed  the  Damodara  and  came 
to  the  village  Kuchuttva-  ''  There  without  oil." 
says  the  poet  "  we  had  our  bath  and  appeased  our 
hunger  by  drinking  water.  The  famished  children 
cried  for  food.  On  the  banks  of  a  pond  with 
offerings  of  Saluka  and  Sapla  flowers  I  worshipped 
Chandi.  Exhausted,  famished,  and  frightened,  I  fell 
asleep  and  dreamt  that  the  goddess  Chandi  app(  ar- 
ed  to  me." 

Chandi  taught  him  metres  and  their  laws,  and 
bade  him  sing  a  song  in  her  honour. 

He  next  went  to  Arrah  Brahmanbhumi,  where 
Raja  Bankura  Ray  was  much  pleased  with  his 
poetry.  He  ordered  five  aras  of  rice"^  to  be  pre- 
sented to  the  poet  and  cleared  all  his  debts,  and 
besides  appointed  him  as  a  tutor  to  his  son  Raghu 
Xath  Ray.  There  enjoying  the  patronage  of  the 
Raja,  he  began  to  write  his  poem  on  Chandi  which 
was  destined  to  win  for  him  such  great  celebrity. 
The  Raja  lavished  rewards  upon  the  chief  singer, 
who  sung  the  poem  in  his  court,  and  held  our  poet 
in  great  esteem. 

But  Mukundaram  never  forgot  the  \illage  of 
Damunya  from  which  he  had  been  (lri\(Mi  by  the 
oppression  of  Mamud  Shcrif.  W'e  can  trace  his 
yearning  for  his  native  place  in  the  autobiographi- 
cal account.  Though  by  the  favour  of  the  Raja,  lie 
now  enjoyed  i)lenty  at  Brahamanbhumi,  Damunya 
where  he  had  owned  onlv  a  few  acres  of  land  and 
tilled  them  w  ith  his  own  hands,  was  far  d(>arer  to 
him  bv  man\-  tender  associations.  His  family  had 
lived    at    Danuuua    f<'>r    eigrht    t^enerations.        Tl 


eight    generations. 


♦  About  3  cwt. 


[V.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATUKE.  339 

village  with  the  noble  river  Ratnanu  flowing  by  it 
was  ever-beloved,  nay,  sacred  in  his  eyes.  He 
writes  of  Damunya  in  the  following  lines: — 

^ '' Kayasthas,  Brahmins  and  Vaidyas  of  pure 
origin, — all  honest  men  live  in  Damunya.  The 
southern  part  of  the  village  is  inhabited  by 
poets  and  scholars.  The  Great  God  ^iva  by 
his  grace  has  favoured  this  village  with  his  pre- 
sence. He  is  known  by  the  name  of  Chakraditya, 
and  the  village  possesses  a  special  sanctity  and  is 
visited  by  pilgrims  on  account  of  his  temple  there 
which  Vrisa  Datta  erected  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ratnanu.  O,  Ratnanu  !  I  drank  thy  water,  dear 
and  sacred  to  me  as  Ganges  water,  and  from  the 
virtue  earned  by  so  doing,  I  was  endowed  with 
poetical  talents  even  from  my  boyhood  and  my 
very  first  production  was  a  poem  in  honour  of  Civa, 
The  people  of  Damun3a  are  devoted  to  the  worship 

^  ^z^  %^  f^<i^ffj,  ^n^^  ^n^  h^ 


140        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

ul  Chakraditya.  The  village  belongs  to  him  and 
we  lived  in  his  jurisdiction.  Jasavanta  Adhikari 
who  is  the  ornament  of  the  Kanjuri  family,  Umapati 
Ray,  whose  free  hand  bestows  charity  on  every  one 
who  is  in  need  of  it,  the  saintly  Sarvananda  of 
the  Nag  family  and  other  good  people  all  dwell  in 
that  village.  There  is  besides  l9an  Pundit,  well- 
versed  in  the  Upanishads,  belonging  to  the  Kata- 
ditya  \'andighati  family  and  Lokanath  Misra, 
Dhananjay  Misra  of  the  Bengal  Pasi  Brahmin  famiU 
who  adorn  our  village." 

He  next  traces  his  own    genealogy   from  Tapan 
Ojha,  a  Raja  of  the  family  of  the  Karori   Brahmins 

'nm^^  ^f^'^^r,  C^Rt^  ^5«1  ^^ 

^ft^t^  C^t'II^  ^t^C^  I 

^ft  ^^  ^nJIH.  f*l^^  t^^  ^Pl  ^^ 

^■>t«i  ^fe^  ^-^H^  I 


iV.  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  341 

and   names    all  •  his    ancestors,    concluding  the  list 
with  blessings  on  his  eldest  son  ^ivaram. 

All  this  shows  how,  though  cut  off  from  Damunya, 
his  mind  was  yet  full  of  pleasant  recollections  of 
its  scenes.  The  river  Ratnanu,  the  village  god 
Chakraditya,  and  even  the  temple  erected  by  Vrisa 
Datta,  and  the  dear  friends  whom  he  could  never 
hope  to  meet  again  for  many  long  years,  inspired 
his  imagination  and  were  sacredly  kept  in  his 
memory.  We  may  imagine  him  to  look  wistfully 
towards  Daniunya  from  the  far  off  Brahmanbhumi, 
even  as  Adam  did  towards  the  garden  of  Eden 
after  bidding  it  a  last  farewell. 

Towards  the  last  years  of  his  life  when  the 
economic  stability  of  the  country  was  improved,  he 
returned  to  Damunya  and  there  erected  a  small 
temple  which  he  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  the 
goddess  Chandi.  This  deity  was  named  by  him 
Sirhhabahini,  the  goddess  who  rides  on  a  lion,  and 
she  is  still  worshipped  there.  The  manuscript  of 
Chandi  Kavya  written  by  his  own  hands  was  till 
lately  in  the  custody  of  his  descendant  Jogendra 
Nath  Bhattacharyya  and  I  had  it  copied  by  a 
Pundit  under  the  direction  of  the  Bangyia  Sahitya 
Parisat  of  Calcutta. 

We  have  seen  a  deed  of  gift  under  the  seal  and 
signature  of  Barakhan,  Governor  of  Pergunnah 
Selimabad,  dated  1640  A.u.  conferring  the  right  of 
twenty  bighas  of  land  on  ^ivaram  Bhattacharyya. 
the  eldest  son  of  Alukundaram,  of  whom  the  poet 
speaks  so  often  in  his  Chandi  Mangal. 

Mukundaram,  who  his  generally  known  by  his 
title  of  Kavikankan,  finished  his  celebrated  Chandi 


34-  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [Chap. 

Finished       Kavya    in     1589    A.D.    when      Mansirhha     was    the 
iff  1^5^89*      governor  of   Bengal;  the  poet  refers   to    Mansimha 
A.  D.  with    great    regard  in  the  introductory  canto  of  his 

work. 

The    con-  ^^^^  poem  is  divided   into    three   parts  ;    besides 

tents.  the    usual    preliminaries    in    which  he   offers  hymns 

to  various  gods  and  goddesses,  he  gives  an  account 
of  himself  and  of  his  native  village   of  Damunya. 

Of  the  three  main  chapters,  the  hrsl  is  devoted 
to  (j^iva  ;  this  is  evidently  that  first  production,  to 
which  he  refers  in  his  account  of  Damunya.  The 
sacriHcial  ceremony  of  Daksa.  tlie  catastrophe  that 
befell  him.  the  death  of  Sati  who  was  re-born  as 
Uma,  and  the  austerities  she  passed  through  in  her 
new  life,  with  the  object  of  regaining  Civa  for 
her  husband,  the  killing  of  Madan  by  the  Hres 
of  ^iva's  third  eye,  the  bewailings  of  Rati,  the 
wife  of  Madan  (full  of  tender  pathos  ;  such  as  "let 
the  years  that  I  might  have  lived  be  added  to  your 
life,  my  dear  husband,  do  you  live  for  ever,  letting 
me  die  here  at  your  feet")  the  marriage,  tlie  various 
domestic  scenes  in  Ivailash,  the  dispute  between 
Civa  and  Uma,  and  the  worship  of  Qiva  b)'  Indra 
and  s(j  forth,  form  the  subject-matter  of  the  first 
canto. 

riie  second  canto  gi\  cs  the  story  of  Kalketu  the 
hunter,  and  the  third  that  of  the  merchant-princes 
Dhanapati  and  Crimanta. 

The  works  ol  MukundarSm  contain  in  all  more 
th.m  Jvooo  lines  and  a  considerable  portion  of 
this  h.is  been  rendereil  into  luiglish  verse  by  Frol. 
l-:.  n.  Cowell. 


IV.  ]  BENGAIJ    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         343 


The  poets  of  Bengal  had  been  long  aiming  at  a 
faithful  depictment  of  scenes  of  their  own  home-life, 
and  in  Mukundaram  their  efforts  reached  the  high 
water-mark  of  success.  Like  all  great  poets 
Mukundaram  represents  his  own  people  and  the 
pecularities  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  The 
human  world  as  he  observed  it  in  Bengal  was  con- 
stantly before  his  mind.  Under  the  garb  of  the 
gods  of  heaven  and  even  of  the  beasts  of  the 
forest,  it  is  the  people  of  Bengal  who  appear  before 
our  view  in  the  characters  that  he  has  painted. 
The  beasts  of  the  forest  complain  to  Chandi  that 
they  are  in  terror  of  Kalketu  the  hunter.  The  tiger 
who  amongst  the  lower  animals,  is  held  to  belong 
to  the  Ksatriya  or  warrior  caste,  the  great  elephant 
whose  might  is  fully  equal  to  his  enormous  bulk, 
the  rhinoceroes  with  his  dreaded  sword,  the  great 
buffalo  whose  red-eyes  frighten  the  enemy  away, — 
all  look  crest-fallen  and  humiliated.  Their  speeches 
strangely  disclose  the  political  life  of  Bengal  as  it 
was  in  Mukundaram's  time,  even  as  the  speeches 
of  the  fallen  cherub  in  Milton's  "  Pandemonium  " 
recall  the  views  and  sentiments  of  the  Radicals 
during  the  Civil  War  in  the  time  of  Charles  I. 

The  humbler  beasts  complain  to  Chandi  that  they 
are  poor  innocent  animals  who  graze  in  the  fields  and 
are  neither  Neogis  nor  Chaudries  who  own  estates. 
The  conversation  of  Chandi  with  the  beasts,  humilia- 
ted and  stricken  as  they  are  by  the  arrows  of  Kalketu, 
is  full  of  significant  hints  indicating  how  the  sun 
of  the  glory  of  the  Hindu  chiefs  was  setting  before 
the  superior  martial  power  of  the  Moslem  invaders, 
and  l\ow  the  yoke  of  Muhammadan  rule  fell  upon  all 
ranks  in  society  without  sparing  even  the  lowest. 


Depicts 
Bengali 
home. 


The   beasts 

talk 

politics. 


344        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 


A  dark 

Chapter  of 

Bengal 

hLstory. 


The  human 
Interest  in 
his  poem. 


The  p«riod  was  indeed  a  dark  one  for  Bengal. 
The  Muhamniadan  autocrats  were  making  their 
power  felt.  In  the  Padma  Puran  of  ^'ijay  Gupta 
we  tind  good  Brahmins  with  sandal  marks  on  their 
foreheads  and  Tulsi  leaves  on  their  heads,  being 
bound  and  dragged  before  the  Kazi  and  there  put 
to  abject  humiliation  for  no  fault.  We  quote  the 
following  passage  from  Von  Xeor's   Akbar. 

"  When  the  Collector  of  the  Dewan  asks  them 
(the  Hindoos;  to  pa)'  the  tax,  they  should  |)a\-  it 
with  all  humility  and  submission  :  and  if  thc^ 
Collector  wishes  to  spit  into  their  mouths,  thev 
should  open  their  mouths  without  the  slightest  fear 
of  contamination  so  that  the  Collector  may  do  so. 
The  object  of  such  humiliation  and  spitting  into 
their  mouths  is  to  prove  the  obedience  of  the 
infidel  subjects  under  protection  and  promote  if 
possible  the  glory  of  Islam, — the  true  religion  and 
to  show  contempt  to  false  religion." 

We  have  already  described  how.  owing  to  the 
oppression  of  i\Iamud  Sherif  in  Pergunnah  Selima- 
bad,  the  poet  had  been  obliged  to  leave  his  native 
village.  We  have  seen  how,  while  describing  a 
ficticious  warfare  between  Kalketu  and  the  beasts, 
Mukundaram  unconsciously  represented  the  politi- 
cal condition  of  his  country.  It  is  this  reality  which 
saves  his  poeni  from  dullness  even  in  the  minutest 
details  of  the  story.  As  in  the  case  of  the  beasts,  so 
also  in  the  description  of  natural  scenery,  the  human 
world  constantly  recurs  ;  and  in  whatever  he  sees 
on  earth  or  hcaxcn,  he  linds  luimar.  societ}-  iirst  and 
everything  else  in  its  light.  Here  is  an  extract 
from  one  of  his  d<^scriptioiis  o(  a  flower-covered 
meadow. 


IV.]        BEiNGAIJ    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  345 

^"  The  bee  merrily  extracts  honey  from  one  flower 
and  then  enters  the  next,  even  as  does  the  village- 
priest,  receiving  presents  from  one  house,  imme- 
diately turn  to  visit  the  neighbour's." 

The  domestic  life  of  Bengal  so  dominated  his 
imagination,  that  even  looking  at  the  gay  flower 
with  the  bee  upon  it,  the  poet  is  reminded  of  the 
Brahmin  priest !  Mr.  Cowell  justly  remarks  "  Wher 
ever  he  may  place  his  scenes,  in  ^iva's  heaven 
or  India  or  Ceylon,  Mukundaram  never  loses  sight 
of  Bengal.  He  carries  everywhere  the  village  life 
of  his  own  early  days." 

In  a  few  touches  he  often  calls  up  a  picture  or 
a  scene  which  seems  to  throb  with  life.  Kalaketu 
the  hunter,  when  a  boy,  is  introduced  to  us  by  the 
poet  in  the  following  passage  :  — 

t  "  His  mouth,  eyes,  ears  and  nose  were  as  hne  Kalaketu 
as  if  they  had  been  carved  by  a  chisel,  and  his  arms 
were  as  strong  as  iron-bars.  On  his  forehead  he 
wore  an  ornament  called  Kapaltati.  A  tiger's  claw 
hung  on  his  breast.  He  used  to  besmear  his  body 
with  the  red  <iust  of  the  play-ground.  Amongst 
the  children  he  looked  like  their  chief.  One  who 
attempted  to  wrestle  with  him  was  treated  to  a 
hundred  blows, — in  fact,  it  soon  became  a  question 


44 


34^      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

of  life  and  death  with  his  antagonist.  If  any  one  of  his 
comrades,  who  were  no  match  for  him  in  streno-th. 
persisted  in  wrestling,  in  spite  of  his  e\ident  inferi- 
ority, Kalaketu  would  throw  him  to  the  ground  with 
great  force,  and  no  one  dared  to  challenge  him  after 
such  an  experience.  With  his  companions  he 
marched  out  to  hunt  the  hare  ;  if  the  animals 
lied,  there  was  no  escape  from  the  dogs  that 
he  let  loose  to  pursue  them.  With  infallible 
aim,  he  threw  iron-balls  at  birds  who  fell  to  the 
ground  where  our  hero  caught  them  and  bound 
with  creepers.  He  hung  the  burden  on  his  shoulders 
and  returned  home  with  his  booty." 

The  descriptions  are  refreshing,  for  they   offer  a 

A  contrast,     contrast    to    those    copied   in  the  Bengali  poems  of 

the  period,  from  the  stereotyped  accounts  of     men 

and  women  to  be  found  in    the   latter-day    Sanskrit 

works. 

^•ft^:&  c*rt^^  fk^^  I 
^t^«i  cntt^  ?!^^  j^^  I 

f«f^  ^i^  c^^^  ^o^  \ 
^f^.^]  *iii5^  d^i         ^r^  T^^f  ^u  c^^i 


IV.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  347 

Mukundargm's  description    of  a  social  gather- 
ing   is    always    endowed    with    life-like     vividness.       Asocial 
Dhanapati   was    giving    precedence    to  Chand  as  a    ^^     ^"ng. 
Kulina    in    an    assembly    of    his    caste-men.      The 
poet  thus  describes  the  scene. 

^  '*  So  he  (Dhanapati)  weighing  all  points  in  his 
mind,  offered  water  first  to  Chand  the  merchant. 
He  put  the  sandal-mark  on  his  forehead  and  hung 
the  garland  of  honour  about  his  neck.  At  this 
stage,  Cankha  Datta  said,  '  In  the  assembly  of 
merchants,  the  place  of  precedence  has  always 
been  mine.  Your  head  seems  to  be  turned  by 
your  riches,  you  do  not  pay  me  the  respect  that  I 
deserve.  On  the  Crada  ceremony  of  the  father 
of  Dhusa  Datta,  sixteen  hundred  persons  belonging 
to  the  Benia  caste  were  present  and  the  first  seat 
of  honour  was  given  to  me.  Dhusa  Datta  knows 
it    well    and    Chand    may    have  heard  of     it   too.' 

%i%  ^^  ft^  "^ki^  ^i^  ir 

^ti:^  ^^  fvf^  Ft5f  c^c«t^  ^'^i'^  II 
^'nm  ^^^  Tm)  'Jtqi  fw^  ^r?r  i 

^ft^  ^"sn  ^tft  ^K'^  n\k  TfK  I 

'T'^Vf  ^Tf5^1  ^tf^  ^^  ^^?ft^  (I 

en  ^\i^  ^tn^  ^'S  ^^^  5^  ^^  I 
^f5t^  T«m  c^?:n  f^^  cTt^n©  II 


348       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LllERATURE.       [Chap. 

Healing  tliis  Dhanapati  said.  "  But  in  that  assembly 
Cliand  was  not  present.  In  point  of  social  position, 
ill  the  respect  that  he  commands,  and  for  his 
wealth,  who  is  there  that  can  bear  a  comparison 
with  him  ?  Even  in  the  outer  appartments  of  his 
mansion,  there  are  seven  jars  hlled  with  gold." 
Nilambara  Das  smiled  at  this  and  said  "  A  new 
discovery  indeed  !  Is  precedence  in  caste  obtained 
by  wealth  ?  The  widows  of  his  six  sons  bemoan 
their  lot  in  his  desolate  house.  With  all  his  riches 
I  count  Chand  as  nothing  but  a  bull  in  this  assem- 
bly !"  Chand  retorted  "  I  know  you  w^ell  Nilambara 
Das  ;  will  vou  gentlemen,  present  here,  kindly  bear 
with  me  for  a  moment  while  I  relate  to  you  the 
history  of  his  father  !  His  father  used  to  sell 
myrobalans.  The  scum  of  the  city  were  his  pur- 
chasers. He  would  openly  mix  with  harlots,  and  then 
without   even  ch^ansing  himself  by  a  bath  he  would 


c^?  ^\m  ^\k  f^^  ^t^  ^^t^^  II 
nm  ^K^  w^  ^i^  ^tff  ^i^  ^t^-1 1 

^ff^^  ^^l^  V^  3^!^  ^#  &t^1  II 


IV,  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERAtURE.  349 

sit  down  to  eat.  He  was  so  great  a  miser,  that  he 
stowed  his  cowrie  bundles  here,  there  and  every- 
where. Son  of  such  a  worthy  father,  you  are  not 
ashamed,  O  Nilambara,  to  talk  aloud  in  a  meeting 
like  this  ?"  Nilambara  Das  did  not  look  at  Chand, 
in  his  contempt,  but  turned  towards  Ram  Ray 
who  was  his  son-in-law,  and  said  "What  fault  can 
there  be  in  one's  plying  his  trade  ?  Is  not  the 
keeping  of  cowrie  bundles  a  legitimate  function  for 
all  of  us  who  belong  to  the  Benia  caste  ?  He  con- 
tinued *Mf  the  question  of  caste  is  to  rise  at  all, 
why  not  take  into  account  the  case  of  Dhanapati 
himself?  His  wife  tended  the  sheep  in  the  fields. 
Is  this  not  a  great  stigma  on  him  ?" 

^K^  ^K&  C^]^  ^tn  C^f^^  ^l^^l  I 
^^^  ^fkim  ^t^l  ftf^^  ^^qi  II 

^tf^  ^H  ^fi  C^^  ^ft^  C^I^Z'^  !l 

5^^  's{iv  ^^  ^.^1  f^f  w:^  ^t^  II 
n«i^i  ^r^i^  ^n^  w\Ts  ^^Tt  ^n  ii 

^^nf%  ^fe  f^^  ^ft^i  ^p  II 
sftf%^rvf  ^^  ^r^f  -^i^  ^^  ^f  II 

"^l^  ^TTll  ^tn  ^a^  v£l  ^v5  ^^^  11" 

Kavikankah-CnandL 


350      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

I  am  afraid  the  translation  will  not  give  any 
adequate  idea  of  the  animation  which  characterises 
this  controversy  in  the  original.  In  the  discussion, 
points  are  brought  home  in  colloquial  dialect,  by 
references  to  matters  pertaining  to  caste-honour 
and  this  point  is  not  likely  to  be  appreciated  by 
non-Hindu  readers,  but  in  it  nevertheless  lies  the 
realistic  interest  of  the  passage. 

In  the  description  of    the    spring-season    which 

adorns    the    forest    with    fresh    leaves    and  flowers, 

the  poet  ushers  in  the  fair  damsel  Khullana  who  has 
A  descrip=  .  ,        .         ,  •         n- 

tion  of  the    ]^^^^  entered  her  teens,   with    singular  poetic    enect. 

spring.        pj^^    lovely    presence     enlivens    the   whole     scene, 

adorned  as  this  is  with  all  the  gay  blossoms    around 

her.     Everything  becomes  part  of  a  lovely  romance. 

showing    that    our     poet,    though      trained     in    the 

school    of    realistic    poetry,    had    yet    access  to  the 

land  of  the  lotus. 

■^"  With  Kamadeva  (the  god  of  love)  as  a  compa- 
nion, the  spring  season  entered  the  woods.  The 
damsel  was  taken  by  surprize  by  the  blossoms  all 
around  as  she  strolled  on  the  banks  of  the  Ajay. 
The  trees  and  creepers  became  suddenly  lit  up  with 

^'Si^  m^^  ^i^'  "»fc«lt^  ^f  5  %^ 

^>i^  ^tPi^i  f^^i.  ^feft  ^h^  c"ii^i 

^K^  ft^i  ^t^  ^W{\  I 


IV,]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  35I 

new  joy.  On  the  banks  of  the  Ajay,  under  the 
shade  of  an  Agoka  tree,  Khullana  felt  the  tender 
emotions  natural  to  youth.  The  red  of  the  young 
leaves  on  the  tree-tops  about  her,  charmed  her 
heart  ;  and  she  wonderingly  thought  that  the  spring 
as  the  first  sign  of  its  advent  had  placed  vermilion- 
marks  on  the  brows  of  the  trees.  The  joyful  bee 
drank  honey  from  one  flower,  and  straightway 
visited  the  next  just  as  the  village  priest  having 
received  presents  at  one  house  moves  onward  to 
another.  Moved  by  the  gentle  breeze,  the  trees 
dropped  the  flowers,  and  Khullana  received  their 
floral  gifts  with  joined  hands  keeping  them  for  the 
worship  of  Kama  Deva  (the  god  of  love)  that 
the  god  might  create  a  longing  in  the  mer- 
chant's heart  for  meeting  her.  The  southern 
breeze  blew  softly.  She  pressed  the  A9oka  and 
Kim9uka  to  her  breast.  The  Ketaki,  Dhataki, 
Champaka,  and  the  Kanchana  bloomed  on  all 
sides,  and  the  bees  roamed  in  their  drunken  ecstacy 
from  flower  to  flower.  The  Agoka  tree  was 
surrounded  by  creepers,  she  hastened  to  it  and  said 
'  O  my  friend,  how  fortunate  you  are !    you  are    far 

^^cT  ntf%  ^t?i  ^1 1 


352      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap, 

more  happy  than  I  am.'  The  creeper  she  embraced 
and  said  '  Tell  me  by  what  virtues  you  have  earned 
the  great  love  in  which  you  are  held  !  The  whole 
forest  is  made  bright  by  your  lovely  presence.'  The 
peacock  with  its  partner  sounded  a  gay  note  but 
Khullana  was  only  made  sad  by  it.  The  bee  and 
her  mate  drank  honey  from  the  same  flower  and 
they  were  so  happy  !  Khullana  clasped  her  hands 
and  said  '  Sing  no  more^  O  happy  pair,  hearing 
your  sweet  hum,  1   am  reminded  of  my  absent  love. 

'(^  'Pf  ^r^  %  ^r^-«i  ^^^  I 

c^^jff  fjt^^"^  c^ii^  ^'^^  ^]^^  I 

^■mi  ^^x^  c^f'it^  ^1  cwf^  ^«t^^i  I 
^t  ^t  ^f^  5t^1  c^R^  S^^  ^^1  I 

■M-  -K-  -X-  * 

fl51  ^^*T  C^l^  CM^  I 

From  Kavikaukan  ChandL 


j;  IV,  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  353 

While  your  mate  is  with  you  and  you  reside  in  the 
lotus,  alas,  how  can  you  realise  Khullana's  woes  ! 
Now  the  humming  bees  move  away,  but  the  cadence 
of  the  Kokila's  cooings  fills  the  whole  sky  and 
Khullana,  like  a  deluded  soul,  can  only  tell  her  woes 
to  the  birds.' 

From  pastoral  and  romantic  scenes,  let  us  by  way      A  money- 
of  contrast  descend  into    a    money-changer's    shop.     ^  shop.'*  ^ 
The    passage    quoted    below  contains  a  description 
of  the  interview  between  Kalaketu  and  Murari  Cil. 

■^  The  money  changer  jMurari  was  a  knave,  he 
used  to  lend  money  and  keep  accounts.  As  soon 
as  he  learnt  from  the  voice,  that  Kalaketu  had  come 
to  the  house,  he  withdrew  to  the  inner  appartments, 
as  he  owed  Kalaketu  one  and  half  boorisf  of 
cowries  as  the  price  of  flesh  supplied  by  him. 
"Where  are  you  uncle  "  calls  Kalaketu,  "please 
come  down,  I  have  an  urgent  business  with  you  !" 
But  the  wife  of  Murari  came  out  and  said  ''The 
money-changer  is  not  at  home.     Your    uncle    went 


cm^  CWN1  ^^u  ^t^i  ^^  i 
^tt!ii  fh:^5f  ^t^i,  >2J^^^*f  1%^^  ^i?i 

One  boori  is  less  than  a  pice. 

45 


354         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [Chap. 

Murarl  (^lU  out  at  early  dawn  to  collect  interest  from  his 
debtors,  the  little  money  that  we  owe  you  will  be 
paid  to-morrow.  You  need  not  wait  for  him  to- 
day. Bring  some  fuel  and  some  sweet  plums  from 
the  woods  to-morrow,  when  we  shall  pay  for  them 
and  also  clear  our  own  old  bill."  "  I  wanted  to 
turn  a  ring  into  cash"  said  Kalaketu.  "  If  IMurari  is 
out,  I  must  hurry  away,  and  find  some  other  money- 
changer for  it.  "  Wait  a  moment  "  said  she  "  let 
me  see  what  sort  of  a  ring  you  have."  Tempted  by 
the  prospect  of  making  a  profit,  Murari  crept  out 
of  the  inner  appartments  by  the  back  door  carrying 
in    his   hands  scales   and    a    purse   for  bargaining. 


U^Tl  ntf^1  '«^H.  ^tf^?:i?  %<55  ^!»f 


IV,  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  355 

The  hunter  greeted  him  pleasantly  and  Murari  said 
'  How  is  it  nephew  that  I  never  see  you  now-a-days. 
Your  conduct  is  very  strange!"  Kfilaketu  replied 
'Uncle  I  go  to  the  forest  early  in  the  morning  to 
spread  my  nets,  and  with  arrows  in  hand  I  wander 
the  whole  day  long.  Phullara  meanwhile  sells  game 
in  the  market  and  we  both  come  home  late  in 
the  evening.  For  this  reason  you  do  not  see  me  now 
as  often  as  you  used  to  do.  But  uncle  I  have  a 
ring  to  dispose  of.  Will  you  kindly  help  me  with 
what  it  may  be  worth  and  save  me  from  great  per- 
plexity.' With  this  he  tendered  the  ring,  and  the 
money-changer  put    it  into  the  scale  and  noted  the 

'^^1  ^fe^Il   2|^t^  ^K^,       "^W.^    vi|%1  ^^v\ 

^\i^  »i^  Mf^  ^^^  ;^rs(  I 
5p^i  ^*fi^  ^m,  miwim  ^f^  ^c?j 

vii^  c^^  ^tft  c^n  ^f^  I 

t^i  ^t^t^^  ^^^  ^f ft  I 

%  c^ii  ^i:r<^,  c^Um  ^«tm  ^k 

t^  Tm  ^u  ^>{^^,  c^\^  ^f^  ^\  ?ft^ 


356      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE,       [Chap,     3 

weight  to  its  last  grain.    He   weighs  it  and  declares 
the    weight    to    be    16    ratis    and    2   dhans  :    sings      ; 
Kavikaiikana    the    poet. 

"  No  gold  or  silver  is  this  my  nephew  !  It  is  bell-  1 
metal  polished  with  care, — so  it  looks  bright.  Per 
rati  you  may  have  ten  gandas  of  cowries.  The  price 
of  two  dhans  will  be  five  gandas  more.  The  price 
of  the  ring  comes  to  eight  panas  and  five  gandas  of 
cowries.  Now  I  owe  you  for  game  one  and  a  half 
boori.  The  total,  therefore,  is  eight  panas  and 
two  and  half   booris    of  cowries.       But    the    whole 


cm«fi  ^m  ^i\  ^m  ^  c^5n  fn^^  I 

^f^  2if%  ^■s\  ^rm  w*tn^'3i  wii  I 
^^^^  ^fvs  "cit^  'fr^  ^^91  ^-^  II 
^^^•1  ^5^n^9i  ^^%  ^f^  I 
^t°v^^^  M\'^\  V(^  ^tft  cifs  ^f^  11 

f^  ^(^.  5T5^  ^5f.  f<P|  =T^  <|5f^  II 

^f^c^^  ^c*i  'Jnsi  ^^  ^tf^  nt?  I 

C^  JS(^  ^^ft  ftf^  fif^  ^H  "tXK  W 
(7\V\  ^C^  W^^  ^t^t^^l^  n^^&  I 

■*it^i  ^sr  7TV35fi  ^f<T  ^1  ni^^  ^n&  ii 
TO^^  ^ni  ^c^  f^n  c^^i  c^^.  I 
31^1  ^^i;^  c^f^  ^f^i  ^\5?  c^^it^i  1; 

^.^<f|  ^|m  ^if^  ^1^  ^^T  "11^1  II 
C^^«l  -^TA  "^TJ^  ^l^t^Tf^  '^l^lt  if^  I 


IV.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGt:    &   LITERATURE.         357 

of  this  need  not  be  paid  in  cash.  Take  a  portion 
of  the  price  in  cowries  and  the  rest  in  dust  of  rice. 
Kalaketu  said  '  O  my  uncle  this  is  far  from  being 
the  price  of  the  ring.  I  shall  return  it  to  its 
owner.'  The  money-changer  said  '  well,  well, 
1  agree  to  give  live  batas  more.  You  won't 
find  any  dishonesty  in  me  !  Why,  I  had  money 
transaction  with  your  father  Dharmaketu.  But 
I  see  that  you  are  far  cleverer  than  your  father 
ever  was  !'  '  No  uncle,  said  Kalaketu,  we  need  not 
quarrel  over  the  matter.  Allow  me  to  go  to  some 
other  merchant.'  '  All  right  '  the  money-changer 
said,  "  I  offer  you  two  and  half  boor  is  more.  You 
need  not  take  the  dust  of  rice,  it  shall  all  be  paid  in 
cowries." 

Thus    Kalaketu's    straight-forwardness  and  Mu-  ^^^ 

rari's  craft  are  shewn  in  contrast.  Murari  hides  contrast. 
himself  in  his  house  for  fear  of  having  to  pay  an 
old  debt  and  when  at  last,  getting  scent  of  a  pro- 
htable  bargain  he  comes  out,  he  accuses  the  hunter 
of  not  having  visited  his  house  !  Kalaketu  is  in- 
telligent enough  to  understand  his  knavery,  but  he 
is  above  pettiness  and  gives  him  frank  and  cordial 
replies. 

We  find,  portrayed  in  the    poems  of    Mukunda-  tj,^ 

rama  all  classes  of  our  people,  from  the    wealthiest     characters 

^     ^     '  are  lite= 

to  the  poorest, — all  ranks  of  our  society  represented  like. 

as  vividly  as  in  life  itself.      In  ^alivahana  and  Vikra- 

makeyarl  we  have  types  of  our  great  land-owners — 

those   rajas    whose    caprices    were    equal    to    their 

favours, — the  luxury    of  their    courts,  and  the  great 

pressure  put  upon  the    Kotwals  or   town-inspectors 

for   any  mal-administration    complained    of  by  the 


35^        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

people.  In  Dhanapali  and  his  rich  kinsmen  we 
liave  a  picture  of  high  life,  with  side-lights  on  the 
flourishing  condition  of  Bengal  when  trade  brought 
hoards  of  wealth  to  her  people.  In  Lahana  and 
Khullana, — two  distinct  types  of  women,  we  find 
the  feelings  of  jealousy  and  envy  which  sometimes 
rend  Hindu  families  in  twain  and  also  the  great  de- 
votion and  hdelity  which  characterise  the  patient 
Hindu  wife.  When  we  come  down  from  the  higher 
ranks  of  the  Hindu  community  to  the  lower,  we 
Hnd  our  hero  Kalaketu  and  his  wife  Phullara,  repre- 
senting all  stages  of  poverty-stricken  rustic  life,  but 
the  manliness  of  Kalaketu  and  the  chaste-woman- 
hood of  Phullara  exemplify  the  noble  qualities 
which,  with  all  their  ignorance  and  superstition, 
characterise  the  masses  of  Bengal.  The  poet  was  a 
lover  of  village-life  and  did  not  fail  to  observe  the 
irood  traits  in  the  characters  of  humble  rustic  folk, 
whom  he  vindicates  in  his  vivid  sketches.  The 
knaves  Bharu  Datta  and  Murari  ^il  are  true  types 
and  the  maid  servants  of  the  class  of  Durvala 
w  ho  cheat  their  masters  of  money,  while  entrusted 
of  B  nzaf-  ^^^^^^  marketting  and  poison  the  hearts  of  the  in- 
life,  mates  of  the  house  against  one  another,  are  not 
even  now  difficult  to  Hnd.  In  a  word,  all  phases  of 
ik'ngali  Viic  in  the  i6th  centurv  from  the  king  oi 
Kalinga  with  his  autocratic  temper  to  X'ulanmandal 
anxious  for  the  safety  of  his  fellow  Kayats,  are 
picturescjui'lv  represented.  W'e  Hnd  in  the  poem, 
the  crystal  columns  of  the  wealthy  man's  mansion, 
side  by  si(K'  with  the  hut  of  the  poor-folk  having 
a  single  ricinus  post  and  roofed  with  palm  leaves, 
the  hole  made  in  the  earth  to  ferment  the  rice- 
water,    and  the    abundance    of    gold    plate    at    the 


IV.  ]       BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  359 

rich  man's  table';  the  deer-skin  worn  bv  poor 
people  and  the  sky-coloured  sadi  of  gauze  of  the 
high  born  lady  ;  the  ha-du-du-du,  and  other  manly 
sports  of  country  people,  and  the  rich  men's  games 
of  chess  and  dice,  together  with  the  theatricals 
of  the  period  in  which  scenes  from  Krisha's 
life  were  played.  But  through  all  descriptions  runs 
that  devotional  feeling  for  Chandi  which  hallows 
every  situation  in  life,  and  testifies  to  the  spiritual 
awakening  of  Bengal  in  those  days.  This  last 
gives  a  more  than  poetic  interest  in  our  eyes  to  the 
celebrated  work  of  Mukundarama.  Though  our 
author  describes  every  phase  of  Bengali  life,  he  is 
particularly  successful  in  delineating  the  miseries 
of  rustic  people.  Through  all  the  romance  of 
situations  that  he  creates,  there  rises  a  sound  of 
woe  -a  deep  pathetic  tone  and  a  murmur  of  grief 
and  wailing,  and  a  gloomy  effect  is  left  on  the 
mind  of  the  reader,  hightened  by  the  provincialisms 
of  the  style  of  the  poems,  reminding  him  of  the 
life  of  the  poor  in  Bengali  villages.  The  redeem- 
ing feature  of  it,  as  I  have  said,  is  the  feeling  of 
absolute  resignation  to  the  deity,  which  pervades 
the  poem  investing  every  episode  of  it  with  sweet- 
ness. 


Devotional 
feeling. 


A  few  more  writers  after  IMukundarama,  com- 
posed poems  on  Chandi ;  we  give  a  brief  notice  of 
them  below  : — 

10.  Bhabanl^ahkara,  a  Kayastha  whose  ancestor 
Nara  Das  left  Radadega  (western  Bengal)  on 
account  of  poverty  and  settled  at  Chakra9ala  in 
Chittagong.    Bhabani^ankara  wrote  his  poem  about 


Other 
poems  on 
Chandi. 


Bhabani 
^ankara. 


360        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap 

the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  In  locali- 
ties where  the  poem  of  Mukundarama  was  vet 
unknown,  works  on  Chandi  of  lesser  poetical  merit 
were  admired  and  Bhabani^ankar  enjoyed  a  short- 
lived popularity  in  Chittagong  in  the  latter  half  of 
the  17th  century. 

II.     The    next  writer  was  Jaynarayana  Sen — a 
Jaynara-  ,   .  ,  , 

yana  Sen.      \'aidya  who  wrote  his  poem  about    the   year    1763. 

Jaynarayana  was  relative  of  the  far-famed  Raja 
Rajballava  of  \'ikrampur  and  was  an  eminent  poet. 
He  belonged  to  an  age  when  the  Bengali  language 
had  grown  highly  Sanskritised  and  Bengali  poets 
took  great  pride  in  displaying  the  wealth  of 
Sanskrit  metres  in  Bengali.  Though  in  the  delinea- 
tion of  characters,  conception  of  plot  and  in  pathos, 
Jaynarayana  is  assuredly  no  match  for  Mukunda- 
rama, \et  living  as  he  did  directlv  in  the  midst 
of  court-influence  where  a  high  flown  classical 
taste  predominated  and  in  an  age  when  word 
painting  and  artistic  modes  of  expression  were 
the  craze  of  the  poets,  Jaynarayana  shews  a 
commendabh'  skill  in  bringing  into  his  poem  a 
great  varietv  of  metres  taken  from  Sanskrit 
models.  Here  is  a  passage  in  which  our  poet 
describes  the  attempts  of  Kamadeva  ^the  god  of 
love)  to  conquer  the  great  god  Civa. 
Kama-  ^  "  Kamadeva  made  himself  ready  to  march    (^n 

deva's  .xncdition     of     conciuest    against    Civa.       Tiie 

attempt  '  .  ,         ^     ,,,, 

to  conquer     hummini»-  of  tlu^  bees  was  his  war-drum.       I  he  new 


^  I  \  a . 


IV,]        BENGALI    LANGUAGfc:    &    LlTliKAlUKE.  361 

purple  leaves  which  shot  forth  from  the  trees  were 
his  flags,  and  his  army  consisted  of  Kokilas  that 
tiew  in  all  directions  at  the  royal  order.  The  breeze 
began  to  blow  gaily.  The  god  Kamadeva  )  now- 
appeared  on  the  scene  with  sprightly  steps ;  a 
floral  bow  hung  on  his  back,  and  he  carried  blithely 
in  his  hand  the    five    flowers    which    were    his   five 


ft^«l  ^^^  ^!l  C^fn  ^fe  f^C^C^  I 

^R  ^t^  ^fo^^^  tifi^t^  'Hmus  I 

^^^  C^t^^  «J?l  ^^  ^^  CKtftC^  II 

^^  ^^  ^r^5  ^T^^  ^^-^f^^c^  II 

^f^^  m^^  c^K&  lf^^T<I  vSt^^C^  I 
^fn  ^^^  ^t^^^*fc^!i  n^<f^^  II 

^^fe^  c^!f^^^^^  Hff^  *[c^?:^  II 
^m^  ^f?fft5  ^^  f^^  ^?;kc^  I 
nm»f  &n^  c^^  ^^  ^^-"^1^1^  II 

From  Jay  N&rayan's  Chandl, 

46 


362      BENGALI    LA>iGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

arrows.  There  was  a  crown  of  flowers  on  his  head, 
and  a  pair  of  flower-bracelets  on  his  arms.  He  cast 
sportive  glances  all  around.  His  left  arm  lay 
round  the  neck  of  his  dear  wife  Rati  and  her  arms 
were  entwined  with  his.  At  this  advent  of  the 
God  of  Love  into  the  Himalaya  mountains,  with 
the  Seasons  tor  his  gay  companions. — all  the  flowers 
in  the  valley  blossomed  and  the  Kokilas  sent  aloft 
their  far-reaching  notes.  Those  damsels  who  had 
resolved,  for  some  offence,  not  to  speak  to  their 
lovers — could  not  restrain  themselves,  but  ran  to 
meet  them,  as  soon  as  the  high  notes  of  the  Kokila 
reached  their  ears.  The  trees,  hitherto  bereft  of 
leaves  revived  and  were  clothed  with  fresh  flowers 
and  leaves.  The  beautiful  Ketaki  flower  sported 
with  the  gentle  breeze.  The  A^oka  flower  bloomed 
when  the  Cephalika  should  bloom.  Nature's  laws 
seemed  to  be  upset  ;  from  the  bough  of  Jasmine, 
the  Malati  flower  shot  forth,  and  from  the  bough  of 
the  Nagake^ara,  by  a  curious  sport  of  Nature, 
appeard  the  \'akula  and  the  Kadamba.  The  hum- 
ming of  the  bees  charmed  the  ears  and  the  Kokila's 
high  note  rent  the  air.  The  Madhavi  creepers, 
the  Pala^a  tree,  the  Tagara  and  the  X'ela  plants 
drooped  under  their  wealth  of   flowers." 

But  all  ihisavailed  not,  and  wc  know  that  l\5ma- 
deva  was  reduced  to  ashes  by  the  spark  that  flashed 
from  the  third  eye  of  Civa. 

W'c  shall  ha\e  to  reirr  to  Jay  Nsravana  in  a 
future  chapter  and  so  close  our  remarks  about  him 
here. 

Qiva  ij.     Ci\a  Cliaran  Srn — the   author    of   '  Ssrada 

Charan  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,      .  -     ,       t^  \ 

Sen.  Alahgal      (^a  translation  ol   the  KSm5yanaj    wrote  a 


IV.]        BENGAL]    LANGUAGR    8i    LITERATURE. 


1^3 


poem  on  Chandi.  He  was  contemporary  with 
Jay  Narayana.  There  are  some  sparkling  passages 
in  his  poem. 


But  the  list  of  poems  in  honour  of  the  local 
deities  of  Bengal  does  not  end  here.  There  are 
many  other  goddesses  belonging  to  the  ^akta-cult 
in  whose  honour  long  poems  have  been  composed. 
It  is  not  possible  to  give  any  detailed  idea  of  these. 
But  we  shall  briefly  refer  to  some  of  them  here. 

(c)  Poems  on  Qafig§  Devi. 

We  find  a  certain  nnmber  of  poems  written 
in  honour  of  Gafigadevi,  goddess  of  the  Ganges. 
Amongst  the  Hindus  the  Ganges  is  sacred.  When 
dying,  we  must  have  at  least  a  drop  of  Ganges' 
water,  or  we  feel  disconsolate  at  the  hour  of  death. 
This  instinct  is  deeply  engrained  in  the  minds  of 
our  people.  The  late  P.  C.  Roy  of  the  Bengal 
Provincial  Service,  who  was  so  advanced  in 
his  views,  that  at  the  close  of  his  official  career,  he 
retired  to  England  and  married  an  English  woman, 
literally  pined  for  a  drop  of  Ganges'  water,  during 
his  last  illness  in  England,  and  his  English  wife  has 
informed  her  Indian  relatives  of  this,  in  several 
touching  letters. 

Stripped  of  the  mythological  account  given  of 
its  origin,  it  is  possible  that  its  present  course  is 
in  some  measure  due  to  the  engineering  enter- 
prises of  some  of  the  early  Hindu  Princes,  of 
whom  Bhagiratha,  according  to  the  tradition  current 
in  the  country,  was  the  most  successful.     The  river 


The  sanc= 

tity  of  the 

Ganges. 


5^4      BEl^GALI    LANGUAGE    &    IJTI-RATURE.       [Chap. 

is  associated  with  the  glory  of  an  ancient  Indian 
monarch,  but  it  formed,  besides,  in  the  Paurgnik  age 
the  very  nucleus  of  the  whole  Indo-Arvan-civilisa- 
tion.  The  Aryans,  here,  as  their  numbers  increased, 
apprehended  that  the  strength  and  the  compactness 
of  their  society  would  be  lost,  if  they  were  scattered 
all  over  the  country.  Probably  it  was  owing  to 
this  reason  that  they  recommended  their  own  men 
to  settle  and  to  erect  dwelling  houses  and  temples 
on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges  enjoining  it  to  be  an  act 
of  particular  merit, — so  that  the  whole  Aryan  popu- 
lation might  form  a  compact  community  in  the 
Gangetic  valley.  Those  who  lived  beyond  the  pale 
of  this  blessed  region  were  looked  down  upon  by 
the  dwellers  in  it  and  were,  besides,  required  to 
travel  all  the  distance  from  their  homes,  to  come  to 
the  Ganges  and  bathe  in  its  sacred  waters  to 
expiate  their  sins.  The  object  of  this  injunction 
was  probablv  to  keep  outsiders  in  touch  with  the 
main  society. 

The  Ganges  is  beloved  of  the  Hindus,  not  only 
on  ac  count  of  the  glorious  cities  that  adorn  her 
banks, — not  onlv  because  all  that  was  sublime  and 
beautiful  in  the  past  Hindu  history,  is,  in  some  way 
or  other,  connected  with  her  noble  waters,  but  in  a 
far  greater  sense,  for  the  associations  she  carries, 
of  ancient  saints  and  sages  who  loved  her  and 
composeti  hymns  to  her  glory.  TVom  \'almiki.  the 
divine  sage  and  \)ovt,  downwards,  we  have  a  host  of 
these  hvmn-makers,  and  the  Bengali  hvmn  of  Ajo- 
dhyaram  only  (nhoes  sentimcMits  alre.ulv  exj^'essed 
thousands  of  years  e.irlier.  The  Gangers  was 
worshipped  because  the  Hindus  found  in  tlu; 
niiijestic    sweep    of     lier   rourse  and  in  the  sublime 


IV.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGR    &    LITERATURE.  365 


music  of  her  waters — a  divine  message  and 
revelation.  In  the  Gita  we  have  it  in  the  mouth  of 
Krisna — "  Amongst  mountains,  I  am  the  Himalayas, 
and  amongst  rivers,  I  am  the  Ganges." 

(i)  We  have  dwelt  upon  a  poem  on  Mangala 
Chandi  by  Madhavacharyya  written  in  1679.  This 
poet  wrote  a  poem  also  in  honour  of  Ganga  Devi. 
It  contains  5000  lines. 

(2)  Ganga  Mafigal  by  Dwija  Kamalakgnta.  The 
poet  was  a  native  of  Kogram  in  Burdwan. 

(3)  Ganga  Mangal  by  Jayram  Das,  a  Vaidya. 
He  was  a  native  of  Guptipadain  Hughly.  His  work 
was  written  early  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

(4)  The  most  popular  work  on  Gafigadevi  is 
the  one  written  by  Dwija  Durggprasad — a  native  of 
Ula  in  Nadia.  He  wrote  his  poem  about  1778 
A.D.  He  refers  to  a  dream  dreamt  by  his  wife  in 
which  Ganga  Devi  had  appeared  before  her,  and 
given  an  order  to  her  husband  requiring  him  to 
write  a  poem  to  her  glory.  This  poem  shows 
considerable  power. 

Besides  all  these,  there  were  numerous  short 
iiymns  to  Ganga  Devi  by  Kavi  Chandra,  Ayodhya- 
ram,  Kavikafikapa,  Nidhiram  and  other  poets. 


Madhava- 
charyya. 


Kamal§- 
kanta. 


Jayram 
Das. 


Dwija 
Durga 
Prasad. 


Short 
hymns. 


(d)  ^itala  Mangala— or  poems  in  honour  of  ^itala  Devi, 

(Jitala  Devi  or  the  goddess  presiding  over 
small-pox  and  other  diseases  of  the  same  class, — 
riding  on  an  ass,  is  considered  by  some  scholars 
to  be  identical  with  the  Buddhistic  goddess 
Hariti     Devi.        The     priests      who     worship     her. 


iiariti,  and 
Qitala 
Devi. 


366      BRNGAI.I    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE,      [Chap, 

belong  to  the  Doma  caste — a  significant  circum- 
stance, wliich  proves  the  Buddhistic  origin  of  the 
worship  of  this  goddess,  as  prevalent  in  Bengal. 
Her  form  as  made  in  clay,  however,  in  this  countrv 
does  not  represent  a  Buddhistic  conception.  The 
Br§hmins  ha\e  traced  her  back  to  the  X'edas.  They 
consider  the  word  'Taksan'  in  the  Afharva  Wda, 
and  also  another  word  'ApdevJ,'  which  occurs  in 
various  places  in  Vedic  literature  as  signifying  the 
goddess  Citala.  In  the  Skandapur§na  and  in  the 
Picchilatantra  there  are  accounts  of  this  goddess. 
But  the  block  of  stone,  roughly  representing  a  face, 
covered  with  vermilion  and  with  brass  points  fixed 
on  it,  which  the  Doma  Pandits  carry  from  door  to 
door,  asking  for  offerings  in  the  name  of  the  deitv, 
does  not  seem  to  own  any  kinship  with  the  figure 
of  the  goddess  artistically  made  of  clay  bv  Bengal 
potters.  The  latter  is  evidently  a  Hindu  conception. 

Buddhistic  Poems  in  honour   of  ^itala    Devi    bear    evident 

influence;  traces  of  Buddhistic  influence.  The  goddess  is 
described  in  one  of  them  as  riding  on  an  '  i{/itk'  or 
owl.  The  bird  'uluk.'  which  is  sometimes  trans- 
formed into  a  sage  in  Buddhistic  tales,  occurs  fre- 
quentlv  in  the  Cunyapuraiia  and  in  the  Dharmaman- 
gals.  This  suggests  that  ^itala  Devi  was  con- 
nected with  the  Buddhists.  In  another  poem  on 
th(^  goddess,  the  author  Xitvananda)  says  that  no 
good  poems  in  honour  of  Citala  Devi,  could  be 
found  in  Bengal,  while  in  Ud iya  literature  there  was 
aTi  abundanct^  of  such  works  which  could  be  traced 
iiack  to  tlu>  \(T\-  earliest  times.  The  author  describes 
how  he  took  great  pains  to  collect  them  from 
Orissa  and  com[)ile  a  Citala  Maiigala  on  their  lines, 
in  JVngali.     Oiissa  was  a  strong-hold  of  Buddhism 


[V*  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITEKATURE. 


367 


till  comparatively  recent  times,  and  Udiya  literature, 
when  properly  explored,  will,  we  hope,  show  even 
more  traces  of  Buddhistic  influence  than  old  Bengali 
literature. 

But,  like  the  Dharmamahgals  and  other  poems 
of  the  Buddhistic  cult,  the  ^italamafigals  also  bear 
the  stamp  of  the  influence  of  the  Hindu  Renais- 
sance ;  and  the  Hindu  wTiters,  who  undertook  to 
write  such  works  in  later  times,  gradually  gave  them 
the  shape  of  Pauratiik  poems.  The  story  of  King 
Chandra  Ketu  and  the  troubles  he  underwent,  for 
declining  to  worship  Citala  Devi,  with  his  eventual 
surrender  of  himself  to  the  mercy  of  the  goddess, 
by  which  he  recovered  his  lost  fortune  and  achieved 
other  rewards,  forms  the  subject-matter  of  these 
poems. 

The  first  poet  of  Citala mangala,  on  wdiose  work 
we  were  able  to  lay  our  hands,  was  Daivakinandana. 
He  wrote  his  poem  about  three  hundred  years  ago. 
The  father  of  Daivakinandana  was  one  Gopal  Das. 
The  ancestors  of  our  poet  were  formerly  inhabitants 
of  Hatina  in  Burdwan,  and  the  family  latterly 
settled  in  Vaidyapur  in  that  district.  The  next 
work,  a  voluminous  one,  was  written  by  Nityananda 
Chakravarti,  who  was  a  Pandit  in  the  court  of  Raj- 
nargyana  Ray,  a  Zamindar  of  Ka^igSon  in  Midnapur. 
Of  other  works  in  honour  of  Citala  Devi  we  may 
mention  those  by  Krisnaram,  Ramprasgd  and  ^an- 
karacharyya. 

(e)  Laksmi  Charita— or  poems  on  Laksmi,  the  Goddess 
of  Wealth. 

The  worship  of  Laksmi  may  also  be  traced  back 

to  the  very  earliest  times.  The  autumn  is  the  season 

for   harvests,   and    in   an  agricultural   country  like 


and 

of  Hindu 

Renaiso 

sance. 


The  sub= 

ject= 
matter. 


Daivaki= 

nandan 

and  other 

poets. 


358       BENGALI    LANGUAGb:    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap 


Laksmi's 

hymns 

recited  by 

Muham- 

medans  ; 


who  also 

worship 

her  in 

Java. 


^JN  ananda 

Kar  and 

other 

poets. 


India  the  deity  presiding  over  the  rice  and  oat- 
liclds  naturally  obtained  homage  from  her  rural 
population  in  this  season.  In  the  Ramavaha  we 
lind  the  description  of  a  golden  image  of  Laksmi  with 
two  elephants  on  either  side  pouring  water  over 
her  head  in  the  A^oka-Banika  of  Ravana.  The 
goddess  in  that  particular  form  and  position  is 
known  here  as  Gaja  Laksmi,  and  after  more  than 
two  thousand  years,  the  Jaypur  sculptors  still  make 
images  of  the  goddess  exactly  answering  the  des- 
cription of  the  Ramayaaa.  The  goddess  Laksmi 
or  ^ri  was  one  of  the  most  familiar  deities  wor- 
shipped by  the  Buddhists.  On  the  door-wav  of 
many  Buddhist  temples  the  image  of  this  goddess 
is  found  in  a  prominent  position  curved  in  bas- 
relief.  It  is  curious  to  observe,  that  a  class  of  rural 
Muhammedanfolk  of  Bengal  have,  for  their  sole  occu- 
pation, the  reciting  of  hymns  in  Bengali  in  honour  of 
Laksmi-Devi.  This  function  exclusively  belongs  to 
them,  and  their  Hindu  brethern  do  not  seem  to 
grudge  this.  In  Java,  Laksmi  is  worshipped  by  the 
Muhammedans  of  the  place.  Alas,  the  humble  agri- 
cultural Hindu  or  the  Buddhist  could  give  up  the 
worship  of  all  gods  and  goddesses  after  his  conver- 
sion to  Islam  but  not  ot  his  harvest-goddess  I 

A  long  i^oem  was  written  three  hundred  year.^ 
ago  ill  honour  of  this  godeless  by  ^ivananda  Kar. 
who  had  the  title  of  (iuiiarajkhfin.  The  next  poem 
on  the  subject  was  written  by  Jagamohan  Mitra. 
w  ho  seems  to  have  been  a  clever  poet.  He  devotes 
a  i)art  of  his  book  to  a  description  of  ^iva  and  Uma 
in  KailaV'i  '^nd  other  matters.  The  last  poem  of 
ihc  Laksmi-cult  was  written  by  Ranjitram  Das  in 
1806. 


IV.  ]      BEMGALf    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  369 


Poems  in  honour  of  Sarasvati,  the  goddess  of  learning;. 

The  goddess  of  learning,  Sarasvati,  was  not 
without  her  votaries  among  the  early  Bengali  poets. 
Of  the  numerous  poems,  which  glorify  her,  one  by 
Dayaram  Das  displays  some  poetic  skill.  The  book 
is  divided  into  seventeen  cantos  and  tells  an  ani- 
mated story  describing  how  by  the  grace  of  the 
goddess  one  might  achieve  scholarship  without 
much  study.  Dayaram  was  an  inhabitant  of  the 
village  of  Ki9archawk  in  Perganna  Ka9igaon  in  the 
district  of   Midnapur. 

Sasthimangala  or  poems  in  honour  of  Sasthl  Devi. 

This  goddess  is  the  presiding  deity  of  babies. 
She  rides  on  a  cat.  It  is  her  function  to  pre- 
serve little  children  from  falling  a  prey  to  sick- 
ness and  premature  death.  As  is  natural,  she 
is  held  in  great  respect  by  the  women-folk 
of  Bengal.  We  find  mention  of  Sasthi  Devi  in 
the  Vrahmhavaivarta  purana  and  in  Devi-bhaga- 
vata.  Krisnaram  wrote  a  poem  in  honour  of 
Sasthl  Devi  in  1687  A.D.  The  poem  as  usual  tells 
a  story  of  more  or  less  interest  with  occasional 
passages  of  poetic  beauty,  and  ends  in  establishing 
the  glory  of  Sasthi  Devi  by  bringing  to  a  happy 
termination  all  adverse  incidents  by  her  grace. 
Satgaon  (Saptagram,)  was  in  a  highly  flourishing 
condition,  when  Krisnaram  wrote  his  poem  ;  he 
refers  to  that  historic  city  in  the  following  lines  : — 

^  "  I  saw  Radha.  Vanga,  Kalinga,  and  Nepal  ;  I 
saw    Gaya,    Prayag,     and     Kampal     and     travelled 


47 


DaySrSm 
Das. 


Krisnaram. 


satgaon, 


370         BI?NCiA!.I    LANGUAGE    &   I^ITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

through  various  cities  besides  ;  everywhere  did  I  see 
Sasthi  Devi  worshipped  with  great  pomp  ;  and 
nowhere  in  the  whole  couiitrv  did  I  find  a  citv  so 
flourishing  as  Satagaon,  where  people  dwelt  in 
.  ^  dense  array  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges." 

5.  Dharma  Mahgal*poems  recast  by  the  Brahmins. 

As  I  said  before,    these    poems    were  originally 

SD^^  written  to  glorify  Dliarma  Thakur  wlio  represented 

prominent      Buddha  in  the  davs  of  the  dep-enerecy  of  Buddhism 
in  the  .  '  . 

poems.        in  Bengal.  A  wave  of  Hindu  thought  came  surging 

upon  the  story,  however,  in  later  days,  and  the  poems 
were  transformed  in  such  a  manner  that  Buddhistic 
ideas  fell  into  the  lower  stratum  and  the  Pauranik 
spirit  became  prominent  in  them.  The  original 
conception  is  Buddhistic  notwithstanding,  and  scho- 
lars are  still  able  to  trace  it. 

The  earliest  poet    who  sang  of  Dharma  Thakur 
Mayur  . ,  ._,  -r-     i  •  •  i      m 

Bhatta  and     was  Mayur  Bhatta.    lo  hnn  encomiums  and  tributes 

other  Q^  respect  were  paid  by  all  subsequent    writers    on 

the  subject.     Next    comes  Rupa  Ram  who  is  often 

called  Adi-Rupram.     Khellaram  wrote  his  poem    in 

1527    A.D.    and    Sitaram    Das     was    probablv    his 

contemporary.     Sitaram    refers     to     the     poem    of 

Mayur    Bhatta    as    having    been    partiallv    lost     or 

become  obsolete  during    his    time,    which  makes  us 

suppose    that    Mayur    Bhatta    wrote    in    the       13th 

century  or  earlier.     A  manuscript  of  Dharmamahgal 

by  Prabhu  Ram   secured  by    Babu   Xagendra    Xath 


^I'f  ^z^  ^^1  ^i^^m  c^«r  c^»f  I 

^K^  W.^  rii;^  r.^^^  '^]h^^  f  ?r  I 


IV.]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURh;.        371 

Vasu  is  300  years  old,  so  this  poet  also  probably 
lived  at  the  time  when  Khelargm  and  Sitarani 
were  writing  their  poems. 

Manik  Ganguli's  poem  has  lately  been  pulished  Manik 
by  the  Vahgiya  Sahitya  Parisat  of  Calcutta.  He  J^|jf**^'^' 
seems  to  have  been  the  tirst  amongst  respectable 
Brahmins  who  undertook  to  wTite  a  poem  in  honour 
of  Dharma-Thakur  As  the  subject  was  Buddhistic, 
he  was  naturally  averse  to  taking  it  up,  and  in  the 
preliminary  account  of  himself,  he  speaks  of  the 
undertaking  with  evident  diffidence  and  misgivings. 
Manik  Ganguli  finished  his  w^ork  in  1547.  His 
poem  is  a  long  one,  being  twice  the  size  of  *  Paradise 
Lost.' 

We  come  next  to  the  Dharma  Mangal  by  Dwija         Other 

Ramachandra  and    Cyama    Das.     But    by    far    the       Dharma- 
^  ■'  •'  manuals. 

most  popular  writer  of  Dharmamahgal   was  Chakra-     Qhanaram, 

varti  Ghanaram  who  wrote  in  17 13  A.D.    by    order 

of      Krisna   Chandra,     RaJ5     of    Krisnapur.      The 

poet's    father's    name    was    Gauri    Kantha  and   his 

mother's  Sita      The  poem  was  published  by  Vanga- 

vashi  Press  of  Calcutta,  some  years  ago. 

The  poems  known  as  Dharmamangal  are  as  a 
rule  full  of  historical  accounts  which  though  dis- 
torted, throw  light  on  some  of  the  darker  pages  of 
our  history  before  Muhammedan  rule  began.  They 
have  this  interest,  though  we  fail  to  see  in  most  of 
them  any  great  literary  merit.  Ghanaram  was  not, 
however,  altogether  without  talents ;  occasionally 
only  we  come  across  vivid  description  of  warfare,  of 
the  Darbar  of  Hindu  kings,  and  of  the  wily  strata- 
gems of  Mahudiya  which  while  suggesting  inci- 
dents of  the  past  history  are,  at  the  same  time,  full 


372        BENGALI    LANGUAGh.    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

of     genuine    poetic     animation.      But     the      poem 

generally  lacks  in  that  interest   which    good  poetry 

inspires    in    the   mind  of  the  readers.     Those  who 

do  not  specially  seek    for  historical    material    will 

often    find    it  dull  and    uninteresting.      Here    is    a 

passage  in  which  a    wounded    soldier — a    sprightly 

9aka's         youno    man    Caka — when    on  the  point  of  death  in 

dying  ^         &  Y  i     ^ 

>\Oids.        the  battle-field  speaks  to  his  brother  Cingadar."^ 

'•  O  brother  ^ingadar,  see  what  is  the  lot  that 
was  at  last  reserved  for  me  !  Woe  is  to  me  !  I  die  in 
nocturnal  fight,  and  at  this  last  moment  of  life  I 
cannot  have  a  glimpse  of  my  parents  and  friends. 
Here  is  the  locket  which  I  have  always  worn  on  my 

ft«it?i  ft^^  ^c«i,  fn^i  V'^^  ^^ni'i 

^^13  ^^^  c^n,  f"[^un  ^^  <f5 

^t^i  ^w  5['^^  ^inf^^^i  II 

^^tft^"^  ^IC'f  TK^  ^M  I 

fJ^H  ^^<  ^^.  ^ttn?l^Q  l?t^  <IT^l 

'i^^  T^ic^j  *n^  11^1 1 


IV.  ]  BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &    LITEkATURE.         373 

neck  ;  take  it  and  give  it  to  my  poor  mother; — this 
ring  is  my  last  token,  give  it,  please,  to  my  wife 
Mayura,  and  say  to  her  'you  have  become  a  widow'; 
commend  her  to  my  mother's  care  and  tell  mv 
mother  that  I  die  an  untimely  death,  leaving  my 
poor  wile  in  her  charge.  Here  are  my  father's 
sword  and  shield.  My  golden  chain  I  leave  to  Suka, 
tell  him  that  dauntlessly  fighting  I  killed  a  host  of 
enemies,  and  die  at  last  in  the  open  field.  Here  are 
my  ear-rings,  O  ^irigadar — accept  them,  my  brother, 
as  my  last  gift  and  here  my  quiver  full  of  arrows, 
which,  please,  distribute  amongst  my  comrades.'  At 
these  words  both  brothers  wept,  and  the  dying  man 
spoke,  again  'tell  my  parents  to  bless  me  and  forgive 
my  faults,  and  offer  my  dying  respect  at  their  feet. 
How  sorrowful  am  I  that  I  could  not  see  them  again 
in  life.  Prematurely  has  their  unfortunate  son 
to    bid    them    his    last    adue.      My  heart  is  pierced 

^^m  ?ift^  c^^,  c^^  w^  f  ^1  c^^ 

3IT^*l  ^^^^  C^^1,  ^^^  ^^f|  C^^1, 

^1  ^r^^  f^r<f  ^^^  ^1^  n" 

From  Dharma  Mangal, 
by  Ghanaram,  Canto.,  XXII. 


374        BENGALI    LANGUAGb:    i<c    LllEKAIUKE.    [  CHap. 

with  remorse  that  my  Viitt  has  been  spent  in  vain. 
I  did  not  recite  the  name  of  Ram,  nor  did  I  offer 
prayers  to  the  gods  or  worship  Brahmins  and 
X'aisriavas.  I  did  not  minister  to  the  wants  of  my 
old  parents.     Surely  Providence  was  against  me." 

The  poems  ^^^^    \Norshipping    of     Brahmins    referred    to  in 

'ch*^  'jj^^f  this  speech  of  ^aka  as  if  it  were  a  highly  meritorious 
Mahgals.  act.  for  omitting  which  he  became  repentant  at  the 
hour  of  death,  evidences  how  far  the  poems  were 
Hinduised  ;  in  fact  Dharma  T]^al<ur  is  thrown  into 
the  back  ground  in  these  poems  and  in  l)is  place 
the  goddess  Chandi  lias  become  conspicuous.  The 
poems  in  fact  look  like  those  belonging  to  the  Cakta- 
Cult. 

But  by  far  the  best  poem  on  Dharma  Thakur, 
though    not    so     popular    as    Ghanaram's    Dharma 

Manii"al,  is  the  one  written  bv  Sahadeva  Chakravarti 
Sahadeva  .  .  ^  .  . 

Chakra-       in  1740.     This  writer  does  not,    like  his    predeces- 

1740  a!d.  ^ors,  treat  the  subject  of  Lau  Sen's  heroic  achieve- 
ments. His  poem  has  retained  more  Buddistic 
elements  than  any  other  work  of  the  kind  that  we 
have  come  across.  I  give  below  a  descriptive  list 
of  its  cantos  :  — 

I.  Hymnsin  praiseof  DharmaThakur,  Bhagavati, 
Lak?ml,  Sarasvati,  Chaitanya,  Tarake^vara.  etc. 

J.  Salutations  offered  to  Jiva  and  other  con- 
tciujjorary  poets  and  to  the  author's  parents. 

3.  An  account  of  creation,  how  f-irahina,  \  i?nu, 
and  CivH  came  into  existence.  The  marriage  of 
(^iva.  His  agricultural  operations  in  the  held  called 
Kamaila.  Chandi  appears  as  a  \'agdinl  woman 
in  disguise.  ^i\a  and  Chandi  catch  hsh.  Civa 
returns  to  Kailasha  with  products  of  the  harvest. 


IV*]        BENGALI   LANGUAGE   k   LITRRAtURF.  375 

4.  Chandl  asks  ^iva  questions  on  metaphysi- 
cal  points.  Th,-y  both  reach  the  banks  of  the 
river  V'alluka.  Minanath  who  was  in  the  womb 
of  a  hsh  is  endowed  with  wisdom  on  hearing  tlie 
truths  tliat  fall  from  the  lips  of  Civa.  Minanatli 
obtains  Mahajfiana  or  supreme  knowledge. 

5.  Minanath  abuses  Chandi.  The  curse  of 
Chandi  on  Minanath.  Owing  to  the  curse  Mina- 
nath falls  into  evil  company  at  Kadali  Pattan. 
The  saint  is  transformed  into  a  goat.  He  becomes 
himself  again  through  the  efforts  of  his  disciple 
Goraksanath. 

6.  A  meeting  of  the  saints  Kalipa,  Hadipa, 
Minanath,  Goraksanath  and  Chaurahgi.  Hymns  in 
honour  of    Civa  and  Chandi. 

7.  Minanath  gets  possession  of  a  kingdom 
in  Mahanada;  the  account  of  the  origin  of  the 
dynasty  of  Sagara  ;  ^iva  in  the  guise  of  a  Doma 
worships  Dharma  in  the  town  of  Amara.  Bhumi- 
chandra  the  king  of  Amara  oppresses  the  Domas. 

8.  The  king  is  afflicted  with  white  leprosy  as 
a  result  of  his  wickedness.  He  is  cured  by  wor- 
shipping Dharma  Thakur. 

9.  ^ridhara,  son  of  Ramai  Pandit  abuses 
Dharma.  He  is  killed  in  Varada  Pattan  for  this  act. 
Ramai  restores  him  to  life. 

10.  The  Brahmins  of  Jajpur  oppose  Dharma- 
worship.  Dharma  appears  in  the  held  with  his 
companions  in  the  guise  of  Muhammadens  in  ord^-r  to 
preserve  his  followers.  Raja  Bhumichandracuts  oti 
his  own  son's  head  as  a  sacrifice  to  Dliarma.  The 
Kaja  then  goes  to  heaven  by  the  ^race   of  Dharma. 


376        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

II.  Raja  Mari^  Chandra  abuses  Dharma.  He 
goes  to  the  forest  witli  liis  queen  and  dies.  The 
queen  worships  Dharma  and  the  Raja  is  res- 
tored to  life.  A  son  is  born  to  them  ;  they  name 
liim  Lui  Chandra.  Dharma  comes  in  the  guise  of 
a  Brahmin  to  try  the  Raja.  The  Raja  kills  his  son 
Lui  in  order  to  feed  the  Brahmin  with  his  flesh. 
Dharma  restores  Lui  to  life. 

The  subjects  treated  of  in  this  poem  strike  us  by 

Glimpses       their    novelty.     The   saints    Minanath,   Gorak§nauh, 
of  history.      ,,     ,.  J     ir    1      -    1      J   i:  j  *.       i-    • 

Iladipa,  and  Kahpa  had  hgured  as  great  religious 
teachers  of  the  masses  immediately  before  the 
decadence  of  Buddhism  in  this  country.  The 
places  Kadalipattan,  Saradapattan.  Amara  and 
Jajpur  were,  we  suppose,  associated  in  some  way 
or  other  with  important  incidents  relating  to 
Dharma-worship.  We  have  no  historical  informa- 
tion whatsoever  as  to  the  form  in  which  Buddhism 
existed  in  this  country  and  influenced  the  masses 
during  the  time  of  the  Pal  Kings.  The  Rajas 
mentioned  in  the  poem  probably  belonged  to  that 
dynasty.  However  crude  and  distorted  the  state 
in  which  wi'  find  these  stories,  there  was,  no  doubt, 
some  ground-work  of  fact  on  which  they  were 
based.  When  by  the  researches  of  scholars,  we  are 
put  in  possession  of  authentic  accounts  of  later 
F-')U(l(lliism,  tlu^sc  stories,  we  venture  to  hope,  may 
aid  n^iteriallv  in  unravelling  the  social  histor\-  of 
IVMigal  at  the  period  in  qui-stion. 

Sahadeva    writes    for  the  j)eople  ;    his  roinposi- 

Sahadeva's      t  ions  arc  full    of   pro\iiiriali<ms  ;    thcv    art*    alwavs 
style. 

lo    the    point,    and    are    verv    little  affected  bv  the 

inlUience  of  Sanskrit.      .Xs  in  stvle,    so    in    subject. 

he  shows  ;in  aflinitN-  to  the  Buddhistic  school.  While 


i 


IV,  ]       f3ENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  377 

tliere  are  passages  in  his  work  wliich  are  full  of 
p 'Ctry,  he  always  uses  plain  homely  similes  taken 
fi  )m  common  objects. 

All  the  poems    called    Dharma    Mangala    which         These 
ar !    treated    of    in    this  chapter,  bear  the  stamp  of       be'longlio 

tlie  Pauranik  Renaissance  inspite  of  their  Buddhis-       t*auranik 

revival. 

tl(-  oTound-work.     The  writers  wrote  them  in  Sans- 

ki  itic  style  and  introduced  into  them  thoughts  and 
ideas  which  characterise  the  period  of  the  revival 
of  Hinduism  and  even  the  poem  of  Sahadeva 
Cliakravarti  which  more  than  any  other  work  of  this 
class  belongs  to  the  people,  is  not  without  a  toucli 
of  the  predominant  ideas  of  the  time.  The  poems 
shew  how  Hindu  ideals  gradual Iv  rose  to  promi- 
nence ;  Buddhistic  ways  of  thought  being  thrown 
in  them,  into  the  remote  back-ground.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  we  have  included  these  works  in 
our  review  of  literature  belonging  to  the  Pauranik 
Revival  in  Bengal. 

6.     Poems  in  honour  of  Daksin  Rai. 

Yet    another    god    and    we  have  done  with  this 
chapter.     He  is  Daksin    Rai,    the    god    of    tigers. 
He    is  worshipped  in  many  parts  of  Bengal,  where 
tigers  make  havac  amongst  men. — especially  in  dis-        The  god 
tricts  adjoining  the   Sundarvans.     The  form  of  this  'g^rs. 

god,  as  made  in  clay,  is  that  of  a  warrior  with  bow 
and  arrows  in  his  hands.  He  rides  on  a  tiger. 
His  first  poetic  votary  was  Madhavacarvya,  who 
lived  in  the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  The 
work  is  called  Rayamahgala.  The  next  poem  on 
the  subject  by  Krisiiaram  contains  two  significant 
lines,  which  show  the  god  as  anxious  to  recei\'e  wor- 

48 


37^      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

ship  from  the    country    people,  to    whom   he    holds 

out  a  menace.  The  poet  tells  how  he  dreamt  a  dream 

in  which  Daksin  Rai  appeared  to  him  and  said  : — 

HJs  threat.  .<  jf  (-i^ere  is  any  one  to  be  found,  who  does    not 

like    your    poem,    be    sure,  he  will  be  devoured  bv 

tis^ers  with  his  whole  family." 

The  rustic  c;q  ^^^  \]^^^\  j,-,  ^]^\^  literature   much  that  is  crude, 

element 
and  the        and     suited     only    for    a    rustic     population.      But 

standard       niany  of  its  good  works,  which  form    a  part   of  the 
both.  Renaissance  literature,    conform  to   a  high  classical 

standard,  and  there  are  descriptions  of  great  beauty 
and  marked  effects  in  word-painting,  which  in  a 
subsequent  age  developed  into  a  high-flown  and 
ornate  style, — the  characteristic  of  the  age  of 
Rharat  Chandra.  The  worshippers  of  Manasa  Devi 
and  Mangal  Chandi  were  to  be  found  all  over  Bengal, 
and  many  eminent  poets  were  drawn  into  writing 
poems  in  their  honour,  and  these  works  are  charac- 
terised by  a  true  literary  excellence  ;  but  there  were 
oth("r  po(Mns,  which  show  a  crudeness  befitting 
rustic  literature,  as  that  on  the  god  of  tigers  just 
referred  to. 

Some  remarks  about  the  Poems. 

T^f  .*\s    alreadv    explained,  the  illeterate  villaorers  of 

popular  -  '  ^ 

stories        Pw-iigal  worshij:)ped  many  gods  and  goddesses  undtM- 
presented       ^,       .    ,,  ^  „,  ••     t-.     i  n  •  i      •        ii-     i 

in  a  new       iM<'  iiiIIikmkmw)!    1  antrik    Buddhism,  and    the    Hindu 

Karb.  priests  gradually  took  these  up,  and  associating  them 

with  the  d«Mti(>s  of  the  Hindu  pantheon  as  related  in 

the    l^uranas,     Ilinduiscd   tlu^  whole  spiritual  atmos- 

])her('  of  I)('ng:il.     ThcN   connerti'd  the  fables  current 

in  the   country  with    tlu^    f astrik    stories    and    thus 

bridged  over  a  «4.ip.  created  bv  tli«-  h^ss  of  iMiddhis- 

tic  ascendencv  and  its  traditions  in  I^eniial. 


IV.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE. 


379 


This  contact- of  the  popular  faith  with  the  new 
creed,  that  was  being  introduced,  created  a  strange 
force,  which  is  to  be  observed  in  a  growing  literary 
activity  all  over  the  country.  Hindus  did  not 
destroy,  but  improved  upon,  what  was  left  of 
Buddhism,  and  the  literature  of  the  Pauranik  Renais- 
sance, while  showing  an  unmistakable  rebirth  of 
Sanskritic  ideals,  had  a  place  reserved  for  popular 
creeds  and  also  for  the  stories  current  in  the  country, 
which  the  Brahmanic  School  presented  in  a  new 
and  attractive  garb. 

But  the  whole  of  nature  does  not  flourish  at  the 
same  time  ;  we  find  some  buds  turning  into  flowers, 
side  by  side  with  others  that  have  withered ; 
similarly,  the  stories  of  Chandi  and  Manasa  Devi 
developed  into  poems  of  high  literary  excellence, 
but  those  of  Ray  Mangal  and  Dhanya  Purnima 
Vrata  Katha  betray  the  early  literary  stage  in  which 
they  were  left, — doomed  to  premature  decay.  The 
worship  of  the  sun  which  may  be  traced  back  to  very 
early  times,  has  attached  to  it,  a  number  of  poems 
whose  chief  exponents  in  Bengali  were  Dvvija  Kali- 
dasa  and  DwijaRamjivan  Vidyabhusana.  The  poems 
in  honour  of  the  sun-god  tell  a  story  in  illustration 
of  his  glory  as  is  usual  in  works  of  this  kind.  In 
the  poem  of  Ramjivana  Vidyabhusana  (written  in 
1689  A.D.)  we  find  descriptions  of  the  oppression 
of  the  Hadis  by  the  sun-worshippers.  The  Hadis 
were  Buddhists  and  the  incidents  related  of  this 
oppression,  couched  in  the  form  of  a  mythical 
story  have  reference,  as  I  believe,  to  an  actual  hght 
between  the  Buddhists  and  the  worshippers  of  the 
sun.  At  one  time  the  worship  of  the  sun  formed 
the  most  important   factor  in    the    religious    func^ 


Develop- 
ment not 

always 
the  rule. 


Poems  in 

honour  of 

the  sun. 


,8o         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITEf  ATURE.    [Chap 

lions  of  the  Bengalis.  This  is  evidenced  by  llie 
discovery  of  niunerous  images  of  the  sun -god  of 
great  size  and  artistic  beauty  all  over  tlie  countr\-, 
especially  in  I'.ast  Bengal.  But  the  worship  of  thi^ 
god  was  in  later  times  reduced  to  the  recitation  of 
some  hymns  only,  and  Bengali  poems  in  lionour  of 
him  were  not  destined  to  flourish. 


Supplementary  Notes. 

TO 

CHAPTER  IV. 


As  a  result  of  the    conquest    of  Bengal    by    the 

Muhamniadans  and  their  settlement  in   the  country, 

a  number  of  Persian  and  Arabic  words  were  mixed 

with  the  dialect  current  in  Bengal.     In    the    official 

and    business-life    this    foreis^n     element    naturally 

.  .       ^  ^     Mixture  of 

predominated.     Sanskritic  words  were    replaced  by    Arabic  and 

those  imported  by  Moslem  settlers.  As  the  Hindus  words^/n 
gradually  lost  administrative  functions,  the  language  Bengali. 
of  the  court  became  full  of  Arabic  and  Persian 
words.  Articles  of  luxury  and  the  customs  of  high 
life  bore  foreign  names,  and  the  fact  of  a  conquering 
nation  gradually  monopolizing  all  power,  together 
with  all  the  important  and  profitable  activities  is 
evidenced  in  the  indelible  marks  left  on  our  lan- 
guage,— this  importation  of  foreign  words  having 
commenced  so  early  as  1203  A.D.  when  the  Muham- 
niadans invaded  Bangal. 

It  is  a  sad  history  for  Hindus.  The  words 
Wft^t^  (Justice  of  the  peace),  f^«IHt«il  (the  town- 
inspector),  '^it:5  (minister),  C^^l  (soldier)  and  similar 
words  denoting  functionaries  hish  and  low, 
vvhich  we  often  meet  with  in  our  early  litera- 
;:ure,  were  gradually  replaced  by  the  words  ^tfw, 
C^l&t^,  ^r^![,  ^t5^  etc.,  shewing  that  the  courts 
^f    the    Hindu    Kings     were     being    thrown    into 


382      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE,      [  Chap.   I 

shade  while  those  of  the  Muhammadans  flourished. 
The  word  ^^?J  which  means  a  city  was  replaced 
by  the  word  ^^^  ;  the  Bengali  fet^t  a  rupee  (from 
Sanskrit  ^1)  when  received  as  revenue  by  the  Mu- 
hammadan  rulers  became  ^It^J^t;  the  words  ^fsj  and 
^^^A  (from  Sans  C^if^^)  signifying  land  and  land- 
owner were  replaced  by  ^fsf  and  ^f'lfft^.  The  man- 
sions of  the  rich  and  all  big  buildings  were  no  longer 
called  '^5['f%<F1  but  became  known  as  vfl^H >.  The  little 
earthen  lamp  retained  its  old  name  ^f\'^,  but  the 
word  which  once  implied  all  classes  of  lamps  became 
restricted  in  sense.  Chandeliers  and  the  wall-lamps 
were  now  called  ^t^  and  C^M3^t«lf^ft  respectively, 
and  so  in  all  departments  of  life,  the  very  words 
imported  into  our  tongue  by  tlie  Muhammadans 
shew  that  they  were  enjoying  the  cream  of  things 
and  monopolizing  all  power.  The  case  was  the  same 
as  that  of  the  Saxon  language  after  the  Xorman 
conquest.  The  victors  who  were  placed  in  power 
introduced  their  own  words  into  the  spheres  with 
which  they  were  directly  connected. 

r-^«^^^»,^  Rut,  curiously,    in    the    vernacular    literature    of 

Conserve.  '  ■' 

tiveness       the  Hindus,  inspite  of  this  common    use   of  foreig^n 
of  Hindu  .  *         ,  ,  .,,.  ^ 

writers.       words,  our  writers  showed    great    unwillingness    to 

adopt  non-Sanskritic  words.  In  the  old  literature  of 
Bengal  we  seldom  come  across  foreign  \\ords.  In 
the  pride  of  what  Hindus  considered  to  be  their 
own  superior  ci\  ili/.atioii.  thev  remained  aloof  from 
Muhammadan  contact  as  for  as  practicable,  content- 
ed w  ith  their  own  social  life  and  the  cultivation  of 
their  classical  literature.  Thev  cared  not  who  admi- 
nisttM'ed  the  eouiUrv  ;  thus  the  word  ^^^  (city)  is  of 
Muhammadan  origin,  while  '>\\  (a  village)  remained 
true  to  theSanskritic  form.  In  the  villai^e  the  Hindu 


w 

IV.] 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.         383 


element  was  not  sullied  by  the  touch  of  anything 
foreign.  The  word  Ft^f  (moon),  ^^r  (sun),  ?tl  (air), 
<1t4^  (waterl  ^^T  (flower)  and  those  denoting  objects 
of  nature  and  social  life  retained  their  original 
Sanskrit  or  Prakitic  forms — not  to  speak  of 
words  relating  to  religious  functions  which  remain- 
ed unchanged.  As  nearly  all  Bengali  works  of 
the  period  deal  with  social  and  religious  sub- 
jects, there  are  scarcely  any  foreign  words  in  them, 
and  only  a  sprinkling  of  these  occurs  in  the  des- 
criptions of  the  Courts  of  kings. 

This  was  an  age  when  Sanskritic  words  were 
being  largely  verna?ularised,  a  practice  to  which  we 
have  already  alluded.  The  translations  are  full  of 
instances  of  highly  artistic  Sanskrit  expressions  as 
^^^t's'^^n'  '^Rf^lt^^^  C^^  ^t^^'  '^'>5n^1'  etc.  A  new 
school  had  came  into  existence,  the  .  function  of 
which  was  to  Sanskritise  Bengali.  Even  in  the 
works  of  ?vlukundarama  who  more  than  any  other 
Bengali  poet  except  Chandl  Das  used  provincialisms 
in  his  poetry,  we  come  across  such  words  as  'It^^'f , 
^|W,  f^I  and  >2f^cT-^^^-^5fl.  The  ingenious  similes 
and  figurative  expressions  which  developed  in  a 
subsequent  period  are  indicated  in  Mukundarama's 
writings  though  beseemed  least  inclined  to  use  them. 
He  belonged  to  the  school  of  the  people  but  owned 
some  kinship  with  that  of  the  pedantic  scholars 
also.     We  quote  here  a  passage  in  illustration  ; — 

"  I  cannot  describe  the  beauty  of  Uma's  face. 
Smitten  by  its  beauty  the  moon  dares  not 
appear  in  the  daytime,  for  this  reason  the  moon 
looks  pale  and  wears  a  blot  which  men  speak  of  as 
the  lunar  spot.  Tlie  pomegranate  seeds,  beaten 
by    the   beauty    of     Uma's    teeth,    have    lost   their 


The 

Sanskrit!- 

sation  of 

Bengali. 


Pedantic 

style  in 

Mukund° 

ram. 


3^4         HKNGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [Chap. 

lustre.     The  pomegranate    fruit    bursts    when   ripe, 

owing    to    this    feeling    of  shame."     These  lines  of 

Mukundarama,  sounds  a  prelude  to  the  style  of  which 

Bharat    Chandra    in    a    later    age    was  the  finished 

master.     In  the  literature  of  this  period    there    will 

be  found  instances  of  figures  of  speech   and   clever 

A  new        turns  of  thought  borrowed  from    .'Sanskrit,    shewing 

^''^'  that  a  new  era  was  dawning  on  our   literature  which 

welcomed    art    in    the    place   of  nature,  and  valued 

the  rules  of  Sanskrit  rhetoric  more  than  the  dictates    i 

of  the  heart. 


Alonor  with  the  resuscitation  of  Sanskrit    words, 
Correction  . 

of  Ortho-      systematic    efforts    w^re    being  made  to  correct  the 

^*        spelling  of   Bengali  words,  which  still    retained    the 
forms    prescribed    by    Prakrita  Orthography.     This 
process  along  with  that  of  Sanskritising  words,  has 
ever  since  been  going  on  in   our   literature.     There 
are  many  words  of  Sanskritic  origin  in  Bengali  even 
now   which   are    spell    after    the    rules    of  Prakrita 
grammar  ;     such    for    instance   are   the  words    ^t^. 
Cft^l,    ^H   ^nd    Tft^    which    are    derived    from  the 
Sanskrit  ^1^1,    ^^^f.    <f^  and    Cio    respectively,    but 
which    still    retain    Prakrita    spelling.     The  purists 
will,    I    am    sure,    ere    long    correct   them.      In    old 
manuscripts  we    liiul    innumerable    instances  of  C^, 
M^"!^,  ^t^  which  are  no  longer  presented   to    us    in 
such  Prakrita  forms.  Tlu^  M.S.  of  Chandi  Kavya,  be- 
lieved to  be  witten  by  Mukundarama  himself,  shows 
sjxllings  of   words   which  do  not  al\\a}s  conform  to 
.Sa!iskrit  grammar;  but  Mukundarama,  it  should    be 
ifiiieiiibercul,    lised    in  an  age  when  Prakrita  f(^rms 
ol    sjx'lling  were  i  inreiU  in  written  PxMigali, — when 
the  pr.iists  had  just  began  to  correct  tlu^  \'ernacular 


IV.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.         385 

language  on  the  model  of  Sanskrit  grammar  and 
its  orthography.  Mukundarama  lived  in  this 
transition  period  ;  he  used  provincial  words  which 
were  latterly  condemned  as  unworthy  to  find  a 
place  in  decent  literature,  as  often  as  he  used 
Sanskritic.  In  the  spelling  of  words  also  he  favoured 
the  Prakrita  forms  in  use,  as  often  as  he  adopted 
Sanskritic  forms.  The  charge  of  mistakes  in  spell- 
ing cannot  be  laid  at  his  door,  as  during  his  time 
old  ways  were  not  given  up  in  our  language,  and 
the  Sanskrit  orthography  was  not  yet  fully  adopted 
for  the  regulation  of  Vernacular  writings. 

The  five  Gaudas  or  "five  Indies"  viz.  Svarasvata       The  five 

(the     Panjab),       Kanyakuvja       (Kanoja),      Gauda       Gaudas  ; 

(Bengal),  jMithila  (Durbhanga),  and  Utkala  (Orissa) 

were  formerly    more    allied    to    one    another    than 

they  are  now.  We  find  the  Bengalis  to  have  been  in 

close  touch  with  the  people  of  other  parts  of  Aryya- 

varta.     The  old    Bengali    poems   were    known    by 

the  common  name  of  Panchali.     This    word  shews 

that  we  owe  at  least  some  forms  of  the  old  Bengali 

T-»        1     1  T'         •         o  I  ,^  *n  close 

metres  to  ranchala  or  Kanoja.     bvarasvata  or  the    touch  with 

Panjab    gave    us    its  ^aka    era  which  was  adopted       anothe 

by  the  Bengalis,  as  it  was  by  the    people    of    other 

parts   of    India.      The    civilization  of  Bengal — the 

new  learning,  especially  that  of  logic,  which    made 

the  tols  of  Nadia  famous    throughout    India,    came 

from    Mithila,    when    Magadha,    its    glorious    days 

over,    had    ceased    to    give  light  to  Eastern  India. 

With  Kalinga  or  Orissa,    Bengal    in    the  past   was 

inseparably  associated.  Our  prophet  Chaitanya  Deva 

counts  more  votaries  amongst  the  Uriya  people  than 

in  Bengal  itself.     So  we  find  that  the  five    Gaudas, 

49 


3^6        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [Chap, 

as  the  five  influencial  Provinces  of  Aryyavarta  were 
called,  had  in  the  past  ages  a  greater  touch  with 
one  another  and  exchanged  their  thoughts  and 
ideas  more  freely  than  now. 

Affinity  in  Vaisnava   literature    has    brought    many     Hindi 

anguage.  ^^qj-^Is  [j^^q  Bengali.  In  fact  a  large  number  of 
songs  in  old  Vaisnava  literature  were  composed  in 
what  is  called  Vrajavali — a  sort  of  Hindi  current  in 
Durbhanga.  This  admixture  of  Hindi  with  Bengali 
was  due  to  the  predilection  in  favour  of  the  dialect 
of  Vrindavan  on  the  part  of  Vaisnava  writers. 
They  also  adopted  it  in  order  to  imitate  \'idyapati 
the  great  master  of  songs,  who  wrote  in  the 
Maithila  language.  But  the  Hindi  words  occurring 
in  the  works  of  the  Vaisnavas  cannot  claim  a  place 
in  the  vocabulary  of  the  Bengali  language.  Outside 
the  pale  of  Vaisnava  literature  we  come  across 
many  Bengali  words  more  or  less  allied  to  Hindi 
and  other  dialects  of  Aryyavarta,  the  use  of  which 
has  grown  obsolete  now.  This  indicates  that 
Bengali  in  early  times,  as  we  might  have  surmised, 
bore  a  closer  affinity  than  now  to  other  dialects  of 
Northern  India,  whose  origin  is  Sanskritic.  It 
branched  off  from  the  parent  language  at  a  remote 
point  of  time  when  the  Aryan  settlers  divided  them- 
selves into  conimunities  and  settled  in  different 
parts  of  the  country.  So  in  the  past  the  dialects 
also  were  nearer  to  one  anotluT.  This  fact  in  the 
case  of  Bengali  is  evidenced  by  the  existenct^  of 
the  followinj^  and  other  similar  words  in  our  litera- 
ture  of  the   15th  and   i()th  centuries. 

CnHft,    ^"K^.    C«fH.   ^if^Tll    (Manik    Chandra  Rajar 


IV.  ]  BENGALI    LANtGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.         387 

Gan)  5fff^?lK  ^1%i),  ^3tt.  f^Ttt  ^f?,  i5&-  nt^5^1 
CTr!ltf%(Vijay  Gupta)  ;  ^%,  ^fs^,  <^  (Krithivasa); 

5t^i  (^t  f^  5^1),  ^^^t^?(i  (fi?c!f),  -Rp^^  (c^^),  ^m^ 

Ramayana)  ;  ^^Z^].  ^^.  C^f^,  "^.it^  "^Uv,  ^m^, 

Vi%  n%^^.  ^T^c^^.  etc.,  cv^^.  ^nf^,  ^^f%.  ^?f% 

etc.,  %^^,  ^"t^l,  ^f5(.  f\^,  ^t^,  C^mt\3,  *ilft,  ft^l, 
fe  f^'^;  C^C^'  iT^t^j  (Sanjaya,  Kavindra,  ^rikarna 
Nandi  and  others.) 

Of  the  words  quoted  abave,  ^f^^  is  still  in  use 
in  Durbhanga.  The  words  ^^^,  ^Z^^  etc.  are 
used  in  Orissa.  The  suffix  %'  occurring  in  the 
proper  names  such  as  Tfff^?l1  reminds  us  of  Hindi. 
The  Hindi  word  ^sfj^;^  changed  into  IJtC^  is  still  in 
use  in  Eastern  Bengal.  The  case-endings  as  in 
n^i::^«n:^1  ^fW,  ^^m  mfW  in  Manik  Chandra 
Rajar  Gan  and  ^^^  "^"si^  in  Krittivasa  and  #t^C^ 
l^t^  in  Krisha  Vijay  are  akin  to  uses  current  in 
Hindi. 


Not  only  in  the  language,  but  also  in  costumes 
and  habits,  the  Bengalis  of  past  times  were  more 
like  their  brethern  of  the  up-country.  They  used 
to  wear  a  turban  and  tuck  up  the  Dhuti  tightly 
between  the  legs  as  the  Hindustani  people  do  now. 
When  the  merchant  Chand  presented  three  silk 
clothes  to  the  Raja  of  Ceylon,  the  Raja  was  taught 
to  wear  it  after  the  fashion  of  the  Bengalis,  and 
Vijay  Gupta  thus  describes  it : — 


Agfeeitient 
in  habits 

and 
costumes. 


388      BENGALI    LANGAUGE   &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

*''  One  the  Raja  wore  round  the  loins  tucking 
the  ends  tightly  between  the  legs.  Of  the 
other  he  made  a  turban,  and  with  the  third  he 
covered  his  body." — In  Manik  Chandra  Rajar  Gan 
we  found  Nenga  brother  of  Raja  Manik  Chandra 
asking  him  to  take  his  turban  off  as  his  mother 
was  dead.  The  ladies  of  Benoral  used  to  wear 
a  bodice  called  Kanchuli  like  the  up-country 
women  of  today.  We  meet  with  description  of 
the  Kanchuli  in  almost  all  our  writers  from 
Vijay  Gupta  downward.  The  custom  lingered  even 
up  to  the  time  of  Raja  Krisna  Chandra  of  Nadia 
in  the  eighteenth  century.  We  quote  from  the 
Bengali  work  called  Ksiti(j:a  Varh^avali  Charitat 
"The  queen  Tof  Krisna  Chandra)  and  the  ladies  of 
the  royal  family  used  to  wear  silk  ^adis  but  during 
festivities  and  on  important  religious  occasions  they 
put  on  the  Kanchuli  (bodice),  Ghagra  (a  sort  of 
gown  worn  by  up-countrv  women),  and  Odna  as 
the  ladies  of  the  North-western  countries  do." 
A  description  of  this  Odna  is  to  be  found  in 
many  of  the  old  Bengali  poems ;  for  instance  in 
a  pada  by    \'arh(,uvadana    we    have    the    following^ 


^H  vii^^nf^  ft^  n^  ^0  I 

Vijay  (iu[)ta. 

^lSl  nf^^^^  I     ^^^  '21t<I  ^^^  ^-^  ^™^^^^  "^H^sit^^ 
nfe^^  I    p.  35- 

nttc^  ^t%^  ^if^  ^t^^  ^^v^  h" 


IV*  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  389 

"Through  a  blue  Odna  appeared  her  beautiful 
fair  face ;  what  if  a  bee  mistakes  it  for  a  lotus  and 
stings?"  A  Nivivandha  or  girdle  is  also  described 
in  many  of  our  old  poems  as  worn  by  women. 

It  was  the  fashion  with  the  Bengalis  of  the 
higher  classes  to  w^ear  their  hair  long  and  in  plaits. 
We  find  in  Chandi  Das,  Radha's  maidens  humor- 
ously asking  Krisna  why  his  braided  hair  hangs 
loosely  down  his  back.  We  have  many  accounts 
of  how^  Chaitanya  Deva's  long  hair  was  perfumed 
and  w^ashed  with  Amlaki  (myrobolan)  and  how  it 
was  cut  off  by  a  barber  named  Deva  (according  to 
some  Madhu)  on  the  eve  of  his  taking  the  vow  of 
asceticism.  In  Vijay  Gupta's  Padmapurana  we 
find  the  foUow^ing  lines  : — 

''■^Beautiful  Laksmindra's  long  and  flowing 
hair  hung  loose  as  his  kinsmen  carried  him  to  the 
bank  of  the  river  Gangura." 

In  Krithivasa's  Ramayana  we  find  "the  soldiers 
of  Rama  fled  precipitously,  havig  no  time  even  to 
tie  their  long  hair  into  knots. "t  The  Bengalis 
up  to  the  1 6th  century  wore  their  hair  long  as  the 
Madrasis  and  the  Uriyas  do  now.  They  scented  it 
with  perfumes  and  plaited  it  like  the  women.  In 
the  17th  century  they  imitated  the  fashion  of  the 
Moslem    gentry — wdio    allowed    their    hair  to  grow 


^''  ^1^  ^^  ^^nt  ft^'m^^t^  g?r  I 

Vijay  Gupta. 

t  ''  "mn  ^tm^  ^^  J^tft  -^iz^  ^  1" 

Krittivas. 


390        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 


The  Babri. 


Kusumbha- 


The  five 

Qaudas 

often 

under  one 

Suzerain 

power. 


Pancha^ 
(jaude^war 


The  dialect 

of    l:ai»tern 

and 

Western 

BengaL 


till  it  toucht'd  the  shoulders  in  curls.  This  is  called 
the  Babri — a  fashion  to  which  the  Hindus  stuck 
even  till  the  middle  of  the  19th  century. 

The  poet  Bharat  Chandra  of  a  subsequent  age 
describes  '  Kusumbha  '  as  a  favourite  food  with  Civa. 
Present  Bengali  readers  have  no  idea  of  what 
this  word  implies.  In  several  editions  of  Bharat 
Chandra,  the;  annotators  observe  silence  as  regards 
the  passage,  but  in  Rajputana,  '  Kusumbha'  is  an 
article  of  luxury  even  now.  It  is  a  preparation  of 
opium  and  milk  which  the  Rajputs  take  on  festive 
occasions. 

Thus  a  studv  of  our  old  literature  brings  to  our 
knowledge  various  points  of  community  in  language, 
habits,  and  modes  of  living  amongst  those  different 
branches  that  all  came  from  one  common  stock 
and  settled  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  This 
affinity  can  also  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that 
politically  the  five  provinces  to  which  a  reference 
has  been  made,  often  remained  under  the  sanu- 
suzerain  power.  The  title  '  Pancha  Gaude^  vara'  or 
the  'Lord  of  five  Indies'  was  assumed  bv  the  King 
who  for  the  time  being  became  ascendant  among 
the  Hve  powers. 

In  old  Bengali  literature  we  frequenth-  come- 
across  the  title  Pancha  Gaudev\ara  applied  tc 
petty  chiefs  by  their  proteges — the  poets,  but  the 
word  always  recalls  the  high  political  significance 
it  once  possessed.  It  is  a  title  akin  to  the  Bret- 
walda  of  the  Saxons. 

The  literature  of  Western  Bengal  had  many 
words  which  have  passed  out  of  the  current  dialect 
of  that  province  but  the  use  of  them  still  lingers  in 


IV*  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         391 


Eastern  Bengal  The  words  ^ft^,  -^1^,  ^ft^t^I,  ^^^, 
f^^j:^,  etc.,  occur  in  Chaitanya-Bhagavata  and  in 
the  Manasa  Mahgalas  written  three  to  four  hundred 
years  ago  by  authors  who  were  born  in  Birbhum 
and  contiguous  districts.  And  curiously  enough  the 
people  of  these  districts  now  ridicule  the  people  of 
Eastern  Bengal  forcontinuing  to  use  the  same  words. 
Instances  of  ?F^^tf^,  ^l^^,  alm^,  etc.,  abound  in 
the  early  literature  of  Eastern  Bengal  and  that  of 
the  west  also  is  not  wholly  free  from  such  uses. 
In  ^rikrisna  Vijaya  by  Maladhara  Vasu,  Daker 
Vachana  and  other  works  of  West  Bengal,  many 
examples  of  fn^,  mf%,  '^Umft,  ^^,  etc.,  are 
found.  In  Eastern  Bengal  we  find  the  termination 
'\S'  affixed  to  a  number  of  words  after  the  manner 
of  Prakrita,  such  as  Tt^  for  ?^1,  '^^^  for  ^1,  ^tVQ 
for  ^,  s^r©  for  5^1,  ^ty3  for  it,  -^ft^  for  q^1,  "^t^  for  f  1, 
?ty?  for  ^1,  ^fy3  for  ^tl,  lt^8  for  ?1,  n51\8  for  ^1. 
Occcasionally  they  are  met  with  in  the  earlier 
literature  of  Western  Bengal  also,  as  in  Daker- 
vachan  "  ^^t^  C^t^t^  C^^]^  ^1^." 

The  men  and  women  in  the  Buddhistic  asfe  had 
curious  names,  not  at  all  pleasing  to  the  ears,  such 
as  151^^1,  '^^^1,  C^Sfl,  c^^ft,  'l!^^^^,  f^f ,  ^,  ^t, 
^t,  1^,  ^tt,  ^^1,  t^^l,  ^Itlf  cm,  'T^rt,  ^t^VfJl, 
C«Ti^tfel,  &c.  But  with  the  advent  of  the  Sanskri- 
tic  age,  choice  classical  names  began  to  be  preferred. 
In  Vijay  Gupta's  Padmapurana  along  with  names 
which  remind  us  of  the  Buddhistic  period,  Sanskrit 
names  are  found  in  large  numbers  ;  such  for 
instance,  as  ^S^TSI  lustre  of  the  moon,  ^t^^sTl  the 
peerless,  ^^U^l]  moon-beam,  ^t^^f^  jasmine,  »[% 
the  moon,  =^<  Oi^  gold-lining,  lf^%  the  playful, 
^^  the  sincere  one,  ^n'lf^ft  beautiful  bud,  ^^^'^ 


Queer 
names  of 
the  Pra- 
krita age. 

Choice 

Sanskritic 

names. 


392        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

flower-sceptre  of  cupid.  ^snT-Tt«11  garland  of 
victory,  T^^^]  iIk-  j)ure.  By  far  the  greater 
number  of  names  are  found  to  follow  those  of  the 
Hindu  sfods  and  goddesses. 


Non.  ^^^P    quote    a    passage    from   the    same  work  to 

Sanskritic 
names. 


illustrate    with    one    or  two  exceptions,  its  uniform 
use  of  non-Sanskritic  names. 

"There  came  a  maid  whose  name  was  Radha  ; 
her  henpecked  lord,  she  led  home  like  a  tame  ass  ; 
another  maiden  came  of  the  name  of  Rui  whose 
bald  head  was  redeemed  only  bv  a  tuft  of  hair 
in  the  middle  ;  another  whose  name  was  Saru,  her 
braided  locks  were  eaten  up  by  a  cow,  as  she  had 
gone  to  the  cow-shed  for  lightino-  the  fire  ;  another 
maid  came  of  the  name  of  Kui,  in  the  hollows  of 
whose  cheeks  some  two  maunds  of  broken  rice  could 
be  stored  ;  another  maid  appeared  called  Ai  whose 
cheeks  were  high,  but  the  nose  sunk  deep  between 
them,  so  that  it  could  be  scarcely  seen  ;  yet 
anoth(^r  maid  of  the  name  of  Sua,  so  tall  that  lu'r 
head  touched  the  top  of  the  door  as  she  came  out.""^ 


""  ^^^^  ^1^1  ^tl^  ^n  ^n  ^hi  i 
^t^  ^^  ^^^1  ^t^^  ^t^  ^m  ^t  I 

•s['Sl^  ^f^^^  ^T^  g^  ^t^  ^^  II 

omr<^  "m^  c^'tsi  fe^  cnni  v^^  ^<p  h 

^  ^tc^  m^  ^t^  ^5f  ^cf  ^t  II 
^T5  ^^  ^^^1  ^T^?l  ^t^  ^ti  ^[t  I 

^r  ^^  ^^n51  ^n51  ^t^^^  ^C^*f  ^t^  II 

^ti  d)^  ^i<[]  ^t^  ^t^  ^^^  g?ii  I 

^^  i^r.o  ^tftftr.^  fHl^  m^  |<I1  II    \ijay  Gupta. 


IV.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  393 

We  give  beIo\v  a  list  of  obsolete  words  occurring      A  list  of 
•  •  •  words 

in    works    treated    of    in    this   chapter    with    their 

meaning. 

In  Vijay  Gupta's    Padma    Purana  : — ^tll^tTt'^ — 
indisposed,       ^t^«T — skilled,      forward,     'ftfwt^T — 
powerful,  C5Ttl — face,    ^fffr'T% — friendless,   -T^^^l — 
sacred  thread,  >ff%?fH — act    of    attending,    f^c& — to 
pick    up,    ^nfs^^« — in    the    front,    ^ — big,     ^| — 
mother,  Tft — mother,  ^^t^ll" — pains   and  hardships, 
C^^^f^ — farewell,  C^lt^tfV — humble  prayer,  "^T^f^^ll — 
returning,   ^\^^\ — ripe,    ^K^—to    think,    "^t^^^l — 
a   foot,    i\^ — attitude,  ^f^«Tt — maidenly  friendship, 
^t^St?:^— to     deceive,     nfil^tt^ — skill,    fe'^T^— strong, 
CTT^^— like,    C^«15fl— stout    and     healthy,    ^^'fl— 
distress,    ^^t^^l — property,  ^^It^ — fortunate,     Jft^^T 
— to     make    a      sign,    f^^l — wet    (from    ff^,     we 
have  also  got  fifs^,  derived  from  the    same  word  ; 
this  should  not  be    confounded    with    f%^1    derived 
from    f%^ — (bitter).     In    the   Ramayana  by  Kritti- 
vasa  : — ^^^t^    token     of    favour,     f^'^U5 — on      the 
expiry    of,     C^K^ — in    hunger,     C«Tt^ — tears,    VQ?[ — 
limit,   <I\5 — run,    C^f^^ — son.      In    Mahabharata    by 
Sanjay:— ^tftl— I,  ^f^j— you,  CTf^^— mine,  ^^Ttr?r— 
to    all,    ^l^^T^— forward,    -^JftftsS— best,    -^^Tlf— to 
become  fit,  C^f*! — why,  ^f^ — again,    f^f^ — without, 
C'inr — play,  ^^ — from,    ^t^ — own.       In    Kavindra 
Parame9vara  and  ^rikarah  Nandi's  works  : — ^^'Sl — 
fear,    ^^ — with,  "^tf^ — I  shall  throw,  '^TO'I^ — on. 
In  the  Padma  Purana  by  Narayana    Dev  : — 9fHH  — 
ill-fame,  ^Rtl — where,   tilfelH— leaving.       In    Chandi 
Das's     poem  : — C5I;§K^|T — young     wives,      ft& — a 
knave,  fe^^T^— alarmed,  "^^ — a  Brahmin    student, 
C^ — body,  $t^ — thigh,  ^t^^ — In  eagerness,  C^^ — 
affection,     y?^^-— rice,       "ifil^tff — blame,    ^fe^— to 
50 


394      BENGALI   LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.     [  Chap. 

swell  (from  Sanskrit  "?:?  ft^!^  ;  its  present  form 
is  '^f^^W)-  ^"  Crikrisha  Vijay  :—5f^— recovery, 
^t^fU5 — sound,  ^%Sf5 — dishevelled,  C^t^5{ — a  son. 
In  various  other  works  of  this  period  : — ©"^^your, 
^5|f|"| — to  keep,  "sjt^r^r — another,  "sjl^^ — now,  ^'t^  — 
I  shall  go,  ^^15" — son,  C'^K^ — son.  ^ — old  (applied 
to  objects  as  ^\^  ^^ — an  old  bow),  C^^^ — then, 
^fir^^^"l— 1  did,  fcc^— to  be,  ^ft^— to  him,  C^t^tt^ 
—to  enter,  f^^^tt^— dissuaded,  ilt%^t^  ^t?Tl— 
began  to  cry,  ■^^<I — a  boar,  ^^\ — lord.  -^Pl^-qsl — 
Sugriva,  ^ff^^— loudly,  H^^j— ant,  ^^f^=T -to 
inform. 

The   word    ^t^,    not    in    the  sense  of  a  son  but 

in  that  of  a  father  or  a  guardian  is  often    found    in 

the  works  of  Vijay  Gupta  and  other  poets.     In  the 

former  poem  we  find  the  desciples    of  Dhanvantari 

addressing    him    as  ^t^    and    the    goddess  Padma 
The  origin  ,  ,         •    "   ,        r     ,        ^.       ,       .i  ,         i 

of    Babu.       addressing  her  father  ^iva  by  the  same    word.       It 

is  evident  that  the  modern  ^t\is  derived  from    '^]^ 

and    it    originally    meant    a  father  as  the  word  ?t^ 

does  now. 

The  case-  ^  '^^  words  of  which  a  list  is  given  above    occur 

endings        jj-^    nearly    all    the   old    works  comprised  within  this 
and    pro-  -^  ^ 

nouns.         chapter.     For  the  sake  of    convenience,    however, 

I  refer  in    most    cases    to    particular  authors    from 

whose  works  I  happened  to  note  them. 

The  case-endings  of  words  and  forms  of 
pronouns,  the  examples  of  which  I  lind  in  the 
works  are  also  included  in  the  following  list. 

First  person,  singular,  nominative  ^tf^,  ?^, 
•«fffsj^  ^tf^^,  C^l-  Si'cond  person,  singular,  nomi- 
n;Ative  ^1^,  ^f^,  ^'5',  'ifia.       Tluril    person    nomina- 


IV*  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  395 


tive  f^2[  1  First  person,  singular,  nominative,  accu- 
sative ^t^t^^5,  (^rf^,  ^mi^^  C^m^.  C^^U■  Second 
person,  singular,  nominative,  accusative  C^t^tC?!, 
C^Ht^,  CSt^t.  ^^,  <rsT^t^^,  C^ti:!r.  Third  person 
singular,  nominative,  accusative  ^t^,  ^K^,  ^^, 
^tt^-  First  person,  singular,  possessive,  ^f^f^, 
^fsn,  ^Tf^,  C'lT^^,  C^n,  C^\m-  Second  person, 
singular,  possessive  C^l^l,  C^t^t?!,  ^f,  C^5t^'^, 
CS"t^n.       Third    person,  singular,     possessive    ^t?, 

The  plural  forms  were  generally  formed  by 
adding  t^^,  ^f{,  and  ■^^f?i,  as  ^ftl^^,  ^tf^^^,  iim>i^«l, 
and  ^'>ITfff.  The  verbs  in  the  first  person  show 
such  forms  as  C^t^1,  rfc^l,  C^f^^sf,  C^^W,    (for   ^fki), 

Oi^^,  ^f^^\,  ^^^,  ^5^,  ^f<j^,  ^ft^,  'frt^.  ft?^, 

^j^?(.  In  the  second  person— ^^tf^I,  f^^T^,  ^ftat^, 
^f^C^lT^,  <pfil^.  In  the  third  person  we  have  in- 
stances of  ^^  being  used  for  ^l^  (as  in  Tm'^^  ^^m 
^^n  ^^  i?f^*f^) .  There  are  many  curious  forms  of 
verbs  such  as  ^^t¥,  "^tt^^  Z^^^,  ^C^^. 

Trade  was  generally  carried  on  by  a  system  of 
barter,  but  covvris  were  much  used  as  coins,  and 
they  were  counted  in  gandas,  pafias,  and  kahahas. 
The  Bengalis  used  to  travel  by  sea  for  purposes  of 
trade  in  early  days,  but  during  the  period  of  which 
we  are  speaking,  such  practices  fell  into  disuse. 
The  sea-voyages  described  in  old  Bengali  poems 
are  monostrous  fables,  but  they  prove  the  existence 
of  traditions  that  existed  in  the  country,  about 
commercial  enterprises  undertaken  by  Bengalis  in 
the  past,  though  couched  in  the  forms  of  romances. 
We  may,  however,  glean  what  sort  of  ships  were 
made    in    the    country  from  these  writings.     In  th^ 


The  plural 
forms. 


Navigation 
for  Trade. 


39^         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.     [Chap, 

pictorial  illustrations  of  the  Borra  Buddar  temple 
of  Java  published  by  the  Dutch  Government,  we 
lind  numerous  pictures  of  ships  which  went  to 
that  Island  from  Tamluka,  Chittagong  and  the  sea- 
coastsof  Orissa  and  Guzrat,  and  they  represent  a  tvpe 
on  which,  even  yet,  the  modern  P^uropean  sailing- 
ships  have  not  noticeably  improved.  In  old  Bengali 
literature  we  find  that  oarsmen  and  pilots  were 
generally  recruited  from  Eastern  Bengal.  Their 
peculiar  accent  was  a  subject  of  ridicule  to  poets 
then  as  now.  The  oarsmen  were  supervised  by 
Gavurs,  who  would  occasionally  beat  them  with 
rods  called  Dangas,  if  found  to  be  lagging  in  their 
work.  The  oarsmen  used  to  singr  a  chorus  as  thev 
plied  their  oars  ;  such  songs  were  called  '  Sari.' 
The  Madhukar  or  the  head-ship  on  board  which  a 
great  merchant  or  king  embarked,  was  adorned 
with  many  artistic  designs.  The  prow  especially 
was  formed  into  various  picturesque  shapes  ;  it 
often  represented  the  form  of  a  peacock.  The 
vessels  were  loaded  \Nith  utensils  of  bcll-mctal 
made  in  various  patterns,  muslin  and  other  fine 
stuffs,  shells  and  corals,  and  various  agricultural 
products  of  Bengal.  The  vessels  bore  poetic 
names  such  as  'The  Sea-foam,'  '  The  Royal  Duck,' 
'The  moon  light.'  The  descriptions  of  places, 
though  mere  old  wives'  tales  entitled  to  little  cre- 
dence, have  still  some  grains  of  truth  in  them.  Of 
the  Ceylonese,  it  is  said  that  if  their  parents 
die,  they  keep  them  long  without  cremation.  This 
refers  to  the  custom  of  the  Buddhists  who  some- 
times allow  even  a  \\  hole  year  to  pass  before  the 
corpse  of  a  monk  is  cremated.  In  another  place 
wc  find  '  If  they  die,  the  son  has  no  claim,   but    the 


I 


i 


IV.] 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LIlERAtURE. 


397 


sister's  son  inherits  the  property' — a  custom  which 
is  still  observed  in  the  Southern  Presidency  amongst 
the  Nairs.  Sea-voyages  as  described  in  the  earliest 
Manasa  Mahgals  seem  to  represent  facts,  though 
much  distorted  and  exaggerated,  but  in  later 
versions,  we  find  the  accounts  turned  into  complete 
fiction  from  which  it  is  impossible  to  gather  any 
historical  truth. 

The  works  mentioned  in  this  chapter  represent 
only  a  small  portion  of  the  literature  actually 
written  in  Bengal  between  the  13th  and  the  i8th 
centuries."^  As  most  of  these  are  in  the  form  of 
old  manuscripts  and  as  search  for  them  has  been 
commenced  only  lately,  and  that  in  a  half-hearted 
way,  by  scholars  who  have  no  funds  to  conduct 
the  work  vigorously,  by  far  the  greater  portion  of 
this  literature  was  lost  before  any  attempt  was 
made  to  preserve  it  and  of  existing  manuscripts 
not  a  tithe  could  be  recovered  for  want  of  funds. 
The  enlightened  section  of  our  community  who 
are  fond  of  displaying  their  erudition  in  English 
literature,  who  are  never  weary  of  admiring  a 
Cordelia,  a  Haidee  or  even  a  Donna  Julia  and  who 
quote  from  the  English  translation  of  Virgil  to 
shew  their  appreciation  of  Dido's  love,  would  not 
care  to  read  the  story  of  Behula — the  bride  of 
Laksmindra,  whose  unflinching  resolution  and  suf- 
ferings for  love  rise  higher  than  many  a  martyrdom  ; 
or  of  KhuUana,  the  loving  damsel  of  Ujani,  whose 
beauty,  tender  age,  sufferings  and  fidelity  all  com- 
bine to  make  her  one  of  the  finest  creations  of 
poetic  fancy  ;  or  of  Ranjavati — 'the   wife    of  King 

*We   have  not  included  the  works  by    Vaisnava  aitthof;^  of  this 
period  in  our  list. 


Old  Bengali 

literature 

treated 

with 

neglect. 


398        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.     [Ch^p. 

Kadha  Sen  of  Maynagar  whose  resignation  was  as 
great  as  her  austerities  that  stripped  even  death  at 
the  stake  of  its  natural  horrors.  The  name  of  a 
Shelly,  a  Victor  Hugo,  or  an  Alfred  de  Musset  evokes 
in  the  minds  of  enlightened  Bengalis  feelings  of 
great  admiration,  but  they  do  not  care  to  know  who 
were  Chandi  Das,  Mukundaram  and  Krittivasa. 
The  ears  charmed  by  the  beauty  of  Iambic  and 
Trochaic  measures  would  not  stoop  to  favour  the 
Payara  and  the  Tripadi  Chhandas  of  the  old 
Bengali  poems.  Yet  it  is  their  own  literature  which 
contains  elements  that  they  are  naturally  best  fitted 
to  appreciate,  and  their  appreciation  of  the  romantic 
motives  of  European  literature  is  apt  to  be  fraught 
with  disastrous  results  to  our  society  which,  under  its 
peculiar  constitution,  leaves  no  room  for  the  betrothed 
pair  to  have  the  slightest  share  in  the  mutual  choice. 

As  a  natural  consequence  of  this  neglect,  a  large 

cripts  number  of  valuable  manuscripts  has  been  allowed  to 

be  eaten    by  worms  or  destroyed  by  hre.  unknown 

and  unheeded.     The   Battala  Printing   Agencies  of 

Calcutta,  which  have  undertaken  to  minister  to    the 

literary  wants    of    a    rustic   folk   have   preserved  a 

considerable    portion    of    them    bv     printing   them 

on  paper  of  very  inferior  quality,  the  printer's  devil 

having    freely    distorted    and    tampered     with    the 

The  laud-      »'t''^dings.     Yet,  though  meagre  in  number  and  poor 

able  efforts     i,i    execution,   the  Battala  Presses    have    preserved 
of  Battala.         ,  ,  .  ,  .     ,  .         n 

what  otherwise     would    have    met    with    a    certain 

destruction,    and   though  late  we  ha.\c  now  risen  to 

a     consciousness  of    the    gratitude  which    we    owe 

to  them  for  this    invaluable  service. 


Manus- 


CHAPTER  V. 


The  Literature  of  the  Vaisnavas. 
I.     Vaisnavism  in  Bengal. 
II.    The  Life  and  Teachings  of  Chaitanya  Deva. 
in.    Vaisnava  Biographies. 

(a)  Kadcha  or  Notes  by  Qovinda  Das. 

(b)  Chaitanya  Bhagabataby  Vrindavan  Das. 

(c)  Chaitanya  Mangal  by  Jayananda. 

(d)  Chaitanya  Charitamrita  by   Krisfia   Das 

Kaviraj. 

(e)  Chaitanya  Mangal  by  Lochan  Das. 

(f)  Brief  accounts  of  Nityananda — Advaita- 

charyya — Narottam  Das — Raghunath 
Das  —  Rupa  —  Sanatafia  — ^rinivas- 
Acharyya— Hari  Das  and  other  Vais- 
nava devotees. 


(g) 


Bhakti  Ratnakar  and    other   biographi- 
cal works. 


IV.    Theological  books. 
V.    The  Padas  or  Songs  of  the  Vaisnavas. 


I.     Vaisnavism  in  Bengal. 

Chronologically  speaking,  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  Literature,  which  forms  the  subject-matter  of 
this  chapter,  precedes  works  treated  of  in  the  last 
chapter.  Bat  as  the  Vaisnava  Literature  is  marked 
by  distinct  characteristics  of  its  own  and  has  little 
relation  to  the  spirit  that  predominates  in  the  rest  of 
our  Literature,  we  have  found  it  convenient  to  group 
the  works  of  Vaisnava  writers  together  and  to  deal 
with  them  separately  in  the  present  chapter,  with- 
out observing  their  chronological  order,  in  relation 
to  non-Vaisnava  works. 

Works  written  by  the   Vaisnavas  form  the  most 
important  and  interesting  portion    of  our  literature. 


Chronolo- 
gical order 

not 
followed. 


The  excel- 
lence of 
Vaisnava 
Literature. 


400      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

They  cover  a  varied  field  and  contain  the  finest  ex- 
amples of  poetrv  that  are  to  be  found  in  our  language, 
and  are  no  less  important  for  their  lofty  spiritual 
tone  inspired  by  the  great  personality  of  Chaitanya 
Deva  than  for  the  influence  they  have  exerted  on 
our  language  in  all  its  different  channels. 


A  contra.st 

with  the 

works  of 

classical 

writers. 


In  the  literature  dealt  with  in  the  last  chapter, 
we  marked  the  hand  of  classical  writers,  who  had 
recast  the  earlier  recensions  of  rustic  poems  after 
Sanskritic  models.  This  literature  of  renaissance 
is  permeated  by  a  taste  for  classical  figures  and 
classical  allusions.  Words  were  recovered  from  the 
loose  Prakrita  to  which  they  had  degenerated,  and 
restored  to  their  original  Sanskrit  forms.  Reformed 
Hindus  took  up  subjects  of  Buddhistic  origin,  cast 
them  into  the  mould  of  their  own  new  ideas, 
Hinduized  their  spirit  and  Sanskritized  their  langu- 
age. The  Vaishava  Literature,  however,  is  essen- 
tially a  literature  of  the  people.  This  '  people' 
should  not  be  identified  with  those  rustic  folk  whose 
language  was  the  hated  patois  and  the  subjects  of 
whose  songs  were  fables  and  stories  in  which  facts 
were  distorted  or  over-coloured  without  any  artistic 
sense.  The  people  who  created  X'aisnava  Liter- 
ature had  warred  against  orthodoxy  and  priest-craft. 
They  had  risen  out  of  the  stupor  of  ignorance  of 
ages  and  become  conscious  of  a  new  strength.  A 
god-man  had  lived  in  their  midst  and  in  the  living 
example  before  them,  they  had  witnessed  the  fulfil- 
ment of  th(^  spiritual  ideal  of  their  country,  greater  I 
than  what  scholars  could  teach  or  poets  represent 
with  all  the  inspiration  of  their  language.  The 
freedom    ami    latituiU^    of    their    literary     attempts 


V,  ]    BENGALI  LANGUAGE  &  LHEKATURE.     40  f 

startle    us    by  the^ir    boldness,  as  they  attract  us  by 
their  novelty. 

Benoral  has,  as  I  have  already  said,  evinced  in  the     ^  spirit  of 
...  .  .  revolt 

history  of  her  religious  [progress,  a  spirit  of  constant        against 

revolt  against  orthodoxy.    Whenever  an  institution,  ^^^' 

basing  itself  on  the  dogmas  of  monastic  pedants, 
has  shut  its  portals  against  the  immutable  truths  of 
nature  and  tried  to  blindfold  men  by  learning  and 
logic,  the  heterodox  elements  in  this  country  have 
revolted  against  its  theology  and  asserted  themselves 
to  break  the  fetters  of  social  autocracy  by  proclaim- 
ing the  true  relation  in  which  man  stands  to  God 
and  to  his  fellow  mpn.  It  was  this  spirit  which 
had  at  one  time,  made  Bengal  a  staunch,  votary  of 
the  Buddhistic  creed  ;  it  was  for  this  reason  that 
the  Jain  Tirthankaras  had  found  it  a  suitable  soil 
for  the  promulgation  of  their  doctrines;  and  last 
but  not  least  the  Vaisriavas  of  Bengal  shewed  the 
strength  that  lay  dormant  in  her  masses,  a  strength 
which  by  a  Herculian  application  of  its  resources 
upset  the  whole  social  fabric,  broke  through  the 
thick  walls  of  time-honoured  institutions,  and 
opened  up  a  vista  for  the  passage  of  heaven's 
light. 

This    great    strength    of  the    people    had    been     The  devel= 
silently    gathering  itself  in    the    declining  days  '  of      ^h^c^eed* 
Buddhism,  when  the  V;-    liava    creed    had    not    yet        of  love. 
assumed  a  new  shape  i;i    Bengal.     The    Mahsyana 
School  o!   the    Buddhists  had  branched    itself    in    a 
hundred  ways  and  the  theory  of  the  void  (Cunyabad), 
though     it     occasionaP         led     to     scepticism     and 
sophistry    counted  a  lar-e  number  of  votaries    who 
developed  a  cre^dol  aevcr  onnot  unlikethe  Vaisnava 


ism. 


402      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.      [Chap. 

Mahayan-      idea  of  love.  Some    of  the   scholarly    Mahayanists 

ism  and  ^  .         r     .1  ^u  x-  •  ^.u 

Vaishav-       went    a    step    further    than    Aagarjuna,     the  great 

promoter  of  the  creed  and  founder  of  the  Madhya- 
mic  School,  and  argued  like  atheists.  This  class 
earned  for  the  Buddhists,  the  common  name  of 
sceptics  in  the  country.  But  amongst  the  masses 
Mahayanism  gave  rise  to  the  worship  of  a  hundred 
deities  like  that  of  Prajna  Paramita,  Abaloki- 
te^war  and  Munja9ri,  whose  images  have  so  many 
points  in  common  with  those  of  Vasudeva  and 
other  gods  and  goddesses  of  the  Hindu  Pantheon. 

Says  Mr.  Kern  in  his  Manual  of  Buddhism,"^ — 
*'  Mahayanism  lays  a  great  stress  on  devotion,  in  this 
respect  as  in  many  others,  harmonising  with  the 
current  of  feelinor  in  India  which  led  to  the  sfrowinq: 
influence  of  Bhakti.  It  is  by  that  feeling  of  fervent 
devotion  combined  with  the  preaching  of  active 
compassion  that  the  creed  enlisted  the  sympathy  of 
numerous  millions  of  people."  Mahayanism  in  its 
higher  theology  professed  doctrines  not  unlike 
those  promulgated  by  the  great  Sankaracharyva. 
It  bore  a  distinct  affinity  to  Hinduism  in  its 
popular  forms  also.  According  to  Kern,  "  Mahaya- 
nism is  much  indebted  to  the  Bhagabata  Gita  and 
more  even  to  Caivisin."t  The  Buddhist  masses 
had  therefore  developed  an  emotional  creed  which 
led  them  afterwards  to  accept  the  tenets  of 
\\'ushavism  with  such  cordiality.  The  '  Nam  San- 
kirtan'  or  the  recitation  of  god's  name  which  forms 
one  of  the  most  I'ssential  points  in  the  X'aisfiava 
creed  was  also  prevalent  amongst  these  Mahayana 
Buddhists  with  whom  the  "void"  was  sometimes 
contemplated  as  mercl\-  a  name. 

♦  P.  124.  t  p.  J  22. 


v.] 


BENGALI   LANGUAGE  &   LITERATURE. 


403 


When  Buddhism  ceased    to    be    a    living    force, 
a  great    number   of    people    who    had    adhered    to 
that   faith    lost  all  social    prestige    in    the  country. 
They    became    out-castes — the     Hindu    revivalists 
having    refused    to    admit    them    to    their     society. 
These    people    readily  responded    to  the  brotherly 
call    of    the    Vaishavas     and    gathered   under    the 
flag       of      Nityananda — the      great       apostle      of 
Chaitanyism    in    Bengal    in    the   sixteenth  century. 
Thus  the  Bauls,  the  Neda  Nedis,  the    Sahajias  and 
the    sects   that   afterwards    went   by    the    name  of 
Karta  Bhajas  and  Kisori  Bhajaks,  who  had  originally 
formed   the    bulk    of    the     Buddhist    masses,    now 
swelled   the    ranks   of    the    lay   Vaisfiavas.     Some 
of    these    people    still    uphold    the    doctrines    of 
the    Mahayanists    though    they    outwardly    profess 
Chaitanyism.   The  Mahima  Dharmis  of  Orissa  have 
a  vast  literature  which  promulgate  the   doctrines  of 
Chaitanya  and  Nagarjuna  alike.     In  some  works  of 
this  class  such  as  those  of  the  Uriya  poets  Chaitanya 
Das    and   Jagannath    Das    who    flourished    in    the 
sixteenth    century   and    are    popularly    known     as 
Vaishava  poets,   the  creed  of  Madhyamic  Mahays - 
nism  is  elaborately    explained    w^ithout  any  excuse, 
and     the     names    of    Dharma    (Prajna   Paramita), 
and  of  Buddha  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in    them. 
Indeed  one  poet  went  so  far  as  to  give  an  account  of 
the  five  Dhyani  Buddhas  onthe  lines  of  the  Mahaya- 
nists,  calling  himself  a  follower  of  Chaitanya  all  the 
while.     Some  of  these  startling  facts    recently  dis« 
covered  by  Babu  Nagendranath  Vasu  will  be  found 
embodied  in   his    archaeological    Report   on   Orissa 
which  is  already  in  the  press.     It  will  be  curious  to 
observe    how    Chaitanyism    and    Mahayanism  have 


The  lay 
Buddhist 
society 
furnishing 
a  recruit- 
ing ground 

for  the 
Vaisnavas. 


4'04      BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.      [  CHap. 

commingled  amongst  some  of  these  \'aisna^-i  sects. 
In  one  instance  a  religious  mendicanc  of  the 
X'aisiiava  sect  of  Bgul  w  ~  as'  ed  by  the  writer  of 
the  present  treatise  if  lie  \  Mshipped  the  image  of 
Chaitanya.  He  said  in  rep.  that  there  .ould  be 
really  no  image  of  Chaita;  \\i  to  be  worshipped  as 
he  was  merely  'the  voi'  and  existed  only  as  a 
name ! 

Thus  the  scattered  Mab?,yanists, — who  lay  like  a 
disbanded  army,  without  any  great  leader  to  govern 
and  control  them,  after  Buddhism  had  been  banish- 
ed from  the  soil  of  its  birth. — were  now  broui^ht 
together  and  made  to  accept  the  emotional  creed  of 
love,  in. its  fully  developed  form  ;  they  were  thus 
merged  in  the  great  community  of  the  X'aisnavas. 
The  Vaishavas,  while  calling  all  people  to  accept  their 
theory  of  spiritual  love,  also  beat  the  drum  of  war 
against  caste-distinction  and  priest-craft;  and 
the  evolution  of  what  remained  of  Buddhism  in  the 
country  to  the  highly  spiritual  and  emotional  creed  of 
the  Vaishavas  came  to  happen  as  the  natural  sequenc* 
of  this  revolution  ;  for  the  Buddhist  masses  had  al 
ready  developed  a  creed  of  devotion  being  influenced 
by  the  spirit  of  the  Pauranic  revi\-al  all  around,  and 
Vaishavism  attracted  them  most,  as  it  did  awa\- 
with  caste — now  tlu^  only  barrier  that  could  pre- 
vent them  from  joining  with  the  Buddhists. 

The  points  What   dislinclion  is  tlu-re  between  the    Biiddlu.st 

of  simi-  \  iksii  and  the  \'aisnava  X'airagi  w  ith  his  shaven 
head  and  loose  o\er  coat  ?  W'lun  we  read  ^'uang 
(luiang'S'lriilvcls-^his  description  of  Ku^i  Xagar  and 
]>enareji  for^ihstance,  and  read  mvtholoiiical  ac- 
counts. I -ofiiBuDd'dlha's  killing  the  demons  related  with 


laritv. 


V".']"       BENTGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATUKE.  405 

a  devotional  fervour,  are  we  not  reminded  of 
stories  about  Vishu  so  exactly  alike,  described  in 
Vaishava  books  as  Narottam  Vilas  and  Bhakti 
Ratnakar?  In  the  latter,  the  mythological  deeds 
of  Visnu  are  found  marked  by  temples,  while  in  the 
former  the  scenes  of  Buddha's  conquest  of  demons 
are  said  to  have  been  marked  by  pillars  of  A^oka 
Raja.  The  religious  history  prevalent  in  the  coun- 
try merely  changed  name  when  the  Buddhist 
theology  passed  into  Vaisnavism  and  a  careful 
study  of  the  two  religions  will  shew  them  often  to 
be  as  similar  as  the  image  of  Avalokitecwar  of  the 
Buddhists  and  Vasudeva  of  the  Hindus. 


But  this  detracts  nothing  from  the  praise  due  to 
the  Vaisfiavas.  They  infused  new  life,  where  vitality 
was  sinking.  It  is  true,  materials  lay  all  around  in 
the  shape  of  a  spirit  of  devotion  and  a  desire  for 
renunciation.  But  in  the  world  materials  are  at  no 
time  wanting.  It  is  only  when  a  great  pow-r 
works  them  up  to  their  highest  capacity  and  leads  to 
striking  success  that  we  have  opportunities  (  f 
observing  that  they  were  capable  of  such  achieve- 
ments. Buddhism  and  Vaishavism,  beside^, 
originally  differed  in  their  tenets,  one  laving 
stress  on  knowledge  and  the  other  on  devotion. 
It  was  only  when  the  higher  classes  of  the 
Mahayanists  had  left  the  country,  that  the  Buddhist 
masses  found  it  possible  to  accept  a  leader  who 
preached  the  doctrine  of  Bhakti  (devotion), 
without  reserving  a  place  for  Juan  (knowledge) 
in  his  theology. 


Credit  due 

to  the 
Vaisnavas 


Funda^ 

mental 

difference. 


The 

message  of 
Eastern 
India  to 

the  world. 


406      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.      [Chap 

Eastern  India  seems  to  have  a  singular  mission 
for  the  world.  There  is  no  Haldighat.  no  Chillin- 
wala,  no  Kurukhestra,  no  Panipat  in  this  part  of 
the  country.  No  martial  feats,  no  acts  of  extra- 
ordinary bravery  or  patriotism  mark  this  blessed 
land  ;  but  the  pre-historic  temples  of  Benares  rise 
aloft  invoking  people  from  the  furthest  provinces 
of  India  to  respond  to  their  high  religious  call  ;  the 
Sama-songs  accompanied  by  the  evening-bells 
and  sung  in  chorus  by  Vedic  Brahmins  in  the 
holy  city  carry  us  to  the  times  when  the  Risis  of 
old,  set  their  first  great  utterances  on  religion  to 
sublime  music.  The  monastery  of  Nalenda,  once 
one  of  the  greatest  centres  of  learning  in  the  world, 
opened  its  portals  to  all  peoples  without  distinction 
and  drew  pupils  from  every  part  of  the  then 
known  world.  The  pillar-inscriptions  of  Ayoka  pro- 
claimed from  here  the  great  truths  of  universal 
equality,  forbearance,  and  kindness,  and  shewed 
the  solicitious  care  of  an  ideal  monarch  who  was  a 
father  to  his  people — nay,  was  full  of  compassion 
even  for  the  dumb  animals.  Here,  in  yet  earlier 
times,  lived  Rama  in  llttara  Ko^ola  whose  name  as 
that  of  an  incarnation  of  God  is  uttered  by  all 
Hindus  in  the  hour  of  death.  And  it  was  here  that 
the  great  Buddha  from  Kapil&vastu  preached  his  reli- 
gion which  has  left  its  stamp  on  the  civilization  of  the 
whole  world,  and  whose  intluence  may  be  traced  not 
only  in  the  'Karma-bad'  on  which  modern  Hinduism 
is  based,  but  (^ven  in  the  Catholic  Church  of 
Christians  and  in  the  creed  of  the  Shufis  amongst 
Mahanimadans.  The  Jaina  Tirthankaras  all  at- 
tained their  spiritual  goal  in  this  part  of  India,  and 
the  great    temple    of  Jagannath    in  Puri,    and    the 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  407 

educational  institutions  of  Mithila,  and  Nadia  in 
comparatively  recent  times,  have  held  up  a  torch 
which  has  lit  up  the  Hindu  world  and  led  it  along 
the  path  of  intellectual  and  spiritual  progress. 
Here  in  Eastern  India,  sang  Valmiki,  that  master 
of  epics,  the  deep  pathos  of  whose  sublime  poetry 
flows  like  the  noble  stream  of  the  Tamasa  itself 
on  whose  banks  it  was  first  composed.  Of  the 
Ramayana  it  has  been  said ; — *'So  long  as  the 
mountains  of  the  world  endure  and  so  Ions  as 
noble  rivers  flow,  this  epic  will  be  read." 

The    Aryans    who    came    to   Beno-al  and  settled  The 

.     .  ,.,,..  .  .         .  apostles  of 

here  had  distinctly  a  high  religious  object   in    view.        Bengal. 

From  Cila  Bhadra,  Dipahkara  and  Mahavira  to 
Minanath,  Goraksanath,  Hadipa,  Kalupa,  Chau- 
rangee  and  even  Ramai  Pandit — the  apostles  of 
Bengal  all  proclaimed  to  the  people  the  transitori- 
ness  of  this  world  and  the  glory  of  a  religious  life. 
I  have  referred  to  the  whole  of  Eastern  India, 
because  Bengali  civilization  four  hundred  years 
ago  was  the  result  of  all  these  influences  combined. 
The  environment  of  a  man  shapes  his  proclivities 
to  a  great  extent  and  the  Bengal  of  the  i6th 
century  was  pre-eminently  marked  by  the  influ- 
ences that  had  governed  Eastern  India  for  ages. 
Nadia-Tolas,  represented  a  revival,  not  indeed  on 
such  a  wide  scale  yet  in  a  subtler  way,  of  the 
learning  of  the  Nalanda  monasteries.  Buddha  had 
taught  kindness  to  animals  and  a  process  of  intros- 
pection by  which  a  conquest  over  the  warring  pas- 
sions of  the  soul  might  be  gained.  Peace  was  pro- 
claimed, not  only  with  the  human,  but  also  with  the 
animal    world,    and    when    the    soil  was  so  far  pre- 


408      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

Chaitanya  pared  by  Buddhism,  came  Chaitanya  Deva  into  this 
^  a^step^'*  historic  land  of  religion,  to  advance  a  step  further 
further.        and  teach  love  to  (}od. 

Born  in  a  He    taught     it    unmistakably.     The     family     to 

pious  which    he    belonged  had  for  many  generations  past 

been  X'aisfiavas — which  means  that  they  had  abs- 
tained from  all  kinds  of  meat.  No  iish  or  flesh 
could  cross  the  threshold  of  a  V^aishava  familv. 
The  word  killing  is  not  to  be  found  in  their  voca- 
bulary ;  to  speak  of  'cutting'  even  a  vegetable,  for 
food,  was  unholy  with  them.  They  called  it  Tt^H 
or  dressing  (lit.  preparing).  1  he  older  phraseology 
current  in  the  country  had  been  changed  by  the 
A'aisiiavas.  The  idea  of  kindness  to  animals  had 
reached  perfection  with  them  and  how  can  this  b- 
explained,  except  as  the  result  of  Buddhism  whicli 
I.  ng  predominated  here  ?  The  family  of  Chaitanya 
Deva  were  of  an  unworldly  character.  His  father 
Jagannath  Mi9ra,  was  very  poor.  His  wife  Cachi 
Devi  asked  him  one  day  why  he  did  not  worship 
Chandi — for  the  avocation  of  such  a  priest  would 
bring  him  mort^  money.  Jagannath  Mi^ra  smiled 
and  said  ho  did  not  care  to  have  it. 

It  was  a  famih'  that  carc^d  onlv  for  the  grace  of 
God, — (iod  who  was  real  to  tin-  Hindus  of  that 
period,  and  not  a  mere  matter  of  speculation  as 
he  is  to  so  many  modern  Bengalis.  The  life  of 
Chaitanya  j)roves  that  all  the  tender  emotions  of 
love, — tin-  yearnings  of  a  mother  lor  her  child, — 
all  that  friendship  of  man  or  woman  may  inspire 
in  the  soul,  tlo  not  represent  a  tithe  of  what  a  man 
can  feel  or  sutler  when  he  realises  I  he  love  of  God. 
r.ut   it  rec|uires    the    cleai     vision    of    one  in  uhoin 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  409 

all    worldly    desires    have    been    extinguished,     to 

appreciate    and  realise  this  great  love.     Chaitanva     He  inspired 
T-k  I  1       1      1         •     1  •  1  .^         the  'padas' 

Ueva,  became  completely  lost  in  his  own  devotion  by  his  love- 
to  God.  The  poetry  that  welled  up  round  him  ecstacy. 
from  those  who  witnessed  the  superb  sight  of  his 
beautiful  love  ecstacy,  has  enriched  our  literature 
beyond  measure  in  the  matchless  padas  of  the 
Vaisnava  poets  which  will  remain  as  an  invaluable 
treasure  to  us  for  a2[-es  to  come. 


All  honour  to  thee,  O  Navadwipa,— the  glorv 
of  Bengal !  The  historic  city  is  now  crumbling 
to  decay.  Its  splendour  is  now  a  tale  of  by-gone 
ages.  But  Navadwipa  will  remain  sacred  to 
Hindus  for  ever.  Its  very  dust  proclaims  a  historv 
which  holds  us  under  a  spell.  For  ages  it  has 
held  a  torch  that  has  ilkrninated  Bengal  and  in  the 
15th  century  a  heavenly  light  appeared  on  its 
horizon  which,  moon-like,  developed  into  a  glorious 
luminary;  verily  was  Chaitanya  Deva  *  Nava- 
dwipa-Chandra  '  or  the  moon  of  Navadwipa,  as  he  is 
popularly  called. 


Navadwipa, 
the  birth- 
place of 
Chaitanya 


and 
a  seat  of 
learning. 


In  speaking  of  the  glories  of  Navadwipa  I  am 
not  referring  to  the  fact  that  it  was  the  last  seat  of 
the  Hindu  kings  of  Gauda.  In  later  times  it 
became  a  far-famed  seat  of  learning.  Its  great 
school  of  Logic,  founded  by  Vasu  Deva  Sarva- 
bhauma,  and  brought  to  perfection  by  Raghunath 
(Jiramani,  drew  pupils  from  all  parts  of  India. 
The  new  system  of  Logic  called  Navya  Nyaya  which 
supplemented  the  old  system  of  Gautama,  indicates 
52 


Navya 
Nyaya. 


410         BKNGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE     [  Chap. 

the  keenness  of  the  Bengali  intellect.  The  subtlety 
with  which  the  Navya  Nyaya  has  been  worked 
out,  gives  it  a  unique  character  and  in  the  brilliant 
mode  of  its  exposition,  it  may  be  considered 
as  a  land-mark  of  progress  in  human  thought, 
and  an  achievement  of  which  every  Indian 
may  be  justly  proud.  This  school  of  Logic  at 
Navadwipa  drew  pupils  from  Benares,  the  Panjab. 
Poona  and  all  the  other  recognised  centres  of 
Sanskrit  learning;  so  that  by  the  early  i6t]i 
century  the  Tolas  or  Sanskrit  schools  of  Nava- 
dwipa, had  become  the  metropolis  of  learning  in 
India.  Xarahari  Chakervarty,  author  of  Bhakti- 
ratnakara  gives  a  topography  of  Navadwipa  of 
this  period,  from  which  we  see  that  the  area  of 
The  area  of  the  city  was  sixteen  square  miles  at  the  time.  It 
dwi'^  included     within    this    area     the    following    among 

other  wards  : — Atapur,  Simulia.  Majitagram,  \'a- 
manpukhuria,  Hat-danga,  Ratupur.  \'idyanagara, 
Belpukhuria,  Champahat,  Mangachi,  Rahupur, 
Minapur,  Gandhavanik  Para.  Malakara  Para,  ^an- 
khari  Para  and  Tanti  F^ara-  \  rindavan  Das,  author 
of  Chaitanya  Bhagbata,  thus  describes  the  flourish- 
ing condition  of  Navadwipa. 

"  *It    is    impossible  to   describe    the    orlories   of 
Its  flour-  ^  *^ 

ishing         Navadwipa.      Hundreds     ot     thousands    of     people 

condition,      i     ^i        ^i  ^i        /-  i  \'      • 

bathe    there    in    the    (janges    every  day.      \  arious 

races    of     people    dwell    in    the    city     whose    nuni- 

y\^^^  ^i&nR^  >K^  ^51  if'Jp  II 


v.]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.        411 

bers  may  be  counted  by  lacs.  There  are  hundreds 
of  scholars  in  it  by  the  grace  of  Sarasvati 
(the  goddess  of  learning).  There  are  many 
professors  who  are  fond  of  displaying  their  learn- 
ing. Even  a  boy  there,  will  challenge  a  veteran 
professor  to  an  intellectual  discussion.  People 
from  various  countries  flock  to  the  Tols  of  Nava- 
dwipa,  and  when  they  have  finished  their  studies 
there,  their  education  becomes  complete." 

But  what  was  this  Navya  Nyaya  of  Bengal  ?  Sceptical 
Those  who  have  read  the  system  of  Logic  founded  of  scholars 
by  Gautama,  know  that  its  basis  is  a  spiritual 
philosophy.  But  this  Navya  Nyaya  of  Bengal  has 
nothing  to  do  with  religion.  It  is  a  secular  system 
of  purely  intellectual  reasoning.  In  the  latter  days 
of  Buddhism,  faith  in  God,  as  I  have  said,  had 
become  nearly  extinct  amongst  some  of  the 
scholarly  Mahayanists,  and  the  creed  become  almost 
identical  with  scepticism  in  popular  estimation. 
Human  mind  in  this  country  after  long  ages  of 
scepticism  and  mystic  Tantrik  rites, — confounded 
and  stupefied  by  the  supernatural  feats  of  'siddhas' 
wanted  to  extricate  itself  from  the  mazy  ways 
of  an  old  and  rotten  institution  and  panted  for  Tatitrikistn 
light    and    for    love  of  God.     The  horrors  of  Tan-    ^"^^55"*" 


^M^  C^  ^'St5t^T  T:^  ^^1  ^Z^ 

Chaitanva  Bhaeabatai 


'S>' 


412      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.     [  Cfiap, 

trikism    arc    thus    described    by    Xarahari  Chakra- 
varty  in  his  Narottam  \'ilas  : — ^ 

"  Who  can  count  their  crimes  ?  The  blood  of 
goats  and  buffaloes  stain  each  house.  Many  of 
thcni  liold  in  one  hand  the  heads  of  men  severed 
from  the  body  and  in  another  a  sword  and  dance 
in  frightful  ecstacy.  If  any  body  falls  in  their 
way,  he  is  sure  to  meet  with  death  at  their  hand- 
Tliere  is  no  way  to  avoid  the  frightful  doom — not 
even  if  he  be  a  Brahmin.  All  of  them  are  ad- 
dicted to  meat  and  wine  and  are  lost  to  all  sense 
of  sexual  morality." 

Vrindavana    Dasa's    Chaitanya    Bhagabata  also 
shews  the  spirit  of  the  times. t 

"The    people    are    wealthy    by    the     grace     ol 
Lak.smi  (goddess  of  wealth).      But  they  spend  their 


^t^  G\^  ^ft^  C»ltf«t^  ^^  ^C^  II 

■^t  ^U  ^"^^U  ^t^  'I^  ^^^1  II 
C^  ^^U  C^5  ^fw  C^t  '^l'^  Vi^  I 
^|-c^v9  f^2r  ^t<i  ^t^  ^  ^.^  ii 
y\V^  3^-^'^^  ^if©  U^'l^  ^ft^' 

mi  ^un  fe^  ^1  ^^^^  ^^Tft^  ii" 

Narottam  \'ilas. — C\inti)  \'ll 

^if^l^  ^^  ^\^  ^7^^^  ^l^  II 
^*i  '^  C^^^  T^  ^t  ^^  ^tC^  I 
^^^  ^<T  ^'^  ^U  ^t^^^*l  H 


/.  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  4I3 

times  in  vain  worldly  pursuits.  Their  religious 
observances  consist  of  singing  songs  in  praise  of 
Chandi  sometimes  for  whole  niirhts  together. 
There  are  some  who  take  pride  in  worshipping 
Manasa  DevL  Immense  money  they  spend  for 
making  images  of  gods.  They  also  spend  money 
foolishly  for  the  marriages  of  their  sons  and 
daughters.  Thus  do  they  spend  their  lives.  Even 
scholarly  professors  do  not  interpret  the  sacred 
books  in  the  lio-ht  of  faith." 

This  was  the  state  of  things  in  which  the  The  defects 
Pauranik  Renaissance  took  its  birth,  and  en-  of  the  Re- 
gaged  in  its  struggle  to  give  to  the  people  better 
ideals  and  a  purer  faith  ;  but  while  the  Brahmins  did 
a  truly  noble  work  on  these  lines,  their  power  gra- 
dually became  oppressive.  The  rules  of  caste 
became  more  and  more  stringrent  as  Kulinism  was 
stereotyped.  While  better  ideals  in  religion  were 
upheld  by  the  Brahmins,  the  gap  between  man 
and  man  was  widened  by  caste-restrictions.  The 
lower  strata  of  society  groaned  under  the  auto- 
cracy of  the  higher,  who  shut  the  portals  of  learn- 
ing against  the  inferior  classes.  They  were  also 
debarred  from  having  any  access  to    a  higher    life, 


if]|  ^^  W^Z^^  ^5f  ^t^  ^'^  II 

From.  Chaitanya  Bhagabatai 


414         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [Chap. 


The  people 

wanted 
faith  and  a 

great 
personality 
to  teach  it. 


Such  a 

personality 

came. 


and  the  religion  of  the  new  school,  became  the 
monopoly  of  the  Brahmins  as  if  it  were  a  commo- 
dity of  the  market-place. 


The  human  mind  in  Bengal,  as  1  have  already 
said,  was  ready  for  a  great  faith.  The  people 
were  unconsciously  waiting  for  a  democratic  move- 
meiit  of  reaction  against  th(!  school  of  relisfious 
monopoly.  They  desired  to  be  taught  that  an 
intricate  system  of  rigid  monastic  rites  is  not 
needed  for  the  attainment  of  salvation.  A  simple 
life,  with  the  name  of  (jod  on  the  lips,  holy  absti- 
nence, and  a  pure  faith,  are  better  than  all  that 
was  ever  said  by  school-men.  To  say  this  in  a 
society  ridden  by  the  Brahmin  as  Sinduavada — the 
sailor  by  the  Old  Man  of  the  Sea — in  a  society 
where  theological  dogmas  ruled  over  ignorant  men 
with  iron  sway,  menacing  those  who  dared  anv 
opj)osition,  would  obviously  require  a  unicjue 
personality.  That  I:>engal  had  the  strength  of 
nroducini^  not  onlv  the  "Teat  man  who  was 
needed,  but  also  the  society  that  could  recognise 
and  a])preciale  him,  is  fully  seen  in  the  life  of 
Chaitan\'a  IJeva.  who  was  born  in  i486  A.I). 


As  the  \'aisnava  literature  to  be  dealt  with  in 
this  chapter  was  inspired  throughout  by  atlmira- 
lion  lor  Chaitan\a  Deva,  and  bore  the  stamp  of 
his  inlUiencc  in  all  its  various  departments,  I  shall 
here  givt^  an  account  of  his  life  at  some  length. 


n.      I  he   Life  and  Teachings  of  Chaitanya  Deva. 

(  hailanya  Deva  was  born  al    MinSpur  in    \a\a- 
dw  ipa  in  1480.      This  Min&pur  has  now  been  trans* 


J 


/.] 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE. 


415 


formed  into  Mayapur  by  the  orthodox  Vaishavas 
who  can  not  bring  themselves  to  call  Chaitanya 
Deva's  birth  place  by  a  Mahammadan  name.  It 
was  in  the  evening  of  the  7th  day  of  the  month 
of  Phalgun  (i8th  of  February)  when  the  full  moon 
had  just  emerged  from  the  shadow  of  an  eclipse 
and  the  air  was  resounding  with  cries  of  'Krisna' 
'Krisna'  'O  Lord'  'O  Lord'  as  is  wont  of  Hindus 
on  an  occasion  like  this,  that  the  birth  of  the 
devotee  who  was  to  preach  the  Krisna-cult  all  his 
life,  took  place. 

Chaitanya  Deva's  ancestors  were  inhabitants  of 
Jaipur  in  Orissa  who  owing  to  the  oppression  of 
Raja  Bhramarbara,  had  settled  in  the  village  of 
Dhaka-Daksina  in  Sylhet.  Jagannath  Migra  the 
father  had  come  to  Navadwipa  to  complete  his 
education  and  there  married  Cachi  Devi  a  daughter 
of  Nilamvara  Chakravarty  originally  an  inhabitant 
of  Sylhet,  who  was  now  settled  in  Navadwipa. 
Jagannath  Micra  and  this  Cachi  Devi  had  eight 
dauorhters  and  two  sons.  The  dausfhters  all  died 
in  infancy.  The  elder  son  was  V'i^varupa  and  the 
younger  Vigvambhara.  They  called  him,  however, 
by  the  pet  name  Nimai  because  he  had  been  born 
in  a  shed  under  a  Nimba-tree.  This  Nimai  after- 
wards became  famous  as  Chaitanya  Deva. 

The  eldest  son  Vi^varupa  was  about  to  be 
married  when  he  was  only  sixteen.  On  the  night 
previous  to  the  date  fixed  for  his  marriage  the 
boy  whose  ascetic  tendencies,  had  been  already 
marked,  left  home  and  took  the  vow  of  a  Sannyasin. 

His  parents  rose  in  the  morning  with  hearts 
full    of    joy    at    the  prospect  of  celebrating  Vigva- 


Birth, 

ancestry 

andfamily- 

history. 


4l6         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [Chap. 

rupa's  marriage.  But  what  a  disappointmeiu 
wiien  they  found  that  the  bird  had  tlown  I  Thev 
receiv(Ml  information  that  he  had  turned  SannySsin 
and  renounced  the  world  forever.  In  what  cave 
of  tlie  mountains,  in  what  holv  shrine  or  in  wliat 
recess  of  tlie  forests  where  tlie  Indian  Pine  and 
I^'ir  trees  raise  their  heads  to  touch  the  skies,  the 
young  Sannyasin  roamed  for  the  rest  of  his  life 
has  remained  a  mystery  up  to  now.  The  parents 
were  struck  dumb  with  sorrow,  and  there  remained 
to  them  their  Nemai  alone — the  last  rav  of  light  to 
dispel  the  gloom  of  their  house. 

Jagannath    Mi(;ra    a    man    of    strong  character 
A  mother's  ,      V  •  •       i    i       .       r       •     i      i    *       ,  • 

fears.  '^"'^'  ^^  ^  spiritual  bent  ot  mind,  bore  this  mis- 
fortune patiently  ;  but  Cachi  Devi  watched  over 
Nemai  with  an  anxious  mother's  care,  alwavs  afraid 
lest  he  also  would  leave  home  and  throw  her  into 
depths  of  misery.  At  last  this  fear  became  a 
mania  with  her.  ''  Since  study  makes  a  man  realise 
the  transitoriness  of  the  world,  let  not  my  Nemai 
be  sent  to  school.  1  would  much  prefer  that  he 
should  remain  at  honie  and  be  a  dunce.*'  Thus 
did  Cachi  Devi  argue  with  her  husband. 

lUit  the  lad  was  as  yet  only  live  years  old.  This 
was  the  age  when  Hindu  parents  stMit  tb.fir  boys 
to  school.  Jagannath  Mi(,ra.  however,  could  not 
do  so  with  Nemai  owing  to  ^achi  Devi's  objections. 

Xemai  ^rew  up  a    wild    bov.       He    mixed    with 
A    wild  .-«  I 

boy.  the    bad    bovs    of     the    villag('  and  carried  on  little 

depredations  in  the  neighbouring  houses  and  or- 
chards in  their  company.  The  pious  Brahmins  after 
their  bath,  \ised  to  close  their  eyes  in  prayerful 
attitude    before     small      ligun^s     of    gods    on     the 


v.]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.         417 


banks  of  the  Ganges.  The  little  thief  would  come 
stealthily  along,  and  carry  away  their  images. 
Sometimes  when  a  Brahmin's  cliadar  was  left  on 
the  banks  while  he  bathed,  Nimai  would  take  it 
away  and  conceal  it  under  a  bush  for  the  sake  of 
fun.  The  little  girls  that  came  to  bathe  in  the 
Ganges  were  teased  and  subjected  to  his  wild 
pranks.  He  would  collect  the  thorny  seeds  of 
Okra-plants  and  throw  them  on  their  flowing  hair. 
Once  a  little  girl  complained  to  ^achi  Devi  that 
Nimai  had  threatened  to  marry  her.  The  little 
fellow  was  six  years  old  at  the  time.  At  times 
Nimai  would  step  in  among  unclean  and  refuse 
things  which  a  Brahmin  would  not  touch.  His 
parents  would  find  him  there,  and  gently  ad- 
monish him  for  his  conduct.  His  reply  surprised 
them  with  the  wisdom  it  disclosed.  "You  do  not 
allow  me  to  study,^'  said  he,  "how  I  am  to  know 
what  is  clean  or  unclean.  Nothing  is  either  clean 
or  unclean  in  my  eyes,  all  things  are  alike  to  me." 
His  words  "  -s^a  '^^H  ^^  ^ft^I  %'^''  are  fraught 
with  the  deepest  truths  of  Vedantic  philosophy. 
They  strike  the  key-note  of  their  speaker's  subse- 
quent work  in  demolishing  orthodox  traditions 
about  the  sacredness  of  particular  objects.  No- 
thing indeed  could  be  holy  or  unholy  in  the  eyes  of 
Chaitanya,  who  had  in  subsequent  years  reached  the 
stage  of  5^1^  ■Jf^f'^,  when  one  looks  upon  all  objects 
without  prejudice  for  or  against. 


^ 


But  this  mischief-making  imp  could  not  be 
tolerated  any  longer,  inspite  of  his  sage-like 
sayings,  and  the  gentle  folk  of  the  neighbourhood 
went    in  a  body  to  Jagannath  IMi^ra  to  complain  to 


Sent  to 
Gang:a 
Das's 

school. 


53 


4l8      BENGALI    LANGAUGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap< 


him  against  his  boy  and  insist  on  his  putting  him 
to  school  without  delay.  Gafiga  Das  was  the 
name  of  the  teacher  to  whose  care  he  was  entrust- 
ed. Nimai  began  to  read  in  this  pundit's  tol. 
He  learnt  the  alphabet  within  a  short  time  and 
commenced  reading  Sanskrit  Grammar. 

''He  does  not  leave  his  book  for  a  moment," 
says  Vrindavan  Das,  his  biographer,^  ''while  bathing 
or  dining  or  going  to  bed,  his  mind  wanders  over 
the  pages  of  his  books.  The  rules  he  reads  he 
quickly  masters,  and  in  discussions  amongst  stu- 
dents he  beats  every  rival.  He  wrote  a  commentary 
on  Sanskrit  Gramniar  himself  with  patient  appli- 
cation." 

Yet  Sanskrit  Grammar  was  the  subject  least 
suited  to  a  student  who  possessed  an  emotional 
nature  like  that  of  Nimai-  Ardent  in  spirit,  and 
eccentric  in  temper  as  he  was,  he  applied  himself, 
\\ith  his  whole  soul,  to  whatever  fell  in  his  way,  and 
study  kept  him  engaged  day  and  night  in  this  early 
youth.  But  he  was  not  a  quiet  and  good-natured 
boy.     As    long   as    he    remained     engaged    in    his 

^ifk^  ^^^  -^n  C521  «rm  f^C^  I 

^^'^H  C^  "^^  ^f^^1  ^f  V^  II 

Chaitanva  I'haLzabala. 


v.]  BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.        419 

studies,    he    restrained  himself.    During  recreation- 
hours,    he   gave    free    scope    to    his    eccentricities. 

Murari  Gupta,  an  aged  scholar,  highly  esteemed 
for  his  character  and  learning,  and  a  Vaidya,  or 
physician,  by  caste,  was  passing  by,  one  day,  when 
young  Nimai  met  and  accosted  him  with  smiling  face. 
"Will  you,  sir,"  said  he,  "kindly  clear  up  some  diffi- 
culties of  mine  in  grammar."  The  veteran  scholar 
liked  the  child  for  his  handsome  appearance  and 
for  his  talent.  He  proceeded  to  explain  the  passa- 
ges required,  but  Nimai  had  not  approached  him 
in  the  spirit  of  a  bona-fide  student.  He  wanted 
to  puzzle  the  old  scholar.  In  the  discussion,  that 
followed,  Murari  was  completely  beaten,  and  young 
Nimai  triumphantly  made  some  very  impertinent 
remarks. t  ''You  are  a  Vaidya.  Why  should  you  read 
Sanskrit  Grammar  at  all?  It  is  a  very  difficult 
thing  to  master  this  science.  It  is  not  like  books 
that  teach  how  to  prescribe  medicine  for  cough, 
biles  and  indigestion."" 

Not  only  in  Sanskrit  Grammar  but  in  Logic 
too  he  shewed  particular  proficiency.  Gadadhara, 
a  great  scholar  in  Logic,  was  once  challenged  by 
him  to  a  free  discussion  on  several  knotty  problems 
in  that  Science,  and  had  to  admit  that  he  was  no 
match  for  Nimai. 


Assails 
veteran 
scholars. 


t ''  ^^  ^i\  hwj  ^f^  1^1  c^^  n^  I 
^^1  nt^i  \^i<\  Pf!ii  c^t^  57  ^^  (I 

Chaitanya  Bhagabata. 


420       BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

Ridicules  The    people    of    Xavadwipa    loved    the    young 

Be^g^al-       scholar.     He  was  so  handsome,  so  brilliant,  and  so 
n^en.  affectionate    of     disposition,    yet    withal     so    wild. 

The  people  of  Western  Bengal  have  always  felt  a 
delight  in  ridiculing  the  peculiar  accents  of  the  men 
of  Eastern  Bengal.  Among  the  youths  of  Xavadwipa, 
Chaitanya  Deva  was  the  foremost  in  ridiculing 
these  people  for  this  defect.  The  people  of  Sylhet 
were  specially  marked  out  by  Nimai  for  his  jokes. 
He  teased  them  till  they  became  enraged.  One  of 
them  with  angry  looks  asked  him, — "  You  sir,  can 
you  say  to  which  country  you  belong  ?  Is  it  not  a 
fact  that  your  father  and  mother  were  born  in 
Sylhet  ?" — This  was  quite  true,  for  his  parents  had 
come  from  Sylhet,  a  remote  place  in  Eastern  Bengal, 
and  settled  at  Navadwipa.  But  fair  argument 
was  not  the  object  of  Nimai  bent  on  provoking 
them  to  anger  ;  and  angry  they  became  till  one 
pursued  him  with  a  club,  and  another  went  to  the 
Kaji  to  lodge  a  complaint  against  him. 

Nimai    set  up  a    Tol  or  Sanskrit  School  himself 
Sets  up  a  ,  f  .  .  TT-  .    .•  11 

Tol.  ^t  the  age  or  twenty.     His  reputation  as   a    scholar 

was    already    well-established    and    i)upils     flocked 

from    all  quarters    to    receive  instruction  from  him. 

His  mode  of  teaching  and  his  treatment  of  scholars 

soon  made  him  very  popular  amongst  them. 

About  this  time,  there  came  to  Navadwipa,  a 
Klcmi^i  r»nowncd  scholar  named  Keyava  Kavmiri.  In  the 
middle  ag(\^  whrn  learning  was  the  chief  object  of 
admiration  with  the  middle  classes,  and  hundreds 
of  scholars  \\ere  taught  in  various  centres  of 
Sanskrit  learning  all  o\er  India,  any  one  who  ac- 
quired    special    proficiency  in  a  particular   subject 


I 


visits 
Navadwipa. 


V»]      bengal!  language  Si  literature.        42 1 

made  it  the  mission  of  his  life  to  travel  to  the 
various  seats  of  learning,  challenging  scholars  to 
free  controversy.  If  he  could  win  his  laurels  in 
this  competition,  he  naturally  enjoyed  great  esteem 
in  the  country  and  the  scholars  who  were  vanqui- 
shed acknowledged  the  fact  of  their  defeat  in  an 
open  letter  presented  to  him.  This  letter  was 
called  '^-'^^'   or  letter  of  victory. 

Ke^ava  Ka9miri  after  having  vanquished 
the  scholars  of  the  rest  of  India  had  come  to  Nava- 
dwipa,  then  the  most  important  seat  of  Sanskrit 
learning  in  the  country.  There  were  veteran  scho- 
lars at  Navadwipa  about  this  time;  old  Vasudeva 
Sarvabhauma,  the  first  authority  in  Logic  in  India ; 
Raghu  Nandan  Bhattacharyya  whose  jurispru- 
dence up  till  now  governs  Hindu  society  in  Bengal ; 
and  Raghu  Nath  ^iromanl  whose  grand  work, 
Chintamani  Didhiti,  a  commentary  on  the  Tattva 
Chintamoniby  Gangeg  Upadhaya  is  a  monument  of 
scholarship,  and  excelled  the  treatise  it  commented 
on,  were  all  living.  These  were  the  intellectual 
giants  of  their  period.  But  they  were  scholarly  re- 
cluses who  for  many  years  had  scarcely  mixed  with 
men.  The  people  of  Navadwipa,  however,  were 
proud  of  the  scholarship  of  young  Nimai,  who  was 
always  eager  to  enter  into  controversy  with  others. 
They  brought  the  veteran  Ke9ava  to  Nimai  who 
received  him  cordially  on  the  bank  of  the  Ganges, 
where  his  Tola  was  situated. 

Nimai  asked  Keyava  Kaymiri,  himself,  a  reputed 
poet,  to  describe  the  Ganges  as  it  flowed  past  in  an 
extempore  poem.  A  few  moments  passed,  and 
like    a    noble  stream,  rich  and  rhythmical   flow   cf 


422        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

verses  fell  from  the  lips  of  the  old  scholar  to  the 
wonder  of  the  pupils  of  the  Tol,  and  he  surprised 
the  audience  by  the  brilliance  of  his  metaphors  and 
the  sublimity  and  beauty  of  his  ideas.  Nimai 
noted  the  poem  in  his  memory.  His  assailant,  after 
delivering  it,  looked  round  in  haughty  pride,  and 
said  to  Nimai,  ''You  have  learned  Grammar  only,  I 
hear,  and  have  no  knowledge  of  Rhetoric.  It  is  not 
in  your  power  to  appreciate  or  judge  of  the  beauty 
of  my  poem." 

Nimai  Nimai  however    shewed    no    want    of    patience, 

defeats        nor    displayed    any    sis^n  of  bein^  disturbed  by  the 
him.  f    J  J        i^  &  J 

remark.  He  praised  the  poetry  but  gently  pointed 
out  that  there  were  some  serious  errors  of 
Rhetoric  in  it.  In  the  first  line  he  had  used  the 
word  ^^t%-^^  signifying  ^iva  while  the  word 
really  meant  Lord  of  the  wife  of  Civa.  This  fallacv 
was  called  f^??^  ^f%.  In  the  word  f^'r^f^  in  the 
next  line  there  was  the  fallacy  of  li^sf^^f.  in  the 
word  §,«T's|t  the  fallacy  of  *^^<p^  ^Wt^»t^.  Thus 
he  pointed  out  fallacies  too  numerous  to  be 
mentioned  and  as  he  went  on,  the  natural  brilli- 
ance of  his  speech  and  the  light  that  emanated 
from  his  eyes  shewed  that  he  was  endowed  with 
special  gifts  of  genius.  The  veteran  scholar  was 
dumb-struck  and  retired  with  a  broken  heart.  Thus 
the  glory  of  Navadwipa  was  saved.  All  felt  that 
day  that  voung  Ximai  was  an  extraordinary  man, 
and  the  reputation  of  his  Tol  sjiread  far  and  ^^•ide. 

^   ^         ,.  lUit    he    always    scoffed  at  relici^ion.     Old  saint- 

Outwardly  -^  ^ 

scoffer  of  like  men,  who  delighted  in  him  for  his  wonderful 
gifts  and  could  not  help  loving  him  for  his  pleasing- 
disposition,    were    pained    to    lind    that  he   was    a 


V*  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.        42;: 

godless  young  mran,  sceptical  in  his  views  and  con- 
duct, lyvara  Puri,  a  learned  saint,  — a  very  old  and 
highly  esteemed  man  of  Kumarhatta, — frequently 
called  on  him  and  advised  him  on  religious  matters, 
explaining  and  illustrating  how  faith  could  be  ob- 
tained— faith  that  cleanses  the  soul  and  lifts  man  to 
the  rank  of  the  gods.  He  quoted  chapter  and  verse 
from  various  works  to  prove  what  he  argued. 
But  Nimai  would  suddenly  interrupt  him,  finding 
a  grammatical  flaw  in  his  quotations  and  stop  him 
by  some  such  remarks  as  "  Surely,  sir,  the  verb 
that  you  use  is  not  of  the  Attanlpadi  class  !"  The 
saint  was  much  saddened  by  the  failure  of  his 
attempts  to  reform  the  young  sceptic.  But  the 
eccentricities  of  Nimai  had  a  limit  when  he  grew 
into  manhood ;  he  stoically  avoided  any  contact 
with  women. 


Though  he  outwardly  feigned  scepticism,  a  deep 
religious  faith  was  in  fact  ingrained  in  his  nature. 
Cridhara  and  Gadadhara,  two  respectable  Brahmins 
were  known  for  the  piety  of  their  characters.  He 
ridiculed  them  frequently,  but  if  a  single  day 
passed  without  his  meeting  them,  his  whole  soul 
yearned  for  their  company,  and  he  felt  that  to  him 
the  oft-ridiculed  Igvara  Puri  was  as  a  god.  His  mind 
was  as  clear  as  the  autumnal  sky,  and  his  tempera- 
ment like  the  tender  sweet-scented  Cephalika  flower 


that  diffuses  its  frasrrance  in    the 


It 


silently  attracted  all  who  came  in  contact  with  him 
by  its  inherent  love  ;  his  ardent  nature,  which  would 
not  brook  any  restraint  and  seemed  so  often  to  run 
wild,  had  in  it  a  secret  spring  of  magnetism  which 
facinated,  even  while  it  startled.  It  flowed  like  a 
noble    fountain    pleasing   all  by  its  playfulness, — a 


The  inward 
faith. 


and  an 
ardent 
nature. 


424  BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.    [Chap. 


Father's 
death. 


Marriage. 


Tour  in 
Eastern 
Bengal. 


Return. 


little  dashing  and  abrupt  in  its  course,  yet  never- 
theless lovely  and  joyous,  it  indicated  the  presence 
of  elements  in  his  character  which  were  destined 
to  leap  over  the  walls  of  orthodoxy  and  carry  the 
world  with  him,  by  the  innate  force  of  pure  and 
lofty  natural  instincts. 

In  the  meantime  Jagannath  Mi^^a  had  died  and 
Nimai  had  married.  His  wife  was  Laksmi  Devi 
who  had  herself  elected  Nimai  as  her  lord  express- 
ing a  wish  to  her  mother  to  marry  the  young 
scholar. 

Nimai  was  now  settled  in  life.  His  homestead 
consisted  of  five  large  and  beautiful  houses  on  the 
banks  of  the  Ganges.  He  lived  a  simple  life  devo- 
ted to  his  studies.  The  death  of  his  father  weighed 
on  him  and  he  contemplated  a  journey  with  a  view 
to  restoring  his  peace  of  mind.  He  accordingly 
visited  Eastern  Bengal  making  a  tour  through  the 
several  centres  of  Sanskrit  learning  that  then  exist- 
ed in  that  part  of  the  province.  His  commentaries 
on  grammar  were  taught  in  the  tols  there  and  his 
name  was  widely  known.  He  met  with  a  cordial 
reception  everywhere,  and  is  said  to  have  stayed 
at  Kotalipara  in  the  District  of  Faridpur  for  some- 
time. Having  received  honours  and  rewards  from 
his  admirers,  he  set  out  again  for  Navadwipa  after 
a  few  months.  Returning  home,  he  caught  sight  of 
Navadwipa,  in  the  distance  girdled  by  the  Ganges, 
with  its  temples  rising  above  the  tops  of  the  green 
trees.  The  place  had  a  peculiar  attraction  for 
him,  and  he  hastened  to  meet  his  mother  and 
wife.  His  friends  Cridhara  and  Gadadhara  met 
him  half  way,  with  0})en  arms,  and  in  his  height 
of  joy  he  mimicked  the  accents  of  the  East  Bengal 


I 


V*  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  425 


people  and  the  ring  of  his  merry  laughter  resound- 
ed once  more  through  the  air  as  he  came  near  his 
home.  His  companions  left  him  and  he  went  to 
iiis  home  in  haste  and  threw  himself  at  the  feet  of 
his  mother,  who  began  to  weej:)  as  she  saw  her 
dear  son  come  back. 

Her  tears  were  inexplicable  to  him,  for  he  had 
expected  glad  looks  and  blessings  from  his 
mother  on  his  return  home.  He,  soon,  however,  dis- 
covered with  sorrow  that  his  wife  Laksmi  Devi 
had  died  of  snake-bite.  The  merry  and  joyous 
young  scholar  collected  himself  in  a  moment  and 
betraying  no  outward  signs  of  grief,  sweetly  dis- 
coursed on  the  iiicvitableness  of  the  course  of  na- 
ture, and  tried  to  console  his  mother.  A  month  or 
two  passed,  but  the  poor  woman  was  always  sor- 
rowful ;  she  insisted  on  his  marrying  again  and 
Nimai  to  please  his  mother  married  Visnupriya, 
daughter  of  Sanatan,  a  famous  scholar  of  Nadia. 

He  was  only  twenty-one  at  the  time.  His 
mother  seemed  to  be  once  more  happy,  but  there 
came  a  change  over  the  spirit  of  her  son.  A  deep 
feeling  seemed  to  weigh  upon  his  soul  and  his  mirth 
was  gone  ;  he  shewed  signs  of  a  deeper  nature 
growing  in  him.  He  asked  his  mother's  permission 
to  go  to  Gaya  to  offer  Pinda  or  offerings  of  food 
and  water  at  the  feet  of  Visnu  there,  by  which 
the  spirit  of  a  deceased  person  is  freed  from  sins 
and  his  passage  to  heaven  is  insured.  When 
Nimai  wanted  permission  to  go  to  Gaya  to  offer 
Pinda  for  the  spirit  of  his  father,  Qachi  Devi  could 
not  withhold  it  though  she  longed  to  keep  her  son 
at  her  side,  ministering  to  her  own  comfort,  old  and 
feeble  as  she  now  was. 


The  death 
of  his  wife. 


Takes  a 

second 

wife. 


A  deeper 

nature 

growing 

in  him. 


54 


426       BF.NGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

Starts  for  Niraai    started    for  Gava  ;   his  companions  were 

Oaya.  ' 

gay,  but  he  was  sad.     An  emotion  passed  over  him 

which    brought  tears  to  his  eyes  and  he  yearned  for 

better    company.     Near    Kumar    Hatta    he    halted, 

and  wanted  to    have   a    sight    of  I^vara    Puri,    the 

saint  wliom  he  liad  so  often  ridiculed.      As  he  came 

to  Kumar  Hatta,  he  said,   ''It  is  heaven  to  me — this 

Meets         native  land  of  Igvara  Puri."     The  saint  was  dining 

Ifvara         when  Ximal  arrived  at  his    place.      He    partook    of 

the    food    which    the    veteran    Vaisnava  was  taking 

and  wept  for  jov  ;   he  said.   "Dearer  than    my    own 

soul, — than    anything    that    I    possess,  than  my  life 

itself,  you  are    to    me,     O    venerable    sir,    for    you 

are    a    true    servant  of  God."        As    he    said    this, 

tears    began    to  flow  from  both    his    eves,    and    he 

clasped    the    feet    of    l9vara    Purl.     The    old    man 

appeared    as    a    god    to    him    and    he     said    again 

and  again,  "Blessed  am  I  that  1  have    seen    such    a 

holy    man."     Indeed   I(,n-ara  Puri's  devotion  to  God 

was  such  that  he  was  admittedly    the    hend    of  the 

Vaisnava  community  at  that  time. 

Nimai  set  out  for  Gaya  ;  his  life,  his  conversa- 
tion and  ways  bi'came  altogether  changed.  He 
would  sj)eak  but  few  words,  and  left  Kumar  Hatta 
as  in  a  trance.  While  leaving,  he  took  a  handful  of 
dust  from  thr  phui-  and  tied  it  in  a  corner  of  his 
cloth  and  said,  "This  is  the  dust  of  the  place  where 
l(;\ara  Pun  was  born.  It  is  sacred, — it  is  dearer  to 
me  than  all  that  1  have,  nay  than  life  itself."  Me 
stood  tJHTe  .absorbed  in  a  reverie  and  seemed  to 
S(.*e  nothing  .around. 

Indeed  a  higher  life  was  calling  him.  The 
portals  of  heaven  seemed  to  open  before  him. 
His  companions  thought  that  then'    was    something 


v.]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  427 

wrong  with  his  head  ;  they  tried  to  divert  his  mind 
to  worldly  matters  by  merry  conversation  ;  for  a 
time  he  joined  tliem  and  was  even  jovial  and  gay. 

They  came  to  Gaya,  and  the  great  temple  came     Arrives  at 

in    view  with  its  crowd  of  pilgrims  that  flocked  and  ^^^* 

pressed  one  another.     At  the  sight    of    the    temple 

he    again    grew    pensive.     This    was  the  temple  of 

\'isriu,  the  great  God  of  the  Hindu  Trinity.     Visnu, 

while    conquering  the  demon  Gayasura,  had  placed 

his  feet  on  the    demon's    head  and    this    foot-print 

was    changed  to  stone.     Nimai  stood  with  offerings 

before    the    lotus    feet,  '^t?'^'^'  as  they  were  called. 

The     Pandas    sang    in    Sanskrit — "These    feet,    O 

Pilgrims,      lead    to    heaven, — take    ye    refuge    in    ^^^  ^^^^  ^^ 

them  !   These  feet  were    adored    by  Vali,  the    King         Visnu. 

who    went    into  the  nether  worlds ;  from  these  feet 

flows    the    sacred    stream    of    the     Ganges.     The 

great  yogis    in  their  mystic  vision  desire  to  catch  a 

glimpse    of    these    feet ;   their  glory    is  sung  by  the 

God  ^iva  and  rendered  into    divine    music    by    the 

sage    Narada.     They    lead  to  Heaven,  these  feet  of 

God; — there  is  no  other  way  for  man's  salvation." 

Ni;nai  appeared  to  be  listening,  but  in  fact  he  heard 

nothing    of    the    song.     He    added    the    tribute    of 

tears  to  those  of  constant    shower   of    flowers    that 

were    offered    at    the    lotus-feet    by   the    pilgrims, 

and  fell  straightway  into  a  trance.     His  companions 

attended  him  carefully    and  he    was    soon  restored      ^    .    . 

-^  Falls  into 

to    consciousness.     When    he     came    back    to    his       a  trance. 

senses,    tears  were    still  flowing  down    his    cheeks 

and   he    wept  and  said,    "Leave    me,    my    friends, 

leave  me,  I  am  no  longer  fit  for  the  world.     Let  me 

go  to  the  Vrinda  groves  to  find  out  Krisna,  my  Lord 

and  the  Lord  of  the  Universe." 


428      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

Ximai    was    brought    home  by  his    companions 

more  or  less  unconscious.     "Where,  O,  where  is  mv 

God?"  he  cried  with  tears  flowinor  niorht    and    dav. 

When  he  came  home  they  found  him  a  changed  man. 

'*!  have  seen  a  wonderful  spectacle  at  Gaya  ;  and  I 

shall  relate  it  to  you." — he  said    to  Gadadhara  and 

^ridhara.     But    while    attempting  to    tell  of  it,  his 

voice    became    choked    with    emotion    and    he    fell 

The  senseless    into    tlie    arms  of  his  friends.     It  was  of 

God-vision.      ,      r-     i     •  •  i  i  i  i       i  i 

the  God-vision   that    he  wanted    to    speak,    but    he 

could  not,  being  overpowered  by  his  feelings. 

Poor^achi  Devi,  what  was  she  to  do  with  a  son 
in  such  a  condition  I  Physicians  were  called  in, 
but  Ximai  told  them  that  he  had  no  malady  to 
be  cured  by  medicines.  The  Highest  had  appear- 
ed to  him  and  he  could  think  of  nothing  else. 
Strange  it  was,  he  said,  that  living  in  His  kingdom 
they  did  not  feel  His  presence  and  His  great  love, 
and  again  tears  fell  from  his  eyes  and  over-powered 
him. 

The  pupils  of  his  1  ol  flocked  round  their  be- 
loved teacher,  but  he  told  them  that  he  could  not  teach 
them  anything  of  earth.  He  spoke  of  God's  love 
aiul  wept.  His  mother  Qachi  Devi  sent  \'isnupriya 
the  youthful  wife,  to  him,  thinking  that  a  sight  of 
her  would  divert  his  mind,  but  Ximai  did  not  even 
look  at  her.  "Where  is  my  Lord,  my  Krisnal" — 
he  cried,  and  read  verses  from  sacred  books  and 
wept. 

But    this    over-flow    of  feeling  was  not  all  ; — he 

went  to  the    banks    of  the    (janges  ;   the    scene    of 

his     juviniif     freak>,     now     witnessed    acts    which 

sluwed    him  to  be  comph  teiy  changed.      He  would 

people.        carry  the  burdens  of  old  and  sickly  people  for  them. 


V»  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE. 


429 


sometimes  he  would  wash  the  clothes  of  others  and 
perform  acts  of  menial  service,  which  as  a 
Brahmin  he  should  not  have  done  •,  and  if  people 
objected  to  being  served  by  him,  he  would  say 
"forbear,  Friends!  Do  not,  I  beg  of  you,  prevent 
me !  While  I  serve  you,  I  see  God.  These  little 
acts  are  holy  to  me." 

Sometimes  he  would  chant  the  name  of  God 
for  hours  together,  and  as  he  sang,  his  eyes  would 
become  full  of  tears.  The  whole  day  long  he 
would  recite  and  sing  the  name  of  Krisna  in  pro- 
found devotion,  till  the  people  of  Navadwipa  could 
no  longer  resist  his  influence.  When  he  spoke  of 
God  and  his  relation  to  man,  they  thronged  in 
thousands  to  hear  him.  He  preached,  for  instance 
of  love.  ''What",  he  said,  "is  love?  Is  it  that 
attraction  by  which  man  and  woman  are  drawn  to 
one  another?  I  say  it  is  not  so.  Only  when  in 
your  eyes  man  and  woman  appear  the  same  and 
sex  loses  all  it  charms,  only  then  can  true 
love  come" — and  again,  "Be  like  a  tree.  The 
tree  gives  shade  even  to  him  who  cuts  its  boughs. 
It  asks  no  water  of  any  one,  though  it  be  withering 
away  for  want  of  it.  Rain  and  storm  and  the 
burning  rays  of  the  sun  it  suffers,  but  gives  sweet- 
scented  flowers  and  delicious  fruits  to  others. 
Patiently  serve  others  even  as  a  tree  and  let 
this  be  your  motto."  The  words  that  fell  from 
his  lips  appeared  inspired ;  they  went  to  the 
hearts  of  the  men  and  women  who  thronged 
to  hear  him.  But  he  invariably  finished  speak- 
mg,  chanting  the  name  of  Krisna, — the  music 
of  which  with  its  deej:)  pathos  made  all  weep 
for  the    love    of  God.      Multitudes    were  attracted 


The  effect 
of  his  faith 
and  prea- 
chings. 


430      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

from  all  quarters  ;  for  the  news  spread  on  all 
hands  that  a  God-man  had  come  into  their 
midst.  By  tliis  time  the  sage  Xityananda,  who 
was  then  a  young  man,  had  come  and  joined  Nimai. 
They  became  the  centre  of  a  circle  of  men  who 
lived  holy  lives,  did  act  of  charity,  and  recited 
and  chanted  the  name  of  God,  night  and  day,  till 
songs  of  great  poetic  beauty  were  composed.  Their 
music,  consisted  of  songs  accompanied  by  the 
Khol,  Karatal  and  Ram^inga.  and  for  whole  nights 
the  music  would  go  on,  with  Ximai  in  the  centre  of 
the  party,  sometimes  in  a  state  of  unconsciousness, 
and  at  others,  singing  enthusiastically  with  the  rest, 
while  his  face  beamed  with  a  strange  God-vision. 

The  Bhatlacharyyas.  the  great  scholars  of  Xava- 
dwipa,  opposed  this  movement.  Nimai  had  broken 
the  trammels  of  caste.  He  boldly  declared,  ^'Though 
one  is  a  Chandal  '  Paria)  he  is  superior  to  all 
Brahmins,  if  he  is  pious  and  has  love  for  God." 
If  anv  one  says,  "Thou  O  Krisna  art  my  life," 
he  will  embrace  him,  no  matter  to  what  caste  he 
mav  belong.  Nothing  indeed  was  holy  or  unholy 
The  break-     in  his  eyes — even  as   he    had    said    in  his  boyhood. 

'and'oppo^.^  "'^    ''^'"'>'    ^"^    ^^^^"^^  ^'^^^' "   ''"^  ^^'^^'  "^^"^"^  ^^^^  ^'■^'^^'^ 

sition  of  plate   with    a    Doma    Tsweener),    he    becomes    ijre- 

the  Bhatta-  '  .  '  . 

charyyas.  eminently  entitled  by  that  act  ot  mercy  for    obtaui- 

ing  the  faN'our  of  god.    It  a  Muchi  (^cobbler  i  [)ravs  to 

(jod    w  ith    trut'  devotion,  a  hundred  times  do  I  otTer 

salutes  at  his  leet.""^^   In  a  society  w  here  the  Brahmin 

was  held  as  a  Cjod,  and  a  Doma  as  worse  than  a  dog, 

these    savings   from  the  lips  of  a    Brahmin   sounded 

strangely    bold.       The    company    of     men,    drawii 


*    l'\)r  authoritiL's  in  rr^janl  ti)  the    above    quotations,   see    my 
Banga-Bhasa-o-Sahitya,  pp.  284 — 89. 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    <^    LITERATURE.  43I 

together  by  his  teachings  and  by  liis  wonderful  de- 
votion, consisted  of  people  from  all  ranks  of  society. 
Tliey  mixed  freely  and  distinction  of  caste  was 
no  barrier  to  them.  The  Bhattacharyyas  who  re- 
presented the  orthodox  community  harassed  him 
by  all  means  that  lay  in  their  power.  ''Look  at 
these  men",  they  said,  'Sve  cannot  sleep  at  night 
for  their  screamings.  This  uproar  that  they  create  is 
certainly  no  prayer  to  God."  Thev  applied 
to  the  Kazi  (Mahammadan  Magistrate)  to  issue 
a  rule  prohibiting  the  march  of  the  Sankirtana- 
Party,  as  his  procession  was  called,  through  the 
town.  The  Kazi  did  so.  That  day  in  the  evening 
Nimai  with  his  followers,  who  now  numbered 
hundreds  of  men,  made  a  grand  procession  and  led 
it  to  the  very  door  of  the  Kazi,  who  though  at  first 
very  much  enraged  at  this  breach  of  orders,  yet 
felt  a  desire  to  see  the  procession.  When  he  came 
flown,  a  strange  spectacle  met  his  eyes.  Hundreds 
of  men  with  flags  and  musical  instruments  were 
chanting  the  name  of  God  in  chorus,  and  in  the 
midst  of  them,  like  a  vision  of  heaven,  young  and 
beautifull  Nimai  stood  God-like, — his  face  beaming 
with  superhuman  light  and  eyes  like  two  stars, 
floating  in  a  fountain  of  tears.     He  heeded  not  any  ^azi 

earthly  obstruction  and    was    evidently    lifted    into 
divine  ecstacy.     The  Kazi  said,  he  was  delighted  to         sight 
see  the  procession. 

Two  great  rogues    of   the  Brahmin  caste — Jagai 
and    Madhai,    who   belonged  to  the  Police   staff  of 
the    Kazi,    dead-drunk  with  wine   and    accustomed      jazai  and 
to  all  manner  of  vice,  resolved  to  assult  Nimai  and        Madhai. 
Xityananda    and    once  as    the    two     leaders    were 
passing   along    the    streets,   Jagai  threw  a  brick  at 


beholds  a 
strange 


432      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

Nityananda  who  was  hurt  on  the  fore-head  which 
bled  profusely.  But  Nityananda  sang  the  name 
of  God  and  only  said  to  his  assailant  "Strike  me 
again  if  you  like,  but  sing  the  name  of  Krisna." 
His  face  became  so  full  of  tenderness  that  the  roeues 
repented,  and  became  reformed  from  that  hour. 
So  great  was  the  attraction  of  tlie  personality  of 
Nimai  that  sometimes  for  a  whole  night  the  Sahkir- 
tana  party  sang  round  him  without  minding  the 
passing  of  the  night  and  when  it  came  to  an  end, 
they  would  wonderingly  look  at  the  sun  thinking 
that  he  had  appeared  too  soon. 

Nimal  But  Nimai  felt  that  there  was  a  strong  party    in 

resolves  to      ...    .  ,  ,  /        .    '    . 

turn  a  Nayadwipa    who    were  not  slow    to    caiumnite  him 

anyasin       eyerywhere.      He  thought    that    as    a    householder, 

his    teachings    might    not    commend  themselves  to 

all  classes  and  therefore  determined  to  n^iounce  the 

world,  turn  a  Sanyasln  and  preach  the  Loye  of  God 

all  oyer  India.     This  news  came  as  a  disaster  to  his 

followers,    amongst  whom  wore  the  yetcran  scholar 

Murari  Gupta,  the  young  and  gifted  Gadhadar  Das, 

the    poet    Narahari    Das    of  ^rikhanda,  the    singer 

and    poet    Vasu    Ghose    with    Nityananda   and  the 

yenerable  Adaitacaryya  of  Cantipur  at  their  head. 


And  be- 
comes one 


But  th(^  word  had  passed  his  lips,  and  all  who 
kn(n\'  his  charactt^r  felt  that  he  was  inexorable.  He 
K:ft  Navadwip  in  the  month  of  March  in  1509  A.D. 
and  passed  through  the  usual  ceremonies  recjuired  for 
the  Sanyasi'ns  vow.  The  (iuru  or  the  religious 
pr(!Ceptor  elei  ted  by  him  for  the  occasion  was 
r>harati  of  Katwfi.  Nimai  thus  cut  off  all  the 
ties  of  world,  threw  awav  his  sacred  thread  and 
sliaycd     his    head,      lb-    was   L^iyen     the     name    of 


V.  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  433 


Krisna  Chaitanya  as  a  Sanyasin  and  has  ever  since 
been  called  Chaitanya  01  Chaitanya  Deva.  He  went 
to  Orissa,  where  he  met  Vasu  Deva  Sarbabhauma, 
the  greatest  Indian  scholar  of  the  period.  Vasu  Deva 
was  already  advanced  in  years.  He  took  Chaitanya 
to  task  for  turning  a  Sanyasin  when  only  a  young 
man,  as  he  had  no  right  to  do.  Chaitanya  said  in 
reply  "O  my  venerable  sir,  do  not  call  me  by  such 
a  high  epithet  as  that  of  a  Sanyasin.  The  Love  of  God 
has  driven  me  mad  and  I  have  thrown  away  my  sacred 
thread  and  shaved  my  head  for  this.  Bless  me  sir 
that  my  mind  mav  be  ever  devoted  to  him.^'  Vasu 
Deva  was  explaining  the  Gita,  but  Chaitanya  inter- 
preted it  in  a  new  light.  The  veteran  scholar  was 
struck  by  the  new  ideas,  by  the  flow  of  sentiment 
and  by  the  remarkable  intellect  of  the  young 
Sanyasin.  When  after  three  continuous  nights 
Chaitanya  had  finished  his  exposition,  Vasu  Deva 
felt  that  he  was  in  the  presence  of  a  superhuman 
man,  endowed  with  poetical  and  spiritual  gift,  the 
like  of  which  he  had  never  before  seen.  From  that 
time  he  became  a  humble  disciple  of  Chaitanya 
Deva.  Pratapa  Rudra  the  King  of  Orissa,  who 
was  dreaded  by  the  Pathans  and  was  known  as  a 
powerful  prince  of  India  at  the  time,  became  his 
next  disciple,  and  his  prime  minister  Rama  Ray, 
deeply  versed  in  Sanskrit  lore  and  an  eminent 
poet  avowed  his  faith  in  Chaitanya  Deva  and  was 
so  much  devoted  to  him  that  he  constantly  sought 
the  company  of  the  great  niaster  in  subsequent  times. 

From  Orissa  with  tlie  blacksmith  Govinda  as 
his  single  companion,  though  hundreds  had  wanted 
to  follow  him,  the  young  Sanyasin  started  for  and 
travelled  over  the  whole  of  southern  India, 

55 


To  OrlAsa 


Travels 
over  the 
Southern 

India. 


434         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [Chap. 

He  left  Navadwipa  in  1509  ;  from  there  he  came 
to  Katwa  in  Burdwan.  He  crossed  the  Damodara 
and  stayed  in  the  house  of  one  Ka^i  Mi9ra  for  a 
day;  from  there  he  went  to  Hazipur  and  thence 
HLs  tour,  to  iMidnapur  where  Ke^ava  Samanta.  a  rich  man, 
scolded  him  for  taking  the  vow  of  a  Sanyasin 
when  he  was  so  young  ;  from  Midnapur  he  went  to 
Xnrayangad  and  thence  to  Vate^varam  ;  he  crossed 
the  Suvarna  Rekha  and  reached  Hariharpur  and 
next  moved  to  Nilgada ;  crossing  the  Vaitarani  he 
visited  the  temples  of  Gopinath,  Saksigopal  and 
Nimraja  on  the  banks  of  the  Mahanadi ;  he  next 
came  to  Atharanala  whence  he  saw  the  flag  of  the 
Jagannath  temple  and  was  lifted  into  an  ecstacy. 
He  stayed  at  Purl  for  three  months. 

In  April,  (7th  X'ai^ak)  15 10,  he  started  again 
with  his  one  follower  Govinda  for  southern  India. 
He  came  to  the  Godavari  and  met  Rama  Ray  ; 
thence  he  proceeded  to  Trimanda  (modern  Trimal- 
gada  in  Ilydrabad)  and  converted  Dhundi  Rama 
Tirtha  to  his  faith ;  from  Trimanda  he  came  to 
Sidhavate9vara  (modern  Sidhavate^varam  ;  between 
Cadappa  and  the  river  Punna)  where  a  rich  young 
man  named  Tirtharam  came  to  tempt  him  in  a 
vulgar  manner,  and  himself  became  a  convert  lo 
his  faith.  He  thm  crossed  a  forest  extending  over 
twenty  miles  called  Munna  (on  the  river  Munna 
in  the  Madras  Presi(lenc\)  ;  from  Munna  he  moved 
to  Venkata  (a  cit\'  near  Tripadi  in  the  Madras 
Presidency);  he  next  visited  a  forest  known  as  the 
'Vagula  woods'  and  converted  PanthaBhil  a  notori- 
ous robber  ;  there  he  [)assed  three  davs  and  nights 
without  food  chanting  the  name  of  God.  Thence 
he  moved  to  Girii\ara  .ind  to  Tripadi  Nagara  (about 


1 


I 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  435 

forty  miles  to'  the  North-west  of  Madras)  he  next 
visited  the  temple  of  Panna  Narasimha,  and  arrived 
atVisnu  Kanchi  (modern  Kanjivaram).  From  there 
he  visited  two  shrines  Kalatirtha  and  Sandhi 
Tirtha;  then  he  passed  onto  Chaipalli  (modern 
Trichina  Palli) ;  he  next  went  to  Nagar  (about  145 
miles  to  the  east  of  Trichina  Palli  and  situated  on  the 
sea-coast).  From  Nagar  he  went  to  Tanjore  (about  14 
miles  to  the  south  of  Nagar)  ;  he  crossed  the  mount 
Chandhalu  there  and  passed  on  to  Padmakota  (about 
25  miles  to  the  south  of  Tanjore)  and  thence  to 
Tripatra  (about  twenty-five  miles  to  the  south) ; 
there  he  crossed  a  forest  extending  over  300  miles, 
in  15  days;  he  next  came  to  Ranga  Dhama  (Sri 
Rarhgam)  and  visited  the  temple  of  Nrisirhha;  from 
there  he  went  to  Ramanath  and  thence  to  Ramegvar  ; 
he  next  travelled  through  a  forest  called  Madhikavana 
and  crossing  the  river  Tamraparni  reached  Kanya 
Kumari  on  the  sea-coast ;  from  there  he  proceeded  to 
Trivankoo  (moden  Trivancore).  This  place  is  des- 
cribed as  being  surrounded  by  hills.  The  King 
Rudrapati  who  reigned  there  at  the  time  received 
Chaitanya  Deva  cordially  ;  from  Trivancore  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Poyasni  (modern  Panani)  and  thence  to 
Matsatirtha  and  Kachar,  crossed  the  rivers  Bhadra 
and  Naga-Panchapadi  and  came  to  Chitole  (modern 
Chital  Durgh,  (on  the  northern  boundary  of  Mysore)  ; 
from  Chital  to  Chandipurand  thence  to  Gurjari  (near 
Hydrabad)  and  thence  to  Purna  (^modern  Poona) ; 
from  Purna  he  moved  to  Pattana  and  thence  to 
Jajuri.  Here  he  preached  God's  love  to  the 
unfortunate  women — the  Muraries.  From  Jajuri  he 
went  to  the  woods  called  Choranandivan  where  he 
met  a  famous  bandit  named  Naroji  who    became    a 


436      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.     [  Chap, 

convert  and  followed  him.  He  crossed  the  river 
Mula  and  reached  Nasika;  thence  to  Trimvak 
and  Daman  ;  he  crossed  the  Tapti  and  reached 
Varoch  (modern  Broach)  ;  from  X'aroch  he  came  to 
Varada  where  Naroji  died;  He  visited  Ahammada- 
bad  and  crossed  the  river  ^uvramati ;  he  met 
two  of  his  Bengali  countrymen  Govinda  Charan 
and  Ramananda,  from  Kulinagiam  ;  he  went  to 
Ghoga  where  a  prostitute  named  Varamukhi,  beauti- 
ful and  wealthy,  became  a  convert,  cut  off  her  hair 
and  took  the  vow  of  a  nun.  He  next  visited 
Somnath  in  November  1510,  reached  Dwaraka 
from  where  he  marched  to  Dohadanagar  and 
thence  to  Amjhora,  Kooksi,  Mandura,  Deoghar. 
Thence  he  proceeded  to  Chandipur,  from  where  he 
went  to  Roypur,  Vidyanagar  and  Ratnapur  ;  from 
the  last  place  he  crossed  the  Mahanadi  and  rea- 
ched ^varnagad,  thence  to  Sambalpur,  Daspal  and 
Comes        to  Allalnath  ;   he  reached  Puri  on  the  3rd   of   Magh, 

Puri  in        (January,  151 1).     Thus  his  travelling  on   foot    from 
Feb.     5      .    Pjjj.j  ^^^    i^g^^i^   |.QQJ^  Q^g    ^.^^j.  pigi^j-    months    and 

tuenty  six  days,  and  he  travelled  nearly  4000  miles 
within  this  time.  During  his  travels  he  spent  m.anv 
days  without  any  food.  Wliatever  alms  were  brought 
to  him  by  Govinda  he  would  paitake  of  only  in 
very  small  (juantitics.  Like  a  mad  man  his  bodv  lav 
covered  \\  ith  dusl  ;  he  chanted  the  name  of  Krisna 
with  tears  in  his  eyes  as  he  moved  from  place  to 
place.  Some  of  the  scholars  at  Tungabhadra,  Chandi- 
pur and  at  other  places  challenged  him  to  a  discussion 
on  religious  topics,      lie  wcnild  not.  however,    enter 

HL-*  into    anv    contro\(^rsv    w  illi  them.      He  said  that  he 
work  in  '  ,.  '       ,  ,  , 
Soutbcrn  ^^•^'^  '^'^  illiterate  man.      Me  was  readv  to  write    out- 
India  letters    of   victors-    in  favour  of   his  assailants.      But 


/.  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  437 

when  he  was  dragged  into  a  discussion,  inspite  of 
himself,  he  would  deal  wonderfully  with  the  ques- 
tions at  issue,  and  none  was  a  match  for  him. 
He  concluded  his  discussion  always  with  that 
display  of  emotion  and  trust  in  God  which  gave 
him  the  look  of  a  heavenly  being  ; — his  eyes  swam 
with  tears,  as  he  sang  the  name  of  Krisna  in  deep 
musical  tones,  which  sounded,  say  those  who  heard 
him,  like  temple  bells.  Here  is  a  description  given 
of  him  by  his  servant  Govinda." — 

*  "  His  influence  over  people  was  wonderful,  he 
cculd  move  them  as  he  liked,  by  his  preachings. 
Sometimes  he  would  speak  in  the  Tamil  language, 
(which  he  had  acquired  during  his  travels),  at  others 
in  pure  Sanskrit." 

At    Gurjari    after  explaining  to  the  people  their 
duty  to  men  and  their  relation  to  God. — 

t  "  He  cried  aloud  'O  God  !  O  my  Krisna'!  and  the 
place  seemed  to  turn  into  heaven,  a  pleasant  breeze 

^^m  ^i^^  ?f5T  csit^ra  \^l<r  i 

Kadcha  by  Govinda  Das. 
t  ^-5  ^fcf  f^  c^  ^f^^  v5t^  fe  I 

^l^  ^m  51t^  C^t^  -silft  CW*I1  ft^  II 
^^t^  ^lUl  ^U  ^U  C^l^  ^ft  II 


438         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap 

blew  and  the  villagers  came  in  groups  till  a  crowd 
was  formed.  The  fragrance  of  the  lotus  emanated 
from  his  person  and  charmed  every  one.  Chaitanya 
lost  consciousness  of  the  world  and  chanted  'O 
Krisna,  O  my  God.'  All  eyes  were  fixed  on  him 
and  his  eyes  shed  incessant  tears.  Maharattas 
of  noble  family  came  there,  and  stood  statue-like 
hearing  him  recite  the  name  of  God.  Behind  them 
I  saw  hundreds  of  women  with  the  end  of  their 
^adi  wiping  away  the  falling  tears,  moved  as  they 
were  by  the  pathos  of  Chaitanya  thus  calling  upon 
God.  Innumerable  Sanyasins  of  the  ^aiva  and 
^akta  sects,  stood  there  with  folded  hands  and 
listened  to  the  chanting  with  closed  eyes." 

The  end  in  Chaitanya  came  back  to  Puri  in   151  i.   Thence  he 

1534.         went  to  \'rindavan  and  spent  there  the  following  six 

yearb,    after    which  he  returned  to  Puri  and  stayed 

for  18  years.     His  earthly  career  came    to    an    end 

on    the    afternoon    of  a  Sunday,  being  the  7th    day 

^^?f  ^^<i  ^rc^  'RT?  ^^^  1 

^^  ^?I  ^ft  ^*F  ^^5  "^^-^^  II 
i^T^"t^«l  ^?pBi?i  i\^i^  in^c^  I 

^fe  ^^  ^r^  ^n  ^f^^^  ^^i^  II 

Kadcha- 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  439 

of  the  waxing  moon  in  the  month  of  Asada  (July) 
on  Sunday  at  about  3  P.  M.  (1534  A.  D.),  He  was 
48  years  and  4  months  old  at  the  time. 

His  wonderful  emotion  and    tenderness    display 
however  only  one  phase  of  the  character  of  Chaitanya 
Deva.       He    was    an    ascetic  of    the    truest    type, 
and  was  always  keenly  alive  to  the    holiness  of  the 
ascetic's  vow.    If  any  one  amongst  his  companions 
showed  the  least  worldliness,  he  was  unsparing  in  his 
treatment  of  him.     He  used  to  sleep    on    the    bare 
floor    of    the   Puri  temple    and  when  Jagadananda 
once    brought     a    pillow    for   him,    he    indignantly 
said  ''  Bring  me  a  couch,  Jagadananda,  if  you  desire 
me   to   taste    the    comforts    of   this  world.     Don't 
you  know  that  I  am  an  ascetic,  that  as  such  I  ought  ,tidsin^and 
to  sleep  on  the  bare  earth  and  that  luxury  is  incon-       severity. 
sistent    with    my    vows."       One    of    his    followers 
Chota  Hari  Das  accosted  a  beautiful  woman  named 
Madhabi    in    a    tender    manner.       Chaitanya  Deva 
said    "  He    has    taken    the    ascetic's   vow   and  still 
follows  after  women.    I  will  not  look  at  him  ao-ain." 
He  never  again  allowed  Chota  Hari    Das    to    come 
into  his  presence  and  the  man  is  said  to    have  died 
of    a   broken  heart.     Sanatan  a  rich  man,  who  be- 
came   his    disciple   came  to    m.eet    him    wearing  a 
blanket  which  he  had  purchased  for  Rs.  3.     It  was 
the    cold    season    and    the  bare  body  of  Chaitanya 
Dev    and    of    his    followers    were    exposed   to   the 
shivering  cold  but  they  looked  contented  and  joyful 
inspite  of  it.     Chaitanya  Deva  talked  with  Sanatan 
but  kept  his  eyes  fixed  on  his   blanket.       The    look 
was  too  much  for  Sanatan  who  escaped  it  by  giving 
the  blanket  to  a  beggar  and  then  joined    the   order 
I  of    the    ascetics.       Govinda  Das    offered   half    his 


440         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE      [Chap, 

portion  of  a  haritaki  to  Cliaitanya  Deva  after  his 
dinner,  and  kept  the  other  lialf  for  the  next  day. 
On  seeing  the  other  half,  the  next  day  he  enquired 
of  Govinda  Das  where  he  got  it.  The  latter  replied 
that  it  was  the  remnant  of  the  day  before  ;  '*  Would 
you  store  up  things  for  the  morrow  like  a  worldly 
man  ?  You  cannot  then  be  admitted  into  the  order 
of  the  ascetics."  He  was  made  to  retire  to  his 
home  for  this  act.  A  bottle  of  perfumes  was 
presented  by  an  admirer  in  Puri.  It  was  broken 
on  the  spot  bv  his  order  and  the  perfume  allowed 
to  soak  into  earth.  The  ascetics  were  recjuired  to 
clean  a  temple  one  day  at  Puri.  It  was  observed 
that  the  dust  carried  awav  by  Chaitanva  Deva 
were  larger  than  those  of  the  servants  erw ployed 
at  the  same  task. 

The  fine  There    is    yet    another    side    of    his     character 

^Doet^and  ^  ^vhich  requires  prominent  notice  and  which  inspired 
the  X'aisnava  poets  with  new  ideals  in  their  love- 
poems.  The  vision  of  God  was  always  before  him. 
It  was  Krisna's  lovelv  complexion  that  he  found 
painted  in  the  newly  formed  clouds -and  it  was 
Krisna's  divine  flute  that  he  heard  in  the  songs  of 
birds.  When  conversing  with  l(\arned  scholars 
and  the  devotees  of  the  tvpt^  of  Ram  l\ii\',  li«' 
would  explain  the  meaning  of  this  lov<^  ;  this 
was  a  concrete  wav  of  thinking  of  the  universal 
spirit — the  gr(\'it  soul  attracting  the  lesser  souls  as 
the  sun  attracts  the  planets.  l-'\i'n  in  t!ie  \'eda> 
we  lind  a  Uisi  praving  to  (iotl  that  Ilr  may  come 
to  him  as  a  husband  comes  to  his  w  itr.  1  his  idea 
was  taken  \\y  and  developed  in  the  faith  ot  the 
\aisnavas  (iod.  act^onling  to  \\\v\w.  is  the  Lord 
of     love.     This     Chaitanva     explained    witii    many 


poet  and  a 
lover 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  44! 

learned  quotations  from  Sanskrit  works  on  theo- 
logy. But  when  the  God-vision  possessed  him, 
he  yielded  to  the  fine  frenzy  of  a  poet  and  a  lover. 
Whenever  he  would  see  the  Kadamva  flower 
blooming  into  beauty,  freshened  by  the  rains, 
he  would  fall  into  a  trance,  remembering  that  it 
was  the  favourite  of  Krisna  ;  when  the  clouds  ap- 
peared on  the  clear  horizon,  with  the  crown  of  the 
rain-bow  fixed  above,  his  eyes  would  not  move 
from  the  lovely  sight  and  he  shed  profuse  tears, 
stretchinty  out  his  arms  heaven -wards  and  calling 
on  his  beloved  Krisna  to  come  to  him.  Wherever 
he  saw  a  shady  grove  of  flowering  trees,  he  took 
it  for  the  Vrinda  groves  where  Krisna  sported  :  and 
wherever  he  saw  a  river  flow  before  him,  he  heard 
in  it,  the  soft  mumers  of  the  river  Jumna,  associated 
with  Krisna.  It  was  a  beautiful  sight  to  see  him 
in  fits  of  ecstacy.  The  Tamal  tree  with  its  dark- 
blue  foliage  created  an  illusion  in  him  and  he  ran 
to  embrace  it, — there  with  tears  in  his  eyes  he 
would  chant  hymns  and  quote  verses  on  love.  He 
had  the  highest  poetical  vision  vouchsafed  only 
to  those  who  are  endowed  with  the  power  to  realise 
the  presence  of  that  primeval  Poet  whose  creation 
of  fancy  this  world  is.  If  a  great  Emperor  all 
unexpectedly  calls  at  the  lowly  cottage  of  his 
poorest  subject,  what  tribute  can  be  offer  to  the 
monarch  except  the  gratitude  of  his  whole  soul 
expressed  in  tears  !  Even  so  it  was  the  case  with 
Chaitanya  ;  he  saw  the  God-vision  and  became 
completely  lost  in  it ;  his  life  was  a  course  of  thanks- 
giving, tears,  hymns  and  praises  offerd  to  God. 

,r        ,  .     ,.   .  He  reorga- 

Yet  this  divme  man  never  neglected  the   society      nised  the 

he    lived    in.     He    allowed    the    Mahammadans    to      ^orUery^ 
56 


Incarna 
tion  of 


442      BENGALI    LANGl  AGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

enter  his  order;  he  cared  not  tor  caste  or  creed  :  he 
reorganised  societv  and  formed  a  new  order  in 
which  merit  and  not  birth  was  the  mark  of  supe- 
riority. In  this  new  order,  Gangs  Narayan  Chaker- 
vartv — a  renowned  Brahmin  scholar,  openly  took 
the  dust  of  the  feet  of  Xarottam — a  ^udra,  and 
acknowledged  him  as  his  spiritual  preceptor  and 
many  others  did  similar  things — violating  openly  all 
caste-prejudices. 

People  took  Chaitanya  as  an  incarnation  of  God. 
and  liis  image  is  now  worshipped  by  the    X'aisnavas 
Go<l.  of   Bengal    and    Orissa.      He  was  always  unsparing 

however  during  his  life  time,  in  his  condemnation 
of  such  attempts  to  deify  him.  Ram  Ray  the 
Prime  ^Minister  of  Pratap  Rudra  of  Orissa, 
asked  him  why  he  was  so  cautious  in  his  conduct. 
■'We  all  know  you  to  be  god  in  human  flesh,  vou 
may  act  as  you  like  ;  why  observe,  so  many  res- 
traints?"— he  said.  Chaitanya  replied  in  firm  tones 
''I  am  a  man  and  I  have  taken  the  ascetic's  vow. 
In  body,  in  mind,  in  speech,  and  in  all  mv  dealings 
I  must  be  spotless.  As  in  a  white  cloth  a  dark 
spot  becomes  conspicious.  so  a  trifling  fault  in 
an  ascetic's  character,  is  prominent  in  the  eyes  of 
men.  He  is  shunned  like  the  pitcher  of  milk  with 
a  drop  of  wine  in  it.'"  N'ssu  Deva  Sarbabhoi:"v 
the  veteran  scholar,  with  folded  palms  bowed  do 
to  him  on  his  return  from  Southern  India,  and  said 
"I  know  you.  O  Lord!  to  be  God  on  earth" 
Chaitanya  indignantly  answered  "Sir!  why  do  you 
talk  nonsense^  Speak  on  other  subjects."  So  in 
Chandipur  when  Is  var  Bharati  prayed  to  him  a>  to 
a  God.  he  was  offended.  In  the  historic  garden  of 
Sribas'  house   ^*    XiiTrlwii^     rTu^    nr.rt\"    .i'i>rmbK"'d. 


V.  ]    BENGALI  LANGUAGE  &  Lli  EkATURE.     443 

instead  of  singing  and  reciting  the  name  of  God. 
one  day  sang.  "Praises  to  you  O  Chaitanya' ' — and 
when  Chaitanya  heard  it,  he  stopped  the  singing, 
and  asked  the  party  to  retire  for  the  night.  Such 
instances  are  numerous  in  his  several  biographies. 

But  when  in  one  of  his  trances  he  would  lose 
all  consciousness  of  the  outer-world  and  picture- 
like or  like  a  figure  sculptured  in  fine  clay,  would 
lean  on  the  shoulders  of  a  comrade,  his  eyes  over 
flowing  with  unconscious  tears — wide-open  yet  not 
cognizant  of  this  phenomenal  world — a  celestial  joy 
beaming  out  of  his  countenance  that  spoke  of  the  soul 
enjoying  divine  communion  within,  he  was  some- 
times heard  to  murmur  "I  am  He."  The  mystic 
words  were  cought  by  his  followers  who  based 
their  faith  on  them.  But  when  reminded  of  this 
on  return  of  his  consciousness,  he  denied  all 
knowledge  of  such  unholy  utterance,  cried  for 
forgiveness  in  remorse  and  said  that  he  was  a  great 
sinner.  The  fact  of  this  utterance  coming  from 
his  lips  during  occasional  fits  of  unconsciousness 
is  related  in  Chaitanya  Bhagbata  and  other  works 
which  were  written  many  years  after  Chaitanya 
Deva  had  pased  away,  and  we  all  know  how  fertile 
■  is  the  Indian  soil  for  the  orrowth  of  wild  stories 
about  saintly  characters  whom,  it  is  to  the  advan- 
tage of  their  followers  to  deify.  In  the  contem- 
porary records  left  by  Govinda  Das.  whom  we  con- 
sider to  be  one  of  the  most  authentic  biographers 
of  Chaitanya.  no  reference  is  made  to  any  such 
utterances,  though  he  describes  Chaitanva  Deva's 
ecstacies  more  often  that  any  other  biographer.  It 
is  for  such  omissions  and  for  the  rational  view  of 
the  matters  which  he  took,  that  orthodox  \'aisnavas 


444      BENGALI     LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.     [  Chap- 
do    not    give    credence     to     Govinda     Karmakar^s 
accounts,    whereas  for  tliese  v^ery  reasons  his  work 
has  an  historical    value    and    deserves    the    highest 
esteem. 

►p.  Hut    whether    an    incarnation    or  not, — whether 

greatest        he    did  or  did  not  cure  leprosy  and  blindness  ascri- 
exponent       i      i    .       ,  •        ,  ,        ,  ,  •'  , 

of  the  L)ed   to    hini    by    the    later    biographers,    we    verdy 

Renais-        believe    that    he    was    a    i^rod-man     vouchsafed    to 
sance.  => 

Bengal  in  order  to  raise  her  out  of  the  stupor  of 
ignorance  into  which  she  had  sunk  for  ages.  He 
endwdied  in  himself  the  perfection  of  that  spirit 
of  faith  and  love  which  this  country  aspired  to 
reach,  rising  out  of  the  extremely  sceptial  opinions 
of  latter-day  Buddhism.  In  him  we  lind  the  faith  that 
belongs  to  the  age  of  the  Paurahic  Renaissance 
in  fully  developed  from  and  in  this  respect  he  may 
be  said  to  have  been  its  greatest  exponent.  But 
he  was  far  removed  from  the  all  pervading  spirit 
of  Pauranic  Renaissance  in  disowning  the  Brahmin, 
as  the  unquestionable  head  of  society,  electing  in 
his  place  those  endowed  with  spirituality  and  high 
character  as  naturally  lit  to  rule  irrespecti\e  of 
their  birth. 

HI.  Vaisnava  biographies. 

Before  the  advent  of  Chaitanya  Dcva.  there 
had  been  no  bi()gra])hieal  literature  in  Bengal, 
'j'lu-  songs  in  j)raise  of  the  Pal  Kings  are  monos- 
trous  fables  and  are  as  remote  from  history 
as  any  liction  :  the  facts  gleaned  from  them  are 
the  result  of  the  scrutinizing  resc\'irches  of 
scholars  by  whidi  fables  are  inter|)reted  in  the 
light  of  historx.  During  the  PaurSnik  Revival, 
lullowing    the    Buddhistic    period,    people   liked  to 


Caste 


V»  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  445 

hear    stories    nejated    about    their    gods    and  about 
the  mythological  characters  of  pre-historic  times  as 
narrated  in  the  Puranas.     The    scholars    were    ins- 
pired   by    the   ideals    set  up  in  classical  works  and 
altogether  lost  light  of  the  living  men    and    women 
of    the    human   world.      But  Chaitanya  Deva's  holy      ignored  in 
life    and    his    pure    devotion    threw     Castras     and        biosrra- 
theoloofical       works       into       the       back     orround;         phies. 
the    Puranas    came    to    occupy    only    a    secondary 
place    with    his  followers,    and    living  examples   of 
faith  came  to  the  fore-front.     The    Brahmins    with 
Manu's    jurisprudence,    Yajnvalkya's   laws  and  the 
caste-stories     created     by     the     Brahmavaivartha 
Purana,    lost    their    authority    with    the  Vaisnavas, 
and  in  the  new  order  Cuddras,  the    lowest    of    the 
four    original    castes,    often    occupied    equal    rank 
with    Brahmins.       The    Vaisnavas    of     Bengal  like 
the  Buddhist  Cramans  were  held  in    as    much    res- 
pect   as    the  Brahmins,  though  they  were  recruited 
like  the  ^ramans  from  all  castes.     The  social  order 
was  completely  upset ;    the  followers    of  Chaitanya 
Deva  often  showed  a  fanatical  disregard    for  caste- 
prejudices.       A  person    in    Hindu    society   cannot, 
according  to  rule,  partake  of    cooked    food    at    the 
hands  of  one  who  belongs  to  an  inferior  caste.       In 
Chaitanya  Charitamrita,  we  find  one  of  Chaitanya's 
disciples  named  Kali  Das  who  belonged  to  one  of  the 
liightest  castes  in   society,    making    it    the   mission 
of  his  life  to    partake    of  refuse   food    left    on    the 
plates    of     Pariahs.    Doms,   and  Chandals.  and  it  is 
written  that  when    Chaitanya    Deva    heard    of  this 
he    was    pleased.     At  a  time  when  caste-rules  held 
people  in  their  iron  grip,  such  fanaticism  was  neces- 
sary, in  order  to  open  the  eyes  of  men  to  the   truth. 


44^         HENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [Chap. 

Cyamananda,  Narottama  Das  and  Raghunath 
Das  were  held  in  the  hightest  esteem  by  the 
V'aisnava  community;  nay.  many  good  Brahmins 
acknowledged  them  as  their  spiritual  heads,  though 
they  belonged  to  inferior  castes. 

Narahari  Chakravarti.  a  Brahmin  author 
wrote  a  life  of  Narottam,  a  ^udra,  with  feelings 
verging  on  worship.  Such  a  thing  had  been  in- 
conceivable with  the  orthodox  community  of  thi 
period  and  yet  became  too  true,  shewing  that  a 
new  life  had  dawned  in  this  land,  awakening  men  to 
a  right  appreciation  of  the  value  of  character  and 
spirituality  amongst  men  in  preference  to  caste- 
honour.  Narahari.  the  Brahmin,  often  declared 
himself  eager  to  take  the  dust  of  the  feet  of 
Narottam,  a  ^udra. 

The  biographical  literature  of  the  Vaisiiavas 
is  as  varied  as  it  is  rich,  and  it  gives  us  a  graphic 
account  of  the  history  of  Bengal  society  in  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries. 


(a)  Kadchi  or  notes  by  Qovinda  Das. 

Let  us  first  begin  with  the  biography  ot 
Cliaitanya  Deva  by  his  servant  Govinda  Karmakar. 
who  accompanied  him  during  his  travels  in  tlu' 
Deccan.  It  is  not  a  biography  properly  so  called, 
the  book  is  called  Kadcha  or  notes.  He  says, — 
"  I  got  down  notes  of  his  doings  very  privately. "'"^ — 
[)rivatcl\-,  because  Chaitama  Deva  would  not  like 
that  his  companions  should  take  notes  of  the  in- 
cidents of  his  life.      He  would  not  tolerate  anv    act 


Kadcha. 


v.] 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE. 


447 


in  his  immediate  follower — from  worldly  cosidera- 
tions — and  much  less  any  for  the  glorification  of  his 
own  personality. 

Govinda  Das  was  a  blacksmith  by  caste.  **  I 
used,"  he  writes,  "to  make  weapons,  ladles  and 
tongs ;  my  mother's  name  is  Madhavi  ;  my  wife 
^agimukhl  quarrelled  with  me  and  called  me  an 
illiterate  fool.  Feeling  greatly,  insulted  I  left 
home  one  morning.""^ 

It  was  in  the  year  1508  that  Govinda  Das,  in- 
disfnant  at  his  wife's  conduct,  left  Kanchannasrar, — 
his  native  village  in  Burdwan.  He  heard  on  the 
way  that  a  great  saint  had  appeared  in  Navadwipa 
and  conceived  a  strong  desire  to  see  him  ;  he  came 
to  Navadwipa  at  noon  time,  and  met  Chaitanva 
Deva  in  the  company  of  his  friends,  bathing  in  the 
Ganges.     The    sight    charmed    him,    he  writes  :t — 

"  With  him  there  was  an  ascetic  (Nityananda) 
whose  face  seemed  to  be  lit  up  with  true  spiritual 
fire.  Next  there  came  Advaita  GosvamI;  never 
have  I  seen  a  face  so  full  of  wisdom  ;  his  beard 
and  hair  were  hoary  with  age,  giving  him  a  vener- 
able look  ;   his  flowing  beard  fell  below    his    breast. 


*  "^^  ^f'^l  C^f^  ^f%  Wtf^?:^'  ^W^  I 

f^^'^  ^f  «f  ^f%  ^tft  fif^  cnm  I 

Kadcha. 

^^^  c^^i\  ^1  ^  c^ft  ^]t  II 


Govinda 
quarrels 
with  his 
wife  and 
leaves 
home. 


Meets 
Chaitanya. 


44^         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.     [Chap, 

^  *  ^  \  looked  at  the  Lord  (Chaitanya). 
The  very  sight  was  wonderful  to  me.  I  cannot 
describe  the  feelings  that  came  upon  me.  A  thrill 
of  joy  passed  through  me  ;  and  my  hair  stood  on 
end  for  joy  like  the  spikes  of  the  Kadamva  flower.  I 
stood  lost  in  wonder  and  delight.  I  was  spell-bound 
and  transfixed  to  the  spot ;  my  limb  trembled  and 
I  perspired  till  my  garments  were  wet.  What  1 
felt  I  cannot  exactly  describe — I  wished  I  could 
wash  the  dear  feet  of  the  Lord  with  my  tears." 

He  prayed  to  Chaitanya  to  be  admitted  as  a 
servant  in  his  household  which  permission  was  at 
once  accorded.  Govinda  Das  describes  his  new 
home  and  its  inmates  thus  :^ — 

Govinda  "  There    are    five    large    and    beautiful     houses 

Das's  new 
home.  standing  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges.      Caci    Devi 

(mother    of    Chaitanva)    is    short   in  stature  and  of 

Wife  ^fSTIKW  ^H  ^m  ^t%1  II 

f^  ^tf^  C^^^  ^n  ^1^5^^  ^'^  II 
^W^  J^^  ^^  ^^  ^r&l  fw^  I 

^<i  ^?i  ^^  ^5f  ^tfnc'^  ^!pt^  II 
f6^i  ^-^^  wc^  ?t  ^t^nf^T  ^?«i  ii" 


^•idclin 


^\^  *(rf^  ^^  ^^  cwf'!^^  ^^<i  II 
f^^r  f^^rtr  ^r==i  5f^i  ^^7[n  II 


Kadcha. 


V»  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  449 

quiet  and  unassuming  appearance.  Slie  is  always 
making  enquiries  about  her  son.  Visnupriya  Devi 
is  the  wife  of  our  Lord,  and  is  always  busy  in 
ministering  to  his  comforts.  Humble  in  spirit,  of 
a  shy  and  retiring  nature,  she  speaks  very   gently." 

No  meat,  no  fish  could  enter  their  home,  as 
indeed  is  the  case  in  all  true  X^aisnava  families. 
All  food  prepared  in  the  house  was  first  offered  to 
Krisna,  and  then  the  inmates  of  the  house  partook 
of  it  as  prasad.  Various  kinds  of  vegetables 
and  preparations  of  milk  were  used  in  Chaitanya 
Deva's  house,  and  Govinda  Das  relished  them 
exceedingly.     He  writes^  : — 

"There  were  sweet  vegetable-roots,  fruits.  He  relishes 
thickened  milk,  butter,  cream  and  excellent  pre-  the  home- 
parations  of  herbs,  vegetable  soup,  gruel,  puddings 
and  various  sorts  of  sweetmeats.  Cachi  Devi  cooks 
delicious  food  which  is  first  offered  to  Krisna  and 
then  distributed  amongst  the  members  of  the 
household.  I,  the  prince  of  gluttons,  became  a 
willing  servant  in  the  house." 

■^^  TjfffT  ^  ^t^  ?(f|  5^^  ^l^  II 

^fo  ftji  ■*\f{  m^i  ^c^^  ^^^  I 

^t^^^  "^m^  ^r^  ^1t«f  C^T^^  II 

"m^  ^^^  nic^  ^tt  '^n  'ct'T  n 

Kadcha. 
57 


450      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

Chaitan.  But    Chaitanya's    mind    was     not     on     earthly 

ya's  emo-  ^  ^ 

tlons.         matters.     ''His    mind    is    lost   in    love  for  Krisna ; 

his  eyes  overflow  with  tears."     "  If  any    one    cries 
'Oh  !    Krisna,  Oh  !    my  soul*  Chaitanya  immediately 
runs  to  embrace  him.""^ 
Me  resolves  After    Govinda    Das    had    stayed    a  litttle  more 

ascetic.  ^^'^'^  ^  year  in  the  house,  Chaitanya  expressed  his 
wish  to  renounce  the  world,  and  become  an  ascetic. 
He  thus  described  his  missiont  : — 

"  I  shall  have  my  head  shaven,  cast  off  the 
sacred  thread,  and  wander  as  a  Sannyasi  from 
house  to  house,  preaching  the  love  of  Krisna. 
Youngmen,  children,  old  men,  wordly  men  and  even 

^f^C^  ^C^^  5^t5I  "^'^  ^T<11  ^^  II 
fiS-^  5Jt«1  f^  ^Rf  fe^^'^r^  ^K^  I 

Kadcha. 

t  "  ^^t^n  ^  f*f^i  '^^  c^^tfn^i  I 
c^vsT^^  ^^t^^  wi-^  ^?r  ^m  Pf^  II 

C^  ^13?  "^VK  ^tCt  ^ft^  ^51!I  II 

ni^NQ  ^r^t^nlt  '^M'^  ^i^  ^i^  II 
^t^n*(  csftf^i  ^i^?i  ^^t^  fefe?T  I 

<2(Tf«?l^  ^lf^^1  ^t^  Mm  c^H  %1  ll" 

Kadcha. 


v.]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.  451 

the  Pariahs  will  stand  round  me  charmed  with  the 
name  of  God.  The  very  boys  and  girls  will  cry 
*'  Oh  !  Krisna  !  "  The  infidels  and  the  Aghorapanthis 
(a  vicious  class  of  Tantrikas)  will  be  drawn  by  the 
charm  of  Krisna's  name.  Thge  fla  of  his  name 
will  wave  on  high,  piercing  the  very  skies.  Kings 
and  poor  men  alike  will  feel  the  irresistible  charm 
of  His  name.  If  I  do  not  renounce  my  home,  how 
can  sinners  be  saved  ?  My  heart  feels  deep  pangs 
for  the  sinners  of  the  world,  and  for  those  who  are 
stung  by  the  world's  woes." 

Govinda  Das  describes  minutely  all  that  hap- 
pened to  Chaitanya  on  his  way  from  Puri  to  the 
Deccan,  and  thence  to  Guzerat  and  back  to  PurL 
In  Siddhavategvaram  occurred  the  tempting  of 
Chaitanya,  to  which  I  referred  in  a  previous  chapter. 
Govinda  Das  describes  the  incident   thus"^  : — 

"There  came  a  rich  man  of  the  name  of  Tirtha-    -,.  ^. 

Tirtharam 
rama,  with  two  harlots,    to    try  Chaitanya   and  see        tempts 

if   he    should  prove  a  mere  pretender.     Of  the  two 

women,    one   was   called  Satyavai    and   the    other 

Laksmivai.     They     began     to      speak     of      many 

things     before     Chaitanya.      Being   instructed    by 

^n^?r  ^tf^  'f fir  nft^i  ^ftr®  ii 
^^5 1%^  ^tft  ^^  ^^  ^^  11 

'^^"m  "^m  ^-^  ^mi  ^<iii  5^51 1 


him. 


45^      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [  Chap^ 

ihc  rich  man,  they  tried  to  tempt  him  in  various 
ways  and  Tirtharama  thought,  the  ascetic  will 
surely  be  wrecked  thi>  time.  Satyavai  adopted 
co(|uettish  manners,  and  sat  smiling  near  Chaitanya. 
She  partially  uncovered  herself  displaying  her 
charms.  Chaitanya  addressed  her  saying  '  Oh  ! 
Mother,'  Satya  was  frightened  at  this  address,  and 
Laksmi's  fears  were  apparent  on  her  face.  Chaitanya 
was  not  in  the  least  affected  by  their  presence. 
Satya  fell  at  his  feet  in  remorse.  Chaitanya  said 
'  Oh  1  Mother,  why  do  you  make  me  a  sinner  by 
falling  at  my  feet?'  He  could  say  no  more.  His 
matted  locks  hung  loose — covered  over  with  dust. 
The  ecstasy  of  love  passed  over  liim  and  he  began 
to  tremble  for  joy  ;  everything  of  this  world  seemed 
to  pass  away  from  his  sight.  He  became  unconsci- 
ous in  the  presence  of  Satyavai  and  Laksmivai,  and 

^J1^?J  C^^  vfi^  ^^  ^r^  ^C^  II 
l^^^l  ^tft  ^^  ^'T  ^^  nKI  II 
^t^Tl^  ^U^  ^^  Tl^  ^W^^  II 

^^  ^Ri  ^[i^  ^^1  ^^^  ^^c^  I 
^51  cwR  ^"^  ^^  ^^  Ttii  m^  II 

vii^  ^^  ^1%  ^^  nf^^i  <f5%  i; 

<(ft^  ef^t^  ^<T  ^n  ^f<I  I 


I 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  453 

danced  in  the  very  ecstasy  of  love  crying  out  '  Oh  ! 
Krisna,  Oh  !  Krisna.'  He  was  like  one  under  a  spell, 
and  his  eyes  overflowed  with  tears  of  joy.  His  outer 
robes  fell  from  his  body,  and  thus  uncovered  he  stood 
breathing  deeply  Sometimes  he  fell  to  the  ground 
unconscious  of  the  hurt  he  received  from  the  thorns. 
His  rosary  were  unstrung.  His  body  was  reduced 
to  a  skeleton  by  much  fasting  and  it  bled  being 
torn  by  the  thorns.  Charmed  with  the  name  of 
Krisna,  he  danced  in  ecstasy  of  heavenly  joy.  A 
strange  light  shot  forth  from  his  person.  The 
rich  man  was  lost  in  admiration  at  this  sight.  He 
fell    at   his    feet,    but    Chaitanya    was  unconscious. 

C^^l  ^^"t  C^t«2l1  T^I  ^Tft  C^f^  ^t^  II 
^tft^  -^tf^^l  2^  ^fk  ^fi[  ^ft  i 

^^  ^1  ^M^  ^^  ^^^  •^^  II 
^T^tfell  ^^  ^ft  ^^Z^  ^t^l  C^lt^l  I 
fiv5  C^^  ^^  ^l^  ^nft^H  C^^l  II 

^«i  ^^  ^ft^^-5^^  (?«ltf^^^<r  TO  (I 

^^  ^K^  ^  ^-^  ^K5  am  ^m  1 
^5f  ^fc^  ^^^  c^^  ^tfem  n 
^^  c^U  c^t  ^^)  ^m  ^^fk^  I 
^!ii  ^z^-^  ^f^  "^^^^  ^^^  II 
^^•1  ^n^  ^ti^  ^tf^^  '^\^m^^  I 
^  ^f^  ^i^  ^c^  ^t^^  ^t^?[t^  H 


454      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE,       [Chap. 

With  arms  lifted  towards  heaven  he  danced  on. 
He  took  Satyavai  by  the  arm  and  told  her  to  call 
on  the  name  of  Krisna.  All  were  charmed  at  the 
sight.  He  lay  unconscious  of  the  physical  world, 
his  mind  fixed  on  Krisna, — his  head  drooped  on 
one  side,  and  saliva  flowed  from  his  lips — his  body 
was  covered  with  dust — eyes  were  shut  yet  still 
shedding  tears.  The  Buddhists  who  were  on  the 
spot,  deeply  moved  by  the  sight,  cried  'Oh  !  Krisna. 
Oh !  Krisna'.  and  as  Chaitanya  heard  the 
name  of  God  from  the  mouth  of  these  sceptics, 
tears  — incessant  tears  streamed  forth  from  his  eyes. 
Tirtharama  was  deeply  affected  at  the  sight.  He  said 
'Oh  !  sinner  and  faithless  man  that  I  am.  be  gra- 
cious Oh  I  Lord,  and  show  me  how  I  may  obtain 
God's  mercy!'  Chaitanya  embraced  Tirtharama 
and  said  'You  are  really  a  virtuous  soul.  Oh  ! 
Tirtharama,      I    feel     myself      hallowed     by    your 

5ft  ^m  ws  ?i5  ^tf^  ^^  m^  I 

f?f^^i  c^5H  ^t:^  ^^5  ^?P  ^tf^  H 
^^  nt^Q  ?t  ^l^  ^5f^t^  II 

^ni  ^ft  CW5  C^K?  ^^  ^ft  ^^  I 


V.  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  455 

touch.'  And  again  and  again  he  said  Tirtharama, 
you  have  won  the  love  of  God.'  Tirtharama  fell 
at  his  feet  and  wept.  When  remorse  came  to  him, 
and  with  that  a  spirit  of  resignation,  Chaitanya 
embraced  him  and  raised  him  by  his  arms.  He 
said  'Cast  away  all  earthly  wealth  like  a  straw, 
and  then  only  you  will  have  true  love  for  God.  Cast 
off  your  fine  apparel  and  jewels  ; — by  renouncing 
these  transitory  riches  you  will  secure  permanent 
riches.  This  body  of  yours,  covered  with  skin, 
will  rot  and  perish  in  a  few  years ;  and  when  your 
soul  has  departed,  it  will  be  reduced  to  ashes  or 
eaten  by  worms  or  turned  into  clods  of  earth. 
There  is  nothing  in  the  world,  my  friend,  in  which 
to  glory  save  only  devotion  to  God.  Know  all 
earthly  things  to  be  fleeting;  renounce  them  and 
correct  yourself  of  your  habits  of  luxury.  I  cannot 
say     how    God's   grace    can    be    obtained.       God 

♦tft^  5^  ^tf^  n^f%  C^WU  I 

^^  s\fiU  ^^  ^C^  ^\^  -^K^  I 

^f^  ^^  ^^cij  ^^^  ^tf^  ^i7(  I 
c^^  ^i^  ^n  lt?i  ^vs  ^tc^  ^i^  I 
^5  ^^  ^^  ^11  ^^  ^  ^i^  I 


456      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 


Himself  carries  His  grace  to  the  soul  of  man.  It  is 
not  in  my  power  to  say  more  than  this  The 
whole  world  bears  unfailing  testimony  to  divine 
grace.  What  other  proof  will  a  wise  man  require  to 
bring  conviction  to  him  ?  Nothing  is  gained  by 
fruitless  discussion.  To  one  whose  soul  yearns  for 
divine  love,  (lod  himself  comes  and  inspires  him 
with  faith." 

These  and  other  teachings  moved  Tirtharama 
so  much  that  he  took  the  ascetic's  vow  and  he  began 
to  chant  the  name  of  Krisna  day  and  night.  "  His 
infidel  friends  came  and  pitied  th(!  condition  of 
Tirtharama,  and  said  'Lo,  Tirtharama  is  ruined." 

The  account  of  how  Naroji  and  Bhilapantha. 
two  great  robbers,  were  reformed,  and  how  \'ara- 
mukhi,  an  exceedingly  beautiful  woman  of  (juzerat, 
left  her  evil  ways  by  the  influence  of  Chaitanya 
Deva,  are  vividly  described  by  Govinda  Das. 

Mis  influ-  ^^^  frenzy    of  divine    love    seen    in    Chaitanya 

ence  Deva  had  attractions  which  could    not    be    resisted 

tible.  by    any    feeling  soul.     Wherever  the  young  ascetic 


C^^^  C^^?^  ^K^  ^  ^^l^  I 

Kadi^h; 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  457 

went,  people  thronged  round  him,  in  large  numbers  ; 
scholars  admired  his  profound  learning,  and  the 
common  peo]:)le  his  ecstasies  of  love.  And  here  in 
Bengal  the  village  artists  still  paint  him  as  standing 
in  a  trance,  with  his  hands  uplifted  towards  heaven 
and  his  eyes  shedding  tears. 

His  followers,  who  inspite  of  their  earnest 
entreaties  to  be  permitted  to  accompany  him  on 
his  tour  were  all  left  at  Puri,  grieved  at  the  separa- 
tion and  waited  eagerly  there  for  his  return,  longing 
for  the  happy  meeting.  Chaitanya  wandered  through 
Southern  India  all  this  time,  like  a  mad  man, 
reduced  to  a  skeleton  by  the  fatigues  of  the  journey, 
by  fasts  and  by  vigils, — all  borne  with  a  gladsome 
heart  because  of  his  great  love.  Children  used  to 
throw  dust  at  him,  sometimes  taking  him  to  be  a 
mad  man  as  he  passed  by  ;  but  when  he  spoke,  the 
wandering  gaze  of  thousands  fell  upon  him  and 
they  saw  his  face  glow  with  a  celestial  light,  which 
is  a  never-failing  sign  of  spirituality,  vouchsafed 
to  one,  who,  in  a  pure  heart  rests  on  His  great 
love. 

Govinda's  description  of  the  meeting  of  j^y  ^t  h^q 
Chaitanya  Deva  with  his  followers,  when  he  came  re-union. 
back  to  Puri,  vividly  pictures  the  animation  and 
joy  of  the  event.  Murari  Gupta  fell  on  his  knees 
before  him  ;  with  clasped  palms  the  veteran  Vasu- 
deva  said  "  My  heart  is  made  of  stone,  or  it  would 
have  broken  long  ago,  at  being  separated  from 
you."  Narahari  met  him  in  great  joy  carrying  a 
flag  in  his  hand,  and  Khanjan  Acharyya  though 
lame  came  swiftly  before  all  others  because  of  his 
great  love  for  Chaitanya.     The  news    of  his  arrival 

58 


458      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [  Chap. 

spread  quickly  all  over  the  country,  and  Govinda 
Das  gives  an  interesting  and  animated  description 
of  how  the  musicians  Laksman  and  \'aiaram  Das 
who  sounded  the  horn  called  Ram  ^inga  in  the 
procession,  together  with  Giri  Purl,  Narayan  Tirtha 
and  other  great  scholars  speedily  appeared  on  the 
scene  to  pay  their  respects  to  their  beloved  master. 
Raja  Pratap  Rudra  used  to  visit  the  procession 
every  day  and  when  Chaitanya  marched  with  it, 
the  King  followed  him  on  foot,  with  the  humility 
and  respects  of  a  disciple.  On  the  3rd  of  Magha 
Chaitanya  came  back  to  Puri,  and  Govinda  Das 
finishes  his  diary  here. 

A  word  is  now  necessary  about  Govinda  Das 
and  his  literary  powers.  Shortly  after  he  had  left 
home  in  a  fit  of  an^-er  he  met  ao^ain    with    his    wife. 

Govinda       Chaitanya  Deva  came  to  Burdwan    on    his    way    to 
Das  and  ^  •  ,    ,  •  ,       • 

his  wife.       Puri,   Govinda  bemg  with  him  ;   and  here  the   inter- 
view took  place. 

■^  "  Knowing  somehow  or  other  that  I  had  come 
to  Burdwan,  she  hastened  to  meet  me.  Tears  \\rv< 
flowing  from  her  eyes,  while  she  fell  at  my  fi  >  i 
saying  *  O  come  back  and  let  us  go  home   togethn  . 


%^  ^^  '^l^  ^t  Vt  ^^  ^1^  II 


v.]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE*  &   LITERATURE.  459 

For  a  slight  fault  of  mine  you  have  renounced 
home ;  what  provision  will  you  make  for  me — 
your  poor  and  devoted  servant  ?  Where  am  1  to 
go,  and  who  will  give  me  charity  ?  I  cannot  tell 
what  fate  is  reserved  for  me !  To  support  a 
cursed  life,  now  I  must  go  and  beg/  Hearing  these 
words  I  hung  down  my  head  and  said  to  myself 
"  O  God,  O  God."  Since  God^s  name  makes 
the  heart  pure  and  raises  it  above  all  earthly 
attachments  I  took  refuge  in  His  name."  Chaitanya 
heard  all  that  my  wife  had  said  and  sweetly  talked 
with  her  on  the  aims  of  the  spiritual  life.  Hearing 
his  words  she  was  very  sorrowful.  She  said  no- 
thing but  began  to  weep  bitterly, — looking  round 
helplessly.  Chaitanya  tried  to  soothe  her  with 
religious    advice,    but    she    hid     her    face    in     her 

T?f^1  ^ftl  C^^l  f»^  ft^^  C^l  ^t'tt^  II 

1%  -^m  ^^'ct  c^n  ^H  m^fr  f^^i  I 
f»^i  ^f^  c^^^^  c^^^![  mfn\  II 
^f^Tii  ^^v^  ^1%  ^n]  c^^  ^ft  I 

c^^t^i^i  ^m  ^ft  ^fi^  ^5^  II 

nm^  Sb^s^  C^ft^ll  ^9f^  I 
^fe^  ^tfts^i  ^i^  ^^  ^^^  n 

^t^¥i  ^tf^  ^^^\  ^^fm^  ^m  i 
^  ^'?ii  ^fir  n^  ^wi^  ^\^  II 


460      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &,    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

sadi  and  wept  even  more  bitterly.  Seeing  her 
in  this  condition,  Chaitanya  became  full  of  com- 
passion and  said  turning  towards  me  : — "  You  need 
not  go  with  me,  Govinda,  I  shall  take  another 
servant  ;  you  had  better  go  home  with  your 
wife." 

But  how  could  poor  (iovinda  leave  the  company 
of  that  divine  man  whose  attraction  had  proved 
too  strong  for  the  princely  Raghunath  and 
Narattam,  for  Sanatan  and  Rupa.  the  ministers 
of  the  court  of  the  Emperor  of  Gour,  who  had  all 
left  their  vast  worldly  possessions,  and  joined  the 
order  of  the  Sannyasins  for  the  great  love  they  bore 
to  the  master?  In  fact  he  who  makes  us  under- 
stand our  relation  to  God,  the  only  true  relation- 
ship worth  caring  for,  wields  an  irresistible 
power  over  us.  When  a  prophet  or  a  seer  causes 
us  to  see  the  highest  truth,  this  phenomenal  world, 
— the  fleeting  and  the  perishable  passes  out  of 
our  sight  and  He  becomes  more  real  to  us  than  any 
object  of  the  senses.  So  it  was  with  Govinda  and 
others.  When  Chaitan\a  expressed  his  desire  to 
leave  Govinda  at  Rurdwnn  : — 


^^f^  W^^i  cmi^  ^ki^  ^tf^i^  II 
£^  ^TA  cntf^^i^  ^i^  ^t^  ^ft  I 

«l^  ^^J  ^I'Sf  ^f?l  *lf|  t(1^  ^tf'(  II  " 

Kadchs. 


ii 


V,  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATUKE.  461 


^  "  I  clasped  his  feet  in    deep    anguish  of    heart     Chaitanya 


and  washed  them  with  tears,  but  Chaitanya  turned 
away  and  left  me." 

Govinda  could  not,  however,  stay  at  Burdwan. 
He  hastened  to  overtake  Chaitanya  Deva  dismis- 
sing a  number  of  friends,  who  had  in  the  meantime 
assembled  there  to  dissuade  him  from  his  resolve 
to  renounce  home  as  a  Sannyasin.  The  devotion  of 
Chaitanya's  followers  was  wonderful.  In  the  last 
page  of  the  Kadcha  Govinda  writes  that  he  was 
entrusted  by  Chaitanya  Deva  while  at  Puri  to 
carry  a  letter  from  him,  to  Advaitacharyya  at 
^antipur.  This  meant  his  absence  from  Puri  for  a 
few  days.  But  when  entrusted  with  this  task  : — 
t  "  Hearing  this,  tears  started  to  my  eyes,  for  I  could 
not  bear  separation  from  the  Lord."  Vasu  Deva 
Sarvabhauma — the  veteran  scholar,  had  once  said 
J  "  If  a  thunder  bolt  falls  on  my  head  or  if  my  son 
dies,  even  that  is  bearable,  but  I  cannot  bear  to 
hear  Chaitanya  abused.'' — The  great  love  in  which 
Chaitanya  Deva  was  held  in  Bengal  continues  even 
now  among  her  people,  not  to  speak  of  his  more 
special  followers — the  Vaisnavas  who  believe  him  to 
be  God  himself.  Even  now  in  the  village  homes 
of    Bengal    parents    clasp    their    little    children    to 

^^f^  f¥ftT(l  2(^  ^ft^1  'nsm  II     Kadcha. 

t  vii^,  ^r^j  ^T^  (jin  ^i^  ^ift  ^^  I 

•Slf  ^  ft^^  ^f-^  mi^  ^]  m^  II     Kadcha. 

I  ftc^  ^^  n^^  ^f?  t^  ^\ki  ^m  I 
^^^  ^^^  ft^  ^^^  ^1  m  II 


leaves 
Govinda. 


The 

devoted' 

ness  of  his 

followers. 


462         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap,  W, 


Descrip- 
tions of 
Nature. 


their  breasts  and  s^ive  them  such  tender  names  as 
'  Gour  Chandra,'  '  Xavadvipa  Chandra,'  '  Nadevasi,' 
*  Nagarvasi ', — all  indicating  Chaitanya  Deva  or 
Navadvipa  his  birth  place,  hallowed  in  their  eyes 
by  his  associations.  In  Tippera,  close  to  the 
Ranir  Dighi,  there  is  a  locality  inhabited  by  the 
Malis  or  sweepers — a  very  low  caste  in  Hindu  society. 
I  lived  close  to  this  neighbourhood  for  about  eight 
years  and  scarcely  a  night  passed  that  I  did  not 
hear  these  people  sing  in  chorus  for  hours  together, 
songs  in  praise  of  Chaitanya.  "  Come,  if  you 
would  see  the  god-man  who  does  not  believe  in 
caste "  was  the  burden  of  one  of  these  familiar 
songs.  Not  only  in  Tippera  but  everywhere  in 
Bengal,  people  of  the  low  castes  show  an  unusual 
enthusiasm  in  singing  songs  in  praise  of  the  great 
Brahmin  who  proclaimed  the  equality  of  all  men 
in  our  society. 

Govinda  Das'  writings  are  simple  and  unassum- 
ing. The  deep  spirituality  of  his  mind  lends  a 
charm  to  his  descriptions  of  nature.  In  speaking 
of  the  Nilgiri  hills  he  compares  them  to  a  great 
yogi  lost  in  divine  contemplation.  He  describes 
the  sea  near  Kanyakumari  in  the  following  few, 
lines  : — 


*  "  We  crossed  Tamraparni  ana  I  iiaiianya  felt 
a  desire  to  see  the  sea.  W'e  heard  the  roar  of  its 
waves  from  a  distance.      There  is  no    mountain,   no 


'^^15  ^T'T^  cw*t  ^tft  c^t  Jtt  I 


v.] 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE. 


463 


forest,  no  land, — no  sound  but  that  of  the  sea 
moaning  incessantly  !  No  word  can  express  it  but 
it  looked  so  grand  !  There  is  no  object  that  meets 
the  eye,  yet  it  is  so  impressive  !  One  who  has  a 
sinless  heart  can  alone  appreciate  the  grandeur  of 
the   ser  " 

Govinda's  writings  are  free  from  narrow  and 
orthodox  views  on  religion.  Chaitanya  Deva  visited 
the  temple  of  Qiva,  of  ^akti,  of  Ganapati  and  of 
Surja.  Wherever  and  under  whatever  form  or 
name,  God  was  worshipped,  Chaitanya  Deva  took 
that  as  the  emblem  of  the  Lord  of  his  heart  ;  it 
acted  as  a  sign  to  remind  him  of  One  whom  he 
loved  supremely.  The  feeling  that  burnt  like  holy 
incense  in  the  temple  of  his  heart  was  nourished 
by  all  that  he  saw,  and  in  his  enlightened  and 
spiritual  view,  gross  forms  and  superstitious  ideas 
were  translated  into  the  edifying  truths  of  pure 
faith. 

It  is  in  the  descriptions  of  Govinda  Das  in  the 
above  strain  that  we  find  how  the  prophets  and  seers 
of  India  rejected  nothing  in  the  faith  of  the  people 
however  gross  it  might  apparently  seem.  They 
always  interpreted  the  thing  w^orshipped  in  the  high- 
est light  of  faith  and  thus  bridged  over  the  gap  bet- 
ween Fetichism  and  Vedantism.  The  lower  classes  in 


Free  from 
orthodoxy. 


Hinduism 
accepts 
ail  wor= 

sliip  and 
rejects 
none. 


c^^nm  c^f-mi  cffZ"^  t^^  ^t^  ^^  \ 


Kadcha 


464         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [Chap, 

all  parts  of  the  world  are  bound  to  be  superstitious, 
but  ill  Hinduism  the  gross  forms  of  worship  are 
always  in  touch  with  the  superior  light  of  pure 
faith  and  thus  without  disturbing  the  faith  of 
the  illiterate,  Hinduism  makes  its  vast  religious 
system  a  homogeneous  whole  in  which  the  lowest 
represents  merely  a  step  in  the  ladder  that  reaches 
the  highest.  This  catholic  trait  in  the  character  of 
Chaitanya  Deva  is  delil^erately  omitted  or  ignored 
by  many  of  his  subsequent  biographers,  who  want- 
ed to  represent  him  as  the  leader  and  upholder  of 
their  own  party, — the  god  of  a  special  class  of 
men  and  not  the  prophet  for  all  that  he  was 
undoubtedly. 

(b)  Chaitanya  Bhagabata  by  Vrindavan  Das. 

Vrindavan  After     Govinda     Das's     account     of     the     few 

Das,  born  r     ^.     •  ^      it         i  1  •  1  •      1 

1 507  A. D.    years    of    Chaitanya  s    lite,    the    next    biographical 

work  about  the  great  \'aisnava  prophet  was  written 

bv    Windavan    Das    born    in    1507  A.D.      He    was 

a  grandson    of    Crinivas,   whose    brother   ^rivasa's 

devotion  to  Chaitanya  Deva  is  well    known    to    the 

V'aishava    communitv.       The    spacious   lawn  before 

Criviisa's    house    was    the    favourite    haunt    of     the 

^ribasa's      .S.mkirtan  parties  led    by  Chaitanya  Deva  ;    many  a 

a)i<:^i)iii.       night  frcim  the  rise  of  the  evening  star  on  the  western 

horizon    till    the    appearance    of  the   sun.  the  deep 

chanting  of  (iod's    name    was    heard   accompanied 

with  the  unceasing  sounds  of     khol    and    kartal  in 

this  historic    Uinff'uia     of    ^rivasa.    but   Windavan 

Das  was  onlv  two  years  old  wlu^i  Chaitanya    Deva 

left  Xavadwij^a  for  good.       'Hie  biographer  regrets 

in  many  passages  of  his  work  that  he  had   not    had 

the  good  fortune  of  seeing  Chaitanya  Deva. 


V.  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  465 


Vrindavan  Das's  Chaitanya  Bhagavata  is  one 
of  the  standard  works  on  his  Hfe  and  commands 
great  influence  amongst  the  Vaisnavas  ;  it  contains 
about  25000  Hnes  and  is  written  throughout  in  the 
metre  called  tlie  Payar  Chhanda.  Vrindavan  Das 
represents  the  views  of  the  orthodox  Vaisnavas 
and  takes  great  pains  to  establish  Chaitanya  as  an 
incarnation  of  Vi?nu.  He  resents  the  opposition 
to  such  views  by  the  unbelieving  non-Vaisnava 
communities  with  a  freedom  of  language  that  tran- 
scends all  limits  of  decency.  Outside  the  orthodox 
Vaisnava  society  none  will  appreciate  his  rude  and 
overbearing  remarks  about  those  who  would  not 
accept  Nityananda,  the  friend  of  Chaitanya  Deva 
and  a  Vaisnava  apostle,  as  an  incarnation  of 
Valarama. 

But  Vrindavan  Das  shows  considerable  powers 
as  a  historian.  We  feel  a  greater  interest  in  the 
incidental  description  of  the  contemporary  events 
that  he  gives  than  in  his  delineation  of  the  subject 
of  his  memoir.  He  describes  Chaitanya  Deva's 
life  in  the  light  of  the  Bhagabata  which  gives  an 
account  of  ^ri  Krisna's  life.  Yet  the  Krisna  of 
Vrindavan,  ?vlathura  and  Kuruksetra  is  as  different 
from  Chaitanya  of  Navadvipa  as  ever  were  any 
two  characters  in  history.  Vrindavan  Das  in  his 
zeal  to  prove  the  identity  of  the  two  personalities 
hopelessly  confounds  both.  It  is,  as  I  have  said, 
in  the  incidental  description  of  contemporary 
events  that  he  shows  the  hand  of  a  competent 
historian,  and  the  biography  greatly  interests  us 
when  we  study  the  minor  facts  related  in  it.  It  is 
also  an  invaluable  source  of  information  regarding 
the  lives  of  many  of    Chaitanya    Deva's   followers. 


Chaitanya 
Bhagabata. 


Attacks 
on  the  non- 
Vaisnavas. 


Valuable 
side-lights. 


5y 


Chaitan^ 
ya's  con- 


ries. 


466      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.     [  Chap, 

He  begins  his  work  with  a  reference  to  the  great 
Vaisnava  scholars  and  worthies  who  lived  at 
Navadwipa  immediately  before  Chaitanya  Deva's 
tempora-  birth  and  also  to  the  condition  of  that  city  at  the 
time.  We  have  already  quoted  a  passage  from 
these  accounts  on  page  410. 

■^  "  Some  of  these  great  Vaisnavas  had  been  born 
in  Navadwipa ;  others  in  Chittagong,  Radha, 
Orissa  and  Sylhet.  They  were  born  in  different 
places,  but  they  had  all  met  there.  As  the  Lord 
(Chaitanya)  would  be  born  there,  they  were  drawn 
to  the  place.  Crivasa  and  (^ri  Rama,  the  scholars, 
Cri  Chandra  Cekhara  Deva  highly  esteemed  every- 
where, Murari  Gupta — the  healer  of  all  earthly 
maladies  (belonging  to  the  physician  caste) — these 
eminent  Vaisnavas  were  born  in  Sylhet.  Pundarika 
Vidyavinoda  of  pearless  learning,  Chaitanya 
Vallabha  Datta  and  Vasu   Deva    Datta,    were   born 


c^^  ^^u?  ^^^  cm"^  ^^c^  '^Hm  ii 

^^f[n  ^tf^  5t5T  >T^t<I  ft^^  II 

i^^fln  ^^^  ^^^  ^^^1^  I 
^^  at-n  h^]  ?^^tft  ^t^  ^t<i  I 


V.  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  467 


in  Chittagong.  Hari  Das  was  born  at  Budhan  in 
Western  Bengal.  In  the  village  EkChaka  (Burdwan) 
was  born  the  great  apostle  Nityananda.  All  of  them 
had  met  in  Navadwipa.'" 

These  men  in  subsequent  times  obtained 
celebrity  for  their  great  faith.  They  were  like 
torches  that  had  only  required  the  touch  of  Chai- 
tanya  Deva  to  kindle  them. 

After  describing  the  glories  of  Navadwipa,  its 
paraphernalia  of  educational  institutions,  and  the 
customs,  and  avocations  of  its  residents  and  how 
they  spent  whole  nights  in  singing  songs  in  praise 
of  Yogi  Pal,  Gopi  Pal,  Mahi  Pal  and  other  kings  of 
the  Pal  dynasty,  Vrindavan  Das  goes  on  to  say : — 
^"They  sometimes  sing  songs  in  honour  of 
Manasa  Devi  and  keep  up  whole  nights.  There  are 
many  others  who  worship  Va^uli  with  presents, 
others  who  offer  meat  and  wine  for  sacrificial  pur- 
poses.    Music,    dances,  songs  are  always   going  on 

^'^i  ^^^<f^^Tt^^  ^^^m  II 

Chaitan3^a  Bhagabata. 

^wj  ^]x7[  f^^i  c^^  ^^  ^^1 7^1^  ,1 
ft^^ft  ^^j  %  ^t^j  c^t^t^^r  I 
^1  ^m  f  ^^^  ^•\^  n^^  ?iw^  h 
'^f^m'Q  c^^  ^^f^  ^^  f ^  ^t^  i 
f^ti^f^  f^^jt^^  ^w^  "^mm  II 

Chaitanya  Bhagavata. 


The  people 

of  Nava= 

dwipa 

addicted 

to  worldli- 

ness. 


468        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.     [Chap, 

in  the  place  and  there  is  noise  and  bustle  on  all  sides 
and  men  are  without  faith  in  Krisna.  Religious 
teachings  are  thrown  away  on  them.  They  do  not 
care  to  take  the  name  of  Krisna.  They  are  al- 
ways vaunting  their  caste  and  their  learning." 

Chaitan-  ^  quote  the  passage  in  which  Chaitanya    Deva's 

ya's  visit      y\^\i  \^q  Gaya  is  described. 
to  Qaya.  ^ 

■^  "  The   son  of  ^achi  Devi  (Chaitanya)  entered 

Gaya,  the  holiest  shrine  in  India.  He  came  to 
Brahmakunda  and  bathed  in  it ;  he  paid  his  respect 
to  the  departed  spirit  of  iiis  father  in  a  fitting 
manner,  and  being  admitted  to  the  Cakraveda  he 
hastened  to  see  the  lotus  feet  of  Vishu.  The 
Brahmins  stood  around  the  feet  ;  heaps  of  gar- 
lands of  flowers  were  offered  there  ; — sweet  scents. 
flowers,  incense  and  clothes  were  offered  at  the 
feet,  so  numerous  that  no  one  could  keep  record  of 
them.      The    priests,    clothed    in    holy  attire,  were 


f^?i^*i  c^fe^i  ^u^^  S^^«l  I 
^^  -^f^^ir^  c^'^n  c^t'fi  ^tf^  ^t<  H 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  469 

describing  the  glories  of  the  Divine  Feet.  '  These 
Feet  that  Ye  see  here'  they  said  '  the  god  ^iva  has 
placed  on  his  breast  and  called  himself  blessed  ''^^'fj^f"^ 
thereby.  The  goddess  Laksmi's  whole  soul  rests 
in  the  lotus  feet  of  the  Lord,— the  king  Vali  took 
them  on  his  head  and  was  reconciled  to  his  lot  in  the 
nether  world.  To  one  who  contemplates  the  feet 
of  Vishu  for  a  moment,  Death  loses  all  his  horror. 
The  great  Yogies  in  their  highest  vision  catch  but 
a  glimpse  of  these  feet.  O  how  fortunate  are  ye 
who  see  with  your  eyes  this  holy  spectacle — the 
feet  of  Vishu  from  which  sprang  the  Ganges,  which 
rest  on  the  head  of  Ananta,  the  thousand  headed 
serpent,  and  which  are  worshipped  by  Laksmi.  For- 
tunate are  ye  to  have  a  sight  of  these  feet  !" 

C^  5^«|  f^^^ft  ^^^  ^^^  II 
^ft-%^  ^tft^T^  ^^  C^  5?1«1  I 
C^^  ^t  Cn^l  ^^  ^f^J^^^«l  II 
f^^t^^^  a  ^^«1  ^Tt^  ^?1  Ti^S  I 
^^  ^t^  ^1  ^^^  ^ft^T^  '^U  II 

Cf  I  v£i^  oi^i  ^^  ^t^j^^'^^  n 
C^  ^^C«l  ^tff^^  3^1^  ^^t»l  I 
H?l^ft  mU  5^1  m^  ^t^  ^t^  II 

^t^  ^^  CW^  ^^  ^t^JW^I  II 
^^«l  ^^t^  ^f^  ft2J^«|  ^Z^  I 

^^T^i  ^K^  ^^  f^^i^^  ^i^  II 

Chaitanya  Bbagavata. 


470        BENGALI   LANX-UAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

Overflow=  "  He    became    overpowered    with     feelings     of 

ing  emo-       •  ^^.  ^y\^[^-]^  could  not  be  concealed,  and  he  trembled 
tions.  '   - 

in    a    sort    of    ecstasy,— the    incessant    streams  of 

the  Ganges,  as  it  were,  flowed  from  his  eyes." 

lyvara   Puri    had    by    this  time    come  to  Gaya, 

,,     .     easrer  for  Chaitanya's  company,   and    met    him    on 
l^var  Pun  »  -^  i       ^ ' 

again.  tlie  threshhold  of  the  Gaya  temple.      As    Chaitanya 

saw  him  he  bowed  to  him  in  deep  reverence  and 
said  "^  "  Blessed  is  my  journey  to  Gaya  for  I  have 
seen  you.  If  offering  Pinda  can  secure  heaven  to  j 
my  dead  father,  surely  the  sight  of  a  saint  like  your 
self  is  a  hundred  times  better.  You  are  better  \ 
than  all  shrir.es,  Revered  Sir,  for  the  sight  of 
you  cleanses  the  soul.  Save  me  from  this  sea  of 
the  world  !  I  resign  my  body  and  soul  to  your  care. 
Kindly  teach  me  how  I  may  take  refuge  at  the  lotus 
feet  of  Visnu." 

He  was  again   in  a  trance  and  when  he  recover- 
ed his  senses  he  recited  Sanskrit    verses    and    said 


^  l"^-^  ^]  CTff^^t'l  ^f.«l  C^t^t^  II 
C^t'^-^^  ^^  ^^  "^H  f^s^T^^  II 

^l<^  ^<[5I  ^f^  ^15?^  ^^t^  II 

^°v^<I  ^^3  ^i^  ^^t^  "^WU  I 


Jayananda, 

born 
1513  A.D. 


V.  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  471 

^  '  O    Krisha,  O  my  father,    O    Lord    of    my    soul, 
'  whither  hast  Thou  gone  and  left    me,'    and   he    fell 
on    the    bare  ground  and  his  handsome  person  was 
besmeared  with  dust. 

(c)  Chaitanya  Mangal  by  Jayananda. 

The  next  biographical  account  of  Chaitanya 
Deva  that  we  come  across,  was  written  by 
Jayananda.  Jayananda  was  born  in  1513  A.  D 
He  belonged  to  a  family,  from  which  sprang 
Raghunandan,  the  law-giver  of  Bengal  of  the  i6th 
century.  Jayananda's  father  Subuddhi  Migra,  was 
a  noted  personality  of  the  Vaisnava  community, 
about  whom  frequent  references  are  found  in 
Govinda  Das's  kadcha,  Vaisnava  chgradarpana, 
Charitamrita  and  other  works.  Jayananda  when 
a  child  saw  Chaitanya  in  the  house  of  his  grand- 
father. He'was  commonly  called  by  the  pet  name 
of  Guia.  It  is  said  that  Chaitanya  took  some 
interest  in  the  boy  and  gave  him  the  Sanskritic 
name  of  Jayananda,  by  which  he  was  latterly 
known. 

There    are    certain    historical    points,    in  which        The  new 
Jayananda  differs  from  other  writers,  and  from    the     brou^^ht  to 
traditions    current    in    the  country.      It  is  generally         light  by 
believed  that  Chaitanya's    father    Jagannath   Migra 
was    originally    an    inhabitant   of  Dh§kadaksina  in 
Sylhet.       But    Jayananda    refers    to    Jayanagar    in 
Sylhet   as    the    native    village  of  Jagannath  Migra. 
The  Mahomedan    devotee,    who    obtained    a    great 
celebritv    in    the    Vaisnava    community    under   the 
name    of    Hari    Das,    by   his    staunch    devotion  to 


^  w^u  ^^'^u  c^t'Tt^  ntl^  c^nn 


472         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE       [Chap. 

Chaitanya  Deva  and  by  accepting  his  faith,  is 
generally  believed  to  have  been  born  in  Budana, 
but  according  to  Jayananda,  Hari  Das  was  born  in 
the  village  Bhatakalagachi  on  tlie  bank  of  the  river 
Svarna.  We  come  to  know  from  Jayananda's 
Chaitanya  Mangala  that  Chaitanya  Deva's  ances- 
tors came  to  Bengal  from  Jajpur  in  Orissa. 

The  The    history    of    how    Chaitanya    Deva  passed 

passing  .  ^  .    .  ,        i      •  i         •        , 

away  of        away  IS  a  mystery  ;     it  is  not  related  either   in    the 

^^Uev^a"^^  Chaitanya  Bhagabata  or  in  the  Chaitanya  Charita- 
mrita — the  two  great  authoritative  works  on 
Chaitanya's  life.  It  is  said  that  devout  Vaisnavas 
felt  such  pain  in  describing  the  story,  that  many  of 
them  scrupulously  avoided  narrating  it  in  their  bio- 
graphies. It  is  true  that  once  Chaitanya  fell  into  a 
trance  at  the  sight  of  the  moon  reflected  in  the  sea 
as  he  witnessed  it  from  the  Orissa  coasts — the  scene 
reminded  him  of  Krisna  and  he  leapt  into  the  ocean 
in  an  unconscious  condition  ;  but  it  is  also  related 
that  he  was  shortly  after  rescued  by  a  fisherman  and 
carefully  tended,  till  restored  to  consciousness. 
This  fart  in  his  life  is  well  known.  The  more 
advanced  members  of  our  community,  linding  no 
other  clue  as  to  how  he  passed  away,  have  lately 
started  a  theory  that  Chaitanya  Deva  wa-^  at  this 
time  lost  in  the  waters  and  never  again  found. 
P)Ut  the  old  records  distinctly  relate  how  he  was 
saved  by  a  fisherman  ;  so  to  assert  in  the  teeth  of 
this  evidence  that  he  met  with  his  death  in  the  sea 
is  certainly  unwarranted  and  no  historian  can  credit 
it.  Our  country-sides  are  full  of  fables,  relating 
to  the  manner  in  which  he  hnally  disappeared ; 
it  is  Slid  that  he  embraced  the  figun^  of  (iopinath 
(Krisna)  made  oi   Ximba  wood  and    worshipped    in 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &  LITERATURE.  473 

a  temple  at  Puri',  and  that  there  he  suddenly  van- 
ished. The  priests  of  the  temple  declare  that 
Chaitanya  Deva^s  corporal  frame,  which  was  not 
of  gross  matter,  was  lost  in  Gopinath's  figure  ;  they 
point  to  a  golden  mark  in  the  image,  asserting 
that  that  it  has  been  there,  ever  since  the  time 
when  Chaitanya  Deva  disappeared.  A  similar 
story  is  related  by  the  priests  of  the  Puri  temple, 
who  associate  the  disappearance  of  the  devotee 
with  the  figure  of  Jagannatha.  As  the  biographers 
of  Chaitanya  Deva  are  generally  silent  on  the 
point,  fables  like  these  could  pass  current  in  the 
Vaisnava  community,  and  they  have  been  long  be- 
lieved bv  the  people. 

Jayananda's  Chaitanya-Mafigala,  which  has  An  his- 
been  recently  unearthed  in  the  shape  of  some  old  account. 
manuscript-copies  of  the  work  by  Babu  Nogendra 
Nath  Vasu,  gives  a  version  of  Chaitanya's  passing 
away  from  the  earth  in  a  manner  which  we 
may  accept  as  historically  true.  It  is  told  by 
our  author  that  in  the  month  of  Asada  (Julyj 
Chaitanya  Deva,  while  leading  a  Sahkirtana  party 
in  procession,  fell  into  a  trance  and  as  he  proceed- 
ed leaning  on  a  companion,  his  eyes  streaming 
with  tears,  and  his  hands  up-lifted  to  heaven,  with 
a  smile  which  made  his  face  divinely  radiant,  he 
was  hurt  in  the  foot  by  a  brick,  of  which  he  was 
totallv  unconscious  at  the  time.  On  coming  to 
himself  he  felt  illness  with  great  pain  in  the  foot 
and  said  to  his  companions,  that  after  two  days 
he  would  die.  He  caught  fever  that  day,  which 
increased  and  on  Sunday  the  7th  day  of  the  wax- 
ing moon,  in  the  month  of  July  i534)  ^^  about 
3  P.M.  he  left  his  mortal  frame. 
60 


474      BENGALI    LAiNGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap, 


A  partial 
corrobora- 
tion of  the 
story    by 
Lochan 
Das, 


A  page  of 

old  his 

tory. 


This  we  find  in  Jayananda's  Chaitanya-Mafigala. 
From  an  account  given  by  Lochana  Das  in  his 
life  of  Chaitanya — a  subsequent  work,  we  are  led 
to  surmise  that  his  body  was  immediately  removed 
to  the  temple  of  Jagannath  in  Puri  and  the  priests 
made  a  grave  for  it  in  the  floor  of  the  templ«  . 
They  closed  the  doors  of  the  temple  against  all 
visitors, — Chaitanya's  immediate  followers  not  ex- 
cepted, while  they  were  placing  the  body  in  it  and 
repairing  the  floor  after  burial.  The  passing  away 
of  Chaitanya  Deva  was  thus  made  a  mystery  by  the 
Pandas,  who  now  earn  money  from  the  credulous 
pilgrims  by  relating  romantic  stories  about  his 
disappearance  and  by  pointing  to  the  golden  mark- 
in  the  figure  of  Gopinath,  which,  they  describe  as 
the  mark  of  the  passage  by  which  Chaitanya  Deva 
melted  into  the  figure  of   that  god. 

Jayananda's  Chaitanya-Mafigala  discloses  some 
other  facts  of  the  historv  of  Beno^al.  It  is  related 
in  it,  that  Hossain  Shah,  the  Emperor  of  Gour 
(1494 — 1525)  heard  of  a  prophecy  in  the  land 
that  the  Brahmins  of  Navadwipa  would  subvert 
the  Moslem  power,  establish  a  Hindu  kiiigdc^m  and 
occupy  (jour.  The  prophecy  was  widely  current 
and  the  Emperor  was  alarmed  by  it.  Here  is  the 
passage  describing  the  steps  that  he  adopted  to 
avert  the  evil. 

^'  "  I)y  the  luiiperor's  orders  the  Brahmins  were 
deprived  of  their  castt'  or  killed.  Whenever  a 
conch    was    mounded    in     a    house,    the    Emperor  - 


3l^«t  ^F^TII  ?t5ft  ^tf®  ^\'\  ^^  II 

^^i?!^:^  »lB,:i{^f5?  <?}t:^  t?  "^i^  1 
^-^  ^t«i  ^a  ^^  ^rf©  ^t*r  ^^!j  I 


v.]         BENGALr  LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  475 

soldiers  proceeded  towards  it  at  once  and  killed  the 
inmates  there  and  looted  all  property.  If  one  was 
found  wearing  a  tilak  on  the  forehead  or  the  sacred 
thread  he  was  bound  hand  and  foot.  The  temples 
were  destroyed  and  shrines  were  desecrated.  The" 
Tulsi  plants  and  the  Agvattha  trees  (sacred 
amongst  Hindus)  were  up-rooted  by  hundreds. 
Bathing  in  the  Ganges  was  prohibited.  The  citizens 
of  Navadwip  became  alarmed  for  their  lives.  The 
Mahomedans  made  the  village  of  Pirulya  near 
Navadwipa,  their  station  and  were  determined  to 
extirpate  the  Brahmins  of  Navadwipa.  A  false 
report  had  reached  the  Emperor  of  Gour  that  the 
Brahmins  of  Navadwipa  would  oust  the  Maho- 
medans from  the  country ;  it  was  written  in  their 
sacred  books  and  the  citizens  of    Navadwipa  were 

^^  ^tfr  C^M^  ^ra  Q\%  m*{  \M^  II 
CSffe^T  Ciff^^il  ^R5f  ^^ti;^  ^^jft  I 

^t«l  '^^  %  -^m  ^^Itn  ^t^  II 
^M  n^n  f  ^  ^ii&  *f^  '^^  I 
^\^\w\  ft^^itf^^  ^tfe  '^r^  ^^  II 

-^\%V\  ^^TJ\  ^W  IJ^  ^^  ^K^  I 
^^flcn?[  ft^  C«t^1  ^fe^  ^mW  II 

cmt^  ^m^  vm  ^^^  c^^  ^ti:^  I 


47^      BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &  LITERATURE.      [Chap. 

all  expert  archers.  The  Emperor  believed  in  this 
prophecy  and  he  ordered  a  general  devastation 
of  Navadwipa.  Vasudeva  Sarvabhouma,  son  of 
Viyarada,  with  his  family,  removed  to  Orissa,  leav- 
ing Bengal.  The  king  of  Utkala  was  then  the 
illustrious  Prataprudra,  famous  for  his  valour 
in  war.  He  worshipped  the  great  scholar  of 
Navadwipa,  presenting  him  with  a  golden  throne. 
The  brother  of  Sarvabhouma  was  Vidyavachaspati, 
who  remained  in  Gour  and  their  father  Vi^arada 
proceeded  to  Benares,  where  he  settled." 

It  is  further  related  that  the  Emperor  was  after- 
wards convinced  that  the  Brahmins  of  Navadwipa 
were  innocent.  He  became  remorseful  and  not  onlv 
stopped  all  oppression  but  ordered  the  Hindu 
temples  that  were  damaged,  to  be  repaired.  From 
this  time  forward  he  was  kind  towards  the 
Hindus.  We  have  got  references  also  in  Chaitanya- 
charitamrita  to  Hossain  Shah's  oppression  of 
the    Hindus    of  Navadwipa  and  other  places  in  the 


m4  fm^  "^m  ^w^^  ^^1  n 
viit  ft^ji  ^^  ^t^t^  ^mz^  ^tft^  I 

^T-s  ^<^^m  a^  ^tf^  a)^  ^1^1  w 

<j^  f^^^r^^  'ft^r.^ta  l^^  ^^1 II 
«t!l  ;^t^l  f^ffjT^t^'^f^  c^t^^t^  i 

Jayananda's  Chaitanya  Mangala. 


V»  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  477 

earlier  part  of  his  reign.     But  the  Brahmin  families 

whose    caste    was  polluted  by  being  forced  to  take 

water  from  the  hands  of  the  Mahomedans  stationed 

in   the  village  of  Pirulya,  lost  their  status  in  Hindu 

society,  and  after  more    than   four    hundred    years,        pi^ulya 

the    Tagore  families    of    Calcutta,    who    represent    Brahmins. 

a  class  of  Pirulya  Brahmins,  as  they  have  been  since 

called,    have     to    a  considerable    extent     reorained 

their  social  position. 

Jayananda  gives  a  list  of  authors  who  had 
written  accounts  of  Chaitanya  Deva's  life  before 
him,  amongst  which  the  works  of  Paramananda- 
puri,  Gopal  Basu  and  Gouri  Das,  mentioned  by 
him,  have  not  yet  been  recovered.  We  find  it 
also  mentioned  in  his  work  that  Govinda  Das,  a 
black-smith  by  caste,  followed  Chaitanya  Deva 
in  his  travels  in  Southern  India. 

(d)  Chaitanya  Charitamrita  by  Krisna  Das. 

By    far    the    greatest    of    the    biographers    of 

Chaitanya  Deva, — one  who  by  his   pure    and    lofty        Krisna 

character,  by    his    unique  scholarship    and    no  less     15  17A.'d. 

by    his    hoary    old    age    commanded    the    greatest 

respect  of  the  Vaisnava    community    of  the  period, 

was  Krisna  Das  Kaviraj  of  Jhamatpur   in  Burdwan. 

Born    in    1517    of  a    poor    Vaidya    family,    he  was         g^rly 

inured    to    hardships    from    his    earliest    childhood.        misfor= 
Tf    r     1        m  ,  tunes  and 

His  tather  Bhagiratha  used  to  earn  a  small  pittance      Vaisnava 

by  following  the  avocation  which    belonged    to    his     *"**"®"^®* 

caste  viz.  that  of  a  physician.     At  his  death  Krisna 

Das  was  only  6  years  old.   He  had  a  brother  ^yama 

Das,  2  years  his  junior.  Their  mother  Sunanda  could 

find    no    way   to    maintain     herself    and    her    two 

children.     But    an    end  soon   came  to  her  care  and 


478      BENGALI   LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap, 

anxieties  ;  the  hand  of  death  took  her  away,  only 
a  few  months  after  she  had  become  a  widow  and  the 
poor  children  were  placed  in  charge  of  his  relatives. 
Krisna  Das  was  not  much  cared  for  and  he  grew 
up  to  be  a  lad  of  16,  not  running  wild  as  such 
boys  are  likely  to  become,  but  sober  and  quiet — 
a  prey  to  melancholia  and  occasional  gloom  caused 
by  the  bereavements  he  had  suffered  which  weighed 
upon  his  soul.  A  follower  of  the  saint  Nityananda 
— Minaketana  Ram  Das  by  name,  paid  a  visit  to 
Jhamatpur  at  this  time.  His  preachings  produced 
a  deep  effect  upon  Krisna  Das  who  now  yearned  for 
the  religious  life.  Ram  Das  was  however  treated 
to  ridicule  by  Syam  Das,  the  younger  brother  of 
our  author  who  took  the  matter  sorelv  to  heart. 

Minaketan  had  gone  away,  but  the  disappoint- 
ment caused  in  Krisna  Das's  mind  by  his  brother's 
conduct,  together  with  the  impressions  of  a  holy 
life  left  on  him  by  the  devout  X'aisnava,  made  him 
give  up  the  idea  of  following  any  wordly  pursuits. 
It  is  said  that  at  this  time  Nityananda  appeared  to 
him  in  a  dream  and  advised  him  to  go  to  the  X'rinds 
groves  and  pass  his  life  there.  The  dream  became 
a  real  force  with  him  and  he  could  not  resist  the  com- 
mand. He  walked  about  800  miles  on  foot  begging 
Goes  to  .  ,  1         A    •    J 

Vrindavan     alms  tor  his  subsistence  and  arrived    at  \  nndavana, 

^"th'tfre.'*'''  ''^''-^''-  ^^''^  V^'^'^^y  '''"  '^^^  ^^^''  ^^'^'^  ^'^'^  ^'^^^^  character 
(.-veil  as  a  bov  interested  the  six  distinguished 
(iosvamis,  the  appostles  of  the  X'ai.snava  faith  of 
that  time-,  who  volunteered  to  take  care  of  the  young 
man's  education. 

The  beauty  of  llu-  Xrinda  groves,  the  seene>  of 
which  are  rendered  ever  sacred  by  their  association 
with  Krisna,  added  to  the  austere  lives  of  the  apostles, 


A  dream. 


Under  the 


V*  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  479 

Rup,  Sanatan,  Jiba,  Gopal  Bhatta  and  the  two 
Raghunaths  and  their  great  learning,  all  combined  to 
make  lasting  impressions  on  Krisna  Das.  He  be- 
came a  ready  and  willing  disciple  of  the  six 
Gosvamis  and  advanced  rapidly  in  his  studies. 
Within  a  few  years,  he  had  became  a  profound  six  Gosva= 
Sanskrit    scholar    and    had    written  two    works    of 

great    merit    in    that    language.      His    Govindalila-        Qovinda 
.,       •  ,  .  r  ,  11-  i.  Lilamrita 

mrita    is    a  master-piece  or  poetry,  and  his  annota-         Karria- 

tions  of  Krisna  Karnamrita  attest  his  o-reat  erudition.      mr'J-^  ^"d 

^  other 

He  wrote  some  small  books  in  Bengali,  mamely—  works. 
Advait  Sutra  Kadcha,  Svarupvarnana  and  Ragmayi 
Kana  and  in  all  of  these  Bengali  treatises  occur  oc- 
casional prose-passages  which  may  be  taken  — with 
the  exception  of  those  in  the  ^unya  Purah  of  the  gth 
century,  as  some  of  the  earliest  specimens  of  Bengali 
prose.  It  is  worthwhile  perhaps  to  point  out  that 
even  the  biographical  notes  of  Govinda  Das  were 
written  in  poetry.  When  even  arithmetic  was 
composed  in  rhyme,  how  could  biography  be 
prose  ? 

A    religious    celibate  and    student    all    his    life, 
practising  the  austerities  of  a  Sannyasin, — he    had      Chaitanya 

reached    the    asfe    of  70   when  a  chanofe  came  over       Charita- 
f5  / :?  ;r>  mrita 

him.    He  had  never  cared  for  earthly  fame  or  s^lorv,      commen- 

.  ced 

— his  aim  had  been  only  to  acquire    sound  scholar-       when  he 

ship    in    the     theological     lore     of    the     Vaisaavas,       ^^^ 

and    as    an    unassuming    soul    to    quit    his    mortal 

frame    in    due    time     and    quietly    pass     into    the 

heaven     of  his    Krisna    from    the     sacred     banks 

of  the  Jumna.     But  a    herculean    task    came    upon 

him    in   his  old  age    unsolicited    and    he  could  not 

avoid  it. 


480      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap.  ■ 

The  Chaitanya  Bhagabat  of  Brindavana  Das 
used  to  be  read  in  Brindavana  by  the  holy  men 
of  the  place  every  e^'ening,  and  they  felt  that  the 
last  portion  of  Chaitanya's  life  was  not  described  , 
in  the  work  with  that  completeness  which  the 
Vaisnava  community  required  in  a  recognised  bio- 
graphy. One  evening  when  Krisna  Das  sat  in  his 
cottage  counting  the  beads  of  his  rosary — old  and 
infirm  as  he  was  and  suffering  from  the  various 
diseases  whicii  age  brings  on,  a  deputation  of  the 
Vaisnavas  of  the  place,  consisting  of  Govinda 
Gosvami,  Jadavacharyya  Gosvami,  Bhugarbha  Gos- 
vaml,  Chaitanya  Das,  Kumudananda  Chakravarti, 
Krisna  Das  Chakravarti,  ^ivananda  Chakravarti 
and  of  others,  waited  on  the  old  scholar  requesting 
him  to  undertake  to  write  a  life  of  Chaitanya  Deva. 
The  hoary  headed  Krisna  Das  pleaded  his  age  and 
weakness,  but  they  insisted  on  his  undertaking  the 
work.  At  this  moment  the  priest  of  the  temple  of 
Govindaji  came  to  him  and  presented  him  with  an 
Ade^amalaya — a  garland  of  flowers — a  sign  of  divine 
command,  from  the  temple,  and  the  request  made 
by  the  deputation  became  by  this  act  of  the  priest 
inviolable  as  a  religious  injunction.  Krisna  Das 
had  no  other  alternative  than  to  take  up  the  work. 
He  was  heli)cd  by  the  materials  given  him  by 
Cri  Das,  Loknath  Gosvami,  Gopal  Bhatta  and 
Kaghu  Xath  Das.  Besides  this  he  received  impor- 
tant help  from  the  scholarly  notes  on  Chaitanya's 
lifi-  bv  Murari  (lupta  and  Svarupa  Damodar  and 
from  Chaitanya  Bhfigabat  by  Brindaban  Das,  and 
Chaitanya  Chandrodaya  by  Kavi  Karnapur.  l)ut 
from  these  materials  we  can  scared)  gain  any 
idea  of  the   vast   erudition   and  extraordinary  panis 


i 


^  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.         4S1 


A'ith  which  he  assimilated  and  shaped  all  that  came 
into  his  hands.  I  give  in  the  foot  notes  the  names 
of  the  Sanskrit  works'^  to  which  reference  is  made 
in  the  celebrated  pages  of  Chaitanya  Charita- 
mnta  (lit.,  the  nectar  of  the  life  of  Chaitanya), 
as  his  great  work  is  called.  It  is  a  monument  of 
industry  and  scholarship  and  of  the  devotional 
features  that  characterise  Vaisnavism.  Up  to  now 
no  other  Bengali  work  of  such  patient  and  varied 
scholarship  has  been  produced.  But  the  language 
Df  the  book  displays  an  uncouth  admixture  of  the 
dialect  of  lower  Bengal  with  that  of  the  upper 
Provinces.  The  author  had  long  left  his  native 
and,  and  his  own  language  had  grown  to  be  a 
:urious  medley  of  Hindi  and  Bengali.  His  pro- 
ound  scholarship  in  Sanskrit  besides  made  him 
mport  high  sounding  Sanskrit  words  into  the 
nixed  language  used  in  his  work,  and  a  student 
)f  Bengali  must  admit  that    such    importation    did 


The  vast 
scholar- 
ship dis- 
played by 
the 
author. 


Defects  of 
style. 


*I. 

Cakuntala. 

16. 

Vicva  Prakaca. 

2. 

Adipurana. 

17- 

Vrihat  Gautamiya  Tantra. 

3- 

Ujjvala  Nilmani. 

18. 

Amarkosa. 

4- 

Kavya  Prakaca. 

19. 

Uttarcharita. 

5. 

Krisna  Sandarva. 

20, 

Ekadasitatta. 

6. 

Krama  Sandarva. 

21. 

Krinsakarnamrita. 

7- 

Gita  Govinda. 

22. 

Kurmapurana. 

8. 

Chaitany  Chandrodaya 

23. 

Gadura  Purana. 

Natak. 

24. 

Gautamiya  Tantra. 

9- 

Jagannath  Vallava 

25- 

Nanrad  Pancharatra. 

Natak. 

26. 

Nrinsiha  Purana. 

10. 

Dankeli  Kaumudi. 

27. 

Panchadasi. 

II. 

Natak  Chandrika. 

28. 

Panini  Sutra. 

12. 

Padmavali. 

29. 

Baraha  Purana. 

»3- 

Padmapuran. 

30. 

Vidagda  Madhava. 

14. 

Govindlailamrita. 

31- 

Vira  Charita. 

15. 

Visnu  Purana. 

61 


4^2  BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.    [Chap' 

not    add    any  beauty  or  grace  to  his   style.     Words 

5f^'^^^f«f^^;rR,  ^^'(^^I'lSrfl,  and  C^f^^mjl  which 
display  a  peculiar  formation  of  Sanskrit  Samasas. 
tocrether  with  a  sprinkling  of  Hindi  words  such  as 
^^j  i^^  and  ^5"t!l1  and  even  of  Urdu  ^1  and 
5^1^,  all  combined  to  make  the  work  an  oinniio)! 
gatherum  of  heterogenous  elements,  which  is 
far  from  being  the  graceful  and  elegant  Bengali 
for  which  some  of  the  Vaisijava  works  are  noted. 
The  author  was  no  skilled  hand  in  writinor  Bengali, 
but  this  does  not  detract,  in  any  considerable  i 
degree  from  the  unique  merit  which  his  work  \ 
possesses  and  for  which  it  has  found  a  distinguished 
and  a  permanent  place  in  the  literature  of  th( 
Bengali  Vaisnavas. 


32. 

Brihannaradiya  Purana. 

53- 

Vedanta  Dar9an, 

?>?>• 

Brahma  Samhita. 

54- 

Bhakti   Lahari. 

34- 

Brahma  Vaivarta  Puran. 

55. 

Bharati. 

35- 

Vaisnava  Tosini. 

56. 

Bhagabata  Sandarva. 

Z^. 

Bhagabata  Gita. 

57- 

Mahabharata. 

37- 

Bhakti  Rasamrita  Sindhu 

58. 

Kritalakamandara  Stotr 

38 

Bhakti  Sandrva. 

59- 

Rupa  Gosvami  Kadca.- 

39- 

Bhabartha  Dipika. 

60. 

Stavamala. 

40.  Bhagabata   Purana. 

41.  Malamasa  Tattva. 

42.  Manu  Samhita. 

43.  Jamuna  Caryya  Vrata 

44.  Ramayana. 

45.  Laghu  Bhagabatamrita. 

46.  Lalita  Madhava. 

47.  Cvai;vata  Tantra. 

4S.  Svarupa  Gosvami    Kadca. 

49.  Sahitya  Darpaiia. 

50.  Samksep  Rhagaliatamrita. 

51.  Hari  Bhakti   X'il.is. 

52.  Hari   Bhakti  Sukhodaya. 


v.] 


BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE. 


483 


Chaitanya  Charitamrita  contains  15050  slokas 
or  "couplets"  and  is  divided  into  three  main  Khan- 
.  das  or  cantos, — the  Adi,  the  Madhya  and  the  Antya 
'  Khanda.  The  first  khanda  contains  2500  slokas, 
the  second  6050,  and  the  third  6500.  The  poem 
discusses  the  views  of  the  Vaisnavas  on  religion 
learnedly,  with  profuse  quotations  from  Sanskrit 
texts.  The  doctrines  of  Chaitanya  Deva  are  ex- 
plained elaborately  and  one  unacquainted  with  the 
discourses  of  the  six  Schools  of  Indian  Philosophy 
cannot  follow  the  great  Bengali  work  properly.  There 
are  very  few  Bengalis  within  our  knowledge  who 
can  interpret  the  scholarly  expositions  of  the  author 
aright.  With  the  lay  Vaisnavas  however  the 
great  attraction  of  the  book  lies  in  its  delineation  of 
Chaitanya's  last  days.  The  slokas  that  he  recited, 
his  religious  ecstasies  displaying  the  highest  poetic 
flights, — which  at  times  made  him  appear  like  a 
madman  and  at  others  like  a  heavenly  spirit,  and 
not  unoften  as  a  great  scholar  whose  sparkling 
discourses  were  listened  to  with  rapt  attention  by 
the  multitude  ^all  have  been  graphically  described 
in  this  masterly  work  of  Krisna  Das  Kaviraj.  The 
last  portion  of  Chaitanya's  life  as  told  by  Krisna 
Das  shows  how  God-vision  became  more  and  more 
frequent  with  him  till  the  emaciated  body  could 
bear  these  trances  no  longer, — how  the  sight  of  a 
flower,  a  ripple  on  the  sea,  a  tree,  or  a  cloud  would 
throw  him  into  a  rapture,  and  he  would  shed  tears  of 
joy  seeing  God  in  them,  and  stand  unconscious 
with  his  hands  uplifted  towards  heaven  for  hours 
together,— how  the  songs  of  Jayadeva  sung  by  a 
Vaisnava  maiden  in  the  Puri  temple,  made  him  run 
like  a    madman,    his    feet    pierced   by    thorns    ^nd 


The 

excellence 

of  the 

work. 


The  last 
days  of 
Chaitanya, 
his  ecsta- 
sies. 


484        BENGALI   LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

dropping  blood,  and  how  in  an  unconscious  state  he 
was  carried  to  his  home  by  his  followers.  Some- 
times for  a  whole  night  he  would  sing  the  songs  of 
Jayadeva,  Vidyapati  and  Chandidas  explaining  as  he 
sang  — the  relation  of  the  soul  to  God  referred  to 
in  these  songs.  Thoughts  of  the  matter-of-fact  world 
scarcely  occurred  to  him.  He  had  not  visited  his 
poor  mother  Cachi  Devi  and  his  devoted  wife 
Visnupriya  ever  since  he  took  the  Sannyasin's  vow 
and  had  never  visited  his  dear  mother-land  of 
Navadwipa.  The  people  of  that  place  came  to  Puri 
frequently  to  have  a  sight  of  one  whom  they  named 
Navadwip  Chandra  or  the  moon  of  Navadwipa.  He 
would  occasionally  send  messages  to  his  bereaved 
mother,  saying  that  he  was  well,  and  that  she 
should  not    feel    any    anxiety    on   his  account.     In 

message       the    last    year   of  his     life    he    sent    the    following 
to  mother. 

message  : — 

*  "O  mother,  at  a  time  when  I  should  have 
ministered  to  your  comforts,  I  took  the  vow  of  a 
Sannyasin,  1  turned  mad  and  committed  a  great 
sin  ;  pray  forgive  me,  for  I  am  your  child  and  am 
always  bound  to  obey  you." 

But  this  was  only  a  fleeting  idea.  The  God- 
vision  came  upon  him  again  and  he  fell  into  a 
trance  immediately  after  delivering  the  message. 


Last 


*  c^rsn^  c'pri  ^rf^  ^tf^  ^^^  ^^p\  i 
^T^^  ^t^i  ^rf'i  c#^  «f*^  ^"H II 

Antyakhanda. 


V»  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         485 

I  quote  below  a  small  passage  from  Chaitanya 
Charitamrita  in  which  the  author  points  out  the 
distinction  between  the  love  of  God  and  earthly 
passions. 

■^"  Kama — earthly  passion  (lit.  desire)  and  Prema  Kama  and 
(love)  are  two  different  things.  One  is  pure  gold 
and  the  other — iron.  When  a  man  seeks  an  object 
for  the  satisfaction  of  his  own  desire,  he  is  said  to 
be  prompted  by  Kama,  but  one  inspired  by  a  desire 
to  fulfil  the  will  of  God,  acts  under  Prema  or  love. 
Kama  makes  a  man  seek  his  own  pleasure  but 
Prema  makes  him  do  things  in  which  God,  delights. 
The  idea  of  satisfying  people  by  pandering  to 
their  wishes  (C^Tt^^i*^),  the  ministering  to  the 
passions  that  have  their  origin  in  one's  own  body 
(  C^^  ^'^))  the  fulfilling  of  the  commands  enjoined 
in  the  vedas  (  C^ff  ^'^),  wordly  pursuits  (  ^"f ),  feel- 
ings of  shame,  of  physical  pleasure  and  of  personal 
gratification, — attention  to  inviolable  custom  and 
attachment  for  one's  kith  and  kin — all  these  should 
be  given  up,  and  God  alone  should  be  adored. 
Friends  and  relations  will  be  against  such  a  man, 
but    he   should    forsake    all    for   the    sake    of  God. 

C^k  ^T^  C^^  hci  ^^^  ft^^«l  Ij 

^i^fe!i  ^fe  t^^i  ^tc^  ^ft  ^^^  I 
f  ^^fe^  M^  t^\  "^n  c^i  m^  11 

^^1  h^  CW^  ^^  ^1^^^l  ^  II 


van. 


486      BENGALI    LANGAUGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap, 

When  one  has  attained  this  stage,  a  true  devotion 
for  God  may  be  said  to  have  sprung  up  in  him  ; — 
his  life  becomes  like  a  white  cloth  without  stain. 
So  the  difference  between  Kama  and  Prema  is 
great,  Kama  or  desire  is  darkness  irripenetrable, 
which  does  not  allow  us  to  see  beyond  self  and 
Prema  (love)  is  the  glorious  sun  which  illuminates 
the  truths  of  the  whole  universe." 

In  describing  Chaitanya  Deva's  visit  to  Vrinda- 
van  the  scholarly  author  displays  poetic  emotion. 
He  writes  : — 

*  "  On    seeing    Chaitanya,    the    very  trees  and 
ya's  visit      creepers    of  the    Vrinda    groves  burst  into  blossom 
^^  yi^*"^^"     and    shed    tears    of  joy    in    the  dews  that  fell  from 
their  leaves.     Their  boughs  gently  touched  the  feet 
of  Chaitanya  with  their  tribute  of  flowers  and  fruits, 

^^  5^  C2^^  ^.^  C^^  C^^^  II 
^^  C^\^  ^VE  C^^  ^tf^  (^^  ^^  II 

Adikhanda. 
5jpi  ^^  ^f^  ^t^  '^^  2)^  ntll  I 

^%  c^U  ^^  c^^  c«&  ^^1  ^^  1 


V,  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  487 

and  looked  as  if  they  welcomed  a  friend  with  gifts. 
Chaitanya  in  an  ecstasy  of  love  embraced  each 
tree  and  creeper  and  by  the  silent  prayers  of  his 
soul  dedicated  the  flowers  and  fruits  to  Krisna." 

On    completing    his    work    in    16 15    after    nine  The 

years  of  unremitting  toil,  Krisna  Das  writes  : —  apology 

*  "  It  is  foolish  to  assert  that  I  am  writing  this 
book  by  my  own  power  ;  my  body  is  like  an  inert 
log  ;  I  am  old,  decrepit,  blind  and  deaf  ;  my  hand 
trembles  as  I  write,  and  I  have  no  power  to  hold 
to  my  own  ideas  ;  I  am  suffering  from  various 
diseases,  and  can  not  move  or  sit  properly." 

He  was  97    years    old    at    the    time.     The  MS.      His  tragic 
however  was  ready  and    along    with  other  works  of  ^ 

the  six  Gosvamis  was  sent  to  Bengal  for  circula- 
tion. The  MSS.  were  being  carried  in  a  bullock 
cart  and  Crinivas — one  of  the  latter  day  Vaisnava- 
worthies — was  in  charge  of  this,  under  escort  of 
several  armed  men  from  Vrindavan.  When  after 
some  days,  they  reached  Vanavisnupur  in  the 
district   of  Bankura,  they    met    a    man    who  made 

Chaitanya  Charitamrita. 
Antyakhanda, 


488        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

enquiries  as  to  what  was  being  carried  in  the  cart. 
The  guard  said  "  it  was  treasure"  ;  for  indeed  in 
their  eyes  these  valuable  works  were  a  treasure. 
The  news  was  carried  to  Raja  Vir  Hamvira  of 
Vanavisnupur  by  the  spy  as  the  enquirer  was.  The 
Kaja  had  a  strong  party  of  robbers  under  him 
who  carried  on  depredations  in  the  neighbouring 
countries.  In  the  night  they  beat  the  guards,  and 
looted  the  cart  and  disappeared. 

Crinivas,  in  whose  charge  the  valuable  MSS. 
were,  sorely  dismayed  at  this  event,  instantly  sent 
a  messenger  to  Vrindavan  with  the  news.  No 
copies  of  the  MSS.  were  left  there,  and  this  meant 
the  loss  of  the  labours  of  the  renowned  scholars  of 
so  many  years.  The  death  of  Krisna  Das  is  thu> 
described  in  a  work  named  Vivarta  Vilas  : — • 

■'^"The  news  reached  Raghunathand  Krisna  Da^ 
and  both  of  them  fell  to  the  ground  and  began  to 
lament  aloud.  Old  and  infirm  Krisna  Das  could 
not  stand  the  shock  ;  he  could  not  rise  from  tlu^ 
ground  and  while  in  this  condition  passed  away 
in  great  sorrow." 

The  work  was  subse(|uentlv  recovered,  however, 
and  now  enjoys  the  highest  popularity  in  the 
Vaisnava  community.  Pity  that  its  learned  author 
met  so  tragic  a  death,  in  his    despair    of    its    being 


^^'^m  ^f^r^i??  ^21^^  ^fe'^  ii" 

Vaivarta  \'ilas. 


V.  ]  BENGALI   LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  4S9 

ever    recovered.     The    high    esteem,    in   which  the  The 

book  is  held  by  the  Vaisnavas  is  evidenced    by    the     ''**^"lhe*^ 
following   remarks    of  the    late    veteran    Vaisnava         book. 
Pandit  Haradhan  Dutta  Bhaktinidhi    of  Vadanganj 
(Dist.  Hugli). 

'  The  day  I  consider  as  wasted,  in  which  I 
have  not  read  a  chapter  of  this  book.' 

Referring  to  the  author's  unfortunate  death,  the 
Pandit  writes  : — 

"  I  can  not  relate  the  story  of  Krisna  Dasa's 
death.  One  ought  not  to  write  about  anything  so 
sad.     If  I  attempt  to  do  so,  my  heart  breaks." 

(e)  Chaitanya  Mahgala  by  Lochan  Das. 

We  shall  here  touch  upon  another  biography  of 
Chaitanya  Deva  which  also  enjoys  a  great  popu- 
larity.    It    is    the    Chaitanya    iMangal  by  Trilochan 

Das   commonly    known    as    Lochan    Das.     Lochan       i:?^^^^ 
\  DSs  born 

Das  was  born  in  1523  A.D.  at  Kogram,  a  village  1523  A.D. 
30  miles  to  the  north  of  Burdwan  and  10  miles 
from  Guskhara,  a  station  on  the  East  Indian 
Railway.  He  was  a  Vaidya  by  caste.  His  father's 
name  was  Kamalakar  Das.  Narahari  Das  of  Cri- 
khanda,  one  of  the  most  noted  followers  and  friends 
of  Chaitanya,  was  the  religious  preceptor  of  Lochan 
Das.  In  the  brief  autobiographical  account  he 
gives  of  himself  in  his  Chaitanya  Mangal  and  also 
in  another  work  named  Durlabha  Sar,  he  writes  : — 
^  "On  both  my  father's  and  mother's  side  I  was 
the  only  male  child.     My  maternal  grandfather  was 

62 


490      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.      [  Chap. 


Autobio- 
graphical 
notes* 


without  any  male  heir,  and  I  had  no  brother. 
Wherever  I  happened  to  stay  I  was  treated  with 
great  indulgence.  In  fact  T  was  almost  spoiled. 
None  could  succeed  in  giving  me  lessons.  Thanks 
be  to  my  maternal  grandfather  Purusottama 
Gupta,  a  man  of  high  character  who  gave  me  sound 
thrashings  and  at  last  succeeded  in  teaching  me  the 
alphabet." 


A  good 

poem, 

though 

not  a  good 

biography 


Lochan  Das's  Chaitanya  Mafigal  has  half  the 
bulk  of  Vrindavan  Das's  Chaitanya  Bhagavata.  It 
does  not  claim  the  authority  of  a  reliable  biography. 
The  Vaisnavas  love  the  work  because  Lochan  was 
a  fine  poet ;  his  work  is  more  a  creation  of 
fancy  than  an  historically  accredited  account  of 
Chaitanya's  life.  There  are  professional  parties  of 
singers  who  sing  the  whole  of  Chaitanya  Mangal 
and  people  delight  in  its  high  flown  poetry.  I  quote 
a  passage  below  from  this  book.  The  author  is 
describing  a  conversation  of  Chaitanya  Deva  with 
his  wife  Vi?riu  Priya  on  the  eve  of  his  turning 
Sannyasin.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  stoical  character  of 
Chaitanya  is  consistent  with  the  feelings  attributed 
to  him  in  the  passage  but  it  does  credit  to  our 
author  as  a  piece  of  emotional  poetry. 


■s{\k'^^  ^ft^i  c^i^^  f»i*it^  ^t'r?i »' 

Chaitanya  Mangal. 


v.]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  491 

^^'  Near  Chaitanya's  feet  sat  Visnu  Priyg  sighing  Visnupriya 
deeply  and  looking  at  him  with  tearful  eyes.  She  tanya. 
placed  the  dear  feet  of  her  lord  on  her  breast  and 
bound  them  in  a  loving  embrace  with  her  arms  that 
were  like  gentle  creepers  She  wept  till  her  sadi  was 
wet  with  her  tears.  Chaitanya  awoke  with  a  start 
and  asked  *  Why  should  you  be  weeping  beloved  ? 
Tell  me  the  reason.'  He  fondly  touched  her  chin 
with  his  right  hand  and  with  sweet  words  asked 
her  again  and  again  the  cause  of  her  sorrow.  Visnu 
Priya  did  not  reply,  but  continued  weeping  in  a 
manner  that  would  rend  the  heart  to  behold.  Her 
mind  was  burning  with  anguish   and  her    body    lay 

hm  fen^^  ^^m,        tm  ^  ^^1  fffii, 

C5^^t  n\t^)  fe^,  ^ci  ^^  ^15%^, 

ft^f^i  ^y:^  "^H  ^t^  II 

l^^i  feii^  ni:^,  ^^  ^ft^^  ^i^ 

%^  ^t%  ^^  ^^?i  II 

^fe^  ^  ^i^  f^l  ^t%  I 
^^2  "i^i  %^  ^%         ^"^^i^  ^ra  ^x, 


492         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

inert  while  her  eyes  shed  tears.  She  held  his  feet  with 
her  hands  and  silently  wept  in  spite  of  the  questions 
of  her  lord.  Chaitanya,  who  knew  the  tender  ways 
of  love,  wiped  her  eyes  with  the  edge  of  his  dhiiti 
and  began  to  speak  kind  and  sweet  words  to  her 
— words  which  would  make  even  a  stone  to  blossom, 
and  which  naturally  appealed  to  an  emotional  nature. 
As  Chaitanya  Deva  seemed  so  solicitious,  M?nu 
Priya  with  her  face  beautiful  like  the  moon,  said 
softly  in  a  voice  choked  with  tears  •  O  Lord  of  my 
soul,  place  your  dear  hand  on  my  head  and  say  if  it 
is  true  that  you  will  become  a  Sannyasin.  When  I 
hear  of  it,  my  heart  is  likely  to  break  for  pain.  I 
shall  enter  the  fire,  O  my  Lord,  if  the  report  is  true. 
This  my  life,  my  youth,  my  dress,  my  ornaments — 
all  I  prize  for  your  sake.  If  you  forsake  me  why 
should  I  bear  this  wretched  life  !  My  heart  burns  as 
with  a  firy  poison  when  I  hear  this  report.    \Mio  is 


^^1  m^  ^"^  ^^.  ^fei  ^tvsTTi  ^^, 

c^  ^in  ntm^  i3?r.5 1 

c^t^  ^^^1  ^f^  ^^1-  ^^^f"^^^  ^^^  ^^' 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  493 

there,  O  Lord,  so  fortunate  as  I !  I  have  a  husband 
like  you.  I  have  cherished  the  dear  hope  that  this 
youth  of  mine  should  be  spent  in  your  service.  Ah, 
miserable  am  I  now !  The  thing  that  pains  me  most 
is  to  think  how  you  must  travel  on  foot.  Through 
the  depth  of  the  forest  and  along  thorny  paths,  who 
will  accompany  you?  Your  beautiful  feet  are  tender 
as  the  ^irisa  flower  which  I  fear  to  touch  lest  I 
should  cause  you  pain  ;  how  will  they  traverse  the 
hard  ground,  amongst  the  thorns  of  the  forests 
and  whither  will  you  go,  O  Lord  ?  For  a  slight 
exertion,  your  face,  which  is  like  the  moon, 
perspires ;    how  will   you    wander   as  a    Sannyasin 

^f^  ^ft  ^t%  mi^,        f^  ^1m  ^^H  %^, 

^ft  c^^  c^^  ^n^n  I 

^?  ^t^l  f^^  m^,  yi\  *{^  c^^i^, 

f^^  ^*^  c^t^  cm^,         v£i^  f^^ff^  cS't^^, 

^^^  ^^^  ^m,  c^t^l  ^tz:^  ^t^  ^m, 

c^^t  ^^  ^\i^  ^m  ^M^  f 

^W^  ft^^  ^^,  ^t*l  C^T^  ^^  "^l^j 


494         IJENGALl    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [Chap, 

exposing  yourself  to  the  sun  and  the  rain  of  the 
hot  weather,  both  of  which  are  quite  unbearable  ?  I 
do  not  prize  anything  above  these  dear  feet  ;  where 
will  you  leave  me  and  in  whose  care  ?  You  will 
forsake  home  to  be  a  Sannyasin  ;  it  is  my  wretched 
self  that  forms  that  chief  bondage  of  your  home,  from 
which  you  wish  to  free  yourself.  No  need,  O  Lord, 
to  forsake  home  for  me.  For  your  least  happiness,  I 
would  gladly  put  an  end  to  my  life  with  poison, 
so  that  you  might  stay  at  home  and  be  happy 
there." 

Lochan  Das  died  in  1589    at    the    age    of  sixty- 
particulars    six.     Besides  Chaitanya  Mahgal  he    had    written    a 
Doet^*'^      Bengali  work  named  Durlabhasar,    and  composed  a 
number  of  very  elegant  songs.     In    the    village    of 
Kankda  near  Koorram    Lochan's  native  village)  the 
MS.   of    Chaitanya  Mafigal    in  the  handwriting    of 


Further 


c^^^  Wi'^  ^m  "^^s^  11 

^fii^i  ^fw^  ^t5i,  ^t:*i  ^^  ^^*i  '^^i, 

c^m^  ^^^=1  M^,  ^t^  f^l  ^if^  ^r^T. 

c^w^  U^fh  ^iJi,      ^ft  ^1^  ft^  ^^^^' 

Chaitanya  Mangal. 


V,  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &  -LITERATURE.  495 

Lochan  Das  is  still  preserved  in  the  house  of  one  j 
Ram  Krisna  Chakravarti  who  is  a  professional  J 
singer  of  Chaitanya  Mangal. 

(f)  Brief  accounts  of  Vaisnava  devotees. 


There  are  numerous  other  works  in  which  the 
incidents  of  Chaitanya  Deva's  life  are  described. 
It  should  be  stated  here  that  notices  of  Sanskrit 
books,  such  as  Chaitanya  Chandrodaya  by  Kavi 
Karnapur,  Kadcha  by  Murari  Gupta  and  other 
works  dealing  with  the  life  of  Chaitanya  Deva  do 
not  fall  within  the  scope  of  the  present  treatise. 

Besides  Chaitanya  Deva,  but  inseparately  asso- 
ciated with  him,  were  Nityanandaand  Advaitachar- 
yya  two  great  recognised  apostles  of  the  Vaisnava 
faith  of  whom  we  have  already  spoken.  Nityananda 
was  born  at  Ekchaka  in  1473  A.D.  and  Advaitachar- 
yya  was  a  grandson  of  Narasinha,  the  primeminister 
of  Raja  Ganega.  This  Raja  is  said  to  have  killed  the 
Mahomedan  Emperor,  and  gained  the  throne  of 
Gauda  for  himself  by  the  counsel  of  his  prime- 
minister.  Advaita's  father,  Kuvar  Pandit  was 
originally  an  inhabitant  of  Sylhet  and  had  latterly 
settled  at  ^antipur.  Advaitacharyya  was  born  in 
1434,  and  lived  to  a  hoary  old  age  till  1557. 

Accounts  of  Nityananda  are  to  be  found  in  almost 
all  the  biographical  works  of  the  Vaisnavas.  His 
grandfather's  name  was  Sundara  Malla,  his  father's 
name  HaraiOjha.  This  apostle  had  two  wives — Ba- 
sudha  and  Jahnavi — two  sisters  ;  they  were  daughters 
of  Suryya  Das  Sarkel,  an  inhabitant  of  Caligram 
near  Amvikanagar  in  the  district  of  Burdvvan.  The 
Vaisnava  singers  are  never  weary  of    singing  songs 


Nitya= 
nanda  born 
1473  A.D. 


_Advait 
Acharyya 

1434— 
1557  A.D. 


Particulars 
about 
Nitya- 
nanda. 


4g6      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE,       [  Chap. 

in  praise  of  Nityananda.  In  one,  which  is  very 
familiar,  we  have  the  following  two  lines  which 
embody  briefly  the  main  traits  of  his  character. 

■^  ''Without  anger  without  pride,  and  ever 
content, — he  moves  about  the  city." 

Biogra-  ^^^   "^"^^  °^  Advaitacharyya   was    Kamalakar 

phies  of       Chakravarti— Advaitacharyya  beinor  his  title,   which 
Advaita-        ...  7/  &  » 

charyya.      mdicates    that    he    was    a    sound    scholar    in    the 

\'edanta  Philosophy.     We  find  this    line  about  him 

in  the  Kadcha  by  Govinda  Das : — 

t  " — Avery  handsome  person.  His  flowing  hair 
and  beard  are  grey  with  age.  His  long  beard  falls 
down  to  the  breast." 

Advaita  married  Sita  D^vi,  a  lady  famous  for 
her  great  piety.  We  have  secured  the  following 
works  on  his  life. 

(i)  The  early  life  of  Advaitacharyya  or  the 
Valya  Lila  Sutra  by  Krisna  Das  of  Louda  in  Sylhet. 
The  author  was  a  contemporary  of  Advaitacharyya. 

(2)  Advait  Mangal  by  ^yam  Das.  This  work 
was  written  about  a  century  after  Advaitacharyya's 
death. 

*  "  ^^IFT^  n^^t^5^  1^^Tt^^  ^n  I 

^f^^^^  "i^  f^T^^  ^'nu  c^^  ii" 

An  old  song. 
Kadcha  by  Govinda  Das. 


/.  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  497. 

(3)  Advait  Prakaya  by  Igan  Nagar  (born 
in  1492  A.D.)  Advait  Praka^a  was  completed  by 
him  in  his  seventieth  year,  in  the  year  1561,  The 
book  contains  5,500  lines. 

(4)  Advait  Mangal  by  Hari  Charan  Das.  This 
book  was  written  immediately  after  the  death  of 
Advaitacharyya  by  the  author,  who  was  a  disciple 
of  the  apostle.  It  is  a  voluminous  book  contain- 
ing 23  chapters. 

(5)  Advait  Vilas  by  Narahari  Das.  This  work 
was  written  in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  century. 

The    line    of  princely  asceties  has  not  yet  been  j,. 

broken  in  India.     Ages  after  the  great  Buddha  had       princely 
ileft  his  father's  palace  at    Kapilavastu,  Raja    Gopi- 
chand    of    Bengal    in  the  12th  century  took  the  as- 
cetic's   bowl    in    hand    and    renounced    his  capital 
? where  his  two  beautiful  queens  Aduna    and  Paduna 
bemoaned    their    lot.     Raja    Gopichandra    a    great 
Prince  and  the  handsomest  young  man  of  his  age, — 
heeded    not    the    enjoyments  of   life,  but  wandered 
through     forests    and    dales     exposing    himself   to 
unheard-of  hardships,  for  the  sake  of  religion.     The 
situation  involved  a  certain  pathos  the    memory    of 
iwhich  is  still  preserved  in    poems,  to    be    found    in 
all    parts    of  India.     When    the    monarch  returned 
home     still    an    ascetic    after    twelve    years,     the 
oeggar's    bowl    still    in    his  hand  and  unrecognised 
iven  by  his  devoted  queens,  they  set  on    a   bulldog 
:o  drive  out  one  who  appeared  as  an    intruder    into 
the  palace,  but  the  bulldog  instantly  recognised    his 
old  master,  and  falling  at  his  feet  began  to  wag  his 
tail  and  lick  them    fondly  ;    the    royal  elephant  was 
sent   to    trample    him  under  foot,    but  the  elephant 
^^ent  its  head  and  moved  his  proboscies  in  fond  joy 

63 


Qopichand. 


49^      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.       [  Chap» 

at  meeting  the  king.  The  queens  now  believed 
that  it  was  Gopichand.  the  king,  who  had  returned. 
All  this  we  hnd  in  Manik  Chandra  Rajar  gan  about 
which  we  have  written  in  an  earlier  chapter. 

With  the  advent  of  Chaitanya  Deva  and  under 
the  noble  example  of  his  asceticism,  princes  and 
rich  men  came  forward  to  undergo  sacrifices 
for  the  sake  of  religion.  All  ranks  of  society 
came  to  realise  the  vanity  of  human  wishes,  the 
transitoriness  of  life  and  the  glorious  power  of 
faith.  We  find  many  prominent  instances  of 
princely  ascetics,  among  whom  we  mav  name  Narot- 
D2is.  tama  Das,  son  and  heir    of    Raja    Krisna    Chandra 

Dutta  of  Crikheturi,  who  left  his  vast  wealth  and  his 
palace,  when  only  a  lad  of  sixteen  and  walked  on  foot 
to  X'rindavan.  He  lived  there  a  life  of  piety  and  devo- 
tion which  lights  u{)  the  sky  of  the  Vaisnava  com- 
munity immediately  after  the  halo  of  Chaitanya 
Deva's  personality  has  passed  away  from  it.  Xarot- 
tam's  life  is  deseribed  by  Narahari  Chakravarti,  in 
his  famous  work  Narottam  Vitas.  Though  only  a 
Kayastha  by  birth,  his  influence  was  so  great  that 
many  good  Brahmins  like  Ganga  Xarayan  Chakni- 
vartv  became  his  willing  disciples,  and  acknow-  f 
ledged  him  as  their  spiritual  head.  An  interesting 
incident  is  described  about  him  in  the  Narottama 
X'ilas.  The  Raja  of  PakNapalli  was  appr()ached 
by  the  orthodox  'brahmin  community  witli  an 
application,  that  Narottama,  the  Prince  of  Kheturi, 
who  had  turned  Sannvasin,  was  breaking  caste  by 
taking  IJrahniins  as  his  (lisci[)li'S  while  he  himsdt  was 
a  Cudra.  They  requested  the  Raja  to  inllict  a  so 
vcrc  punishment  on  Narottama  for  this  impertinence. 
The  kaja  sent  a  message  to  Narottama.   asking  him 


V»  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  499 

how  it  was  that  a  man  of  such  piety  as  he  was 
reputed  to  be,  could  violate  the  injunctions  of  the 
Castras.  Narottama  sent  a  reply  to  the  effect  that 
there  was  nothing  in  the  ^astras,  rightly  interpreted, 
to  uphold  or  support  the  views  of  the  Brahmins 
and  that  he  was  willing  to  hold  a  public  discussion 
with  those  who  entertained  the  contrary  opinion.  If 
his  arguments  failed  and  he  was  convinced  of  his  error 
he  would  accept  the  orthodox  view  of  matters  and 
regulate  his  life  accordingly.  The  Raja  of  Pakvapalli 
marched  with  a  host  of  scholars  to  meet  Narottama, 
and  in  the  meantime  Ganganarayan  Chakravarti, 
his  disciple,  and  Ram  Chandra  Kaviraj  his  friend, 
contrived  a  device ;  one  disguised  himself  as  a 
potter,  and  the  other  as  a  seller  of  betels  ;  they 
opened  small  shops  on  the  road  along  which  the 
Raja  was  to  pass.  His  men  came  to  purchase 
betels  and  pitchers  from  the  shops  and  they  spoke 
to  them  in  Sanskrit.  This  amazed  the  servants  and 
they  carried  word  to  the  Raja  that  potters  and  betel- 
sellers  spoke  in  Sanskrit  in  that  part  of  the 
country.  The  news  interested  the  Pandits,  who  im- 
mediately went  to  the  spot,  and  being  accosted  in 
Sanskrit,  were  led  into  a  controversial  discussion 
in  which  the  Rajas  staff  of  Pandits,  who  had 
brought  a  cartful  of  Mss.  to  prove  their  point,  were 
completely  beaten.  They  afterwards  came  to  know 
that  one  was  a  disciple  and  the  other  a  friend  of 
Narottama.  Their  arguments,  however,  produced  so 
great  an  impression  on  the  Raja  and  his  scholars 
that  they  became  disciples  of  Narottama  then  and 
there.  Narottama,  though  belonging  to  the  Kayastha 
caste  was  called  Thakur,  a  title  generally  applied 
in  Bengal  to  Brahmins  only. 


JOO      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [  Chap. 

Another  princely  ascetic  of  this  age  was  Raghu 
nath.     Accounts  of  his  life  are  to  be  found  more  or 

'^j??*'""^'*'     less  in  all  the  biographical  works    of  the  Vaishavas. 

1498  A-D.  Raghunath  Das  was  the  only  son  of  Gobardhan 
Das  of  Satgaon  and  was  born  in  1498  A.D.  His 
father's  income  from  landed  property  amounted  to 
20  lakhs  of  Rupees  a  year,  out  of  which  he  had  to 
pay  12  lakhs  as  revenue  to  the  Mohammedan 
Government.  The  heir-apparent  to  a  property 
yielding  8  lakhs  of  rupees  a  year  in  those  days  was 
no  ordinary  man.  and  Raghunath  was  naturally 
brought  up  in  the  midst  of  pomp  and  luxury,  and  in 
a  style  befitting  his  high  rank.  While  he  was  yet  a 
boy,  Haridas,  the  veteran  Vaisnava  devotee  and 
follower  of  Chaitanya,  paid  a  visit  to  Satgaon  and 
as  young  Raghunath  saw  the  great  saint,  the  vision 
of  a  higher  life  passed  before  him.  The  impres- 
sion made  on  his  mind  was  so  great  that  he 
conceived  an  abhorrence  for  wealth  and  earthlv 
glory  even  at  that  early  age.  While  in  this  state  of 
mind  a  further  change  came  over  his  spirit  on 
meeting  Chaitanya  at  ^antipur — his  eyes  overflow- 
ing with  tears  of  joy  and  a  divine  ecstasy  moving 
his  beautiful  frame  as  he  spoke  of  the  love  of  God 
before  thousands  of  men  and  women  assembled 
there  to  hoar  him.  Raghunath  felt  as  if  the  portals 
of  Heaven  had  hvvn  ilung  open  io  him  and  it  was 
then  that  the  world  linally  lost  its  charms  for  him. 
His  parents  were  alarmed  to  find  in  the  boy  a 
growing  tendency  towards  SannySs  and  found  a 
very  beautiful  bride  lor  him.  In-sides,  thev,  imposed 
great  restrictions  on  his  habits  and  movements; 
but  nothing  availed.  Raghunath's  mind  was  fixed 
on  the  feet  ot    Chaitanya,    and    night    and    day    he 


V*  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  501 

thought   how   best    he    could  break  the  fetters  that 
bound  him  to  the  world  and  join  the   great    master. 
He  studied  religious  books  with  great  devotion  and 
spent  five  years  in  a  sort  of   spiritual    agony    which 
made  him  pale  and  emaciated, — it  was  the   struggle 
of    the    bird    in  the  cage  that  pants  for  the  free  air. 
By  this  time  Chaitanya  had  again  come  to  Cantipur. 
People    flocked    from    all  parts  of  Bengal  to  have  a 
sight    of    the  great  devotee  who  was  already  recog- 
nised   in    many    circles    as  an  incarnation  of  Visnu. 
Raghunath  in  deep  distress  threw  himself  at  the  feet 
of  his  parents  and  besought  them  with  tearful    eyes 
to    grant    him    leave    to  see  the  god-like  man.     He 
said    that    he    would  die  of  grief  if  permission  were 
withheld.  They  could  not  resist    his  pathetic  appeal 
and   with   a    strong    escort    sent    him    to  ^antipur. 
There  the  boy  lay  at  the  feet  of    Chaitanya,  unable 
to  utter  a  word  sighing  and  sobbing  like  a    maiden 
in    love.     Chaitanya's    attitude    towards    him     was 
severe  even  to  rudeness.    He  admonished  the  young 
man     for     his    resolution    to    renounce    the    world 
prematurely.     "  Go  back  home,"  he  said  ;   "  for  you 
have    duties    to    do  where  the  Lord  has  placed  you, 
and    it    would    be    a  sin  to  avoid  them  ;  be  not  too 
much    attached    to    the    worldly    life,    but  consider 
yourself  as  serving  the  will  of  the   Lord,    and    if    in 
course    of    time    there    comes    to    you    a  fitness  to 
renounce  the  world  by  His  grace,  there  will    be    no 
tension    or   strain  in  your  efforts  to  attain  that  end. 
It    will  then  be  a  perfectly  natural  and  easy  matter, 
as  when    the    fruit    is    ripe,  it  falls  to  the  ground  of 
itself." 

Raghunath    obeyed    the  great  master  and  came 
back    to    his    father's    palace.     For   a  few  years  he 


502      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

lived  like  an  ordinary  man  doing  the  duties  of 
■domestic  life — pursuing  his  studies  with  zeal, 
apparently  contented  in  spirit.  But  it  was  to  him 
a  course  of  preparation  for  final  renunciation — for 
joining  that  great  family  of  saintly  men,  who  leaving 
the  narrow  environment  of  the  domestic  life  had 
elected  the  good  of  the  world  to  be  their  principal 
aim  in  life.  When  barely  twenty,  his  mind  was 
finally  fixed,  and  he  began  to  show  a  restless  desire 
to  leave  home  which  again  caused  great  anxiety  to 
his  parents.  Raghunath  at  this  stage  of  his  life 
slept  in  the  outer  courtyard,  and  could  by  no  means 
be  persuaded  to  visit  his  wife.  Xityananda,  the 
most  revered  of  the  X'aisnava  devotees  next  to 
Chaitanya,  paid  a  visit  to  Panihati  at  this  time 
and  thither  Raghunath  went  to  see  him.  After 
this  meeting  his  restlessness  and  yearning  increas- 
ed tenfold. 

His  mother  proposed  to  secure  him.  by  binding 
him  hand  and  foot  with  rope  so  that  he  might  not 
move  from  the  palace.  Gobardhan  Das,  his  father, 
replied — "  Great  riches,  a  peerless  wife  and  all  the 
glories  of  the  earth  could  not  bind  him,  and  do  vou 
think  a  rope  can  do  so  ? — Such  a  suggestion  is 
very  foolish. ""^^  ^'et  the  guards  and  sentinels  kept 
watcli  over  him.  It  was  the  story  of  Buddha 
over  again.  Ili'  made  his  escape  one  night  and 
walked  all  (In-  distance  to  l\iri  to  meet  ("haitanya. 
It    took    him     12     (lays    to   reach   that    place      The 

wfe^  A\m^  "^m  <it%i  f^m^  i " 


I 


V.  ]  BENGALI   LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  503 

hardships  of  the  journey  were  great,  as  he  went 
barefooted,  living  on  fruit  and  on  the  scanty 
food  that  chance  brought  him  and  resigning 
himself  absolutely  to  the  will  of  the  Lord. 
Chaitanya  saw  in  the  face  of  the  young  Sannyasi 
that  his  renunciation  was  complete  and  embraced 
him  in  an  ecstasy  of  joy. 

The  hardships  undergone  by  Raghunath  while 
practising  life-long  asceticism  have  scarcely  a 
parallel  in  history.  He  used  to  sleep  4  dandas  (or 
a  little  more  than  an  hour  and  a  half)  by  day  and 
night, — took  a  handful  of  refuse  rice — the  maha- 
prasad  that  used  to  be  thrown  away  in  the  com- 
pound— only  once  a  day  and  lived  upon  it.  He  wore 
rags  and  slept  under  the  sky.  His  father  occasional- 
ly sent  large  sums  of  money  to  his  friends  at  Puri 
to  minister  to  his  comfort  but  he  did  not  allow  a 
single  cowri  to  be  spent  on  that  account.  This 
ascetic,  whose  whole  life  was  one  of  austerities  and 
holy  contemplation,  Vvas  cheerful  and  gay  in  spirit, 
and  his  piety  was  so  great  that  though  a  Kayastha 
by  birth  he  was  rekconed  as  one  of  the  six  Gosvamis, 
whose  words  carry  authority  and  precedence  in  the 
Vaisnava  code  compiled  for  the  regulation  of  that 
community.  The  other  five  Gosvamis  were  of 
course  Brahmins.  He  wrote  29  works  in  Sanskrit 
and  composed  many  ballads  besides — the  theme  of 
which  was  either  Gauranga  Dev  or  the  love  of 
Radha  for  Krisna. 

Next  may  be  mentioned  Rupa  and   Sanatan,  the 
two    brothers    who    were    Ministers  of  the  Court  of       Sanatan. 
Hosen  Saha.     They  were  immensely  rich,  and  pos- 
sessed of  great  administrative  powers,  which  were 


504      BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.      [Chap. 

recognised  by  the  Emperor,  who  trusted  them  with 
important  functions.  But  they  felt  the  irresistible 
attraction  of  Chaitanya  Deva's  personality,  and 
renounced  the  court  and  their  homes  with  all 
their  sweet  bonds,  took  the  vows  of  Sannyasins, 
and  joined  Chaitanya  Deva.  Rupa  and  Sanatana 
trace  their  descent  from  Vipra  Ray,  a  Raja  of 
Karnat.  Tliey  were  required  by  Chaitanya  Deva 
to  pass  their  lives  in  Vrindavan,  conducting  religi- 
ous studies  and  practising  the  austerities  of  the 
religious  life.  We  find  descriptions  of  their 
great  scholarship  and  piety  and  of  the  austirities 
they  practised,  incidentally  in  many  biographi- 
cal works  of  the  Vaishavas — chiefly  in  the  first 
chapter  of  the  Bhaktiratnakar  by  Xarahari  Chakra- 
varti.  They  wrote  in  Sanskrit  ;  so  their  works 
do  not  fall  within  the  scope  of  our  subject.  The 
Sanskrit  works  written  by  Rupa,  Sanatan  and 
their  nephew  Jiva  Gosvami  form  by  far  the  best 
portion  of  the  Sanskrit  literature  belonging  to  the 
Bengali  Vaisnavas."^ 

Sanatan  was  born   in    1484    A.D.    and    died    in 
1558.      Rupa  was  born  in   1490  and  died  in  1563. 


*  Sanatan  wrote  annotations  on  Haribhaktivilas  which  he 
called  'The  Dik  Pradarcpani.'  His  learned  commentary  on  the 
tenth  chapter  oi  Crimatbhagavat  is  called  '  The  \'aisnava  Tosini.' 
Besides  this  he  wrote  Bhagavatamrita  in  two  parts,  and  a  Sans- 
krit poem  called  Lilastava.  Rupa  Gosvami  wrcite  (i)  The  Ham- 
saduta  (2)  IMdhava  Sandeca  (3)  Krishna  janmatithi  (4)  Ganodde«;a 
Dipika  (5)  Stav.imala  (6)'Vidagdha  Madhava  (7)  Lalita  Madhava 
(8)  Danakeli  Kaumadi,  (9)  Ananda  .Mahodadhi  (10)  Bhaktirasn- 
mrita  Sindhu  (11,  Ujjvala  Nilamoni  (12)  Prayiikta  Khyata  Chan- 
drika(l3)  Mathura  mahima,  (14)  Padyavali  (15)  Raghu  Bhaga- 
vatamrita '16)  Govinda  X'irudavali  and  other  works.  Jiva  Gosvami 
is  the  author  of  Harinamamrita  Vyakaran,  Sutramalika,  Krisnar- 
cona  Dipika,  Gopal  X'irudavali,  Madhava  Mahot,-;ava,  Sankalpa 
Vriksa,  Bhavartha  Siksa  Champu,  and  a  good  many  other  works 
on  miscellaneous  subjects.  A  full  account  of  these  is  to  be  found 
in  Bhaktiratnakar. 


V.  ]  BENGALI   LANGUAGE    &  LITERATURE.         505 

Of  the  other  great  Vaisnava  devotees  ^rlnivasa 
Acharyya,  who  was  only  a  boy  when  Chaitanya 
Deva  passed  away,  deserves  prominent  notice.  He 
was  as  on  of  Gangadhara  Chakravarti,  an  inhabitant 
of  the  village  of  Chakhandi  on  the  Ganges.  His 
mother  Lak§mi  Priya  came  from  Jajigram.  In  the 
early  part  of  his  life  ^rlnivasa  was  noted  for  his 
hand-some  appearance,  for  his  great  devotion  and 
for  his  scholarship.  It  is  said  that  Chaitanya  Deva 
prophesied  his  advent.  One  incident  in  his  life 
interests  us  greatly.  We  have  already  stated  that 
^rmivasa  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  valuable  Mss. 
written  by  the  great  Vaisnava  devotees  who  lived 
at  Vrindavan,  and  which  were  sent  to  Bengal  for 
circulation.  We  have  also  stated  how  the  works 
were  looted  en  route  by  the  robbers  employed  by 
Vira  Hamvira,  Raja  of  Vana  Visnupur. 

The  loss  of  the  precious  Mss.  written  through 
years  of  unremitting  toil  by  the  great  Vaisnava 
worthies  in  Vrindavan,  and  of  which  no  copy  was 
left  with  the  authors,  filled  Crinivasa's  mind  with  an 
overwhelming  grief  and  well  it  might,  for  we  have 
already  related  how  the  news  of  this  loss  proved 
fatal  to  old  Krisna  Dasa  Kaviraj.  A  vigourous 
search  was  carried  on  throughout  the  whole  night. 
But  it  eave  him  no  clue  whatsoever  to  trace  the  lost 
possessions.  When  the  day  dawned,  pale  and 
exhausted  Crinivasa  thought  that  before  he  left 
the  place  he  should  apply  to  Raja  Vira  Hamvira 
for  help,  since  the  robbery  had  been  perpetrated  in 
his  dominions.  This  prince,  as  I  have  already  said, 
had  in  his  employment  a  set  of  robbers  who  carried 
on  depredations  secretly  under  his  instructions  and 
who  had  done  to  the  Vaishavas  what  seemed  to  be 

64 


5o6        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

an  irreparable  mischief.  In  the  morning  ^rinivasa 
asked  for  an  interview  and  was  immediately  admit- 
ted into  the  Court.  The  Court  Pandit  was  explain- 
ing the  Bhagavata, — the  great  work  of  the  \'aishavas, 
to  tlie  Raja  and  his  suite,  when  ^rmivasa  entered 
the  hall.  He  was  attired  in  the  yellow  robes  of  an 
ascetic,  the  sacred  garland  of  Tulasi  hung  round 
his  neck,  and  his  handsome  face,  radiant  with  intelli- 
gence and  spirituality,  at  once  made  an  impression 
on  the  Raja  and  his  people.  They  bowed  down 
knowinor  him  to  be  a  Brahmin  and  saint  and  asked 
him  what  made  him  seek  an  interview  with  the 
Raja,  ^rinivasa  replied — "As  the  Bhagavata  is  being 
read  I  shall  not  interrupt  you.  Only  let  the  reading  of 
the  holy  book  be  finished,  and  then  I  shall  proceed 
to  tell  what  I  have  to  say."  He  kept  standing  in 
the  hall  patiently  in  the  attitude  of  prayer  and 
would  not  sit  down  while  Bhagavata  was  being 
read  ;  nor  did  he  betray  the  emotion  that  troubled 
his  soul  while  listening  to  the  recitation  of  glokas  with 
true  devotion.  His  piety  was  to  be  seen  on  his 
face.  When  the  reading  was  over,  the  Court  Pandit 
Vyasacharyya  said  to  him  ''  Revered  sir,  vou  seem 
to  be  a  devout  X'aisfiava.  If  it  is  not  disagreeable 
to  you,  will  you  kindly  read  and  (.'X|)lain  some 
passages  from  this  text  for  our  enlightenment." 
He  quietly  responded  to  the  call,  and  sitting  in  tlu- 
midst  of  the  assembly  made  a  short  speech  on  the 
spirit  of  the  P)hagavata.  His  mind  w:is  already  full 
of  sadness  and  with  his  sonorous  voice  ringing 
with  feeling,  he  delivered  his  disquisition  on  the 
great  work,  showing  a  masterly  grasp  of  the  subject, 
and  a  power  of  oratorv  whieh  seemed  to  them 
reallv  wonderful.   The  whole  Court  ua^  moved  at  the 


V,]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  507 

words    which   fell    from    his  lips — his   voice  almost 
choked  with  devotional  sentiment ;  they    wept    and 
saw  through  their  tears  the  saintly  man  who  seemed 
as  a  god  to  them.     Even    Vira    Hamvira,  though    a 
notorious  dacoit  in  the  guise  of  a  Raja,   could    not 
resist    the    tender    appeal,    and  every  one    present, 
including  the  Court  Pandit  himself,  fell  at  Crinivasa's 
feet    and  asked  to  be  made  his  disciple.     The  Raja 
and  his  people  were  thus  converted  to  the  Vaisnava 
faith  on  the  spot  and  Crinivasa    was  acknowledged 
their     spiritual     head.      In  the  evening   Crinivasa 
sought  the  Raja  again,    and    told    him,    with    voice 
choked  with  tears,  that  unless  the  Mss.  looted  within 
his  territory,  were  recovered,  he  could  not   think   of 
continuing  to  live  ;     the  works  of  the    Gosvamis  he 
held  dearer  than  his  own  life;  the  blame  of  the  great 
loss  would  be  upon  him,  as  he  was  in  charge  of  the 
manuscripts,    and  this   thought  alone  was  sufficient 
to  make  his  life  miserable.      The    Raja   was    taken 
aback  by  this  story.     He  fell  at  the  feet  of  ^rJnivasa 
and    with    tears  of  remorse,  craved  a  thousand  par- 
dons, confessing  that  he  had  himself  been  at  the  root 
of  this  great  crime.      He  now  had  the  Mss.  brought 
from    his    treasury,  and  ^rinivasa  was  delighted  to 
see  them  again.  Alas  for  poor  Krisna  Das    Kaviraj, 
he  had  died    of  a   broken    heart  for   a    loss    which 
was  so  soon  to  be  repaired,  in  so  strange  a  manner ! 
Raja  Vira  Hamvira,  filled  with  remorse  for   his    act 
placed    his   whole    property    at  the  disposal  of  the 
Vaishavas,    and    himself    lived  as  a  poor  servant  of 
the    great    masters.     We    have     several    beautiful 
songs  in  Bengali  about    Krisna    and    Radha    which 
were  composed  by  the  Raja  and  quoted  by  Narahari 
Das  in  his  Bhaktiratnakara. 


5o8       BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap 

But  we  cannot  say  that  ^rinivasa  remained  the 
same  spiritual  man  after  taking  a  Raja  as  his 
disciple.  He  married  two  wives,  enjoyed  the  vast 
property  presented  to  him  by  the  Raja,  and  lived 
a  life  of  comfort  totally  inconsistent  with  asce- 
tism.  In  the  Premavilasa  by  Nityananda  we  find 
the  following  account  of  ^rinivasa.  Monohar  Das, 
a  native  of  Vanavishupur,  was  relating  the  inci- 
dents of  ^rinivasas  life  to  Gopal  Bhatta,  one  of 
the  six  great  Vaishava  masters,  and  a  follower  of 
Chaitanya.     Manohar  Das  said  : — 

^"  My  native  village  is  24  miles  from  Vishupur. 
I  live  within  the  jurisdiction  of  Raja  Vira  Hamvira. 
We  are  all  happy  under  his  rule.  The  Raja  is  a 
disciple  and  a  true  servant  of  ^rinivasa  Acharyya. 
His  courtiers  are  all  orood  men.  We  have  \'vasa- 
charyya  amongst  them.  Crinivasa  Acharyya  lives  in 
the  town.  The  Raja  has  presented  him  with 
several   villages    and    other  properties.     Acharyya 

^W^  ^1^1  ^H  ^ft  ^t^l  '^TM\^  11 

»5im  ^ft  ^f^  ^tft  ^t^i  ^1  fvf<in:^  II 

v£l^^  ^IIS  'Sm\  ftTf^  ^f^^1  I 

^^7^  at^J^I  ^t^  ^^^^  ^f^^1  II 

%^\'^\^  %^'<m  -^l\  "^H  Tf^  11" 

l^rcmavilasa. 


V,  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.         509 


Prabhu  (^rinivasa)  married  in  April  last.",  Manohara 
then  went  on  to  say  many  things  in  praise  of 
Crinivasa.  But  Gopala  Bhatta  remained  silent  for 
sometime,  and  at  last  said  again  and  again  'Oh,  he  is 
lost,  Oh,  he  is  lost !" 

In  the  Vaishava  community  there  were  still 
pious  men  whose  lives  were  pure  gold  without  any 
alloy  of  worldliness, — men  who  shunned  filthy 
lucre  and  all  the  other  attactions  of  the  world, 
remaining  true  to  God  for  evermore. 

We  shall  here  notice  briefly  some  other  Vais- 
nava  devotees,  whose  lives  are  included  in  the 
biographical  literature  of  the  Vaishavas. 

I.  Hari  Das — a  Mahomedan.  Bacause  of 
his  accepting  the  Vaishava  faith  under  Chaitanya 
Deva's  influence  he  was  carried  by  the  orders  of  a 
Mahomedan  Magistrate  to  22  different  public 
places  in  each  of  which  he  was  mercilessly  whip- 
ped till  they  thought  he  was  dead.  He  did  not 
disown  his  faith  inspite  of  this  persecution.  Hari 
Das  survived  this  fierce  punishment  and  was  not 
again  molested  but  the  wily  Magistrate  had  recourse 
to  a  stratagem.  Seated  in  a  small  hut  Hari  Das 
used  to  pray  to  God  and  recite  His  name  for  the 
whole  night.  A  beautiful  young  woman  dressed 
in  the  finest  apparel  was  privately  employed  to 
tempt  him.  She  called  on  him  in  the  evening, 
where  the  devotee  sat  all  alone  absorved  in  prayer 
and  said  to  him  with  smiles,  that  she  desired  to  be 
his  companion  ;  having  been  attracted  by  his  pious 
life,  she  felt  a  great  admiration  for  him,  and  would 
be  glad  to  be  allowed  the  opportunity  of  talking  with 
him    for  a  while  freely  to  her  hearts'  content.     The 


Some  other 
Vaisnava 
devotees. 


Hari  Das. 


510  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [Chap 

devotee  said  he  would  fulfil  all  she  might  want  of 
him  after  saying  his  prayers.  Then,  for  the  whole 
night,  he  sat  motionless  as  a  statue,  praying,  and 
chanting  softly  the  name  of  God.  Nor  had  the 
woman  again  the  courage  to  speak  or  disturb  the 
course  of  his  devotion  ;  and  when  the  day  dawned, 
and  crowds  of  people  assembled  there,  she  had  to 
depart.  The  next  day  she  again  sought  an  opportunity 
to  lead  the  saint  into  conversation,  and  was  again 
disappointed  in  the  same  way.  But  when  the  third 
day  passed  in  the  same  way,  the  example  of  this 
great  life  and  its  living  faith  could  not  be  resisted, 
and  she  had  her  head  shaved,  and  became  a  Vais- 
hava  convert,  abandoning  all  her  evil  ways.  Hari 
Das  was  born  in  Budhan  in  RadhaDe9a  and  died  at 
Puri  in  1534  shortly  after  Chaitanya  Deva  had 
passed  away. 

^yama-  2.  Cyamananda    belonged  to  the  Satgopa  caste. 

n  fi  n  ii  ^ 

His  father  was  Krisha  Mandal  and  his  mother  Durika. 
Qyamananda  is  known  by  different  names  such 
as  '  Krisna  Das,''Dukhi'  and  '  Dukhinl.'  Many 
of  the  songs  on  Radha  and  Krisna  which  he 
composed  appeared  under  the  last  of  his  names 
in  the  Padakalpataru  and  Padakalpalatika.  ^yama- 
nanda's  worthy  disciple  Rasika  Mursri  carried  the 
work  of  propagating  the  \^aisha\a  fiith  to  I'rissa, 
and  a  full  description  of  the  manner  in  which 
this  work  was  conducted,  will  be  found  in  a  work 
calli;d  Rasika  Mangal  by  Gopi  \'allabha  Das.  The 
Maharaja  of  Maurbhanja  and  other  chiefs  of  Urissa 
who  pro  fess  the  Wiisnava  faith,  acknowledge  the 
descendants  of  Rasika  Murari  as  their  spiritual 
directors. 


v.] 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.         51 1 


Accounts  of  the  lives  of  (i)  Gadadhara  (i486 — 
1 5 14  A.  D.),  son  of  Madhava  Mi^ra,  (2)  of  Uddharana 
Datta  born  in  148 1  A.D.,  (3)  of  Lokanatha  Das 
Gosvami  (4)  and  of  Gopal  Bhatta  one  of  the  six 
Vaisfiava  Gosvamis,  son  of  Benkata  Bhatta,  are  to 
be  found  amongst  others  in  many  of  these  biogra- 
phical works. 

We  here  give  a  short  note  on  several  important 
works  of  biography  written  by  the  Vaisiiavas  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  i6th  and  in  the  earlier  part  of 
the   17th  century. 

By  far  the  greatest  of  the  biographical  works, 
next  to  that  of  Chaitanya's  life  by  Krisria  Das 
Kaviraj  is  the  Bhaktiratnakar  by  Narahari  Chakra- 
varti.  He  was  a  disciple  of  the  celebrated  Vigva 
Nath  Chakravarti,  whose  commentary  on  the 
Bhagavata  is  authoritative  amongst  Vaisnavas  in  the 
interpretation  of  their  sacred  scriptures.  Bhakti- 
ratnakar is  one  of  the  most  voluminous  works  that 
we  have  in  old  Bengali  literature.  It  is  divided 
into  15  chapters.  I  give  here  an  index  of  its 
contents. 

Chap.  I. — An  account  of  the  ancestors  of  Jiva 
Gosvami  ;  a  description  of  the  works  written  by 
the  great  Vaisfiava  masters  ;  an  account  of 
^rlnivasa  Acharyya. 

Chap.  II. — An  account  of  Chaitanya  Das, 
father  of  Crinivasa. 

Chaps.  Ill  and  IV. — Accounts  of  the  travels  of 
^rlnivasa  to  Puri  and  to  Vrindavana. 

Chap.  V. — On  rhetoric  interpreted  in  the  light 
of  Vaishava  Theology. 


Gadadhara, 

Uddharana 

Datta  and 

others. 


Bhakti 
Ratnakar. 


An  index  of 
contents. 


512      BENGALI    LANGAUGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap, 

Chap.  VI. — Incidents  from  the  lives  of  Narot- 
tama,  ^rinivasa  and  Raghava  Pandit,  while  they 
resided  at  Vrindavan ;  accounts  of  Crinivasa's 
being  put  in  charge  of  the  MSS.  of  the  works 
written  by  the  Vaisnava  masters,  and  despatched 
to  Bengal. 

Chap.  VII — The  looting  of  the  MSS.  by  dacoits 
employed  by  Vira  Hamvira,  Raja  of  Vanavisnupur 
and  conversion  of  the  Raja  to  the  Vaisnava  faith. 

Chap.  VIII. — An  account  of  Rama  Chandra 
Kaviraj  and  his  initiation  as  a  disciple  of  Crinivas. 

Chap.  IX. — An  account  of  the  great  Vaisnava 
festivals  held  at  Kanchagadia  and  ^rikheturi. 

Chaps.  X  and  XL — An  account  of  Jahnavi  Devi, 
wife  of  Nityananda  and  her  pilgrimages. 

Chap.  XII. — An  account  of  ^rlnivasa  marrying 
a  second  time. 

Chaps.  XIII  and  XIV. — Description  of  religious 
festivities  at  Verakuli. 

Chap.  XV. — Propagation  of  the  Vaisnava  faith 
by  Cyamananda  in  Urissa. 

Narottama.  Narahari    Chakravarti's     second     book     called 

vilasa.  Narottamvilasa  (life  of  Narottama).  though  compara- 
tively small  in  size  shows  a  decided  improvement 
on  the  P)haktiratnakara  both  in  style  and  in  its 
arrangement  of  materials.  Narottamvilasa  is  divid- 
ed into  12  chapters. 

Narahari  was  a  great  scholar  in  Sanskrit,  and 
the  above  two  works,  though  written  in  Bengali, 
are  full  of  learntnl  references  and  quotations  from 
the  Sanskrit.  In  the  Bhaktiratnakara  we  find  refer- 
ences   to    the    following     amongst    other    Sanskrit 


v.]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  513 


works — Baraha  Purana,  Padya  Purana,  Adi  Purana, 
Vrahmanda  Purana,  Skanda  Purana,  Saura  Purana, 
^rimat  Bhagavata,  Laghu  Tosini,  Govinda  Viruda- 
vail,  Gourganodde^a  Dipika.  Sadhana  Dipika, 
Nava  Padma,  Gopal  Champu,  Laghu  Bhagavata, 
Chaitanya  Chandrodaya  Nataka,  Vrajavilasa,  Bhatti 
Kavva,  Bhaktiratnamrita  Sindhu,  Krsiha  Charita  by 
Murari  Gupta,  Ujjval  Nilamani.  Govarddhana^raya, 
Haribhaktivilasa,  Stavamala,  Sangita  Madhava, 
Vaisfiavatosinl,  ^yamananda  Cataka,  Mathura 
Khan  da. 

Premavilasa  by  Nityananda  Das.  This  is  also 
a  voluminous  work  divided  into  20  cantos.  It  was 
written  during  the  early  part  of  the  17th  century. 
Nityananda's  father  Atma  Rama  Das  belonged  to  a 
Vaidya  family  of  Crikhanda.  The  work  under 
notice  mainlv  treats  of  the  lives  of  yrinivasa  and 
Cvamananda. 

Karnamrita  bv  Jadunandana  Das.  The  author 
was  a  disciple  of  Qrlmati  Hemalata  Devi,  a 
daughter  of  ^rinivasa.  Karnamrita  gives  a  full 
account  of  ^rmivasa  Acharyya's  life  together  with 
a  short  account  of  the  lives  of  his  disciples.  The 
work  was  written  in    1607  A.D. 

Varhci  Ciksa  by  Purusottama  Siddhanta  Vagina. 
This  book,  while  giving  an  account  of  Chaitanya's 
renunciation,  mainly  deals  with  the  life  of 
Vam^i  Das  Thakura,  one  of  Chaitanyas  compa- 
nions.    It  was  written  in  17  16  A.   D. 

Rasika  Mangala  or  the  Life  of  Rasikananda  by 
Gopivallabha  Das.  Rasikananda  was  the  son  of 
Raja  Achyutananda  and  was  born  in  1590  A.  D. 
He    was    one    of  the  greatest  disciples  of  Cyama- 

65 


Premavi. 
lasa. 


Karhg. 
mrita. 


Vamci- 
ciksa. 


Rasika- 
Mangala. 


514         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [Chap. 


Mano- 
santosinl. 


And  other 
works. 


Theological 

works  of 

the  Vaisiia- 

vas. 


nanda  and  took  a  zealous  interest  in  the  propagation 
of  the  Vaisnava-cult  in  Orissa.  The  author  was  a 
contemporary  of  the  subject  of  his  memoir.  Tliis 
work  is  important,  as  it  throws  light  on  the  history 
of  Orissa  of  that  period.  It  describes  how  Raja 
Vaidyanath  Bhanja  (of  Mayur  Bhanja)  was  con- 
verted to  the  Vaisnava  faith  and  also  gives  an 
account  of  the  great  \'aisnava  festivals  that  took 
place  in  the  villages  of  Verakuli  and  Alamaganja  in 
the  district  of  Midnapur. 

Mana  Santosiniby  Jagajivana  Mic  ra.  The  author 
was  a  descendent,  by  another  line,  of  Upendra  Mi(;ra, 
an  ancestor  of  Chaitanva  Deva.  The  work  gives 
a  description  of  Chaitanya's  travels  in  Sylhet  and 
other  parts  of  Eastern  Bengal. 

Besides  these  works  we  have  come  across  a 
Chaitanya  Charita  by  Chudamani  Das,  Nimai 
Sanyasa  by  Cankara  Bhatta,  Sita  Charita  bv 
Lokanatha  Das,  Mahaprasada  Vaibhava,  Chaitanva 
ganodde9a,  Vaisfiavachara  Darpana  and  other  works 
which  describe  incidents  in  the  lives  of  X'aisfiava 
worthies. 

We  shall  here  brieflv  notice  some  of  the  works 
which  are  of  a  more  or  less  theological  character, 
in  which  the  principles  of  Vaisi;iavism  are  ex- 
j)laini'(l  as  it  found  favour  in  Bengal.  On  page  46 
we  mentioned  a  number  of  books  written  by  the 
Sahajiya  Vaisfiavas.  I  give  below  a  list  of  other 
works  on  V'aisfiava  theology.  Mdst  of  the  impor- 
tant theoh^oiral  W(^rks  of  the  \'.»isnavas  are  writ- 
ten in  Sanskrit.  So  they  do  not  fall  within  the  scope 
of  my  subject.  The  books  mentioned  below,  writ- 
ten   in    Bengali,    are  generally  small  treatises    and 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  515 

their  compositio'n  covers  a  period  of  300  years  from 
after  the  time  Chaitanya  Deva  till  the  middle  of 
the   1 8th  Century. 

1.  Bhaktirasatmika  by  Akinchana  Das 

2.  Gopibhaktirasa  gita  by  Achyuta  Das 

The  book  contains  2,100  couplets. 

3.  Rasa  ^udharnava  by  Ananda  Das 

4.  Atmatattva  Jigmasa 

5.  Pasanda  Dalana 

6.  Chamatkara  Chandrika 

7.  Gurutattva 

8.  Prema  Bhaktisara  by  Gaur  Das  Vasu 

9.  Golokvarnana  by  Gopala  Bhatta. 

10.  Harinmama  Kavacha  by  Gopi    Krisha.     It 

contains  158  couplets. 

1 1 .  Siddhisara  by  Gopinath  Das  (18  couplets). 

12.  Nigama  Grantha  by  Govinda  Das 

13.  Premabhakti  Chandrika  by  Narottama  Das. 

The  writer  is  one  of  the  great  V'aisnava 
masters  about  whom  we  have  already 
written  in  some  detail.  The  work 
under  notice,  though  small  in  size, 
enjoys  a  great  popularity  with  the 
Vaisnavas  and  is  permeated  by  a 
devotional  spirit. 

14-  Ragamayi  Kana  by  Nityananda  Das. 

15.  Upasana  Patala  by  Prema  Das. 

16.  Mana9iksa  by  PremSnanda, 

17.  Astottara  ^atangma  by  Dvija  Hari  Das» 


5l6      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE^       [Chap, 

!8.      X'aishavfibhidhana  by  Valarama  Das. 
ly.      Hata  \  andana  bv  \  alarama   Das. 

20.  Premavilasa  by  Jugala  Ki(,x)ra  Das. 

21.  Rasakalpa    tattxasara     by  Radha    Mohana 

Das. 

22.  ChaiLanya  TatUa^ara  by  Rama  Gopala  Das. 

Siddhanta    Cliandrika    by     Rama  Chandra 
Das. 

Srharana   Darpana  by  Rama  Chandra  Das. 


-J- 

24. 


26 
-27 

28. 
29. 

3^ 


J  4 
37 

40 

4' 


l\riva\'ogasara  by  Anantarama  Datta.  Tiie 
author  was  born  at  Sahapur  on  the 
Meghna.  His  father's  name  was 
Raghunatha  Datta.  Tlie  book  con- 
tains 4000  couplets. 

Kriayogasara  by  Rameyvara  Das. 

Chaitanya  Premavilasa  (100       "^j 
couplets). 

Durlabhasara  (950  couplets 

Dehaiiirupana     (100     coup- 
IcU). 

.\nandalatika       (100     coup- 
lets). 

Bhaktichintamani 

l:ihaktimahatma 


'  By 

I     Lochana 
I  Das  born  in 
I    i;2;A.D. 


rUiaktilaksniana 

lihaktisadhana 

N'rindavana  Lilanirita 

Rasapii.spa  Kalika 

I'rcma  Daviinal.i  by  Xar.i>imlia  Das. 

(iokula  .Maiigala  by  Hhaklirama  Das 

Radlia  X'ils^a  by  Ulunani  I^asa. 

l':kad;ii;i  Maliaiina  by  Mahidhara  D^i 

Kri.sna  Likimril.i  b\   Wtlarama  Das. 


J 

I  "'■ 

y    Vrinda- 
I  van  a  Diis. 
J 

)By    \anda 
)  Kiyora  Das 


v.] 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE. 


517 


V.    The  Padas  or  Songs  of  the  Vaisnavas. 

The  lyrics  of  the  Vaishava  poets,  known  as 
Padas.  form  by  far  the  most  important  and  most 
interesting  page  in  the  history  of  V'aisnava  literature. 

These  Padas  are  divided  into  several  groups. 
They  all  relate  events  and  incidents  in  the  life 
of  Krisha  in  Vrindavana.  The  pastoral  scenes, 
and  gatherings  of  shepherd-boys,  the  playful  ways 
of  Krisfia  in  his  home, — the  manner  in  which  he 
baffled  king  Kamsa's  attempts  to  kill  him,  by 
destroying  his  great  demons,  who  were  one  by 
one  deputed  to  kill  him, — his  love  for  Radha,  the 
princess,  and  his  final  departure  from  Vrindavana 
and  arrival  at  Mathura,  where  he  overthrows  and 
kills  Karfisa — have  all  been  fully  described  in  the 
Bhagabata,  to  which  we  have  already  referred  on 
page  220.  A  short  account  of  Krisna's  life  at 
Vrindavana  and  Mathura  will  enable  our  readers  to 
enter  into  the  spirit  of  the  songs  of  the  Vaisiiava 
poets. 

Kamsa,  King  of  Mathura,  had  achieved  notoriety 
by  oppressing  his  people.  It  was  then  vouchsafed 
by  Visfiu  to  the  goddess  of  Earth,  who  groaned 
under  the  king's  oppressions,  that  He  would  Himself 
be  incarnated  in  the  flesh  as  a  son  of  Daivaki, 
sister  of  Karhsa,  with  the  object  of  destroying  the 
ruthless  monarch,  who  with  his  emissaries  was 
devastating  the  earth.  The  message  of  the  coming 
divine  incarnation  spread  throughout  heaven  and 
caused  great  joy  amongst  the  gods,  so  that  Karhsa 
also  heard  of  it.  For  Xarada,  the  heavenly  sage, 
came  to  him  and  said  that  the  eighth  child  of 
Daivaki,    his    sister,    would    be    that  incarnation  of 


The  sub- 
ject of  the 
Padas. 


Kamsa, 

King  of 

Mathura. 


5l8         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.      [Chap.  I 

VisfiLi,  whose  first  mission  would  to  be    to    kill    him 
and  then  destroy  other  oppressors  of  the  world. 

The  prophecy  alarmed  Kamsa  who  immediately 
put  Daivaki  and  her  husband  Vasudeva  in  prison 
and  ordered  that  all  children  born  to  her  should  be 
killed;  for  his  ministers  advised  him  that  the 
prophecy  of  Xarada  was  ambiguous  in  its  meaning 
as  it  was  not  clear  what  was  meant  by  the  eighth 
child  ; — supposing  that  Daivaki  should  have  twelve 
children,  tlien  counting  from  the  last,  the  fourth 
according  to  ordinary  calculation  would  be  the 
eighth.  As  the  question  of  the  King's  life  or  death 
hun<^  on  the  correct  solution,  nothino"  ouorht  to  be 
left  dubious  and  all  the  children  of  Daivaki  should 
unsparingly  be  killed,  thus  completely  remov- 
ing all  chance  of  danger.  One  by  one  seven 
children  were  born  to  poor  Daivaki  in  prison 
and  they  were  all  killed  by  Kamsa.  Ultimate- 
ly \'ishu  came  as  the  eighth  child.  He  was  born 
chiid.  in  the  middle  of  the  eighth  night  of  the  waning 
moon  and  as  \'asudeva  looked  ui)on  him,  he 
saw  the  baby  surrounded  by  a  halo  of  light  and 
possessed  of  other  signs  from  uhich  he  knew 
him  to  be  no  other  than  \'ishu  himself;  he  was 
nalurallv  eager  to  save  the  divine  child  from  the 
hands  oi  the  oppressor,  and  marched  with  him  to 
the  gatt-s  of  the  prison.  The  gate-keepers,  at  his 
approach,  fell  into  a  deej)  sleep,  and  the  gates 
which  were  under  strong  lock  and  key,  softly 
()|)t-iuMl  of  themsi'lvc^s  making  a  passage  tor  the 
child.  The  anxious  father  came  to  the  JumnS 
whose  dark  waters  rolled  before  him,  with  their 
foaming  waves,  and  the  night  was  so  dark  that  he 
despaired    oi    cro.ssing    it.      l]ut    at    this   moment  a 


Visnu  as 
the  eijjhth 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  519 

jackal  passed  through  the  waters,  showing  that 
here  there  was  a  ford  across  the  river  and  Vasudeva 
followed  the  steps  of  the  jackal,  and  found  land 
again  under  his  feet.  He  crossed  the  Jumna  and 
meanwhile  the  thousand-headed  snake,  Vasuki, 
raised  his  hoods  aloft  and  protected  the  father  and 
the  child.  Vasudeva  went  to  Vrindavana  where, 
according  to  the  prophecy  he  had  heard  that  night, 
a  child  was  born  to  Nanda  Ghosa,  the  prince  of  the 
gopas,  or  milkmen,  who  inhabited  the  district.  In 
obedience  to  the  prophecy  he  passed  into  the  birth- 
room  the  doors  having  yielded  to  his  touch,  placed 
hisbabv  by  the  side  of  the  sleeping  Yagoda,  queen  of 
Nanda  Ghosa,  and  taking  her  baby  with  him,  return- 
ed to  the  prison.  In  the  morning  Karhsa  heard  of 
the  birth  of  Daivaki's  eighth  child  and  found  to  his 
surprise  that  it  was  a  girl.  He  however,  took  the 
little  thing  into  his  hands  and  tried  to  dash  its 
brains  out  aeainst  the  stones.  But  this  babv  was 
an  incarnation  of  the  goddess  BhagabatL  Just  as 
he  was  throwing  her  against  the  stones  she  slipped 
from  his  hand  and  assuming  her  own  appearance 
as  a  goddess  rose  to  the  sky,  saying :  '  One 
who  will  kill  you  is  growing  up  in  Vrindavana.' 
The  goddess  disappeared  and  Karhsa  had  no  sleep 
by  day  or  night.  He  constantly  thought  who  this  Karhsa  kills 
child  might  be,  till  he  saw  appartions  of  his  des-  bori?chfld° 
troyer  even  in  trees  and  walls,  and  sent  emissaries 
throughout  the  land  to  kill  every  little  child  that 
was  born.  The  groan  of  mothers  rose  to  the  sky  ; 
the  earth  trembled  to  her  centre  and  black  winds 
began  to  blow  all  over  the  country. 

Then    some    one    said    to  him  that  little  Krisiia, 
his  future  destroyer,  was  growing  up    in    the    house 


520      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [  Chap. 


Krisna  kills 
the  King's 
emissaries. 


AkrOra. 


Karnsa  Is 
killed. 

Vai^jfiava 

poets  not 

interested 

in  the 

above. 


of  Nanda  Ghosa,  prince  of  Vrindavana  and  he  sent 
Putana,  the  demon-nur^e,  to  kill  the  child.  Putana 
was  killed,  and  then,  as  I  have  said  in  a  previous 
chapter,  in  my  remarks  on  the  Rhagabata,  one  by 
onv.  Karhsa's  emissaries,  Tfinabarta,  Baka,  Ke^i 
and  others  were  killed  in  the  course  of  similar 
missions  and  the  King's  anxiety  grew  in  an  alarming 
degree.  Last  of  all  he  sent  Akrura,  a  devout 
\^5isnava,  who  \\ould  know  whether  it  was  indeed 
Vishu  who  was  incarnated  as  Krisfia,  ordering 
him  to  bring  Krisfia  to  attend  the  Dhanuryajna  or 
bow-sacrifice  that  he  was  holding  at  Mathura. 
Nanda  Ghosa,  a  feudatory  chieftain  under  Karnsa, 
could  not  disobey  his  command.  And  Krisna  and 
Valarama,  his  cousin,  were  taken  to  Mathura,  where 
the  former  killed  Karnsa  in  the  open  court. 

This  is  briefly  the  story  of  the  Bliagabata  ;  but 
the  Vaishava  poets  do  not  lay  any  stress  on  such 
manifestations  of  the  glory  or  ^"^Vl,  of  Krisiia. 
Thev  scarcely  touch  on  any  of  the  points,  here 
mentioned,  in  their  accounts  of  Krisfia. 


They  describe  his  games  and  pastimes  at  home 
when-  his  mother  \'avoda,  while  punishing  him  for 
misconduct,  weeps  for  remorse.  She  would  not 
allow  him  to  go  to  the  lieldswith  other  boys  to  graze 
the  cattle,  for  fear  of  Kamsa's  emissaris  ;  and  evt^ry 
The  (iosfha  morning  the  shepherds  would  come  to  her  and  beg  her 
to  send  Krisfia  with  them  for  the  day.  The  Gostha 
or  songs  of  the  pastoral  sports  detail  how  Vavoda 
at  lirst  refuses  the  slieplu-rds  but  at  last  yields  to 
their  entreaties  coui)led  with  Krisna's  own  request 
to  be  allowed  to  go  to  the  meadow  ;— how  the 
shepherd  boys  blow  tlu>ir  horns  and  the  cows  follow 


V«  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  52? 

them    with    frolicsome    leaps  ; — how  Krisna  plucks 
flowers  and  fruits  and  distributes  them  amongst  the 
boys    and    how    they    play    together,     sometimes 
mimicking   the    cries    of  birds, — dancing  with  pea- 
cocks,— trying   to    skip    over    their   own    shadows 
and    sometimes     pursuing     monkeys     through    the 
boughs  of  trees;  at  such  a  moment   appears  Trina- 
barta  or  some  other  demon  while  Krisna  leaves    his 
comrades,    and   though  only  a  boy,    manifests  him- 
self in  all  his  glory,  and  then  destroying  the  demon 
re-joins  his  companions  in    triumph.     So  the    boys, 
forsaken    by    Krisfia,   feel    that   they    are    helpless. 
They  know  him  to  be  their  friend  and  playmate    but 
he  is  also  a  mystery  to  them.     They  cannot  realise 
his    greatness    but  his  personality  is  dearer  to  them 
than  life.     In  many  dangers  it  is    he    who    protects 
them    in    a    way    unintelligible  to  them.     The  lake 
Kaliya    was    poisoned    by    the    great    snake    Kali ;       The  lake 
some    of   the    shepherds    go  there,  drink  the  water         Kaliya. 
and  die  by  poison ;  Krisna  is  informed  of  it ;  he  comes 
swiftly  to  the  lake,  restores  the  children  to  life    and 
enters  the  lake  himself,  disappearing  in  its  waters  ; 
he  wrestles  with  the  great  snake  for  a  long  time  and 
in  the  meantime    the    shepherd-boys  having     lost 
Krisfia,  the  friend  of  their  souls,  stand  statue-like  on 
the  bank  of  the  lake  with  tearful  eyes.    Who  will  now 
kill  Karfisa's  emissaries    for  them  ?     Who  will  now 
protect  them  from  Indra,  the  God  of  clouds^  who  has 
already    tried    to   destroy    the    Vrinda     groves    by 
sending  floods  ?     Who  will  protect  the  cattle  when 
a  demon  like   Baka    comes    down    to  devour  them  ? 
The    apple   of  their    eyes,     their    protector,    play- 
fellow and    constant    companion,    their  friend    and 
philosopher,    their    ever-beloved     Krisha    has    now 
66 


522      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.       [  Chap* 

disappeared    in    the    waters   of   the  poisonous  lake 
Kaliya,  and  they  cry  out,  in  song  : 

*  "O,  let  us  all  go,  let  us  go  to  mother  Ya9oda, 
and  tell  her— O  mother,  the  jewel  of  your  heart 
is  lost  by  us  in  the  waters  of  Kaliya.  The  moon  of 
'  the  Vrinda  groves  has  set  on  yonder  lake  !  The 
Vrinda  groves  are  now  void  and  all  the  world  is  void 
to  us  and  what  is  now  left  that  we  should  care  to 
live  for !" 

At  this  juncture  comes  Radha  like  a  madwoman 
stricken  with  fear, — with  her  hair  dishevelled  ;  she 
goes  to  throw  herself  into  the  waters  of  Kaliya, — 
when  lo  !  the  great  serpent  Kaliya  raises  its  hood 
aloft, — two  mermaids  on  two  sides  singing  the 
praises  of  Krisna  and  on  the  hood  of  the  serpent, 
from  which  a  rich  diamond  sparkles  like  the  sun, 
stands  Kri§na  playing  on  his  flute.  The  picture 
of  this  scene  which  is  called  kaliya  dam  ana,  is  to  be 
found  in  all  the  artists'  shops  in  Bengal.  The  boys 
are  as  if  restored  to  life  by  the  sight.  All  these 
incidents  are  the  subjects  of  song  in  the  'gostha'  ; 
and  the  Vaishava />^?^/<?5  describing  these  pastoral 
scenes  tenderly  appeal  to  the  heart  and  claim  a 
tribute  of  tears  from  their  readers. 

*   "  ^^  5^  ^J7[  ^^.  ^t^<11  ^fe^  W^^^  ta  I 

3i^f^i^  ^^  3^'ci  i3s5  fsti:^.  ^^^  ^]^  ^-^  I 
r.mc?^  f  ^tl^  "^i^n,  ^tft^  ^<if  1 


v.] 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERAtURE. 


523 


Then  comes  t'he  Deva  gostha.  Here  the  boys 
describe  a  superb  scene  that  they  have  witnessed 
in  the  Vrinda  groves, — while  they  come  as  usual  in 
the  morning  to  solicit  Yagoda's  permission  to  take 
her  dear  son  to  the  woods.  They  say  ''O  mother, 
believe  not  your  Krisna  to  be  a  common  child.  We 
cannot  conceive  of  his  greatness.  He  is  our 
comrade  and  friend,  but  he  is  no  ordinary  mortal. 
Resplendent  beings,  with  halo  of  light  round  their 
heads,  appear  in  the  forest ;  O  mother,  we  never 
knew  that  such  being^s  lived  in  Vrinda vana.  A 
woman  of  superhuman  beauty  comes  riding  on  a 
lion  to  the  forest  every  day  and  taking  our  Krisha 
in  her  arms  eives  him  sweet  cream  and  butter  to  eat. 
But  Krisfia  distributes  those  amongst  us  !  They 
are  so  sweet,  so  sweet !  O  mother,  though  you  are  a 
queen,  you  have  nothing  so  delicious  !"  Thus  the 
boys  unconsciously  indicate  that  the  Goddess  Bhaga- 
vati  comes  amongst  them  to  meet  Visnu  who  is  incar- 
nated as  Krisha.  They  continue  "  Then  comes,  O 
mother,  a  host  of  other  beings.  We  know  them 
not.  Never  in  Vrinda  groves,  have  we  seen  such 
men  !  One  of  them  rides  on  a  buffalo  (Yama,  king  of 
death),  another  a  peacock  (the  warrior  god  Karti- 
keya)  and  athird,  resplendent  with  a  crown  from 
which  diamonds  shoot  forth  their  light  like  suns, 
comes  riding  on  a  huge  white  elephant  (Indra  riding 
on  the  elephant  Airavata)  and  then  comes  another 
being  with  four  faces,  radiant  as  fire,  counting  the 
beads  of  his  rosary  (Brahma,  the  creator).  They 
all  come  to  our  Krisna  and  if  he  looks  at  them 
with  kindliness,  they  feel  as  if  they  are  blessed, 
their  eyes  become  tearful  with  joy  ;  they  dare  not 
approach  him  too  closely,  they  hold  him  in  so  great 


The  Deva 
Gostha. 


A  superb 
sight. 


The  gods 
and  god- 
desses 
come  down 
to  pay 
honour  to 
Krisna. 


524      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.      [Chap. 

a  reverence.  But  last  comes  a  beggar  riding  on  a 
bull.  He  puts  on  a  tattered  tiger's  skin  and  from 
his  matted  locks  flows  a  stream.  He  is  covered 
with  dust  and  serpents  hiss  from  his  head.  As 
he  sees  Krisfia  he  dances  for  joy  and  Krisfia 
becomes  all  impatience  to  meet  him.  He  clasps 
the  be^ijar  in  his  arms  and  locks  him  in  a  close 
embrace  saying  'O  Lord,  you  are  immaculate,  un- 
approachably pure  and  a  true  Vogi.  I  gave  you 
the  golden  palace  of  Kailasa  and  appointed  Kuvera, 
the  god  of  wealth  as  your  store-keeper ;  but  you 
live  in  funeral  grounds  on  scanty  food,  and 
have  not  been  moved  from  the  stern  ascetic  life. 
You  are  above  all  the  gods,  O  Lord.  O  Lord,  I  wor- 
ship you.'  Saying  this  our  Krisna  falls  at  his  feet. 
But  the  beggar  washes  his  feet  with  the  water  that 
flows  from  his  matted  locks  and  savs  as^ain  and 
again  '  I  am  blessed,  I  am  blessed.'  This  refers  to 
an  interview  of  Krisfia  with  Qiva.  The  waters 
from  his  locks  are  the  holy  streams  of  the 
Ganges. 

The  spiri-  Tliese  songs  all  possess  a  deep  spiritual    signili- 

tual  signi-  ,„,  i      i       ,  i       .-         i  i         ,  , 

ficance  of      cance.     1  nrougli  tlie  legends  oi  gods  and  goddesses 

the  padas.  ^^^^,  tQ^^]^  (\^^^  liner  chords  of  our  emotions,  and 
teach  that  wealth,  fame  and  worldly  ties  are  as 
nothing  when  God  calls  us  to  llim.  'Fhc  devotion 
ol  tlu'  shepherds  oi  the  \  rinda  groves  to  Krisfia 
has  no  grain  of  earthliness  in  it.  Beyond  the 
pale  ol  palaces,  of  the  world's  splendour  and  luxury, 
the  X'rinda  groves  are  situated,  under  a  clear 
sk\  and  the  simple-minded  shepherds,  by  dint 
ol  their  sine  rro  dexotion  alone  accjuire  the  spirit  of 
resignation  to  him  which  theologists  and  monastic 
pedants,  with  all  their  learning,  cannot  realise. 


V.  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  525 


Then  comes  the  Uttara-gostha  or  return  home  of    The  Uttara 


the  shepherds.  The  mother  is  anxious.  The 
shades  of  evening  cover  the  Vrinda  groves  ; — the 
last  rav  of  light  disappears  from  the  western  horizon 
and  the  poor  Ya9oda  is  restless.  She  goes  into 
her  appartments  to  learn  the  time  and  comes  out 
looking  wistfully  towards  the  woods.  Afraid  of 
Karhsa's  emissaries  or  of  other  accidents  befalliniJ- 
her  beloved  Krisfia,  she  describes  to  her  companion 
and  relative  Rohini  her  anxious  fears.  She  knows 
that  her  voice  will  not  be  heard,  yet  calls  aloud 
'  Krisha,  Krisna,  Krisfia  ;'  and  when  her  anguish 
is  at  its  deepest,  lo  !  the  horn  sounds,  or  the  lowing 
of  the  cows  is  heard,  and  she  runs  out  to  meet  her  son. 
Krisna,  with  sportive  steps  amongst  his  gay  com- 
panions with  the  crown  of  peacock  feathers  bent 
a  little  to  the  left  and  the  garland  of  forest  flowers 
hanging  round  his  neck, — his  face  marked  with 
beautiful  alaka  and  tilaka, — comes  running  to  the 
embrace  of  his  dotinor  mother.       This  is  the  Uttara 


orostha. 


But  these  incidents  also,  comparatively  speaking, 
form  a  very  minor  portion  of  the  literature  of  the 
padas,  the  greater  part  of  them  being  devoted  to 
Krisna^s  amours  with  Radha. 

Radha  is  the  daughter  of  the  kingVrisa  Bhanu. 
When  she  was  born  she  did  not  open  her  eyes, 
and  people  thought  she  was  blind.  Amongst 
others  Krisha  as  a  boy  went  to  see  the  new-born 
child.  But  when  he  stood  beside  her,  she  opened 
her  eyes,  so  that  before  seeing  anything  of  the 
world  she  might  see  him — the  lord  of  the  universe, 
unto  whom  she  was  pledged  in  love  from  birth.  In 
due  time  she  was  married  to  Ayana  Ghosa. 


Qo«;tha  or 
"return 
home." 


Padas  on 
Kri^^ha's 
amours 

with 
Radha. 


526      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

Vi9akha,  one  of  her  maids,  now  showed  her  a 
picture  of  Krisfia.  The  moment  she  saw  it,  she 
felt  a  strange  emotion,  she  yearned  to  see  him 
First  love,  in  the  flesh.  There  under  the  shade  of  a  Kadamva 
tree  with  the  crown  made  of  peacock  feathers  bent 
a  little  to  the  left,  and  adorned  with  the  flowers  of 
the  forest,  stood  the  young  shepherd-god  flute  in 
hand;  the  flute  sang  '  Radha.  Radha/  and  on  the 
moment  she  fell  in  love.  Her  maids  did  not  know 
what  had  wakened  in  her  heart.  She  would  go 
and  come  out  of  her  room  a  hundred  times  in  an 
hour  without  cause,  look  wistfully  towards  the 
kadainva  tree,  and  sigh  deeply.  Sometimes  she 
would  quietly  sit  like  a  statue  and  rise  suddenly  with 
a  start.  Her  garments  hung  loosely  on  her,  her 
necklace  fell  to  the  ground  she  cared  not  for  it. 
The  maids  thought  she  was  possessed  by  ghosts. 
One  evening  she  softly  related  to  them  her  storv. 
It  was  as  if  the  dark  blue  sky  had  taken  a  human 
shape, — the  rainbow  on  the  top  had  assumed  the 
beautv  of  the  crown  of  peacock's  feathers  and  the 
woods  and  forests  had  given  their  floral  tribute  to 
adorn  his  person.  His  flute  called  constantly 
•  Radha.  Radha  '  and  she  could  not  control  herself. 
She  took  little  food  or  fasted  altogether  and  looked 
like  a  ^'ogini  with  her  yellow  cloth,  and  fixed  her 
gaze  on  the  clouds,  witli  which  she  held  communion 
with  uplifted  hands. 

The  emotions  of  Krisfia  were  no  less  tervent. 
The  spiki's  of  the  champaka  flowers,  drenched 
with  the  rnin.  blossomcnl  and  he  was  remind- 
ed of  Radha  at  tlu«  siglit.  lie  could  not  look 
towards  Xii^;^  P)h5nu's  palace  for    his    tears  ;     day 


V,  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  527 

and    nieht    he    took    his  flute  in  his  hand  and  sans^ 
'Radha,  Radha.' 

Then  comes  the  meeting.     She  stealthily    walks  xhe 

along  the  forest-path  to  meet  him.     A  dark  colour-        meeting. 
ed  sadi  hides  her  in  the  dark  night ;    like  a  creeper 
with  fine  foliage  and  gay  flowers  or  like  a  streak  of 
lightning  formed  in  human  shape  she  goes — caring 
not  for  caste — fearino;  not  the    slanderous    tonorues 
of    the    wicked    or    the    reprimands  of  her  elderly 
relations, — offering  herself  body    and    soul    to    his 
service.     She    comes    to  him    as  a  martyr  for  love, 
and    joins     him    in    the     bovvers    of    the     VTinda 
groves  ;    and    from    that    time  forward  every  night 
the  maids  prepare  a  bower    of    flowers    and    there 
Krisna  and  Radha  meet.       There   are    many    man- 
oeuvres and  devices  adopted  by  the  lovers  for  these 
meetings  and  the  scandal  has  by  this    time    spread. 
Radha  said  she    would    mind   no   consequence.     If 
the  world    will  not  look  at  her  face,  well  and   gfood. 
She  will  repeat  the  name  of  Krisha  day  and    night 
and  the  joy  derived  from  that  would   make   up    for 
all    her    sufferings.      'Take    my  bracelets  away,    O 
maids,  the  service  of  Krisna  will  adorn   my    hands, 
and    I    want    no  other    ornaments  for  them  ; — take 
away  my  necklace   of    purest    pearls,    the    thought 
of     Krisna    is    the  ornament  of  my  breast  ;    I  want 
^  no  other    for   it  ;   the  praise  of     Krisna    will    adorn 
my  ears,  no  need  of  earrings  for  them.     The  ground 
trodden  by  Krisfia's    feet  is    dear  to    me,  cover  my 
body,    O,    maidens,    with    the    sacred    dust  of  that 
ground  !     Oh  I  shall    turn  a  Yogini    for  love.     My 
infamy  is  known, — you   fear    it,-but  1  glory  in  it  ;  I 
glory    in    all    that   the    love    of  Krisna    may  bring 
to  me  !' 


528      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.       [  Chap, 

We  have  already  spoken  of  how  Krisha  goes 
in  the  disguise  of  a  physician  kiiowing  Radha  to 
be  ill  and  on  the  pretext  of  feeling  her  pulse 
touches  her  hand,  and  is  overjoyed.  He  sees  her 
in  the  guise  of  a  holv  nun,  and  blesses  her.  before 
all  present,  while  with  side-long  glances  conveys 
to  her  secretly  his  deep  love.  Many  similar  devices 
are  described.  One  day,  Subala,  one  of  the  friends 
and  companions  of  Krisna  dressed  as  a  girl,  went 
to  Radha  privately  and  told  her  that  Krisfia  was 
reminded  of  her  at  the  sight  of  a  champ ak a  flower 
and  it  being  day  time  he  was  not  able  to  see  her, 
and  a  fit  of  unconsciousness  had  came  over  him. 
On  hearing  this  she  immediately  exchanged  clothes 
with  Subala  and  looking  like  a  pretty  shepherd-boy, 
with  the  shepherd's  crook  in  her  hand,  went  to  the 


pa 


storal    erove  leaving^  Subala    in    the    house,    dis- 


6'"'^  .. 1> 


cruised  as  a  girl.  There  she  saw  Krisha  lying  on 
the  earth  unconscious  and  took  him  in  her  arms. 
At  her  touch  his  senses  came  back  to  him  ;  but 
without  looking  at  her  he  said  ''  O  Subala,  tell  me 
where  is  my  Radha,  the  soul  of  my  soul?"  Radha 
said  "  Look  at  me,  I  am  your  devoted  servant. 
You  do  not  recognise  me  !"  and  Krisha  in  raptures 
held  her  to  his  br(\'ist. 
The  story  Hut  Radha  is  a  princess.      Occasionally  an  idea 

pearl-plant  of  her  own  position  in  contrast  with  that  of  a 
village-shepherd  is  not  unnatural  in  her.  One  day 
the  shepherds  thought,  if  the  cows  were  adorned 
with  necklaces  of  pearls,  how  grand  they  would 
look  !  They  applied  to  Krisha,  who,  sent  Sudama, 
a  fellow-shepherd,  to  Radha,  asking  her  for  a  pearl. 
One  i)earl  would  be  enough,  he  said.  He  would 
sow  it  in  the  irround  and  by  his  power  create  pearl- 


Painled  in  lacquer  on  wooden  board.     Meant  to  be  a  Book  Cover,  taken  from  the 
District  of  Birbhum,  early  17th  century. 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         529 

plants.  The  princess  sat  in  the  company  of  her 
maidens,  and  told  Sudama  in  reply — "  Foolish 
shepherd,  know  that  pearls  grow  in  sea-shells 
and  they  are  precious  things.  They  are  not  like  the 
forest-flowers  that  you  pluck  every  day  in  the  Vfinda- 
groves.  The  idea  is  worthy  only  of  a  shepherd. 
You  want  to  adorn  cows  with  necklaces  of  pearls  ; 
no  monarch  -could  be  so  lavish  as  to  entertain  such 
a  wild  fancy.  Go  back  to  your  Krisna  and  say 
that  the  dew  of  heaven  falls  into  the  sea-shells 
under  the  influence  of  the  constellation  Svati,  a 
rare  happening,  and  is  formed  into  pearls,  and 
that  fishers  risk  their  lives  to  bring  them  from  the 
bottom  of  the  sea.  It  is  not  as  easy  to  get  a  pearl 
as  to  possess  a  kadamva  or  a  champaka  flower." 
The  maids  also  jeered  at  Sudama  who  stood 
silent,  much  mortified  at  being  ridiculed  in  this 
manner.  The  crown  of  flowers  fell  from  his  head, 
his  crook  fell  from  his  hand;  insulted  and  disap- 
pointed he  returned  to  Krisha  and  related  the 
story  of  the  treatment  he  had  received  from 
Radha  and  her  maids.  Krisha  heard  it;  a  sense  of 
shame  suffused  his  face,  and  he  was  pensive  for 
some  time  ;  then  he  said,  ''\>ry  well,  my  friends  !  1 
shall  obtain  a  pearl  by  some  means  or  other.  Please 
wait  here  a  moment  for  me."  He  ran  to  his  mother 
and  begged  for  a  pearl.  Yagoda  said,  ''  Foolish  boy, 
what  would  you  do  with  a  pearl  ?"  But  Krisha  would 
not  leave  her  without  one.  He  was  refused  and  with 
tears  in  his  eyes  was  about  to  return,  when  Ya^oda's 
heart  melted  in  affection  : — "  After  all  a  pearl  is  of 
no  value  compared  with  my  Krisha.  I  cannot  see 
him  sad."  She  called  him  to  her  and  from  her 
earring  gave   the    brightest    pearl  that  she  had. 

67 


530      BFA'GALl    LANGAUGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

Forthw  ith  he  ran  to  his  companions   and    sowed 
the    pearl.       Lo.    the    plants    grew    and    in    a    few 
moments  thev  were  rich  with  their  precious  burden. 
The  bank   of  the    Jumna — its  groves   and  bowers — 
all    looked    as    if  they  were  set  on  hre, — the  pearls 
reflecting  the    light    of    the    sun.       The    shepherds 
plucked  them  as  fast  as  they  could,  made  necklaces 
of  them,  put  them  round   their  own    necks    in    pro- 
fusion and  hung  them  on  the  cows.       In  the    mean- 
time a  maid  of  Radha  had  come  to  the  Jumna  to  fetch 
water,  when  her  eyes  were  dazzled  by, the  wonderful 
scene.     She  hid  herself  behind  a  tree,  and  stealthily 
saw    all    that   the    shepherds  did    with    the    pearls. 
She    hastened    home    and    reported    the    matter  to 
Radha,  who  now  felt  remorse  for  her  conduct.    She 
sent    one    of    her   maids  to  sound  Krisha  as  to  how 
he  would  treat  her.     Rut    the    shepherds    sent    her 
away    with    rough   words.     Radha  herself  hastened 
in  the  evening    to  the    spot  :  but    the    pearl-groves 
had  disappeared  and  she  saw  a  strange  city  looking 
like  a  second  heaven  on  the    banks  of    the    Jumna- 
There    were    celestial    maidens  with  golden  rods  in 
hand  guarding  the  gate  of  the  city,  and  each  maiden 
was    as    beautiful    as    herself    and    decorated    with 
jewels    and    ornaments    such  as  no  earthly  princess 
wore.      She  asked  one  of  IIkmti  if    she    knew     where 
her  Krisha  was.     The  damsel  replied  in  contempt, — 
'  What  !   Vou  want  Krisha  !   ^'ou  could  never    reach 
his  palace,  it  is  the  highest  in  heaven.   Vou  will  pass 
many  a  cily  like  this  before  \ou    reach    his    palace; 
but    the    guards    will    not  allow  you  to  enter."  And 
poor  Radha  in   (Kcp    anguish    of    heart    passed   on 
from    palace    to    palace. — all    displaying  wonderful 
we.ilth,    their  spires    and    domes   resplendent    with 


iV»]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  53! 

diamonds,  and  reaching  up  to  the  starry  regions, — 
heavenly  damsels  of  beauty  superior  to  any  she 
could  claim,  rudely  preventing  her  passage  and  when 
she  asked  about  Kri§ha,  saying  "  How  foolish  for  a 
mad  woman  to  think  of  reaching  the  highest  heaven^ 
the  Vaikuiitha  of  Krisna !"  There  in  the  starry 
night  when  the  dews  were  falling  and  the  champaka 
was  diffusing  its  fragrance, — the  soft  murmurs  of 
the  Jumna  were  heard  from  a  distance, — in  that 
dark  night  illuminated  by  the  diamonds  on  the 
walls  of  the  palaces  and  the  stars  of  the  sky,  the 
unfortunate  wanderer  moved  from  gate  to  gate 
with  pale  face  crying  '  O  Krisna',  and  as  the 
gate  keepers  treated  her  with  contempt  and  even 
rudeness, — her  eyes  became  full  of  tears  and  she 
suddenly  fell  on  her  knees  and  with  clasped  palms 
prayed, — "O  Lord  of  my  Soul,  O  Lord  of  the 
Universe,  O  Krisha,  I  am  a  poor  woman,  foolish  to 
the  extreme  and  full  of  frailties  and  sins.  Pardon 
me,  O  Lord,  pardon  me.  I  cannot  live  without 
thee.  I  die  here.''  And  she  drooped  low  even 
as  a  flower  droops  when  the  rains  fall  upon  it, 
and  in  deep  resignation  she  sat  closing  her  eyes 
dazzled  with  the  glories  before  her.  'How  weak 
am  I  !  How  poor  and  cursed  !  '  She  cried. 
'But  forsake  me  not,  O  Lord  of  the  Universe,  I 
am  but  a  poor  and  ignorant  milk-maid,"  and  when* 
she  opened  her  eyes,  the  palaces  had  all  gone  and 
she  saw  her  own  Krisna, — the  shepherd -boy 
standing  before  her,  flute  in  hand,  and  taking  her 
gently  by  the  arm,  saying  "  Radha,  my  soul,  the  joy 
of  my  life,  where  have  you  been  so  long  ?"  and  she 
clasped  his  feet  with  her  hands  and  for  her  choked 
Voice  could  not   say    where  she  had  been.  God  does 


532  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [Chap. 


The 

Mgthura  or 

parting. 


not    come    to  the  proud  but  yields  to  love.     This  is 
the  meaning  to  be  found  in  this  story.  "^ 

There  are  innumerable  songs  describing  similar 
incidents  in  this  love-story.  The  last  is  the  Mathur. — 
the  most  pathetic  of  all.  Karhsa  sends  Akrura  to 
Vrinda-groves  to  bring  Krisna.  A  chariot  comes 
to  take  him.  The  shepherds  stand  speechless, 
statue-like  and  with  choked  voices,  they  cannot 
even  say  '  don't  go.'  Yayoda  lies  unconscious  in  her 
frantic  agony  of  heart.  Xanda  hides  his  eyes  and 
groans  in  a  corner  of  his  palace,  and  the  milk-maids 
with  Radha  at  their  head  go  to  throw  themselves 
under  the  wheels  of  the  chariot  to  destroy  their  miser- 
able lives;  for  unbearable  will  their  life  in  Vrinda- 
vana  be  when  Krisna  has  gone  away.  The  birds  ^uka 
and  Sari  sit  mute,  not  singing  their  accustomed  merry 
tunes.  The  cows  look  wistfully  towards  the  far 
bank  of  the  Jumna  where  Mathura  is  situated.     The 

Vrindavan     \^qq^    ^o    longer    hum    round  the  blooming  flowers. 

by  Krisna.  ^||  the  groves  of  Vrinda  look  like  a  picture  of 
desolation  where  the  shepherds  and  the  maids, 
remain  plunged  in  sorrow  after  the  chariot  has 
moved  away.      Krisha  kills  Kariisa  and    is    restored 


to    X'asudeva    and    Daivaki,    but 
Va(,ods  are  blinded  with  weeping 


pool 


Xanda  and 


Radha 

forsaken 

by  Krisna. 


Radha  with  her  maids  seek  the  \'rinda  groves  ; 
it  is  a  mad  and  fruitless  search;  she  asks  the 
jessamine,  the  lotus  and  the  kunda  tlower  if  they 
can  tell  her  the  whereabouts  of  Krisna  ;  she  stands 
lost  in  a  tranci',  and  then  runs  on  again, — the 
thorns   pierce    her    feet,    she    does    not    care  ;    the 


*  This    story  is  related  'n  the  Bengali    poem    Muktalatavall 

Written  about  1 20  years  ago 


v.  ]  BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITEKAIURE.        533 

maids  say  '  do  not  run  in  that  way,  the  thorns  will 
pierce  your  feet,  the  snakes  may  bite  ;  the  place 
abounds  with  them,'  Radha  says  '  when  I 
fell  in  love  with  a  shepherd,  I  knew  I  would  have  to 
wander  through  forests  full  of  thorns.  So  I  brought 
thorns  from  the  woods  and  placing  them  in  my 
courtyard,  I  learnt  to  walk  on  them.  I  guarded 
myself  against  snakes  by  learning  charms  with  the 
same  object  ;  so  I  fear  them  not.'  She  comes  to 
the  pleasant  bowers — there  her  senses  leave  her 
completely.  Her  gaze  is  transfixed  to  the  clouds 
overtopped  with  a  rainbow  ;  she  mistakes  them 
for  Krisha  and  addresses  them,"^  "  O  go  not  away  ! 
Wait  but  for  a  moment,  thou  friend  of  my  soul, 
leave  me  not  thus.  One  should  not  forsake  her 
who  cannot  live  without  him.  If  you  stay  not 
here,  go  wherever  you  will  ;  but  wait  only  one 
moment.  If  you  are  resolved  to  go  away,  tears 
cannot     check    you,    I    know,     and    tears    cannot 

^  "eVl  f^m^  tT^tM3  tf^l^  c^, 
^fw  '^i^  ^^  ^^,  ^1  ^^  "^^^  'T^. 

^'i^  ai^  ^n  c^t^  ^K^  1 


534        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

produce  love.  If  my  life  goes  out  for  this,  let  it  go. 
Who  can  avoid  fate  1  Alas,  dear  friend,  who  can 
detain  the  unwilling  heart  by  mere  importunities  !" 

"  But  hear  with  me  for  one  word  more.  Our 
feelings  were  mutually  sincere.  But  you  are  indif- 
ferent  to  me  now.  1'he  resultof  this  will  be,  that 
our  love  which  was  pure  as  gold  will  be  misunder- 
stood ;  others  will  blame  the  love  that  killed 
the  milk-maids.  Stand  there  a  moment,  if  you  will 
not  come  near,  wait  only  there  where  you  are,  and 
see  how  I  die  of  love." 

All  this  Radha  addressed  to  the  clouds  mistaking 
them  for  Krisfia.  At  this  stage  she  swoons  and 
Vrinda  the  maid  comes.  She  uses  various  methods 
to  bring  her  mistress  to  her  senses,  but  she  fails. 
Her  maids  cry  aloud,  '  Radha  is  dead.'  With 
thin  cotton  placed  near  her  nostrils  they  feel  that 
there  is  still  a  little  breath  left.  She  is  carried  to 
the  Cyamakunda,  and  they  plunge  her  body  into  tlie 
holy  waters — a  usage  followed  by  Hindus  at  the 
moment  of  death  and  called  the  Aiitarjali.  and  th(> 
maidens  whisper  in  her  ear  '  (^  Krisna,  O  Krisna.  ' — 

■«it^  vil^  52*f  ^S^  ^f  CI  ^n, 

c^^  (.^v^  ^t'l  ^i?r  c^'^  ^1  ^i^  I 

^^C5.  •sjt^^.^^^'i  c^K^  1^.  c-y^ ^c^  Xa  c^fn^i  in 

^sj^  Ui^^  ^i^t^8.  c'jn^^^ic*!^  A^  c^n^"^^^*!^  (.^i^^ 

^-^'\  (M"^  ^t^Q  C^  II 
Rve  Inmadini  by  Krisna  Kamala. 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.         535 

for  the  dying  soul  must  hear  the  name  of  God. 
On  hearing  Krisha's  name  she  slowly  revives  and 
looks  helplessly  around  ;  weak  and  feeble  she  can- 
not speak.  X'rinda  says  ^  At  the  first  infatuation 
of  love  Krisha  gave  a  bond  to  Radha  that  he 
would  be  her  slave  all  his  life.  She  now  wants  back 
this  bond  assurinsf  the  maids  that  she  will  2^0  to 
Mathura  with  it  and  bring  him  back  bound  in  chains 
as  a  runaway  slave.  Radha,  though  dying  for  love, 
cannot  hear  any  one  abuse  Krisna.  She  speaks 
her  foolish  fears  in  gentle  whispers  to  Vrinda^  '  Oh, 
do  not  bind  him,  do  not  speak  rude  words  to  him. 
If  vou  say  a  rude  word,  his  lovely  face  will  grow 
pale,  my  heart  breaks  at  the  very  thought  of  it.' 

But  Radha  and  Krisha  are  no  historical  person-     Thespiri- 

alities  with  enlightened  Vaishavas.     Krisha  Kamala    *"  ^f  ^^g^" 

the   poet    savs    of  Krishat    "  When  the  God-vision         Radha- 
11  111  Krisna 

becomes    clear  in  the  soul  the  devotee  expresses  it        legend. 

by  the  allegory  of  Krisha's  coming    to    the  Vrinda- 


^Z^  C^^  ^5  nt^  ^2^  I 

^t^  c^^  ^r^&  ciT?  ^ " 

Rye  Unmadini  by  Krisha  Kamala. 
Rye  Unmadini  by  Krisha  Kamala. 


536       BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

groves.  When  the  vision  fades  away,  he  considers 
Krisfia  to  have  gone  to  IMathura."  Da^arathi, 
another  poet  of  the  old  school,  savs  "^  "  If  you  O 
Krisfia,  come  to  my  heart,  it  will  be  sacred  as  the 
Vrinda  groves.  My  drvotion  to  vou  will  be  ex- 
pressed in  the  svmbol  of  Radha  ;  mv  desire  to 
reach  the  final  emancipation  will  be  as  Vrinda  the 
milkmaid.  My  bodv  will  be  the  palace  of  Xanda 
Ghosa  and  my  love  for  you  will  be  Ja^oda  herself. 
Bear,  O  Lord,  the  load  of  my  sins  as  once  you 
did  the  mount  Govardhana  and  destroy  my  six 
passions,  which  are  like  the  six  emissaries  of 
Karhsa."  The  whole  matter  is  thus  spiritualised. 
Chaitanya  Deva  said  t  ''  As  a  young  man  yearns 
for  his  beloved,  even  so  the  soul  yearns  for 
God  ;  it  is  for  want  of  a  better  object  of  compa- 
rison that  the  Vaisfiavas  worship  the  Lord  under 
this  form.'' 

^mt?  cw^  ^n  ^^^  ^ft  c^^  ^^  ^  ^^*(r5?5>. 

^^  <f?l  W{\^^,  ntn  ^T"^  C^^^. 

A  song  by  nri(,\'^i"'^thl. 

^fhot^T  ^H  "Sjf^  f^il  ^f^  ^U  11" 

Sayings  of  Chaitanya  Deva, 
from  GoNJnda  Das's  Kadcha. 


I  V.  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  537 


A  person  who. yearns  for  God  should  not  care  for 
home,  for  fame,  or  for  any  earthly  consideration  ;  he 
must  renounce  all.  This  idea  is  best  expressed  by 
the  allegory  of  Radha  and  Krisna ;  for  a  woman, 
peculiarly  situated  as  she  is  in  Hindu  society,  cannot 
contract  love  with  a  stranger  without  risking  all 
that  is  near  and  dear  to  her.  The  spirit  of  mar- 
tyrdom in  this  love  is  kindred  to  that  for  which 
the  soul  of  a  true  devotee  is  always  ready.  Per- 
secutions and  all  manner  of  earthly  evils  must 
come  upon  him  as  a  matter  of  course  and  the  world 
will  call  such  a  man,  a  knave,  a  maniac  and  what 
not  ;  but  he  must  stick  to  his  faith  inspite  of 
all  misfortune.  Hence  this  symbol  was  adopted 
by  the  Vaishavas  to  express  their  unflinching 
devotion  and  self-sacrifice  for  religion. 

The  personality  of  Chaitanya  Deva  gave  a 
new  form  to  this  poetic  literature.  If  one  reads 
carefully  a  number  of  Y2Lisha.Ya.  padas  from  such 
collections  as  the  Padakalpalatika,  Padakalpataru, 
and  Padasamudra  together  with  some  of  the  biogra- 
phies of  Chaitanya  Deva,  they  will  be  struck  with  the 
fact,  that  nearly  all  the  emotions  ascribed  to  Radha 
are  taken  from  those  of  Chaitanya  Deva.  The  rap- 
turous feelings  on  his  seeing  the  clouds  described 
in  his  biographies  are  attributed  to  Radha  in  the 
padas.  His  fine  frenzy  lends  charms  to  the  similar 
mental  states  ascribed  to  her,  and  the  sight  of  a 
kadamva  flower,  of  the  river  Jumna,  of  the 
Vrinda  groves,  lifts  both  into  a  state  of  rapture. 
One  who  is  not  an  adept  in  Chaitanya  literature 
will  be  charmed  while  reading  the  padas  by  the 
high  poetical  flights  reached  in  the  description  of 
Radha's  love  for  Krisfia,  and  will  not  easily  suspect 


The  emo- 

tions  of 

Chaitanya 

Deva  attri= 

buted  to 

Radha. 


68 


53^      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

that  in  the  accounts  of  this  love  they  are  perusing 
the  story  of  Chaitanya's  realisation.  In  fact  there 
are  innumerable  songs  in  this  literature  which  echo 
the  sentiments  of  Chaitanya  Deva,  and  there  is  in 
this  respect  a  difference  between  the  love  songs 
of  Radha  and  Krisha  of  the  pre-Chaitanya  period 
and  those  that  followed  him.  The  allegory  be- 
comes complete  and  beautiful  in  the  latter  as  they 
bear  the  stamp  of  this  influence,  and  the  com- 
pilers of  the  collections  of  these  songs  have  clearly 
indicated  this  by  giving  as  a  prologue  to  each 
chapter  a  song  describing  the  emotions  of  Chai- 
tanya Deva  by  \'asu  Ghosa,  Xarahari  or  other 
poets  who  personally  witnessed  them.  Such  a 
The  Goura-  pi*ologLie  is  called  the  Goura  Chandrika  or  prelimi- 
Chandrika.  nary  verses  in  praise  of  Chaitanya;  the  songs 
that  follow  are  true  to  the  spirit  of  the  emotions  of 
Chaitanya  though  the  love  of  Radha  and  Krisna  is 
apparently  the  subject  of  them.  For  instance,  in  the 
Purvaraga  or  dawm  of'love,  we  have  several  Goura 
Chandrikas  to  indicate  the  subsequent  spirit  of  the 
songs.  One  Gour  Chandrika  runs  thus  "^"To-day 
I     saw    the     moon     of     Navadwipa      (Chaitanya)  ; 


^l^  "^l^  <^5T^^  ^^t  ^^t^  II 

^■^  ^^  ^t^  ^^"5  ^^^tl  II 

?tni  C'^t^^  ^1  ^1  ^t^^  C^^  ll"     Pada  Xo.  68. 
From  Chapter  I,  Padakalpataru. 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  539 

resting  his  cheek-  upon  his  hand  he  sits  brooding 
quietly — lost  in  thought  ;  he  goes  and  comes 
without  intention  ;  as  he  wanders  towards  the 
woods  where  the  flowers  bloom,  his  eyes, 
large  as  full  blown  lotuses,  seem  to  float  in  tears. 
They  betray  great  emotions.  A  strange  glad- 
ness takes  possession  of  him  and  Radhamohana  (the 
poet)  can  not  enter  into  its  meaning."  After  a 
prologue  of  this  sort  the  compiler  gives  many 
passages  of  love  between  Radha  and  Krisna.  The 
first  runs  as  follows  i"^ — '^  She  (Radha)  comes  out 
of  her  house  a  hundred  times  ;  her  mind  is  agitated  ; 
she  looks  wistfully  to  the  shade  of  the  kadarnva 
trees;  Oh,  why  has  Radha  become  so?  She  cares 
not  for  infamy,  nor  for  the  scoldings  of  the  elderly 
women  of  her  house.  Has  some  spirit  possessed 
her?  Her  loose  garments  she  does  not  care  to 
adjust,  she  sits  quietly  and  rises  with  a  sudden 
start  ;  her  ornaments  fall  carelessly  from  her 
person." 

The  difference  between  the  sons^s  written  before 

Songs 
and  after  Chaitanya  Deva  is  well  marked  ;    for    in-     before  and 

stance,  in    a  song  on  Abhisara  or  the  stealthy  visit    Chrita^nya. 

of  Radha  to  Krisna  by  night,  we  find  Jayadeva,  the 


yfSft^  U^^,  7^^J\  ^^rf,  5j^^c)  5^tf^  ^^^  I 
^ft  %\-^  <^Tf%,  fek!(  ^^f^,  ^^«1  ^f^^l  ^^n5  h" 

ChandidaSi 


540      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap, 

Sanskrit  poet  of  the  I2th  century  writing."^  "  The 
sounding  nupura  of  your  feet  you  must  leave  behind, 
for  they  will  jingle;  you  should  come  to  love's  bower 
putting  on  a  dark-coloured  sadl."  In  the  night 
she  would  have  to  go  stealthily  ;  so  the  poet  re- 
commends a  dark  sadi  to  conceal  her  from  the  view 
of  others  and  also  to  leave  her  nupura  lest  they 
should  draw  the  attention  of  others  by  their  jingling 
sounds.  This  is  a  very  natural  piece  of  advice  to 
one    who    wants    to    meet    her  lover  secretly  ;    but 

'^^^  let  us  read  a  love  son^  on  Abhisara  by  a  subsequent 

Abhisara.  ^       .  ^  ^ 

poet  who  wrote  after  Chaitanya  Deva  "  Her  Jiupura 

called  bankaraja  sounds  pleasantly  and  her  brace- 
lets make  a  merry  jingling  sound.  She  is  sur- 
rounded by  her  maidens ; — the  high  sounding 
musical  instruments,  the  Dampha  and  the  Ravaba 
are  heard  from  a  distance  and  a  thin  music  flows  on 
like  waves  of  love."'  This  seems  quite  unsuited 
to  a  song  on  Abhisara  where  secrecy  must  be  the 
watchword.  But  the  poet  who  wrote  it  had  in 
his  mind  the  processions  of  the  sankirtan  parties 
led  by  Chaitanya  Dcva  where  the  Dampha,  the 
Ravaba  and  other  musical  instruments  sounded 
their  high  notes  and  where  the  party  marched, 
literally  carried  on  by  waves  of  love. 

These  associations  and  references,  however 
anomalous  they  may  appear  at  times,  as  marring 
the  natural  beauty  of  a  description,  do  in  fact 
nothino-    of    the   sort  but  lend  a  charm  to  it  ;  —  thev 


Jayadev 


a. 


V»  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  541 

only  remind  one-  of  the  spiritual  significance  of 
these  songs  without  affecting  the  poetry.  The 
song  referred  to  is  highly  poetical  inspite  of  what 
might  appear  as  its  anomalies.  I  give  below  the 
full  text.^  ''Towards  the  cool  shade  of  the  Vrinda 
groves  Radha  goes  to  meet  Krisna.  Her  face  is 
as  beautiful  as  a  newly  risen  moon,  the  sandal- 
marks  adorn  her  lovely  cheeks,  a  mark  of  kasturi 
is  on  her  forehead  ;  behind  her  hanor  her  beautiful 
braids  adorned  by  a  golden  jhapa  with  silken 
pendants  and  a  lovely  pearl  brightens  her  nose. 
The  bracelets  and  the  nupura  called  Bankaraja 
make  a  merry  jingle  as  she  walks  ;  her  maids 
surround  her  and  the  high  notes  of  Darnpha 
and  Ravaba  are  heard.  As  she  goes,  cupid  flies 
away  terror-struck,  and  the  sweet  scents  from  her 
person  attract  the  bees,  who  mistake  her  foot- 
prints for  lotuses  and  maddened  with  the  perfumes 
fall  to  the  ground  in  the  hope  of  drinking  honey, 
and  only  kiss  the  foot  prints.  The  beauty  of  her 
person  far  excels  that  of  a  golden  creeper  or  the 
lightning  flash — it  shows  the  utmost  skill  the 
creator  had  in  command;  gracefully  she  walks  as  a 

^V^  CI  ^^*1  ^=^,  ^^W  ft=^  ft'^,  ^^ft  f^^^  ^tl^  ^t^  I 

%i  c^^  (A^  -^vw,  ^T>in  nt^&^  c^rm,  ^tm^^^^mw 

CFtft^^  ^-^^  ^IIXW,  ^'^  ^^t^  ^tr^,  H^  ^T,^  ^ffs{  ^-f  ^^  I 

^ft  c^  f^^^  n^H  ^i^,  m^  n^H  v5^,  c^^^  -^^  ^\^ 


542      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.       [  Chap, 

royal  swan  ;  her  arms  rest  on  the  shoulders  of  her 
maids.  Poet  Ananta  Das  says  they  arrived  at  the 
bowers  to  the  delight  of  Krisfia."  The  kasttiri 
mark,  or  tilak,  is  a  holy  sign  referred  to  in  the  above 
song,  and  this  is  another  feature  that  reminds  us  of 
the  spiritual  significance  of  the  song.  The  foot- 
prints bear  the  light  red  mark  of  the  alt  a  dye  and 
hence  they  are  mistaken  for  lotuses.  So  without  in- 
juring the  poetic  beauty  of  the  description  or  intro- 
ducing anything  to  jar  on  the  ear  of  the  unsuspecting 
lay  reader,  the  songs  are  fraught  with  a  deep  re- 
ligious significance  which  true  \'aishavas  only  are 
privileged  to  enjoy.  The  references  are  so  clear 
that  to  those  versed  in  Chaitanya  literature,  Radha 
the  princess  portrayed  in  the  songs  will  pass  away 
and  the  personality  of  a  handsome  Brahmin  youth 
maddened  by  God's  love,  bewailing  his  separation 
from  Krisha  and  holding  communion  in  a  trance 
with  the  clouds  of  heaven,  the  trees  of  the  woods, 
and  the  waves  of  the  Jumna  as  though  they  were 
real  friends  who  could  tell  him  of  the  God  he 
sought  for,  will  appear  as  the  only  reality  investing 
the  songs  with  the  significance  and  beauty  of  a 
higher  plane. 

5«tU^  ^'^v\^.  5^7.5?  ^1^  ^i^?i,  ^^^^  ^^f=^  c^rfr«  I 

Q-^-^V^  ^^^^.  ^^%  ^11  «f^.  \\^\  ^f^l  "iwft^  C"fiC^  II 

«i^^  ^1^  ^c*!.  f^«i^  f^^«?  ^c^.  "^^tl^^  "flt^  "si^Tt^^  n" 
Padas  No.  308-9  Chapter  X,  Padakalpataru. 


IV.  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  543 


The  love  literature  of  the  Vaisnavas  is  a  unique 
treasure.  It  displays  the  nicest  classification  of 
emotions  and  all  conceivable  forms  of  tender 
feelings.  The  Purvaraga  or  the  dawn  of  love  is 
divided  into  subheads  such  as — '^12^^,  ^^fe^, 
ftu^^v?*f^,     ^t^^U^^*f^,    t^'^U   etc.       Then    comes 

C^T^fT  and  many  more.  In  Bhaktiratnakara  we  have 
360  different  kinds  of  the  finer  emotions  of  a  lover's 
heart  minutely  classified.  Each  of  these  groups 
has  hundreds  of  songs  attached  to  it  by  way  of 
illustration  and  has,  besides,  the  usual  prologues  or 
Goura  Chandrika  which  the  poets  have  called 
^^^T^c^tf^^  or  lending  permanent  interest  to  the 
songs,  suggesting  spiritual  associations. 

It  is  a  curious  literature.  It  deals  with  human 
passions  mainly  of  the  most  platonic  sort  and  has 
always  a  door  open  heavenwards.  While  perusing 
the  accounts  of  love  between  man  and  woman 
in  all  its  varied  forms,  the  reader  will  every  now 
and  then  find  himself  breathing  a  higher  atmos- 
phere ;  it  is  as  though  he  comes  to  the  junction  of 
a  river] 'with  the  sea; — looking  back,  he  sees  a 
stream  that  comes  through  delightful  landscapes, 
through  groves  and  bowers  that  resound  with 
human  voices, — but  looking  forward  he  finds  the 
endless  sea  that  cuts  off  at  the  coast  all  connection 
with  the  human  world  and  stretches  on  beneath 
the  foaming  waves  till  it  loses  itself  in  heaven. 

There  is  yet  another  account  of  Krisna's  life 
which    the  Vaisfiava  poets  have  taken'pains  to  des- 


Classifica- 
tion of 
emotions. 


The  human 
interest 
and  the 

underlying 

spiritual 

lity. 


544      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap* 

cribe  ;  it  is  the  scene  of  Prabhasa.  Krisfia  who  was 

a    shepherd    boy    has  killed  Kamsa  and  is  now  the 

king  of  Mathura  ;    no  more    the  crown    of  peacock 

.»    T*?^  feathers  on  his  head,  but   a    diadem   sparklinor  with 

Prabhasa.  r  & 

the  richest  jewels, — no  more  the  rod  Pachanbari  in 
his  hand  to  drive  the  cattle,  but  tiie  sceptre  to  rule, — 
and  no  more  playing  the  flute  to  madden  poor  Radha 
but  playing  with  the  fate  of  millions  of  his  subjects. 
The  Vrindavana  scenes  are  forgotten.  He  has  found 
his  parents,  Vasudeva  and  Daivaki;  and  cares 
not  to  hear  that  Nanda  and  Ya9oda  have  grown 
blind  with  weeping  for  him.  The  shepherd  boys 
no  longer  tend  the  cattle  on  the  banks  of  the 
Jumna  as  in  Krisfia's  time — they  cannot  bear  the 
sight  of  the  Vrinda  groves.  Radha's  body  is  carried 
into  the  waters  of  the  Jumna  and  her  maids  know, 
that  in  a  few  moments  all  will  be  over  with  her. 
At  this  time,  the  Dhanuryayna  or  sacrifice  of  the 
bow  is  held  in  Mathura  in  the  field  of  Prabhasa 
by  Krisna.  All  the  world  is  invited  to  attend 
it,  but  he  does  not  invite  the  people  of  the 
Vrinda  groves.  Nanda  and  Ya^oda  hear  of  the 
sacrifice  and  so  do  the  shepherds.  Uninvited 
they  go,  for  they  cannot  bear  separation  from  him 
anv  longer.  The  gate-keepers  prevent  them  from 
having  an  interview  with  the  king.  Ya^oda  im- 
portunes them  at  every  gate  to  be  allowed  to  have 
a  sight  of  her  dear  Krisna,  but  the  gate-keepers 
take  her  to  b(^  a  mad  woman  and  will  not  allow  her 
to  pass  into  the  Royal  presence.  Struck  with  grief 
Ya(;oda  falls  to  the  ground  sighing  in  a  manner 
which  rends  the  heart  to  behold.  Suddenly  in  the 
great  hall  Krisna  with  the  Svruka — the  golden  sacri- 
iirial   eup — reciting   mantras    falters  in  his   sj)eech ; 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITEKATURE.  545 

suddenly  a  tear  starts  to  his  eyes  and  he  clasps 
his  brother  Valarama  to  his  breast  saying  "  O  tell 
me,  Brother,  where  is  my  unfortunate  mother,  where 
are  my  comrades  of  the  Vrinda  groves  and  where 
is  my  Radha?  Away  with  my  royal  robes  and 
kingdom  ; — where  are  the  scenes  of  our  boyhood — 
the  dear  Jumna  and  its  bowers  ?' '  The  whole 
scene  changes — from  the  grandeur  of  a  royal  palace 
to  the  groves  of    Vrinda- 

The  reason  why  he  did  not  invite  the  people 
of  Vrindavana  is  that  he  held  them  as  his  own, 
and  it  would  be  dishonouring  the  sacred  relation- 
ship to  send  the  formal  letter  of  invitation  due 
only  to  those  who  are  more  or  less  distant. 

Of  the  Pada  kartas  (lit.  masters  of  songs)  that  Qovinda 
followed  Vidyapati  and  Chandidas,  the  greatest  16  12  A.D. 
by  unanimous  consent  of  all  parties  is  GovindaDas. 
We  find  accounts  of  this  poet's  life  in  Bhaktiratna- 
kara,  Narottamavilasa,  Saravali,  Anuragavalli,  and 
Bhaktamala.  He  was  a  son  of  Chiranjiva  Sen,  an 
illustrious  companion  of  Chaitanya  Deva  and  was  a 
grandson,  on  his  mother's  side,  of  Damodara  who 
was  a  great  Sanskrit  poet  and  scholar  of  Cri- 
khanda  at  the  time.  Chiranjiva  left  his  village 
home  at  Kumaranagara  and  settled  at  Crikhanda 
where  he  had  married.  But  the  ^akta  element 
there  was  powerful  and  showed  open  hostility 
towards  the  Vaisnavas.  The  result  was  that 
Govinda  Das  had  to  leave  ^rikhanda  in  his  old 
age  and  settle  at  the  village  of  Telia  Vudhuri  on 
the  Pudma. 

Govinda  Das  belonged  to    the    Vaidya    or    the 
i     physician  caste.     His  elder  brother  Rama  Chandra 

69 


Brajabuli. 


546         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [Chap. 

Kaviraja  was  a  famous  scholar  and  a  friend  of 
Narottama  Thrikura.  It  is  said  that  Govinda  Das 
formerly  belonored  to  the  Cakta  sect,  but  having 
recovered  from  a  serious  attack  of  dysentery  at 
the  age  of  forty  through  the  help  of  a  devout  Vais- 
nava,  he  adopted  that  faith  and  became  a  disciple 
of  the  famous  Crinivasa  Acharyva. 

His  songs  on  Radha  and  Krisfia  are  held  in 
great  appreciation  by  the  people.  They  are  written 
in  that  sweet  mixed  dialect  which  is  called  the 
Brajabuli.  Bengali  by  eliminating  the  Prakrita 
elements,  and  adopting  the  more  rigid  forms  of 
Sanskrit  has  lost  some  of  its  natural  mellifluousness 
but  in  Brajabuli  we  find  a  preponderance  of 
Prakrita  words  together  with  a  sprinkling  of 
Maithili  which  contributes  greatlv  to  the  softness 
of  the  mixed  tongue.  Brajabuli  is  not  the  spoken 
dialect  of  any  province  ;  yet  it  is  not  at  all  an 
artificial  dialect.  The  choice  Prakrita  words  to  be 
found  in  old  Bengali  together  with  some  of  the 
soft-sounding  Maithil  words  are  combined  in  Braja- 
buli in  an  artistic  manner.  And  the  curious  medley 
has  been  made  singularly  sweet  and  pleasing  to 
the  ear  by  the  \'aishavas  in  the  padas.  And  Govinda- 
dss  particularly,  who  imitates  Vidyapati  in  his 
songs,  is  a  perfect  master  of  this  mixed  language. 
His  songs  which  are  only  next  to  those  of  Chandi- 
das  and  Vidyapati  in  poetic  merit  are  quite  un- 
matched for  their  sweetness  of  language  and  show 
a  wealth  of  rhythmical  expnvssion  which  brings  him 
into  the  first  ratik  of  earlv  Bengali  poets. 
His  padas.  In    lh<"    l>st    Ncars    of     his   life  we  find  the  poet 

o((  upied  in  making  a  collection  of  his  songs  at 
N'mlhuri. 


J 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  547 

^^'In  close  retirement  he  was  occupied  in  making 
a  compilation  of  his  precious  songs  with  a  glad- 
some  heart." 

Govinda  Das's  pad  as  were  sung  during  his 
life- time  by  Gokuladas  and  Cridas,  two  brothers 
— inhabitants  of  Kancha  Gadiya,  who  enjoyed  a 
great  reputation  in  the ;  Vaisnava  community  as 
singers;  and  it  is  related  in  Narottama-vilasa  that 
\'ira  Bhadra  Gosvami  and  Jiva  Gosvami,  two  great 
apostles  of  the  A^aishava  faith,  delighted  in  his  songs 
and  being  full  of  admiration  for  the  poet 
embraced  him  as  a  mark  of  their  satisfaction 
when  h\s  padas  w^ere  sung  before  them  by  the  two 
Shifted  brothers. 

Besides  his  Bengali  padas,  Govindaas  wrote 
two  Sanskrit  works  of  great  poetic  beauty  viz., 
Sangita    Madhava  and  Karnamrita. 

Govinda  Das  was  born  at  ^rikhanda  in  1537 
A.D.  and  died  at  Telia  Vudhuri  in  161 2  A.D. 

I  give  below  two  padas  by  Govinda  Das. 
Radha  feels  that  she  cannot  bear  life  forsaken 
by  Krisna.      She  says  : — 

t  "  Let  my  body  after  death  be  reduced  to  the 
earth    of  those  paths  which  will  be   touched  by  the 

^i:^^  4<F^  ^tfi  ^itf^^  ^^  11" 

Bhaktiratnakara,  Chap.  XIV. 

t    ''  \\\\  \\-^\   ^^«1  ^?^«1  ^f^  m^S   ! 

""im  ^t^i  ^<i%  ^?^  ^^  ^T«  II 


548      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE,       [  Chaji. 

beautiful  feet  of  Krisfia.  Let  it  be  melted  into 
the  water  of  the  tank  where  Krisfia  bathes.  When 
I  shall  have  expired,  let  my  spirit  live  as  the 
lustre  of  the  mirror  in  which  Krisfia  sees  his  face. 
O,  let  it  be  turned  into  a  j^entle  breeze  for  the  fan 
with  which  he  cools  himself.  Wherever  Krisfia 
moves  like  a  new-born  cloud,  may  I  become  the 
sky  behind,  to  form  the  back-ground  of  his  beauti- 
ful form." 

■^  "  He  for  whose  sake  the  reproofs  of  the  elders 
and  the  slanderous  tongues  of  the  wicked  were 
nothing  to  me  ; — he  for  whom  I  loved  all  the  ills  of 
life  as  if  they  were  good  fortune, — and  for  whom  I 
broke  my  sacred  maidenhood,  foregoing  the  law 
observed  by  wedded  wives, — strange,  passing 
strange  it  is,  that  he  wants  to  forsake  me  ! 
How  hard  is  this  to  believe  !  He  who  would  leave 
his  palace  of  pearls  in  expectation  of  meeting  me 
and  pass  the  whole  night  on  thorny  briers  looking 
wistfully  towards  mv  path  and  he  for  whom  timid 
damsel    that  1  am,    I    would  walk  on  dark  nights  so 


^^  ^5f  ^ift  C^tl  ^%  ^t«  II 

^f^i  ^^^fi^t  ^^^^  Hm  I 

^^fsR  ^^^  ^f^  ^-t^Ti   ^<i  «!  I 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LLIERATURE.  549 

lost  in  love  that  if  a  venomous  snake  had  coiled 
round  my  feet,  I  should  have  considered  it  as  nupiira 
to  adorn  them, — says  Govinda  Das,  it  is  not 
possible  for  him  to  forget  this  great  love." 

Next  to  Govinda  Das  we   may  name  Jfiana  Das     jfiana  Das 

and    Valarama  Das.       Jnana    Das     was     born     at      ^_"^  ^^L^= 

rama  Das. 

Kandra,  in  the  district  of  Birbhum  and  Valarama 
Das  belonged  to  the  Vaidya  caste  and  was  an  inhabi- 
tant of  Crikhanda.  His  father  was  one  Atmarama 
Das.  Both  Jnana  Das  and  Valarama  Das  imitated 
the  style  of  Chandidas  in  their  songs  as  Govinda- 
das  did  that  of  Vidyapati  and  the  two  poets  were 
contemporary  with  (jovinda  Das.  One  of  the 
most  important  festivals  of  the  Vaisnavas  that  was 
ever  held  in  Bengal  was  the  Mahotsava  ceremony 
of  ^rikheturi.  Narottama  Das  who  had  renounced 
the  world  and  embraced  the  vow  of  Sanyasin  was  the 
heir  to  the  ^adi  of  Kheturi,  the  deceased  Raja, 
Krisna  Chandra  Datta  being  his  father.  As  however 
he  did  not  accept  the  Raj,  but  made  a  gift  of  it 
to  his  cousin  Santosa  Datta,  the  latter  out  of  orra- 
titude  and  admiration  for  the  Vaisnava  worthy 
called  in  all  members  of  the  Vaisnava  community 
to  ^rikheturi  at  a  Mahotsava  ceremony  held  by  TheMahat= 
him  with  great  eclat  in  1504  A.D.  The  ceremony  kiseturi 
was    a    orraiid    success    and    was  in  fact  an   historic       1504  A.D. 


cTi  '^^^^^^  '^'^Wk  -^\m  ^ft^^  sjI^^  C^tf^  1 

^%^  f  1:^  ^TPf  f^f»f  ^W\  '^\  C^^H^  C^tft  II 

Padakalpataru,  second  chap.  1624th  Pada. 


550      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.      [  Chap. 

event  in  Vaisfiava  society  having  been  graphically 
described  by  many  writers,  chiefly  by  Narahari 
Chakravarti  who  in  his  Narottania  \'ilasa  gives  an 
elaborate  list  of  tlie  important  members  of  the 
Vaisnava  community  who  attended  it.  Govinda- 
das,  Jfiana  Das,  Valarama  Das  were  all  there  and 
Vrindavana  Das,  the  famous  author  of  Chaitanya 
Bhagavata,  was  at  the  time  a  hoary-headed  old 
man,  described  as  'venerable  and  learned'  who 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  affairs  of  the  cere- 
mony. We  also  find  Vasanta  Roy  there — the 
clever  poet  who  revised  Vidyapati's  poems  and 
changed  his  Alaithili  to  elegant  Brajabuli  in  which 
we  find  his  poems  in  the  Bengali  collections  of 
the  present  day.  The  Mahotsava  ceremony  at 
Crikheturi  is  indeed  a  landmark  in  the  history  of 
the  Vaisfiavas  and  a  sort  of  light-house  discovering 
to  our  view  a  w^hole  panorama  of  scenes  in  which 
the  illustrious  Vaishavas  of  the  early  i6th  century, 
whose  names  are  so  familiar  to  us  by  their  writings, 
played  an  important  part.  Besides,  the  history  of 
social  manners  and  customs  and  ways  of  life  of 
the  Vaishavas  of  that  period  have  been  faithfully 
recorded   in  the  accounts  of  this  festival. 

About  the    other    Padakartas    we  jot  down  the 
following  notes  : — 
Jaduiian-  jadunandana  Das,  born  in    1537  A.D.    He  \\rote 

ari  historical  work  called  Karnananda  in  i()0]  at  the 
command  of  (Jrlmati  Hemalata,  daughter  of 
Crinivas  Acharyya.  Me  was  70  years  old  when 
he  wrote  the  above  work,  jaelunandann,  besides, 
larnslated  (io\  indalilamrita  by  Kiisha  Das  Kaviraj 
and  X'idagdha  Madhaba,  a  drama  by  Rupa  GosvSmi 
from  Sanskrit  into  iK-ngali  metrical  verse. 


da  11  a  Das 
born  15  37 


f 


to 


'V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LllERAlURE.  55I 


Jadunan> 

dana  Chak- 

ravarti. 


Prema  Das 


Qouri  Das. 


Jadunandana  Chakravarti  wrote,  Radha  Krisfia 
Lilakadamva,  a  Bengali  poem  containing  6000 
couplets.     He  was  a  disciple  of  Gadadhara  Das. 

Prema  Das,  (the  Vaisnava  name  adopted  by  Puru- 
sottama  Siddhanta  Vagina)  was  born  in  Kulia  in 
Navadwipa.  He  wrote  the  X'amgi  (Jiksa,  already 
noticed  on  page  513,  in  1712  A.D.  and  translated 
Chaitanya  Chandrodaya,  a  Sanskrit  drama  by 
Kavikar^apura  into  Bengali  verse. 

Gouri  Das,  a  highly  respected  personage  of  the 
Vaisnava  community  and  a  contemporary  of  Chai- 
tanya Deva.  It  is  said  that  the  latter  presented 
Gouri  Das  with  a  Gita  copied  by  himself  and  also 
an  oar  with  which  he  rowed  his  small  pleasure- 
boat  on  the  Ganges.  Gouri  made  an  image  of 
Chaitanya  Deva  in  Nimba  wood  when  the  latter 
was  on  the  eve  of  takino^  Sanvasin's  vows.  This 
historic  image  is  still  worshipped  at  Ambikanagara 
in   Kalna. 

Narahari  Sarkara  (1487-1540)  of  Crikhanda — a  Narahari 
friend  and  follower  of  Chaitanya  Deva.  Chaitanya 
Deva  is  said  to  have  exclaimed  when  in  a  trance 
in  a  village  of  southern  India  "  O  Narahari,  dear 
as  my  life,  where  art  thou  now  ?  Recite  Krisna's 
name  once  more  and  I  will  embrace  thee."  "^ 
Narahari  belonged  to  the  Vaidya  caste.  His  father's 
name  was  Narayana.  He  wrote  many  padas  in 
praise  of  Chaitanya. 


1487  = 
1540  A.D. 


^fii  ^Tti  ^f^  c^fii  ^r^5f5{  ^ft  If 

Govinda  Das's  Kadcha 


552         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

Vasu  \'asu    Ramananda — a    grandson    of    Alaladhara 

nafufa'.        \'asu  who  translated  the    Bhagavata    into    Bengali. 

Ramananda  was  a  contemporary  of  Chaitanya  Deva. 

Raya  Ramananda — the  illustrious  Prime   Minis- 

Raya  tcr  of  King    Prataprudra  of   Orissa    and    author    of 

nairda.        the  Sanskrit    drama,    Jagannatha    Vallabha    which 

Chaitanya   delighted   to    read.       Ramananda   Ray 

was  a  great  friend  and  follower  of  Chaitanya.      He 

has  left  some  Bengali  padas    of    singular    beauty  ; 

the     following    one    finds    a    place     in    Chaitanya 

Charitamrita    and    has    a    deep    spiritual    meaning 

which  must  be  explained  in  the  light    of    X'aisfiava 

philosophy. 

^  I.  "At  first  love  dawned  (on  my  heart)  by  a 
glance  of  his  eye. 

2.  It  went  on  growing  and  knew  no  stop. 

3.  When  Cupid  entered  our  souls,  forgetful 
we  became  that  he  was  a  man  and  I  a  woman. 

4.  O  maidens,  ask  him.  how  could  he  have 
forgot  all  this  story  now  ! 

5.  Nor  had  we,  in  this  love,  waited  for  a  secret 
agent  or  any  third  partv.  In  this  union  Cupid  was 
our  guide."  The  idea  contained  in  the  3rd  stanza  is 
mystic. 


"  ^Mf^  ^t^  ^R'l^  ^C^f  C^^  I 
^tS'  ^\TA  ^^'J  f%^?^  ^Tf>  II 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         553 

Raina  Ray  died  in  1584  A.D. 

Narahari  Chakravarti — author  of  Narottamavilasa  Narahari 
and  Bhaktiratnakara — the  celebrated  biographical  Chakra- 
and  historical  works  already  mentioned,  wrote  a  large 
number  of  padas  under  the  name  of  Ghana  Cyama 
Das.  Ihere  is  also  another  Ghana  Cyama — a 
padakarta,  son  of  Divya  Sinha  and  grandson  of 
Govindadas,  the  illustrious   poet. 

Rama  GopalaDas — the  author  of  Rasakalpavalli         Rama 
(written  in  1643  A.D.)  wrote    many   padas    of    ex-  ^^ 

quisite  beauty  and  his  son    Pitamvara  Das  author  of     Pitamvara 
Rasamunjari  contributed  a  good    number    of  padas  ^^' 

to  Vaisnava  collections. 

Jagadananda,    a    Vaidya    by    caste.      He  was  a 
descendant  of  Mukunda,  one  of  the  contemporaries 
of  Chaitanya.     They    were    originally    residents  of 
^rikhanda,  but  afterwards  settled  at  the    village    of         namlaV 
Yophalai  in  the  district  of  Burdwan.     Jagadananda 
cared  only  for  sweet  words  in  his  padas.     We    have 
come  across  some  of  the  drafts  of  his    composition 
in  his  own  handwriting  which  show  that  he  was  far 
from    being    a    born    poet ;    he  acquired  the  power 
of  writing  poetry  by   mastering  the    vocabulary    of 
sweet    sounding    words,    as  a    school-boy    acquires 
a  knowledge  of  Geography   by    noting    the    places 
in  his  memory.     One  of  the    draft    shows    that    he 
made    himself    busy  to    find    out  the  synonyms  of 
words  to  be  used  in  his  songs.     On  the  other   page 
of    the   said    draft    he  scribbled  doggerels  with  the 
words  on  his  list;  he  cared  for  nothing  else  than  to 
create  a  pleasant  jingle  with  them.       He    writes    a 
line    and     then   cuts    it    through    and    repeats  the 
process     several     times,    all     the     while     evidently 

70 


554      BENGALI    LANGAUGE    &    IJIERATURE.       [  Chap. 

turning  over  the  other  page  with  the  object  of  draw- 
ing upon  the  vocabulary  which  seems  to  be  the 
only  source  of  his  inspiration  ;  thus  correcting 
words  continually  with  the  help  derived  from  it, 
he  lights  upon  highly  ornate  expressions  and  com- 
poses a  couplet  in  which  rhythm  is  done  to  a 
fault;  such  couph^ts  we  Hnd  in  the  Padakalpataru 
and  we  cannot  help  enjoying  the  humour  of  the 
herculian  efforts  put  forth  to  give  them  the  shape 
in  which  they  are  finally  presented  to  us.  They 
hardly  convey  any  sense  through  the  jingle  of  words 
which  it  was  the  primary  object  of  the  poet  to  create. 
Jagadananda  died  in  1704  at  Yophalai  where  a  mela 
is  held  every  year  to  commemorate  his  death.  A 
collection  of  his  padas  with  a  leari^ed  preface  was 
published  not  long  ago  by  the  late  Babu  Kali  Das 
Xath  of  Calcutta. 

Vam^l  \'arii(,^I  \'adana,  son  of  Chhakadi  Cliattopadhyaya. 

v^ «  Hint 

Warhol  X'adan  was  born  in  the  village  of  Patuli 
in  1498  A.D. 

Rama  Rama  Chandra — a  grandson    of  \'arh(;I  \'adana. 

lie  settled  at  the  village  of  Radhanagara.  He  mig- 
rated from  Patuli  to  Radhanagara  on  the  Pudma. 
l5orn  in  1534  A.l).  died  in   15S4  A.D. 

t^achl  Cachi     Nandana — brother     of    Rama     Chandra. 

Nandana.       t^      •  , 

Besides /)^7rArv  he  wrote  a  poem  cnlled  the  Ciouranga 

Vijava. 

Parame^-  Parame(^\ari  Das.      We  find  a    nuMition    ol    this 

N  an"    I)  js.        1  >     1    I        -  •  1      1        -v  T    1     < 

ladaKarta    m  (H)nneition  with  the  Maiiotsava   cere- 

iiK^nv  at   Kh(>luri  w  hirh  \\v  atlendcd  in   15(^4  A.D. 

Jadunatha  j.idunatha  Aclulryya — son  of  Ratnagarva  Acaryya 

Acharyya.     ^    f,.;,.,,^}    .^^^^j    f^^n^^^.^^i-   ^f  Chailanva    Deva.       The 


St.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         555 


family  which  orig-inally  resided  at   Sylhet    migrated 
to  Navadvipa  during  Chaitanya  Deva's  life-time. 

PrasadaDas — a  native  of  \'ishupur  in  the  district 
of  Bankura.      He  had  the  title  of  Kavipati. 

Uddhava  Das — a  friend  of  Vaishava  Das  who 
compiled  the  celebrated  Padakalpataru — an  in- 
habitant of  Tena  Vaidyapura. 

Kadha  Vallabha  Das, — son  of  Sudhakar  Mandal 
of  Kanchagadia  and  the  compiler  of  a  Bengali  tran- 
slation of  Vila  pa  Kusumanjali  by  Raghu  Nath 
Goswami. 

Ray  ^ekhara  or  Ca^i  Cekhara — an  inhabitant 
of  the  village  of  Parana  in  the  district  of  Burdwan. 
He  lived  early  in  the  i8th  century. 

Paramananda  Sen — a  great  Sanskrit  poet  who 
also  wrote  padas  in  Bengali.  He  was  born  in  1524. 
He  is  more  commonly  known  by  his  title  Kavi- 
karnapura.  He  wrote  his  celebrated  Chaitanya 
Chandrodaya  Nataka  in  1572  A.D 

Vasudeva  Ghosa,  Madhava  Ghose  and  Govinda- 
nanda  Ghose,  three  brothers  and  contemporaries  of 
Chaitanya  Deva.  All  of  them  composed  padas  in 
Bengali.  They  were  originally  inhabitants  of 
Kumarhatta,  but  finally  settled  at  Navadvipa.  They 
belonged  to  the  Kayastha  caste.  Vasu  Ghosa's 
padas  in  praise  of  Chaitanya  are  the  best  of  their 
kind  and  they  generally  form  the  Gour  Chandrika 
or  prelude  to  the|Songs  of  Radha  and  Krisna  in  all 
collection  of  \ 3\sh3.y3. padas .  The  present  Maharaja 
of  Dinajpur  is  descended  from  Vasu  Ghosa  through 
one  of  his  daughters. 


Prasada 
Das. 


Uddhava 
Das. 


Radha 

Vallabha 

Das. 


Ray 
^ekhara. 


Parama- 
nanda Sen. 


Vasudeva 
Ghosa. 


556        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

Champati  Champati  Rav — a  famous  Padakarta.     We    find 

Ray. 

the    following   line  about  hiin  in  the  Sanskrit  notes 

affixed  to  the  Padamrita  Samudra  by  Radha  mohan 
Thakura. 

■^"  There  lived  in  Southern  India  a  great  follower 
of  Chaitanya  by  the  name  of  Champati.  He  is  this 
famous  Padakarta." 

Daivaki-  Daivakinandaiia,  a  contemporary    of    Chaitanva 

nandana.  r  \r   ■  a  -       i 

Deva  and  author  oi   vaishava  Nandana. 

Narasinha  Narasinha    Deva — Raja    of    Pakva    Palli  whose 

Deva.  efforts  to  vanquish  Narotlama  Thakur   in  a    contro- 

versial discussion  culminated  in  complete  failure 
and  his  own  acceptance  of  the  creed  of  the  \'aisha- 
vas.    The  Raja  wrote  several  padas  oi  great  beauty. 

Vira  Ham-  Raja  Vir  Hamvira  of  Visnupur  to    whom    a    re- 

vira. 

ference    has    already   been    made,    composed  many 

padas  some  of  which  we  find  in  the  Bhaktiratnakara 
by  Narahari  Chakravarti. 

Madhavi.  Aladhavi— a  sister  of  ^ikhi    Mahiti    and    a    con- 

temporary of  Chaitanya  wrote/>^<'A75- under  the  name 
of  IMadhavi  Das.     She  was  renowned  for  her    piety 

and  purity  of  life. 

This  is.  briefly,  an  account  of  onlv  a  few  of  the 
great  masters  of  songs  who  followed  Chaitanya  Deva. 
A  brie'f  notice  of  some  more  Padakartas  is  to  be 
found  in  mv  Bengali  work  '  \^angabha?a  O  Sahitya,' 
in  the  Bengali  h^ncvclopanlia — the  \'i(,n'a  Kosa  and 
in    the    collection    of    songs  in   praise    of  Chaitanya 

Piidamrita  Samudra. 


[  V.  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE. 


557 


Deva  edited  by  th'e  late  Babu  Jagatbandhu  Bhadra 
and  published  by  the  Vangiya  Sahitya  Parisat, 
Calcutta.  I  give  below  a  list  of  the  Padakartas 
whose  padas  I  have  been  able  to  collect  up  to  the 
present  with  the  number  ol  padas  they  composed. 


NAME. 

NUMBER 

NAME.                                         NUMBER 

OF  PADAS.                                                           OF 

^"°^"  A  list  of  the 

Ananta  Das 
Akvar  ali 

47 

I 

Ananta  Acharyya 
Atmarama  Das 

2            Pada- 
kartas. 
9 

Ananda  Das 

3 

Bhupati  Nath 

7 

Bhuvana  Das 

2 

Chandi  Das 

960 

Chandra  Cekhara 

3 

Champati  Thakur 

13 

Chudamani  Das 

I 

Chaitanya  Das 

15 

^ankara  Das 

4 

^achinandana  Das 

3 

Ca^i  ^ekhara 

3 

^yama  Chanda  Das 

I 

Cyama  Das 

3 

^yamananda 

7 

^iva  Ray 

I 

^ivaram  Das 

25 

^ivananda 

4 

^iva  Sahachari 

I 

(Jivai  Das 

7 

^rinivasa 

3 

^rinivasacharyya 

2 

^ekhera  Ray 

.76 

Dalapati 

I 

Dina  Ghose 

I 

Dinahina  Das 

3 

Dukhi  Krisna  Das 

4 

Dukhlni 

2 

Daivakinandana  Da^ 

>      4 

Dharama  Das 

3 

Gatigovinda 

I 

Gadadhara 

3 

Giridhara 

I 

Gupta  Das 

I 

Gokulananda 

I 

Gokula  Das 

I 

Gopala  Das 

6 

Gopala  Bhatta 

2 

Gopikanta 

I 

Gopiramana 

I 

Govardhana  Das 

17 

Govinda  Das 

458 

Govinda  Ghosa 

12 

Gourmohona 

2 

Goura  Dgs 

2 

Gour  Sundara 

3 

Gouri  Das 

2 

Ghanarama  Das 

14 

Ghana  ^yama  Das 

35 

Hari  Dgs 

7 

Hari  Vallabha 

4 

558        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 


NUMBER 
OF   PADAS. 


NUMBER 
OF   PADAS. 


Hart^krisna  Das  2 

Jagadananda  Da-^  5 

Jagamohona  Das  2 

Jnana  Das  194 

Kavira  i 

Kamarali  i 

Kanu  Das  14 

Kalikigore  179 

Krisna  Das  22 

Krisna  Prasad  5 

Lochana  Das  30 

Madliii  vSudana  5 

Manobara  Das  6 

Madhava  Das  65 

Madliavi  Das  17 

Murari  (nipta  5 

Mohona  Das  27 

Natavara  i 

Xanda  (Dvija)  i 

Narasinha  Das  i 

Narottama  Das  61 

Nava  Chandra  Das  2 

Nasir  Mamud  i 

Xrisinlia  Dcna  4 

Paramaiiaiida  Das  12 

Phakir  Ha\  ir  i 

Ragliii  Xatlia  j^ 

Kasaniayi  Da  si  i 

Rama  Rant  a  i 

Kama  Das  2 

Kama  Rav  i 
Raja  Sinha   Bhupati      4 


Harerama  Das  2 

Jagannatha  Das  9 

Jaykrisha  Das  i 

Jnanahari  Das  2 

Kaviranjana  9 

Kanai  Das  4 

Rsmadeva  i 

Krisna  Kanta  Das  29 

Krisha  Pramoda  2 

Laksmi  Kanta  Das  i 

Mathura  Das  1 

Mahe^^a  \'asu  i 

Madliava  Ghosa  9 

Madliavacbaryya  5 

Madhu  3 

Murari  Das  i 

Mohani  Das  4 

Xandana  Das  i 

Xayanananda  Das  22 

Xarahari  Das  22 

Xava  Kanta  Das  i 

Xaranarayan  Bhupati     i 

Xripati  Sinha  i 

Paramevwara  Das  1 

Pilamvara  Das  o 

Phatana  i 

Knsamava  Das  2 

Kasika  l^as  3 

Kama  Chan  (.ha  Das  6 

Kami  2 

Kadha    Mohona  175 


v.] 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE. 


559 


NAME.                             .    NUMBER 

NAME. 

NUMBER 

OF 

PADAS . 

OF  PADAS 

Radha  Vallabha 

29 

Radha   Madhava 

I 

Rama  nan  da 

IS 

Ramananda  Das 

I 

Ramananda  Vasu 

9 

Rupanarayan 

3 

Sadananda 

I 

Salavega 

I 

Sinha  Bhupati 

7 

Sundara  Das 

2 

Suvala 

I 

Sekha  Jalal 

1 

SekhBhik 

I 

Sekh  Lai 

I 

Saiyad  Martuja 

I 

Tulasi  Das 

I 

Uddhava  Das 

no 

Vala  Deva 

I 

Valarama  Das 

131 

Valai  Das 

3 

Vallabha  Das 

26 

Varh^I  Vadana 

3^ 

\'asanta  Ray 

33 

Vasudeva  Ghosa 

134 

Mjayananda  Das 

I 

Vidyapati 

800 

Vindu  Das 

4 

Vipra  Das 

6 

\'ipra  Dasa  Ghosa 

161 

Vigvambhara  Das 

2 

Vira  Chandra  Kar 

I 

Vira  Narayana 

2 

Vira  Vallabha  Das 

I 

Vira  Ham  vira 

2 

Vaisnava  Das    . 

27 

Vrindavana  Das 

30 

Vrajananda 

I 

Yadunandana 

95 

Yadu  Natha  Das 

17 

Yadupati 

I 

Ya90raja  Khan 

I 

Yadavendra 

3 

Next  to  Vidyapati  and  Chandi  Das,  the  following 
pada-kartas  enjoy  precedence  for  their  poetical 
excellence  and  delineation  of  tender  emotions. 


1.  Govinda  Das. 

2.  Jfiana  Das. 

3.  Valarama  Das. 

4.  Ray  (pekhara. 

5.  Ghana  Qyama. 

6.  Rai  Vasanta. 

This  pada    literature    is    a  mine  of  poetry.     It 
breathes  freedom  from  the  rigid    style    of    the    old 


7.  Ananta  Das. 

8.  Yadu  Nandana  Das. 
g.  Varhgi  Vadana. 

10.  Vasu  Ghosa. 

11.  Narahari. 


560  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [Chap. 

The  padas      writers   who  were  always  aiming  at  classical  figures 

spirit  of       ^^    speech.       Here    we    Hnd    classical    figures  only 

freedom.       occasionally,    but    more    often    the    poets   hit  upon 

common-place    objects  and   translate  them  into  apt 

and  happy  similes.     The  style  of  the  best    amongst 

the  pad  a  kartas  is  free  from  all  slavish  imitation   of 

Sanskrit  models  and  is  full  of  appropriate    homely 

words   and    happy    turns  of  expression  taken  from 

common  life  which   discovers    the    innate    strength 

of    our    language.       By    adopting    the    Braja  Bull, 

the   pada    kartas    not   only    made  their  language  a 

fitter  vehicle  of  tender  thought,  but  gave  scope    for 

contributions    to    this    literature  by    poets    out-side 

The  advan-    Bengal.       Hence    it    is    that    we  find    the  songs  of 

adopting      Champatipati,    a    poet    of    southern   India    and    of 

Brajabuli.  Madhavi  and  Rama  Rai,  who  belonged  to  Orissa, 
collected  in  Bengali  compilation  of  songs.  These 
poets  found  it  easier  to  adopt  Brajabuli  than 
Bengali,  as  the  former  had  in  it  a  profuse  ad- 
niixture  of  Hindi  which  people  of  all  parts  of 
India  spoke  and  understood. 

In    an    earlier    chapter    of  our    history  we  have 

noticed  that  rustic   songs    such  as    Manik    Chandra 

Rajar  o-^;/  were  full  of  common  place  words    taken 

The  oada.     f''^""'  X\{i^.     The  writers  of  these  songs  could  not  use 

kartas  pre-    Sanskritic  expressions    simnlv    because   thev    were 
fer  Prakri-     .    .  *  .    '    - 

ta  forms.      illiterate  ;    but  the  pada  literature  of  the    Wiisfiavas 

abounds,  as  1  have  already  said,    in    loose    Prakrita 

forms — not    as    a    result    of  ignorance  of  Sanskrit, 

for   these    poets    wore  almost  all  Sanskrit  scholars, 

but    because    thev   had  a  liner  po.\er  of  perception 

as     compared    with    the    poets    of    the    Sanskritic 

school  and  knew  better  than  they,    that    the    poetic 

vision    must    i)p    supplied    from    life    and  not  from 


I 


'  V,  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGFi;    &    UTKRAIURE. 


5^^i 


The  fasti- 
dious 
Hindu 


classical  studies  alone.     They    drew    richly,    more- 
over,   from    the    living    fountain    of     love   that  was 

before  them — in  the  ecstasies  of  Chaitanva's  divine 
love. 

As  in  style  of  composition,  so  in  their  descrip- 
tions of  social  life,  the  same  spirit  of  freedom 
dominates.  In  the  poetic  literature  of  the  Hindus.  Socity  and 
the  fidelitv  of  woman  has  always  formed  the  loftiest 
theme  and  has  naturally  supplied  the  highest 
poetic  inspiration.  ButVaisnava  literature  glories 
in  Radha  who  breaks  the  sacred  ties  of  domestic 
life  and  walks  in  the  unrestrained  path  of  freedom 
from  all  social  bondage.  How  could  a  society  so 
rigidlv  fastidious  in  point  of  woman's  honour  ad- 
mire Radha  and  allow  her  such  an  elevated 
place  in  their  literature  ?  The  answer  is  a  very 
simple  one.  Radha,  as  has  been  already  said,  is  a 
religious  symbol — a  typification  of  the  free  wor- 
ship offered  by  the  human  soul  to  God.  In  Bengali 
songs  the  spiritual  significance  of  this  svmbol  has 
been  made  apparent  by  associations  with  Chaitanya 
Deva — Radha  having  been  represented  in  them 
as  the  verv  spirit  of  God-realisation  manifested 
hv  the  orreat  devotee. 


Besides,  viewed  in  a  spiritual  light,  domestic 
relationship  has  been  given  a  greatly  elevated 
place  in  the  literature  of  the  \^aisnavas.  In  the 
parent,  in  the  child,  in  the  friend  ai\d  in  all 
around  us,  it  is  the  same  benign  hand  that  the 
Vaisfiavas  mark,  offering  love  and  unsolicited 
service  to  us.  Domestic  ties  are  therefore  sacred 
to  them.  Their  literature  is  a  history  of  this  all- 
sacrificinof  disinterested  love. 


Domestic 
relation- 
ship given 
a  high 
place. 


71 


] 


562       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Cha' 

Nothing  Nothing    in    return    is    its    motto.       The  flowe 

in  return.       ,  ,   r  • 

that    defuses    its    sweet    scent  does  not    want    an 

return,    nor    do    the  vsys  of  the  sun  that  warm  yoi 
nor  the  air  which  you  breatlie — without    which  yo 
cannot    live   for   a    moment,  and  all  this  represent 
the    sort    of    love    which    a    real    lover  must    hav 
for  the  world.     Those  who  want  return  in  love  an 
consider    it  a  marketable    commodity  are  not  priv 
leged  to    have    access    into    the   pada  literature 
the  Vaisnavas.     W^hen   poor    Radha     was    dying- 
being  forsaken  by  Krisna,  she  tells  Vrinda  "  Say  n 
cruel    words    to   him.       His    face  beautiful    as    t1- 
moon    will    turn    pale,  if  you  use  rude  words.      M 
heart    breaks   at    the    thought    of  it."     Yet  no  or 
could    be    more    cruel    than   was  Krisha  to  Radlu' 
This  may  be  denominated  mere  sentimentalism  an 
be  unacceptable  to  the  materialistic  mind.      But  tl 
Vaisnavas  aspire  to  practising  an  absolutely  resigi 
ed    love    in    life,    which    has    unnumbered    woes 
poison    it    unless  we  S(^e   evrrvthing  in  the  spirit 
such  love. 

The  collec-  Qf    the    collections    of  p^ir/as   bv  the  X'aisnav: 

tion  of  . 

padas.         masters    the    most    bulkv    is    reported   to  be  Pad. 

samudra,  compiled  by  Manohara  Das  in  the  midd 

of  the  1 6th  century.     It  is   said    to    contain    i50( 

padas.     This  vast    collection    has  not    vet  seen  tl' 

Pada-  Jio-ht  and  the  onlv   manuscrint-copv  of  the     work 

Samudra.         •  -  , 

w  hiih    \vf  have  heard,  was  with  the  late  Haradhai 

llhiktiniilhi  of  X'adanganj  i  in  the  district  of  Hugh 

lie  used  t o  send  me  songs  copied  from  the  work  nc 

andth<n,  hut  since  his  death  T  hav(^  not  been  able 
Padamrita  ,,        .  ..     , 

Samudra.       trace   the    .Ms.       1  he       next    collection     l^adamrit 

Samudra     was    made"    bv   Radha  Mohona     I1i§ki. 

grandson    of     Crinivas    Acharvya    towards  the  e  1 


I 


'  i  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITEKATURE.  563 

the  1 6th  century.  .  The  learned  compiler  affixed 

ianskrit  annotations  to  the   Bengali   padas    in    his 

)]lection  thereby  showing  great  scholarship.     The 

inotations    are    named    as    the  Mahabhavanusari- 

ka.       There    are    many    smaller  collections    some 

'  which  enjoy  great  popularity,  such  as  Padakalpa- 

tika    bv  Goura  Mohaiia  Das,    Gita  Chintamani,  by       Smaller 
,         ,/,,,,         ^         ^,        ,1  .         XT       1      •    collections. 

Ian    Vallabha,    Gita    Chandrodaya     by     Narahari 

hakravarti,  Pada  Chintamanimala  by  Prasada  Das, 
.asamanjari  by  Pitamvara  Das,  Lila  Samudra, 
'adarnavasaravali,  Gita  Kalpalatika  and  other 
orks  by  unknown  compilers. 

But  we  have  not  yet  named  the  collection  which 
the  best  of  them  all,  and  deservedly  enjoyes  the 
reatest  popularity.  It  is  Padakalpataru  by  Vais-  ^^^taru*^^" 
iva  Das.  Vaishava  Das,  lit.  servant  of  the 
aishavas,  is  the  title  which  the  compiler  adopted 
1  token  of  humility.  His  name  was  Gakulananda 
en  and  he  was  a  Vaidya  by  caste.  He  was  an 
[habitant  of  Tena  Vaidyapura  in  the  district  of 
urdwan  and  he  compiled  his  work  early  in  the 
8th  century. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  recover  Padasamudra 
^hich  is  by  far  the  greatest  collection  of  the  Vais- 
ava  songs.  Of  the  rest  Padamritasamudra  by 
v5dlia  Mohon  Thakur  is  a  much  smaller  collection 
lan  Padakalpataru  ;  but  the  compiler  has  inserted 
1  it  more  than  400  padas  composed  by  himself 
hice  is  too  large  a  number  to  find  place  in  the 
ollection  if  we  consider  their  poetic  excellence, 
n  the  larger  collection  by  Vaisnava  Dgs  we  find 
nly  27  padas  of  his  own  and  these  he  was  bound  |^^  relative 
0    insert    as    preliminary   padas  in  honour  of  the         merit, 


564      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 


A  classic 
fication  of 

the  finer 
emotions. 


Vaisnava 

Das's 

account  of 

himself. 


"■real  Vaisnava  masters.  Pada  Chintamani  thouorli 
a  very  small  collection  is  a  singularly  fine  one 
containing  351  padas.  The  only  defect  of  this 
work  lies  in  the  anxiety  of  the  compiler  to  select 
padas  which  please  the  ear  in  preference  to  those 
which  appeal  to  the  heart. 

The  Padakalpataru  is  a  collection  of  3.101 
padas  and  is  divided  into  four  Cakhas  or  Chapters. 
The  hrst  chapter  contains  1 1  pallavas  or  sub- 
chapters. The  number  uf  padas  in  them  is  265. 
The  second  chapter  has  i\  pallavas  with  351  padas. 
The  third  has  31  pallavas  with  965  padas  and  the 
fourth  chapter  36 /'^7//^?^r7.v  and  witli  i^zo padas.  The 
classification  is  made  in  the  order  in  which  emo- 
tion:>  grow  and  develop  in  the  heart.  Hie  subtlety 
and  lineness  of  this  classification  will  interest  the 
student  of  Psychology.  Though  the  compiler  has 
followed  the  rules  of  rhetoric  in  the  classification 
of  the  songs,  the  >ongs  themselves  are  not  directed 
bv  rhetoric,  but  come  from  the  heart  of  the 
poets  direct  and  appeal  to  the  heart  of  the  readers. 

In  the  preliminary  account  given  by  Vaisnava 
iJas    in    his    Padakalpataru    we    find  the  following 

lines  : 

"-''  "  In  the  line  ol  Crinixas  Acharvya  was  born 
kadha  Mohana  1  hakur.  Who  can  describe  tlu*  noble 
(|ii;ilil  ics    tliat    he     |)o.ssisse(l.        He     was    a    second 


?f5t^  U^l\  OV\'^  C^M^^  Uv?\  I 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  565 

incarnation  of  Cirnivas  Acharyya  and  his  heart 
was  the  true  home  of  love  for  Chaitanya.  Radha 
Moiiana  Tliakur  compiled  a  collection  of  padas 
known  as  Padamritasamudra  (a  song-ocean  of 
nector).  I  used  to  sing  the.  padas  from  that  work 
and  was  greatly  interested  in  them.  I  travelled  in 
various  countries  and  collected  other  padas  includ- 
ing those  found  in  the  Padamritasamudra  in  m) 
work.  He  was  my  model  and  1  compiled  my  book 
after  his  work  and  named  it  Padakalpataru. " 


^ftl^  ^tm<j  cm^  ^t^l  ^r^  nt^  II 

C5|t  \^  m.  ^%^K^  t^l  S^r[  I 

^^  %-^  nsf^^  ^t^  1'^%  ^15  n" 

Pada  No.  3,031.  Padakalpataru. 


Supplementary  Notes 


lO 


CHAPTER  V. 


Chaitanya 

did  not 

orjcanise 

the  Vaisria= 

va  society. 


The  idea  of 
equality 

and 
t'reedom. 


The  Bud. 

dhist 

masses. 


Chaitanya  Deva  himself  was  not  the  organiser 
of  the  Vaisfiava  community  that  afterwards  sprang 
up  in  Bengal.  In  fact  it  was  not  his  mission  to 
make  codes  and  regulations  for  the  guidance 
of  a  small  community.  He  spoke  for  all  men, 
lived  for  all  men,  and  lost  in  tlie  love  of  God  as  he 
was,  he  was  not  at  all  actuated  by  any  desire  of  a 
secular  kind,  to  establish  a  community  and  claim 
the  glory  of  being  its  founder.  But  a  great  idea  — 
the  idea  of  equality  and  freedom — was  put  into  a 
stereotyped  and  orthodox  society.  The  Chandals 
and  the  l\^rias  felt  that  they  were  no  heriditary 
bondsmen  ; — tht^Cudras  felt  that  the  l^)rahmins  were 
not  the  only  souls  privilegt^l  to  interpret  the  truths 
of  religion.  Freeing  themselves  from  the  iron  grip 
of  Brahmanic  rule  and  the  trammels  of  monastic 
codes,  the  people  of  all  castes  gave  quick  response 
to  the  call  from  the  new  order  that  was  being 
formed.  In  the  Iniddhistic  age  fcdlen  \\omen  and 
men  who  had  lost  llu-ir  caste,  flocked  to  the  sanctuary 
of  the  vihanis  and  shavin":  their  heads  as  a  si^n  of 
penitence  became  monks  and  nuns.  On  the  re- 
vival of  Hinduism  the  j)ortals  of  society  were 
closed  against  this  class  of  people  and  they  had 
no  locus  shnidi  in  the  land  of   their  birth,  after    the 


V,  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE. 


567 


fall  of  the  Buddhistic  monasteries.     These  men  and 
women    heard    of    the  great  idea  of  universal  love 
preached  by    the    Vaishavas    who    had    raised    the 
flag   of    equality    for  all  men  and  thev  quickly  res- 
ponded to  the  call.     Chaitanya  Deva  lived   at    Puri 
for    the    last    18   years  of  his  life,  and  all  this  time 
he  dwelt  on  man's  relation  to  God  and  showed    the 
power    and    beauty    of    the  Divine    grace,    by  his 
own  life  and  example.     In  Khardah  and    Cantipur, 
however,  Nityananda   and  Advaitacharyya  initiated 
a    great    movement     for    organising   the    Vaishava 
community    on    a    new    basis.       The    place   is  still 
pointed     out    at    Khardah    where    1200    Nadas    or 
shaven  men  and  1300  Nadies  or    shaven    women — 
the  Buddhist  Bhiksus  and  Bhiksunies  came    to   the 
great  Vaisnava  apostle  Nityananda  and  surrendered 
themselves  to  him.     He    took    them    into    his    new 
order.     So  glad  were  these  people  at  being    admit- 
ted to  the  new    order,    that  they    have  since  held  a 
mela  at    Khardah  every  year  in  commemoration  of 
the    event.       Nityananda    is    justly    called    patita 
pavana  or  ''  a  friend    of   the    fallen  "    owing   to  his 
sympathetic  attitude  towards  the    out-castes.     The 
fallen  women  of  Hindu  society  also,  against  whom 
it  has  always  closed  its  gate  with  iron  bars,    found 
a   place     in    the     Vaisnava     communitv.       Widow 
marriage   is    allowed    amongst    the    lay  Vaisnavas, 
who  override  all    considerations    of    caste ;    in  fact 
it  is  forbidden    to    ask  a  Vaisnava  to  what  caste  he 
had  belonged  before  he  accepted  the  Vaisnava  faith. 
With  what    indignation    the    Hindu  society    looked 
upon  this  movement  maybe  seen  from  the  following 
slokas  in  Tantraratnakar.    Vatuka   Bhairava  asked 
Ganadeva  if  the  great  demon  Tripurasura  killed  by 


Nityanan= 

da  and 

Advaita. 


The 

Buddhist 

Bhiksus 

and 

Bhiksu^ 

nies. 


The  tota 
upsetting: 
of  the  old 

Society 


568      BKNGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap, 

^iva  was  alto^^ether  annihilated  or  still  lived  in   the 
form  of  a  spirit,  Ganadeva  answered. 

■^'"The  CTreat  demon  Tripurasura  being  killed  by 

Civa  reduced  himself  into  three  parts  in  great  rage. 

and    devised      many    plans     for    the    overthrow    of 

the  Caiva  religion,    and    for  misguiding  the  people 

!i  u"^^      and    taking    veno-ence   on    the    followers    of    Civa. 
and   his  &  j^  Y 

compa-         'fhe    first   part    appeared    in    the     womb    of  Cachi 
nions  as  in-  .  .    ^ 

carnations      Devi  and    came    into     thf^     world    as     Chaitanya  ; 

mon  Tri-  ^'"*^  second  part  was  incarnated  in  Xityananda 
purasura.  ^^.]-,q  weilded  a  great  po\\er  and  the  third 
as  Advaita.  Assuming  these  three  forms  this 
lord  of  the  demons  came  to  earth  in  the  Kali  ^'uga 
and  deluded  the  world  by  tt^aehing  effeminacy." — 
effeminacy  because  Chaitanva  Deva  did  not  re- 
cognise such  cruel  rites  in  religion  as  human  or 
animal  sacrifices,  but  taught  that  one  should  kno\\- 
his  sins  and  in  a  truly  penitent  spirit  approach  his 
(iod  with  tears  '  The  Vaisfiavas  abstained  from 
fish    and    meat  altoorether  anrl  front  all  intoxicatino- 


*    "  5f  ^i)^  ft^?:?1  l^^lt  f%^^2  »l5T^lf«t^1  I 

^^^1  ^^1^1  fi5n^2  »r#it^f'?f^^t^r!i2  1 
^n?{^-m  c^t^Hn  ^tfl^f^^iifsffv  11" 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    8l    LITERATURE.         569 

drugs  and  liquors  ;  they  were  thus  effeminate  in 
the  eyes  of  those  who  drank  wine,  took  gSnja,  ate 
all  kinds  of  meat  and  were  followers  of  kapaliks — 
those  dreadful  people  who  could  perpetrate  the 
most  heinous  crimes  without  a  blush. 

The  lav  Vaisnavas  as  a    retort   composed    slokas      An  incar- 
'         „,     .  ,,.  ,     ,    .         nation  of 

to  prove  that  Cliaitanya    was   Visnu    incarnated    m  Qod. 

the  flesh  and  interpolated  them  in  the  manuscripts  of 

the  Vamana  Purana,  the  Vayu  Purana,  the  Naradiya 

Purana,  the  Bhovisya  Purana,  the  Matsya  Purana,  the 

Visnu  Jamala,  the  Garuda  Purana,  the  Visnu  Purana, 

the  Kurma  Purana,  the   Devi    Purana,    the    Skanda 

Purana,  the  Valmiki    Purana,   the  Nrisinha   Purana, 

and    in    the  Mahabharata.     These  slokas  signify  in 

the  form  of  a  prophecy  that  God    will  be  incarnated 

in  Chaitanya  Deva  in  kali yuga. 

The  activity  with  which  the  Vaisnavas  proceed- 
ed with  their  task  of  reforming  society  was  re- 
markable. There  is  no  sphere  of  Bengali  life 
which  does  not  bear  the  stamp  of  their  influence. 
At  early  dawn  in  the  winter-months  every  village 
in  Bengal  resounds  with  the  kirtans  of  a  rlass  of 
Vaisnavas  called  the  Vairagies  who  visit  every 
house,  from  the  hut  of  the  rustic  to  the  palace 
of  the  Raja,  calling  upon  all  to  rise  from  their 
bed  and  offer  thanks  to  God,  as  another  day 
h:is  dawned.  Am  )ngst  tlie  Tipras,  a  hill-tribe 
living  in  the  hills  of  Tippera,  who  speak  broken 
Bengali,  I  found  in  circulation  such  learned  Vais- 
nava  works  as  the  Chaitanya  Charitamrita  and  the 
Chaitanya  Bhagavata.  Many  of  these  men  wear 
tilak  marks  like  the  Vaisnavas,  and  the  Manipurians 
are  all  zealous  followers  of  the  creed  of    Chaitanva 

72 


570      BENGALI    LANGAUGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

Deva.  The  people  of  Orissa  are  more  devoted 
followers  of  Chaitanya  Deva  than  even  the  Ben- 
galees. The  Vaisnavas  were  anxious  to  do  away 
with  the  pride  of  caste  altogether.  The  Pada- 
karias  and  other  avithors  amongst  the  Vaisnavas 
have  adopted  the  title  of  Das  or  servant  in  the  place 
of  their  family  surnames  as  a  mark  of  humility. 
This  word  Da^  in  the  orthodox  society  of  Bengal  is 
exclusively  used  bv  castes  inferior  to  tlie  Brahmins. 
The  title  But  in  the  Vaisnava  literature  all  orood  Brahmins, 
not  to  speak  of  the  inferior  castes,  drlight  in  calling 
themselves  'Das'  aiid  therebv  eliminate  the  titles 
indicating  their  familv  status;  this  has  often  made  it 
exceedingly  difficult  for  us  to  find  out  to  what  caste 
or  family  a  certain  author  amongst  the  V'asihavas 
belonged. 
Valsfiava  "^'^^    whole    of  the    old    Bengali    literature  sub- 

influence      sequent  to  Chaitanva  Deva  bears  the    mark    of  the 
in  the  ^    ^ 

Ramayaha.     influence  of  the  Vaisnavas.   The  original  Ramavana 

by  Krittivas  is  lost,  but  from  fragmentary  manus- 
cripts of  the  1 6th  ceiUury  that  have  come  to  hand, 
we  may  surmise  that  the  poet  conformed  to  the 
original  epic  of  Vglmiki  though  he  considerably 
abridged  it  ;  th«*  interpolating  hands  of  later  writers 
are,  however,  distinctly  traceable  in  the  subsequent 
manuscripts  and  in  the  modernised  version  of  the 
work  whicli  is  found  in  the  market.  In  this  book 
we  find  the  Rak.«asas  or  demons  metamorpho.'-ed 
into  saints  and  Waisnavas.  In  the  whole  ran^e  of 
our  literature  we  can  scarcelv  tind  a  more  curious 
matter  than  this  transformation  by  \'aisnava  poets 
of  the  Raksasas  of  the  Kamavana.  In  the  original 
epic  of  \*almiki  they  are  great  warriois,  —  lii^hting 
to     the    last    on     ihe   baitle-lield     with    unflinching 


v.]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITEkATURE.         571 

heroism.   But  in  the  modern  editions  of  Krittivasa's 
Ramayaha     we  frequently    meet    a  great  Raksasa 
on    the    battle    field     with    the    spirit    of  a  devout 
Vaisnava ;    he    sees    in     Rama    an    incarnation    of 
God,    and    when     such    a  feeling    dominates  in  his 
mind    the     battle    field     is     naturally    transformed 
into    a    pulpit    and    sermons    and    hymns    become 
the  order    of    the  day.     Viravahu  a    Raksasa,    son 
of  Ravana    has    come    to  fight    with   Rama  in    the 
battle  held.    Here  is  the  description  : — "^  "  From  the 
back    of    the    elephant    Viravahu  beholds     Rama. 
His    human    form   with      dark    blue    complexion — - 
the    colour   that   we    hiid  in  a  fresh  tuft  of  grass— = 
is  simply  a  mask  to  conceal  his  divinity.    His  locks 
hang    in    beautiful    curls    and  his  forehead  is  large. 
His  demeanour  is  quiet  and  he  is  kind  to  all.      The 
mnrks    of    ^^    flag),    ^'^    (thunder-bolt),     and    of 
^^«|     (hook) —indicative     of     divine     power — are 
distinct    in    his  person.     The  bow  in  his  hand  is  of 

FfM  f^f^  ?TC^fI  C^T^^  "^^m  I 

^n\^'^  m  c?f«i  <jm«i  ^^i^  . 
^ti:^^  ^^^  ^f«i  \^r;^  c?r^a  I 

n^  ^T-.  5  ^\fs{  ^l^  f^;^^  ;^f<j^  II 
^r^^C^  ^^  Vf<(l  ^T3(  ^^?[  1; 


572        BENGAL!    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.     [  Chap. 

wonderful  btructure,  and  in  all    parts    of    his   bod\ 

are  visible  the  marks  of  the  great  God  Vishu.      On 

seeing    these    signs    Viravahu    was    convinced  that 

Kama  was  Visfiu  liiinsell  ;    he   threw  away  t;ie    bow 

from    his  hand  and  coming  down  from  his  elephant 

prostrated  himself  with  closed  palms  before    Rama 

and    said    in    great    humility,    '  I  am  a  poor  being. 

Virabahu's     Q  Lord,    have  mercv   on  n,e.      All  prai>e  be  to  thee 
humility. 

O  Rama — the  refuge  of  the  world.     Thou  that    art 

uruthful  and  master  of  thy  passions^ — an  incarna- 
tion of  V'isnu,  to  thee  I  make  my  obeisance.  Thou 
art  the  first  principle  of  the  universe  and  in  thee 
rests  the  phenomenal  world.  The  Gods  of  the 
Trinity  form  a  part  of  thee.  I'he  \'eclas  Sama.  Rika, 
Yaju  and  Atharva  have  all  originated  from  thee, 
O  Lord.  It  is  not  in  mv  power  to  describe  th\ 
infinite  attributes." 

Tarani    Sen.    another    Raksa^a    warrior     comes 

Tarani    &  ■  i      i         -j    r  i  it-.-  in 

Ravana.        "^vith  the  tilafz  marks  and  Kama  s  name  stamped  all 

over   his    body    like  a  true    Vaisnava  :  and  even  tht 

great  RaN'ana  addressetl  Rama,  his  foe,  with   closed 

palms,"^  "  I  have  committed  endless  sins  ;  pardon  me, 

^^fs^  ^f©  ^f^  ft^  ■51<T'?H  II 

■«5%  ^f2;^1  ^*i  *^if^  ^1^  ft^^'  h" 

Kamayana  by  Kritliva.sa. 

^T^\\  ni^^  "^^  ^"v^n  ^It^  ^n  II 

l\ania\ana  b\    Kriltivasa. 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &.    LlTKKATUkE. 


573 


The   infi. 


O  Lord."      This  may  look  odd,  but  one  thing   ought 

to    be    borne    in    mind    in    order  to  understand  the 

situation.      Faith  in    the    incarnation    of    God    was 

the    dominant    idea    of    that    age  in  Bengal.     If  it 

were    po  «sible    for    us    to   realise  the    psychological 

condition  of    a  soul  who  fervently  believed  that    thr 

person    before    him    was    God    himself, — God   who 

created  the  universe — the  all    merciful    divinity    in 

human  flesh  before  him — what  else  could  he  do  than 

sing  his  praises  in  devout  worship    as    Viravahu    or 

Tarani    Sen    did.      In   Bengal    the  peoples'  mind  at 

the    time    was  full   of  the  God-man   Chaitanya  who 

had  passed  away    lilve    a    heavenly    vision.     Jagai, 

Madhai.      Bhilapantha.      and     Naroji.    great    moral 

wrecks  who  c:)ald  not  resist  the  sp^ll    of     his    faith 

and  became  converts  to  the    creed    of    love, — gave        dels  as 
1  11  1        I.    1  r     1  Raksasas 

shape    to    the    character    ot     the    Kaksasas    or   the      and  Rama 

Raiiayana  and  the  old  mythology  revived  by  a  new  ^tanya.*" 
touch  of  living  historv.  The  inHdels  hgured  as 
demons,  and  the  battle-field  was  transformed  into 
the  scene  of  their  reformation.  The  great  person- 
ality of  Chaitanva  with  his  overflowing  faith  in 
God  Hgured  as  the  incirnation  of  \'isnu  and 
modelled  the  Rama  of  old  Valmiki  in  a  new  shape. 
Thus  the  material  of  the  epic  was  curiously  recast  to 
form  a  new  page  of  history,  and  all  the  incongruities 
and  oddities  which  may  strike  us,  become  clear 
when  we  understand  why  the  Ramayaha  in  this  garb 
attracted  the  people  of  Bengal, — the  change  being 
form  a  battle-field  to  the  Sankritana  ground,  from 
animosity  to  love,  from  fiction  to  reality. 

In  the  songs  of  Uma  which  form  a  part  of  ^akta 
literature,    we    lind   one    poef^    describing    her    as 

*   Rama  Prasada  Sen. 


574        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

V'aisfiava      going  to  gostJia  or  the  meadows    to  tend  the    cows. 
influence       ',,,  .     .       '         .  •  ,        ,  •,  ,         ,        .       .     . 

in  ^akta        ^  '^^^  feature  is  evidently  attributed  to  her  in   imila- 

Ll^e  Vf'^^      ^^on    '^^    Krisna's     crostha  :    the    tender   sentiments 

of   Yayoda  are  not  unolteii   attributed    to    Menaka. 

mother  of  Uma  in  the  litt^rature  of  the  Caklas. 

We  hnd  the  ^iva  of  the  \'edas  transformed  into 
an  altogether  different  God  in  the  Furanas.  New 
features  were  added  to  his  character  which  belong- 
ed to  Buddha  and  thus  he  whs  represented  in  a 
light  which  satisfied  the  requirements  of  a  particular 
period  when  Buddhistic  idras  predominated.  This 
process  of  continually  remodelling  the  gods  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  dc-mands  of  paiticular  epochs  ot 
Indian  religious  history,  continues  up  to  the  present 
day,  and  it  is  this  genius  of  the  people  of  Bengal  for 
^i^iving  a  sliape  to  the  hoary  gods  of  the  Hindu- 
pantheon  suitable  to  the  tastes  of  the  times,  that 
keeps  up  a  perennial  flow  of  inspiration  derived 
from  the  particular  form  of  religion  that  may  be 
prevalent  at  the  lin)e.  ^i\a  himself  takes  on  the 
Vaisfiava  stamp  in  .^umc  ot  the  songs  composed 
in  his  honour  after  the  advent  ol  Chaitanya  Deva. 
We  quote  a  song  below  to  illustrate  this  : — 

^  "  Civa  losing  all  consciousness  b)'  taking  drugs, 
dances     in      the    company    of    ghosts.       His    horn 


^U  ?H  ^U  3T^  ^1^  ^^  ^Tf^C^  H 
=^1<C^  C«lf^C^  'i^^  ^^  • 

'C^^M^  ^l^^t^  *lf^^1  »lf^51  n%^  II 

An  old  song  of  Civa. 


V,   ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  575 

sweetly  sounds  the  name  of  Krisna.  ^  Dhustura 
flowers  adorn  his  ears;  and  his  eyes  have  a  mad 
look  from  taking  Dhustura  drug  ;  his  robe  of  tiger- 
skin   is  falling  off  from  him." 

This  dance  of  Civa  is  quite  distinct  from  the 
destructive  dance  of  the  Rudra  Deva  of  the  Vedas. 
The  dancing  described  in  this  song  reminds  us 
rather  of  the  dance  of  Chaitanya  Deva  in  his 
spiritual  ecstasy.  The  look  of  madness,  the 
repeating  of  Krisna's  name,  the  loose  robes, — the 
company  of  low-caste  people  who  joined  in  his 
processions,  as  represented  by  the  ghosts  of  Civa, 
all  significantly  point  to  the  Vai§nava  influence, 
without  which  this  dance  of  Civa  becomes  mean- 
ingless ;  it  is  a  dance  in  spiritual  ecstasy  and 
should  not  be  confounded  with  the  dance  of  the 
desl rover  of  the  universe  that  Civa  originally  was. 
^iva's  love  for  drugs  in  this  song  symbolises  the 
excess  of  emotion  verging  on  madness  which 
characterizes  the  Vaisnava  dance  in  a  Sankirtana 
party. 

Thus  we  see  that  Vaisnavism  influenced  the 
society  of  Bengal  in  all  its  different  sections  ; 
neither  (Jaktas  nor  Caivas  could  resist  that  influ- 
ence. The  prevailing  creeds  strengthened  them- 
selves by  assimilation  of  the  attractive  features  of 
their  more  successful  rival,  such  as  has  gone  on 
from  the  beginning  in  Hindu  society. 

Durinof  the  Pauranic  renaissance  Beno-ali  litera-     The  apolo- 

^  gy  of  the 

ture    had   not    yet  reached  the  stage  when  scholars     vernacular 

could      undertake  writing  in  that  language    without       ^" 
*  Datura  fastuosa. 


57'">       RKNGAIJ    f.ANGUAGR    8:    LITERATURF!.       [Chap, 

some  sort  of  apology.  The  activities  of  those 
who  translated  Sanskrit  works  into  Bengali  were 
employed  in  diverse  channels,  and  works  of  great 
literary  merit  and  scholarlv  patience  had  been 
already  produced  in  our  tongue  ;  but  in  the  vast 
literature  belonging  to  the  Pauranic  Renaissance 
we  scarcely  come  across  one  work  in  which  its 
author  does  not  refer  to  a  command  from  a  god 
to  undertake  a  work  in  Bengali — communicated 
to  him  in  a  dream, — as  if  the  stigma  of  such  a 
humble  undertaking  would  be  removed  by  attri- 
buting it  to  divine  inspiration.  The  authors  of 
Dharma  Mangala  specially  are  fond  of  describing 
such  dreams.  In  one  of  these  the  god  Dharma  is 
said  not  only  to  have  directed  its  author  to  under- 
take a  Bengd-li  poem  in  his  honour  but  to  have 
condescended  so  far  as  to  supply  him  with  the  ink. 
pen  and  paper  for  the  purpose.  The  authors  seem 
to  have  been  always  in  great  apprehension  of 
what  people  might  say  of  their  adoption  of  the 
popular  dialect  for  writing  books  ;  and  in  their 
dreams,  we  feel  this  throbbing  pulse  of  fear,  and 
an  anxiety  to  prove  to  their  honest,  god-fearing 
and  credulous  countrymen  that  they  had  only  acted 
undi-r  hrjivenlv  commaiuis.  which  thev  were  bound 
to  obey. 

Vaisfiav.i  literature  is  free  from  such  preten- 
sions. \o  writer  ami^ngst  I  he  X'ai'^navas  refers 
to  dreain-^.  Ilen^ali  langungf  was  no  f^dfois  to 
them.  Th«>  language  in  which  Chaitanya  spoke, — 
in    which    in    vei    earlier     times      Chandidas     had 

Bengali  —a     ^vritten,    wis    saered    ni    their  eves.      Some  of  the 
sacred  dia- 
lect to  the     X'alsfiava    uorks  in   Bengali  such   as  the  I^adamrita- 
Vaisfiavas.  '  ,         ^  ■    ■  '  x    ,  i     /^-i 

s.Linudra    bv     Crmixa';      Arh§rv\-a    and     Lhaitanva 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  577 

Charitamrita  by  Krisna  Das  Kaviraja  have  appended 
to  them  scholarly  Sanskrit  annotations,  and  Nara- 
hari  Chakravarti  in  his  Bhaktiratnakara  quotes 
Bengali  verses  from  the  works  of  the  preceding 
writers  as  authority.  Bengali  was  thus  raised  to 
the  same  literary  status  by  the  Vaisnavas  as  the 
Pali  language  was  by  the  Buddhists,  and  no  apology 
is  put  forward  by  renowned  Sanskrit  scholars  such 
as  Krisna  Das  Kaviraja,  and  Narahari  Chakravarti, 
for  adopting  Bengali  as  their  vehicle  in  conveying 
the  loftiest  thoughts  on  Vedanta  Philosophy  and 
other  serious  subjects. 

Bengal  was  during  this  period  the  scene  of 
animated  disputes  between  ^aktas  and  Vaishavas. 
The  Vaisnavas  would  not  name  the  Java  flower 
because  it  was  the  favourite  of  Kali,  the  goddess 
of  the  ^aktas.  They  called  it  od.  The  word  Kali, 
which  also  means  ink,  they  would  not  use  as  it  was 
the  name  of  the  goddess  ;  they  coined  the  word 
sahai  to  signify  ink.  The  Caktas,  on  the  other 
hand,  would  vilify  the  Vaisnavas  by  all  means 
that  lay  in  their  power.  Narottama  Vilas  has  a 
passage  describing  how  the  ^aktas  went  to  the 
Kali's  temple  and  prayed  that  she  might  kill  the 
followers  of  Chaitanya  Deva  that  very  night. 
When  the  great  Narottama  Das  died,  a  body  of 
^aktas  followed  his  bier  clapping  and  hissing  as  a 
sign  of  their  contempt  for  the  illustrious  dead. 
Here  is  a  satirical  poem  written  by  a  Cakta  poet 
about  the  followers  of  Chaitanya  Deva. 

■^^'  What  a  set  of  evil  doers  has  God  created  in 
these     fools    of    pretenders     who    call    themselves 

^  c^^^tw  itf n^^  ^^  c^5fN5i,  5f^  ^^t^  fsrr^  c^^i, 


The 
disputes 
between 

the  ^aktas 
and  the 

Vaisnavas. 


A  satire 
against  the 
Vaisnavas. 


73 


578      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap, 

the  followers  of  Chaitanya  !  They  say  *  O  tongue, 
take  the  name  of  Chaitanya  '  and  this  is  their 
prayer.  When  they  name  Nityananda  they  roll 
in  the  dust  to  signify  their  devotion.  In  the  name 
of  Chaitanya  they  call  upon  36  castes  to  dine 
in  the  same  place  ;  and  the  pariah,  the  washerman, 
the  oilman  and  the  kotal,  all  sit  down  cheerfully 
to  dinner  without  observing  any  distinction  of 
castes.  They  cannot  bear  to  see  a  Vela  leaf  or  a. 
jfava  flower,  the  every  sight  throws  them  into  hyste- 
rical fits.  If  they  hear  the  word  Kali  uttered  by 
any  one  they  shut  their  ears  with  their  hands. 
They  pay  one  rupee  and  four  annas  to  a  Vaisnava 
priest  and  marry  a  widow  w  ith  children  ;  and  in 
their  community  a  Mahomedan  enjoys  precedence 
in  regard  to  caste  being  regarded  as  kidin  !  Their 
prayer  is  '  Praise  be  to  Krisfia,  Crinivas,  Vidyapati 
and    Nitai    Das  '   and    they    all  have  the  conceit  of 

"^m  c^^  ^t^  ^^^1.  c^^  ^m  ^nt^s^i,  f^^tl  '^i^ 

^^T  ^^  ^^  1\5t^%  II 
Cn^^  ^^  ^T^^^  C^r^,  vil^ig  C«t^^  ^fe*f  C^V^ 

^t*^  C^t^^  C^f^l  ^^?:^,  ^^^  1^1=3  I 

^^^  ^gjTt^  ^,  c^^^^  ^^u^^  "51^^  t^, 

'^t^t?^  f  ^^  ^^  C^\^  II 


V^  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  579 

being  profound  scholars.  Some  of  them  very 
learnedly  agree  that  the  shrine  of  Vadarika  is  good 
for  nothing;  it  is  worth  a  kachu  {Arum  Colocasid)^ 

The  above  satire  levels  itself  at  three  points  of 
Vaisnavism  with  which  the  orthodox  community 
was  particularly  disgusted  ;  the  first  is  the  upsetting 
of  the  rules  of  caste,  the  second  is  remarriage  of 
widows  in  the  lower  ranks  of  the  Vaisfiavas  ;  the 
third  is  their  utter  disregard  for  gastric  ordinances, 
and  disownment  of  the  sanctity  of  shrines. 

The    Vaisnava    singers    took   the     country     by  xhe 

surprise  by  their  composition  of  the  Manoharsahi  ^h?tune 
tune.  For  pathetic  chant  of  tender  sentiments 
and  for  cadence  and  soul-stirring  effects,  the 
Manoharsahi  tune  is  without  its  rival  in  the  Indian 
musical  system.  As  in  their  ways  and  views  of 
life  the  Vaisnavas  broke  down  the  conventions  of 
ages  and  displayed  originality  and  freedom,  so 
in  thier  kirtana  songs  they  rejected  the  time- 
honoured  musical  tunes  and  modes  which  were  so 
greatly  favoured  by  the  leading  singers  of  fashion- 
able society,  and  introduced  a  new  tune — the 
Manoharsahi — full  of  strange  modulations,  which 
sounds  like  a  cry  from  the  depths  of  the  soul  and 
appeals  to  the  heart  by  its  tender  wail,  bringing 
tears  to  the  eyes  of  the  hearers  often  without 
words.  This  is  the  tune  adopted  in  the  Vaishava 
kirtanas  where  the  singers'  voice  set  at  naught  the 
hard  and  fast  rules  of  the  stereotyped  six  Ragas 
and  thirty  six  Raginies  of  Indian  music  and  flowed 

ym  ^^  ^^  f^^1  ft^JK^,  "^^^^  ft^i  f%it^ 

From  a  poem  by  Dagarathi. 


party. 


580      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

into  new  forms.     It  delights  the  ear  and    overflows 

The  the  heart    with  soft  emotions — like  the  tender  wail 

Kirtaniya  r    t  1     r  1  • 

and  his        or  the  soul  01  woman  uttered  m    song  and  expressed 

in  heavenly  pathos.  The  kirtaniya  or  head- 
singer  stands  in  the  midst  of  his  party  and  describes, 
for  instance,  the  Mathur  or  the  story  of  Krisna 
deserting  Vrindavana ;  his  voice  trembles  as  a 
creeper  trembles  in  the  bfeeze,  and  he  paints  in 
words  set  to  music  how  the  trees  of  the  Vrinda 
groves  looked  as  if  they  wept,  being  wet  with 
dews ;  how  being  unable  to  follow  Krisfia,  as 
their  roots  were  fixed  to  the  soil,  they  moved 
with  their  boughs  in  the  direction  of  Mathura  ;  how 
the  cows,  stood  dumb  as  if  they  were  painted  on 
the  air  with  tears  flowing  from  their  eyes,  and  did 
not  graze  ; — how  the  murmurs  of  the  Jumna 
sounded  like  a  deep  anthem  that  rent  the  heart. 
The  shepherd-god  left  for  ever  the  Winda  groves, 
reducing  it  to  a  scene  of  desolation  and  making 
his  loves  and  games  a  tragedy  of  the  deepest 
woe.  When  the  master-singer  sings,  the  musicians 
of  his  party  stop  playing,  and  other  singers 
wait  for  the  direction  of  their  leader  which 
is  often  intimated  by  a  wave  of  tlie  hand  ;  even 
the  sweet  violin  stops  when  the  master-singer 
alone  holds  the  audience  spell-bound  and  captivates 
thfir  souls  by  singing  the ///^/^/.v  of  the  old  masters. 
When  a  particular  stage  is  arrived  at  he  gives  a 
signal  and  his  partv  catches  the  last  line  of  the 
song  and  n-sumes  the  music.  Thus  the  master- 
singer  with  intervals  of  music  in  chorus  resumes 
tin-  thread  of  his  tale,  stage  by  stage,  and  brings  to 
(  oin[)K'tion  the  whole  episode  of  a  story  from  the 
HhSgavata. 


v.] 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE. 


581 


In  a  work  called  Chaitanya  Chandrodaya 
Kaumudi  written  by  Prema  Das  about  the  year 
1 7 15  A.D.,  it  is  related  that  king  Pratapa  Rudra  of 
Orissa  was  very  much  moved  by  the  kirtana  songs 
sung  by  the  sankirtana  party  of  Chaitanya  Deva. 
In  reply  to  a  question  put  by  that  monarch,  Gopi 
Nath  Acharyya  told  him  that  kirtana  songs  origin- 
ated with  Chaitanya  Deva. 

We  are  not,  however,  prepared  to  accept  this 
statement  as  true.  Long  before  Chaitanya  Deva, 
in  the  Court  of  King  Laksmaha  Sen,  some  favourite 
tunes  of  Bengali  kirtana  were  adopted  for  singing 
the  songs  of  the  poet  Jaya  Deva,  and  latterly  the 
songs  of  Chandi  Das  and  Vidyapati  began  to  be 
sung  in  some  of  the  best  modes  of  Manohara  Sahi 
kirtana.  These  poets  had  preceded  Chaitanya 
Deva  by  nearly  a  hundred  years. 

But  the  Bengali  kirtana  songs  and  some  of  the 
popular  tunes  in  which  they  are  sung,  were,  we 
believe,  of  an  yet  earlier  origin.  They  w  ere  started 
by  the  singers  of  the  glories  of  king  Mahipal  in  the 
loth  century  and  contributed  to  by  the  Buddhist 
Mahayanists  who  had  already  developed  the 
Bhakti-cult.  Mahamahopadhyaya  HaraPrasada^astri 
says  on  this  head  ''  The  songs  of  Mahipal  have 
already  been  spoken  of.  Buddhist  songs  in  Bengal 
became  the  fashion  of  the  day.  This  was,  I  believe, 
the  begining  of  kirtana  songs.  Krisnacharyya  or 
Kahna  wrote  his  celebrated  Dohas,  his  songs  and 
commentaries  about  this  period.  There  were 
several  writers  of  Dohas  and  Sahajiya  sect  of 
Buddhism  used  to  sing  Buddhist  songs  in  Bengali 
throughout  the  country.  Lui,  Kukkuri,  Birna, 
Gandari,  Caitela,  Bhusukru,  Kahna,  Dombi,  Mohinta, 


The 

origin  of 

the  kirtana 

songs— a 

brief 
history. 


582      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    8c    LITERATURE.       [  Chap< 

Saraha,  Dheguna,  Santi,  Bhade,  Tandaka,  Rantu, 
Kahkana,  Jayananda,  Dhamma  and  Savara  sang 
kirtana  songs  to  the  willing  ears  of  Bengali 
peasants  and  Bengali  artisans.""^ 

Though  we  would  thus  admit  the  priority  of  the 
claims  of  the  Buddhists  regarding  the  invention  of 
some  of  the  tunes  of  kirtana  songs,  yet  there  is  no 
doubt  that  these  were  restricted  to  a  very  narrow 
circle  of  men.  The  popularity  and  development 
of  kirtana  in  all  its  charming  forms,  especially  in 
the  composition  of  the  Manohara  Sahi  tune,  belong- 
ed undoubtedly  to  the  Vaishavas.  Manohara  Sahi 
rapidly  attained  a  luxuriant  growth  under  the 
fostering  attention  paid  to  it  by  the  followers  of 
Chaitanya  Deva.  So  we  need  not  wonder  that  in 
the  popular  notion  the  credit  of  oiiginating  kirtana 
is  ascribed  to  them. 

We  shall  here  proceed  to  give  a  brief  history  of 
kirtana  in  Bensral. 

There  are  four  kinds  of  kirtana.  i.  Gadana- 
Hati    2.   Reheti.  3.   Mandarani,   4.   Manohara  Sahi. 

The  names  are  taken  from  those  of  the  places 
in  \\hich  particular  kirtanas  originated  and  flourish- 
ed. Gadana  Hat  is  in  the  district  of  Maldah, 
Reneti  in  Midnapur,  Mandaran  in  Katak  and 
Manohara  Sahi  is  a  Perganna  in  the  district  of 
I^urdwan. 

Manohara  Sahi  was  created  by  a  clever  com- 
bination of  the  different  tunes  of  the  three  other 
kinds  of  kirtana  ;  it  was  therefore  a  later  growth. 
The  composition  produced  a   singular   melody   and 

*  Preface  to  R.un  Charita  by  Sandhyakara  Nandi  p.  12. 


V*  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  5S3 

thus  Manohara  Sahi  quickly  surpassed  the  rest  and 
caught  the  popular  fancy.  The  four  recognised 
centres  of  Manohara  Sahi  kirtana  are  the  villages 
Kafidra  and  Teora,  in  Burdvvan,  Manadala  in 
Birbhum,  and  Tefia  in  Mursidabad.  It  is  believed 
that  a  musician  named  Ganga  Narayan  Chakravarti, 
a  Vaisnava  of  Teora,  invented  the  Manohara  Sahi 
by  a  skilful  manipulation  of  the  different  tunes  in 
which  kirtana  songs  were  sung  at  his  time  and 
that  latterly  Mangala  Thakur,  a  disciple  of  Chaitanya 
Deva's  companion  Gadadhara  contributed  to  its 
development  and  generally  improved  it. 

Here  is  a  list  of  some  of  the  celebrated  singers 
of  Manaharsahi  kirtana  (from  the  r5th  century 
down  to  our  own  times). 

1.  Ganga  Narayan  Chakravarti  an  inhabitant  of  Teora  (Burdwan) 

2.  Vadana  Chand  Thakura 

3.  Chandra  Shekhera  Thakura 

4.  Shamananda  Thakura  v     r  tr      j      it,     a 

5.  Pulina  Chanda  Thakura  )  °^  ^^"^^^  (Burdwan). 

6.  Hari  Lala  Thakura 

7.  Vamshi  Das  Thakura 

8.  Nimai  Chakravarti  ...  of  Payer  (Birbhum). 
Q.  Hara  Dhana  Das                       )      r  tvt      i.    /r.     j 

10.  Dina  Doyal  Das  j    °^  ^^'^^^  (Burdwan). 

1 1.  Ramananda  Mitra 


12.  Rasik  Lai  Mitra  j    °^  ^^^"^  Dal  (Birbhum). 

13.  Vanamali  Thakura  ...  of  Kandra  (Burdwan). 

14.  Krishna  Kanta  Das  ...  of  Panch  Thupi  (Muridabad). 

15.  Damudar  Kundu  ...  of  Kandi  (Mursidabad). 

16.  Krishna  Hari  Hazra  ")      .  r,     i.T.    i-  /»yf       •  1  1     ,v 

17.  Krishna  Doyal  Chandra  j  °^  P^"*^"^^  (Mursidabad). 

18.  Rama  Baneriea  \      r  o-   l     •  /»*       •  1  ,     ,x 

19.  Mahananda  Mazumder  \  °^  S'"^^"  (Mursidabad). 

20.  Swarupa  Lai  Thakura  ...  of  Sati  (Mursidabad). 

21.  Viswarupa  Goswami  ...  of  Soanipur  (Mursidabad). 

22.  Gopal  Das — This  singer  intro  - 

duced  the  fashion  now  in 
vogue  of  adding  easy  Bengali 
verses  to  explain  the  deeper 
meaning  of  the  Vaisnava 
songs,  especially  those  in 
Brajabuli  which  is  hard  for 
the  people  to  understand. 
The       additions     are    called 


584         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.     [Chap. 

Akhara  (lit.  alphabet)  in  the 
popular  language,  and  Gopal 
Das  was  known  as  "  Akharia 
Gopal  ''  for  this  innovation      of  Batipur  (Mursidabad). 

23.  Gopal  Chakravarti  ...  of  Paraj  (Mursidabad). 

24.  Gopi  Babaji  ...  of  Kota  (Mursidabad). 

25.  Nitai  Das  ...  ...  of  Tantipara  (Birbhum). 

26.  Nanda  Das  ...  ...  of  Maro  (Birbhum). 

27.  Anuragi  Das  ...  ...  of  Dakhinkhanda  Mursidabad. 

28.  Sujan  Mallik  ...  ...  Viranpur  (Mursidabad). 

29.  Krishna  Kishore  Sarkar         ...  Kenchotali  (Nadia). 

30.  Rusik     Das     (living)      son     of 

Anuragi  Das  (No.  27)  ...  of  Dakhinkanda  Mursidabad. 

3i.,Sudha  Krishna  Mitra  (living)  ...  of  Maisa  Dal  (Birbhum). 
32.   Pandit    Adwait     Da.s      Babaji 

(living)  ...  ...  Kasimbazar. 

23-  Siva  Kirtaniya  (living)  ...  of  Kushthia  (Nadia). 

Of  the  living  kirtaniyas  three  are  admittedly 
superior  to  the  rest.  Their  names  in  order  of 
merit  may  be  thus  put.  I.  Pandit  Adwaita  Das 
Babaji  of  Kasimbazar.  II.  Civu  Kirtaniya  of 
Kusthia.  III.  Rasika  Das  of  Daksinkhanda 
riNTursidabad). 

Kirtan'/va  ^  heard  three  years  ago  the  kirtana  songs  of  ^ivu 

kirtaniya,  one  of  the  three  great  singers  mentioned 
above.  He  sang  one  of  those  celestial  songs  which 
are  inspired  by  deep  love,  ^ivu  himself  was  over- 
powered with  emotion  when  he  described  Mathur  ; 
his  voice  with  its  tender  modulations  and  inimitable 
wail  touched  the  heart  of  the  audience,  as  his  own 
hc^art  was  touched.  We  heard  the  songs  in  the  house 
of  Mr.  G.  N.  Tagore,  Calcutta,  but  the  audience  felt 
themselves  to  be  in  the  \'rinda  groves  all  the  while, 
whither  ^ivu  had  translated  them,  by  calling  up  a 
perfect    vision  of   the  deserted  scenes  of  the  shrine. 


The 


The    kirfaua    songs    were    once    a   madness   m 

I  11c  '  r  •   I 

singers  Bengal,  and  cwn  now  they  carry  great  favour  with 
a  certain  section  of  our  community.  The  singers 
are    generallv    ac(|uainted    with  scholarly  Vaisfiava 


v.] 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE. 


585 


works.  They  commit  to  memory  most  of  the 
padas  of  the  Vaisfiava-masters  and  it  is  the  people 
of  this  class  who  have  been  supplying  the  noblest 
ideas  of  self-sacrificing  love  to  rural  Bengal  for 
more  than  350  years. 

In  a  previous  chapter  I  referred  to  the  kathakas 
or  professional  narrators  of  stories.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  exaggerate  the  great  influence  which  they 
wield  over  the  masses.  They  narrate  stories  in 
the  vernacular,  from  the  Bhagavata,  the  Ramayaha, 
and  the  Mahabharata  and  intersperse  their  narration 
with  sono-s  which  heisfhten  the  effect  of  their  des- 
cription.  The  deep  religious  ideas  which  underlie 
the  stories  are  discussed  at  intervals  by  the  kathaka 
and  no  one  can  be  successful  in  this  profession  un- 
less he  is  endowed  with  oratory,  a  sweet  voice,  and 
the  power  of  raising  tender  emotions  in  the  mind 
of  his  audience.  We  can  trace  the  custom  of  such 
narration  as  early  as  tiie  times  of  the  Ramayana  ; 
it  may  be  even  earlier ;  we  find  V^lmiki  who 
lived  many  thousand  years  ago  refer  to  a  class 
of  people  whose  avocation  it  was  to  narrate  stories 
(See  Ayodhya  kanda,  Chap.  69.)  ;  but  the  manner  in 
which  the  modern  kathakas  deliver  stories  with 
the  object  of  imparting  religious  instructions  and 
inspiring  devotional  sentiments  in  Bengal  is  derived 
from  the  Vaishavas.  There  are  formulae  which  every 
kathaka  has  to  get  by  heart, — set  passages  describ- 
ing not  only  ^iva,  Laksmi,  Visnu,  Krisha,  and 
other  deities,  but  also  describing  a  town,  a  battlefield, 
morning,  noon  and  night  and  many  other  subjects 
which  incidentally  occur  in  the  course  of  the 
narration  of  a  story.  These  set  passages  are  com- 
p  osed    in    Sanskritic  Bengali    with    a    remarkable 

74 


The 
kathakas. 


Set 
passages. 


686      BENGALI    LA>CGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

jingle  of  consonances  the  effect  of  which  is  quite 
extraordinary.  I  quote  here  some  of  these 
passages. 

Description  of  a  dark  night. 

■^  '*  It  is  the  depth  of  night  ; — an  impenetrable 
darkness  pervades  all  objects, — the  lily  droops,  and 
the  fragrance  of  the  humuda  flower  delights  us. — the 
sound  of  beetles  rise  from  the  earth  ; — the  birds 
are  silent  for  a  time  and  a  network  of  stars  is 
spread  over  the  firmament.  The  woman  who 
secretly  goes  to  meet  her  lover  is  awe-struck  in 
this  thick  darkness,  and,  losing  her  way,  stops  at 
every  step  and  proceeds  with  difficulty  ;  in  the  deep 
shade  of  the  forest  move  the  tiger,  the  bear  and 
other  ferocious  animals  in  search  of  prey.  At 
such  quarter  of  the  night,  the  cries  of  the  jackals 
break  the  slumbers  of  lovers  who  wake  for  a 
moment  to  listen,  and  again  fall  asleep  in  each 
other's  arms." 


^rS  ^C§    Vk^    ^P?l^^C^^  I      ^Tfg,  ^^  -^Vi^-^ 


v.] 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE. 


587 


The  descriptions  are  often  highly  poetic,  and 
produce  almost  a  pictorial  effect  on  the  mind. 
Thus  in  the  description  of  noon"^  "  The  buffaloes 
and  bears  dipping  themselves  in  a  pool  doze  with 
half-closed  eyes  "  or  in  that  of  a  cloudy  day  ; — t 
"  The  eastern  sky  is  radiant  with  the  bow  of  Indra, 
(the  rainbow),  it  appears  as  if  the  god  himself 
comes  riding  on  his  elephant — the  clouds,  and 
twanging  his  great  bow.  A  shooting  light  dazzles 
the  eye  as  his  thunder  falls,  the  storm  roars  and 
the  terrible  sound  frightens  the  traveller, — the  birds 
in  great  alarm  flock  around  the  trees  and  raise  a 
confused  chatter"  and  in  similar  descriptions  pictures 
of  Indian  scenes  with  w^hich  we  are  all  familiar  are 
instantly  recalled  to  the  mind. 

But  the  descriptions  of  gods  by  far  excel  the 
rest  and  possess  a  peculiar  charm  with  the  Hindus. 
The  words  are  so  cleverly  strung  together  as  to 
create  visions  of  sublimity  and  beauty  by  asso- 
ciation. 

I  have  a  book  of  formulae  supplied  to  me  by  a 
kathaka,  in  which  I  find  set  passages  on  the  follow^- 
ing  subjects. 

^  ''  f%^1  ft5f^^&^^I^  ^fe  ^^t^  n^^  f^'Itt  " 

t^#w^^^  c^ffnnH  *f5^^f^^"itf»^  ^^^ti^^. 


Noon. 


A  cloudy 
day. 


588      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 


A  short 

history 

of  the 

kathakas. 


I.  A  city.  2.  Noon  day. 
4.  Xight.  5.  A  cloudy  day. 
beauty.     7.  The  sage  Narada.     8. 


3.      Morning. 

6.     Woman's 

Visfiu.  9.   Rama 


10    Laksmana.    11.  Civa.      12.   Kali.    13.  Sarasvati. 
14.  Laksmi.   15.   A  forest.    16.  War.    17.  Bhagavati. 

Curiously  enough  these  set  passages  though 
written  in  a  highly  artistic  and  poetic  style  are  in 
prose  and  they  are  sung  as  if  they  were  songs. 
The  effect  is  not  at  all  marred  by  the  prose-forms 
in  which  they  are  couched.  Being  set  to  a  chant, 
they  sound  highly  poetic  and  do  not  at  all  jar  on 
the  ear. 

I  shall  here  attempt  at  giving  a  short  history  of 
some  of  the  most  illustrious  kathakas. 

We    have    not    been  able  to  gather  much  infor- 
mation on  this  head.  W^e,  however,  know  that  Rama 
Dhana  Ciromahi  was  one  of   those  princes  amongst 
kathakas    who    could    move    the    audience  as  they 
liked,    so    much   so     that     occasionally     enormous 
amounts    of     money    were    paid    as  gifts  to  him  by 
rich  parties  who  became  spell-bound,  as  it  were,  by 
the    power    of  his  brilliant  oration.      lie  was  an  in- 
habitant of  the  village    Sonamukhi    in    the    district 
of   Burdwan.    lie  lived  about  150  years  ago.   Gada- 
(Ihar    (^iromani    was    his  worthy  contemporary  and 
was    an     inhabitant     of      Govardanga.        Dharani 
Kathaka,    a      nephew    of   Rama    Dhana    Ciromahi, 
wieltlcd     an      extraordinar)'     inlluence     over      the 
masses,    and    especially    over     the    women-folk    of 
Bengal,  half  a    century  ago.      It  is  said  that  he  was 
so    extraordinarily    gifted,   that    from    tragic     tales 
which    drew   lorlh  j)rofuse  tears  from  the  audience, 
he    couKl    suddenlv    pass    on    to   satire    and  comic 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  589 

subjects  making  the  whole  house  burst  into  peals 
of  laughter  before  the  tears  had  dried  in  their  eyes. 
Krisha  Mohaiia  ^iromani  of  Kodalia  in  24-Per- 
gannas  was  his  great  rival.  Another  kathaka  of  great 
renown  who  lived  about  this  time  v/as  ^ridhara 
Pathaka  who  contributed  a  large  number  of  songs 
to  the  literature  of  Kathakata. 

To-day  Ksetra  Natha  Chudamani  of  Bagbazar, 
enjoys  the  esteem  and  admiration  of  a  large  sec- 
tion of  the  Hindu  community  of  Bengal.  As  a 
story-teller  there  is  no  kathaka  now  living  that 
can  approach  him.  His  songs  and  highly  poetic 
descriptions  call  up  vivid  pictures  before  the  mind. 
Krisha-kathaka  of  Shampukur  is  a  person  of 
superior  scholarship  but  as  narrator  of  story  he 
stands  below  Ksetra  Chudamani. 

The  kathakas  of  the  old  school  were  scholars, 
poets,  and  finished  singers.  The  effect  which 
their  narration  produced  was  wonderful.  Born 
story-tellers  as  they  were,  their  oration  was 
coupled  with  power  of  music,  the  effect  of  all 
which  was  heightened  by  their  command  over  Their 
language  and  their  great  scholarship.  All  this  ordinary 
made  them  the  most  popular  figures  in  Bengali-  influence. 
society  and  it  is  impossible  to  describe  the  hold 
which  they  had  upon  the  women  of  our  country. 
When  their  dav's  work  was  done,  they  would 
hasten  in  the  evenings  to  hear  the  stories  narra- 
ted bv  kathakas  at  the  house  of  some  one  who  was 
generally  a  man  of  means  and  of  religious  tem- 
perament. The  stories  inspired  the  minds  of 
women  by  instances  of  the  lofty  sacrifice  that  Hindu 
wives  have  made  for  the  sake  of  virtue,  chastity 
and    faith.      In    the    case    of    s^reat  and  illustrious 


590      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [  Chap. 

kathakas  noticed  above,  they  paid  little  heed  to  the 
stereotyped  passages  in  their  description.  They 
composed  songs  extempore  and  sang  them  accord- 
ing to  the  requirements  of  their  story. 

As  I  have  said,  it  was  the  Vaisnavas  to  whom 
the  kathas  or  stories  owe  the  elegant  form  in 
which  we  at  present  find  them.  The  Vaisfiava 
i(oswa7nies  or  priests  have  up  to  the  present  day 
the  monopoly  of  this  profession.  I  shall  here 
briefly  narrate  a  story  told  by  the  \'aisnava  kathakas 
to  show  the  kind  of  moral  and  spiritual  instruction 
which  it  is  the  aim  of  the  kathakas  to  imprint  on 
the  minds  of  their  audience  which  chiefly  consist 
of  the  women-folk. 

The  story  of  Dhara  and  Drofia. 

Pariksita    asked     what    were     the     meritorious 
Dhara         ^i-Cts  performed  by  Yac^oda,    the    mother    of     Krisna 
rona.    ^^^    which    the    Lord  of  the  universe  condescended 
to  become  her  son. 

Cuka  Deva  said  in  answer  : — 

At  one  time  ^iva  and  X'isfni  wanted  to  test  the 
devotional  feeling  of  their  followers  on  the  earth. 
Durga,  the  wife  of  Qiva,  accompanied  them. 

Tlu^y  came  down  on  the  earth  in  disguise  : — 
\'isnu  as  a  young  man  apparentlv  vitv  [)Oor.  Civa 
as    an    old    man  brnding  umler  llu^  burden  of  four- 

Kods  in        score  years,  and  Durga  as  an  old    woman    stricken 

disguise.       ^vith  aw  and  disease. 


A^resthl. 


They  came  to  a  village  where  a  certain  Cresthi 
(merchant)  was  known  for  his  great  faith  in  the 
Cai\a  religion,  lie  was  a  moni'V-lender  and  had 
amassed  immense:  wealth  bv  this  avocation.      It  was 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  591 

noonday  when  no  Hindu,  however  poor,  would  turn 
a  guest  away  from  his  door  if  he  wanted  food. 
Visnu  entered  the  house  when  the  money-lender 
was  negotiating  with  a  customer  as  to  the  percent- 
age of  interest  on  a  certain  loan.  The  god  applied  to 
him  for  help  saying  that  his  father  and  mother  both 
old  and  decrepit,  were  stricken  with  hunger,  and 
wanted  shelter  and  food  at  his  house  for  the  day. 
The  ^resthi  looked  at  him,  and,  without  replying, 
went  on  talking  on  his  business,  till  it  was  high 
time  for  dinner  and  he  rose  to  leave.  Visnu  now 
again  asked  him  if  he  could  give  three  persons  food 
and  shelter  for  the  day.  The  ^resthi  did  not  deign 
to  give  any  reply  even  to  this,  but  as  he  passed 
into  the  inner  appartments,  dismissing  all  his  men, 
he  replied  briefly  saying  that  it  was  now  high  time 
to  worship  Civa,  before  which  he  never  tasted 
any  food, — so  it  was  a  sin  on  his  part  to  detain 
him  by  requests  of  a  secular  nature.  Visnu  came 
back  to  Civa  and  related  the  story  to  him  and  to 
Durga,  and  they  were  both  greatly  mortified  at 
this  conduct  of  one  whom  they  had  believed  to  be 
a  pious  man  and  their  devout  follower. 

Visnu  now  led  them  to  the  western  extremity  of 
that  village;  it  was  afternoon,  a  dense  wood  lay  a  dense 
before  them,  the  trees  of  which  glistened  with  the  wood. 
light  of  the  western  horizen  ;  the  champaka  and 
ataci  flowers  peeped  through  small  vistas,  lying 
hidden  in  the  shade  of  large  acvatha  and  cimiila 
trees  which  abounded  there.  There  they  espied  a 
small  hut,  a  straw-roofed  mud-hovel,  very  neat 
and  pleasant  to  look  upon,  lying  in  a  sort  of  woody 
covert, — unwilling  as  it  were  from  shyness  to  show 
itself  to  men. 


592         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

Vi?nu  led  them  on  to  the  hut, — through  a 
jungly  path  wreathed  with  flowering  plants 
that  could  not  all  have  grown  there  naturally  ; 
some  tender  hand  must  have  tended  them  as  ap- 
peared from  the  wet  ground  underneath  proving 
A  damsel  the  care  with  which  they  were  watered.  As  the\ 
of  sixteen,  came  to  the  door  of  the  hut  they  saw  a  damsel  of 
sixteen  eyeing  them  with  a  look  of  curiosity.  She 
was  poorly  dressed  in  a  single  sadi  not  long  enough 
to  cover  her  decently.  Her  profuse  black  hair  fell 
in  luxuriant  curls  down  her  back  ;  she  was  beautiful 
as  a  goddess,  with  timid  eyes  and  a  countenance 
the  purity  of  which  was  like  that  one  finds  in  a 
jessamine  flower  when  it  first  opes  its  petals.  She 
had  a  vermillion-mark  on  her  forehead  and  a  piece 
of  thread  was  tied  round  her  left  wrist,  both  indi- 
cative of  the  sacred  vows  of  wifehood.  She  came 
and  though  of  a  shy  and  quiet  nature  she  was 
free  from  tliat  excess  of  coyness  which  generally 
marks  the  Hindu  wife.  She  asked  in  a  soft  mur- 
muring tone  as  to  wliat  the  young  man  wanted. 
Visnu  said  what  he  had  said  to  the  ^resthi ;  he 
wanted  food  and  shelter  for  three  persons  for  the 
day.  The  woman  replied  "  Mv  husband  has  gone 
out  to  beg  alms  and  will  return  ]:)resently  ;  in  the 
meantime  kindly  wait  here,"*  "But  where  can  we 
stop?  You  have  a  single  hut  and  no  seats,  no 
articles  ev(Mi  of  everv-day  use.  What  have  you  to 
offer  for  our  comfort,  fatigued  and  worn  out  as  we 
all  are,  speciallv  my  old  parents  ?"  She  showed  a 
great  anxietv  to  please  and  said,  "  O  sirs,  if  at  this 
late  hour  of  the  dav,  vou  go  awav  from  my  doors 
without  tasting  any  food,  all  mv  virtue  will  be  lost. 
I  am  poor,  but  I  crave  vour  indulgence  ;  pray  wait 
here,  my  husband  will  be  back   quickly". 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.        593 

She  had  no  metal  plate  or  any  other  article 
of  every-day  use.  The  leaves  of  cala  trees  gather- 
ed from  the  wood  served  as  plate  for  the  poor 
husband  and  wife,  and  they  also  made  cups  of 
those  leaves  for  drinking  water.  Vishu  and  the 
other  two  deities  sat  down  in  the  hut  and  the  old 
people  looked  exhausted  and    fatigued,    unable    to  4«jyj 

speak  as  if  their  last  hour  had  come.      Vishu   said       parents 

will 
*'  Look    madam.  !     my    parents    will    shortly    die  as        shortly 

appear  from  thier  condition.       You  are  a  very  poor 

woman  ;    if  death  occurs  in  this  hut,  it  will  put    you 

to    great   inconvenience    and  trouble ;   allow   us  to 

depart,  I  will  carry  them  on  my  shoulders  and   seek 

another  place."     The  damsel  softly  said  ^'Dear  sirs. 

stay    here,   it   would    be  a  greater  sin  to  send  away 

dying  men  from  my  house.     What   may   befall    me 

I  don't  care;    but  my  present  duty    I  cannot  avoid  ; 

the    rest    is    in    the    hands   of    one    who  owns  this 

house."  Asked  Vishu  in  wonder  :     *'You  said  it  was 

your    husband    who    lived    with   you    here  ;      what 

other  owner  of  the  house    is    there  ?"     She  replied 

"  My   husband    has  told  me  that  Vishu,  the  Lord  of 

the  universe,  is  the  owner  of  this  house,  as    indeed 

he  is  of  everything  we  see.     We  are  here  to    carry    the'master 

out  the  wishes  of  the  master  and  have    no   idea    of         of  the 

house. 
our  own  happiness  or    misery."    Vishu  said    '  Have 

you  not  up  till  now  taken  any  food  ?      It  is    a    late 

hour.'     She  replied  :   '  My  husband  has  gone  to  beg 

for  alms,  he  will  bring  what  Providence  may  grant. 

I    shall    cook    the    food    and  offer  it  to  Vishu  first  ; 

then    we    shall  reserve  a  portion  for  any  guest  that 

may  visit  our  house,  and  what  remains  my  husband 

will  partake  of  and  I  shall  eat  what  may  be  left    in 

his    plate."     ''So    late   an   hour  in  the   day  and  no 

75 


594      BENGALI    LANGAUGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap» 

food  !  Don't  you  feel  hunorry  ?"  She  only  smiled 
sweetly  at  the  query  without  saying  anything. 
It  was  nearly  evening  and  the  husband  had  not 
yet  returned.  Visnu  seemed  to  grow  impatient 
and  said  that  by  detaining  them  in  the  place 
she  was  practically  starving  his  dying  parents 
to  death.  At  these  words  the  eyes  of  the  damsel 
grew  tearful  ;  with  the  leaves  of  cala  trees  formed 
into  a  sort  of  cup  she  brought  a  little  water  for 
them  and  poured  it  on  their  parched  lips  and  looked 
at  them  with  such  an  affectionate  tenderness  as 
seemed  to  soothe  their  very  hearts  and  would  have 
had  a  healing  effect  on  them  if  they  had  really  been 
what  they  seemed  to  be.  Visnu  said  "  It  is  evening 
now,  I  can  stay  no  longer.  I  must  go  away  with 
my  parents."  She  fell  at  the  feet  of  \'isnu  and 
said  "  Brahmin,  mv  vow  of  serving  guests  is  going 
to  be  broken  ;  if  vou  would  kindlv  help  me  to  be 
true  to  it,  wait  a  moment  ;  not  far  off  is  the  shop 
of  the  grain-seller  ;  I  will  go  to  it  though  1  never 
did  so  before,  and  will  come  presently  back  with 
articles  of  food.  I  am  sure  the  grocer  knows  my 
husband  and  will  give  me  credit.'  She  went  to 
the  shop  through  mazv  paths,  through  briers  and 
flowers,  lik("  a  silvan  goddess.  Mc^r  curling  hair  fell 
To  the  down  to  her  waist ;  she  wore  no  ornaments  save 
^shoV  ^    rosary    round    her  arms,  but  her  vouthful  charms 

(lid  not  want  any  artificial  help;  they  fascinated 
the  eyes  that  looked  up*)n  her  ;  she  was  innocent 
and  full  (tf  pirtv  and  did  not  know  the  wicked 
ways  of  the  world.  WIumi  she  arri\t>d  at  the  shop, 
the  grocer  was  struck  with  her  beauty,  all  the  people 
assemhleil  there  felt  the  ehai  in  of  lu-r  presence, 
and  the  man  asked  her  what  it  was  that  she  wanted. 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         595 

She  said  ''  My  name  is  Dhara  ;  my  husband  is 
the  ascetic  Brahmin  who  comes  to  your  shop  to 
purchase  food  every  day."  "  You  mean  to  say  that 
you  are  the  wife  of  Dronathat  poor  pious  Brahmin. 
I  never  saw  you  before,  nor  kne\t  that  you  were  so 
beautiful.'  Dhara  said  ''  I  have  guests  at  my  house. 
If  you  kindly  help  me  by  giving  me  grain  on  credit, 
with  ghee  and  fuel,  my  husband  will  pay  the  bill.  I 
have  no  money."  '  O  yes,  you  have  much  with  you 
to  pay  me.  I  hope  you  will  not  deprive  me  of 
what  you  have/ — said  the  grocer  in  a  low  tone. 
Dhara — a  sincere  soul — who  knew  no  sin  wonder- 
ingly  said,  "  What  have  I  got  to  repay  you  with  ?'' 
"  Promise  that  you  will  pay  me  what  you 
have,''  added  the  man  in  a  soft  tone.  In  her 
eagerness  to  serve  her  guests,  the  innocent  and 
pure-hearted  Dhara  gave  the  promise.  The  shop- 
keeper dismissed  his  other  customers  and  gave 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  food-grains,  ghee  and 
fuel  for  the  three  guests  and  put  them  into  a 
basket.  He  said,  "  Now  is  your  time  to  pay  before 
you  leave."  Dhara  rejoined  that  she  did  not  know 
what  she  had  to  pay  and  wonderingly  asked  him  to 
tell  it.  The  wicked  man  said,  "  I  want  only  a  touch 
of  your  rising  breasts."  Dhara  stood  silent  for  a 
moment,  thinking  of  the  promise  she  had  given, 
which  was  inviolable.  x\ll  of  a  sudden  she  seized 
a    sharp    knife    that    lay    in   a  corner  and  with  that  xhe 

cut  her  breasts  off  and  bleeding  profusely  present-  .^^?"}*f^ 
ed  them  to  the  shopkeeper,  who  swooned  at  the 
sieht.  She  now  lifted  the  basket  of  food  on  her 
head  bleeding  all  the  way  and  came  to  her  hut. 
^'ishu  came  out  and  was  horror-struck  at  the  sight. 
The  dissfuised  deities  all  hastened  to  the  door,   and 


The 

great 

sacrifice 

and  the 

boon. 


596        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

asked  what  had  occurred  to  cause  that  heart-rending 
sight.  She  said,  "  Revered  guests,  prepare  your  food 
and  help  a  poor  woman  to  be  true  to  her  vows.  I 
have  prayed  to  Vishu  night  and  day  that  my  vows  of 
purity  and  unswerving  truth  to  God  and  man  might 
be  preserved  all  through  my  life,  and  I  am  glad  that 
even  at  the  cost  of  life  I  am  able  to  be  true  to 
them"  Vishu  knew  what  the  matter  was,  and 
Durga  suddenly  assumed  her  heavenly  form  wield- 
ing the  celestial  trident,  her  head  resplendant  with 
a  halo  of  light,  and  was  about  to  proceed  to  kill 
the  wicked  man,  but  Civa  stopped  her.  Vishu 
said,  "  You  are  bleeding  to  death  for  the  sake  of 
your  guests.  Take  my  blessings.  In  your  next  life 
you  will  be  called  Ya^oda  and  I  shall  incarnate 
myself  as  Krisha  and  suck  the  breasts  which  you 
did  not  really  present  to  that  wicked  man,  but  to 
God  as  offering  for  the  sake  of  truth.''  Civa,  who 
had  by  this  time  assumed  his  divine  form,  looking 
like  a  mount  of  silver — with  his  matted  locks 
through  which  the  stream  of  the  Ganges  flowed,  said, 
"And  I  shall  protect  the  Vrinda  groves  when 
Kri?ha  will  be  incarnated  there."  Said  Durga  "  I 
shall  be  Yogamaya,  the  presiding  deity  of  Gakula 
where  Krisha  will  play  the  shepherd-boy  and 
preserve  the  milkmen  and  their  cattle.^'  And  they 
all  said,  "  Blessed  be  thou,  for  thou  hast  lived  a 
pure  life  and  known  how  to  die  for  truth  and  for 
services  of  men.  " 


^^      ^  Such  arc  some  of  the  stories  related  by  kathakas 

The  story  -' 

takes  5        which,   with  their  songs  and  interpretation  of  Sans- 

hours.  ,      .  ,  1       r    1       n-  1 

krit  texts  produce  a  wontlerlul  eitect  on  the  masses. 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.         597 


As  I  have  said  before,  a  story  like  that  of  Dhara 
and  Drona  ordinarily  takes  five  hours  in  narrating  ; 
I  have  given  only  the  gist  of  it.  It  is  impossible 
for  me  to  give  any  idea  of  the  effect  produced  by 
working  it  up  into  detail  as  the  kathakas  do. 

The  kathakas  invariably  begin  with  a  prelimi- 
nary invocation  of  Krisfia.  The  text  from  the 
Bhagavata  on  which  they  base  this  is  poetical. 
They  begin  thus  : — '  Where  Krisna's  name  is  uttered 
the  place  becomes  sacred.  All  the  shrines  of  the 
world, — the  Naimisaranya,  Prayaga,  Benares,  and 
Gaya  meet  at  that  place  ;  the  sacred  streams  of  the 
Ganges,  the  Kaveri,  the  Krisna,  the  Tapti,  and  the 
Godavari  flow  at  that  place  where  Krisna's  name 
is  recited.'  This  is  a  poetical  way  of  expressing 
the  idea  of  the  Vaisnavas  that  a  simple  prayer  is 
more  efficacious  than  visiting  all  shrines,  and  that 
if  God  is  worshipped  in  the  soul,  the  sacredness 
of  all  earthly  shrines  attends  it  in  the  act. 

The  influence  of  Vaishavism  materially  helped 
the  spread  of  education  amongst  the  masses.  We 
often  find  people  of  the  lower  ranks  of  society  re- 
puted for  scholarship.  Cyamananda  belonged  to  the 
Satgopa  or  farming  caste.  But  he  was  a  great  scholar 
in  Sanskrit  Grammar.  The  social  life  depicted  in 
the  old  Bengali  poems  of  this  period  shows  that 
learning  was  no  longer  confined  to  the  Eirahmins. 
Mukundaram's  account  of  the  merchan .  Cripati 
who  is  said  to  have  taken  a  delight  in  Sanskrit 
poetry  and  drama  and  his  description  of  the 
education  given  to  his  son  Crimanta  who  in  his 
early  years  read  Bharavi,  Magha,  Kumar  Sambhava 
and  other  masterpieces  of  Sanskrit  poetry  show 
that  Sanskrit  learning  was  no  longer  the  monopoly 


The  preli: 
minary 
portion. 


The  mass- 
education. 


598        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

of  the  Brahmins.  In  the  tols  established  by 
Vaisnavas,  pupils  from  all  ranks  of  society  had  free 
access.  In  an  account  of  the  education  given  to 
Dhanapati  in  his  boyhood  we  find  that  though  he 
belonged  to  the  Bania  caste,  he  had  already  learned 
to  talk  in  Sanskrit  and  was  well  acquainted  with 
the  Devanagri  characters.  In  the  descriptions 
given  by  Alukundarama  who  vividly  pourtrays  every 
detail  of  social  life  in  Bengal  in  the  i6th  century, 
we  find  the  women  of  the  lower  castes  re- 
ceiving a  fair  education,  not  to  speak  of  those  who 
belonged  to  the  higher  castes.  Khullana  read  the 
forged  letter  produced  by  Lahana  and  expressed 
her  disbelief  in  its  genuineness  as  it  was  not  in 
the  handwritinsr  of  her  husband. 

Bengali  in  the  i6th    century,    outside    the    pale 
of    the    Vaishava    community,    was  mainly  read  by 

The  rustic      j_|^g  people  of  the  lower  ranks  of  society.      A    laro-e 
people  A       i  y  J3 

preserved      portion   of  old  Bengali  manuscripts  written    in  the 
Bengali  ^,1,01 

Mss.  i<J<-h,  17th  and  ibth  centuries  were  recovered  by  me 

from  the  houses  of  the  people  of  the  lowest  castes. 
The  bhadraloks  or  the  gentlemanly  classes  were 
generally  interested  in  Sanskrit  manuscripts.  But 
I  have  found  old  Bengali  manuscripts,  preserved 
with  almo>t  religious  care  by  the  illiterate 
rustic  people, — handed  down  to  them  by  their 
ancestors.  This  proves  tiiat  their  ancestors  could 
read  and  w  ritf  I^engali  though  owing  to  the  deca- 
dence of  \'aisn:iva  influence,  one  of  the  aims 
of  which  was  to  enlighten  the  masses,  these  people 
had  sunk  into  ignorance  once  again.  Many  of  the 
iMss.  brought  to  light  bv  me  were  written  by  people 
of  lowcM*  castes.      Souk*  of  the  \\riters  seem  to  have 


V,  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  599 

been  expert  in  the  art  of  caligraphy.  I  name  below 
some  of  the  writers  of  this  class  who  wrote  parti- 
cularly elegant  hands. 

1.  Harivarhsa  copied  by  Bhagyavanta  Dhubi 
(washerman)  in  1783  A.  D. 

2.  Naisada  copied  by  Cri  Majhee  Kait  (a  low 
sudra)  in  1749  A.  D. 

3.  Devajani  Upakhyana  by  Ganga  Das  Sen 
copied  by  Rama  Narayan  Gope  (?i  milkman)  in 
1747  A.  D. 

4.  Kriya  Yoga  Sara  copied  by  Kali  Charan 
Gope  fa  milkman)  in  1740  A.  D. 

5.  Dandi  Parva  by  Raja  Narayan  Datta 
copied  by  ^rirama  Prasada  Dei  (a  low  sudra';  in 
1785  A.  D. 

In  the  houses  of  Vaisnava  scholars,  however, 
we  find  such  Bengali  works  as  the  Chaitanya 
Charitamrita,  Chaitanya  Bhagavata,  and  Padakalpa- 
taru  carefully  preserved  side  by  side  with  classical 
Sanskrit  works.  In  their  eyes  Bengali  works 
dealing  with  Vaisnavism  were  not,  as  I  have  said, 
a  whit  less  important  than  the  most  sacred 
theological  books  in  Sanskrit. 

Bengali  in  the  Vaisfiava  period  was  subject  to  the1  The 
influence  of  Hindi  and  this  I  have  already  mentioned  J^"  mnd^^ 
on  page  387.  Many  of  the  great  masters  of  the 
Vaisnava  faith  lived  in  Vrindavana  and  there  was 
a  constant  exchange  of  ideas  between  the  people 
of  that  place  and  those  of  Bengal.  This  circum- 
stance explains  why  we  find  such  a  large  number 
of  Hindi  words  imported  into  the  Bengali  writings 
of  the  Vaisfiavas.  The  Padakartas  held  Vidyapati's 
songs    in    great    admiration    and    as  a  result  many 


6oo      BUMGALl    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.       [  Chap< 

of  them  imitated  the  IMaithil  forms  in  their  padas 
and  the  Brajabuli  of  the  Vaisfiava-songs  is  a  result 
of  this  imitation.  Thirdly  in  their  attempts  to 
propagate  the  creed  of  Vaisnavism  all  over  India, 
the  Vaisnavas  came  in  contact  with  the  different 
races  of  India  speaking  different  languages.  Hindi 
had  already  grown  to  be  the  lan^ua  franca  of  all 
India  un  te-l  under  the  suzerain  power  of  the 
Moslem  /^rperor  of  Delhi.  Those  who  had  the 
propagan  a  of  their  faith  to  carry  to  all  Indians 
could  not  help  taking  recourse  to  the  most  con- 
venient vehicle  already  available  for  approaching 
them.  The  Vaishavas  imported  a  large  number  of 
Hindi  words  into  their  works  to  make  them  intel- 
ligible to  the  people  of  all  parts  of  India. 

Owing  to  these  causes  the  works  written 
by  a  large  number  of  Vaishavas  are  more  or  less 
influenced  by    Hindi,  and  instances  of    OTW,   ^^^, 

^^c  ^^c,  ^^  ^C'  ^^'  ^^^^'  '^^^'  ftift^  ^^^'^ 

are  numerous  in  all  Vaishava  writings,  not  to  speak 
of  Brajabuli  which  is  a  thoroughly  Hindi-ized  form 
of  Bengali. 

^^    _  The  signs  of  the  case-endings  that  we  meet  with 

endings.  jn  the  works  mentioned  in  this  chapter,  show  varied 
forms  and  are  very  much  like  what  we  have  dealt 
with  in  foregoing  chapters.  The  growing  tendency 
to  use  the  suffix  ^tft  in  the  place  of  ^'=\.  ^^.  ^T^^ 
and  other  words,  formerly  used  to  denote  the  plural 
number,  often  coupled  with  a  pleonastic  ^,  as  in 
^QHlf't^,  '^t^^#tffr^  etc., — found  in  Narottomavilas 
and  other  works— indicates  the  development  of  the 
form  fvf^  which  now  makes  the  case-ending  in 
Bengali  that  denotes  the  plural  number. 


V.   ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  6ol 

The    metres    used     by     the     Vaishava-masters,  The 

though  rich  in  their  forms,  do   not    conform    to    the  ^' 

stereotyped  ways  of  early  metrical  styles  called 
Payara  and  Tripadi  chhandas  which  were  carried  to 
perfection  by  writers  with  a  rigid  classical  taste. 
In  the  Alanik  Chandra  Rajar^^/i  and  other  writings 
of  the  Buddhistic  period,  we  find  the  Pyajara  chhayida 
to  be  far  from  being  restricted  to  14  letters  as  it 
latterly  became  ;  the  latitude  taken  by  the  earliest 
writers  in  sometimes  dragging  the  lines  to  a  tiresome 
length,  and  not  unotten  shortening  them  to  abrupt 
and  halting  rhymes,  were  the  result  of  ignorance 
and  uncultured  taste.  In  the  Vaisnava  writings, 
however,  we  find  a  freedom  from  the  rigidness  of 
classical  models  —  not  to  be  mistaken  for  the  in- 
artistic and  unrestrained  excesses  of  the  vulgar,  but 
which  is  prompted  by  a  superior  poetic  faculty,  con- 
scious of  its  art,  making  light  of  restrictions,  though 
keenly  alive  to  the  natural  rhythm  of  metre  and 
expression.  In  the  following  lines  the  poet  over- 
rides Payara  chhanda  sportively  and  shows  that  by 
freeing  himself  from  the  trammels  of  a  stereotyped 
metre,  he  makes  the  lines  more  rhythmical  and 
artistic. 

^!I  sfH  5fb^m  ^nC«l^^  ^Pm  ^^C^  ^^nR  H" 
"Praise  be  to  Jaya  Deva,  the  brightest  jewel  of 
the  princes  of  poetry ;  praise  be  to  Vidyapati,  a 
store-house  of  elegant  sentiments,  and  praise  be  to 
Chandidas,  the  highest  pinnacle  of  delicate  feeling, 
— who  is  peerless  in  the  world." 

The  poet  who  wrote  these  lines  vi^as  well-versed    ^^^  ^q^xXq 
in  the  Sanskrit  classics,  as  the  very    expressions  he        licence. 

76 


6o2         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LLFERATURE       Chap. 

uses,  prove  ;  yet  he  uses  ^^"^tV  which  is  not  the 
right  word, — it  should  have  been  '^I^^'PI.  The  poet 
knew  this  quite  well,  but  took  the  poetic  licence  of 
using  it,  for  the  purpose  of  making  this  word  rhyme 
more  elegantly  with  tft^  of  the  previous  line.  Here 
lies  the  difference  between  X^aisfiava  writers  and 
those  who  are  the  exponents  of  the  Pauranic  Re- 
naissance in  Bengali.  These  insisted  on  the  Sans- 
kritic  rules  without  compromise,  whereas  the 
Vaisnava  poets,  often  the  better  Sanskrit  scholars 
of  the  two,  would  follow  their  own  keen  perception 
of  happy  expression  and  brook  no  rules  laid  down 
by  scholars  and  purists.  As  in  the  Payara  chhanda 
so  also  in  our  familiar  Tripadi,  tlit  y  introduced 
innovations,  yielding  to  the  perception  of  elegance 
so  natural  with  them.  In  the  latter  chhanda  the 
first  half  of  a  line  generally  rhymes  with  the  other 
half  and  the  second  line  rhvmes  with  the  fourth  ; 
but  here  are  some  verses  in  the  Tripadi  by  a  Vais- 
nava poet,  in  which  one  half  of  the  first  line  does 
not  rhyme  with  the  other,  and  yet  the  elegance  of 
the  metre  does  not  at  all  suffer. 

^\TM  ^ft^,  ^^^^  ^,<^^,  ^%V^  '^\^H  ^r^  II 

^f^  ni^f^^h  ^1^5^  ^t!ji,  ^^5?  c'ifc'is  ^m  n" 

(He  wears  cloths  of  a  vrllow  tint  because  they 
arc  like  me  in  colour,  and  as  the  fiute  that  he 
Carries  in  his  hand,  sings  mv  name,  he  holds  it 
dearer  than  his  life.  Whenever  he  comes  across 
a  colour  or  a  scent  that  remind  him  of  me,  he 
moves  forward  like  a  mad  man  with  his  arms  out- 
stretched.) 


V.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  603 

Various  metres  were  invented  by  the  Vaishavas 
which  please  the  ear,  though  they  do  not  conform 
to  the  style  already  adopted  in  Bengali  composition. 
Here  is  an  example  of  long  and  short  lines  rhyming 
with  each  other  and  producing  a  singularly  happy 
effect  by  their  deviation  from  ordinary  metre  : — 

^t^^  c^t  g^t  f^^  ^«r  II 

^^?i  a)^z^  ^t^  ^ft  c^H  II 
^C  ^  ^*i  ^t?i  I 

c^^  c^^  ^z^  ^5  ^N  I 

(The  lovely  Radha,  steeped  in  sweet  emotions, 
sports  with  Krisna.  She  puts  sweet  betels  into  his 
mouth  and  kisses  him.  She  puts  her  arms  about 
him  in  the  deliglit  of  her  heart.  They  praise 
each  other  with  sweetest  words  and  play  together 
on  the  same  flute.  Some  of  the  maidens  whisper 
softly  "how  charmed  is  Krisna  by  his  lady's  touch  !" 
Others  snatch  away  his  flute  by  force.  ICrisna  is 
lost  in  the  pleasure  wrought  by  the  company  of 
the  milk-maids.) 

I  s^ive  below  a  list  of  obsolete  words,  with  their       A  list  of 
'^  obsolete 

meaning  from  the  works  dealt  with  in  this  chapter.       words  and 

their 
^IJ — to  prove  :    to  cure.  meaning. 

ii^^t«1 — authority  and  power. 

f^^^— to  tear. 


604      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LIIERAIUKE.       [Chap. 

^^'^ — number. 

^ft — without. 

f^^^ — one  who  has  an  ascetic  temper  of   mind. 

^^'^Ts? — presence. 

^ft^T^ — humble  solicitations. 

^^''?i^ — to  clean. 

3!^T^ — materials. 

^1^1 —highly  honoured:  of  an  angry  temperamtMit. 

fe"^^^ — to  originate  from. 

*f^\©^ — visible. 

^t^ — consciousness  of  the  outer  world. 

^TO — to  be  fit. 

f^'^f^ — to  wipe  away:    that  which  is  thrown  away 

as  of  no  value. 
C^^l — a  fervour  of  devotional  feelings. 
^m^^ — to  cut  jokes, 
f^^x© — to  a  particular  direction. 
^T^^ — emotional. 
^J^^t^ — conduct. 
^Tf5^ — ordinary, 
ft^fil^ — sorry, 
fewf^ — anxious. 
~2i^^ — great  (as  >?15^  ^^-51^^- 
y}T=9jf^ — flourishing  condition. 
c\-!^7\ — to  bitf. 
^tC«T'^ — to  'provoke, 
^fs — where. 
^I'^I^tV — to    accept    ;is    a    disciple  :    to  admit  as  a 

kindred. 
"Slt^r^^l — one    exjiert    in     caligr.iphy  ;       One    who 

interi)rets  tlu^  f^iultis  by  simple  w  ords 

of   his    own,  while    singing    kntana 

songs. 
^l^'ITf'R — to  sign  b\   hand. 


V*  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  605 

ffl^'-small  (as  «T|  '^^  f&^)- 

^t^^1 — chaff. 

y3«1tJ^^ — to  rebuke. 

^3^^ — to  have  oneself  shaved. 

^t®1 — red. 

^1^«1 — mad. 

Pt^f^l^ — to  turn  away. 

^e^ — to  wander  about. 

C^l'^l— love. 

f^^«1^ — affection. 

^5t& — anxious. 

C^t^tf^  C^l^tft— rumour. 

^^f% — mad. 

^t^l^tf^ — to  make  signs. 

f^^fe^ — completed. 

^^!ltfs  -wife. 

?i1^ — hnish. 

C^fff^ — a  female  sympathiser. 

^ift — solicitude. 

^t^i^^l — to  move  with  a  rod. 

^!^5t^^ — an  ear-ornament. 

^T^^ — a  frog. 

cfetfel — a  garden. 

Tf^t^*^^ — to  shampoo  :    to  serve. 

VQ^ — lips. 

^T^ — (from  ^^(^)  the^dark  spot  on  the  moon. 

During    the    Vaishava-period    two   persons,  en-  y^^Q 

vious  of  the  great  esteem  in  which  Chaitanya  was  pretenders 
held,  declared  themselves  to  be  incarnations  of 
Visnu  and  tried  to  practise  deception  on  credulous 
rustics.  Both  of  them  lived  400  years  ago,  and  we 
hnd  them  mentioned  in  the  Chaitanya  Bhagavata 
and  other  works  with  great  contempt.       One  was  a 


6o6       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERAIURE.      [  Chap. 

Bralimin, — a  native  of  Eastern  Bengal;  his  name 
was  Madhaba  and  Kavindra  was  his  title  ;  Kavindra 
literally  means  a  prince  of  poets,  but  the  Vaisfiavas 
called  him  Kapindra  or  a  prince  of  monkies.  The 
other  one  who  was  also  a  Brahmin  belonged  to 
Western  Bengal  (tir^  C^^)  ;  his  name  is  not  given, 
but  his  family  title  was  Mallik.  This  man  called 
himself  an  incarnation  of  Visnu  and  the  Vaishavas 
gave  him  the  title  of  Fox.  Both  in  Bhakti  Ratnakara 
and  in  Chaitanya  Bhagavata  we  find  many  con- 
temptuous epithets  bestowed  on  these  two  men. 
We  have  besides  seen  a  number  of  Sanskrit  verses 
in  which  some  details  are  given  about  them. 

The  The  \'aisnava  community  gradually  grew  larger. 

decadence      j^av  men  recruited   from  the    lowest    castes    formed 

of  the 

nobler        the    largest    portion    of    this    community.        Fallen 

elements.  i  r^     •   \  n     i  •,  i  i    i  i, 

women  and  rariahs  swelled  its  ranks  and  the  result 

was  that  the  allegory  of  Radha  and  Krisna  was 
made  an  excuse  for  the  practice  of  many  immorali- 
ties. Chaitanya  Deva  did  not  himself  organise  this 
community,  as  I  have  said  ;  those,  who  did  so.  kept 
up  its  purity  during  their  life-time  ;  but  it  gradually 
sank  into  ignorance  and  corruption.  Xot  only 
Chaitanya  Deva  but  all  his  comp.inions  also  were 
deified  and  the  catholicity  of  views  that  had  charac- 
terised them  became  a  thing  of  the  past.  People 
came  forward  to  prove  that  Haritlas  (a  Mahometlan) 
was  realy  a  Brahmin  as  if  none  but  a  Brahmin 
could  be  accepted  as  a  leader  even  in  V'aisriava 
society.  The  Wiiilya  and  Kcivastha  lea<iers  of  that 
society  who  onci'  counted  l^»rahmin  disciples  bv 
hundreds  gradually  lost  much  of  the  esteem  in 
which  thev  had  been  held,  because  of  their  havincr 
belonged  to  castes  Io^^er  than  that  of  the  Brahmins, 


v.] 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE 


607 


society 

asserts 

itself. 


and    at    the    present  day  there  is  no  Kayastha  ^^5- 
wami  or    priest    in    tlie    Vaisfiava  community,  who 
can  claim  a  Brahmin  disciple.     The  only  caste  next 
to  the  Brahmins  that  still  claims  Brahmin  disciples, 
is    the    Vaidya,    and    the    descendents   of  Narahari 
Sarkar  of  Crikhanda  have  a  considerable  following 
of     Brahmin    disciples    up    till    now,    though    their 
number  has  greatly  fallen    off.       Thus   do    we    find 
Hindu     society    to    be    almost    proof    against    any    y|,g  Hindu 
attempt    to    break    down     the     Brahminical    caste- 
system.       Hindu    society  has    often    been   seen   to 
yield    for   a   time   to  the  inspired  efforts  of  a  great 
genius  to  level  all  ranks,  but,  as    often,  it  has  been 
found  to  reassert  itself  when    the    new   order,    after 
its  brief  hey-day  of  glory,  gradually  succumbs  to  the 
power  of  older  institutions.     Buddhism,  Vaishavism 
and  even    Brahmaism,  all  of  which  began    with    an 
ideal  of  all-embracing  love    seem   each    in    turn    to 
have    lost     its    hold    upon    the    masses   gradually. 
There  is  an  inherent  power  in  the   social    organisa- 
tion of  Hinduism, — the  power  to  draw  from  all  faiths 
and   nourish  itself    on    the    best    elements  of  other 
creeds.     Each  religion,  that  comes  in    contact    with 
it,  prevails  so  long  as  a  genius  acts   in   its    support, 
but  when  such  inspired  help  is  gone,    it    finds    that 
its    strongest    points    have    all    passed    over  to  the 
other-side  leaving  it    incapable    of  coping  with  the 
resources    of    the    older    institution.      But    though 
much  of  the  influence  of  Vaisnavism  has  been    lost 
in  course  of  time  yet  it  retains  a  considerable    hold 
upon  the  masses.    Widow-marriage  and  a  disregard 
of  the    hard    and  fast  rules  laid  down  in  the  Hindu 
^astras  characterise  the    lay    Vaisnava    community, 
and    the    Vaisnavas    still    preach    the    doctrines  of 


The 
Vaisfiava 
influence. 


6o8      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

their  faith  with  great  earnestness  in  backward 
villages.  Thf>  whole  atmosphere  of  Bengal 
resounds  at  the  present  day  with  songs,  recitations 
and  the  tales  told  by  the  kathakas  and  the  kirtan- 
wallas  who  belong  to  that  community.  These  influ- 
ences also  invigorate  Hindu  society  as  a  whole,  by 
awakening  its  spiritual  consciousness  and  it  is  no 
longer  at  war  with  the  daughter-creed. 

From    the     incidental      descriptions     found     in 

Material       various    old    Benorali  works  we  find  that  durino-  the 
prosperity.        .  .  '^  ^ 

Hindu  period  not  only  the  merchant-class,  but  even 

rustic  folk,  enjoyed  great  material  prosperity.  In 
Manik  Chandra  Rajar  :^an  we  find  that  even  the 
children  of  villagers  used  to  play  with  golden  balls 
(C^Rt^  ^T^1)  and  that  even  a  maid-servant  would  not 
touch  a  cotton  sari,  but  wore  silk.  An  ordinary 
merchant's  dinner  was  not  complete  without  fifty 
different  dishes  with  the  rice,  besides  a  number  of 
preparations  of  sweets.  The  tradition  of  fifty 
different  dishes  is  still  familiar  in  every  respectable 
Hindu  household  and  old  ladies  may  even  now  be 
found  who  know  the  art  of  preparing  them.  The 
\'aisnavas,  as  I  have  said,  never  touched  meat  or 
lish,  but  in  the  preparation  of  vegetables  and  sweets 
they  were  past  masters.  Lists  of  the  delicious 
dishes  prepared  by  them  are  to  be  found  in  Chai- 
tanva  Charitamrita  (  Madhya  khanda,  3rd  and 
15th  chapters.)  in  2^()?>\.\\  pada  oi  the  Padakalpataru, 
and  in  Javananda's  Chaitanya  Mani^ala  and  other 
works.  Details  of  the  preparation  of  meat  and 
vegetable  curries  with  fish,  are"  to  be  found  in 
Daker  Vachana.  Kavikankana  Chandl,  and  in  nearly 
all  w  orks  of  Dharmamapgala. 


V.    ]  BENGALI    LATiGUAGE    &    LITERAT'JRE.  6o  9 


We  have  also  descriptions  of  gold  plate  being 
profusely  used  by  rich  men.  They  used  to  sleep  on 
couches  made  of  pui'^  gold,  and  when  they  would 
sit  on  thc^se  they  \  ould  rest  their  feet  on  silver 
foot-stools.  In  the  old  stories  and  folk-lore  we 
find  references  to  such  fine  cloth  that  when  exposed 
to  the  dew  on  the  grass,  it  could  scarcely  be 
seen.  The  Meghadurhbura  sadi^  made  of  an  ex- 
ceedino-ly  fine  stuff,  was  a  passion  with  women  of 
the  up'*:^r  classes. 

Thi-  is  only  one  side  of  the  picture.  In  Maho- 
medan  times  the  condition  of  the  lower  classes 
seems  j  have  been  deplorable.  No  description  of 
distress  and  want  can  be  more  pathetic  than  the 
accouhi.  which  Phullara  gives  of  herself.  For  want 
of  a  cup,  liquid  food  had  to  be  stored  up  in  a  hole 
dug  in  the  earth,  and  often  a  day  and  a  night  were 
passed  without  any  food.  The  poor  were  not  in- 
frequently subjected  to  capricious  treatment  from 
the  rich.  Many  of  the  large  tanks  which  were 
dug  in  bengal  at  the  time,  seem  to  have  been  the 
work  of  forced  labour.  The  custom  of  employing 
men  by  force  without  wages,  which  was  called 
C^^"^  *ft^»T,  was  very  prevalent.  Living  was  re- 
markably cheap  and  wants  were  few.  Now-a-days 
no  rustic  in  Bengal,  however  poor  he  may  be,  can 
help  spending  less  than  Rs.  100  for  a  marriage 
ceremony.  There  is  a  list  of  the  expenditure  in- 
curred on  that  account  by  a  poor  man,  300  years 
ago. 


The  cheap 

living  and 

poverty. 


Marriage 
expense. 


Two     dhadas    or   cloths 
for  the  bridegroom    ... 
Betels 
Catechu 


Price 

3  pies 

I  cowri  (less  than  a  pie) 

I      ., 


77 


6lO         HENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LIIERATURE.      [Chap. 

Lime  ...  ...      .}v  Cowri  (less  than  a  pie) 

Kliuna  (a  cotton  sadi  for 

tlie  bride)  ...   4^  cowries  (a  little  more 

than  2  pies 

Total      ...    13  cowries    (a  little  more 
than  half  an  anna). 

This  list  we  find  in  Chandikavya  by  Madhav- 
acharyya,  written  in  1579  A.D.  Of  course  the  value 
of  articles  in  our  present  day  has  greatly  increased, 
but  yet  the  items  mentioned  in  this  list  would  not 
cost  more  than  Rs.  5  even  now,  and  comparing  this 
with  the  lavish  expenditure  now-a-days  incurred 
even  by  rustic-folk  in  marriage,  we  must  admit  that 
the  economical  Hindu  of  yore  has  imbibed  extra- 
vagant ideas  about  living,  with  which  they  were 
once  perfectly  unfamiliar,  and,  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  Hindus,  expensive  living  is  no  indication  of 
civilisation.  At  the  marriage  of  Chaitanya  a 
second  time,  Buddhimanta  Khan,  who  managed  the 
ceremony,  said*  "  Brothers,  hear  me,  in  this  affair 
there  will  be  none  of  that  stinginess  which  charac- 
terises most  of  the  ceremonies  of  the  Brahmins. 
We  shall  do  things  in  such  a  manner  that  people 
may  say  it  is  the  marriage  of  a  prince."  Vet  the 
matter  was  one  of  the  simplest  kind.  Sandal  per- 
fumes and  betels,  with  garlands  of  flowers,  were 
freely     distributed.       There      was    no    dinner  ;    no 


"  \f^^«  ^t^  ^C?T  fS^  ^^  ^t  I 

Chaitanya  Bhagavata. 


v.]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    Lll  ERATURE.  6il 

naiitch  ;  no  illumination  ;  no  dowry.  It  is  related 
in  the  Chaitanya  Bhagavata  that  this  distribution  of 
sandal-perfume,  betels,  etc.,  cost  an  amount  of 
money  out  of  which  five  ordinary  marriages  could 
have  been  celebrated  !  Yet  the  expenses  calculated 
by  the  present  value  of  money  could  hardly  have 
exceeded  Rs.  50.  Compared  with  the  present  ex- 
penditure on  marriages  this  was  insignificant.  For 
now-a-days  no  gentleman  in  Bengal  can  manage 
a  marriage  for  less  than  Rs.  500  and  a  marriage 
of  a  pompous  description  must  cost  fifty  times  this 
amount.  But  I  doubt  if  the  present  state  of  things 
mean  any  improvement  in  the  material  condition 
of  the  people  ;  it  should  rather  be  taken  as  the 
result  of  extravagant  ideas  about  style  of  living  and 
display  which  are  threatening  to  prove  disastrous 
to  us. 

The  merchant-classes,  occupying  an  inferior 
position  in  society  inspite  of  their  great  wealth  in 
Bengal,  were  lavish  in  expenditure  on  the  occasion 
of  marriage  and  other  festivals  in  those  days.  The 
description    of    the    marriage    of  Lak§mindra  with  ^^^ 

Vehula  in  Manasar  Bhasan  discloses  a  pomp  and  merchants. 
grandeur  which  far  exceed  anything  of  the  kind 
found  in  the  modern  festivities  of  our  rich  people. 
The  profuse  display  of  jewellery,  of  gold  and  silver 
plate,  the  noble  procession  of  elephants  and  horses 
all  glittering  with  gold-saddles  and  ensigns,  and 
the  rich  dowries  carried  by  thousands  of  men, 
valuable  diadems  sparkling  from  the  turbans  of  the 
gay  companions  of  the  bridegroom,  and  rich  illumi- 
nation— all  indicate  the  vast  resources  that  were  at 
the  command  of  the  merchants  of  that  period.  But 
this  idea  of  pomp  and   extravagance  in    living    was 


6l2       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LilERATURE.       [Chap. 

not  the  Inghest  ideal  of  Hindu  society.  The  mer- 
chants, as  has  been  already  said,  ranked  low  in  the 
social  scale  inspite  of  their  great  riches,  and  the 
poor  pious  Brahmins  were  the  true  leaders  of 
society.  The  people  wanted  to  follow  the  Brah- 
mins in  their  utter  disregard  of  all  materialistic 
considerations  and  in  their  de\otion  to  God. 

Vaisnavas  were  generally  frugal  in   thrir    living. 
The    Mahotsava    of    the    Vaisfiavas    was    the    only 
M  hotsava     <^'cremony    in    which    they    would  sometimes  spend 
all    the    money  they  had  accumulated,  by  their  life- 
long labour.   It  is  a  noble  ceremony  the  like  of  which 
is    not    found    outside  the    pale  of  India  and  which 
had    its    origin    probably    in  the  Buddhistic  idea  of 
all-embracing  charity.  As  in  other  institutions  of  the 
Vaisnavas,  so  also  in  this  they  probably  imitated  the 
Buddhists.     Sometimes  for  a  whole    month    a    man 
of    ordinary   means  kept  his  gates  open  to  the  poor 
and  hundreds  of  them  came    from   all    parts    of  the 
country, — poor,    famished,    half-starved  people  who 
had  their  hll  sitting  there  in  long  rows  wiilnuit    any 
distinction  of  caste  or  crt^cd.      It  is  never   i     jh  din- 
ner, the  fare  being  always  exceedingly  sir.ii'   •.     But 
it  is  not  for  a  limited  number  of  invited  peop!    ; — it  is 
for  all — all   who   are    driven  to  it  by  hunger      Umax- 
be  called  a  feast  for  the  uninvited, — for  tho      whon. 
no  one  calls  and  all  would  turn  away    who      ave  no 
status    in    society    md    who    in    their  torn  rags  arc 
generally   unwelcome    visitors,   the    ownrr    of    the 
house  who  holds  tlie    Mahotsava   ceremony   himself 
serves     as   far    as    })racticabl-     the    beg"L:ars,    who 
flock    daily   to    iiis   house    in    thousands.     No    invi- 
tation is  issued,  but  the    ti(lin,;s  of   the    Mahotsava 
ceremony  spreads   lar  and  wide,  and  countless  men 


V»  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  613 

and  women  resort  to  the  place  and  receive 
a  warm  and  cordial  treatment  at  the  hands  of  the 
host  who  fijTures  on  this  occasion  as  a  friend  of 
the  friendless,  sometimes  offering  all  that  he  has  to 
the  destitute  and  the  needy. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE   POST-CHAITANYA   LITERATURE. 

I.  (a)     The  Court  of  RajJ  Krisfia  Chandra  of  Nadia.— 
Vitiated  classical  taste  and  word-painting. 

(b)  Alaol— The  Mahamedan  poet  who  heralded  the 
new  age.     His  life  and  a  review  of  his  works. 

(c)  The  Story  of  Vidya-Sundara. 

Id)  Early  poets  of  the  Vidya-Sundara-poems. 

(ei  Bharata  Chandra  Ral  Qunakara — the  great 
poet  of  the  18th  century.  Pranarama  Chakra- 
varti. 

II  (a)  The  Courtof  Raja  Rajavallabhaof  Raja  Nagara 
in  Dacca.  Its  poets.  Jaya  Narayaha  Sen— 
Ananda  Mayi  Devi. 

(b)  The  poets  of  the  school  of  Bharata  Chandra. 

III.  Poetry  of  rural  Bengal. 

(a  The  Kavlwalas  and  their  songs— Raghu.  the 
Cobbler— Haru  Ihakur-  Rama  Vasu  and 
others.  The   Portugese  Kaviwalla  Mr.  Antony. 

(b)   Religious  5ongs. 

(CI  Rama  Prasfida  Sen  and  poets  of  his  school. 

IV.  The  Jatras  or  popular  theatres. 

V.         Ihe    three    great    poets    with    whom    the    age 
closed     Dasarathi  -Ramanidhi   (lupta -Ifwara 
Chandra  (iupta. 
VI.         Ihe  folk-literature  of  Bengal. 


I.  (a)  The  Court  of    Raj§  Krisna  Chandra  of  Nadia.— 
Vitiated  Classical  taste  and  word  =  painting. 

A  new  era  \v;is  (lawtiiiii^  in  our  liU'raturr. 
Sonctv  after  a  L;it'al  inovciiu'iU  >inks  into  callous- 
ncs.s.      .\    L;roat    idea    passes  away  ;   and  in  the  age 


VL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    8i    LITERATURE.  615 


that  follows  the  spasmodic  efforts  of  common  men 
to  reach  the  high  ideal  expressed  in  some  great 
historic  character  slowly  spend  themselves.  Lesser 
men  arise  who  pose  as  leaders  of  society,  scofhng 
at  all  that  constitutes  greatness  ;  and  custom  and 
convention — tw^o  hoary-headed  monsters — once  more 
clasp  the  people  in  their  iron  grip.  This  is  an  age 
when  craft  and  ingenuity  find  favour  instead  of 
open-hearted  sincerity ;  when  moral  courage, 
character,  [nanliness  and  strength  of  conviction  fall 
into  disfavour  and  worldly  manoeuvres  of  all  sorts 
pass  for  high  qualities  and  are  praised  as  indicating 
wisdom. 


The 

Reaction 

and  its 

effects. 


In  the  literature  of  such  an  age,  we  miss  that 
genial  flow  of  noble  ideas — that  freedom  of  thought 
and  freshness  of  natural  instincts  which  characterise 
great  epochs  in  a  nation's  life,  and  in  their  place 
we  find  the  poets  struggling  to  furnish  long  and 
wearisome  details  about  a  small  point  till  it  is 
worn  thread-bare  by  its  very  ingenuity ;  a  small  idea 
is  over-coloured  and  followed  in  frivolous  niceties 
on  the  lines  of  a  vitiated  classical  taste  till  it  becomes 
almost  grotesque  or  absurd. 

Such  an  age  came  upon  the  society  of  Bengal 
and  its  influence  is  stamped  on  the  literature  of  the 
1 8th  century.  This  was  an  age  when  Mahamedan 
power  had  just  decayed.  Robbers  and  bandits  over- 
ran the  country ;  and  knavery  of  all  sorts  was  prac- 
tised in  the  courts  of  the  Rajas.  The  school  set  up 
by  Aurangeb  in  politics  became  the  model  for  his 
chiefs  to  follow  in  their  own  courts.  Conspiracies, 
plots  and  counterplots  amongst  brothers  and 
relations   who    wanted    to  elbow  down  and  kill  one 


6l6      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &.    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

The  another  to  gain  the:  gadi,  were  events  of  every-day- 

^\^^^^        occurrence  in  the  courts  of  Indian  noblemen.     Raja 
phere.         Krisna  Chandra  of  Navadwip  by  a  stratagem  which 
was  highly  praised,  deprived  his  own    uncle    of    his 
rightful  ownership  of  the  gadi  of  Krisfiagar.    Kri 'ha 
Chandra's  son  C^nbhu   Chandra    played    a    sir.iilar 
R§|a  dodge    and    tried    to    usurp    the    possessions  o.  his 

Chandr^a  father,  by  spread' ing  a  false  report  of  his  death. 
The  Raja  was  thus  going  to  be  paid  in  his  own 
coin.  His  agent  at  Agradwip  in  Burdwan  by  an 
equally  unscrupulous  action  ousted  the  rightful  owner 
out  of  the  possession  of  that  place  and  gained  it 
for  his  own  master.  In  the  Courts  of  Serajuddulah, 
the  Nabab,  plots  of  a  far  more  important  character 
were  being  formed  fraught  with  consequences  which 
were  to  change  the  history  of  the  whole  of  India. 
It  was  not  an  age  conspicuous  for  its  appreciation 
of  high  ideas  or  of  noble  sentiments.  "  Raja  Krisha 
Chandra  was  hostile  to  the  followers  of  Chaitanya."^ 
He  frustrated  the  efforts  of  Raja  Rajavallava  who  had 
tried  to  obtain  sanction  of  the  Pundits  of  Bengal 
to  the  remarriage  of  Hindu  widows  of  tender  ages. 
Yet  Krisha  Chandra  was  the  most  important  man 
of  the  period  in  the  Hindu  Society  of  Bengal.  His 
Court  had  gathered  round  it  some  of  the  greatest 
Sanskrit  scholars  of  the  country.  He  appreciated 
merit,  patronised  literature,  and  encouraged  art. 
The  far-famed  clay-models  of  Krishagar  and  the 
line  cotton-industry  of  Cantipur  owe  their  perfec- 
tion to  the  patronage  of  the  Kaja.  The  Raja  was 
friendly  to  the  English  and  it  was  he  who  first  put 
the  idea  of  overthrowing  Serajuddulah  by  the    help 


Khitica  Vam^aball  Charita  P.  29. 


VI,  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  617 


of    the  English  into  the  head  of  Mirzafar  and  other 
influential  men  engaged  in  conspiracy    against    the 
Nowab.     Krisna    Chandra  was  himself  a  scholar  of 
no  mean  order.     He  could  discuss  knotty   problems 
of    logic    with    Hari    Rama  Tarka  Sidhanta  and  in 
theology  he  was  a  match  for  the    far-famed    Rama- 
nanda    Vachaspati.       He    was    well-versed    in    the 
doctrines  of    the    six    schools  of  Hindu  philosophy, 
and  made  endowment  of  lands  to    the    great   expo- 
nents   of   that    learning  of  the  period — ^iva  Rama 
Vachaspati  and  Vlre^wara  Nyaya  Panchanana.    He 
could   compose    extempore  verses    in  Sanskrit  and 
competed    personally    in    public     with    Vanegwara 
Vidyalankara — the  famous  Sanskrit  poet  of  his  court. 

Besides  all  these  RaJ3  Krisna  Chandra  was  the 
great  patron  of  Bengali  literature  of  the  i8th 
century. 

Poetry  under  such  patronage  became  the  crea- 
tion of  schoolmen  and  courtiers.  It  no  longer 
aimed  at  offering  its  tribute  to  God  but  tried  to 
please  the  fancy  of  a  Raja  ;  the  poets  found  the 
gates  of  the  palace  open  to  receive  them  and  cared 
not  if  the  doors  of  heaven  were  shut.  For  models 
of  Bengali  court-poetry,  we  shall  quote  here  a 
passage  translated  from  the  Naisadha  Charita— a 
Sanskrit  poem  held  in  great  admiration  by  the 
scholars  of  the  period. 

'*  How  shall  I  describe,  O,  King,  the  profuse 
hair  on  Damayanti's  head  !  They  compare  it  to  the 
hair  of  a  chamari  (a  species  of  deer).  But  it  is 
foolish  to  compare  Damayanti's  hair  to  what  that 
animal  hides  behind  him  as  a  mark  of  shame.  They 
say    her    eyes    are    as   beautiful    as     those    of     the 

78 


The  great 
patron  of 
Bengali. 


The  ove 

drawn 

similes  of 

Sanskrit 

and 
Persian 
models. 


6l8      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

gazelle.  But  it  is  as  a  sign  of  his  disappointment 
and  defeat  that  the  gazelle  kicks  the  ground  with 
his  hoofs.  God  took  the  quintessence  of  the  moon 
and  made  Damayanti's  face.  So  a  hole  was  made 
on  the  moon's  surface  and  they  call  it  a  spot. 
The  lotuses  have  all  fled  into  the  watery  forts 
being  struck  by  the  beauty  of  Damayanti's  face. 
Before  God  had  created  Damavanti,  he  exercised 
himself  in  the  art  of  creating  feminine  beauty  by  his 
creation  of  all  other  women,  so  that  he  might  give 
perfection  to  that  single  form  of  Damavanti  ;  and 
when  the  ideal  was  reached  in  her,  the  subsequent 
forms  were  created  only  to  establish  the  superiority 
of  Damayanti  over  the  rest." 

Not  only  the  Naissdha  Charita,  but  Da^akumgra 
Charita,  Harsa  Charita  and  other  Sanskrit  works 
admired  in  this  period,  abound  with  passages  like 
the  above,  and  these  served  as  models  to  the  Ben- 
gali writers  who  were  under  the  immediate  influence 
of  the  courts,  and  they  themselves  began  to  regale 
on  niceties  which  now  seem  so  absurd  to  us. 
The  Persian  poems  which  were  favoured  in  this 
age,  also  contain  long  drawn-out  similrs  verging 
on  the  ridiculous,  and  the  tioblemen  and  scholars, 
who  prided  themselves  on  a  vain-glorious  pedantry, 
encouraged  our  poets  to  introduce  similar  artifi- 
cial compositions  into  Bengali.  Here  are  a  few 
short  passages  translattrd  from  a  favourite  Persian 
work  of  the  [)eriod. 

"  Her  black  hair  was  like  a  net  to  catch  the 
wise."  "The  lustre  of  her  nails  kept  the  hearts  of 
all  men  fixed  on  tht-m.  They  were  like  so  many 
rising  moons".  "Her  waist  was  blender  as  a  single 
hair  or  raiher  half  of  it." — Zelekhg. 


VL  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         619 

Slenderness  of  the  waist  was  held  to  be  a  point 
of  feminine  beauty,  hence  absurdities  passed  for 
niceties  and  were  admired  as  poetic  skill  ! 

The  literature  that  sprang  up  under  the  patron- 
age of  courts  was  thus  vitiated  by  their  influence. 
Not  only  in  the  style  of  writing  but  in  its  subject- 
matter  also,  it  showed  the  control  of  those  evil  stars 
that  held  sway  over  the  literary  horizon  of  Bengal  Kirtnis 
at  this  time.  The  romantic  conceptions  of  Persian 
tales  are  often  singularly  unpleasing  to  the  Bengali 
mind  ;  especially  does  this  remark  apply  to  those 
kiitnis  or  serving  women,  who  acted  as  agents  in 
matters  of  illicit  passion.  Yet  these  women  figure 
prominently  in  the  literature  of  this  period.  Here 
is  an  extract,  translated  from  Zelekha,  a  Persian 
poem,  in  which  a  kutnl  is  vaunting  her  powers 
before  the  heroine  of  the  tale.  The  Bengali  poets 
were  trying  their  level  best  to  import  such  characters 
into  their  poems. 

''  Who  is  it  that  has  tampered  with  your  heart  ? 
Tell  me  why  it  is  that  your  face  beautiful  as  a  flower 
has  grown  pale  and  yellowish.  Why  are  you 
waning  day  by  day  like  the  moon  ?  I  am  afraid 
you  have  fallen  in  love.  Tell  me  who  is  that  person. 
If  he  be  the  very  moon  whose  abode  is  in  the  sky, 
I  will  make  him  come  down  to  the  earth  as  a 
slave  to  your  wishes.  If  he  be  a  spirit  of  the 
mountains,  I  know  such  charms  that  he  would  be 
put  into  a  phial  and  brought  to  you.  If  he  be 
merely  a  man,  take  my  word,  I  shall  make  him  a 
bond-slave  to  you.  He  will  be  made  to  minister 
to  your  wishes  in  every  matter  and  you  need  not 
care  to  please  him  by  offering  him  your  services," 


620      BENGALI    LANGUAGE.    &    LITEKAIURE.       [  Chap, 


The  maid- 
servants 
of  the 
Hindu 
classics 
not  to  be 
confounded 
with 
Kutnis. 


The 

depraved 

taste  in 

style  and 

In  spirit. 


These  kutnis  are  numerous  in  Persian  tales. 
They  are  not  of  the  class  of  Durvala,  the  maid- 
servant described  in  the  Chandi  Kavyas  dealt  with 
by  us  in  a  previous  chapter.  The  latter  are  knaves 
who  repay  the  kindness  shown  to  them  by  creating 
disunion  amongst  the  members  of  a  family  to  serve 
their  own  selfish  ends  and  by  robbing  their  masters 
as  much  as  they  can,  when  entrusted  with  market- 
ing. Durvala  bears  a  family-likeness  to  Manthara 
of  the  Ramayaha,  though  placed  in  different  situa- 
tions, and  these  women  should  not  be  confounded 
\v\\.\i\\\^  kut)iis  of  the  Mahomedan  stories;  they 
are  not  accessories  to  immoral  purposes.  The  diitis 
perform  a  quite  different  function  in  the  \'aisnava 
poems  where  love  is  spiritualised. 

Indeed  the  Hindu  poets  had  hitherto  taken 
particular  care  to  keep  scenes  of  illicit  love  out 
of  their  poems.  But  the  kiittii  now  became  a  very 
common  thing  in  our  literature,  especially  in  the 
poems  of  Vidya-Sundara.  A  very  striking  instance 
ol  such  women  as  figuring  in  the  poetry  of  the  age 
is  found  in  the  character  of  llira  malini  in 
Bharata  Chandra's  Annada  Maugala — the  most 
popular  Bengali    poem  of  the  day. 

Thus  in  the  style  of  poetrv  as  well  as  in  its  spirit, 
the  court  literature  of  liengal  presents  a  striking 
(lilTerence  to  the  earlier  Bengali  works.  The 
style  and  the  spirit  both  became  depraved — the 
former  l)y  a  vain -glorious  pedantry  which  made 
dcscri[)ti()ns  grotfsciut:  by  their  over-drawn  niceties, 
the  s(*ri(nis  often  passing  into  the  burlescjue — and 
the  latter  by  scurrilous  obscenities  grosser  than  any- 
thing in  Sterne,  Smollett  or  Wycherley  and  by  the 
introduction  of  characters  like  those  of  liira   malini 


VI,  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LlTEKATUKE.  621 

and  Vidu  Brahmini — -accessories  to  illicit  love 
of  the  most  revolting  type.  The  descriptions  of 
men  and  women  are  often  marred  by  overcolouring 
like  those  of  the  beards  of  Hudibras  described  by 
Butler  in  a  well  known  lengthy  passage. 

But    a  literary    epoch  cannot  be  wholly   without 

its  redeeming  features.     There  must  be  some  really 

meritorious  points  by  which  it  can  attract  and  make  The 

,     .  .         "  T       .1  -^      •  merit.s  of 

people  its  votaries,  reconciling  them  even  to  its  vices,    ^^q  nterary 

In  this  age,  a  rigid  classical  taste  gave  a  unique  epoch. 
finish  to  the  Bengali  style  and  enriched  it  with  the 
variety  of  Sanskrit  metres  that  so  powerfully  appeal 
to  the  ear.  Bharata  Chandra  Ray,  the  court  poet 
of  Raja  Krisna  Chandra,  stands  alone  in  the  field 
of  our  old  literature  as  a  word-painter.  No  poet 
before  him  contributed  so  much  to  our  wealth  of 
expression  or  had  such  success  in  importing  ele- 
gance to  our  Sanskritic  metres.  The  poet  here, 
like  a  true  Indian  artizan,  applied  himself  patiently  Yhe 

to  the  sphere  of  decorative  art.     He  hunted  for  and     great  poet 
^  .  Bharata 

found    choicest    expressions    and    strung  them  into      Chandra. 

the  most  elegant  metres  and  carried  the  whole 
school  of  Bengali  poets  after  him  maddened  by  the 
zeal  to  imitate  his  style.  The  heart  had  been 
feasted  .  to  satiety  on  the  emotions  contained  in  the 
Vaisiiava  literature,  the  ear  now  wanted  to  be 
pleased.  High  sentiments  expressed  in  rich  poetry 
had  abounded  in  the  literature  of  the  Vaisnavas  ; 
enough  of  such.  The  scholars  would  have  a  brief 
day  of  their  own.  They  would  show  feats  of  clever 
expression,  pedantry  and  wealth  of  words  strung 
together  with  masterly  skill.  The  people  were 
drawn  by  this::npvelty.  After  the  strain  of  a  high- 
strung  idealistic  spirituality,  they  were  glad  to  revel 


^22       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.        [Chap. 

in  grossly  sensual  ideas.  They  descended  from 
heaven  to  have  a  little  taste  of  the  mundane 
pleasures.  The  Sanskrit  vocabulary  and  Sanskrit 
works  of  rhetoric  became  the  chief  sources  of 
poetic  inspiration  ;  yet  the  period,  by  a  strange 
irony  of  fate,  was  ushered  in  by  one  who  was  not 
a  Hindu,  as  it  would  be  natural  to  expect,  but  a 
Mahomedan.  A  Mahomedan  writer  arose  with  a 
mastery  of  the  Sanskrit  tongue,  the  like  of  which 
we  rarely  hnd  among  Hindu  poets  in  the  Bengali 
literature.  He  was  Syed  Alaol,  translator  of 
Syed  AlaoL  padmavata  a  Hindi  poem  written  by  Mir  Mahammad 
in  1521  A.D. 

(bj     Alaol— the  Mahammedan  poet  who  heralded  the 
new  age— His  life  and  a  review  of   his  works. 

Alaol  was  the  son  of  a  minister  of  Samser 
Kutub,  the  Nawab  of  Jalalpur  ^in  the  district  of 
Faridpur).  When  a  youngman,  he  undertook  a  sea- 
voyage  in  the  company  of  his  father.  The  crew 
were  attacked  by  Portuguese  pirates,  known  in  the 
country  as  Hermadas  (from  Armada).  We  have  a 
line  in  the  Chandi  Kavya  by  Mukunda  Kama  des- 
cribing the  great  fear  in  which  sailors  held  these 
I lcr))iadas.  "  Night  antl  day  the  merchant  plied  his 
oars  in  fear  of  being  overtaken  by  the  IJerniadas."'^ 
'V\\v  fatlu  r  of  .\laol  was  killed  in  a  hand-to-hand 
His  father  ''fi'^^  \\\\.h  the  marauders  and  our  poet  narrowly 
\s  killed.  escaped  a  similar  fate,  and  fled  to  Aiacan 
where  Magana  Thakur.  tlu^  MosliMn  I'rinic  minister 
ot  thr  ruling  (  hitt  of  the  place,  received  him  hospi- 

^'  "  ^tf^  f^^  ^C^  ^f^  51*^!^^^  ^C^  1" 

Ka\  i  Kankana  Chandi. 


VL  ]         BENGALI  .LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.         623 


tably,  being  pleased  with  the  great  scholar- 
ship of  the  youngman.  He  resided  at  this  place 
for  many  years  and  when  he  was  verging  on  forty, 
he  was  ordered  by  Magana  Thakur  to  translate 
the  Hindi  poem  Padmavat  into  Bengali  and  he  did 
so  to  please  his  patron  and  master.  Some  years 
passed  in  this  liigh  and  agreeable  company,  and  our 
poet  seems  to  have  tasted  during  this  time  the  sweets 
of  life  after  the  woes  that  had  befallen  him  in  the 
early  part  of  his  career.  He  was  again  ordered  by 
Magana  Thakur  to  translate  a  Persian  work  named 
Saiful  Mulluk  and  Badiujjamal  into  Bengali. 
But  lie  had  now  declined  '  in  the  vale  of  years'  and 
when  a  few  chapters  of  this  book  were  written, 
Magana  Thakur,  the  poet's  friend  and  patron,  met 
with  an  unexpected  death,  and  Alaol  in  great  dis- 
appointment left  the  half-finished  poem  and  retired 
into  a  life  of  rest.  But  it  was  yet  reserved  for  him 
to  be  subjected  to  further  vicissitudes  in  life;  and 
greater  sorrows  than  those  hitherto  experienced 
were  still  in  store  for  him.  Suja,  brother  of  Aurang- 
zeb,  had  come  to  Aracan  about  this  period  and  a  fight 
ensued  between  the  unfortunate  prince  and  the  Ara- 
can Chief, — the  former  being  completely  defeated. 
A  wicked  man  named  Mirza  gave  evidence  against 
Alaol,  to  satisfy  a  private  grudge  implicating  him 
as  a  party  to  Suja's  action  against  the  Chief  of 
Aracan.  Alaol  was  thrown  into  prison,  where  he 
spent  a  few  years,  subjected  to  all  sorts  of  cruel 
treatment.  He  was,  how^ever,  released  and  spent 
9  years  of  his  life  in  close  retirement.  Syed  Musa, 
a  rich  nobleman  of  Aracan,  took  some  interest  in 
the  poet  during  these  evil  days  and  at  his  request 
he  completed  his    translation    of   Saifulmulluk    and 


Enjoys  the 
patronage 
of  Magana 
Thakura. 


Magana 

Thakura 

dies. 


Alaol 
thrown 
into  prison 


624         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      Chap, 

His  poetry     Hadiujjamal.      Alaol    had   grown    old  by    this  time 
and  had  lost  his  wonted    spirit — the    spring    of    all 
his     noble    poetry.       In     the     last     part     of     this 
translation  we  miss    his    characteristic    genial    flow 
and    sweetness    of    expression.      Besides  the  above 
two  works  he  wrote  sequels  to  the  stories    of    Lora 
Chandrani    and    Sati     Maina  —poems    written     by 
Doulat  Kazi  in    Bengali.     The    latter    works    were 
undertaken    by    our    poet  at  the  command  of  Sola- 
man,  another  minister  of  the  Aracan  Chief.  At  the  re- 
quest of  an  influential  man  of  the  court  named  Sved 
A  list  of  his    Mahamed  Khan,  Alaol  translated  the    Persian  poem 
Hastapaikar  by    Nizami    Gaznavi.      Besides  these, 
Alaol    wrote    several    poems  on  Radha  and  Krisna, 
some   of    which    display    exquisite    poetic    touches. 
Alaol    was    born    about  the  year  1618  ;  was  thrown 
into  prison  in  1658  ;  and  being  released  lived    to    a 
good  old  age,  till  the  close  of  the  17th  century. 

It  will  be  seen  that  Alaol  the  poet  worked 
manly  in  the  field  of  translation,  and  the  chief 
work  of  his  Muse  on  which  his  fame  rests — the 
Padmavati — is  only,  as  we  have  said,  the  Bengali 
translation    of   a  Hindi  poem.      But  Alaol's  transla- 

An  im-         tion  is  not  only  free  but  is  also    marked   by     great 
provement  ....  ,11  r         •        •       1 

on  the         urigniality,    and    though   conforming  in  the  main  to 

orij^inal.      ^^^^  j.^j^.  ^j-  ^^j^^  Hindi  bard,  is  an   improvement  upon 
it  in  many  rcsj)ecls. 

The  Padmavati  is  written  in  a  high  llown 
Sanskritic  Bengali.  Alaol  is  the  first  of  the  poets 
who  aimed  at  word-painting  and  at  that  finished 
Sanskriti(.-  ex[)ression  which  is  the  forfe  of  the 
Bengali  literature  of  the  18th  century.  In  fact 
Alaol,  though,  generally  speaking,  inferior  to  Bharata 
Chandra,  because  he  lacks    the    "elegant    genius" 


VI.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         625 

of  the  latter,  eclipses  nearly  all  the  other  poets  of 
Bengal  in  his  profuse  use  of  Sanskritic  terms.  For 
a  .Moslem  writer  to  have  the  credit  of  importing  the 
largest  number  of  Sanskritic  words  into  a  Bengali 
poem  and  thus  heralding  an  age  of  classical  revival, 
is  no  small  achievement,  and  we  are  bound  to 
admit  that  none  of  the  Hindu  poets  of  the  age  in 
which  he  lived,  was  in  this  respect,  a  match  for 
him. 

Alaol  has  given  descriptions  of  the  religious  cere- 
monies of  the  Hindus,  their  customs  and  manners  iJ^t^  "^^f^" 
with  an  accuracy  and  minuteness  which  strike  us  as  and  the 
wonderful,  coming  as  they  do  from  the  pen  of  a  spirit. 
Mahomed  an  writer.  He  has  given  a  classification 
of  feminine  emotions  in  all  their  subtlest  forms  as 
found  in  the  Sanskrit  books  of  rhetoric,  in  the  por- 
traiture of  such  characters  as  Vasakasajja,  Khandita, 
Kalahantarita,  and  Vipralavdha.  He  has  represent- 
ed the  ten  different  stages  of  separation  from  a 
lover  (f^^^^<J  ^*r  ^'^fl),  closely  following  the  rules 
laid  down  in  Sahityadarpana  and  in  Pingala's  works 
on  rhetoric.  He  has  discoursed  on  medicine  in  a 
manner  which  would  do  credit  to  a  physician  versed 
in  the  Aurvedic  lore.  He  has^  besides,  shown  a 
knowledge  of  the  movements  of  the  planets  and 
their  influence  on  human  fortune  worthv  of  an 
expert  astrologer.  In  his  accounts  of  the  little 
rituals  connected  with  the  religious  ceremonies  of 
the  Hindus  such  as  the  Pragastha  \^andana,  he  dis- 
plays a  mastery  of  detail  which  could  only  have 
been  expected  from  an  experienced  priest.  He  has, 
besides,  described  the  rules  of  long  and  short  vowels, 
the  principles  ^"Jtl,  ^"^^l  etc.  by  which  the  various 
Sanskrit  metres  are  governed,  and   quoted    Sanskrit 

79 


626      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE        [  Chap. 


His 

work  read 
admired 
and  pre- 
served by 
Mohamed- 
ans. 


The  Sans- 

krltic 

culture  of 

Chlttagonjf 

people. 


couplets  like  a  Pandit,  to  serve  as  texts  for  the 
theological  matter  introduced  in  his  book.  The 
Moslem  poet  is  profuse  in  his  eulogies  of  ^iva  the 
Hindu  God,  and  all  through  the  work  writes  in  the 
spirit  and  strain  of  a  devout  Hindu.  Curiously 
enough  his  work  has  been  preserved  in  Chittagong 
by  Mahomedan  readers.  The  manuscripts  of  Padma- 
vati  hitherto  obtained,  all  belong  to  the  border-lands 
of  Aracan  in  the  back-woods  of  Chittagong,  copied  in 
Persian  characters  and  preserved  by  the  rural 
Mahomedan  folk  of  those  localities.  No  Hindu 
has  ever  yet  cared  to  read  them.  This  goes  to 
prove  how  far  the  taste  of  the  Mahomedans  was 
imbued  with  Hindu  culture.  This  book,  that  we 
should  have  thought,  could  be  interesting  only  to 
Hindu  readers,  on  account  of  its  lengthy  disquisi- 
tions on  theology  and  Sanskrit  rhetoric,  has  been 
strangely  preserved,  ever  since  Aurungjeb's  time, 
by  Moslems,  for  whom  it  could  apparently  have  no 
attraction,  nay  to  whom  it  might  even  seem  posi- 
tively repellent.  From  the  time  of  Magana  Thakura 
the  Mahomedan  minister,  till  the  time  of  Shaik 
HamiduUa  of  Chittagong  who  published  it  in  1893 — 
covering  a  period  o^  nearly  250  years,  this  book  was 
copied,  read,  and  admired  by  the  Mahomedans  of 
Chittagong  exchisivt^ly.  Wh.it  surprises  us  most 
is  tht^  interest  taken  by  the  rustic  folk  in  its  high- 
flown  Sanskritic  Bengali.  The  Province  of  Chitta- 
gong must  ha\('  Ixcn  once  a  nucleus  ol  Sanskrit- 
learning  to  haxc  (lisscminatetl  so  deep  a  liking  lor 
the  classic  tongue  of  the  lliiulus  among  the  lowest 
strata  of  so(irt\-,  and  spci  iail\-  amongst  Mahomed- 
ans who  might  ha\-e  been  e.xpected  to  have  the 
least  aj)titu(lt'  for  this. 


VI.  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  627 


poem. 


The  poem  Padmavati  deals  with  a  well-known 
episode  in  Indian  history.  The  Emperor  Alauddin 
of  Delhi  had  heard  of  the  wonderful  beauty  of 
Padmavati,  queen  of  the  Raja  of  Chitore,  and 
demanded  her  for  his  harem.  Bhim  Sen,  the  Raja, 
who  is  called  Ratnasen  in  the  Bengali  poem,  treated  ^^^  ^^^^ 
this  request  with  the  contempt  which  it  deserved,  ject  ofJ;he 
and  the  result  was  that  for  twelve  years  the 
Emperor  laid  siege  to  Chitore.  Bhima  Sen  was 
eventually  defeated,  and  his  queen  sought  death  on 
the  funeral  pyre, — true  to  the  traditions  of  Rajput 
women.  This  story  had  formed  the  subject  of  a 
poem  by  Mir  Mahomed  in  Hindi  which  contains 
about  10,000  lines.  Tlie  Bengali  Padmavati  by 
Alaol  has  about  10,500  lines. 

I  have  said  that  the  classic  taste,  which  made  the 
Bengali  poets  of  the  i8th  century  revel  in  exag- 
gerated and  high  flown  imageries,  was  indicated 
in  the  work  of  this  Mahomedan  poet,  to  such  a 
considerable  extent,  that  he  may  be  said  to  have 
heralded  the  new  epoch.  Alaol  rang  the  bell  of 
the  new  age  and  the  sound  was  caught  by  a  host  of 
other  poets  amongst  whom  Bharata  Chandra  was 
the  most  prominent.  I  shall  here  quote  some 
passages  from  Alaol's  Padmavati  to  show  how  his 
description  owns  kinship  with  those  found  in  the 
Sanskrit  and  Persian  poems  already  referred  to  by 
us,  as  also  with  the  high  sounding  flourishes  of  style 
which  characterise  the  Bengali  poems  that  followed 
the  age  of  xAlaol. 

■^"  The  light  that  beams  in  the  face  of  Padmavati 
puts  to  shame  the  light  reflected  from  a  golden  mirror. 


The  new 
age. 


628       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    ^    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

Far. fetch-  One  curious  fact  with  regard  to  the  face  is  that 
e  simi  e  .  ^^^^^  lotuses  are  confined  in  the  disc  of  the  moon 
(her  face.)  The  sun  who  hnds  his  friends  so  confined 
by  his  enemy,  came  to  the  rescue,  in  the  shape  of 
the  vermilion  mark  on  the  forehead.  The  god  of 
love,  in  aid  of  the  sun,  held  the  bow  of  her  eye- 
brows, and  aimed  his  shafts,  \\hich  were  the  glances 
of  her  eyes.  The  only  rei^ret  is  that  these  friends 
though  so  near  were  not  allowed  to  see  each  other.'' 

The  lotuses  are  her  two  eyes.  The  sun  accord- 
ing to  the  poetic  tradition  of  Sanskrit  rhetoric 
(^ft-^rf^^ft)  is  a  lover  of  the  lotus.  The  moon 
is  unfriendly  towards  tlie  lotus  according  to  a 
similar  tradition.  The  lotus  blooms  in  the  dav- 
time  and  fades  in  the  eveninor — a  circumstance 
which  caused  the  acceptance  of  this  idea  by  the 
poets. 

For  pages  and  pages  on^  may  foil 3 w  descrip- 
tions on  this  line.  The  ingenuity  of  such  composi- 
tions, greatly  favoured,  as  they  were,  by  the  scholars 
of  a  particular  epoch,  show  the  artihcial  taste  of 
the  age — the  absurdities  tlK.t  pas>ed  f o  •  intellectual 
feats  and  the  grotescjue  and  the  uncouth  that  were 
acceptc'l  ;i<  )w;nitiful. 

f^i;^  f«l^  51^^  ^1*\  ^•^t'^  ^^^^  H 

^^^  ^^^  ^v^  m'-{  ^^  v^  I 

Alaol  's  Padma\ati 


The  un- 


VI.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITEKATURE.         629 

But  Alaol's  poeins  often  reach  a  high  degree  of 
excellence  from  the  wealth  of  their  Sanskritic  ex- 
pressions. It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  excellence 
of  their  style,  and  the  effect  produced  by  the  jingle 
of  classic  words  and  associations  suggested  by 
them,  are  not  such  as  can  be  conveyed  in 
translation.  The  author  frequently  imitates  the 
style  of  the  great  song-masters  of  Bengal  with  translat- 
a  happy  effect.  The  following  passage  reminds  us  of  style. 
of  some  well-known  lines  from  the  Sanskrit  Gita- 
Govinda  by  Jayadeva. 

■^''  In  the  spring  season  the  bridegroom  revels  in 
the  joyous  company  of  his  bride.  They  are  like 
two  moons,  shedding,  as  it  were,  ambrosia  in  the 
lovely  smiles  on  their  softly  curving  lips.  The 
flowers  are  in  full  bloom,  and  from  the  floral  bowers 
the  cuckoo  cooes  pleasantly  in  the  company  of  its 
mate  ;  the  bees  hum  delightfully  ;  the  cool  Malaya 
breeze  charged  with  the  scents  of  fl^owers,  softly 
touches  the  bridegroom  heightening  tlie  charm 
of  the  sweet  words  of  his  lady-love.  The  acvatJia 
tree,  the  prince  of  the  forest,  displays  its  wealth  of 
new  leaves,  the  tarnala  stands  obliquely  and  the 
mango-creepers    are    rich    with    fresh    foliage     and 


■^<I  ^1^1  ^  ^  ^C^  C^^  ^^1  f^^, 


630      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

tendrils.  The  hearts  of  the  youthful  pair  are  glad- 
some. They  are  decked  with  the  wreaths  of  the 
rancran^  mallika  and  the  tiialati  flowers." 

Alas,  the  beauty  of  metre  and  of  choice  Sans- 
krit words  that  characterise  this  passage  is  but 
ill-conveyed  in  the  above  translation. 

The  line  "^F^^  ^Tf'l'f^,  'H^^^^Tf^^,  fS^-'^ai^- 
Indebted  C*ftf«o1  "  is  evidently  inspired  by  X'idyapati's  *' C^ 
'^\U^.  ^^^^  ^ifs^^Y  f^^^  "^1^1^  C^^Ull  "  and  the  lines 
beginning  with  '*  ^nfs^  Q^^  \-^'^i\^  C^t^t^  ^ff^ " 
breathe  the  sentiments  of  Chandi  Das  in  his  well- 
known    passage    opened    by    the    line    "  ^tf^    C^»{ 

Tlie  description  ui  the  seasons  is  full  of  de- 
licate sentiments  and  calls  up  familiar  scenes  by 
suggestive  lines.  During  the  rains  the  lovers  sit 
up  at  night  in  merry  talk  and  ■^"  if  there  be  a  sound 
of  thunder  she  is  startled,  and  throws  herself  into 
the  arms  of  her  lover — an  unexpected  surprise  to 
him." 


to  earlier 
poets. 


Alaol's  Padmavati. 
Alaol's  Padmavati. 


VI.]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.        631 

There  are  many  pretty  lines  in  the  poem  re- 
calling scenes  of  domestic  affection  and  of  the 
delicate  associations  of  love. 

The  preliminary  lines  in  praise  of  God   are    full 

f       •  •  11        i.-  ^  i  xj  i^    J  ir     ^  '"  praise 

ot    smcerity    and    devotion.     *'  He  created  lire  to        of  Qod. 

manifest  Himself  in  love,  and  death  to  show  that 
He  is  also  the  terrible.  Sweet  scents  of  flowers  He 
created  to  indicate  heaven  and  evil  odours  to  warn 
men  of  the  filth  of  hell.  As  a  sign  of  His  high 
favour,  He  created  sweet  things,  delicious  to  the 
taste,  and  the  bitter  and  pungent,  to  indicate  His 
wrath.  He  secretly  hid  the  honey  in  the  flowers 
and  by  creating  the  bees  He  brought  it  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  world.  He  created  all  in  the 
twinkling  of  an  eye,  and  the  great  firmament  creat- 
ed by  Him  stands  without  the  support  of  pillars. 
The  sun  and  the  moon  He  created,  and  also  created 
the  night  and  the  day.  The  winter  and  the  summer 
He  created,  and  the  heat,  the  ravs  of  the    sun    and 


?fec5i^  ^-^^  PH^  ^frf^  ^\Ti5  w 


632        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [Chap, 

the    clouds    which     He    lined    with    lightning.     He    ' 
pervades    the    universe — both    revealed    and   unre- 
vealed.       The    virtuous    and  the  saintly  know  Him, 
but  the  vicious  know  Him  not." 

In    this    hymn    Alaol    follows    more    or  less  the 
Hindi  original  of   Mir  Mahomed. 

Rut  though  in  the  main    storv    Alaol    follows    a 

Thecharac-     .^tyle  on  the  line  of  the  Sanskrit  classics  and  shows 
teristic  fea- 
tures of  a      a  wonderfully  close  acquaintance  with  the  manners, 

Mahomed.  j  r    •  rr  i     *u       it-    j 

an  tale.        customs     and     religious      life    ot     the   Hindus,   vet 

reading  between  the    lines    one    may    discover    the 

vein    of    a    Mahomedan    poet    by    the     non-Hindu 

elements  to  be  found  in  his    work,  though    couched 

beneath    a    highly    Sanskritised    form    of     Bengali. 

A    certain    extravagance    of     imagination    reminds 

us,    at    every    stage,     of    the     excesses     of     fancy 

which    characterise     Arabic     and      Persian     tales. 

Raja     Ratna     Sen     heard    .  of       the       beauty     of 

Padmavati,  and  even  before  he  saw   her,  fell  into    a 

fit   of     violent    love  ;    renounced    the    world    as   an 

ascetic,  and    wandered    through   the    forests.     And 

•'with    him     1600    princes    turned  ascetic.""^       The 


^ft^  cm^^^  ^Tc^  fraj'-  n^t^  ii 

Alaol's  Padmavati. 

^^tfl5  '^^^  «f^  ^t^1  %lf  II 
CTr«1  "(^  ?It^T^  ^V^  ^t^  C^I^  11 

Alaol's  Padmavati. 


VI,  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  633 

princess  was  sad,  and  the  message  of  her  sorrow 
was  carried  by  the  bird  citka.  The  poet  describes 
the  mission  of  the  bird  and  the  effect  which  his 
fliglit  produced  on  the  objects  that  he  came  in  con- 
tact with. 

^"  The  message  of  her  sorrow  was  carried  by 
tlie  bird  through  the  sky,  and  the  clouds  became 
dark,  in  an  excess  of  grief.  A  spark  of  this  sorrow 
touched  the  disc  of  the  moon  and  created  a  spot 
on  its  surface.  The  wings  of  the  bird  drooped 
under  his  burden  of  sorrow  and  they  looked  like 
lightning.  The  bird  passed  over  the  sea  and  its 
waters,  in  their  deep  woe,  became  saline.'' 

These  excesses  of  fancy,  which  should  not  be 
confounded  with  the  play  of  poetic  imagination, 
make  the  passages  such  gibberish  as  children  may 
be  heard  amusing  themselves  with  in  their  folk-lore. 

Ratnasen's    wrestling-feats    and  skill   in    riding, 

which  have  been  graphically  described  in  the  poem,  ^  ^      ^     , 

,  ,  r         '  Ratna  Sen's 

have  many  points   which    remind    us    of    the    feats  wrestling- 
.    .                                                                                .  feats. 

exhibited  by  modern  circus  troupes.     They  give  us 

C^t  \.TA  ^^W  ^t^^  ^<c^^  n 

^^tm^  ^^  c^^  ^c^T  ^t^^  ^^  II 
-^^  ^n^  fffKi  ^f^c^  ^^^1 
^^f^r<(  ^t^  ^f^  'ift^  ^^«i  II. 

Alaol's  Padmavati. 
80 


634      BENGALI    LAMGUAGE'&   LITERATURE.       [  Chap, 


The  story 
is  a  failure. 


Poet's 
great 
scholar- 
ship. 


Another 

poem  by 

Alaol. 


a  complete  idea  of  the  manly  sports  and  pastimes 
that  found  favour  during  the  Mahomedan  period, 
thougli  the  description  is  not  altogetlier  free  from 
exaggeration. 

Alaol's  Padmavati  has  little  interest  as  a  story. 
The  characters  are  not  delineated  with  skill,  and 
the  conception  of  the  plot  does  not  show  any  great 
mastery  of  the  poet  over  his  incidents.  Its  main 
charm  rests  on  those  stray  glimpses  of  poetic 
elegances  and  high  classical  refinement,  with 
which  the  book  abounds,  and  no  less  on  the  great 
erudition  of  the  poet,  indicated  in  many  noble 
passages.  We  appreciate  the  truth  of  what  Alaol 
says  of  himself  in  the  preliminary  chapter  of 
Badiujjamal. 

^''  At  the  order  (of  Magana  Thakur)  I  wrote 
Padmavati  ;  tlierein  I  showed  the  utmost  powers 
that  my  intelligence  possessed." 

Thougli  greatly  inferior  to  Padmavati  in  poetic 
merit,  the  Saifulmulluk  and  Badiujjamal  of  this 
poet  contains  occasional  passages  of  much 
beauty.  J  he  preliminarv  hvmn  to  God  is  quite 
a  match  for  that  which  we  fount!  in  Padmavati. 
t"  Where  would  be  the  glory  of  light,  if  it  were  not 


Alaol's  Padmavati, 

^f'l  ^1  ^l^  ^  %^^  C^^1  ftt^  II 
^n^  ^1   ^"^  C^t^^l  ^1^t^  ^ft'^l  II 


VL  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.         635 

placed  side  by  side  with  darkness  !  If  the  wicked 
were  not  in  the  world,  who  would  know  the  value 
of  a  saintly  life  !  The  salt  water  of  the  sea  makes 
us  appreciate  more  the  boon  of  sweet  fresh  water. 
If  there  were  no  misers,  we  could  not  give  our 
tribute  of  praise  to  liberal  minds.  The  true  and 
the  false  represent  but  two  sides  of  a  picture.  Don't 
you  Alaol,  care  to  listen  to  the  praise  or  blame 
of  this  world.  The  liltle  stock  that  you  have  in 
your  own  heart,  give  freely  to  the  world,  without 
feeling  ashamed  of  it." 

In  the  preliminary  account  of  Padmavati  Alaol 
says  that  iMagana  Tliakur,  the  prime  minister 
of  the  Chief  of  Aracan,  had  employed  him  to 
translate  the  Hindi  poem  into  Bengali, — high-flown 
Sanskritic  Bengali, — because  the  people  of  Aracan 
did  not  understand  Hindi  but  understood  Bengali. 
This  leads  us  to  the  conclusion  that  the  popular 
literature  not  only  of  Assam  but  also  of  the  border- 
lands of  Aracan  used  to  be  written  in  Bengali,  a 
circumstance  confirmed  by  the  other  fact  to  which 
we  have  already  drawn  attention,  viz.  that  it  was 
the  low  class  Mahomedan  population  of  these 
places  who  have  preserved  these  poems  for  about 
250  years. 

The  faults  and  merits  of  Padmavati  are  charac- 
teristic   of    the    literary    works    of    the    period  that 

Alaol's  Padmavati. 


636        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.     [  Chap. 

The  style       follows.     The   Sanskritic    style    used    bv  Alaol  was 
and  the 

taste.  greatly  improved  by  Bharat  Chandra.     The  descrip- 

tions of  the  school  that  follows  abound  with  niceties 
which  mystify  the  reader,  as  in  the  case  of  Padmavati. 
In  Bharat  Chandra,  the  great  master  of  the  age,  we 
only  hnd  these  niceties  somewhat  curtailed,  and 
absurdities  often  reclaimed,  by  a  sweet  jingle  of 
words,  which  please  the  ear,  like  the  warblings  of 
birds — without  conveying  to  us  any  clear  sense  or 
meaning. 

The  moral  tone  became  more  and  more  vitiated  ; 
and  Bharat  Chandra,  had  he  lived  in  this  age,  when 
poets  are  not  allowed  to  revel  in  the  unrestrained 
language  of  sensualism  and  the  grosser  passions, 
could  not  have  given  us  his  masterpiece  the  Vidya- 
Sundara.  The  literature  of  Bensfal  in  the  iSth  cen- 
tury  was  pitched  in  the  key  of  a  high-strung  classic 
taste  ;  yet  it  bore  no  mark  of  any  master  hand,  that 
could  shape  circumstances  and  give  them  life.  The 
works  of  the  period  are  nevertheless  full  of  spark- 
ling passages  and  delicate  sentiment,  and  they 
display  above  all  a  unique  treasure  of  choice  expres- 
sions which  has  greatly  enriched  our  literature. 

Tiu:  poets  had  betaken  themselves  to  the  pain- 
ter's art.  They  did  not  aim  at  inspiring  life  ;  thev 
wanted  to  give  finisli  to  th(^  form.  Thcv  busied 
themselves  with  colouring,  till  some  of  the  pictures 
they  drew  In^cam.-  blurred  by  their  very  efforts  to 
embellish  th(>ni.  lu^r  it  was  not  the  natural  that 
engaged  their  poetic  powers,  but  the  artilicial  and 
exaggerated,  which  i')an(lcre(l  to  the  vitiated  taste 
of  mere  scholars.  From  tlie  time  of  Alsol  the  tone 
gradually  degenerated; — the  good  sense,  the  sound 
principles,  and  the  (h)mestic  instincts  that  aimed   at 


VI*  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         637 

purity  were  lost.  There  was  a  violent  return  to 
the  senses.  Sensualism  of  the  grossest  kind — unres- 
trained and  vulgar  sensualism,  redeemed  only  by  fine 
literary  touches  and  embellished  by  choice  meta- 
phors— pervades  a  considerable  portion  of  the  litera- 
ture of  this  age.  The  poets  in  their  strenuous 
attempts  to  depict  vulgar  scenes  cared  only  to 
produce  effects  by  their  rhythmical  pomp  ;  and  when 
one  reads  such  passages  he  thinks  more  of  the 
metre  and  of  the  niceties  of  expression  than  of  the 
wicked  and  immoral  spirit  that  they  breathe.  Hence 
the  lawless  tone  loses  much  of  its  force  and  the 
scenes  themselves  appear  as  harmless  as  painted 
devils.  Poetry  sank  to  the  level  of  mere  painting, 
as  I  have  said,  and  to  that  of  a  merely  decorative 
type, — painting  in  which  skilled  and  ornate  designs 
are  worked  up  with  inexhaustible  patience  by  gifted 
hands  like  those  we  find  in  the  caves  of  Elephanta. 


-:0: 


Annada 


The  Story  of  Vidya  Sundara. 

The  story  of  Vidyasundara  finds  a  promi- 
nent place  in  the  works  which  are  called  Annada 
Mangala  or  Kalika  Mahgala.  Annada,  Kali  and  MangaT. 
Chandi  are  all  names  of  the  same  goddess  though 
their  forms  are  different.  These  poems  therefore  are 
written  in  honour  of  a  deity.  The  religious  element 
however,  is  introduced  by  way  of  apology.  It  was 
not  the  custom  of  the  old  Bengali  poets  who  rose 
with  the  revival  of  Hinduism  to  write  on  a  subject 
which  had  no  touch  with  religion  ;  and  the  religious 
garb  of  the  story  is  thus  accounted  for-  Grossest 
matter  however  is  introduced  into  these  works, 
though    bearing  a    holy    name.       Those    who    have 


638       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LHERATURE.      [  Chap,, 

seen    the    sculptural    figures    in    bas    relief    on  the 

walls    of    the    Puri  and  Kanaraka  temples    will  not 

be    astonished    to   find  a  religious  work  associated 

with    these     scenes    of    vulorar     sensualism     which 

are     to     be     found     in     Vidyasundara — a      poem 

forming     part     of     the      religious      work     Annada 

Mangala. 

Sundara,    son    of    Raja  Guna  Sindhu  of  Kanchi 

(Kanjivaram)    hears   a    report    of     the    remarkable 

beauty    of  the    Princess    X'idya,    daughter    of    Raja 

Sundara      Vira    Siriiha    of    Burdwan.  Mdya    was    not   only    a 
hears  a  •' 

report  of       peerless  beauty,  but  her   scholarship    was    so    great 

beauty.  '^^^^  '''^^  ^^*^  s^ViK.  a  challenge  all  over  India  offering 
her  hand  to  the  person  who  would  defeat  her  in 
scholarship.  The  challenge  was  accepted  bv  many 
distinguished  princes  who  flocked  to  the  Burdwan 
palace,  but  they  were  all  defeated  bv  the  princess 
whose  scholarly  discourses  in  various  branches  of 
learning  completely  out-witted  them. 

Sundara,  without  taking  permission  of  his  royal 
father,  went  alone  inco^yiito  aiul  riding  a  noble 
horse  reached  the  capital  of  Raja  Vira  Siriiha.  A 
large  Bakula  grove  spread  its  shadow  in  the  pre- 
cincts of  the  city  and  the  fragrance  of  its  flower  was 
carried  on  all  sides  bv  the  pleasant  evening  breeze, 
when  Sundara  alighted  from  his  horse,    and    sat    in 

Comes  to      ^'^*'    r4''ove,    not    knowing  where  to  seek  shelter  for 

Burdwan       ^j^,.     ni^ht.       At     that      moment    a    rather     elderlv 
and  meets  "  1111 

Hira.  woman    w  hos(^    charms  were   not  altogether  lost  by 

years, — a  courtezan  and  a  coquette,  happened  to 
come  there  to  gather  flowers. — for  Hir5  was  a  flower- 
woman  whose  (.lutv  it  was  to  make  wreaths  and 
gai  lands  lor  the  ladies  of  the  Rsja's  house  at  early 
dawn  ever\-  ilav.     She  was  charmed  with  the  hand- 


VL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  639 

some  appearance  of  the  Prince  and  offered  to  lodge 
him  for  the  night  and  as  long  as  he  might  wish  to 
do  so,  if  he  wanted  to  put  up  at  her  place.  He  called 
her  aunt,  and  though  she  was  not  pleased  with  the 
prince  for  calling  her  so,  as  in  her  heart  of  hearts 
she  entertained  the  hope  of  being  flattered  with  a 
little  attention  from  him,  yet  she  showed  him  every 
hospitality  at  her  house  ;  but  when  she  asked  him 
who  he  was  and  what  his  mission  was  at  Burdwan 
she  could  elicit  no  satisfactory  reply.  The  Prince 
said  he  was  a  youngman  who  had  taken  a  fancy  to 
travel  in  various  lands  for  the  sake  of  pleasure. 

■  The  evening  passed    in   pleasant    conversation, 

.and  in  the  night  the  flower-woman  began  to  wreathe 
her  floral  store  into  garlands  ;  and  placed  them  in  a 
beautiful  basket,  and  Sundar  asked  her  what  she 
would  do  with  them.  She  said  that  the  garland  would 
be  presented  to  Princess  Vidya  at  early  dawn,  a  task 
which  it  was  her  duty  to  perform  every  morning  by 
appointment  from  the  queen.  The  Prince  was  very 
much  delighted  to  find  in  Hira  a  woman  who  had  ac- 
cess to  the  Princess.  He  asked  her  many  questions 
about  the  beauty  of  Vidya  and  Hira  following  the  Offers  to 
close  lines  of  classical  metaphor  and  a  highly  or-  garland. 
nate  style,  as  dictated  by  the  Sanskrit  rules  of 
rhetoric,  drew  an  over-coloured  sketch  of  the 
Princess  which  had  the  effect  of  greatly  heightening 
the  desire  of  the  Prince  for  an  interview  with  the 
far-famed  beauty.  He  made  a  request  to  Hira  to 
allow  him  to  weave  a  garland  of  flowers  for  Vidya 
to  be  presented  to  her  next  morning;  of  course  he 
did  not  mean  that  it  was  to  be  offered  in  his  name  ; 
as  usual  she  would  give  it  to  the  Princess  ; — the 
garland  was  to  be  woven  by  him — this  was  all  that 


640      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap.- 


Love's 


he  wanted.  Hira  did  not  see  any  harm  in  this  and 
Sundar,  who  was  an  expert  in  the  art  of  preparing 
floral  wreaths  applied  his  whole  heart  to  the  work 
and  prepared  a  garland  with  remarkable  skill  ; — the 
petals  of  the  flowers  were  so  arranged  as  to  form 
characters  by  which  he  conveyed  his  love  to  the 
lady  in  a  beautiful  Sanskrit  sloka. 

Hira  had  to  sit  up  till  a  late  hour  of  the  night, 
as  much  time  was  taken  by  Sundar  in  artistically 
preparing  the  garland  ;  so  she  was  late  in  arriving 
at  the  palace  the  next  morning,  and  Vidya  reproved 
message  her  for  her  delay  threatening  that  she  would  bring 
ef"fects  ^^^^  conduct  to  the  notice  of  the  King.  Hira  said 
that  it  had  taken  her  a  long  time  to  weave  one 
special  garland  for  her,  and  that  the  Princess  should 
pardon  her  for  this  first  fault.  "  Where  is  the 
beautiful  garland  of  which  you  speak  ?"  She  said  ; 
and  as  Hira  handed  the  thing  to  her  she  felt  the 
dawn  of  love  in  her  heart  as  she  read  the  name  of 
the  Prince,  and  the  message  conveyed  to  her  by 
the  exquisitely  artistic  arrangement  of  the  flowers. 
It  was  as  though  reading  an  elegant  poem ;  the 
garland  rich  in  design,  perfect  in  execution  and 
containing  the  sweet  message  of  love,  charmed  her 
heart  and  she  importuned  Hira,  asking  her  to  tell 
her  who  it  was  that  had  made  it.  Hira  at  first  tried 
to  maintain  her  position  by  declaring  that  she  her- 
self had  done  so  ;  but  the  Princess  laughed  at  all 
attempts  on  her  part  to  establish  this  point  by 
oaths  -.md  long  speeches,  and  she  was  afterwards 
obliged  to  confess  the  whole  truth  to  Vidya  who,  on 
hearing  it,  could  not  disguise  her  feeling  from  the 
flower-woman  and  wanted  to  have  a  sight  of  the 
gifted  youngman. 


VI.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         641 

The    inner    apartments   of  a    Raja's   house    are      A  sight  of 

,,       .  •      ,     11       ,     •  1  u    i.  ^u  u  ^i-        ®3ch  other. 

eternally  shut  against  all  out-siders  ;  but  through  the 

shutters  of  her  window,  Vidya  saw  Sundara,  who  was 

brought  by  Hira  to  a    convenient    place    that    they 

might  have  a  sight  of  each  other.    It  should  be  stated 

here    that    Vidya's    learned    discussion    with    those 

who  courted  hsr  hand  were    always,    following    the 

custom    of     Hindus  in  such  cases,  managed  behind 

the  screen  with    the    help    of    interpreters    and    in 

no    case   was  a  prince  allowed  to  have  even  a  peep 

at  her. 

They  saw  each  other  and  fell  in  love.  How 
could  an  interview  be  effected  ?  It  was  im- 
possible to  attempt  anything  like  it  on  the  face  of 
the  guards  —those  eunuchs  who  kept  a  strict  and 
vigilant  watch  at  the  palace  gate.  Sundara  disguis- 
ed himself  as  a  Sannyasin,  wore  matted  locks  and 
a    false  beard  and  covered   his    face  with  ashes  and 

saw  Raia  Vira  Sinha.      To  the   surprise  of  the  Raja     -Sundara  as 
.  .  .  .  a  sannya- 

and    his    courtiers    he    declared  his  desire  to  enter  sin. 

into  a  scholarly  discussion  with  Vidya,  and,  if  he 
succeeded  in  winning  the  game,  to  take  her  for  his 
wife.  A  strange  story  from  the  lips  of  an  ascetic  ! 
Such  a  challenge  would  only  be  entitled  to  credence 
and  approval  if  a  prince  were  the  suitor.  But  as 
Vidya  had  promised  that  any  man  was  welcome  to 
accept  the  ciiallenge  irrespective  of  age  and  social 
status,  the  false  Sadhu  insisted  on  being  ushered 
behind  the  screen  to  have  a  discourse  with  her  in 
various  branches  of  learning  and  win  her  for  his 
bride.  The  maids  of  Vidya  humourously  asked  her  to 
match  her  powers  with  his  and  if  she  should  prove 
the  weaker  of  the  two,  to  court  the  lot  of  an 
ascetic's    wife    and    wonder   with    him  bare-footed, 


642         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LLFERATURE.      [Chap. 

Vidya  puts    visitin^r    shrines    like    Benares,    Gaya  and  Prayag  ! 
date.  But  Vidya  whose  mind  was  full   of    the    handsome 

prince  would  not  allow  the  Sannyasin  to  approach 
her,  and  put  off  the  date  for  doing  so  to  an  indefi- 
nite time  on  some  pretext  or  other. 

Both  the  prince  and  the  princess  were  longing 
for  an  interview.  Hira  was  taken  into  their  con- 
fidence, but  she  was  afraid  of  the  guards  who 
would  tear  her  to  pieces  if  they  had  a  scent  of 
her  having  a  share  in  the  business. 

Prince    Sundara    felt  that    life  was    unbearable 

without  an  interview    with    Vidya-      He   fasted  and 

Equipped       worshipped   Kali    with   true   devotion,  who  granted 

charmed       ^^^"^  ^  charmed  rod    wherewith    the    prince    worked 

^^^'  out  a  subterranean  passage  from  the  room  in  which 

he  lodged,  leading  through  a  mazy  tunnel  to  X'idva's 

room  in  the  palace. 

The  maids  of  Vidya  were  taken  into  her  con- 
fidence and  they  all  promised  secrecy.  One  night 
when  the  starry  sky,  with  its  grey  linings  of  clouds 
looked  beautiful,  causing  sweet  emotions  to  grow 
in  young  hearts. — Vidya  felt  a  great  longing  to 
meet  the  prince.  The  maids  attending  on  her 
suddenly  saw    that  a  deep    cavity    had    been   made 

^^  inside  the  room,  throuirh    which  a  turban    sparklino: 

The  ^  .  . 

meeting.       with  diamonds  rose    before    their  bewildered    gaze, 

and  shortly    after    therc^    appeareil    a    human  form, 

the    handsomest    that    had    ever    mi^t    their  eyes — 

Sundara    was    smiling  in   triumph    and    looking    to 

X'idya  assure  d  lur  that  it  was  all  through   the  grace 

of  Kali    that    he  had  at  last    succeeded    in    making 

an  underground  passage   leading  to  her  apartments. 

The  maids  felt  reassured  at  this    words  ;    but  Vidva 


VL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  643 

said    to    them    that    though    she    could    excuse   the 

thief  and  the  intruder,  it  was   not    possible  to  break 

her    promise  ;     unless    and    until    he    could     defeat 

her  in  scholarship  there  was  absolutely  no   hope  for 

him.     Sundara  readily    accepted  the  challenge  and 

there     followed    a    discussion     in     Kavya,     Nyaya, 

Dharma9astraj    Philosophy    and     all  other    subjects 

of  human     knowledge.     At  every    turn    Vidya    was 

brought    to   bay     by    the    intellectual    acumen    and 

profound    scholarship  of  the    prince    and    when    so 

vanquished,     she    had    a    smile     for     him,     which, 

coupled  with    the    glances    that   they    stole  at  each 

others    face,     invested    her     defeat    on     the     field     ►p.     jg^g-i- 

with    a    sense    of    conquest    over    the    heart  of  her       and  mar- 

riage  in 
antagonist    and    lover.     Vidya  now    acknowledged         secret. 

that  she  was  defeated  and  that  she  saw  no  ob- 
jection to  her  being  united  to  him  in  marriage, 
true  to  her  promise.  Among  the  various  systems 
of  marriage  of  the  Hindus  there  is  the  Gandharva 
vibaha  or  marriage  in  secret  which  makes  the 
vows  sacred  and  legal  by  mutual  election  of  the 
bridegroom  and  the  bride.  No  priest  or  third  party 
is  required  to  minister  to  the  ceremony, — the  only 
condition  required  to  bring  this  marriage  to/a  con- 
summation is  to  exchange  garlands  of  flowers  worn 
by  each  other.  Vidya  in  great  delight  took  off 
the  floral  garland  from  her  neck  and  offered  it  to 
Sundara  and  Sundara  did  the  same  to  her.  So  the 
marriage  was  completed.  The  poets  say  that 
Kamdeva  or  the  God  ot  love,  unseen  by  otb.ers, 
discharged  the  priestly  function  in  this  ceremony. 
The  marriage  parties  consisted  of  six  seasons 
headed  by  the  spring  and  tinkling  sounds  of  the 
ornaments, — the  ?iapura,  the  bracelets,  the  kankaiia 


644      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITEKATURE.       [Chap, 

worn  by  maids,  sounded  the  musical  notes    to    con- 
summate the  event. 

Thus  Vidya  and  Sundaia  met  every  night.  The 
maids  connived,  and  nothing  was  known  about  the 
marriage  by  the  Raja  or  his  queen.  Even  in  day- 
time they  met,  for  Vidva  had  a  compartment  in 
the  palace  all  reserved  for  herself,  and  her  parents 
visited  her  only  occasionally,  and  when  they  did  so 
they  generally  sent  previous  informations  of  their 
visit.  Chapter  after  chapter  is  devoted  by  Bharata 
Chandra  to  describing  the  mancevres  of  the  husband 
and  wife  to  give  pleasure  to  each  other  by  surprise- 
visits  and  by  every  form  of  play  imaginable  in 
which  the  young  couple  indulged  to  their  heart's 
content.  Raja  Vira  Sinha  continued  now  and  then 
to  send  information  to  his  daughter  about  the 
ascetic  till  waiting  as  suitor  for  her  hand,  but  \"idya 
would  not  listen  to  it.  She  declared  that  she  would 
lead  the  holy  life  of  a  nun  and  had  despaired  of 
marriage  as  no  prince  could  yet  defeat  her  in 
scholarship.  The  ascetic,  as  1  have  said,  was  no 
other  than  Sundara  himself,  who  passed  his  d^iys 
in  tiie  city  in  the  gaib  of  an  ascetic,  with  the  object 
of  avoiding  attention  as  he  was  ostensibly  without 
any  occupation.  Ihe  prince  and  the  princess  in 
tlie  meantime  both  insistetl  whenever  they  met 
ilira,  the  flower  woman,  on  her  helping  tliem  to 
have  an  intL-rxiew  with  each  other,  and  tlie  poor 
woman  was  at  her  wit's  end  to  devise  some  plan 
for  their  iloing  so.  She  was  completely  ignorant 
of  the  aliair  that  was  going  on  subrosa. 

The  maids  of  V'idya  were  alarmed  to  find  that 
the  princess  was  enceinte  io  that  the  fact  of  her 
marriage      could      not     be    longer    concealed    from 


VL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LllEKAlURE.  645 


I 


her  royal  parents.  In  great  dismay  they  discus- 
sed among  themselves  what  was  to  be  done  at 
this  crisis.  It  was  settled  that  the  matter  should 
be  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  queen ;  for  the 
disclosure  of  the  circumstances  through  other 
sources,  ^^■hich  was  inevitable,  would  expose  them 
to  tho  risk  of  losing  their  lives,  as  they  would  be 
implicated  in  a  share  of  the  guilt.  They  would  not 
disclose  Sundara's  name  but  would  bring  the 
matter  itself  to  the  queen's  notice — a  course  to 
which  Vidya  had  reluctantly  to  give  her  consent,  as 
there  was  no  other  alternative. 

The  queen  heard  of  it ;  she  visited  the  princess,  and 
after  vainly  attempting  to  extort  the  right  infor- 
mation from  her  and  rebuking  her  as  best  as  she 
could,  asked  the  maids  to  disclose  the  name  of  the 
person  who  was  so  bold  as  to  violate  the  sanctity 
of  the  royal  zenana  ;  but  they  washed  their  hands 
clean  of  all  knowledge  about  any  one  and  main- 
tained a  determined  silence,  in  answer  to  all  en- 
quires on  this  point.  In  a  great  rage  the  queen 
approached  the  Raja,  who  was  taking  his  afternoon 
nap  at  the  time  ;  the  maids  in  attendance  were 
waiting  with  chamars  and  fans — standing  silently 
like  painted  figures  by  his  bed-side.  The  queen 
in  a  violent  paroxysm  of  anger  flew  into  the  royal 
apartments  and  the  tinkling  sound  of  her  napnra 
awoke  the  king  who  was  surprised  to  find  her  in 
such  a  condition. 


Conceal- 
ment no 
longer  safe. 


The  exas. 

perated 

queen. 


She  related  the  story  to  the  Raja,  declaring 
him  to  be  quite  unfit  to  hold  the  sceptre  since  such 
a  thing  could  happen  in  his  own  palace.  The 
police  staff  was  worthless,   if  they  allowed   a   thief 


646       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LllEKATURE.       [  Chap. 

to  enter  the  royal  zenana  and  perpetrate  such  a 
heinous  crime  under  the  king's  nose,  what  safety 
was  there  for  the  life  and  property  of  the  poor 
people  living  in  his  dominion  ? 

The  Raja  convened  his  court  immediately.  The 

chief  officer  of  police    came    trembling    before    the 

enraged  chief,  and  Vira  Sinha  after  relating  the  story 

said,      "  You    base-born  fellow,    there    will    be    one 

grave    dug    into    which    you  and  your  children   will 
The  police      '        ,  .^  ^  .  1         1  •    <■  >.       -ri 

officer's        be  throw  n  it   you  cannot    detect    the    thiet.  1  he 

danger.        officer  with  folded  palms  asked  for    seven    d;iys    to 

make  an  enquiry  and  find  out  tiie  thief.     The   Raja 

granted  him  the  time  saying,  if    on    the    expiry    of 

seven  days,  the  thief  should  not  be    brought    to    his 

presence,    the    officer  would    lose   his  head  and  his 

children  would  all  be  killed. 

The  police  officer  commenced  operations  of  a 
thorough  insp(-ction  of  the  palace.  \'idva  was 
made  to  leave  her  apartment,  and  the  police 
people  Hocked  to  see  through  what  passage  a  thief 
might  enter  the  house  inspite  ot  such  a  strong 
body  oi  guartls.  It  took  them  no  time^to  discover 
the  hole — the  passage  made  by  Sundara.  They 
entered  the  hole  but  came  back  leeliiig  as  it 
the  \aults  ot  hell  were  open, — there  was  no 
passagt-  of  light  or  air,  the  gloom  that  perxadeii 
it  over  a\vt(l  them  ami  choked  tluni.  Tlu'  bravest 
of  them  repeated  his  attempts  several  times  and 
as  man\-  times  came  back  ajjprrhcnditig  tlie  ap- 
proach ot  a  \enomous  snake  or  some  devil. 
Dhumakclu,  the  Inspei  tor,  j)r(MU)unccd  it  to  be  a 
hole  made  bv  a  serjx-nt  and  ^'amak(■tu.  another 
oliicrr    ot     the    .staff,    said  that    il    must  have  been 


VI.]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  647 

made  by  some  black  spirit.  Whatever  it  might  be, 
they  were  unanimous  in  tlieir  opinion  that  in  all 
probability  that  was  the  passage  used  by  the  thief. 
They  all  sat  round  the  hole  and  contemplated  the 
best  method  of  carrying  on  a  sifting  investigation 
as  to  where  it  could  lead.  They  thought  of  exca- 
vating the  whole  ground  covered  by  it,  but  that 
course  would  require  such  an  extensive  operation 
through  the  hard  ground-floor  of  the  palace  that 
seven  days  might  not  suffice  for  finishing  the  work. 
Kalaketu,  a  police  officer,  said  : — "  Brethren,  let  us 
wait  here  in  the  disguise  of  maids  ;  the  thief  may 
come  of  himself  to  visit  the  princess.'' 

This  idea  was  accepted  by  all.  They  brought 
various  dresses  and  ornaments  from  the  Raja's 
theatrical  stock.  One  of  them  who  had  a  charming 
face  put  on  the  dress  similar  to  that  of  V'idya  and 
twelve  officers  disguised  themselves  as  twelve 
maids  decorating  themselves  with  great  skill  in- 
order  to  practise  the  deception  successfully. 
Thirteen  men  belonging  to  the  police  staff  had 
thus  stationed  themselves  in  the  apartments  of 
Vidya.  Sona  Raya  and  Rup  Raya,  the  chief  officers, 
sat  at  the  main  gates  leading  to  the  palace.  There 
were  28  minor  gates  and  as  many  police  Inspectors 
guarded  them  with  a  vigilant  watch.  One  of  the 
old  women  belonging  to  the  family  of  a  police 
Inspector,  who  used  to  wear  a  red  coloured  sadi 
and  a  garland  of  Java  flowers  round  her  neck, 
visited  every  house  on  some  pretext  or  other,  and 
employed  her  maidens  on  a  similar  mission,  making 
enquiries  of  the  women-folk  of  the  town  to  get  a 
clue  to  trace  the  thief.  A  thorough  search  was 
made  of  the  incoming  and  outgoing    boats    and    all 


648      BENGALI    LANGUAGH:    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

arrivals    and    departures    were    subjected  to  a  most 
careful  search. 

Vidya  could  find  no  possible  way  to  send  in- 
formation to  Sundara,  as  her  apartments  were 
occupied  bv  officers  of  the  detective  department. 
The  police  were  trying  to  detect  a  thief^  that  was 
all  that  the  people  knew;  no  inkling  as  to  a  guilty 
connection  with  the  royal  zenana  was  obtained  by 
any  outsider,  and  Sundara  had  no  thought  of  all 
this  investigations  having  been  aimed  at  the  detec- 
tion of  his  crime. 

As  usual  dressed  in  his  best  attire, — scented 
with  atar  extracted  from  the  rose  and  jessamine, 
with  his  turban  and  apparel  sparkling  w  ith  diamonds 
— his  head  full  of  love's  reveries,  Sundara  entered 
the  subterranean  passage  in  the  evening  and  ap- 
peared at  the  other  end  of  the  hole.  The  police 
officers  looked  at  each  other  and  smiled.  Sundara 
could  not  recognise  them  in  the  dim  light  which 
the  police  had  purposely  kept  in  the  apartments. 
He  sat  smiling  by  the  side  of  one  who  wore  \'idya's 
dress  and  attemped  the  gay  amours  with  her  to 
which  he  was  accustomed  ;  but  the  false  lady  hid 
her  face  behind  the  veil  and  would  not  show  any 
sign  of  reciprocating  his  warm  sentiments, — at 
which  he  feared  she  was  angry  with  him  for  some 
unknow  n  cause.  The  prince  looked  helplessly  around, 
and  asked  the  maids  to  intervene  in  his  behalf  to 
inaki."  his  hidv-love  as  kind  to  him  as  she  had  ever 
been.  Ihe  maids  responded  lo  his  call  and  all 
at  onc<'  seized  him — his  lady-love  also  was  not 
slow  in  joining  her  maids  in  according  him  the 
reception  which  a  thief  deserved  at  the  hands  of 
the  police. 


VL  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.        649 

In  the  meantime   some    of    the    officers  groped 
in    the    darkness    of  the  subterranean  passage,  at- 
tempting  to  discover  the    residence    of  the    arch- 
thief    whose    darinor    and  ingenuity    was    so    gfreat     »"0»*ower- 
^  =»  -^  o  woman  in 

as    to    have    outwitted   the    whole  staff  of  guards.       the  trap. 

They  were  no  longer  afraid    of  the    devil    dwelling 
in    the    cell,  nor  of  snakes,  since  they  had  seen  the 
thief  entering  Vidya's  apartments  through    it    with 
his    fine    apparel,  nothing  soiled    by  the  dirt  of  the 
cell.     Tiiey  had  to  go  a  long  way  before  they    saw 
the    region    of    the    sun    and    the  moon,   and  it  so 
happened  that  the  first  light  they   saw,    discovered 
to    their   eyes    a    charming    bunglow     which     was 
famiJiar  to  them  all,  as  forming  part  of  the  house  of 
Hira   the  flower-woman.     The  faded  beauty,  whose 
face  showed  a  strange  combination  of  wrinkles  and 
loveliness,  was  dragged  out  of    her    room    and    be- 
laboured   for   giving  shelter  to  a  thief  and  helping 
him  to  dig  a  passage  under  the  earth.      Hira  swore 
by  all  that  was  holy  to  her, — by  her  father's  name — 
by   the    name  of  Raja  Vira  Sinha  and  by  the  head 
of  Sona  Ray,  the  chief  officer  of    the  police,    that 
all    was   a    mystery    to    her  and  that  she  knew  no- 
thing of  such  developments  in  her  house  and  in  the 
palace.     Dhumaketu  remarked  : — "  How   could  the 
tiiief    have  the   knowledge  of  Vidya's  apartments, 
if  you  did  not  draw  a  map  for  him,  you  old    hag  ?" 
They   bound   her    in    chains    and  drove  her  like  an 
animal  to  the  palace. 

Raja  Vira  Sinha  sat  on  his  throne  to  pronounce 
hi.^  judgment  on  the  daring  thief  who  appeared 
to  him  to  be  a  remarkable  man,  and  whose  per- 
formance sounded  like  a  romance.  Sundara  was 
brought   before  him  bound   in  chains ;  the  courtiers 

82 


^50      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [  Chap. 

felt  the  influence  of  the  charm  of  his  personality. 
He  appeared  perfectly  indifferent  to  his  fate, 
and  with  a  stately  demeanour  approached  the 
throne.  He  was  more  handsome  than  all  the 
princes  that  had  stood  as  suitors  for  the  hands 
of  the  princess.  Raja  Vira  Sinha  felt  compunc- 
tion at  the  noble  sight  of  the  young  man  who 
would  be  welcome  as  his  son-in-law,  if  only 
his  birth,  status  in  life,  and  learning,  had  qualified 
him  for  the  high  honour,  and  if  he  had  not  stooped 
to  the  wicked  device  of  a  thief  for  winning  the 
heart  of  his    pretty    daughter.     The    sword    of  the 

The  preva-     ^^-^^  officer  of  police  was   unsheathed  and  it  stood 
rications  oi  ^ 

Sundara       ready    awaiting    only    the  command  of  the  king  to 

Raja.  sever  the  head  of  the  thief     from    his    body    before 

all  the  assembled  court.     The  Raja  asked  the  young 

!nan  to  relate  his  story, — who  he  was,  what  was  his 

father's  name  and  why  he  stooped  to  such  a    mean 

device    for    gaining   the    princess.       Sundara    said 

in    a  half-humourous  tone,  "  My  name  is  \'idyapati 

(lit.    husband    of    Vidya),    my      father's     name     is 

father-in-law  of  \'idya,  my  home  is  in    \'idya-nagar 

(village  of  the  name   of    Vidya)    and    I    belong   to 

the    caste    of  Vidya."       The    offended    chief    was 

angry     beyond     measure    at    the    audacity    of    the 

man,  and  the  chief    officer    of     the    police    wanted 

permission  to  kill  him   on    the    spot,   but    the    chief 

by    a   glance  cast  secretly  at  the  ollicer  forbade  him 

to  do  so.     The  more  the    Raja    tried    to    bring    the 

thief  to  a  confession  of  his  guilt  as   also    to  giving 

an  account    of  himself,    the   more    did  he    frustrate 

him    by    ingenious    rei>lies,    and    at    last  recited  50 

s/o/,-(is  composed  by  himself,    extempore,    in    which 

he-  described  his  love  to  \'idva,  but  these  slokas    (in 


VL  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  65I 


Sanskrit)  which  are  found  in  the  Vidya  Sundara  of 
Bharata  Chandra  and  are  well  known  as  "  Chora 
Pancha9ata"  could  also  be  interpreted  as  signifying 
praises  in  honour  of  the  Goddess  Kali.  They  have 
double  meanings.  The  Raja  was  struck  by  this 
display  of  erudition  and  felt  that  he  was  no  ordi- 
nary person,  but  as  he  persisted  in  his  wayward- 
ness, at  last  gav^e  orders  to  take  him  away  from  his 
sight  and  lead  him  to  the  place  of  execution. 

The  handsomest  young  man  that  ever  met 
the  eyes  of  men  in  Burdwan,  being  cruelly  bound 
hand  and  foot,  was  being  carried  to  the  execution- 
ground,  and  the  citizens  that  witnessed  the  scene 
felt  sorrow  and  sympathy  for  the  prince,  especially 
the  women-folk  who  made  all  kinds  of  reflections, 
some  of  which  were  not  in  good  taste,  as.  many  of 
them  expressed  in  an  unreserved  language  their 
envy  at  the  good  fortune  of  Vidya  in  having  pos- 
sessed him.  These  descriptions  do  not  really 
represent  the  Hindu  women  whose  natural  shyness 
would  scarcely  allow  them  to  overstep  the  limits  of 
decency  in  such  a  gross  manner.  We  have  in  our 
literature  of  to-day  feminine  characters  like  Ayesa 
and  Kunda-nandini — imitations  of  Rebecca  and 
Haidee,  who  though  they  do  not  actually  come  in 
gowns  and  bodices,  display  the  heart  of  European 
maids  througli  the  thin  cover  of  Indian  sadi.  The 
feminine  characters  depicted  in  Vidya  Sundara  and 
the  ideas  attributed  to.  them  are  similarly  foreign 
to  us.  They  unmistakably  show  the  stamp  of  the 
influence  which  the  literature  of  an  alien  people 
left  on  our  own. 

Sundara  being  taken  to  the  execution  ground, 
prays  to  Kali  for  succour.      The  story  of  ^rimanta 


Order  for 
execution. 


Saved  by 

the 
Mother. 


The  story 


652      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

Sadagara  repeats  itself  here.  Sundara  prays  to 
Kali  invoking  her  by  names  which  begin  with  each 
of  the  34  letters  of  the  Bengali  alphabet.  He  receives 
the  never  failing  help  of  the  mother  ;  a  great  army 
of  ghosts  come  and  bind  the  king's  army  with 
chains. 

In  the  court  of  the  Raja  the  bird  cuka  com- 
municated a  strange  story.  It  told  the  Raja  that 
the  thief  was  no  other  than  the  far-famed  prince  of 
Kanchi,  Sundara,  whose  learning,  handsome  appear- 
ance and  martial  acquirements  were  the  pride  of 
Southern  India.  The  Raja  asked  cuka  as  to  why 
he  did  not  give  an  account  of  who  he  was,  though 
he  was  repeatedly  asked  to  do  so.  The  bird  said, 
it  was  not  the  custom  with  a  prince  to  give  an 
account  of  himself,  the  royal  ambassador  introduced 
him  to  Rajas  of  those  countries  which  he  might 
happen  to  visit.  The  ambassador  Gangabhata 
had  been  sent  to  Kanchi  to  proclaim  the  challenge 
of  Vidya  in  that  city  and  he  was  called    in.       After 


told  by        making    obeisence    to    the  Raja  he  said  in  reply  to 
uka  con-        ,  1  •         1  1  •  ,.  -t-i  • 

rmed  by     the  query  put  to  him  about  the  prmce, —    1  he  prmce 

Bh~t"  ^^  Kanchi  lias  the  title  of  Mahakavi  or  great  poet, 
because  he  possesses  poetical  powers  in  an  uncom- 
mon degree.  I  saw  him  at  Kanchi ;  than  him  a 
more  handsome  prince  does  not  exist  in  the  world  ; 
when  lu-  heard  of  the  beautv  of  \'i(ha  and  of  the 
challenge  she  had  oft'ered,  he  suddenly  disappeared 
from  the  city  and  since  then  nothing  is  known  of 
him.  llis  ri)\al  parents  in  grtat  distress  sent 
nu\sstM\gers  ever)\\here  to  make  enquiries  about 
his  whereabouts.  But  so  long  as  I  was  there  he 
did  not  return.  It  is  not  iinlikelv  that  he  has  come 
to  Burdwan." 


VI.  i         BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &  LiTfeRATURE.         653 

The  Raja  sent  the  ambassador  to  the  execution- 
ground  to  identify  the  thief  if  he  was  really  the 
prince.  Gangabhata  came  back  forthwith  and  de- 
clared that  the  thief  was  the  prince,  to  whom  he 
had,  while  at  Kanchi,  delivered  the  letter  of 
challenge. 

The  Raja  himself  went  to  the  execution-ground. 
There  he  saw  his  army  mysteriously  bound  with 
chains  and  unable  to  speak,  and  the  prince  in  an 
attitude  of  prayer  looking  up  to  heaven.  He 
seemed  so  completely  resigned  that  he  looked 
like  a  beautiful  statue  placed  there  to  dispel  the 
horror  of  the  execution-ground.  The  Raja  went 
and  embraced  him  as  his  son-in-law,  and  by  the 
grace  of  Kali  the  royal  army  was  released  from 
the  chains  and  was  once  more  set  free. 


Sundara 
identified. 


The  marriage  of  Vidya  and  Sundara  had  already      Marriage 
taken  place  according  to    the  Gandharva  system, —     festivities. 
the  ritual  of  which  consisted  only  in  the    exchange 
of  flower-garlands  between  the  couple  as  a  sign    of 
their  mutual  selection  of  each  other,  and  the  public 
ceremony    was    now    performed    with   great   eclat. 
Sundara  after  having  stayed  at  Burdwan    for    some 
time  went  to  Kanchi  with  his  wife  Vidya  and    lived 
many  long  years  in  happiness.     Nor  must  we    omit 
to  say  that  during  the  marriage  festivities  Hira    the    Theflower= 
flowerwoman    was    released  and  rewarded  by  Raja      rewarded. 
Vira  Sinha. 


(d)     Early  poets  of  the  Vidya  Sundara-poems. 

The  oldest  Vidya  Sundara    that    we   have    been 
able    to  secure,   was    written    by  Govinda    Das    in 


654        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 


The  story 

i5  an  old 

one. 


(jovinda 

Das  159  5 

A.  D. 


1595  A.  D.  The  poet  was  born  at  Deogram 
in  Chittagong  and  belonged  to  the  Atriya  Gotra, 
and  to  the  line  of  Naradas  who  was  probably  a 
Kayastha.  It  appears  that  there  had  been  previous 
poems  on  Vidya  Sundara  from  which  our  author 
drew  his  materials.  We  find  in  the  Brahma  khanda 
of  the  Bhavisya  Puraha*  the  story  of  X'idya  Sundara 
described  at  some  lenorth  in  racv  Sanskrit  verses.  It 
is  wrong  to  suppose  that  Bharata  Chandra  was  the 
first  to  connect  the  story  with  tlie  Burdwan  Raj- 
family  and  that  he  did  so  to  satisfy  a  private 
grudge.  In  the  Brahma  khanda  we  find  mention 
not  only  of  Burdwan  as  the  place  of  occurrence  of 
its  incidents  but  also  of  Raja  ViraSinha;  and  Rama 
Prasada  whose  \'idya  Sundara  is  earlier,  as  well 
places  the  scene  in  Burdwan.  Besides  these,  in  the 
Padmavati  by  Alaol  we  find  a  reference  to  the  under- 
ground passage  dug  by  Sundara  which  proves  that 
the  tradition  of  the  story  had  existed  in  tlie  country 
for  a  long  time.  The  mould  in  which  it  was  subse- 
quently cast  by  Bharata  Chandra  and  other  poets  of 
his  school  bears  the  mark  of  Mahomedan  influence. 
Govinda  Das's  poem  was  free  from  those  vulgarities 
which  are  now  associated  with  the  story,  owing  to 
the  way  in  which  Bharata  Chandra  dealt  with  it. 
But  Govinda  Das  wrote  in  a  highly  Sanskritised 
style  and  in  this  respect  had  affinities  with  subse- 
quent schools  of  poets.  The  following  passage 
shows  the  sort  ot  style  which  now  came  gradually 
into  favour  and  from  which  it  is  so  hard  to  translate, 
owing  to  tlie  fact  that  its  merits  lie  wholly  in  its 
literary  art  : — 


*  Acct)l-(lini;  to  Wilson,  Brahma  Khainla  was  composed  shortly 
alter  1550  A.D.     Sec  Indian  Antiiinary  vol.  XX  P  419  (1891). 


VI*  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         655 

■^"  All  praise  be  to  the  Lord  of    gods  ^iva, — the     A  hymn  to 
saviour  of  the  world.      Many    salutations  do  I   offer  V'^^- 

to  thy  lotus  feet.  The  stream  of  the  Ganges 
adorns  thy  locks, — the  moon  is  thy  crown  ; — garlands 
of  flowers  and  snakes  coiled  into  the  form  of 
wreaths  adorn  thy  neck  and  soft  curls  of  hair  hang 
loo;-e  and  touch  thy  ears.  Thy  three  eyes  though 
half  shut  gleam  fiercely,  and  the  lustre  of  thy  body 
is  like  unto  a  silver  mountain.  O  Thou,  the  des- 
troyer of  the  enemies  of  the  gods  and  of  the  god 
of  love, — Thou  Prince  of  ascetics,  regaling  thy- 
self in  the  joy  of  Yoga,  thou  Lord  of  Gouri — thy 
humble  votary  pays  his  worship  unto  thee." 

Govinda  Das  was  of  a  religious  turn  of  mind 
and  often  his  reflections  are  worthy  of  one  versed 
in  Vedanta  philosophy.     Here  are  a  few  lines  : — 

t  ''  As  one  sees  the  reflection  of    himself    in    a       Vedantic 
mirror,    so    is    Kali    reflected   in  the  universe.     All 
emanate    from    her    and    pass    into  her,  just  as  the 
waters  of  the  sea  rising  to  the  sky  fill    the    streams 
and  rivers  with  rain  and  flow  back  to  the  sea.^' 

^^  ^?^5&^  ?f  ^  ^m  ^^«i  ^R^t^  ^^^  c'lU^^l^r^  II 

Kalika  Mangala  by  Govinda  Das. 

t  ^f^U^  c^fk  a^  ^^^«i  ^t^i  I 
^x-^K-^^  ^^  di^  (Tll^  »fff<l1  II 
^\Z^^  ^^  C^^  ^^  ^fl  ^^^  I 
(M  ^^  ^^^h  ft*lt^  ^t^a  H 

Kalika  Mangala  by  Govinda  Das. 


ideas. 


nanda. 


Madhu 


656         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [Chap, 

After    Govinda    Das    the    next    writer  of  Vidya 

Sundara  that  we  have  been  able  to  trace   is    Krisna 

Krisfia         Rama.  He  was  a  Kayastha  by  caste,  born  at  Ximta 

1686  A.D.     a  village  close  to  Belgharia,  a  station    on   the    East 

Bengal    Railway.       Krisfia    Rama's  Vidya  Sundara 

was  written  in  the  year  16S6  A.  D. 

Ksema-  Of    Ksemananda's     Vidya    Sundara — the    date 

of  composition  is  quite  unknown.  It  is  evidently 
very  old  to  judge  from  the  hand-writing  of  the  in- 
complete manuscript  that  has  been  obtained. 

Vidya  Sundara  by  Madhu  Sudan  Kavindra — The 
Sudana.       story  is  told  very  brielly  in  the  poem.      The  date  of 
composition  is  not  known. 

Vidya  Sundara  by  Rama  Prasada  Sen. 

Rama  Rama  Prasada  was  that    s^reat  saint  and  poet  of 

Prasada.  .  ^ 

the  i8th  century'whose  name  is  known   and  revered 

throughout  Bengal.  Whatever  was  the  cause,  this 
saintly  poet  conceived  the  whim  of  writing  the  in- 
decent story  of  Vidya  Sundara.  His  poem  was 
the  model  which  inspired  Bharata  Chandra  to  write 
in  a  similar  strain.  Ram  Prasada  was  favoured  by 
Raja  Krisna  Chandra  as  appears  from  the  grant  of 
100  bighas  of  rent-free  land  which  was  conferred 
on  him  by  the  Raja  in  1785  A.  D.  It  may  have 
been  under  court-influence  or  due  to  some  juvenile 
poetic  freak  that  Rama  Prasada  set  his  hand  to  the 
task  of  writing  a  poem  for  which  nature  had  not 
litted  him.  i  le  has  been  outdone  by  Bharata  Chandra 
whose  poem  of  Vidya  Sundara  far  excels  the  one 
he  wrote.  But  Rama  Prasada  in  his  vulgarities, 
his  pedantry,  and  other  faults  of  the  age  was  not 
a  whit  behind  his  more  successful  rival.  The  de- 
tails of  vulgar  and  indecent  love  which   are    found 


style. 


VL  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         657 

in  Bharata  Chandra's  poem  were  all  anticipated  by 

Rama  Prasada,  and  in  fact  the  former  seems  in  such 

matters    to  have  taken  his  cue  from  him.     Bharata 

Chandra  gave  a  finish  to  the  style  by  a  harmony  of 

expression    which    Rama    Prasada  had   sought   for 

in  vain.    Though  himself  a  learned  scholar  and  Sans-         Failure 

kritist,  Rama  Prasada  scarcely  shows  a  musical  ear      J*^  ^.^J"^, 

/  Prasada  in 

in  tliis  work.      His  efforts  to   introduce  high    sound-      Sanskritic 
ing    Sanskritic    words    are    far    from  happy  ;    they 
remind  us  of  the  attempts  of  the  elephant  to  please 
Adam  and  Eve  in  the  garden  of  Eden,  as  described 
by  Milton  : — 

"  The  unweildy  elephant, 

To  make  them  mirth,  used  all  his  might,  and  wreathed 

His  lithe  proboscis." 

The  style  of  Rama  Prasada  is  made  cumbrous 
by  Sanskritic  expressions,  such  as  : — 

^t^^  ^t^^  ^i^  ^t%,  ^1^^,  ^i^ft 

'-QTl^ft^f^I^I   ^^  ^f^  ^f^  I 

*  "  The  moon  is  spotted  and  so  cannot  bear  comparison  with 

your  face." 
t  "In  water,  on  land  and  in  the  sky." 
I  "As  if  the  beauty  of  the  full  moon  were  drunk  by    the    bird 
Chakora." 

§  "  The  sun  is  rising  and  the  night  goes  away.  O  my  Uma, 
awaken.  There  stands  your  father.  You  should  not  behave  so. 
The  bards  and  singers  with  closed  palms  are  singing  '  arise,  awake 
from  your  sleep'." 

«3 


658        ULNGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

As  the  above  is  quoted  to  show  how  tlie  poet  fails 
to  produce  an  effect  by  liis  high  sounding  words,  a 
translation  is  hardly  called  for  though  I  give  one  in 
the  foot-note.  The  words  '  ^^f^fT/  '  f^^,'  '  ^t^ft^'3?; 
'fn^f^/  '^t^ft/  'vf,^:jf^s^5j^^1/  '^<^^f^'  and  'wf^f?[' 
are  pure  Sanskrit  forms  and  though  Bengali  is  now 
a  highly  Sanskritised  dialect,  the  above  forms 
could  have  no  chance  of  being  introduced  into  our 
written  laneur.o-c. 

These  passages  show  a  curious  medley  of  Sans- 
krit and  Bengali  words  and  remind  us  of  the 
similar  stvle  of  Krisha  Das  Kaviraja's  Chaitanya 
Charitamrita. 

Bharata  r^)!iarata  Chandra  destroved  the  temple  of     fame 

Chandra  '  .         :  . 

and  Rama      whicli  Rama  Prasada  had  erected  for  himself  in  the 

contrast.       poem    of  \'idya  Sundara,  and  with  those  materials 

raised  one  to  '_(lorifv   himself.      He   is   so    profusely 

indebted    to    the     preceding    poet    that     there      is 

scarcelv  a  line  in  Rama  Prasada's  poem,  the  ring  of 

whicli    is    not    echoed    in  Bhgrata  Chandra's  work. 

Yet  the  latter  produces  such    a    singular    effect    bv 

h.'irmonv  of  words,  that  Rama  Prasada,  upon  whose 

\\ork  lie  draws  freelv  for  materials,  must  be  satisfied 

with  tlip  wages    of    a    day-labourer    while   Bharata 

would    claim    the    reward  of  the  artist  who  creates 

a  master-piece.     I  quote  below  *  extracts  from  both 

A  description  of  VJdya's  beauty. 

*"^r^^i  f^5?r"(?»?c'i^^':n(  i"'^if^f^?T^'^^?^^^f5c^tr^, 


VI.] 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LI  IKIiA  rUKL. 


659 


poems,  and  place  \\wm  side  by  side  to  sliow  to 
what  extent  the  one  has  drawn  upon  the  other. 
I  shall  not  attempt  a  translation  of  the  passages 
into  English,  as  no  sense  could  be  imparted  without 


I 


f^5^«l  I 

'p^  c^ti^  m  *l^  c^  ^11^ 

Rama  Prasada. 


''P^^^t^  C^ti^  C^Tfe  5?t^f  ^  ^^IJ 
Bharata  Chandra. 


Marriage  under  Gandharba  form. 


^^^^^  ^^2?  ^^1  K«i=^%n^  II 
^  ^u\  ^'w  a'l  ^^^  ^'(ir  II 

Rama  Prasada. 


^^^  ft^t^  ^'^5T  ^^:t  ^if«f 

^Bll 

^^  I 
'l^^^fft^  ^ItsTf  •  ^^^  ^;^»f^  II 

^■^1^1^  C^^C^  ^j^Ti  ^^7fti[  I 

^^H  II 
Bhnrata  Chandra. 


66o      BENGALI    LAv^GUAGK    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 


Rama 
Prasada. 


elaborate  annotations  of  such  words  as  '  ^^^'T^^.' 
*  ^5*^^.'  '■^^^Wj'  '  fe^.'  etc.,  and  even  by  such  notes 
the  affinity  of  the  passages  in  point  of  language 
could  not  be  fully  conveyed  to  readers  unacquaint- 
ed with  the  niceties  of  our  tongue. 

But  Rama  Prasada  was  a  great  poet,  greater  in 
many  respects  than  Bharata  Chandra.  His  other 
works,  to  which  we  shall  have  to  refer  hereafter, 
have  made  landmarks  in  tlie  history  of  our  literary 
and  spiritual  thought.  He  wa^  a  seer  and  a  saint, 
and  though  he  was  beaten  in  his  juvenile  attempts 
to  compose  a  love  poem,  he  shortly  after  achieved 
fame  bv  his  songs,  whici;  have  immortalised  him  in 
Bengal  and  made  him  dear  to  the  heart  of  every 
Bengali.  We  need  not  regret  that  he  failed  in  his 
attempt  to  say  an  artificial  thing,  for  his  soul  was 
artless.  It  is  well  that  he  was  defeated  in  his  effort 
to  win  precedence  in  a  court  where  scurrility 
reigned  ; — the  pity  is  that  he  soiled  his  hands  by 
such  an  attempt  to  pander  to  the  vitiated  taste  of 
the  age.  He  was  a  scholar,  but  it  is  onlv  when  he 
forgets  vaiii-glorious  erudition,  that  he  displays  him- 
self in  his  best  and  most  favourable  aspects.  He  was 
a  iinished  literature  and  the  language  he  had  at  his 
command  was  rich  and  varied,  though  he  was  not 
h.ippv  in  his  attempts  to  mingle  Sanskrit  and 
Bengali.  It  is  when  he  appears  as  a  child  and  uses 
the    child's    language,  singing  songs  that  welled  up 


^if'l  dl^  ^m  ^H  "fl^ 

Kama  Prasada. 


Bharata  Chandra. 


VL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  66i 

in  his  lieart  out  of  the  exuberance  of  his  devotion- 
al feeling, — when  he  sees  the  Divine  mother  in 
nature  and  forgets  every  thing  else  saying — ^'Enough 
O  mother  !  Like  the  bee  attracted  by  a  painted  His  Songs. 
flower,  have  I  roved  amongst  the  vain  pleasures  of 
the  world.  Enough  have  I  tasted,  I  desire  no  more. 
Now  the  evening  has  come.  It  is  the  dusk  of  the 
evening,  O  mother,  take  this  thy  child,  to  thyself.""^ 
— that  he  appeals  irresistibly  to  the  heart.  Each 
line  of  his  songs  throbs  with  the  deep  yearning  of 
the  soul.  We  shall  deal  with  them  hereafter. 
Rama  Prasada  himself  said  truly  in  one  his  songs 
t"  My  poems  will  crumble  into  dust  but  I  shall  live 
in  my  songs."  Even  as  a  child  plays  at  being  a 
soldier  in  dress  that  passes  for  a  soldier's  uniform, 
and,  soldier-like,  brandishes  his  little  sword,  but 
when  he  becomes  weary,  runs  to  his  mother  all 
covered  as  he  is  with  the  dust  of  the  play-ground, 
and  there  in  his  natural  aspect  looks  most  lovely, 
so  did  Ram  Prasada — sick  of  the  false  play  of 
pedantry  which  had  occupied  him  for  a  while  but 
had  not  realy  satisfied  him — run  at  the  close  of  the 
heyday  of  his  worldly  career,  to  seek  his  Divine 
mother's  grace.  He  now  soothed  his  heart,  vexed 
with  the  world's  turmoil  with  songs,  which,  with 
their  deep-toned  melancholy  and  their  resignation 
to    the    divine    mercy    ring    out    even    now  in    the 


^  ''^^1  'cit'ii  fe^^  n^^^^  *ff^  m^  "^m  t^  I 

^1  ^^t^  ^1  t^  ^«R  ^^J1  ^^ 

Rama  Prasada. 


662       BF.NGALl    LANGUAGE    &    F.ITKR ATURE.       [Chap. 

villages  of  BcMigal.  There  is  no  rustic,  no  old 
man,  and  no  woman  in  Bengal  who  has  not  drawn 
a  truly  inspired  consolation  from  them  in  hours 
when  the  wrongs  and  sorrows  of  the  world  were 
like  to  bruise  the  heart  and  make  it  heavy- laden. 


(c)     Bharata  Chandra  Rai  Quhakara — the  great  poet  of 
the  Eighteenth  Century. 

A  short  time  after  Raima  E-'rasada's  \'id\a  Sundara 
was  composed,  Bharata  Chandra  described  the  same 
story  in  his  poem,  called  the  Annada  Mangala, 
which  at  once  rose  to  the  highest  point  of  fame 
and  popularity,  throwing  into  the  shade  all  the 
earlier  works  on  the  subject. 

Bharat  Chandra  Rai  was  born  in  the  year 
1722.  A.  D.,  at  Peron  Basantapur  in  the  district  of 
His  life  Hughly.  His  f.ither  Narendra  Xarayana  Rai  was  a 
Zemiiuler  of  the  place  and  had  obtained  the  litle  of 
R§ja  from  the  Nawab  of  Mursidabad.  There  arose  a 
dispute  between  Narendra  Rai  and  the  Raja  of 
Burdwan  on  a  boundary-question  and  the  former  is 
said  to  have  given  offence  to  thr  indt-pendent  chief 
bv  a  public  mention  of  \'isnu  Kumari,  his  queen. 
Two  Rajput  soldiers  named  Alam  Chandra  and 
Ksema  Chandra  were  sent  by  the  angry  R§j§  to 
chastise  Narendra  Rai.  They  were  accompanied 
by  a  number  of  armed  men  who  took  all  the  lands 
belonging  to  Raja  Narendra  Narsvana  bv  force  and 
ousted  him  from  his  possessions,  allowing  him  to 
retain  his  hold  on  his  homestead  only.  Narendra 
Rai  was,  as  may  be  understood,  reduced  to  great 
poverty  after  this  event.  His  son  Bharata  Chandra 
staved  with  his  maternal  uncles  at  Noapara  and  pro- 
t;ecuted  his  studies  in  a  Sanskrit  to!  at  'I'ajpur.  When 


VL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LIIERA TURl':. 


663 


only  fourteen,  he  married  a  girl  of    the    Kegarkuni 
family  of  Brahmins  at  Sarada,  (a  village  in  Pergana 
Mangalghata)  whose  status    in    society    was    much 
inferior  to  his  own — in  the  face  of  great   opposition 
from    his    p;ir(^nts    and    brothers.       They   were  not 
prepared  to  receive  him  or  his  bride  at  their  house  ; 
so  the   young  fellow  came  to  Devanandapura  in  the 
district     of  Hughly    and    sought    the    favour   of    a 
wealthy  Kaystha  named  Rsma  Chandra  Munsi  who 
accorded  liim  a  warm  reception,  being  pleased  with 
his  talents.      He  learned  Persian  at    his    place    and 
on    an     occasion    of    worship   of    the     god    Satya 
Naravana  composed  a  short  poem  in  honour  of  the 
deity,    which    greatly    pleased    the  audience.     This 
po«"m  was  composed  in    1737  A.  D.,   when    Bharata 
Chandra  was  only  fifteen.     At  this  time  his  parents 
perFTiitted  him  to  return  home    though    thev    would 
not    allow    his    wife   to    come  w^ith  him.      He  came 
back  to  hi«;  family-residence  and  was  deputed  by  his 
father  to  settle  c^^rtain  questions  about  their  landed 
property   with  the  Raja  of  Burdwan.     But  for  some 
reason  or  other  Bharata  Chandra  was   thrown    into 
prison  by  the  Rajs  for  a  few  months.     On  being  re- 
leased he  felt  a  desire  to  visit  the  Jagannatlia  temple 
of  Puri.     Arriving  at  the  shrine  he  met  with  a  warm 
treatment  from  some  of  the  Pandas  who    were    de- 
ligfhted  with  his  learning.      He  was  greatly  impress- 
ed with  Vaisnavism  at  the  time  and  is   said  to  have 
taken  into  his  head  the  idea  of  turning  ascetic    and 
leading  a  holy  life  in  the  Vrinda   groves.     With  this 
object  he  marched  bare-footed,  but  the  village  Kha- 
nakula  lay  in  his    way,    where  a  relation  of  his  wife 
stopped  him  and  by  persuasive  arguments,  the  force 
of  which  he  took  no  time  in  appreciating,  brought  the 


Troubles 
owing  to 
marriage. 


A  poem  on 

Satya 
Narayafia 
1737    A.D. 


Thrown 

into 
prison. 


664       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap, 

young  aspirant  for  a  holy  life  to  the  village  Sarada 
where  his  wife  lived.  The  Win  da  groves  with  the 
vision  of  God,  that  had  inspired  the  poet,  melted 
awav  lil<:e  mist  from  his  imagrination,  and  in  the 
Company  village  of  Sarada  he  found  a  metal  more  attractive 
o  IS  wi  e  ^^,|^g^g  i^g  spent  some  time  in  the  company  of  his 
young  wife. 

Our  poet  next  came  to  Farasdanga  where  a 
zemindar  named  Indra  \arayana  Chaudhari  took 
some    interest    in    him  and  introduced  him  to  Raja 

Introduced    Krjsna    Chandra  of  Navadwipa.     This  Rai'a,    who. 
to  Kri*^ni  ^  ^ 

Chandra.  as  already  said,  was  a  great  patron  of  letters,  dis- 
covered in  the  young  man  poetical  talents  of  an 
extraordinary  order  and  immediately  appointed 
him  as  his  court-poet  on  a  pay  of  Rs.  40  a  month. "^ 
The  clouds  that  had  gathered  over  his  fortune,  now 
passed  away  and  he  met  with  sunny  days.  His 
Annada  Mangala  was  composed  by  the  command  of 

Annada        Raja  Krisha     Chandra.     The  book   was    completed 
Manjfala  in  ^  "  .         . 

1*7 5 2.         in  1752  A.  D.      About    this    time    he    built    a    new 

home    at    Mulajore — a    village    which    was    shortly 

after  leased  by  Raja  Krisha  Chandra  to  one    R§ma 

Deva   Naga.     This  man  was  very  exacting  and  our 

poet  was  sore    troubled    by  his  growing   demands. 

He  wrote    8    couplets    in    Sanskrit    describing    the 

oj^prcssion    of. Rama  Deva  Naga,  the  naive  humour 

105  1  16       of  which  so  Lrreatly  pleased  the  Raja  that  he  orrant- 
bi^has  of  .  .  . 

land.  cd  to  his  favourite^   j")oet      105    hio^has    of     rent-free 

land  at  (uista  in  Pergana  Amalpur    and    16    hii^^Jias 

more    at    Mulajore.      Rhsrata  Chandra  died  of  dia- 
Death    in  ^       »     t-.      1  r  1        t-       i-  1 

1700  A.D.     betes  in  1760  A.  D.  three    years    alter  the    hnglish 

had  won  the  battle  of  Plassey.     He  was   decorated 

*  It  was  not  at  al!  meajjre  at  the  time,  Warren  Hastings'  pay 
as  a  Member  of  Council  beinor  Rs,  joo  a  month  in  1764. 


VI.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    Si    LIIERATURE.         665 

with    the   title    of  Rai    Gunakara  by   Raja    Kri?na 
Chandra. 

Bharat;i  Chandra's  Annada  Mangala  was  at  one     The  popu- 
time  so    popular  in  Bengal,  that  thei-e  was  scarcely        Vidy§^ 
a  young  man  or  young  woman  with  any  pretensions       «5undara. 
to  learning  who  could  not  reproduce  passages  from 
it.       The  story  of  V^idya  Sundara  was    popularised 
by    liis    work    to    such    an   extent  that  our  popular 
theatres  called  yatras  at  one    time    rang    with    the 
songs    of    Vidya    and  Sundara.     The  long  poetical 
descriptions    did    not    suit  the  yatras,    so    Gopala 
Uriya,  a  famous    Yatrawala  of    later  times  took  the 
cue  from  Bharata  Chandra's  wi  itings  and  composed 
short    and   light    songs   based    on  the     text    of    his 
poem,  which  became  very  popular  in  the  country.   In 
i\\e.SQ  yatras  the  dance  of  Hira,  the  flower    woman,    Adopted  in 
was  a  point  of  great  interest.     We  may  quote    the       ^^  ^^^' 
following  song  as  a  specimen  : — 

■^"  It  is  so  curious  that  a  handsome  man  like  you 
is  in  quest  of  lodgings.  There  are  many  lotuses 
to  receive  the  bee,  why  should  there  not  be  many 
hearts  to  welcome  thee  !  Hear  me,  O  youngman, 
when  I  pluck  flowers,  the  bees  fly  around  me — that 
is    the    pleasure    that    keeps  me  at  Burdwan." 

The  prince  is  brought  to  the  house  of  Hira 
where  he    constantly    harps  on    Vidya ;  the    flower- 

^W^l^^  %^  ^t^l  ^I'tl  ^l^  ^^1  ^m  II 

^^  ^\n^  c^x^n  ^r^,  f^^J  f^^J  1^^  ^f^, 

Tisf 'Il^f  f^C^  ^f^,  '^^  ^C*f  ^iPf  ^^^K^  H" 

A  song  sung  in  Gopala  Vnyd^'s  y at ra. 

84 


666      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap, 

woman  again  sings'^  "  What  a  foolish  young  man  ! 
He  constantly  says  'aunt,  give  me  my  Vidya-'  Is 
she  a  jewel  that  a  woman  can  keep  tied  in  the 
end  of  her  sadi  and  produce  on  demand  !"  These 
songs  and  hundreds  of  such,  a  attributed  to  Gopal 
Uriya  and  other  Yatrawalas,  were  once  in  every 
man's  mouth.  Their  inspiration  came  direct  from 
Bhsrata  Chandra.  In  fact  in  the  depraved  atmos- 
phere of  towns,  directly  affected  by  court-influence 
on  the  eve  of  the  downfall  of  the  Mahomedan 
power,  Vidya-Sundara  became  the  craze  of  the 
young  dilettantes  of  Bengal  who  revelled  in  the 
literature  of  sensualism. 

The  con-  The    Annada   Mangala  by  Bharata    Chandra,  of 

An^ada-  which  Vidya  Sundara  forms  a  part,  is  divided  into 
Mangala.  three  parts.  The  first  part  is  devoted  to  the  sac- 
rifice performed  by  Daksa,  the  death  of  Sati,  her 
rebirth  as  Uma,  her  marriage  with  ^iva  and  sub- 
sequent domestic  scenes  at  Kailas.  It  also  des- 
cribes the  futile  attempt  of  the  sage  Vyasa  to  build 
a  second  Benares,  with  the  object  of  thwarting  the 
God  Civa,  and  gives  account  of  Harihoda  and  Bha- 
bananda  Mazumdar — ancestors  of  Raja  Krisna 
Chandra.  The  second  part  describes  the  story  of 
Vidya-Sundara.  The  last  part  is  devoted  to  a 
description  of  the  wars  of  Raja  Pratapaditya  of 
Jessore  with  Man  Sing,  the    Governor    of     Bengal, 

Sung  in  Gopala  Uriya's  jj'^/r^. 


His  other 
works. 


VI»]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  667 

the  eventual  defeat  and  death  of  Raja  Pratapa- 
ditya,  and  further  accounts  of  Bhabananda  Mazum^ 
dar,  who  helped  Man  Sing  in  his  fight  with  the 
Raja  ;  it  also  describes  Bhabananda's  visit  to 
Delhi  where  he  is  said  to  have  held  a  heated  con- 
troversy on  religion  with  Jahangir,  who  in  a  great 
rage  ordered  him  to  be  imprisoned.  An  account 
is  also  given  of  his  release  from  prison  and  of  the 
emoluments  he  received  from  the  Emper 

Besides  Annada  Mangala,  Bharata  Chandra  wrote 
Rasamanjuri  in  Bengali,  in  which  he  classifies 
feminine  emotions  and  gives  illustrations  in  imita- 
tion of  Sanskrit  works  on  Rhetoric.  His  incomplete 
drama,  called  the  Chandinataka,  shows  a  curious  ad- 
mixture of  Sanskrit,  Bengali  and  Persian,  proving 
that  he  was  a  finished  master  of  the  three  languages. 
There  are  many  short  pieces  besides  the  above, 
which  Bharata  Chandra  wrote  on  various  subjects. 


One  of  the  elements  which  we  find  in  profusion  onomato- 
in  Bharata  Chandra's  poetry  is  a  liking  for  onomato-  oressioBS. 
poetic  expressions.  A  richness  of  sound  is  some- 
times lent  to  his  lines  by  a  harmonious  assemblage 
of  words  not  to  be  found  in  any  vocabulary,  yet 
nevertheless  conveying  sense  by  the  imitation  of 
natural  sounds.  This  is  made  very  effective  to  the 
ear  by  the  clever  manipulation  of  the  poet.  Bharata 
Chandra  had  a  store-house  of  such  words;  he 
revelled  in  them  ;  they  were  often  coined  by  him  ; 
but  he  is  nowhere  unmeaning,  as  he  always  took  his 
cue  from  natural  sounds.  It  would  be  impossible 
to  translate  words  which  do  not  occur  in  any 
vocabulary.  I  shall  quote  a  passage  here,  in  the 
translation    of  which  I  cannot   help  introducing  the 


668         nENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [Chap. 

very  sounds  which  the  poet  imitates,  and  the  effect 
of  which  would  be  lost  in  a  different  language. 
The  piece  describes  the  dance  of  ^iva  at  the  time 
of  the  final  dissolution  of  the  universe. 

■^"Civa  assumes  the  form  of  the  great  destroyer ;  the 
sound  of  his  horn  is  terrible — va  vam  bham-va  vam 
bham.  His  matted  locks  shake  to  and  ivo  —  latapat- 
latapat^  and  the  murmuring  stream  of  the  Ganges 
flows — chalacchal,  kalakkal,  talattal  througli  them. 
The  snakes  hiss — phaniphaji  phaniphan  and  the 
moon  on  his  forehead  burns  like  the  sun  :  fire  issues 
from  \\.~dhakadhvak-dhakadhvak  ;  and  from  his 
mouth  come  the  deep  sounds  va  vam  hharn-va  vatn 
bham.  The  naked  ghosts  and  goblins  dance — 
tadhia-tadhia!  ' 

A  word  in  explanation  of  these  lines  : — Civa  the 
god  of  destruction  is  represented  as  having  the 
moon  on  his  forehead  ;  the  Ganges  flows  from  his 
locks.       The    popular    belief    of  the  Hindus  is  that 

^^^^  ^^^^  r»f5fi  c^H  ^t^  II 

¥«it^«]^  ^«tt^«i,  ^%^a  tfi^  I 
ftf^^»f  ^'^iin  f^■^.^\^  ttt;^  II 
ff?p?«^^  <j^?^?i5^  -^m  ^f^  x^m  I 
^^^^  ^•^^^^  ^^;"hf  '^xn  II 

Bhsrata  Chandra's  Annada  Mangala. 


VI»  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERA  lURE.  669 

the  Ganges  oriorlnates  from  the  feet  of  the  God 
Vishu  and  its  stream  is  caught  by  Brahma  in  his 
Kamayidalu  (water-pot).  Thence  it  flows  down  to 
the  matted  locks  of  ^iva  and  thence  it  comes  down 
to  the  earth. 

The  words  chalacchal,  kalakkal  and  talattal  in 
the  fourth  line  which  refer  to  the  waves  of  the 
Ganges  are  singularly  happy.  Chalacchal  in  the 
colloquial  dialect  seems  to  signify  a  ^ow^  talattal 
transparency,  and  kalakkal  the  sweet  murmur  of  the 
waves.  Three  onomatopoetic  words  not  to  be 
found  in  the  Bengali  vocabulary  have  thus  been 
strung  together  in  the  same  line,  to  suggest  to  the 
ear  three  qualities  of  a  stream  ;  a  line  more  happy 
could  not  be  conceived.  The  whole  of  this  poem 
is  written  in  the  sublime  Sanskrit  metre  called 
the  Bhujangapraxata.  It  is  to  be  read  with  special 
care  to  place  the  proper  accents  on  the  vowels. 
The  lines  rhyme  in  measured  sounds  with  a  sweet 
jingle  and  the  whole  is  an  instance  of  admirable 
word-painting  in  poetry. 

The  tendency  to  onomatopoeia  in  poetry 
which  was  taken  from  Bharata  Chandra,  is  marked 
in  many  later  poems,  and  often  the  effect  produced 
by  such  combinations  of  words  is  singularly  happy, 
as  in  the  passage  given  below  from  Jaynarayan's 
Harilila.*      We   refrain    from     giving    an     English 


Chandra. 


670      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

translation  of  the  piece  as  it  is  impossible  to  convey, 
even  in  a  small  degree,  any  idea  of  the  sonorous 
music  created  by  its  onomatopoetic  expressions. 

Rhyming:  The    rules   of    rhyming   had    not   hitherto  been 

perfected 
by  Bharata    strictly  followed.     As  poetry  used  to  be    sung,    the 

defects  in  metrical  form  were  made  up  for  by  the 
tune.  But  as  the  domain  of  poetry  gradually 
separated  itself  from  that  of  music,  the  art  of 
poetical  composition  became  gradually  more  finish- 
ed, and  perfection  in  rhyme  was  aimed  at  by 
Bharata  Chandra  and  the  poets  of  his  school. 
Hitherto  it  was  held  sufficient  if  the  last  letters  of 
a  couplet  rhymed  with  one  another;  but  the  keener 
perception  of  the  ear  now  required  not  only  a 
fulfilment  of  the  above  condition,  but  also  an  agree- 
ment of  the  vowels  preceding  the  last  letters  of  a 
rhyming  couplet.  According  to  the  last  principle 
rhyming  of  C«TT^  with  ^rf^i;^^,  ^T  Nvith  ^TT*  ^^^f^l 
with  Ct«Tl  ^^^  with  nS^C^  would  be  faulty.  Among 
the  Vaisnava  Pada-karttas  Govinda  Das,  whose  ear 
was  naturally  the  most  keen  to^a  harmony  of  sounds, 
had  committed  the    smallest    number    of    faults    in 

fe^^^  ^^^1  ^«^  MV\  C^Tl^  I 

^^^^^^^^^^  M  n\'^i^\'^  n 
^VK^  ^^  ^^1  ^^5  ^?^i  1 

^^3^^  n^pj  f(\^v^  -^j.^  'if^  ir 

Jaynarayan's  Harillla. 


VL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  67 1 

this  respect.  But  perusing  closely  the  Annada 
Mangala  by  Bharata  Chandra  (a  poem  running  over 
13000  lines)  we  scarcely  find  one  instance  of 
disagreement  of  vowel-sounds  in  the  final  syllables 
of  rhyming  couplets.  One  or  two  examples  of 
this  defect  are  found  in  his  short  poem  on  Satya- 
narayafia  which  the  poet  composed  when  he  was 
only  15  years  old.  In  the  whole  rangd  of  Bengali 
literature,  no  poet  has  shown  a  finer  sense  of 
harmony  of  sound  or  a  greater  skill  in  the  choice 
of  his  words  than  Bharata  Chandra.  In  our  own 
day  some  poets  have  followed  the  principle  in 
rhyming  stated  above  ;  but  in  an  earlier  epoch  of 
the  history  of  our  literature,  it  was  Bharata  Chandra 
who  held  up  the  torch  that  lighted  the  path  of 
subsequent  poets,  so  all  credit  is  due  to  him.  The 
Sanskrit  metres  that  Bharata  Chandra  introduced 
into  his  Bengali  poems  are  faultless.  As  the  long 
and  short  sounds  of  vowels  are  missed  in  the 
spoken  dialect  of  Bengal,  it  required  a  remarkable 
power  to  introduce  the  measured  sounds  of  noble 
Sanskrit  metres  in  our  tongue,  and  Bharata 
Chandra's  poems  in  the  Totaka  and  Bhujangaprayata 
metres  not  only  show  perfect  adherence  to  classical 
rules,  but  they  flow  so  easily  and  with  such  a 
natural  grace,  that  no  one  would  doubt,  after  pe- 
rusing them,  that  Bengali  is  a  true  daughter  of 
Sanskrit,  and  that  a  poet  who  knows  the  resources 
of  the  language  can  give  her  a  form  which  would 
prove  her  striking  affinity  in  all  respects  with  that 
of  her  august  parent. 

Though  it  is  so  difficult  to  convey  to  our  readers 
an  idea  of  the  beauty  of  Bharata  Chandra's  poems, 
depending,    as    this    does,  on    a    singularly    happy 


^']2       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap, 

arrangement  of  words,  we  here  attempt  a  trans- 
lation of  one  passage  of  remarkable  elegance  : — 
^^Itt^T""  ^"  While  the  cuckoos  sang  and  the  bees  hummed 
spring;.  about  the  bakula  flowers,  the  Goddess  Annapurna 
sat  in  a  jewelled  shrine.  A  stream  of  cool  and 
lotus-scented  water  over-flowed  its  banks  and  the 
waves  danced  to  the  melody  of  the  air.  The  Spring 
season  had  arrayed  himself  like  a  prince,  and, 
accompanied  by  the  six  modes  of  music  had  taken 
up  his  abode  beneath  the  acoka  tree.  Here  and 
there  the  bees  were  humming  about  the  flowers, 
and  the  god  of  love  had  strung  his  bow.  Laughing 
blossoms  gemmed  the  wood-land  bowers.  Bharata 
Chandra  was  charmed  to  see  the  advent  of  the 
Spring." 

But  the  original  passage  subjoined  in  the  foot- 
note discovers  to  us  that  Bengali  is  one  of  the 
sweetest  tongues  of  the  world.  The  words  chosen 
for  this  piece  chic^fly  consist  of  the  soft  letters 
/,  w,  «, — the  hissing  5  and  the  harsh  r  are, 
generally  speaking,  omitted  from  these  lines.  The 
poem,  when  recited  with  proper  accentuation, 
charms  the  ear  and  sounds  like  music  unsung. 
Many  passages  of  Bharata  Chandra  afford  examples 


^"^2T  r,^lf%^,  ^fsif^  ^^^  ^^  I 

^^^^  ^^:  "^Xy  ^^v^  %^^^.  '^w^  f^^  ^'1,  ^f^^^,  ^^  I 

Bharata  Chandra's  Annada  Mangala. 


VL  ]    BENGALI  LANGUAGE  &  LI  I  ERATURE,    673 


of    this    decorative    art    in    composition    for  wliich 
Indian  genius  has  a  remarkable  aptitude. 

When  Bharata  Chandra  makes  it  a  point  to 
describe  a  beautiful  woman,  the  metaphors  gleaned 
from  Sanskrit  and  Persian  works  cloud  his  poetic 
horizon.  Niceties  become  absurdities  and  his  learn- 
ing stifles  the  natural  flow  of  sentiment.  When, 
however,  a  minor  character  is  introduced,  on  which 
tlie  poet  does  not  consider  it  worth  while  to  lavish 
classical  metaphor  preferring  to  trust  to  his  own 
powers,  his  sparkling  lines  produc^e  a  far  clearer 
impression.  Vidya's  beauty  as  described  by 
Bharata  Chandra  is  culled  from  all  that  the  poet 
had  read  in  books,  and  this  agnin  is  overcoloured 
by  his  own  monstrous  fancy  for  the  purpose 
of  matching  tlie  classic  poets  in  their  own  held. 
One  can  scarcely  find  his  way  through  the  thick 
array  of  wild  and  far-fetched  similes,  and  we 
w^onder  at  the  taste  which  tolerated  the  unres- 
trained exaggerations,  the  wild  excesses,  and  the 
puerile  funs  on  words  which  they  disclose.  But, 
reserving  all  his  learning  for  the  description 
of  Vidya,  the  poet  draws  off-hand  a  picture  of 
Hlra,  the  flower  woman. 

^"  As  the  sun  set  and  the  night  approached,  there 
came    along   a    flower  woman,  of  the  name  of  Hira 

^i^  ^]  "^^f^i  ^^n51  ^r^  cHm  w" 

Bharata  Chandra's  Vidya  Sundara. 

«5 


Spoiled   by 
too  much 
attention. 


Happier  in 
delineating 

minor 
characters. 


Hira,  the 
flower- 
women. 


The  flood. 


674         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap< 

(lit.  a  diamond)  whose  words  indeed  sparkled  like 
the  diamond.  Her  teeth  were  painted  ;  she  moved 
with  a  pleasant  gait,  and  there  was  always  a  smile 
on  her  lips.  She  had  been  very  charming  in  her 
youth,  and  though  now  grown  matronly,  she  pos- 
sessed some  small  traces  of  her  better  days." 

The  lines  '  «Jtf^^  f^'g^  ilfe  2\^^  -^^l^  I  ^l^  ^ 
'^l  f^g  ^'\51  "^K^  C^m  11'  sparkle  with  humour, 
especially  in  the  clever  use  of  the  words  ^  and 
'<>}>  ^.  In  another  passage  the  line  '  "5I-3^->lffI1  Gt^, 
^5f^  51 '  (with  the  setting  of  resentment,  arose 
grace)  indicates  the  passing  away  of  one  emotion 
and  the  rise  of  another,  by  a  happy  suggestion  of 
the  setting  of  the  sun,  followed  by  the  rise  of  the 
moon  in  the  sky.  There  is  much  beauty  in  the  pun 
on  the  words  C^H  and  ^1.  There  occur  innumer- 
able passages  of  the  nature  in  which  the  poet  skil- 
fully polishes  and  sets  each  word,  as  a  jeweller 
might  polish  and  set  a  stone  in  a  piece  of  gold. 

We  shall  here  attempt  to  translate  a  passage 
from  the  Annada  Matigala,  in  which  the  poet  des- 
cribes a  flood  that  destroyed  a  considerable  part 
of  Man  Sing's  army. 

t"  The  sky  was  overcast  with  dark  clouds.  The 
winds  began  to  blow  with  redoubled  force, — the 
thunder  roared, — the  lightning    flashed, — the    wind 


^^^15  ^^^,  ft^T^  ^^'^^  I 
5^'-lfl  Gim^,  C^C^^  ^^-^^  II 


VI.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         675 

rustled  and  the  waters  splashed.  Waves  came  rush- 
ing from  all  sides  ;  the  trees  trembled  at  the  sounds 
of  thunder  ;  darkness  prevailed,  and  hails  pattered. 
The  outer  screens  of  the  Raja's  tents  were  carried 
away  by  the  winds  ;  people  became  terror-struck  ; 
the  huts  raised  for  the  soldiers  were  swept  away 
by  the  flood  which  now  overtook  the  camp  ; 
elephants  were  drowned  ; — carriages  were  hope- 
lessly wrecked  in  mud  and  the  camels  perished  : — 
the  soldiers  threw  away  their  guns,  their  turbans, 
their  uniforms  and  swords,  and  with. their  shields 
abreast  swam  across  the  foaming  stream.  Thousands 
of  men  were  drowned.  Urdu-bazar  with  all  its 
goods  lay  under  water; — the  carcasses  of  sheep, 
cocks  and  hens  were  all  huddled  together  ;  the  fruit- 
seller  with  his  wife  took  to  swimming.  Heaps  of 
grass  went  floating  by,  and  upon  one  of  them  sat 
the  young  woman  who  used  to  sell  it.  She 
was  weeping  and  lamenting  her  lot  saying  '  Never 
O  Lord,  was  such  a  disaster  seen.  I  am  only  15  or 
16  years  of  age  ;  by  divorce  and  death  I  have 
changed  eleven  husbands  by  this  time.  This 
present  son  of  a  slave  has  brought  me  here  to  die, 
but  if  I  die,  the  matrimonial  prospects  of  how  many 
others  will  be  gone!'  The  drummer  with  his  drum 
was    carried    past    by    the    flood,  and  the  musician 

^^Ai\  TT^^,  ^CW?  ^v5^^  I 

^&  ^&  "^Am,  ?v^n  ^^5^  11 

7ft^ffil¥t  fe^  C^t^1,  fZ^  w.^  v^  > 

^K^  ^r^  cn^  ^tf^  ^^  ^t?r  nt«?)  n 


676      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.        [  Chap< 

clasped  in  his  arms  the  lon2^  gourd  of  his  lyre  (vina) 
as  he  floated  across  the  stream.  There  was  panic 
on  all  sides.  The  very  soldiers  were  lamenting 
saviniT  '  All  is  lost  by  this  journey  to  Bengal.  All 
tlie  hard  earned  money  won  by  risking  our  lives,  is 
lost.     Oh  woe  to  us  !     Woe  to  us  !'" 

The  first    eight    lines    bring    before    us    a    vivid 
scene  of  storm  and  flood,  by  means  of  an  array    of 


5m  1?:^  fw^  \^^  r^^tt  ^T^f^  II 
lift  (.^\u  '^u  :^f<is  ^t^fc^  ^r^^  I 
't^  c^^  ^[^  ^1^1  ^<p?^  ^r^t^  II 

^^\5t^l  c^n^T  ^h  ^rf^^  ^^v5i  II 

C^C^^I  ^f<3^  ~^l^  ^1^f^  5t^K^  II 

iii^^  ftnt^^  ^T^  'p^  dr^  ^[f  II 
^«^^^  n^?i  c^t^  ^^^  ^t^t^  I 

^c^  ^c^  ^sf^i  ^fi^r  7^^  ^fti  I 
^'tr.^iT^K  ^tf^^  f[*ii^  ^t^  <ir^  II 
^in  ^in  '-^ft  ^r?  5(^  ^t^  I 
^^^1^  Mm  c^i=5p  2if'-i  ^i<i  7IH  II 
^mt^  ^t?^  ^c^  ^[5ft^i!i  ^!:>i ' 
f»f^  c^i^  &i^t  ^r^;  c^^  ^t^  c^u\  h" 

Bharata  Chandr.i'>  .\nnada   Mangala. 


VL  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LUERATlJRE.  677 

onomatapoetic  words,  each  of  which  has  been 
chosen  with  singular  care,  the  effect  of  the  whole 
beinor  such  that  it  cannot  be  rendered  in  transla- 
tion.  In  the  remaining  portion  of  the  piece,  the 
poet  strives  more  for  an  artistic  effect  of  language 
thin  for  a  realistic  description  of  the  flood.  The 
whole  thing  looks  like  a  storm  painted  on  a  scene 
under  a  mellow  light.  We  miss  the  actual  cries^ 
the  wringings  of  the  heart  and  the  death-agonies 
consequent  on  the  devastating  catastrophe.  The 
descriptions  of  horror  grow  almost  charming,  being 
set,  as  it  were,  to  a  musical  air.     The  lines  '^l"^  m"^ 

and  '  ^ts^m  ?^tf  T^^  ^15fril<[  vii^jf'  show  that  the 
poet's  heart  did  not  melt  into  pity  at  the  sight  of 
a  disaster  which  had  killed  thousands  of  men,  but 
that  he  could  enliven  its  description  by  a  poetic 
touch,  and  was  even  willing  to  enjoy  the  scene, 
maintaining  a  vein  of  light  humour  in  his  gay 
couplets. 

Poetry  was  now  reduced  to  an  art  ;  it  delight-  Niceties  of 
ed  in  niceties  of  sound.  Bharata  Chandra's  poems 
are  untranslatable.  Take  awav  the  outer  garb, 
and  the  picture  that  he  draws  loses  all  its  attraction. 
His  delicacy  of  colouring  is  perhaps  peculiarly 
oriental.  His  finest  things  become  poor  in  trans- 
lation. The  whole  may  be  pronounced  '  words, 
words,  words  '  in  the  language  of  Hamlet ;  but,  as  a 
Bengali  critic  lately  said,  'Bharata  Chandra's  poetry 
is  the  Taj  of  Agra  made  in  Bengal. — not  in  marble 
but  in  words.' 

There  are  critics  who  would  deprecate    this    art 
in  literature.     In  a    language    like    Bengali    which 


678      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap, 

may  be  so  easily  wrought  into  exquisitely  melo- 
dious strains,  the  artistic  effect  produced  by  a 
clever  manipulation  of  sweet  sounding  words,  can 
not  be  ignored.  One  who  can  raise  emotions  and 
portray  pathos  by  metrical  lines  writes  noble 
poetry  no  doubt,  but  there  is  a  skilled  labour  in 
poetry  which  creates  emotions  not  wholly  definable, 
as  do  the  unmeaning  w^arblings  of  birds  or  the 
musical  notes  of  a  lyre.  There  is  much  poetry  in 
mere  sound — in  its  meaninglt-ss  harmony  and  we 
must  not  deprecate  the  value  of  this  in  our  melli- 
fluous   Bengali    tongue. 

Prafiarama  After  Bharata  Chandra,  Pranarama  Chakravarty 

Chakra-       wrote  a  Vidya    Sundara  in    which    we  come  across 
varty. 

the  following  lines  : — 

■^  "  The  first  Vidya  Sundara  was  written  by 
Krisnarama,  a  native  of  the  village  Nimta  ; — next  w^e 
find  one  by  Rama  Prasada.  After  these  two  poets, 
Bharata  Chandra  came  to  the  field  and  incidentally 
described  the  story  of  Vidya  Sundara  in  his  poem 
called  the  Annada  Mangala.''  He  evidently  did  not 
know  the  names  of  those  earlier  poets  who  had 
written  on  the  subject  before  Krisnarama. 


^f^^-l  ^m^ITt^  ^^l^^  ^l^  \\' 

\'idva  Sundara  bv  Pranarama. 


VL  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  679 

II.     (a)  The  Court  of  R§Ja  Rajavallabha  la    Dacca.      Its 
poets—Jaya  Narayafia  Sen— Anandamoyi   Devi. 

Under  court  influence  poetry  became  debased  ; 
though  it  is  true  that  a  few  exquisite  poetic  touches 
might  enliven  scenes  of  sensualism.  But  the 
vocabulary  of  Bengali  was  enriched  during  this 
period  by  a  treasure  of  choice  expressions  im- 
ported from  Sanskrit.  In  Western  Bengal  Bharata 
Chandra,  as  far  as  the  Bengali  language  was  con- 
cerned, ruled  supreme  in  the  domain  of  letters. 
The  court  of  Raja  ^Krisna  Chandra  was  the 
nucleus  from  which  flowed  fashions  and  tastes  which 
the  aristocracy  of  Bengal  loved  to  imitate.  In 
Eastern  Bengal  Raja  Krisha  Chandra's  great 
contemporary  and  rival  Rajavallabha  tried  at.  his 
capital  of  Vikrampur  to  outdo  him  in  all  matters. 
Raja  Rajvallabha  was  not  as  great  a  scholar  as 
Krisha  Chandra,  but  was  by  far  the  more  powerful 
of  the  two,  having  been  placed  at  the  helm  of 
the  administration  of  several  of  the  provinces  of 
Bengal.  He  was  besides  immensely  rich.  Kri§ha 
Chandra  founded  a  town  called  Civanivasa,  and 
the  temples  and  edifices  he  built  there  show 
a  bold    attempt  to  combine    saracenic    with  Hindu    the  capftal- 

architecture.       But     the    town    of    Raianasrara    in        town  of 

^  Raja- 

Vikrampur,  founded  by  Raja  Rajavallabha,  far  out-       vallabha. 

shone  the  splendour  of  ^ivanivasa.  With  the  un- 
limited resources  that  Raja  Rajavallabha  command- 
ed in  Bengal,  his  new  city  was  made  a  paradise,  the 
like  of  which  was  not  to  be  found  in  the  country 
at  that  time  outside  Murshidabad.  The  famous 
Eku9a  Ratna,  with  its  twenty  one  spires,  which  in 
the    distance   looked    like    the    crest    of    a  diadem 


68o        BENGAIJ    l.ANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [Chap. 

painted  on  the  clouds, — the  Navaratna,  with  nine 
spires,  and  the  Snpta-ratna  with  seven  spires, 
displayed  grrat  architectural  beauty,  and  the 
Dolmancha  with  its  m;izy  staircase  and  lofty  cupola 
rose  to  a  greater  height  than  the  Ochterlony  nionu- 
ment  of  Calcutta.  Tiiere  were  besides  palaces  in 
which  the  utmost  sculptural  skill  available  at  the 
'time  in  India  was  employed.  All  this  gave  to  the 
town  a  look  of  wealth  and  grandeur  which  it 
would  have  been  vain  for  Raja  Krisha  Chandra 
to  attempt  to  approach  in  liis  new  town,  though 
Civanivasa  in  its  own  way  was  certainly  a  beautiful 
place.  Rajanagara  was  unfortunately  situated  on  the 
dreaded  stream  of  the  Kirttiiia9a — '  the  destroyer 
of  fame'  ;  this  name  had  been  earned  by  the  river, 
wliich  was  a  branch  of  the  Padma,  by  destroying 
a  rich  town  founded  by  Chand  Ray  and  Kedar  Ray 
— tuo  chiefs  of  Bengal,  in  the  i6th  century.  Rut 
a  second  time — in  the  middle  of  the  19th  century 
the  stream  showed  again  one  of  its  furious 
moods  and  by  destroying  Rajanagara  caused  a  loss 
to  Bengal,  which  for  the  Hindus  can  not  be  repair- 
ed.    This  beautiful  city  is  now    in   the    bed    of  the 

^.         ^  river.       It    was  situated  six    miles   away    from    the 

The  catas-  -^ 

trophe  of  river,  when  suddenly  in  tiie  year  1871  A.D.  there  was 
a  cataclysm.  It  is  said  that  people  suddenly  felt  the 
roots  of  grass  and  plants  snap  beneath  their  feet, 
and  a  crack  was  created,  which  gaping  wide  open 
like  the  jaws  of  death  made  the  whole  plain,  cover- 
ed bv  a  number  of  villages  and  city  of  Rajanagara, 
slowly  fall  down  into  the  river  bed  with  a  crash  ;  this 
catastrophe  took  a  whole  year  for  being  complete. 
The  desolation  began  in  august  1871  and  was 
complete  about  tln^  same  time  in   1872.      The    spires 


187 


VI,  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LIl  ERATURE. 


68 


of  the  monuments,  the  Eku9aratna,  the  Navaratna 
and  the  Dolmanclia  seemed  during  the  cataclysm  to 
struggle  for  a  few  moments  with  the  stream  of 
Kirttinaya  which  in  its  fierce  play  dashed  against  the 
blocks  of  massive  stone  and  bricks  of  which  the  town 
was  built,  till  the  whole  scene  passed  from  the  sight 
like  a  dream,  and  the  waves  danced  over  the  town, 
disclosing  nota  sign  of  its  former  grandeur  and  pomp, 
Raja  Rajavallabha's  Rajanagara  is  now  reduced 
to  a  dream.  But  the  Raja  had  not  only  built  a  city, 
far  outshining  in  its  glory  the  town  of  Civanivasa,  but 
in  his  court  there  were  poets  of  great  power  who 
were  not  unworthy  rivals  of  Bharata  Chandra.  In 
their  elegance  of  style, — in  the  sweetness  of  choice 
Sanskrit  expressions  with  which  their  poems  are 
replete,  Jayanarayaha  and  his  gifted  niece  Ananda- 
mayi  showed  poetical  powers  of  a  remarkable 
order,  and  it  is  a  pity  that  the  Harilila  and  Chandl 
by  Jayanarayana  in  which  there  occur  many  noble 
lines  composed  by  Anandamayi,  could  not  have  the 
circulation  and  the  far-reaching  fame  which  Bharata 
Chandra's  poems  attained  in  the  more  favourable 
soil  of  Western  Bengal.  Jayanarayana  as  a  poet 
was  certainly  a  match  for  Bharata  Chandra,  though 
all  points  considered,  his  poems  lack  the  finish  of 
his  great  rival's  works.  There  are  passages  in  the 
poem  of  the  East  Bengal  poet  which  may  rival  the 
sparkling  lines  of  Bharata  Chandra  ;  but  in  com- 
mon details  Bharata  Chandra's  hand  moves  more 
freely,  and  though  the  poems  of  both  the  poets 
have  a  family  likeness  in  their  ornate  classical 
style,  and  in  the  depraved  taste  of  the  age,  the 
favourite  poet  of  Krisha  Chandra  is  a  more 
finished    master    of  his    art,    as    he    is     also    more 


The  poets 
of  the 

Court  of 
Raja- 

Vallabha. 


J  ay  a. 
N^rayana 
compared 

with 
Bharata. 


86 


682        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

concise,  and  commands  a  greater  facility  in  the    use 
of  Sanskrit  metres  in  Bengali. 


Family- 
history  of 

J  ay  a 
Narfiyaha 


Rimagati. 


J a van a ra- 
yan.i  and 
his    niece. 


Ananda- 
mayi. 


Jayana'Syana  was  a  cousin  of  Raja  Rajavallabha 
and  was  a  \'aidy  by  caste.  His  ancestor  Gopi  Ramana 
Sen's  name  is  mentioned  by  Mr.  Beveridge  in  his 
history  of  Backerganj.  Gopi  Ramana's  second  son 
Krisna  Rama  obtained  the  titles  of  Dewan  and 
Krori  (millionaire)  from  the  Nawab  of  Murshida- 
bad.  From  an  account  given  in  the  5th  of  the  reports 
of  the  East  India  Company,  we  see  that  he  was 
employed  in  collecting  revenue  of  Pergannah 
Chandpratapa  and  other  places.  The  family  resi- 
dence of  Krisna  Rama  was  at  the  village  Japsa 
near  Rajanagara.  Lala  Rama  Prasada,  his 
son  was  famous  for  his  extensive  charity.  The 
Lala  had  four  sons.  Tlie  eldest  Rama  Gati  was 
famous  for  his  high  character  and  learning ;  he 
wrote  a  well  known  work  in  Bengali  called  the 
Mayatimir  Chandrika  to  which  we  shall  have  occa- 
sion to  refer  hereafter.  The  youngest  Jayanarayafia 
was  one  of  the  best  poets  in  Bengal,  and  it  was  he 
who  conjointly  with  his  niece  Anandamayl  wrote 
the  poem  called  Harillla  which  displays  a  wonder- 
ful command  over  the  language  and  abounds  in 
passages  of  intrinsic  poetic  merit.  All  the  members 
of  this  gifle<l  family  of  noble  men,  the  ladies  not  ex. 
cepted,  were  well  versed  in  Sanskrit.  Anandamayl 
was  widely  known  for  her  learning.  She  at  one 
time  surprised  the  scholarly  Brahmins  assembled 
in  the  court  of  Raja  Rajavallabha  to  perform  the 
Vedic  sacrifice  called  the  Agni?tomayajna,  by  offer- 
ing the  solution  to  a  knotty  point  in  connection 
with  the  sacrificial  rite,  with  ample  quotations  from 


VI.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         683 

the  Vedic  texts  as  authority.  The  passages  in 
Harilila  composed  by  Anandamayl  bear  evidence 
of  her  erudition  ;  in  metre  and  wealth  of  words 
they  closely  follow  classical  Sanskrit,  and  when 
recited  they  sound  more  like  Sanskrit  than  Bengali. 
Anandamayi  was  married  in  1761  to  Ayodhya  Rama 
Sen  of  Payagrama  in  the  district  of  Khulna. 

We  have  had  already  occasion  to  quote  some 
passages  from  Jayanarayana's  poems  on  pages  360- 
361.  His  Harilila  was  composed  in  honour  of  the  god 
Satyanarayaha.  As  usual,  in  the  case  of  poems  of 
this  class,  the  work  which  is  of  a  considerable  dimen- 
sion, relates  a  story,  the  sequel  of  which  illustrates 
the  grace  of  the  god  towards  his  followers  in  the 
shape    of  gifts  of  earthly  fortune.     I  quote  another 

passaofe  from  Harilila  below  : —  From 

^         "^  HariliSa. 

*"  The  night  passed    in  this  way.     The  eastern 

horizon  was  painted  with  the  purple   colours  of  the 

dawn.     The  stars  gradually    disappeared    from   the 

sky.     The  birds    left   their    nests    and   flew    in    all 

directions.     The  raven  was  crowing  from    the    tree 

and  did  not  as  yet  alight  on  the  ground.     Chandra- 

bbana    the  hero)    held   the    hands    of  Sunetra   (the  The 

heroine).       '  Permit    me  to  go  '   he    said  again    and       parting. 

again    to    her.       At  the  dawn  of  the  day  which  was 

auspicious    for   the   journey   he   left  her,    and    her 

tearful    eyes     followed   the    course    he    took.     She 

*''  C^H^^  ?^^  ^^'^  <il^  W.^  I 

^if^m  tf^  ^f^  f^^  ^t^  Vii"^  » 
f^n^  vSff^i;^  ^t=^  im  ^tft  n^^  II 


684       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [  Chap. 

stood  and  looked  wistfully  as  far  as  her  eyes  could 
see  him.  The  moon,  with  false  promises,  left  the 
beautiful  Kumuda  flower  that  had  been  so  gay  and 
happy  during  the  night.  The  flower  turned  pale  at 
the  approach  of  the  sun." 

Anandamayl,  as  I  said,  is  fond  of  displaying  her 
erudition.  In  her  compositions  she  generally  adopts 
Sanskrit  metres,  the  pompous  sweep  of  which  she 
well  retains  in  Bengali.  A  passage  is  given  below 
to  illustrate  her  learned  style,  which  thinly  veils 
under  grandiloquent  language,  the  immodest  taste 
that  characterised  her  age. 

marriage  t"  Look    at    the    bevy    of  women   assembled  in 

A^anda^       myriads  to  the  front  and  rear,  peeping    through  the 

mayl.  windows  and  confronting  you  at  every  point.     1  he 


'  V^  '  ^ft  ft^tH  ^\\'^l\  ^1?  ^t?  (I 
^»}1^^  ^t!I  ^^!^^  ^*l^t^l[1  II 

f^f-i  ^fg  ^^fif^  (jiv^^  ^tf^^  I 

Marilila  bv  Jaynarayaha. 

^^l-sf,  ^^C"^.  ^Ntl^  ^^IC'Sf  II 
\^\n,  '^«^f«.  ^^f«.  '^^f^  « 


..  IlifSfe 


fef  l^/^'^^gf^k- 


ff  1  s:  f?;' 

^r||||g|r 


'Kl  ^ 


a.    o 


CJ 


J,  t«-  >3 

?  f  If 


M  If  I 


?^  I?-  s 


VL  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         685 

beauties  assembled  there  were  running  about  at 
play,  fantastically  tripping  and  breaking  into 
charming  laughter.  Even  the  sedate  matrons  of 
the  group  were  overpowered  by  the  beauty  of  the 
bridegroom.  Look  at  the  array  of  sweet  and 
charming  faces,  of  aquiline  noses  and  of  flowing 
tresses ;  and  behold  how  beautiously  bedecked 
they  stand  I  With  what  fascination  they  speak  and 
smile  !  Behold  the  slenderness  and  coquettish 
manner  of  the  worthy  belle.  Look  at  her  graceful 
flirtations,  which  show  how  well  she  is  versed  in 
the  ways  of  Cupid,  and  in  the  art  of  captivating 
her  admirers.  Looking  at  Chandrabhaha,  they  found 
themselves  lost  in  bewilderment  and  in  an  all-ab- 
sorbing delirious  excitement.  The  impassioned 
matron,  the  gay  spinster,  the  wedded  wife  and  the 
coy  maiden,  all  stirred  about  in  excitement  and 
glee.  Their  dazzling  earrings  contused  the  lovely 
neck  of  many  a  merry  woman.  But  they  all  moved 
about  in  gaiety.  Some  bore  on  their  lips  the  marks 
of  their  lover's  kiss.   How  many  a  golden  beauty  was 

^r^m\,  ^^^,  5i^5^mi,  j{^m  fi 
ft^t?n,  ft^i5i,  f^^t^i,  ^z^w  « 
^^1,  f^^i  ^ivjp],  f^^^i  It 

«155ll,  ^^^],  c^^  ^hh  B 


686      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap* 

secretly  pierced  to  the  heart  by  the  flowery  arrows 
of  Cupid  !  Many  had  come  with  dishevelled  hair; 
many  overcast  with  pallor ;  and  many  faint  and 
slender.  The  tresses  of  many  were  in  disorder 
and  many  had  the  sadi  girt  about  the  waist.  The 
necklaces  of  others  were  loose  and  slipping  off. 
The  ornaments  on  their  persons  were  falling  and 
so  was  their  wearing  apparel.  Many  of  them, 
smitten  with  the  ardour  of  Cupid,  broke  into 
enchanting  strains  ;  and  some  put  their  arms  on 
the  shoulders  of  their  companions  and  indolently 
stood  addressing  sweet  and  pleasing  words  to 
others.  Some  poured  water  on  Sunetra  and  others 
on  Chandrabhana,  but  all  did  so  with  great  care,  and 
they  all  poured  water  with  their  own  delicate  little 
hands,  and  as  it  fell  on  their  persons,  gurgling  from 
the  pitchers  it  kept  time  with  the  tingling  music 
of  their  ornaments.     The  girl-friends    of  the    bride 

ftfl<i,  ft^^<i.  T^^<\^  U^<\  I 

'ff^l  'IJ'?  c^%  ^tft  ^IT  ^C'^  I 
•^cl^^^ll  C^^  ^tft  ^11  W,^  I 

^^^  :^^^  -ytsT^  -yjqi^  ^^  %  ^l^  II 


VL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  687 

addressing  Chandrabhana  said  in  jest  (alluding  to 
the  match)  *  A  diamond  necklace  dangles  from  the 
neck  of  a  crow.'  The  bride  and  the  bridegroom 
heard  the  jest,  and  hung  down  their  heads  in 
modesty,  and  the  women  burst  into  loud  laughter." 


(b)     The  poet*  of  the  School  of  Bhirata  Chandra. 

A  host  of  poets  who  imitated  the  style  of 
Bharata  Chandra  and  who  wrote  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  1 8th  century  contributed  works  which  have 
been  suppressed  by  the  Indian  Penal  Code.  Stray 
copies  of  such  works  that  came  into  our  hands 
25  years  ago,  are  no  longer  available.  But  early  in 
the  igth  century,  the  stories  of  Chandra  Kanta,  of 
Nayantara,  and  Kamini  Kumara  enjoyed  great  popu- 
larity with  certain  sections  of  our  community.  The 
authors  of  these  poems  were  not  great  scholars  like 
Bharata  Chandra,  Jayanarayana  or  Anandamayl,  but 
they  carried  the  depraved  and  indecent  taste  of  the 
new  school  a  step  further.  The  moral  atmosphere 
of  young  men  living  in  towns  was  contaminated  by 
their  influence.  Lord  Byron's  gallant  character,  Don 
Juan,  entered  the  harem  of  a  moslem  monarch,  dis- 
guised as  a  female  servant  and  so  palmed  himself  off 


Chandra 
Kgnta  and 

Kamini 

Kumara  ; 

their  bad 

taste. 


A  marriage-scene  by  Anandamayl 

from  Harilila. 


688      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap, 

upon  its  occupants.  Chandra  Kfinta,  the  young  mer- 
chant, in  the  poem  of  the  same  name  is  described  as 
having  done  similar  freaks  in  the  inner  apart- 
ments of  a  Rajs.  The  influence  of  Persian 
literature  is  stamped  on  many  of  these  works  ;  but 
the  Bengali  language  in  these  poems,  it  must  be 
admitted,  made  further  progress  towards  elegance. 
High  sounding  Sanskritic  words  were  gradually 
dropped  in  favour  of  small  and  sweet  colloquial 
words  of  classical  origin  and  the  metres  run  in  a 
genial  flow  in  these.  I  quote  the  following  passage 
from  Kamini  Kumara  by  Kali  Kri§ha  Das. 

■^''The  reign  of  autumn  came  to  an  end,  and 
Spring,  the  Prince  of  seasons  came  to  rule  with  his 
mighty  host.  The  southern  breeze,  the  royal 
messenger,  proclaimed  his  approach  to  the  world. 
The  advent  The  flowers,  who  constituted  the  army  of  the  prince, 
of  spring,  dressed  themselves  beautifully  to  give  them  a  re- 
ception. The  ketaki  with  saw  in  hand  stood  proud- 
ly smiling.  The  champaka  held  a  spear,  and 
hastened  to  the  spot.  The  baka  tree  wore  the 
crooked  bow  of  its  flowers  like  the  crescent    moon. 


^'!"s^l  'Pft^  ^5  -^  CT^t^l  II 

wi«  \m\'^  ^^^1  ^^^  ^sr^  n 


VL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  689 

Tiie  rose  and  the  jessamine,  two  gallant  warriors, 
approached  in  full  bloom  to  join  the  line  army. 
The  orandharaja  wore  white  apparel  and  the  Java 
with  red  spikes  stood  ready.  The  palaca  held  a 
bow  and  the  ran^ana  looked  like  the  arrow  of  that 
bow.  The  lotus  floating  in  the  pond  looked  like 
the  shield  of  Cupid.  When  this  gay  army  had 
made  itself  ready  to  receive  the  prince,  the  god  of 
love  led  them  as  their  general.  He  aimed  his  five 
arrows  at  those  who  lived  in  separation  from  the 
beloved.  He  ordered  the  cuckoo  and  the  zephyr 
to  spy  Oil  all  who  were  slow  in  giving  response  to 
this  call  of  love.  The  royal  command  was  com- 
municated to  all.  The  prince  wanted  tribute.  The 
cuckoo  was  ordered  to  kill  the  defaulters  by  his 
sweet  strain.  The  birds  seated  on  the  bough  of  a 
tree  with  their  melodious  cooings  intimated  the 
royal   command." 


^  ^Ui  ^f^  %^  ^Ttf^^  F*^^  I 
2\^%^  ^^\  cftC^  ^tcl  ^T^HH  I 

^ft^i  ^t^i-st  ^r^  ^ift^  ^f^  I 
f 'Tf  ^tf^  'TU^  ^mi  W^l'^  "^^  II 

^5f^  -^m^  A\^  cm  ^5rf^2jt^  II 

^mv^  1^1  £^^  t"*^  c^^t^^*i  II 
87 


Qovinda. 


690         BENGALI    LANGUAGK    &    LITERATURE.      [Chap. 

This    idea    is    followed    up    till    one  has  almost 
reached  the  bottomless  pit  of  indecent  realism. 

That  stamp  of  ornateness  for  wiiich  this  age   in 

Qirldhara's    iij^^,-ature    is    famous   is  very  marked  in  the  transla- 

translation  ■' 

of  theQUa.    tion  of  the  Gita  Govinda  by  Giridhara  who  finished 

the    poem    in    1736    A.  D.. — sixteen    years    before 

Bharat  Chandra  had  completed  his  Annadamangala. 

It    is    his    finished    Sanskritic    style  that   marks  his 

affinity  with  the    poets    of     the    school    of    Bharata 

Chandra.  This  translation  threw  into  the   shade  the 

earlier  attempt  by  RasamavaDas  who  had  translated 

the  Gita  Govinda  in  the  metre  called  payar  chanda, 

so    commonly    adopted  by  the  early  Bengali    poets. 

Giridhara's    poem    reproduces    in  Bengali  as  far  as 


's^w^H  v:>\  ^f^  "^v^  ^t^^^  I 

^51^«tr  C^'lT^r^  Itf^?!  51?^  II 

MWJ\  T^H  ^f??ii  n^*r^  1 
f^^C)  ^tf«l^^  %  ^f^^  ^^^  II 
c^tf^^  ^^u  ^tf^  ^fk^  ^^^  I 

2fr^  ^i^  ^^<T  fw  cw^  'T^t5t<i  I 
%g^r^  ^^  fe^  ^51^  ^mt9  II 
fti*i^  ^T^i5  -^mx  ^-^  ^^^H  \ 

C^  ^1  CW^  ^5.  ^t^  ^<f5  ^5t«l  II 
^1^1  CK^  ^^  C^^l  ^fiin  ^^^  I 

Kamini  l\umara  i)\   Kali  l^risna  Das. 


Vi.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  69I 

possible  the  spirit  of  the  original  in  all  the  gay 
metres  which  we  hnd  in  the  Sanskrit  poem,  nay,  he 
imports  with  an  easy  grace  the  very  words  of 
Sanskrit  which  admirably  suit  his  classical  Bengali. 
I  give  two  passages  in  the  foot-note  which  retain 
wonderfully  the  music  and  sweep  of  the  stanzas  of 
the  great  lyrical  master  of  Sanskrit."^ 


nfs  ^^^  ^^.  ^T^  «rf^  'R^t^'?!,  ^^^^CH  ^^  ^t^  (I 
^?11  f^^  ^n^,  ^t^  ^ft  TC^^,  Tf^t!f  ^^sff  ^^^sctC^  I 

*f^  ^?hr.  ^'1^^  5?^  ^^^,  f^9j^^  >i5*f  ^f5?i^5f  I 
^fNs^-sji^^,  f??^i:^  ^«T[  ^^,  ^^  ^^[f^  c^^  ^^5f  h" 


692       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 
III.     Poetry  of  rural  Bengal. 


Let    us    pass    from    the  city  to  the  village.     The 
The  villages    of     Bengal,  half     a    century    ago,  were  the 

villages  of     abodes  of  peace,  of  love  and  of  devotion.   The  vices 
of  the  tow  ns  stamped  the  literature  of  the  courts  de- 
grading it  to  wicked  sensualism  ;    the  vain  pedantry 
of  scholars  introduced  into  it  erudite  absurdities  of 
far-fetched      ima^erv   ;      non-Hindu      ideas     found 
favour     with     the     citizens,     directly     under     the 
influence    of    an    alien    civilisation.      But   the  quiet 
Hindu  was  not  in  his  element  in  the  city.      His  true 
home  lav  in  the  village  ;  there,  under  the  canopy  ot 
the    blue    sky,    on   which    the    gay    seasons  of    our 
tropical    clime    present    in     succession    their    ever- 
shifting    array    of    scenes,     the    Hindu    had    found 
leisure    for    centuries    to    ponder    over    the    deeper 
problems    of  life  ;    undisturbed  he    devoted  himself 
to  interpreting  the  texts  of  the    ^astras    like    some 
Epicurean    god   sitting  over    his  nectar — careless  of 
mankind.     Political  squabbles  rent  the  life  of  cities  ; 
kings  were  dethroned,  and  new   flags  were  unfurled 
in  ancient  capitals  ;   but    a    change  of    government 
did    not    affect    the    conditions    of     life  of  a  Hindu 


.on<' 


distance  separates  these  villages  of  Ben- 
gal from  the  seething  life  of  political  centres. 
These  homes  of  the  people  are  counted  sacred  by 
reason  of  the  noble  rivers  on  whose  banks  they 
stand, — the  rushing  (ianges.  the  ever-white  Dhale^- 
wari,  the  foaming  FadmS,  the  furious  Damodara. 
the  great  Brahmaputra,  the  dark-watered  Meghna, 
and    manv    otIuMs    that    branch    themselves    into  a 


VI,]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITEKATURE.  693 

hundred  streams  to  flow  to  the  sea,  keeping  up  a 
never  ceasing  music  by  their  murmurs.  How  do  these 
villages  adorn  themselves  with  gardens,  through 
whose  green  foliage  peep  the  scarlet  y^z^*^,  the  white 
kunda,  and  the  crescent-shaped  yellow  atasi, — 
gardens  where  the  sacred  bel  and  nimha  trees 
rustle  in  the  breeze  the  long  summer  day  !  There  from 
thick  groves  of  mango  and  jack,  starts  suddenly 
spire-like  to  view,  the  tall  Bengali  devadaru  rising 
above  the  majestic  asvattha — far  beyond  the 
tiara-shaped  domes  of  temples.  Here,  under  the 
sacred  tulasi  plant,  the  lamp  is  lighted  at  even-fall 
and  the  brow  marked  with  vermilion  bows  down 
to  leave  its  scarlet  traces  at  the  root.  Here  the 
sound  of  the  evening  conch  summons  the  villagers 
to  the  temple  ;  while  on  the  edge  of  the  meadow  the 
cows  stand  quietly  waiting  the  call  of  the  shepherds 
to  lead  them  to  the  shed  ;  and  the  madhavi  creepers, 
rich  with  the  treasure  of  the  spring,  diffuse  their 
fragrance  as  the  weary  pilgrim  approaches  his  earthlv 
paradise,  his  straw-roofed  mud-hovel.  From  these 
same  simple  Bengali  homes  sprang  the  Navya  Nyaya 
— the  logical  system  of  modern  Bengal — which  some 
of  us  hold  to  be  the  greatest  achievement  of  the  pure 
intellect  in  modern  times.  In  these  villages  the  poems 
of  Valmiki  and  Vyasa,  of  Kalidas  and  Bhababhuti 
have,  for  hundreds  of  years,  cast  the  spell  of  their 
beauty  upon  the  people.  In  them  the  lofty  prin- 
ciples of  Vedanta  philosophy  have  been  taught  bv 
Brahmins  who  realised  that  man  was  one  with  the 
universe, — a  flute  throuo^h  which  mieht  sound  the 
whole  music  of  god's  kingdom, — and  that  his 
greatest  good  lay  in  returning  to  the  consciousness 
of  his  oneness  with  the  Supreme  Principle,     These 


694       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap, 

liengali  villages  are  liallowcd  above  all  bv  the  wond- 
erful sacrifices  oi  the  saf is,  and  their  heroic  death  on 
the  funeral  pyres  of    their  husbands,  when,    with    a 
gentle  wave  of  the  hand  from  the    midst    of    flames, 
they  would  often  indicate  a  wish  to  hear  the  name  of 
god  recited  at  the  last   moment.       Here    in    Bengal 
the  renunciation  of  Buddha  has  been    practised    bv 
princes  from  age  to  age,  by    Dipankara   Sri  ynana 
of    Eastern    Bengal — by    Gopi   Chand    of    the    Pal 
d\  nasty,   by    Xarottama  of  Kheturi,  bv  Raghunatha 
Das  of  Satgaon.  and  in  our    modern    times    by  the 
saintlv    Lala    Babu    of    Paikpara,  all   of  whom  left 
their  worldly  glory,  and  went  forth,  beggar's  bowl  in 
hand,  caring  for  naught  but  the  highest  truth  vouch- 
safed to  man.    Here  the  dynasty  of  the  ancient  risics 
and  seers  of  the  Vedanta  Philosophy    remains    un- 
broken to  the   present   day  in    the    person    of   Rain 
Krisna    Paramhansa.   who  exemplified  self  forgetful 
divine  love  in    the  eyes  of  men  now  living.      These 
villages  of     Bengal    should    not    be    taken    for    the 
homes    of  men  like  Mirzafar,  Tmichand  and  Nanda 
Kuinara, — political    intriguers,   trained  in  courts    to 
heinous    vices    revolting    to    the    nature   of  a  rural 
people.    Fifty  years  ago  the  one  great  fear  of  Hindu 
parents    in    I-)engal  was    lest  their  sons  should  take 
the  vow  of  the  Saiinvasin.      'rhe\-   would   not  allow 
them  even  to  sit  on  a  kiisasaun, —  a  seat  which  was 
gimerally    usoil    bv    Satlhus.       Since    the    time    of 
I)uddha.    renunciation    in    the  cause  of  the  highest 
truth    has    bfon    no    idle  dream,  no  wiIl-o'-the-wis[) 


Renuncia- 

tion,the  thcoiv.     amoni-st  Hindus.       It    is    a  goal    towards 

jjoal   of                       -                     '^  .....  .          J 

Hiadu-life.  whieh    the    whoh'  Indian  civilisation  has  contmued 

to  move,   even    as    Western    ci\ilisation  mo\x\s    to- 
ward.^ patrii^)tisni,  and  against  j)olitical  >erldoin. 


VL  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         695 

The  homes  of  Bengal  have  even  been  seed-beds 
of  high  thought.  The  control  of  the  passions,  the 
mastery  over  self,  the  training  of  the  mind  to  con- 
centration and  voo-a — till  it  can  reach  the  state  of 
final  beatitude — are  aims  which  have  engrossed  the 
energy  of  our  people ;  and  Hindus  have  never 
been  afraid  of  privation,  pain  or  sacrifice  to  reach 
this  goal.  They  have  sought  a  revelation  of  god 
within  the  soul, — the  highest  aim  that  can  attract 
a  mortal.  A  certain  mystery  enshrouds  those 
who  scale  the  greatest  heights  ;  but  the  Yoga 
Philosophy  is  a  system  which  enables  a  man  to 
arrive  at  a  definite  realisation,  and  those  who 
would  cry  it  down  must  first  studv  the  vast  litera- 
ture which  has  gathered  round  the  subject,  and 
understand  what  is  really  meant. 

The  home  life  of  Bengal  has  been  best  express-  ^^^  Sonjrs 
ed  in  its  songs.  In  these,  one  may  find  out  all  he 
wants  to  know  about  the  Bengali  people.  They 
are  as  thoroughly  Indian  as  the  kunda  flowers  of  the 
soil  ;  and  many  of  them  spring  from  sincere  souls 
as  tributes  to  god,  even  as  kunda  flowers  are  offer- 
ed by  Brahmin  to  Visnu.  From  the  highest  truths 
of  Yoga  down  to  the  pettiest  concerns  of  daily  life, 
every  point  that  touches  our  aims,  our  ideas  and  our 
manner  of  life  is  embodied  in  these  songs.  Many 
of  them  have  been  composed  by  saints  like  Rama 
Prasada  and  Fikir  Chand,  which  no  one  who  is  not 
an  adept  in  Yoga,  can  well  understand.  Those  on 
Dehatattva,  or  the  spiritual  principles  governing 
the  human  body,  are  too  abstract  for  laymen.  Their 
language  is  not  difficult,  but  they  offer  points  of 
perplexity  because  they  illustrate  an  experience 
of  which  we  know  too  little, 


696      BEMGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap, 


in  four 
classes. 


Grouped  Bengali    songs    may    be    grouped    in  main  four 

classes  : —  I.  The  kirtaua  songs  to  which  we  have 
already  aluded,  II.  The  songs  of  the  kaviivallas, 
HI.  Religious  songs,  IV.  The  songs  of  the  yatras 
or  the  popular  drama. 


(a)— Kaviwallas  and  their  Songs. 

Let  us  begin  with  the  second  of  these  groups. 
viz.^  the  songs  of  the  kaviwallas.  The  kaiiivallas 
were  parties  of  minstrels  who  sang  songs  mainly 
descriptive  of  incidents  in  the  life  of  Krisha.  Their 
party  consisted  of  men  and  women  who  stood  and 
sang  in  chorus.  They  were  for  this  reason  called 
Danda-kavis  or  the  standing  minstrels.  Their 
Danda  leader  generally  composed  songs  relating  to  the 
love  of  Radha  and  Krisfia  or  to  domestic  scenes 
in  Kailas — the  abode  of  Civa  and  his  consort 
Uma.  Latterly  a  good  deal  of  competition  arose 
amongst  different  kaviwallas.  Cambhu  Chandra, 
a  son  of  Raja  Krisha  Chandra  of  Navadwipa,  about 
the  time  of  the  battle  of  Plassey,  began  to  organise 
professional  bands  of  kaviwallas,  and  a  new  ele- 
ment was  introduced  into  their  songs.  The  chief 
singer  of  one  party,  as  a  sequel  to  his  own  songs, 
would  begin  to  compose  extempore  verses  attack- 
ing the  leader   of    the    opposite    party    who    would 

next    occunv    the    stasfe.     TIk^    latter  would  not  be 
Attacks  on  '  '  ,     r ,  • 

rival  slow  to  make  a  rc^tort  at  the  end  of  his  songs,  and  the 

parties.       ^..(.(iiing    satin*    and   gross    vulgarity    which    came 

to    charact(^ris('     tlu-se     lights     of     the     kaviwallas 

evoked  a  most  animated    interest    from    city    audi- 


ence. Hut  this  corrupting  influence  was,  compara- 
tively speaking,  absent  from  the  performances  of 
village  kaviwallas. 


VL  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.         697 


The  kavi  songs  had  originally  con'^tituted  parts 
of  old  yatras  or  popular  plays.  Thn  simple  epi- 
sodes in  the  yatras^  especially  those  of  the  nature 
of  light  opera,  were  in  course  of  time  wrought 
into  a  separate  class  of  songs,  which  were  sung 
by  these  distinct  bodies  of  professional  bards  called 
kaviwalas,  whose  domain  was  thus  completely 
severed  from  that  of  \\\^  yatra  parties.  The  kavu 
walas  used  the  musical  instrument  called  the 
7nadala  to  mark  time  in  their  songs.  The  notes 
of  the  madala  were  lighter  than  those  of  the 
grav^e  khol  which  was  used  by  yatras  and  kirtana- 
parties. 

The  earliest  kaviwala  about  whom  informa- 
tion has  been  obtained  was  Raghu,  a  cobbler  who 
flourished  in  the  17th  century.  The  low  caste  of 
this  sinofer  shows  that  the  institution  was  based 
upon  the  amusement  of  the  rustics.  Gradually  the 
higher  classes  came  to  take  an  interest  in  it.  But 
the  chief  audiences  of  the  kaviwalas  have  always 
consisted  mainly  of  illiterate  rural  people.  Alas, 
these  songs  are  heard  no  more  in  Bengal  !  The 
death-knell  of  this  institution,  once  so  popular,  was 
sounded  by  the  new  Bengali  drama  influenced  by 
European  models  ;  and  though  the  yatras  still  exist, 
they  are  only  like  ghosts  of  their  former  selves. 
We  miss  the  national  tone  in  them.  Our  Yatrawa- 
las  now  mimic  the  modern  theatres.  They  can  not 
afford  the  costs  of  making  a  stage  or  purchasing 
scenery,  hence  they  generally  hold  their  perfor- 
mances in  temporary  sheds,  raised  for  the  occasion, 
or  oftentimes  under  the  open  sky.  They  have 
abandoned  the  ground  that  once  belonged  to  them, 
and  from  which  they  once  wielded  so  great  a  moral 

88 


The  origin 

of  the 
kav! songs. 


Raghu, the 
cobbler. 


The 

degeneracy 

of  the  old 

yatra. 


698      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LllEKAlURE.       [Chap. 

and  spiritual  force,  and  any  one  who  can  recollect 
the  old  yatras  and  has  the  misfortune  to  attend 
their  modern  carricatures,  is  involuntarily  reminded 
of  Hamlet's  famous  line.  •'  Look  here  upon  this 
picture,  and  on  that  !" 

The  rh<'  songs  of     the    kavlwalas   in    former    times 

hfndu         gave    pictures    of  the   domestic  life  of   Bengal  with 

^*^®*  all  its  gentle  lights  and  shadows.     The  coy  Bengali 

wife  unable  to  speak  out  those  sentiments  of  love 
with  which  her  heart  is  lilled,  is  beautifully  por- 
trayed in  them.  I  quote  below  a  song  by  Rama 
Vasu,  a  kaviwala.  who  once  enjoyed  great  popu- 
larity in  the  country.  The  song  opens  the  door 
to  a  chamber  into  which  outsiders  have  no 
access  ; — where  the  coy  wife  whispers  her  tale  of 
grief  to  her  maid  and  confidante.  It  is  no  free 
speech  of  love ;  we  may  well  imagine  the  stops, 
the  sighs  and  tears  with  which  she  delivers  her 
tale,  in  a  voice  scarrelv   audible.     Unfortunately  it 

Rama  is  impossible  to  convey  the  wailing  cadence  of 
the  tune  of  the  song.  The  bashful  woman  is 
longing  for  a  sight  of  her  husband,  yet  she  could  not 
speak  out  at  tlie  moment  of  farewell.  Here  is  a 
picture  of  the  Hindu  wife  that  we  miss  in  those 
poems  and  novels  of  modern  Bengal  which  have 
been  intluenccd  by  English  literature. 

->^  "  1  could  not  tell  him  what  1  felt.  My  heart 
was  tilled  with  sorrow.  But  it  was  hidden  so  deep! 
I  tri<Ml  to  speak,  when  he  said  good-bye,  but  shyness 

^'^\X7\  '[^^  ^n  c^i  CI.  ^K5  ^ft  ^N  ^t^  ^?n  5'»i  ^1 1 


VL  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         699 

overwhelmed  me  and  I  said  nothing.  You  see  I 
am  a  woman,  so  how  could  I  beg  him  not  to 
leave  me  ?  Oh  !  why  was  I  made  a  woman  ?  May 
I  not  be  so  again  ! 

''In  the  dawn  of  my  youth  and  in  the  bloom  of 
the  spring  he  has  left  me  !  When  he  smiled  and 
said  *  I  am  going  '  I  wept  to  see  him  smile, — smile 
at  the  hour  of  parting  !  My  heart  yearned  after 
him  ;  I  felt  a  longing  to  clasp  him  and  detain  him, 
but  shyness  came  upon  me,  and  seemed  to  say — 
'  But  how  can  you  touch  ?'  I  saw  his  face  beaming 
with  smiles.  I  covered  my  own  to  hide  my  flowing 
tears.  How  cruel  he  was — he  seemed  to  feel  no 
pain  at  saying  farewell  !  Oh!  he  has  left  me,  left  me 
without  a  sigh." 

Often    a    high    spiritual    tone  pervades  the  kavi        A  high 
songs.     The    love    of     Radha    and    Krisha    is    the  tone, 

theme  which  has  for  ages  inspired  the  Bengali 
imagination    with    the    highest     emotions.        Rasu 

^f^  ftf  '^if  ^mt^^,  ftf  (j\  f^^ti^tt^r, 

^\i\  ^^-^  a^  ^t^  "^u  ^\  n 

^t:^  -^m^  a\^^  ^t^,  ^M^  m^  ^^^  ^^, 

cf!  'T'^n  ^tl^Tf^  2\^K^  C^^  II 

^^^  ^\U  ^tf^  en  '^tfn'  "^m  I 

(A  ^if^  CWC^  ^TFT  ^^^  ^m  II 

^5inic>i  ^^%^  c^^cf  ts^i^fij  11'' 


700      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

Rasu  Narasinha   who    lived    in    the    middle    of  the    i6th 

NarasiOha.  (^g^tury  sang  the  following  and  similar  other  songs. 
They  indicate  the  high  spiritual  plane  from  which 
the  poet  gave  an  interpretation  of  love. 

*  ''Speak  to  me,  O  my  friend,  of  love.  I  am  sick 
at  heart  and  weary  of  the  world.  I  yearn  for  love. 
O  speak  of  love  divine  which  heals  a  weary  heart 
and  opens  the  eyes  to  truth.  Where  may  it  be 
had  ?  O  tell  me  this  !  1  yearn  to  visit  its  sacred 
shrine. 

"  I  have  heard  from  those  who  know,  that  you  are 
an  adept  in  the  secrets  of  this  love.  Be  thou 
sincere  and  soothe  my  wounded  heart  by  telling 
me  of  it.  Weary  of  life,  I  have  come  to  you  for 
this. 

''  Where  is  the  fountain  of  that  great  love,  for 
which  Prahlada,  the  son  of  Hiranyaka^ipu,  left  the 
world,  and  courted  hardships  in  the  forest — for  which 
the  god  ^iva  spends  day  and  night  in  Yoga  in 
holy  contemplation  ?  Wliere  is  the  fountain  of 
that  love  which  made  Prince  Bhagiratha  bring- 
down the  stream  of  the  Ganges  from  the  celestial 
regions  for  the    good  of    tlie  world  ?      What  is  that 

*  ''  ^^  ^U  f^g  C^m^^  ^511.  \5tV9  ^Tm?I  ^l^^  ^1^1  I 
^f^^.^  ^^'1.  ^I  fff^J^t^.  C^^  C€l^^^  ^^l^  C^t^l  II 

^(f^  ^i^k  f^^in.  ^i^f^  ^t^'^i.  f^f ]fN5  ^<^n;^  Wf^ 
M^  ^{^i^^  vi^<  c^iii^mK^^  ifi  ^tf^  m^ 

^1^,  c^i^  c^^  ^tN.  '^^t^  c^^^%  ^{^m^  cl^% 


VI*  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  70I 

love  which  created  the  heart-rending  woe  of  the 
maids  of  the  Vrinda  orpoves  when  Krisna  left  them 

o 

for  Mathura,  and  by  dint  of  which  the  Madhavi 
creepers  on  the  banks  of  the  Jumna  had  the  good 
fortune  to  touch  his  lotus  feet?" 

Here  is  another  song  by  Rasu  Narasinha  which 
sounds  very  like  a  sermon. 

^  ''  This  earthly  love,  O  maids,  is  no  love.  Of  her 
who  yields  to  earthly  love,  suffering  is  the  destiny. 

"Forsaken  by  friends,  slandered  by  the  world,  she 
is  subjected  to  shame-  Would  you  love,  O  maidens  ? 
Love  so  that  both  here  in  this  world  and  in  the 
next  you  may  have  nothing  but  happiness  !  Love 
Krisna  the  healer  of  all  sore  hearts.  Why  drink  ye 
poison  leaving  nectar !  Why  expose  yourselves 
to  slander,  which  is  worse  than  death? 

"In  the  temple  of  your  heart  place  him  from  whom 
flows  tlie  fountain  of  all  happiness.  Close  your 
eyes  and  call  him  dearest  and  offer  your  soul  unto 
his  feet.  Then  partings  cannot  come .  to  cause 
you  woe,  nor  the  slanderous  tongue  pursue  you. 

^t^ft^^i  11'' 
t^fr.^  ^f^^^i  ^tft  ^^^^  fe??i  II 

g^?f  ^^i^,  c^l^  ^^^,  ^q^^-^s^  ^^  ^^  , 

A^A  fiftft)  ^-fl,  ^n:^  ^ft,  ^ftf  t^,  (^fe^  ^H  nt^f^^^ 
aii^sw  ^^iT,  ^:»f  ^i?^,  ^1^1  ^tft  ^^  ^t^  nt?i  II 
^fe  ^K^,  ^l^i:^  ^i^^,  ^^i^^  ftj  ^^  I 
^^f  c^w.  ^"^c^  ^^«l  K\~^  ^f^^  11 


702        BliNCALl    LANuLAGh:    &    LUERAIURE.     [  Chap. 

"  Let  your  mind  be  the  bird  chakoni^  and  cry  for 
a  drop  of  mercy,  even  as  the  bird  cries  for  a  drop  of 
water  from  the  clouds.  P>om  the  divine  feet  bear- 
ing the  marks  of  ^^  (the  flag),  "^  (the  thunder), 
and  ^^«f  (the  hook  flowed  the  Ganges,  and  what  is 
tliat  but  the  stream  of  His  mercy  ?  Bathe  yourself 
in  this,  the  sacred  stream  of  divine  mercy.  You 
will  be  immortalised  in  love. 

"  Take  refuge  in  the  feet  from  w  hich  springs  all 
light;  they  will  dispel  the  darkness  of  the  mind  : 
that  light  will  cause  your  heart  to  bloom,  even  as 
the  sun's  rays  opens  up  the  lotus.  Be  deep-drunk 
like  the  bee  with  the  honey  of  his  love. 

"  The  creator  has  placed  nectar  and  poison  in  the 
same  cup.  and  given  you  eyes  to  discriminate 
betv.een  the  two.  Why  should  ye  prefer  poison 
to  nectar  like  a  blind  man  ?  He  who  acts  like  a 
blind  man  though  he  has  eyes,  misuses  and  loses 
carelessly  the  precious  gift  of  love". 

^■^^1^  CI  ^Iff.  ^Tf^  2^U.  'P^^  Ul^Vfi  ^M  ^C^  I 
^^\  C^f?  "^^X  CWf?^  ^1^^  (.^M-^-^  ^?IW  II 

^3IrT^^*l.  C^f?J15?f.(.   ^^«i5^^=l    ! 

-^XA"^  frf^^  N^t«f  nn  C>T  f^^i:^  II 

^C5f  ^-ic^  '^'t>'^'^y.  (j\  ^^[^  ^n5?:<i.  r.5i^  f^^>(  ^(k^  i 
^>4^  f^rt?^^  f?f^1-^'l  c^rf'lt^  ^I'^r.^  ii 


VL  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    c^    LITERATURE.  703 

In  the  songs  of  IMenoka    and    Yagoda    we    find 

true  portraits  of  the  tenderness  of  Bene^ali  mothers.  The 

^  '^  mother- 

In    those  days  there  was  scarcely  a  Bengali  mother         hood. 

who  did  not  pass  sleepless  nights  of  longing  for 
some  girl-child  of  eight,  sent  to  a  stranger-family 
to  plav  the  housewife  under  a  veil.  These  little 
wives  were  not  allowed  to  move  about  or  talk 
except  in  whispers  to  others  of  her  own  age  !  We 
all  know  the  silent  agonies  of  the  mother's  soul  for 
her  little  widowed  daughter  living  on  a  single  meal 
a  day,  and  observing  fasts  and  vigils  !  This  throbbing 
motherhood  with  its  anxious  eyes  and  fervent  faith 
is  called  up  to  the  mind's  eyes  as  we  hear  these 
old  songs  of  the  village  bards.  We  find  in  them 
the  deep  spirituality  which  has  always  made  Bengali 
women  bear  the  ills  of  life  in  a  contented  spirit  ; 
we  see,  besides,  their  devotion  to  their  husbands,  and 
notice  their  skill  in  the  culinary  art  and  their  hospi- 
talitv  in  these  songs.  Above  all  we  have  a  glimpse 
of  their  deep  piety  proving  them  to  be  the  true 
daughters  of  those  who  showed  such  marvellous 
fortitude  and  faith  as  satis  on  the  funeral  pyres  of 
their  husbands.  These  songs  represent  the  feelings 
of  the  village  people  of  Bengal,  full  of  tender  domes- 
tic instincts,  who  have  lived  plain  lives,  but  have 
aspired  to  scale  the  loftiest  heights  in  religion. 

We  give  a  list  of  kaviwalas  below  : —  ^  ,jg|.  ^^ 

kaviwalas. 

I.  Raghu  the  cobbler  was  a  resident  of  Salkia 
— -a  village  on  the  western  bank  of  the 
Ganges  facing  Calcutta.  He  lived  in 
the  middle  of  the  i6th  centurv. 


Thakur. 


r 

1 

2 

1 

1 

J 

L 

4 

704         BE.NGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

Rasu   Xarasinha,  resident  of  Gondalpara. 

near  Chandernagara. 
Gozla  Giii. 
Lalu  Xandalala. 

5.  Haru  I'hakura  (Hare  Krisha  Dirghangi) 
born  in  1738  at  Simla  in  Calcutta. 
One  of  his  songs  runs  thus  :  — 

t ''  The  dark  ni^ht  is  still.     Its  silence  is  broken 
Songs  ^ 

by  Haru  from  time  to  time  by  thunderous  clouds.  The  bird 
cJiatak  and  the  peacock  are  happy  to  hear  the  sound. 
Tell  me,  O  my  maids,  where  is  my  Krisha  now  ? 
The  fragrance  of  the  kadamva^  the  ketaki,  the 
jati,  the  champaka  and  the  seiiti  flowers  fills 
the  air.  They  remind  me  of  Krisha,  who  is  not 
with  me.  The  fire-flies  dance  and  the  lightning 
flashes,  and  the  scene  is  suddenly  lit  up  as  if  by 
dav-light.  The  bird  sadi  sits  quietly  with  her  mate 
and  they  touch  each  other  with  their  bills  in  love. 
\Miere  is  my  Krisha,  O  my  maids,  at  this  hour  ?" 


*  The  three  bards  whose  names  are  bracketted  were  contempo- 
raries of  Raahu. 

^  ^a  ^\'\  ^?lc^,  c^t^t^  ^'l^ft  ;  ^'^  '^'^TM  ^^  ^f-T  II 
f^^J^  «{^^!^  ftf^l  cwif^^^  ^^w  f?^^f*i  1 


VL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGR    8i   LITERATURE.  705 

In  another  song  he  says  :  — 

■^  "  Do  not  be  slow  to  recite  the  name  of  Krisna, 
come  what  may.  Would  you  give  up  hope,  my  soul, 
because  suffering  has  been  your  lot  in  this  world? 
Would  you  sink  your  boat  in  the  water  because 
there  are  waves  in  it  ?" 

Haru  Thakur  died  in  1813.  Though  he  used  to 
compose  songs  for  professional  parties,  he  himself 
was  an  amateur,  and  cared  not  to  earn  money  by 
the  profession  of  a  kavhvala.  At  one  time  Raja 
Nava  Kissen  of  Grey  Street,  Calcutta,  was  so 
pleased  with  his  songs  that  he  offered  a  valuable 
shawl  as  a  present  to  him,  but  he  indignantly  made 
a  gift  of  it  to  a  low  caste  drummer  of  the  party. 

6.  Rania    Vasu,  born  at    Salkia  in  1786,    died    Rama  Vasu 

in  1828.  We  have  already  quoted  one 
of  his  songs  on  page  698,  des- 
cribing the  pathos  of  love  and  especial- 
ly scenes  of  parting. 

7.  Nityananda  Vairagi,    resident  of    Chander- 

nagar,  born  in  1751  and  died  in  1821. 

8.  Nilu. 

g.  Rama  Prasada. 

10.  Udaya  Das. 

1 1.  Parana  Das. 

12.  Bhavani  Venia. 

13.  Mohana  Sarkar. 

14.  Thakura  Sinha. 

"•'  2^f^  ^H  ^t^^  ^^^  ^1^  ^1,  ?n^1,  ^1'  ^^t^  ^1'  ^1"^  1 

^fe^^t  X"^  ^^  ^1  ^1:^,  f%  CU^  CVfftt  ^?[  -^\i^f 

89 


7^^       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [  Chap* 

15.  Nilu  Hari  Patni. 

16.  Kagi  Xatha  Patni. 

17.  Bliola  Maira. 

18.  Chinta  Maira. 

rg.  Valarama  Kapali. 

20.  Govinda  Arajavegi. 

21.  Krisna  Muchi. 

22.  Uddhava  Das. 

23.  Parana  Sinha. 

24.  Ramrupa  Thakur  of  Dacca. 

25.  Jajnecwari,  a  woman. 

26.  Gorak?a  Xatha. 

27.  Goura  Kaviraja. 

28.  Satu  Ray. 

29.  Gadadhara  Mukerjee. 

30.  Jaynaravana  Mukerjee. 

31.  riiakura  Das  Cliakravarty. 

32.  Navai  Ihakur. 

33.  I\aci  Cliandra  Guha. 

Not  influ-  The    names    included    in    this    list    from   No.   15 

enced  by  ?       •       r 

Bnglish        onward     refer    to    contiMiiporary    kaviwalas    or    to 

^***  those  wlio  were  nearl\-  contemporary  to  one  another. 

Thev    nourished    in    ihe    earlier    half     of     the    19th 

century.       it  should  be  said  here,  that  though  many 

of  the    kaviwalas  lived  when  Knglish  rule  had  been 

established    in    India,    their    school    was    not    at  all 

influenced  by  hjiglish  ideas. 

The    Portu-  x,-     ,  ,  1     •       ii  •       r   i^  z.       •        ; 

eucse  Kavi-  ^^ ''  have  not  named    m   this    list    one    kaviwala 

wala  Mr.       u  ho  enioved  <rreat    noindaritx     in    Calcutta    and    its 
Antony.  '  ^  '     ' 


Vl.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    ik    LIIEKATURE.  707 

suburbs  early  in  the  19th  century.  This  was 
Mr.  Antony  of  Chandernagar.  He  and  his  brother 
Mr.  Kelly  were  of  Portuguese  parentage,  and  had 
settled  in  Bengal.  They  had  accumulated  immense 
wealth  by  successful  trade  in  India.  Mr.  Antony, 
when  a  young  man,  fell  in  love  with  a  remarkably 
handsome  Brahmin  widow  of  Chandernagar.  He 
did  not  marry  her,  but  the  pair  lived  as  husband  and 
wife  in  his  garden  house  at  Gereti  near  Chander- 
nagar, where  the  remains  of  his  house  may  still 
be  seen.  Antony  did  not  interfere  with  the  reli- 
gious views  of  the  Brahmin  woman,  nay,  he  en- 
couraged them  as  best  as  he  could  ;  for  in  his 
house  at  Gereti,  the  religious  festivals  of  the  Hindus 
were  performed  by  her  with  great  eclat ^  and  he 
heartily  joined  the  festal  ceremonies.  The  temple 
of  Kali  known  as  Firing!  Kali^  at  243,  Bovvbazar 
Street,  Calcutta,  was  erected  by  him  at  her  desire. 

Antony  acquired  Bengali  so  well  that  he    gained 
a  perfect  mastery  over  its  colloquial  forms.     During 
the   religious    festivals  of  Hindus,  his  house  became 
a    resort    of  the   kaviwalas    who    showed  their    en- 
thusiasm in  reviling  their  rivals  in  extempore  verses. 
Antony    took    so   great    an    interest    in    these    free 
competitions    of    the    kaviwalas,    that    he     himself 
founded     a    party    of   his    own,    and    employed    a 
bard   named  Goraksanatha  to    compose    extempore 
verses  of  satire  to  be  levelled  against  others.       He 
however  soon  found  that  he  was  himself  more  than 
a    match    for  many  a    kaviwala,  dismissed  Goraksa 
natha,  and  himself  appeared  on  the  stage    singing 
Bengali  songs  ;  and  as  a  sequel  to  them  he  attacked 
the  rival  parties  in   doggerels  composed    extempore 
by  himself, — vilifying,  slandering  and  abusing  them 


708      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap< 

to  the  height  of  his  power.  It  was  a  curious  sight 
to  see  a  European  leave  his  trousers,  coat  and  hat, 
dress  himself  like  a  Bengali  with  a  chadar  hanging 
down  from  his  shoulders,  and  the  kocha  of  his 
dJiooti  neatly  flowing  in  strict  Bengali  fashion,  and 
singing  songs  in  praise  of  the  goddess  Kali  as 
follows  : — 

^  *' I  am  a  Portuguese  and  don't  know  how  to 
worship  thee.     Oh  Kali,  be  merciful  to  me." 

This  he  did  for  the  sake  of  amusement;  for 
he  remained  a  christian  all  his  life,  though  by 
living  with  his  Hindu  consort  and  in  the  atmos- 
phere of  Hindu  ideas,  he  had  acquired  the  liberal 
views  of  the  Hindus  on  matters  of  religion  and 
was  quite  devoid  of  crude  bigotry.  Mr.  Antony's 
party  soon  acquired  the  fame  of  being  invincible 
in  their  extempore  satirical  verses.  Thakura  Sing, 
the  leader  of  another  party  of  kaviivalas,  made  a 
charge  at  him  in  the  follo\\ing  couplet. 

t  "  1\'ll  me,  O  Antony,  for  I  want  to  know,  why 
you  have,  coming  to  this  land  of  ours,  turned  a 
vagabond  without  a  coat  ?" 

Mr.  Antony  was  in  the  midst  of  audience 
consisting  of  common  folk  who  would  not  appre- 
ciate any  shn-wd  humour  or  clever  stroke  of  wit. 
He  was  not  only  recjuired  to  be  coarse  in  his  abuse, 
but  to  couch  them  in  I^engali  idioms  of  these 
rustic    folk,    and    it    must    bo  admitted  that  he  was 


^fvf  ^^1  ^X:^  ?5^i  ^^  r.^  f«ic^  ^t^^  II 
+  "  «^C^  ^*%f<R.  'cilf^  vii^5l  '^^l  ^1^^  5!^  I 
sflt'T  it^Tin.  ^1:^1*1.  C^Plf^  -^IK'-  C^^  ^1^  ^Tt  '' 


VL  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LIltkAlURE.         709 

fully  equal  to  the  task.  Here  is  the  extempore 
doggerel  with  which  he  made  his  retort.  There  is 
no  greater  abusive  word  in  Bengali  than  that 
of  'Cala'  (wife's  brother  ,  and  Antony  accosted 
his  rival  as  such,  although  not  in  so  many  words. 

^"  I  am  happy  in  Bengal  in  the  costumes  of  the 
natives,  and  from  having  been  elected  as  son-in- 
law  to  the  father  of  Thakura  Sinha,  I  have  lost  my 
taste  for  hat  and  coat.'" 

Such   abuse,    as    I  have  said,  stains  that  portion      The  town 
of  the    y^^z^z-literature    which   had   found  favour  in       contrast. 

cities  and  large  towns.  In  the  cool  recesses  of 
the  villages,  the  rustic  folk  assembled  to  hear 
tales  of  sacrifice,  resignation,  sufferings  for  love, 
and  of  tender  domestic  scenes  sung  by  their 
unassuming  bards.  Nor  do  I  know  if  anywhere 
else  than  in  India  the  lowest  stratum  of  society, 
which  the  kaviwalas  mainly  represented,  could 
sliow  so  much  spirituality,  love,  and  tender  pathos 
in  their  literature,  chiefly  contributed  as  this  was 
by  illiterate  men  of  the  lowest  classes.  The  gentler 
classes,  the  dilettantes  belonofino-  to  tlie  aristo- 
cracy,  favoured  the  kaviwalas  in  later  times  only 
to  stamp  this  folk-lore  with  tlieir  depraved  taste  ; 
but  away  from  the  town,  the  villages  preserved 
unspoiled,  the  well  of  Hindu  thought — undefiled, 
and  fit  to  satisfy  the  spiritual  thirst  of  those  who 
were  humble  in  spirit,  kindly  in  disposition  and 
who  approached  God  as  the  Hindu  wife  approaches 
her  husband, — in  deep  reverence  and  love. 


<V^  it^^  fn^N-S?!  ^T?:^?  ^t'lTt,  f  f  |fn  c^^^f^  i 


710      BENGALI    LAKOUAGK    Si    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

(b)     Relis:ious  Songs. 
Twenty-five  years  ago,  in    the    twilight    on    the 
river    Khoyai    in   Sylhet.    I  saw  a  boatman  rowing 
a  small  boat,  and  as  he  rowed  he  sano-  : 

■^  ''  Take  back  thine  oar,  O  boatman,  I  can 
no  longer  ply  it  ;  all  my  life  I  have  struggled 
to  bear  my  boat  upstream,  but  backwards  it 
has    gone    inspite    of  me,    and    now  in  my  old  age 

The  boat-       \  (\^(\  ,-,-jy  efforts  i^one    for    naueht.      The    prow    of 
man's  song  '.  ' 

the  boat  is  broken,  and  the  planks  are  falling  awav. 

It  can  no  longer  be  kept  from  sinking." 

This  means  that  he  had  fought  with  his  passions 
all  his  life  trying  to  control  them,  and  bring  the 
mind  under  discipline  ;  but  he  could  not.  And  now 
when  life's  ebb-tide  was  setting  in,  the  despairing 
boatman  could  only  call  upon  the  Lord  to  take  the 
charge  of  the  boat  of  his  life  for  him.  conscious 
as  he  was  of  his  own  incapacitv  to  control  it.  at 
the  last  moment. 

This  song,  which  1  heard  at  Habiganj  in  Sylhet, 
may  be  heard  suug  by  the  rustic  folk  at  M)'men- 
sing  and  Dacca  and  even  here  in  Calcutta. 

Spirituality  Tliis  clear  idea   of  self-control  as    the    supreme 

in  rustic.  ,    .  ,        ,     .       ,  i      i- 

life.  good,  IS  not    confined    ni  the  country  to  the  literate 

and    higher    classes.       Through    long    years    of  the 

spread    of   I^uddhism    and  the   X'edanta  Philosophy, 

it  has  lilltTi'd  (low  n  to  tlu'  lowest  stratum  ol  society, 

and  illiterate  villagers  realise   the    cKr-cpest  meaning 

of  this  sj)iritual  truth,    no    less    than    men    of   rank 

and  learning. 

■^*'^?i  ^^\^  c^n  c^i\  c^r<i.  "^if'i  ^t?i  ^\ti^  ^Tft  ^i  i 


VI.]  BENGALI    LANGUAGK    &    LI  lERATURE.  711 

There  are  hundreds  of  songs  describing  the 
transitoriness  of  life  and  the  vanity  of  human 
wishes  ;  and  there  is  hardly  a.  rustic  in  a  Bengal- 
villao^e  who  does  not  sine  to  himself  some  favourite 
tune  having  for  its  burden  the  mutability  of 
fortune,  as,  after  his  weary  day  of  labour,  he  lays 
down  his  tools  to  retire  to  rest.  Here  is  another 
song  of  the  same  class  :  — 

^"  Tell  me  who  are  you,  carried  on  a  bamboo 
bier  to  the  funeral  ground  ?  Some  of  your  fellows 
bear  you  on  their  shoulders,  and  while  others  fol- 
low with  faggots  for  the  pyre.  Your  little  child  is 
calling  for  his  father.  Why  so  unkind  that  you 
have  no  word  for  him  to-day.  Did  you  not,  with 
the  sweat  of  your  brow,  earn  gold  mohurs  and 
rupees,  wandering  from  Delhi  to  Lahore  and  thence 
to  Dacca,  for  the  purpose  ?  You  strove  to  heap  up 
wealth.  You  would  not  spend  for  your  own  com- 
fort a  four  anna-bit  or  even  a  pice.  Tell  me, 
brother,  how  much  of  this  hard-earned  money  are 
you  carrying  with  you  now?" 

These  wailing  songs  are  sung  by  the  villagers 
in  chorus.  The  melody  is  high-pitched,  and  the 
air  resounds  on  all  sides  with  the  chant. 

^"  -^K^^  cwmK^  ^^,  c^^?^  ^^^,  ^w^  ^r&  ^t^  ^5T, 

C^^^T  ^t^if  ^f  <jl  ^c?T 

^  ^ft  ^-^^1  ^^],  ^tl^  ^^1,  f^^^^  ^^T  ^^^  ^i^  ? 
c^:^  ^1  ^^^1  f^r^,  ^^^1  c?R.  ^r?i  f%  f^i  ^z^  Hc^  " 

A  popular  song  by  Kangal  Harinatha. 


712        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap* 

If  life  is  a  truth,  death  is  no  less  so.  If  one 
realises  this,  and  turns  his  back  upon  the  sweets  of 
life,  saying  that  they  are  not  worth  caring  for,  since 
they  are  so  transitory  and  because  they  are  held 
in  the  same  cup  with  poison,  what  can  a  material- 
istic civilisation  offer  to  such  a  soul  ? 

The  mind  turns  naturally  from  the  horror  of 
death  to  God.  •  The  soul,  that  has  the  power  to 
revel  in  the  permanent  delights  of  god-realisation, 
becomes  the  all  engrossing  matter  of  attention. 
Though  confined  in  its  temporary  shed,  it 
may  free  itself  from  its  ''  iieshy  vesture  of  decay  " 
and  by  the  process  of  Yoga  reach  a  state  of 
permanent  bliss.  This  is  realised  by  the  Indian 
aspirant  of  a  spiritual  life,  and  all  the  religious 
songs  of  Bengal  have  this  burden. 

(c)     Rama  Prasada  Sen  and  poets  of  his  school. 

Life  of  Amongst    those    who    have    composed  relij^ious 

Rama   Pra-  ^  ^  ^^ 

sada  Sen.       songs,    there    is  no  higher  name  than  that  of  Rama 

Prasada  Sen.    Born  in  thf^  cjuiet  village  of  Kumara- 

hatta,  near  a  station  on  the  East  Bengal  Railway,  in 

1 718,  he  was  at  first  influenced  by  the  depraved  taste 

of  the  court  of  Raja  Krisfia  Chandra  of  Navadwipa. 

It  may  have  been  owing  to  satisfy  the   Raja    or    his 

own    vouthfiil    poetic    vanity,     that     he    wrote    the 

indecent    poem   of    Vidya    bundara  which  was  very 

soon    after    its    comjiosition,    outdone    by  the  more 

brilliant    \'i(l\5  Sundara  bv  P)harata  Chandra.   Soon 

after  this  Kama  Prasada  retired  to  his  native  village, 

where  the  Panchamundi  or  seat  on  which  he  sat  day 

and  night  to  piactise  Yoga,  is  still  to  be  seen. 

Rama  Prasaila  was  the  son  of  Rama  Rama  Sen, 
a    Vaidva    bv    caste.      Piy   the    machinations  of  his 


VL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGK    k    IJTERATURE.  713 

relations,  the  father  had  been  deprived  of  his 
inheritance,  and  the  poet  passed  his  early  life  in 
poverty.  While  vet  in  his  teens  he  was  admitted 
as  an  apprentice  in  the  revenue  office  of  a  Zemindar 
and  was  entrusted  with  the  work  of  keeping  the 
accounts.  One  day  his  master  was  taken  by  sur- 
prise to  find  some  remarkably  beautiful  songs 
scribbled  over  the  pages  of  the  account-book, 
evidently  in  the  hand-writing  of  the  young  appren- 
tice. When  he  came  to  know  that  Rama  Prasada 
was  their  author,  he  was  so  highly  pleased  with 
the  poetic  talents  of  the  young  man,  that  he  con- 
ferred a  pension  of  Rs.  30  on  him,  and  allowed  him 
to  retire  to  his  village  and  devote  himself  to  the 
composition  of  songs.  Rama  Prasada  also  obtained 
a  pension  from  Raja  Krisha  Chandra,  besides  a  gift 
of  100  bighas  of  rent-free  land  in  1758.  After  his 
retirement  his  fame  spread  all  over  Bengal,  and 
his  songs  composed  in  the  soul-captivating  Raglni 
called  the  Malacri,  wrought  a  revolution  in  the 
spiritual  world. 

These  songs  came  spontaneously  from  the  soul. 

The    motherhood  of    God    is    a  definite  realisation 

in  them.     I^ike  a  child,  the  poet  prattles  in  them  of 

his  griefs  and  sorrows  to  the  Divine  Mother  Kali. 

Rama  Prasada  was  a  devout  worshipper  of  Kali,      Kali,  the 

^^  '        mother. 

— Kali  with  her  fierce  destructive  look,  with  a  com- 
plexion dark  as  the  darkest  cloud,  and  with  four 
hands,  one  holding  the  decapitated  head  of  a  sinner, 
another  a  sword,  the  third  offering  benediction  and 
the  last  assurance  to  those  who  would  not  swerve 
from  virtue's  path.  When  we  call  God  all  merciful, 
kind,  and  benign,  there  is  one  element  which  we 
try  to  white-wash  to  please  our  fancy.  Surely  the 
90 


inter= 
preters. 


714      BENGALI    LANGUAGK    &    LllEKATURli.       [Chap, 

Creator  is  also  tlie  Destroyer.  In  vain  do  we  dis- 
course sweetly  on  the  tender  aspects  of  the  Deity  ; 
there  is  no  playing  fast  and  loose,  no  shilly-shally- 
ino  with  another  feature  of  the  Divinity,  the  awe- 
inspiring,  the  dark  and  the  terrible,  the  fierceness 
of  which  confronts  us  at  every  step.  The  Caktas 
The  Cakta  have  proclaimed  the  worship  of  Kali  to  be  only 
possible  in  a  higher  stage  of  spiritual  development. 
A  sweet  and  complete  resignation  of  one's  self  to 
the  Divine  power  knowing  it  to  be  terrible,  makes 
the  devotee,  according  to  them,  grapple  better 
with  the  problems  of  life,  from  a  spiritual  point  of 
view.  Some  Cakta-interpreters  have  explained 
the  dark  colour  of  Kali  as  signifying  the  mystery 
that  enshrouds  the  primary  cause  of  the  universe. 
The  worshippers  ot  Kali  hold  her  to  be  at  once 
destructive  and  protective.  Rama  Prasada  especially 
speaks  of  her  as  the  mother  who  beats  the  child, 
while  the  child  clings  to  her  only  the  closer,  crying 
"  Mother  !  Oh  Mother  !"     Here  is  his  song: — 

'•  Though  the  mother  beat  him,  the  child  cries 
'  Mother !  Oh  Mother  !'  and  elings  still  tighter  to  her 
garment.  True  I  cannot  see  thee,  yet  am  I  not 
a  lost  child.      1  still  cry  '  Mother  !  Mother  !'  "^ 

Through  the  tierce  and  the  terrible  he   sees    the 

sw««t    mooidight    of     grace    that    suddenly  breaks 

forth,  and  Kali  i>  no  n^o\c  than  a  symbol   to   him, — 

a  symbol    of   divine    punishment,    of    divine  grace, 

and  of  divin(>  motherhood.     She  is  as  much  a  sym- 

The  i)()i  ;is  the  wor.l  Cu)d.      If  the  svmbol    of  a    word   is 

terrible,  '  . 

and  the        admitted    into  the    vocabularv.    why    object    to  the 

beautiful.  ^^^^^^^   a  figure    in  the    temple?     One    appeals 


;vm 


*  See  Kali  the  Motlu-r.  by  Sister  Xcvedita  p.  53. 


grace. 


VL  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGli    &    Li  I  EKATURE.         715 

to  the  ear,  and  the  other  to  the  eye.   RamaPrasada 

saw     the     fierce    rolling    clouds  that  darkened  the 

whole  horizon,  and  thought  he  saw  in  them  the  dark 

and  flowing  tresses  of  the  Mother.     The  fire  of  the 

funeral  ground,  reducing  a  corpse  to  ashes,  reminded 

him  of    the   destructive   dance  of  the  Mother.      The 

red  glow  of  the  evening  sky,  with  its  first  stars,  wore 

to  his    eyes    the    angry  look   of  the  divine   Mother. 

The    storm,    the  hurricane,    the     flood,    death    and        Punish- 
J  ,1  1  -T-i  r      ment  and 

disease — these    are    her  companions.      1  he   cry    ot         ^race. 

jackal  is  the  chorus  heard  behind  her.  The  funeral 
ground  is  her  favourite  place  ;  her  dark  skin,  stained 
with  blood,  he  compares  to  the  black  waters  of  the 
Jumna  upon  which  floats  the  full  blown  lotus.  In 
the  agonies  that  rend  the  whole  world  he  sees  the 
chastising  rod  of  the  Mother,  but  says  that  he  is 
not  in  the  heart  affrighted,  for  he  has  taken  refuge 
in  her  grace.  The  image  of  Kali  works  his  imagina- 
tion into  lofty  poetry,  He  sang  : — 

■^"See  !  she  does  not  bind  her  flowing  tresses,  nor 
does  she  wear  any  apparel.  A  sweet  smile  breaks 
out  upon  her  lips  !^' 

Sometimes  he  says,  t"  All  the  miseries  that  I  have 
suffered  and  am  suffering  I  know,  Oh  Mother,  to  be 
your  mercy  alone  "  for  he  knew  that  chastisement 
opens  the  blind  man's  eyes; — a  cruel  process,  but 
sure  in  the  end  to  lead  to  truth  and  bliss. 


7  lb         HENGALI    LANGUAGE    ^    LllEKAlUkE.      [Chap. 

A  mere  Sitting  at  the  feet  ot  the  image,    he  ofteti    knew 

it  to  be  no  more  than  a  symbol,  and  he  yearned  for 
a  revealation  of  his  Mother  in  his  soul.  Here  is  one 
of  his  songs 

*"  ()  mind,  \\li\-  do  you  indulge  in  vain  thoughts  ! 

"This  pompous  worship  and  rituals  are  in  vain. — 
they  only  increase  the  vanity  of  the  soul. 

''Pray  to  Her  secretly,  that  no  one  may  know  of 
it. 

"  What  is  the  use  of  making  dolls  out  of  metal, 
stone  and  earth  ? 

"  Don't  you,  know,  O  fool,  that  the  whole  uni- 
verse is  the  image  of  the  Mother? 

"You  have  brought  a  handful  of  gram,  C)  shameless 
one,  as  an  offering  to  the  Mother — to  Her  who  feeds 
the  u  hole  world  with  delicious  food  ! 

"What  use,  ()  foolish  mind,  in  making  illumina- 
tions with  lanterns,  candle  and  lamps? 

"Let  the  mind's  light  grow,  and  dispel  its  own 
darkness,  day  and  night. 


^t  ^f^U  '^\l^  ^.^f^  ^^1.  M5{^^  ^\l^  ^-^I^C^  II 
^U?lt5T^  ^^^  nt^1  ^^1.  ^rsf  f^i:?  r.i5l^  ^tC^t^^T 

^[\5.  wd^.  ^ffs^  Uu  ^m  f^u  c«n  '^tc^-^tc^  i 

^cf^  ^^^1^^  ^tf-^^T  C^t^.  ^tvS^l  "^^^  f^fl  f*fC^  li 


VL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LllEKAlUKE. 


717 


'•You  have  brought  innocent  goats  for  sacrifice. 

"W^iy    not    say,  '  Victory  to    Kali !'  and  sacrifice 
your  passions,  which  are  your  real  enemies  ? 

"Why  these  sounds  of  the  drum?    Only  keep  your 
mind  at  Her  feet  and  say; — 

"Let  thy  will,  O  Kali,  be  fulfilled,  and  saying  so 
clap  your  hands." 

In  another  song  he  says,  "  Making  pilgrimage, 
visiting  shrines  is  only  a  physical  labour  unto  you." 

But  if  Rama  Prasada  condemned  empty  rituals 
and  the  worship  of  images,  it  was  only  at  a  moment 
when  the  mere  means  were  confounded  with  the  end. 
In  fact  the  image  of  Kali  was  to  him  a  perpetual  -pj^g  imaee 
fountain  from  which  he  drew  the  realisation  of  the 
sublime,  the  terrible  and  the  beautiful  in  nature  ; 
and  it  inspired  in  him  the  most  poetic  songs  that 
adorn  the  literature  of  the'Caktas  of   Bengal. 

The  songs  of  Rama  Prasada  still  reign  supreme 
in  our  villages.  In  the  pastoral  meadows,  amidst 
sweet  scents  of  herbs  and  flowers,  with  the  gentle 
murmurs  of  the    river    flowino-  by,    or    in    the    rice- 

Th  t 

fields     where     sounds     of    the     cutting    of     grass    of  the  rural 


of  Kali 

inspires  his 

songs. 


or  reaping  of  harvest  lend  a  charm  to  the  tranquil 
village-scene,  one  may  often  hear  the  Malacri 
songs  of  Rama  Prasada,  sung  by  rustics  in  the 
following  strain.     ^"  This  brief  day    will  pass,    sure 


Bengal. 


c^^  ^n^  ^f^^iftf  ^f^  fe^  c^t^  ^r^wT^^  I 
^'^t^f  ^m,  5T^  c^t^  ^1^  f^c^  c^H  c^  ^t^c^  I 

^  "f^^t^  Vl^  ^fw^,  C^^^  C^T^ni  ^C^  C^l  I 


yiS       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap, 

it  is,  oh  Mother  Kali, — and  all  the  world  will  tind 
fault  with  you  that  you  could  not  save  a  sinner  like 
me"  !  *"  My  days  are  spent  in  vain  pleasure  ;  I  have 
forgotten  the  only  reality  in  life.  When  I  earned 
money  here  and  there,  my  wife,  friends,  brothers, 
and  sons  uere  all  under  mv  control ;  but  now 
advanced  in  years,  and  unable  to  earn,  they  treat 
me  unkindly  because  of  my  povertv.  When  death 
will  come  and  pull  me  by  the  hair,  they  will  prepare 
a  bamboo  bier  for  me,  and  dismiss  me  from  the 
house  with  a  poor  earthern  pitcher,  stripped  of 
clothing  like  an  ascetic." 

Sister  Nivedita  says  of  the  works  of  Rama 
Prasada.  "  No  flattery  could  touch  a  nature  so  un- 
approachable    in     its     simplicity.       For    in    these 

A  Euro-        writings    we    have,    perhaps  alone  in  literature,  the 

pean    critic  .      i        r  ^  *.       u  ..     • 

on  Rama      spectacle  of  a  great  poet,  whose  genius  is  spent    m 

Prasada.      realising    the    emotions  of  a  child.      William    Blake 

in  our  own  poetry  strikes  the  note   that    is    nearest 

his,    and    Blake    is  by  no  means  his  peer.     Robert 

Burns,    in    his    sph-ndid    indifference    to    rank   and 

Whitman    in    his    glorihcation    of  common    things, 

have  points  of  kinship  with   him.       But    to    such    a 

radiant    white    heat    of    childlikeness,    it  would    be 


^^^  n^  ^ii^-v'7.  2^^  ^1  '^Ji^  tf"ir^  c*in  I 

'^^^  ^«rta  'ii^i.  ^^11  ^151.  f^TOf^n  wsl^  c^^'^ «" 


VI,]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE. 


719 


impossible  to  find  a  perfect  counterpart.  His  years 
do  nothing  to  spoil  his  quality.  They  only  serve 
to  give  him  self-confidence  and  poise.  Like  a 
child  he  is  now  grave,  now  gay,  sometimes  petu- 
lant, sometimes  despairing.  But  in  the  child  all 
this  isjpurposeless.  In  Rama  Prasada  there  is  a 
deep  intensity  of  purpose.  Every  sentence  he 
has  uttered  is  designed  to  sing  the  glory  of  his 
Mother."^ 

The  descendants  of  the  saintly  poet  still   live  in       ^^^  ^*s- 

•^   '■  cendants 

the    village    of  Kumarahatta.       One    of  them  Babu    of  the  poet. 

Kali  Pada  Sen,  a  great  grandson  of  Rama  Prasada    hjs  death. 

Sen,    is    working  as  an  Engineer  in  Orissa.      Rama 

Prasada  died  in  the  year  1775  A.  D. 

Before  concluding  my  account  of  Rama  Prassda,    Two  songs. 
I    quote    two    more    songs    of    his    which  are  very 
popular  amongst  the  villages. 

(  I  ) 

t"  No  more  shall  I  call  you  by  that  sweet  name, 
'  mother '! 

"  You  have  given  me  woes  unnumbered  and  re- 
served many  more  for  me,  I  know  ! 

"I  once  had  a  home  and  family,  and  now  you 
have  made  me  such  that  1  am  disowned  by  all. 

"What  other  ills  may  yet  befall  me  I  cannot  tell. 

♦Kali  the  Mother  page  48. 


^•\U  f^m^  ^^^t^,  ^t^tfir  3i^jt^, 


720      BENGAl.l    I.WC.UAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap^ 

"  Who  knows  but  that  I  may  have  to  beg  my  bread 
from  door  to  door?     Indeed,  I  am  expecting  it. 

"Does  not  a  child  live  when  his  mother  is  dead  ? 
"  Rama  Prasada  was  a  true  son  of  his  mother  ; 
— but  you,  being  the   mother,  have  treated  your 
son  like  an  enemy. 

'■  If  in  the  presence  of  his  mother,  the  son  can 
suffer  so  much, 

what  is  the  use  of  such  a  mother  to  him  ?" 

(       2       ) 

■^"O  mother,  for  what  offence  have  I  been 
placed  for  this  long  term  of  life  in  this  prison 
house  of  the  world  ! 

'•  I  rise  in  the  morning  to  work  ;  O  how  hard  do 
I  work  ! 


I    wander  about  in   all  directions  to  gain  filthy 


lucre. 


^1  ^^  Tf^?  ^U  ^t^.  f«^1  C^^^  •IH  I 

^  ^'i9\  r^  ^t^  c^^^  ^fc5^i  II 

^1  C5|^^  :5t^  f^  T^n  ^^  ^1  ij" 
^%^\^  "^iUl^  ?Jtr*f^  ^^  H 


VL  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGR    &    LITERATURE  721 

"  O  wliat  delusion  possesses  me  ! 
"  And,  O  mother,    how    perfect  are    the    entice- 
ments by  which  you  bind  my  soul  to  this  vain  world  ! 

"  Bringing  me  down  to  this  world,  unnumbered 
are  the  troubles  you  have  crowded  into  my  destiny. 
"  They  burn  me  like  fire  day  and  night, 
I  no  longer  wish  for  life,  O  Mother  !" 
o 

After    Rama    Prasad,    a    host    of     song-writers    other  song 
appeared    who    imitated    his    high    spiritual   strain.       writers. 
Amongst  them  the  following  wTiters  attained  marked 
success. 

I.  Maharaja  Rama  Krisna  of  Nattore,  son  and  R-ma 
successor  of  the  far-famed  Rani  Bhavani  of  Nattore,  Krisna. 
and  a  contemporary  of  Rama  Prasada  Sen.  Maharaja 
Rama  Krisha  was  one  of  the  famous  princely  saints 
of  India.  We  have  not  succeeded  in  tracing  many 
of  his  songs,  but  the  few,  that  have  came  down  to 
us,  show  a  high  spiritual  tone.   One  is  quoted  here  : — 

■^'*lf  only  my  mind  can  reach  realisation,  you  may 
do  with  me  whatever  you  will  ;  no  matter  if  you 
place  me  on  a  bed  of  sand.  Only  recite  the  name 
of  the  divine  Mother  in  my  ears. 

^i^  ^tf^<T  "I'^jf^,  ^t^^  ^t^,  a?:^i  ^"(^^  I 

^U\  CW  C^^l.  'SfH^  ^1^1,  ^mt  ^?ft^C^H" 

91 


kanta. 


722      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LlTKRAl  URE.       [Chap, 

^'  This  body  of  mine  is  so  difficult  to  control ;  it 
yields  to  passion. 

'' O  Bhola,  my  guide,  bring  me  my  rosary;  I 
shall   throw  it  into  the  Ganges,  no  more  formality." 

Kamala-  ^-      Kamala  Kanta  Rhattacharyya,   born    in    the 

last  part  of  the  i8th  centurv.  He  was  formerly  an 
inhabitant  of  Ambikanagara  in  Kalna.  but  removed 
to  Kotalhata  in  Burdwan  in  the  year  1800.  He  was 
the  religious  preceptor  of  Maharaj  Teja9chandra 
of  Burdwan.     I  may  here  give  one  of  his  songs  : — 

■^  "  In  whatever  station  1  may  be  placed,  it  all  be- 
comes blessed,  if  I  forget  thee  not.  O  ^lother  I 
this  life,  the  bitter  cup  of  life,  is  a  source  of  bliss, 
if  I  can  feel  thy  grace  in  my  heart.  Ashes  and 
clods  of  earth,  or  precious  jewels,  lodging  beneath 
a  tree  for  want  of  a  roof,  or  a  seat  on  the  royal 
throne, — to  Kamala  Kanta  all  these  are  of  equal 
value,  when  in  his  heart  thou  dwellest." 

3.  Dewan  Raghunatha  Ray,  born  in  1750  A.D. 
at  the  village  Chupi  in  Burdwan.  His  ancestors 
held  the  high  function  of  Dewan  in  the  court  of 
tin;  Maharajas  of  Burdwan,  and  on  the  death  of    his 

*  ^"^m  C^si^  M'^  ^Tftc^  "^miU  I 
^H^.  ^^^,  ^2>I,  ^^  ^^  ^]U  I 


VL  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGK    &    LIIERATURE.         723 

father  Dewan  Vraja  Ki^ore^  Ragliunatha  obtained 
the  appointment  in  due  course.  He  was  a  profound 
scholar  in  Sanskrit  and  Persian,  and  composed  a 
considerable  number  of  religious  songs  in  Bengali. 
He  died  in  1836. 

4.  Dewan  Ramdulala  Nandi.  He  was  born  at  Rami 
Kalikaccha  in  Tippera  in  the  year  1785.  He 
acquired  a  mastery  of  Sanskrit,  Persian  and 
Bengali.  He  obtained  the  appointment  of  Sherista- 
dar  in  the  Noakhali  Collectorate  under  Mr. 
Haliday  ;  and  after  some  time  became  the  Minister 
in  the  Court  of  the  Maharaja  of  Tippera.  Rama 
Dulala  died  in  the  year  1851.  Here  is  one  of  his  songs. 

t  "O  Mother,  I  know  that  you  play  at  magic  with 
our  souls. 


t  ''^ni  c^c^fe  c^mf^,  TT^i, 

T^lf\  ^^^  15^1,  ^B1,  ^v5  "^m  f^h^  V^], 
Cm^^,  nt^H,  ^>!?l«f,  ^t^  I 

c^n  ^m  "^j  ^ft,  ^^^1^  ^^  ^if^^tSr't  I 
^T«tn^j  '^i^  ^^^t*l,  ^"^  ^cq  ^fk  ^C^*f  I 

^^  ^^  f^^i  c^i:^. 


724        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LI  lEkA  1  U'KE.    [  Chap. 

By  wliatever  name  one  calls  you,  you  seem  to  be 
pleased  with  it. 

The  Burmese  call  you  Phara  ;  the  Europeans 
call  vou  Lord  ;  the  Saiyads,  the  Pathanas  and 
the  Moguls  call  you  Ivhoda. 

The  Caktas  know  vou  as  Giver  of  all  strength. 

The  ^aivas  call  you  ^iva. 

The  Sauras  call  you  Sun. 

The  Vaisnavas  worship  you  as  Radhikfi. 

You  are  Ganega  to  Ganapatyas,  Kuvera  of  the 
Yaksas,  Yiyvakarma  of  the  artisan  class  ;  and  Bador 
of  the  boatmen. 

Says  Ramadulal,  this  is  no  miracle  ;  — 
it    is    quite    true    that  niv  mind  has  become  debased 
bv  thinking  the  one  supreme  god  to  be  many." 


IV.   The  yatras  or  popular  theatres. 

I'nlike  the  kavi,  a  i77/r^7-part\-  consists  ot  male 
performers  only,  the  part  oi  women  being  performed 
generally  by  \outlis.  The  old  yatras  were  a  sort  of 
melodrama,"^  the  dialogues  being  mainly  conducted 
in  songs.  riuTi'  was  no  scenic  representation  ol  any 
kind.  On  the  bart^  ground,  a  large  carpet  was  spread, 
and  the  actors  appeared  upon  it,  ail  at  one  time. 
ThcN'  usuallv  began  their  perlormance  by  playing  on 
musical  inslrumiMUs  only,  unaccomj)anied  h\  any 
\ocal  music.  The  deep  voiced  khoi  accompanied 
by  the  shrill  clang  of  tlu*  kartal  producetl  a  loud 
musical     chord    which      summoned    the    people    of 

*  'iW\s  WDrd  i>  iisrd  in  it>  tofhiiiral,  not  popular,  sense. 


Vl.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LllEKAlUKE.  725 


surrounding  villages  to  assemble  at  the  place  of  per-     Its  defects 

and  incon- 
gruities. 


formance.  This  loud  music  would  continue  for  a 
couple  of  hours,  after  which  the  play  would  begin  in 
earnest.  A  green  room,  so  to  speak,  was  reserved 
for  the  actors  to  change  their  dress.  Sometimes  one 
would  be  observed  to  throw  away  his  false  whiskers, 
and  dress  himself  as  a  woman,  in  full  view  of  the 
audience  ;  the  faces  were  not  very  clean  shaved,  so 
that  while  playing  the  serious  part  of  a  princess  or 
a  ladv  of  hiorh  rank,  an  actor  miorht  often  be  ob- 
served  to  bear  on  his  chin  remnants  of  the  beard 
or  moustache  that  had  adorned  his  previous  mascu- 
line part.  The  performers  including  those  who 
were  dressed  as  women,  would  sing  in  chorus  ;  and 
the  master-singrer  was  alwavs  behind  them  and 
could  sometimes  be  seen  pulling  the  ear  of  some 
erring  lad  who  could  not  pitch  his  tone  correctly 
to  the  high  notes  of  the  musical  instruments.  An- 
other actor,  while  delivering  a  speech,  might  be  tem- 
pted by  the  sight  of  a  hooka,  and  in  the  midst  of  a 
pathetic  display  of  feeling,  be  seen  to  stop  for  a 
moment  to  snatch  a  puff  of  smoke,  so  that  the  first 
line  of  a  song  would  coincide  with  the  curl  of  smoke 
that  issued  from  his  mouth.  Sometimes  we  may 
see  the  mother  of  the  hero  weeping  over  his  dead 
body  ;  suddenly  she  springs  to  her  feet,  and  takes 
her  place  in  the  middle  of  the  chorus,  which  bursts 
into  a  song  of  grief  :  at  the  same  moment,  the  slain 
hero  himself  rises,  in  order  to  swell  the  volume  of 
the  music  !  The  want  of  scenic  representation  was 
made  up  for  by  the  simple  declaration  of  the  actor 
that  he  had  now  removed  to  a  different  place. 
Thus,  N§rada  the  sage,  who  happens  to  be  in  the 
heaven  of  Visnu,  declares  that  he  will  now  visit  the 


726         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITEKATURE.    [Chap. 

Vrinda  groves,  and,  advancing  a  few  steps  from  where 
lie  stood,  begins  to  describe  the  scenes  of  Vri?ida- 
vana,  as  if  he  had  now  actually  traversed  all  the  dis- 
tance between  heaven  and  earth.  In  XhcsQ  yatras  oi 
the  past,  the  audience  comprised  people  of  all  ranks, 
for  it  was  a  free  entertainment  to  which  all  were 
welcome,  held  at  the  cost  of  the  master  of  the  house. 
Early  comers  generally  occupied  the  front  places, 
irrespective  of  their  position,  and  late  comers  had 
the  disadvantage  of  back  seats  ;  but  people  did 
not  mind  this.  They  often  stood  on  their  feet 
enjo\ing  the  songs  for  hours  together  without 
seeminof  to  feel  the  inconveniences  to  which  thev 
were  subject. 

Redeemed  Though   defective  in  so  many  ways — and  from   a 

poeVrv  su[)erricial  point  of  view  the  wholr  performance 
was  marked  by  incongruity  and  want  of  all  .esthe- 
tic perception, — yet  the  old  yatras  had  the  po\\er  to 
captivate  the  soul  and  keep  men  and  women  trans- 
fixed lor  hours  at  a  time.  The  songs  describing 
the  scenes  of  l-Jaikuntha,  i\\\i  heaven  of  X'isfiu,  of 
Amaravati.  the  heaven  of  Indra.  or  of  the  Alaka, 
the  heaven  of  Kuvera,  couched  in  rich  poetic  w  ords 
and  set  to  plrasiiig  modes  of  music,  made  up  for 
all  Wiintof  pamU'd  scenes.  IhcN- suggested  roman- 
ti''  situations,  and  carried  the  audience^  to  heights 
of  imagination  where  no  painter's  brush  could  ha\  e 
led  tlu  ni.  1  lie  outward  anomalic^s,  the  detective 
and  e\rn  grole>>(|ue  elements,  were  all  forgiven  and 
forgottcMi.  These  songs,  thrilling  with  j)athos, 
gave  lilc!  to  the  performance,  and  the  audience 
laughed  and  tried  as  though  the\  full\-  believed  in 
the  jovs  and  sorrows  of  the  characters  of  the  play.  A 
\cr\     familiar    personality    in    the   old    yatras     w  dti 


.yi*  ]         BENGALI   LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  727 


R§dha  ;  she  would  come  with  flowing  tresses  fren- 
zied by  Krisha's  desertiori,  and  address  the  flowers, 
Malati  and  Kunda,  as  if  they  were  her  friends, 
asking  them  where  her  Krisna  was.  She  would  then 
recollect  the  great  love  which  Krisna  bore  to  her-, 
how  he  would  play  with  her  ringlets,  saying  "  blessed 
am  I  in  the  touch  of  thy  tresses  ";  how  he  would 
himself  paint  her  feet  with  alta,  and  bedeck  her 
hair  with  flowers  and  garlands,  how  when  looking 
at  her  face  tears  would  start  into  his  eyes  without 
any  cause,  and  he  would  call  them  tears  of  joy. 
He,  who  could  not  bear  a  moment's  parting,  had 
now  deserted  her.  The  maids  were  calling  him  a 
knave,  a  hypocrete  and  faithless  lover.  But  Radha 
could  not  bear  that  Krisna  should  be  reviled  bv 
others,  though  she  was  dying  for  love  of  him, 

The  master-singer  is  generally  expert  in  the 
theological  lore  of  tlie  Vaisnavas.  He  comes  fre- 
quently into  the  midst  of  the  performers  and  inter- 
prets this  love  as  divine  love,  making  a  little 
commentary  aside.  Chandravali,  who  was  a  rival 
of  Radha,  in  Krisna  love,  comes  to  the  Vrinda 
groves  and  sees  that  Radha  is  lying  in  a  state  of 
unconsciousness,  the  maids  fanning  her  with  lotus- 
leaves  and  weeping  at  her  distress.  Chandra 
would  not  at  any  other  time  have  cared  to  see  her 
rival,  but  now  the  common  grief  of  parting  with 
Krisna  has  turned  her  into  a  sympathiser  and 
friend.     She  sees  Radha,  and   sings  : — 

*"  How  remarkably  handsome  is  Radha  !  I  never 
saw  her  so  closely  before.    When   she  stood  by   the 

^"  ^fl^l  ^?:'t<r  ^^ff  ^Tt,  "sitf^  ^^^  ^.u  c^f«r  ^tt  i 
"^^t^  1l^  ^K^  tf^Tt^.  ^Hf^  c^i^  c^m  ^«?(i  ^f^, 


Radha 
deserted 
by  Krisna. 


The 
master- 
singer. 


The 

laments  of 

Chandra° 

vali 


728      BENGAl.l    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

side*  of  Krisna,  and  smiled,  and  talked,  how  beautiful 
did  she  look  !  Krisha,  lying  on  a  bed  of  flowers, 
would  seem  to  wear  her  on  his  bosom,  as  one 
wears  a  precious  necklace.  Alas,  she,  the  beloved 
of  Krisha,  now  lies  in  the  dust  !  How  fine,  how 
peerless  are  her  feet  that  Krisha  was  never  weary  of 
praising,  those  feet  that  he  would  softly  touch  to  paint 
with  scarlet  alta.  When  these  tender  feet  would 
trip  over  the  thorny  paths  of  the  forest  to  meet 
with  Krisha,  one  could  almost  have  wished  to  place 
her  own  bare  bosom  on  the  road,  so  that  she 
might  have  stepped  on  it." 

When  the  sinorers  had  sunor  this  sonij,  the  master- 
singer  would  approach  and  draw  the  attention  of 
the  audience  to  the  description.  He  would  say — 
"  Radha's  physical  charms  are  not  what  the  poet 
pretation°  refers  to.  In  all  the  points  of  this  description,  one 
may  see  that  it  is  the  love  of  Krisha  that  is  des- 
cribed by  the  poet  as  constituting  her  beauty. 
Only  when  she  was  smiling  and  talking  with  Krisha, 
would  she  look  charming  in  Chandra's  eyes,  and 
not    at    any    other    time.        Chandra     regrets     her 

^^^  ?ri^  f^ii  b^'i  ^^f^, 
vf]  c^^«i  53ri  ^^i^  sfq^  tri^^, 
(My{  ^t^ei  aT5  (.^  mf^ni  c?t  f^a  h" 

Kai  Cnmadihl  l>v  Kii^ha  Kamala. 


VI.]  BENGALI    LANGUAGK    &    i.l  PERATURE.         729 

present  condition,  because  she  was  the  object  of 
so  mucli  care  to  Krisfia  ;  she  offers  her  own 
bosom  for  the  treading  of  Radha's  feet,  when  she 
may  go  out  to  meet  him  !  In  all  this  she  indicates  her 
love  for  Krisfia  as  the  only  point  that  contributes 
to  her  beauty.  Love  for  God  can  alone  adorn  a 
man — neither  wealth,  nor  physical  charms,  nor 
power." 

The  pathos  created  by  Krisha's  going  to  Ma- 
thura  was  the  never-ending  theme  of  the  o\^  yatras, 
and  it  was  a  matter,  the  lightest  touch  of  which 
was  sure  to  melt  the  hearts  of  ail  true  Bengalis. 
Yagoda,  the  mother  of  Krisna,  wept,  and  said  to 
her  lord  Nanda — 

*  '  O  Prince  of  Gakula,  I  dreamt  a  dream  ;  Krisna 
came  to  me  and  disappeared.' 

and  she  details  the  dream  by  referring  to  little 
incidents  which  are  full  of  tender  pathos. 

The  shepherd  boys  sing  in  chorus. 

t  "Have  you  left  us,  O  Krisna,  because  we  took  The  grief 
you  for  a  common  play-fellow,  and  did  not  pay  you  play-malies 
the  tribute  of  worship  that  you  deserved  at  our 
hands  ?  How  often,  when  playing,  we  quarrelled 
and  abused  you !  Did  you  take  these  things  to 
heart,  and  desert  us,  though  we  were  so  deeply 
devoted  to  you  ?     We    often    beat    you,    or  carried 


Svapnavilasa  by  Krisna  Kamala. 

t"  ^tt  c^i^  ft  ^tt^<i  ^^^,  c^^^  o\i\  ^v\^  ist^rt ; 
^r^^i  'TTsrt^j  c^^^,  "^M  'iT^j  ^ft  5?t^  1 
92 


730       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LllEKAlURE.       [Chap. 

you  on  our  shoulders,  and  rode  on  yours.  Often 
we  ate  first,  and  gave  you  the  remnants,  calling 
you  by  all  familiar  names.  Have  you,  for  all  these, 
forsaken  us.  Oh  beloved   Krisna?" 

Yatrasex-  So  the  shepherd  bovs  sano-;  and  as  thev  sano-thev 

celled  the  .       '  '        ,  ,' 

theatres.        wept,  and  the    audience   was    moved.      All    thought 

themselves  in  those  Winda  groves,  where  Kadamva 

trees  rose  upon  the  sight  fringing  the  lovely  horizon 

on  the    banks  of    the     dark-watered  Jumna, — those 

groves    that    the    tears  of     the   milk-maids    and  the 

shepherds    have    hallowed    for   ever.      The    vatras 

without  anv  regular  stage,  without  scenery,    without 

the  artistic  display  of  costumes,  could  rouse  emotions 

which    no\v-a-days    we    scarcely  experience,    while 

witnessing  semi  European    performances  given    on 

the  stages  of  the  Calcutta  theatres. 

The  subjects  of  the  vatras  wvre  mainly  epi- 
sodes in  the  life  of  Krisna.  There  were,  however, 
other  subjects  also  taken  up  by  different  parties. 
The  story  of  \'idvasundara  on  the  lines  of  liharata 
(liandra's  poem,  was  adopted  b\-  a  class  oi  yafra- 
7i'a/as,  of   whom  Gopala  Uriya    heads  the  list.      The 

The  VIdya      X'idvasundara  vatras  had  no  serious  element  in  them. 
.Sundara 

rh<-\-    were    111    hiL:"li    favour    with  the  lieht-brainecl 


yatras. 


arisf<>crac\-  who  eniONcd    the    humi^ur,    dances    and 


(A^\  c^m^  ^ft  ^^.  ^^  c^  ^?:^ft  ^^. 

Rai  rnmadini  bv  Krisfia  Kamala. 


VI.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         73I 

witty  sayings  in  tlie  play,  and  as  I  have  said  on  a 
previous  page,  the  songs  and  dances  of  Hira,  the 
flower-woman,  formed  by  far  the  most  important 
and  attractive  features  of  the  Vidyasundara 
yatras. 

Gopala  Uriya  was  born  about  the  year  18 19  at  Gopala 
Jajpur  in  Cuttack.  When  a  boy  of  nineteen  he  *Jr>ya. 
came  to  Calcutta,  and,  being  very  poor,  adopted 
the  calling  of  a  hawker, — selling  bananas.  One 
evening  he  was  passing  along  a  lane  of  Bowbazar 
Street,  where  Babu  Radha  Mohana  Sarkar,  a  dis- 
tinguished noble  man,  was  busy  with  the  rehearsal 
of  a  Vidyasundara  yatra  which  he  had  organised. 
Gopala  was  crying  'good  bananas  sir,'  and  only 
for  fun  he  was  called  in  before  the  party,  where 
question  upon  question  was  put  to  him.  To  the 
surprise  of  the  jovial  company,  they  found  that  the 
lad  was  remarkably  witty,  and  liad  an  excellent 
voice.  He  was  at  once  admitted  into  the  troupe, 
and  soon  after  began  to  compose  songs  himself. 
Becoming  trained  in  music  by  the  favour  of  his 
patron  Babu  Radha  Mohana  Sarkar,  he  organized  a 
party  which  far  outdid  the  fame  of  all  other  Vidya- 
sundara    yatraivalas.      He    died    about     the     year 

1859. 

Besides  the  Vidyasundara  yatras,  there  were  the  other 

Chandi  yatras,    the    Alansar     Bhasan   yatras,   the        yatras. 
Rama  yatras    and    other  yatras  which  had  for  the 
subject-matter  of  their  songs    mythological    stories 
from  the  Mahabliarata. 

There  are  no  authentic  records  from    which    we 
mav    trace    the    early    history    of  the    yatraivalas. 


732       BENGALI    LANGUAGt    &    LITERATURE.      [  Chap. 

From  the  time  of  Chaitanya,  vat r as  have  flourished 
in  Bengal,  and  developed  their  melodramatic 
character. 

The    lirst    great   yatra:cala,    of   wliom  we   have 

any  information,    was   Faramananda  Adhikari,  who 

lived  in  Birbhum  more  than    200    years    ago.     The 

subject  of  his  play  was  Kaliya  Damana.     The    next 

yatraivala,  who  earned  a    reputation    in    the    same 

subject,    was    Sudama    Suvala  Adhikari.      Locliana 

history  of      Adhikari,  who  flourished  after  Sudama  had  left    the 

theyatra-      Held,    had    two   favourite  subjects,  in  which  he  pre- 
walas. 

eminently    excelled.      One    was    the     AkrQra    San- 

vada  or  the  advent  of  AkrQra  at  X'rindavana  to  take 
away  Krisna  and  \'alarama,  under  orders  of  the  King 
Karhsa  of  Mathura.  The  other  subject  was  Nimai 
Sannyasa,  or  Chaitanya's  taking  the  ascetic's  vow. 
It  is  said  that  Lochana  made  so  great  an  impression 
on  Raja  Nava  Kissen  of  Qobhabazar  and  Babu 
X'anamali  Sarkar  of  Kumertuli,  by  his  songs,  that 
these  noblemen  under  a  sort  of  spell,  made  him 
gifts  of  immoderate  amounts  of  money  Other 
noblemen  of  Calcutta,  it  is  said,  did  not  venture 
to  engage  the  party  fearing  lesL  they  also  might 
be  led.  under  infatuation,  to  pa\-  him  rewartU 
beycjiul  their  means,  as  the  two  other  noblemen 
hail  done.  (io\inda  Atlhikari,  an  inhabitant 
of  Krisnaucigar,  (1798  to  1870,,  PitSmvara  Adhikari 
of  Katwaand  Kalachaiul  Pal  of  \ikrampur,  Dacca, 
wi-n-  the  latter-day  luminaries  in  this  field, 
l^emchfind  .\dhiksri.  Ananila  Adhikari  and  Jay- 
chandra  Adhikfiri  o"  Pataihat  obtained  celebrity 
in  the  Kama  yatra.  (iuru  Prasada  X'allabha  of 
I'arfisdatiga     and     Lausen      Badala      of     Burdwan 


Vl*  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    ik    LllEkArURE.  733 

excelled    in    the    Chandi    yatra    and    the    Manasar 
Bhasana  yatra  respectively. 

But   we  have  not  yet  named  the  greatest  _>'^^n?- 

w«/«  that    Bengal    has    ever    seen.     We    have    re-      The  great- 

1  •  r  T '  •  T '         I      /  -  •  r        .1  ^st  of 

served  a  notice  ot  Krisfia  Kamala    Lrosvanii  tor   the         them,— 

more   elaborate   treatment   that   he    deserves  at  our       l.    '^'I* 

Kamala  ; 

hands.  his  life. 

Krisfia  Kamala  was  born  in  1810  at  Bhajanghata 
in  the  district  of  Nadia.  He  belonged  to  one  of 
those  few  families  of  \'aidya  Gosvamies  in  Bengal 
who  claimed  Brahmin  disciples.  Krisna  Kamala's 
great  ancestor  Sada  ^iva,  a  friend  of  Chaitanya 
Deva,  was  reputed  for  his  great  piety.  Krisna 
Kamala  received  his  hrst  lessons  in  Sanskrit  gram- 
mar at  X'riiidavana,  where  his  father  Muralidhara  had 
taken  him  when  only  six  years  of  age.  He  was  a 
handsome  boy,  and  by  his  pleasing  manners  attrac- 
ted the  notice  of  a  millionaire  who  desired  to  adopt 
him  as  a  son,  and  make  him  the  heir  to  his  vast 
fortune.  On  this,  Aluralidhara  fled  from  Vrindavana 
with  his  son,  who  was  then  only  twelv^e  years  old. 

Returning  home,  Krisfia  Kamala  to  please  his 
mother  Jamuna  Devi,  wrote  a  melodrama  on  Chait- 
anya which  greatly  pleased  the  village  people  of  His  poems. 
Bhajanghata,  who  marked  the  author  as  a  young  pro- 
digy. When  in  his  twenty-hftli  year,  his  father  died, 
and  the  poet  left  Bhajanaghata  and  came  to  Dacca 
with  his  patron  and  disciple  Rama  Kigore.  He  com- 
posed his  great  yatra  poem,  the  Svapnavilasa  in 
1835.  It  was  at  once  taken  up  and  played  by  the 
amateur  parties  of  Dacca.  The  success,  this  work 
attained,    was   unique.     The  songs  of  Svapnavilasa 


734      BENGALI    LAKGUAGH    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap, 

were  in  the  mouth  of  every  one  in  Eastern    Bengal. 

and     even     now,    though     about     a     century     has 

passed  since  the  publication  of  the   poem,   there  is 

scarcely     any    old     man    or    uomaii    amongst    tht- 

higher    classes    of  that    place    who  has  not  at  least 

some  songs  from  the  book  by   heart.      In  a   countrv 

where   a  lyrical  element    predominates,    and  where 

devotional    feelings    are  preferred   to   action,  songs 

are  bound  to  occupy  the  same  place  in  the   popular 

estimation,   as  does  drama  in  other  countries  where 

work  and  not  sentiment  is  the   motto.     We    cannot 

look    for    a    Garrick    here.      A  Krisha  Kamala  or  a 

Govinda     Adhikari    will    better    fulhl    the     natural 

cravings    of  the    soul    that    longs    to    hear  of  lofty 

sentiment  and  of  the    highest    flights    of  love.      In 

the    preface   to  \'ichitravilasa,    a   subsequent  jv/Zr^ 

poem  bv  Krisna    Kamala,  the  author    writes    about 

Svapnavilasa.      ^"  The    public   probably    liked    the 

book  ;     otherwise    why    should    there    be   a   rale   of 

nearlv  20,000    copies    within   so    short    a    space    of 

time?"      I  he    sale    of    20,000   copies    of  the    book 

within    a    few    weeks    in    Eastern    Bengal,  where  a 

demand  for  printed  books  had  not  yet  been  created. 

was  (juite  a  phmomenon  at  that  time,    and    showed 

the      wonderful     popularity    which    the    poem    had 

attained. 

I'he  best  V(7//-iihv  Krisfia  Kamala,  however,  was 
his  Rai  rnniadini  which  appeared  shortly  after 
tlie  S\  apnavila>  I-    Alter  tliis  poem  had  seen  the  light, 


VI.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGK    &.    Lll  KRATUKE.  735 

there  were  produced  in  succession  the  Bharata- 
milana,  the  Nimai  Sannyasa,  the  Gostha  and  other 
works. 

The  Bharatamilana  describes  that  episode  of  the 
Ramayana  in  which  Bharata  meets  Rama  in  the 
forest  with  prayers  for  his  return  to  Ayodhya  and 
acceptance  of  the  kingdom.  The  Nimai  Sannyasa 
describes  Chaitanya's  entering  into  the  holy  order  of 
ascetics.  All  other  works  relate  to  episodes  of  the 
life  of  Krisha.  His  two  best  works  are  the  Rai  Unma- 
dini  and  the  Svapnavilasa,  and  in  both  of  them  he 
describes  in  highly  poetic  language  the  woes  of  the 
inmates  of  Vrindav-ana  and  especially  those  of 
Radha  caused  by  parting  from  Krisna.  And  we 
may  observe  that  in  these  poems  the  author,  while 
giving  the  noblest  expression  to  the  tender  feel- 
inors  of  a  woman's  love,  takes  the  real  cue  from 
Chaitanya's  life.  We  have  read  many  speeches 
in  the  poems  attributed  to  Radha  which  in  reality 
have  been  borrowed  from  Chaitanya-Charitamrita 
and  other  works  on  Chaitanya,  only  rendered  into 
more  refined  forms,  as  the  matter  passed  out  of  the 
hands  of  biographers  into  those  of  a  poet.  The 
Radha  described  by  Krisna  Kamala  typifies  and 
represents  the  frenzied  condition  of  Chaitanya  in 
divine  communion  and  has  been  portrayed  in  a 
very  exquisite  form.  Krisna  never  came  back  to 
the  Vrinda  groves,  but  the  Bhavasammilana  or 
union  in  spirit  is  described  by  all  Vaisnava  poets. 
The  significance  of  this  is  that  a  material  loss,  ception  of 
though  fraught  with    pain    for    the    time    being,    is  spirit. 

bound  to  prove  a  spiritual  gain  to  the  faithful  in 
the    long    run.     Our    souls    feel   a  craving  for  love. 


The  con. 


736        BKNGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

and  imagine  that  this  desire  is  satisfied  by  union 
with  some  particular  individual.  But  circumstances 
are  not  within  our  control,  and  when  we  encounter 
sorrow  in  our  love,  the  mind  seeks  happiness  in 
its  own  resources,  and  under  favourable  condition 
of  spiritual  development,  may  rind  the  fountain  of 
love  within  itself,— a  perennial  stream  which 
never  dries  up.  This  is  the  Bliavasammilana,  and 
in  it  the  lost  are  found  permanently,  and  the  heart 
satisfied  for  ever.  Nature  offers  in  all  directions 
what  seemed  to  have  been  lost  in  a  particular  spot, 
and  the  blessed  soul  rises  from  its  external  sorrow 
stronger,  freer,  and  happier,  realising  union  which 
can  never  be  interrupted.  The  Vaisnava  poets 
were  always  averse  to  tragedy  ;  but  as  they  did  not 
find  it  mentioned  any  where  in  the  sacred  texts 
that  Krisna  ever  returned  in  the  flesh  to  the  Winda 
groves,  they  created  this  Bhavasammilana  in  its 
place, — the  ever-blissful  subjective  union,  in  which 
the  mind,  freed  from  the  trammels  of  its  material 
environment,  revels  in  a  delight,  the  fountain  of 
which  is  within  one's  self. 

We  have  already  on  p;^ges  532-536  and  yJ-S-yjo 
quoted  passages  from  Krisfia  Kamala's  works. 
I  give  bt'low  an  i-xtract  from  his  Saiikrifau  poems 
in  which  thr   shepherd-boys   importune    ^'ovoda    to 

allow  him  to  go  witii  them  to  the   forest. 
Phe  impor- 

the'^plny''/  ''■•"  ^J''^''  '^'''^"'^  ready.  O  m.Uher   Yovoda,  to  go 

mate.s  of         ^^j^i^  j,^  j,,  y\^,,  \\v\(U  \ 
Krisna. 

'■   The. time  is  alreadv  up — the  time  for  our  sport. 


C^t^  "fTt^ttif  ^U  Vtt  ^^^  I 


VL]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    Si    LllEKAlUKE.         737 

"  How  long  must  we  delay  our  woodl-and  games  ? 

"  Give  us  your  Krisna,  mother,  for  the  day-  Vou 
ask,  what  care  shall  we  take  of  him  ? 

*'  We  shall  carry  his  flute  and  his  rod  ;  and  we 
shall  place  him  in  our  midst. 

"  He  is  so  merry  !       He  dances  as  he  goes  ! 

"When  the  rays  of  the  sun  are  strong,  we  shall 
take  him  to  the  cool  shadow  of  a  tree,  and  let  him 
rest;  and  we  shall  do  our  best  to  give  him  pleasure. 

"  If  the  way  is  thorny,  we  can  carry  him  on  our 
shoulders. 

"  And  if  we  see  him  pale,  we  shall  give  him  the 
fruits  of  the  forest  to  eat. 

"  If  he  ofoes  not  with  us,  whom  shall  we  adorn 
with  wild  flowers  under  the  cool  shadow  of  the 
tamala  tree  ? 

"Whom  shall  we  crown  with  peacock  feathers, 
and  whose  fine  hair  shall  we  plait  with  the  bakula 
buds  ? 


^t^tt^  C^^  (A^  W.l<  ^TO1  ^t^  ^'^ir, 


93 


73^      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    IJlEkATURE.       [Chap, 

'■  The  sound  of  wliose  flute  shall  charm  our  ears, 
and  whose  embrace  shall  cool  our  bodies  ? 

"  The  peacock,  tiie  cuckoo,  the  bee,  the  Sadi 
and  the  Suka  in  the  forest-bowers  are  waiting  with 
heads  uplifted  to  catch  the  sound  of  Krisfia's 
flute. 

"  Help  him  to  dress  in  his  yellow  cloth  in  the 
manner  in  which  he  appears  peculiarly  charming, 
O  mother,  and  allow  him  to  come  with  us. 

"  In  the  green  pasture  under  the  kada?nva  tree, 
we  shall  make  him  sit,  and  weave  a  orarland  with 
the  kiiuda,  the  sephalika,  the  ketaki,  the  mallika^ 
the  nagakesara,  the  tagara,  the  champaka,  the 
blue  lily  and  the  kadamva  flower,  and  put  it  round 
his  neck. 

ft^«i  ^^  I 

^^^q  ^^^^'js  ^\l\  ^^^^^  I 

c^i^  ^t5  ^r^i  fw^  ^5Tta 


VL]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATUKE.  739 

"  Do  not  hesitate,  O  mother,  but  allow  him  to  go 
with  us  ! 

"  Look  at  the  cows  ;  they  will  neither  graze,  nor 
drink,  if  they  see  not  the  sweet  face  of  Krisna. 

''They  will  not  even  low,  so  long  as  they  do  not 
hear  Krisna's  flute, — but  will  remain  as  mute  as 
statues. 

"When  the  flute  of  Krisna  is  sounded,  how 
quick  and  great  is  the  response  from  all  quarters. 

''  The  sages  see  their  highest  visions,  the  stone 
melts  and  the  Jumna  stops  her  course. 

"  Your  son,  O  mother,  has  magic  arts  !  If  he 
sounds  his  flute,  the  very  cow^s  understand  and 
instantly  obey  his  command." 

Krisna  Kamala  lived  the  high  life  worthy  of  a 
true  Vaisnava.  He  died  in  1888,  at  the  advanced 
age  of  78,  but  all  his  best  works  had  been    written 

r.^^?  ^^"^  ^t:^  ^^  ^^n  cf^^i:i  i" 


740       BKNGMJ    l..\.\L.UAGl<:    &    LITERATUKt         [Chap, 

within  the  first  lit  ties  of  the  19th  century  ;  hence 
we  inchide  him  within  the  range  of  our  treatise. 
When  Krisha  Kainala  was  brought  to  the  Ganges 
at  Chinsura  and  his  last  moment  arrived,  his  eldest 
son  Nitya  GopalaGosvami  wept  like  a  child,  lament- 
ing that  after  the  death  of  the  master  of  the  house, 
he  would  be  quite  unfit  to  govern  it.  The  dying  poet, 
who  had  till  then  retained  his  senses  and  power  ot 
speech,  addressed  his  weeping  son  and  said"^: — "My 
The  dying  son,  do  not  weep.  I  really  never  knew  that  I  was 
words  ^'^^  master  of  the  house.      I  knew  you  all  to  belong 

to  God  and  as  such  it  was  my  duty  to  offer  my 
humble  services  to  you  all  my  life.  Though  you 
were  my  children,  I  kept  away  from  my  mind 
the  vanity  of  knowing  myself  as  the  master.  Guide 
yourselves  in  the  light  of  this  principle,  and  you 
will  be  ever  happy.  " 

We  have  a  i^w  yatra  poems  interspersed    with 

poeiTis*^with     P*"^^*^'    ^y    authors    who    lived  in  the  17th  and  i8th 

prose.  centuries.       Some  of  these  are  mentioned  below  : — 

1.  Duti  Sanvada  by  Rama  \'allabha. 

2.  V'idya  Sundara  Gayan.     The  name    of     the 

author  is  not  known. 

Here  is  a  song  ol    Una,  the  flower  woman  from 
this  work. 


l'^-()in  tin-  biographv  of    Kiisna  Kamala, 

i)v  his  son  Xitva  (inngja  (josvami. 


VL  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGI-;    &    LirERATURK.  74I 

■^  "  I  am  but  one,  still  to  how  many  do  I  give 
pleasure  ! 

"  All  is  incomplete  where  I  am   not. 

"  When  I  do  not  go  to  the  good  damsels  of  the 
neighbourhood,  interviews  with  their  lovers  can  not 
be  arranged,  and  the  pain  caused  by  separation 
kills  them. 

"  If  I  do  not  come  to  the  garden,  the  flowers 
and  buds  are  all  plucked  by  unknown  hands'"' 

3.  Manasa  Mangala  Gayan.  This  works  begins 
with  a  conversation  between  the  manager  of  the 
vatra  party,  and  a  constable  of  the  Raja's  palace 
where  S\\^  yatra  is  to  be  held. 

t  "  Const.  Who  are  you  making  an  uproar  here, 
at  this  late  hour  of  the  night  ? 

Manager.  We  are  vat  raw  a  I  as,  and  pray  who 
are  you,  brother,  yourself  ? 

Const.      I  am  the  Raja's   constable. 


•^  "  -g^^l  2ftn  ^'f^^  ^\^,  '^m^  %5l  ^t¥  I 

'^\mi'^  ^'^^  ^t^^^  ^'i^t^  f^Tii  •? 

^lt,  C^l'^  C^t^  C^t5{  c^  I 


742         HENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [Chap. 

Managei'.  And.  answer  me  !  Where  are  you 
going,  at  this  late  hour  of  the  niglit  ? 

Const.  I  am  going  to  call  Kalua,  the  sweeper 
of  the  palace. 

[  Enters    Kalua,  the  Sweeper ^^ 

Sonff  (in  Hindi). 

"  1  do  not  know  who  it  is  that   calls  me. 

"  For  the  whole  day  I  have  been  in  attendance 
at  the  palace. 

"  I  have  swept  the  roads,  and  removed  all  dirt 
and  f^lth. 

''  Why  I  am  called  again  I  do  not  know." 

in  old  vtf/r<7.s',  farcical  episodes  were  introduced, 
episodes.       by  way  of  relief,  in  intervals  of  a  serious  play,  and 
the  above  indicates  the  way  they  were  introduced. 

A  yatra  performance  usually  commenced  at 
4  A.M.,  and  ended  at  noon,  thus  lasting  for  8  hours 
or  more  ;  of  this,  as  I  have  said,  the  first  one  or  two 
hours  were  spent  in  playing  a  high  pitched  clama- 
rous  music,  the  intention  of  which  was  to  adver- 
tise the  commencement  of   the  performance  to    the 


Farcical 


•'  c^<ii  c^i^  crr^Ti  c?  ft^^  ^tft. 


VL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LllEKAlURK.  743 

villagers.  The  farcical  scenes  which  were  intro- 
duced at  intervals  were  generally  called  ^t,  and 
the  children  who  accompanied  their  mothers  to  the 
place  of  performance,  and  who  could  not  under- 
stand anything  of  the  main  play,  were  greatly  in- 
terested in  7f».  In  fact  they  would  doze  the 
whole  of  the  time  that  was  occupied  in  the  enact- 
ment of  the  serious  portions  of  the  performance, 
and  hailed  these  farcical  scenes  with  great  delight, 
noting  each  point  with  gaping  mouths,  and  some- 
times indicating  their  high  gratification  by  the 
merry  sounds  of  juvenile  laughter. 


o 


V.  The  three  great  poets  with  whom  the  age  closed — 
Da^arathi— Ramanidhi  Gupta— I^wara  Gupta. 

Before  we  close  the  narrative  of  our  old 
literature,  and  enter  upon  that  which  is  stamped 
with  English  influence,  we  propose  to  say  something 
about  a  few  more  writers  of  the  old  school,  and 
notice  the  folk  tales  prevalent  in  the  country  from 
ancient  times.  Let  us  first  deal  with  the  three 
poets  who  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury. Though  by  the  time  they  flourished,  Eng- 
lish rule  had  become  settled  in  the  country,  yet 
their  writings  bear  no  traces  of  European  influence. 
They  belonged  to  the  old  school  and  exercised  a 
great  influence  on  contemporary  society  and  litera- 
ture. These  three  poets  are  i.  Da^arathi  Rai 
2.  Ramnidhi  Gupta  and    3.  I^wara  Chandra  Gupta. 

Dacarathi  Rsi  was  born  at  Vandamura  in    Bur-      _ 

.  Dacarathi 

dwan    in    the  year  1804.      His  father  Devi  Prasada  Rai. 

Rai   was   a  man  of  small    means.      So    the    young 

poet    lived   with    one  of  his  maternal  uncles  at  the 

village    of  Pila   where   he    ultimately    settled.     He 


Panchali. 


744      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap, 

got  a  smattering  of  Bengali  and  became  an  appren- 
tice in  the  office  of  an  indigo-planter  at  Sakai  on 
a  monthly  pay  of  Rs.  3.  Here  he  fell  in  love  with 
a  low-caste  woman  of  ill  fame.  Her  name  was 
Aksaya  Patini,  and  she  was  commonly  called  Aka 
Vai.  This  woman  had  organised  a  party  of  kavi- 
ivalas  for  whom  songs  and  speeches  were  now 
composed  by  our  poet.  This  made  him  very  un- 
popular at  home,  and  on  one  occasion  in  an  open 
competition  of  extempore  verse-making  he  was 
lashed  by  the  taunts  of  a  rival  kaviwala.  The 
mother  and  uncle  of  Da9arathi  insisted  on  his 
leaving  his  mean  occupation,  associated  as  it 
was,  with  an  ignominious  passion.  Dav^i  could 
not  withstand  the  importunities  of  his  relations, 
least  of  all,  of  his  mother  ;  for  inspite  of  the 
low  calling  that  he  had  adopted,  he  was  a 
good  Brahmin  and  his  family  enjoyed  con- 
siderable respectability  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Da^u  left  the  party  of  kaviivalas,  and  became  the 
author  and  inventor  of  a  peculiar  kind  of  doggerel — 
calUul  [\inchal'i.  These  Panchalis  took  for  their 
main  subject  those  incidents  in  Krisna's  life  which 
in  the  popular  belief  of  Bengal  were  indispensable 
to  songs.  But  DaVLi  adopted  other  subjects  also 
f.ivoured  bv  the  moderns,  and  possessing  contem- 
porary interest.  Such  for  instance  are  his  poems 
on  Widow  marriagt',  on  the  Lily  and  the  Bee,  and 
other  subjects. 

The  popul.irilN-  of  these  po<Mns,  which  he  made 
it  liis  profession  to  rei  ite  and  sing,  was  immense 
throu'T^hout  the  coiintis,  and  tliough  he  had  started 
by  charging  only  Ks.  3  a  night,  for  reciting  and 
of     his    Ptuichalis,    he    was    able    to 


VI.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGK    ik    LITERATURE.  745 

increase  his  fee  to  Rs.  150  per  night,  and  the  num- 
ber of  engagements  that  he  made  was  so  large 
that  he  had  to  refuse  many.  He  grew  rich  in  his  old 
age,  made  a  nice  garden-house  at  Pila  on  the  bank 
of  the  Ganges,  and  lived  comfortably  till  his  death 
in    1857. 

Dscu  Rai  >  Panchali  shows  an  amazing  com- 
mand over  th^  Bengali  language.  For  one  who 
had  had  no  Sanskrit  education  and  had  acquired 
only  an  indifferent  knowledge  of  Bengali,  his 
works  deserve  high  praise.  Alliteration  and  pun- 
ning were  his  forte,  and  his  verses,  which  flow  with 
remarkable  facility,  sparkle  with  humour  and 
wit.  The  words  that  he  chooses  are  ^enerallv 
Sanskritic,  though  not  pompous,  and  the  effect  pro- 
duced   on    the  ear    by  their    combination   is  singu-     tion,punn. 

larlv  pleasinor.     When  he  is  vulvar,   we    know   that        *"^  ^ 

r  ^  ^     '  vulgar- 

he   is    addressing    the    mob,    to  whom  the  grossest  ities. 

obscenities  would  be  welcome,  and  he  spares  no 
jokes,  no  hit,  however  indecent,  to  pander  to  their 
vile  tastes.  He  was  essentiallv  a  poet  of  the 
masses.  By  his  swift  doggerels,  full  of  allitera- 
tions, by  his  obscenities,  by  the  display  of  wit 
which  was  often  of  the  coarsest  kind,  we  know  that 
the  scum  of  the  society  were  gathered  to  hear  him, 
and  his  aim  was  to  please  them  at  any  cost.  His 
poems  are  full  of  display — of  words,  of  thoughts, 
and  of  wit.  They  prove  that  he  was  trying  to 
create  an  impression,  and  was  always  conscious  of 
his  brilliant  talent.  Take  for  instance  this 
passage  : — 

94 


746         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

■^  "  Faith  adorns  a  scholar  ;  liahtning  adorns  the 
cloud  ;  the  husband's  love  adorns  a  woman  ;  the 
sacrificial  ashes  adorn  an  ascetic  ;  the  crops  adorn 
the  earth ;  its  own  lustre  adorns  a  jewel  ;  the 
fruits  adorn  a  tree  ;  water  adorns  a  river  :  the  lilv 
adorns  water  ;  and  the  bee  adorns  a  lily  ;  his  sweet 
hum  adorns  the  bee ;  the  eyes  adorn  the  body  ; 
and  charity  adorns  a  kind-hearted  man.  if  he  gives 
it  with  sweet  words." 

These  couplets  while  scarcely  bearing  more 
than  any  commonplace  sense,  are,  however,  re- 
markable for  their  jingling  alliteration — the  rhym- 
ing being  singularly  happy.  The  poet  goes  on 
with  his  catalogue  of  what  adorns  wh  it,  for  pages, 
and  it  appears  t'nat  unless  one  forces  him  to  stop, 
he  will  never  end  this  strain.  Manv  such  verses 
would  be  delivered  extempore  during  a  single  per- 
formance,   and    bear    evidence    of  being   carried  to 

the  utmost  limit   of  the    poet's   command    over    the 
Qoes  on, 
being  clap-     language,    becaus(^    he   was  being  clapped,  cheered, 
ped  and  t^  ,    ^  .  ^T.,  ,  , 

cheered.       *^"*^    encouraged    to    continue.       1  he    mob    was  de- 
lighted bv  the  free  display  of  his    verbal   resources, 

51^  ^^'1  ^f^.  ??:i?j  f  ^^  c^jif^  I 

^i:'Sff  ^^«i  w^,  ^f\^  ^^<i  ^^, 
^i^^  ^^«i  nil  I  "^I'^n^  ^^=1  ^1^^. 


VI*  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    ik,    LllEKAlUKE.  747 

and  the  poet  lost  all  sense  of  proportion  under    the 
encouragement  he  received. 

He  describes  many  incidents  in  Krisna's  life. 
The  Prabh§sa  scene,  for  instance,  had  been  worked 
up  to  the  tenderest  pathos  by  earlier  poets.  Dafa- 
rathi,  then,  began  by  describing  how  a  Brahmin,  who 
was  grovelling  in  abject  poverty,  went  to  Krisha 
owing  to  pressure  from  his  wife  to  beg  for  alms, 
and  came  back  dissappointed.  The  story  is  told 
with  much  artistic  effect,  and  we  can  understand 
how  the  audience  would  enjoy  it.  But  the  seri- 
ous portion  of  the  Prabhasa  scene  must  follow,  and 
the  thoughtful  amongst  the  audience  were  sitting 
waiting  for  it.  The  poet  however  dragged  the  in- 
cidental story  ol  the  Brahmin  beggar  to  such  an 
inordmate  length,  that  the  whole  time  was  taken 
up  by  it,  and  he  began  and  ended  his  Prabhasa 
with  this  single  incident  introduced  by  way  of 
diversion  and  originally  meant  to  supplement  the 
main  subject.  Da^arathi  had  no  sense  of  propor- 
tion.    In  the  atmosphere  of  the  vulgar    he    lost    all 

•   1  r        •  11  1         r     1  1  1  Without 

idea  01  time  and  place,  and  it  he  claims  a  place  any  sense 
in  literature,  it  is  only  by  riglit  of  his  sparkling  and  **^  propor- 
artistic  language,  which  makes  his  shortcomings  and 
scurrilities  half-pardonable  in  our  eyes.  The  art 
of  writing  and  appreciating  literature  was  no  longer 
confined  to  the  higher  classes.  The  crowd  also 
began  to  feel  that  Bengali  literature  was  theirs.  It 
was  the  season,  as  it  were,  for  a  flood-tide  in  our  let- 
ters, and  the  evil  was  inevitably  mingled  with  the  pure 
to  cover  the  w^hole  range  of  the  Bengali  language. 

The  suggestive  hits  of  a  sharp  wit,  the  majestic 
sweep  of  Sanskrit  metres,  the  lofty  spirit  of  self- 
sacrifice    and    higher    ideals    attracted     the     upper 


748       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE,       [Chap. 

classes  of  society  ;  bul  the  coarser  elements  to  suit 
the  taste  of  the  mob  were  inevitable,  and  thus  the 
grotesque  found  place  side  by  side  with  beauty, 
indecency  with  humour  and  the  absurd  with  the 
natural.  Dayarathi  Rai  was  essentially  a  poet  for 
the  masses.  In  his  poem  on  the  Lily  and  the  Bee, 
the  bee,  as  the  lover,  being  angry  with  the  lily, 
declares  himself  an  ascetic,  and  betakes    himself  to 

The    Lily      the    forest,"^ — "the    lover    of  the  lily,  like   the  sage 

and  the         /^    i     j  .  •  j  j  u      j 

Bee  Cukadeva,  went  in  pensive    mood,    and    gave    need 

to  no  one  calling  him.''  This  poem  is  an  inexhaus- 
tible fund  of  jest  and  wit,  though  towards  the  end 
it  grows  extremely  vulgar. 

But  1  am  afraid  I  have  not  done  justice  to 
Da^arathi  by  calling  him  a  poet  for  the  masses  only. 
Curiously  enough,  he  is  the  author  of  many  songs 
\\hich  breathe  loftv  relio["ious  sentiment  and  mav 
almost  be  placed  side  by  side  with  those  of  Rama 
Frasada  and  other  saintly  poets  ;  with  his  perverse 
life,  his  vulgarities  and  his  conceited  style  of  writing. 
this  element  was  certainly  most  inconsistent  ;  yet 
he  was  a  man  capable  of  pious  sentiment  and  devo- 
tional feeling;  and  whatever  may  have  been  his  wavs 
and  manners,  there  was  an  under  current  of  faith  in 
him  which  comes  unmistakablv  to  light  in  his  religi- 
ous songs.  'V\\r  song  beginning  with. — t  "  Xouo  i.^ 
accountable,  ()  .Mother,  for  my  sins. 

"  With  m\  own  hands  I  duir  a  tank,  and  in  it  1 
\vA\v.  drowned  iiuselt.'  — 


His 

religious 
songs. 


VI.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGK    ik    LIIEKAIUKE.  749 

— glistens  as  it  were  with  the  tears  of  true  re- 
morse of  a  penitent  soul.  I  quote  below  another 
song. 

t"  Find  out  a  means,  O  divine  Mother,  for  this 
humble  soul,  that  it  may  finally  rest  at  thy  feet. 

"Mayst  thou  grant  me  this  boon,  that  at  my  death, 
the  five  elements,  that  constitute  this  mortal  frame, 
may  join  the  five  places  favoured  by  thee. 

"  May  the  etherial  portions  of  my  body  hll  the 
space  of  thy  holy  temple,  and  the  clay  of  this 
clay-vessel  form  a  part  of  thy  sacred  image  as 
made  by  the  potters. 

"  May  my  breath  mix  with  the  air  of  the  fans 
with  which  the  priests  fan  thy  itnage. 

"  May  my  fire  be  mingled  with  the  sacrificial  fire 
kindled  for  thee,  and  the  watery  portion  of  my 
body  be  joined  to  the  water  with  which  the  feet  of 
thine'image  are  washed. 

"  By  thus  being  resolved  and  thus  dedicated, 
O  Mother,  may  I  never  come  back  to  this  world 
to  be  born  and  to  die." 


750       BENGALI    LANCjUAGE    &,    LITERATURE.      [  Chap< 

Another  song  that  he  is  said  to  have  composed 
on  the  eve  of  his  death  may  be  taken  as  a  sort 
of  last  will  and  testament.  He  addresses  his 
brother  Tinakadi,  familiarly  called  Tinu,  in  the 
song. 

■'^"  (}o  back,  all  of  you,  and  yourself  also,  dear 
brother  Tinu. 

"  I  came  alone  and  alone  must  I  go. 

"It  is  not  in  my  power  to  return  home  with  you, 
nor  have  I  any  wi>h  to  do  so. 

"  I  bfqueath  to  you  all  my  property — my  house, 
my  lands,  and  garden-house  and  all  the  effects  that 
I  possess.     You  are  now  their  sole  proprietor. 

The  last  "  Use  this  inheritance  with  discretion    and    wis- 

dom :     and  be  pleased,   O  brother,  to  look  after  my 
poor  widow  and  maintain  her. 

"  You  seem  to  think  that  I  am  alone  and  help- 
less. But  I  have  no  need  of  pity  at  this  moment. 
I  am  serene  and  happy  in  the  arms  of  my  divine 
Mother." 


^^   Ff^'S^I.   ^T^T^  ^1^5t. 

^l^  ?'^  f?»f^1  ^31%,  ^^l^  ^^  f^^ff  I 

C^t^^l  ^l^  ^t^  vf)Jpi. 

^tf^  f^l  ^tl^  ^^1, 

^ITT  ^tfw  ^tf^  VZ^^  C^n^^  l" 


VI.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGK    &    LITERATURE.         75 1 

I  give  below  a  list  of  Dagarathi's  works  : — 


I. 

2. 

Janmastami  of  ^rl  Krisna. 

Nandotsava. 

Dacara 

thi's 

works. 

3- 

^ri  Krisfier  Gosthalila. 

4- 

^ri  Radhikar  Darpachurna. 

5- 

Vastra-harana. 

6. 

Nava-narikunjara. 

7- 

Kalanka-bhanjana. 

8. 

Mana-bhanjana. 

9- 

Akrura  Samvada. 

10. 

Mathura. 

II. 

Duti-samvada. 

12. 

Nanda  Vidsya. 

13- 

Uddhava  Sainvada. 

14. 

Rukmini  Harana. 

15- 

Satyabhamar  Vrata. 

16. 

17- 

Satyabhamar  Darpachurna. 
Sudargana  Chakra  and   Garuder  Darpa- 
churna. 

18. 

Draupadir  Vastra-harana. 

19. 

Durvacar  Parana. 

20. 

Qri  Ram  Chandrer  Vivaha. 

21. 

Ramer  Vana-gamanao  Sita-haran. 

22. 

Sita  Anvesana. 

23- 

Tarani  Sen  Vadha. 

24. 
25- 

Laksnmaner  ^aktigela. 
Ravana-vadha. 

26. 

Rama  Chandrer    De9agamana. 

27. 

Lava  Ku9er  Yuddha. 

28. 

Daksa  Yajna. 

29. 

30. 

3^- 

Bhagavati  ebam  Gangar  Kondala. 

^iva  Vivaha. 

Agamani, 

752       BRNGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

32.  Ka<;-i  Khanda. 

33.  Bhagiratha  kartrik  Gangs  Anayana. 

34.  Markander  Chandi. 

35.  Mahisasurer  Vuddha. 

36.  Kamale-Kaminl. 

37.  \'amana  Bhiksa 

38.  Prahlada  Charitra. 

39.  Qakta  o  \'aisnaver  Dvandva. 

40.  \^asante  \'iraha  Varnana. 

41.  Mraha. 

42.  Kali  Rajar  Upakhyan   o  Cliari-yiar. 

45.  Navin  Chand  o  Sonamani, 

46.  Stri  Puruser  Dvandva. 

47.  NalinI  Bhramarokti. 
4.^.  \'enger  Viraha. 

49.  Miscellaneous  songs. 

50.  Pafichalir  \'yakhya. 

In  an  exhaustive  compilation  of  Da^arathi's 
works  lately  published  by  the  X'angavasi  Office, 
Calcutta,  we  altogether  counted  50,000  lines. 


Rama  Rama  Xidhi  (lUj)ta.  populai-lv  known    as    Xidhu 

Nidhi  _^   ,  ,  .     /-I     -    .-  .1  o 

Gupta.         nabu,      was    born    at    C  hfinpta     in    the    year    173^. 

His  fatluT  was  a  phvsician.  and  earned  a  small 
pittance  \)v  his  profession.  At  the  birth  of  the 
poet,  lh<'  familv  had  removed  from  Ch§npta 
to  Kumartuli  and  settled  there.  Ram  Nidhi  receiv- 
ed a  sound  education  in  Persian  and  B«MigaIi.  and 
acquired,  beside-^,  a  smattering  of  English.  His 
father    i)lared    him    under    the   care  of  a  European 

missionar\,  but  iIk^  boy  paid  only  little  attention  to 

His    familv       ,         1-       .•   1      1  1  •    1     1  •  ^  i.    j 

history.'      ^^^<*    h.nglish    language    which    his    parents    wanted 

His  life        jjj,^^    ^Q    learn,  and    devoted    his    whole  time  to  the 
and    song:s. 


VL]  BENGALI    LANGUAGH:    &    LIIERATURE.         753 

cultivation  of  Indian  music.  Being  possessed  of 
a  sweet  voice  he  very  soon  attained  fame  as  a 
singer  and  became  musically  highly  accomplished. 
When  twenty  years  of  age  he  obtained  an  appoint- 
ment in  the  Collectorate  at  Chapra  where  he 
worked  for  few  years.  Music  as  a  science  was 
cultivated  with  great  zeal  in  Northern  India 
during  the  decline  of  the  Moslem  power.  The 
Mahomedan  Chiefs  and  Nawabs  lost  their 
warlike  qualities  and  became  addicted  to  pleasures 
of  all  sorts,  and  highly  favoured  music.  At 
Chapra  Rama  Nidhi  came  in  contact  with  a  well- 
known  Moslem  singer  and  under  his  instruction, 
coupled  with  his  natural  proclivities,  soon  acquired 
poficiency  in  Mussulman  music.  He  came  back  to 
Bengal  with  a  resolve  to  compose  songs  in  Bengali 
after  Sari  Mia  whose  favourite  tune — the  tappa 
was  very  popular  at  the  time  in  the  North  Western 
Provinces. 

Nidhu  Babu  saw  that  Bengali  songs,  the  Vidya 
Sundara  alone  excepted,  had  always  hitherto  related 
to  religious  matters.  Our  love  songs  had  for  their 
theme  amours  of  Radha  and  Krisna  and  formed  part 
of  the  theological  literature  of  the  Vaisnavas.  Nidhu 
Babu  introduced  a  novelty  ;  in  him  the  higher  emo- 
tions of  love  stood  on  their  own  basis,  requiring  no 
justification  by  religious  reference.  Out  of  this  con- 
viction he  sang  and  his  utterances  have  a  directness 
and  sincerity  which  make  him  unique  amongst 
our  song-writers.  His  style  is  not  marked  by  any 
elaboration.  The  brief  and  clear  expression  of 
thought  is  always  his  object, — never  the  laboured 
or  fantastic  conceits  of  language. 

95 


754      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap- 

His  tappas,  as  his  songs  are  generally  called, 
after  the  scale  adopted  by  him,  have  human  love 
for  their  subject,  and  the  high  spirit  of  idealism 
which  breathes  through  them,  coupled  with  the 
charms  of  a  novel  melody,  elicited  the  appreciation 
of  the  educated  community  of  Bengal.  His 
verses  were  nevt-r  popular  in  the  sense  in  which 
those  of  Rama  Prasada  and  Da^arathi  had  been 
so.  The  latter  commanded  appreciation  amongst 
all  sections  of  Bengali  Society,  but  Nidhu  Babu's 
tappas  were  mainly  admired  by  the  higher  classes, 
who  knew  something  of  music  as  a  science  and 
had  the  culture  to  enter  into  the  spirit  of  his  ex- 
ceedingly rehned  ideas,  expressed  as  these  were  with 
laconic  brevity.  The  masses  still  had  the  notion 
that  no  sonor  was  worth  hearincj  which  did  not 
bear  some  explicit  reference  to  religion  in  it.  In 
a  collection  of  songs  published  in  1905  by  Babu 
Durga  Das  Lahidi  the  number  of  Nidhu  Babu's 
songs  inserted  is  472,  and  this  does  not  indicate 
one-tenth  of  the  number  composed  bv  him.  They 
are  generally  brief, — ordinarily  taking  not  more 
than  eight  lines,  while  there  are  manv  that  have 
four  lines  onlv.  But  however  short  the\-  mav  be, 
one  is  sure  to  lind  a  compU^te  idea  in  each  of  his 
songs.  .\  livelv  emotion  or  a  tine  thought  is  put 
into  charming  language  and  thev  are  as  suggestive 
as  th('\  .'iri'  brief.  Thcx-  riMniiul  us  of  the  short 
and  sweet  love-Kiics  of    Robert  lUirns. 

Xidliu  Biibu  nexci"  sa\s  an\'  thing  vulgar.  He 
has  always  an  ek-xated  notion  ot  love  and  gives  us 
()nl\-  the  highest  tonus  ot  tender  sentiment.  I  here 
quote  a  few   examples, — 


VI,  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    6l    LITEKATUKE.  755 

^"  I  love  you,  not  that  you  may  love  me  in 
return  ! 

"  It  has  become  my  very  nature  to  love  you  and 
you  alone. 

"  I  long  for  a  sight  of  the  smile  on  your  lips,  and 
for  that  I  come  here  every  day, 

"  O,  do  not  mistake  me,  dear  !  I  come  to  see 
you,  not  that  you  may  see  me  !" 

(  2  ) 

f  How  shall  I  tell  her  how  deeply  I  love  her  ? 
"  On  seeinor  her    I  feel    a    Hadness    that    words 
can  not  describe. 

''  \Mien  she  is  not  present,  my  eyes  fill  in  tears, 
and  when  she  comes  I  feel  like  one  who  has  found 
a  precious  jewel,  and  knows  not  where  to  hide  it." 

'i     3     ~^ 
J"  How  am  I  to  forget  her  : — 
"  Have    I    not    offered    mv  soul  to  her,  knowino- 
her  for  my  own  ? 


^T^  cn^  c^^  ^tf^,  oi^n  fif^^  ^t%^  11" 
^     (    ^    i 

^v5^«l  mf^  c^f'r.  c^t^^  ^^z^  ^tf«r, 

[   ^   ) 
■2(t«i  ^Tn^itfe  ^u  ^t^^  c^^^  I 


75^       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    ik    LllEKATUKE.        [Chap. 

"  How  can  I  forget  that  image  which  with  love's 
brush   I    painted  on  my  heart  with  the  utmost  care  ? 

"  They  tell  me  '  she  has  forgotten  you  ;  why  do 
you  not  then  forget  her  ?' 

"  I  shall  forget  her  only  when  death  destroys  my 
memory." 

(     4     ) 

*"  Even  before  my  death,  my  heart  is  set 
aflame. 

"  May  this  anguish,  that  burns  me,  leave  her  un- 
touched. 

"  In  my  heart  1  have  built  a  funeral  Hre,  and  my 
grief  supplies  the  fuel. 

"  I  am  being  consumed  in  the  lire  of  my  love. 
But  may  she  rest  in  peace  !" 

(     5     ) 
t"  When    she  is  absent   I  plan  to  be  angry  with 
her  ;    but  when  again  I  look  upon  her  face,  I  forget 

myself. 

c^f^^  vffsi^  ^K5.  c^  fsT^  ^i^  *f^^^  r' 

8 
*^1  ^"5  ^5^    t%  tT^^  ^r?l  ^M'i\  I 
^t^]^  ^  ^l*^5Tn  ^'Al^  C^^  ^ff^  ^10T  I 

<    <i    ) 
t^iifnc^  ^f-g^  ^H  ^^  ^m  ^ft. 


VL]    BENGALI  LANGUAGE  <k    LI  lERATURE.     757 

"  Those  eyes,  that  had  resolved  to  turn  away 
from  her,  surrender  themselves,  so  soon  as  she 
approaches,  losing  all  self-control." 

(     6     ) 

■^"  Oh  why  is  there  this  yearning  in  my  heart  to 
see  him  ? 

"  If  I  miss  him  for  a  moment,  tears  come  to  my 
eyes, 

''  The  tongue  of  slander  pursues  me,  and  I  glory 
in  it. 

''  This  evil  repute  seems  to  me  like  an  ornament. 

"  My  very  life  is  leaving  me  for  love.  But  he 
alas,  cares  nothing  for  me  !  His  conduct  is  indes- 
cribable. Why  do  I  love  him  ?  You  ask  me.  I 
myself  know  not  why  !" 

(  7  ■■ 

t^How  happy  I  should  be,  if  only  my  beloved 
would  love  me  in  return  ! 

"  The  scentless  kinsuka  flower  would  then  be- 
come sweet-scented. 

(      ^      ) 
^  *'  ^tC^  Cff%^  ^^  'Tt^  C^H 

^t^?)"^  ^ft^tf^  m\i^'-^  -^^^1, 

(      ^      ) 


758       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    ^    LITERATURE.       [  Chap, 

"  The  thorn V  ketaki  would  crrow  without  thorns. 

"  The  sandal  tree  would  have  flowers,  and  the 
sugar-cane  would  bear  fruits." 

But  how  can  I  convey  the  impression  made  on 
the  mind  by  these  tappas  when  they  are  sung  ? 
it  appears  as  if  a  voice  were  heard  out  of  the 
regions  of  blessedness  where  self  is  completelv 
immerged  in  love. 

Nidhu  Babu  married  a  girl  wife  in  the  village 
of  Sukhachara  when  he  was  only  twenty.  A  son 
was  born  to  the  pair  in  1765.  The  child  died,  when 
only  three  years  old,  and  his  mother  survived  him 
only  a  few  months.  Soon  after  the  death  of  this 
w^ife  Nidhu  Babu  married  again.  His  new  bride 
was  a  resident  of  Jorasanko  in  Calcutta.  But  she 
also  died  a  few  months  after  her  marriage  in  1768. 
Nidhu  Babu  was  only  thirty  years  old  at  the  time; 
Died  in  but  he  could  by  no  means  be  persuaded  to  marry 
again.  Twenty  years  passed  from  this  time,  and 
in  the  year  1788  the  widower  was  compelled  by 
friendly  intervention  to  take  a  third  wife  from  the 
village  \'arijahati  in  the  district  of  Howra.  He 
became  the  father  of  four  sons  and  two  daughters 
bv    this    marriage.      lie    died   m   iS25at   the  age  of 


1825. 


Icvara  1  )aV'"';ithi  was  pre-eminently  a  poet  ol  the  mass- 

Qupta.         ^^     K-,ni;i  Nidhi's  love  songs  were  appreciated   and 

sun"  bv  that  section  of  the  communitv  which  delight- 

K.\(\  in  higher  music  and  in    the    literature  of  refined 


VL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  759 

sentiment.  I9var  Chandra  Gupta  was  the  idol  of 
the  educated  Bengali  Hindus  of  his  period.  He 
was  a  great  figure, — in  fact  the  most  remarkable 
literary  personality  of  his  age.  It  was  his  encourage- 
ment that  inspired  Bankima  Chandra,  Rangalala, 
Dinavandhu  and  other  young  aspirants  to  literary 
fame  who  all  served  their  first  apprenticeship  H-siif 
in  Bengali  by  writing  in  the  monthly  Prabhakara 
edited  by  I^var  Chandra. 

Curiously  enough,  this  writer  was  no  scholar, 
though  his  voice  was  so  authoritative  in  the  Bengali 
literature  of  his  time.  In  his  early  years  he  neg- 
lected his  studies,  and  was  given  up  for  a  lost  child. 

Igvara  Chandra  was  born  in  181  i  at  Kafichrapara 
in  the  district  of  Twenty-four  Parganas.  His 
father  Hari  Mohan  Gupta  was  not  a  man  of  means; 
he  earned  the  small  pittance  of  Rs.  8  a  month  as 
clerk  in  an  indigo  factory  at  Selidaha ;  but  bie  had 
some  small  landed  property  in  his  native  village, 
and  the  family  was  mainly  dependent  upon  this. 

Igvara  Chandra  showed  courage,  so  early  as  five 
years  of  age.  One  night  the  lad  was  passing 
through  a  place  supposed  to  be  haunted  by  ghosts  ; 
it  was  a  dark  night,  and  a  tail  man,  passing  by, 
tumbled  over  him.  The  child  was  not  daunted  by 
what  others  of  his  age  would  certainly  have  taken 
for  a  ghost,  but  he  boldly  stood  up  and  asked  *  Who 
are  you,  my  man  ?.'  When  he  was  ten  years  old, 
his  mother  died  His  father  lost  no  time  in  taking  a 
second  wife.  The  step-mother  was  introduced  to 
young  Igvara  Chandra,  who  threw  a  brick  at  her  by 
way  of  first  greeting,  expressing  his  great  indigna- 
tion at  the  conduct  of  his  father.     His    uncle    was 


760         HENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [Chap. 

SO  angry  at  this  behaviour  that  he  gave  him  a 
sound  thrashing  with  his  shoes.  Young  lyvara 
sulkily  bore  the  punishment  and  shutting  himself 
up  in  a  small  room,  did  not  come  out  for  the  whole 
day. 
Married  to  His  father  Hari    Mohan    Gupta    not    only    gave 

an  ugly  ],j,j^  ^  step-mother  whom  he  did  not  like,  but  married 
him,  when  only  fifteen,  to  Durgamani  Devi,  an  ugly 
idiotic  girl  who  stammered  in  her  speech.  The 
reason  for  his  father's  favouring  this  girl  was  that 
her  pedigree  was  noble, — a  point  which  at  one  time 
carried  high  favour  with  Hindu  fathers. 

lyvara  Chandra's  career  in  school   soon  came  to 
a  close,   and  he  became  notorious  for  his  negligence 
in  his  studies  and  for  his  rowdisms.     All   gave   him 
up  for  lost,  and  he  had  no  better  opinion  of  himself, 
He  was  unfortunate  in  life, — in  his  early  years  as 
A  lost  child     ^i  motherless  child,  and  in  manhood  as  the    husband 
and  sore-      ^^j-  ^    ^^.-f^,    ^^.j^q    ^y^^    j^q    companion,    but    rather  a 
ness  of  ... 

heart  troublesome  burden,  always  keeping  atresh    a    dis- 

appointment than  which  in   youth    nothing    can    be 
greater. 

The  result  is  the  soreness  of  heart  and  spirit 
of  satire  which  characterise  his  poems.  He  be- 
came a  misanthrope  and  took  revenge  upon  the 
world  b\  itcring  uns|)aringl\  at  all  classics  of  people. 
He  Unind  no  hai)j)iness  in  the  iuij)tial  tic,  and  Balm 
liankima  Chandra  Chatterjee,  his  distinguished  bio- 
graplu-r  w  rites  of  him  : — 

"^""llc  was  hirking  in  that  education  of  soul 
which  the  conip.un   ot    uoinen  gives  to  a    nian  ;     he 


VI.  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.         761 

lacked  in  the  edifying  influence  which  admiration 
and  love  for  the  softer  sex  causes  in  youthful 
minds.  Womankind  was  the  subject  of  his 
constant  abuse." 

But  we  shall  deal  with  the  merits  of  his  literary 
composition  in  their  proper  place. 

It    is    said   that    when    only  three   years  old,  he       ^poe^*^" 
composed  a  couplet,  to  the  great  admiration   of  his 
relations,  describing  the  sort  of  life  he  was   leading 
in  Calcutta. 

^"  Mosquitoes  by  night  and  flies  by  day. 

This  is  Calcutta  life,  say  what  you  may  ! " 

Though  his  education  was  practically  «//,  yet 
on  one  occasion  as  his  companions  were  reading 
poems  in  Persian,  he  sat  quietly  by  and  listened 
with  attention  to  their  contents,  when  explained 
in  Bengali.  He  retired  and  soon  came  back  with 
some  sparkling  verses  in  Bengali  embodying  the 
spirit  of  the  Persian  poems,  which  highly  pleased 
his  companions  who  took  him  to  be  a  young  pro- 
digv.  This  poetical  trait  developed  so  remarkably 
in  him,  that  when  he  was  only  11  years  old,  he 
could  compose  songs  that  were  accepted  with 
compliments  by  professional  musicians  who  put 
the    lad   to    constant  tasks  in  poetical  composition, 

^m^  ^t^^  c^^^  ^K5f^  nt^  i'' 

The  memories  of  I^vara  Chandra  Gupta 

by  Bankima  Chandra  Chatterjee. 

^"  «^^  ^*11  f^^^  -sitf^ 

96 


762       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap, 

which  it  was  the  joy  and  pride  of  young  Icvara 
Cliandra  to  execute  to  the  best  of  his  ability. 

But  an  illiterate  man  by  sheer  dint  of  inborn 
genius  could  not  be  expected  to  attain  more  than 
a  rustic  fame  and  the  applause  of  his  personal 
Receives  friends.  An  opportunity  however  soon  presented 
education,  itself  which  paved  the  path  to  his  receiving  some 
education  and  bringing  his  remarkable  talents  to 
the  notice  of  the  enlightened  public.  His  maternal 
uncles  lived  at  Jorasanko,  where  the  Tagore  family 
were  at  the  time,  as  now,  pioneers  in  education  and 
in  all  progressive  movements  in  Bengal.  Icvara 
Chandra's  singular  poetic  powers  attracted  the 
attention  of  Babu  Joo"endra  Mohan  Tagrore.  and 
the  poet  became  a  friend  and  companion  of  that 
enlightened  nobleman.  He  received  a  good  edu- 
cation here,  and  conjointly  with  his  noble  friend 
and  patron  started  the  weekly  Sanvad  Prabhakara 
in  March,  1830.       This    journal   soon    reached    the 

Starts  a        hiorhest  popularitv  in    Bengal,  and  Icvara  Chandra's 
weekly.  ^  .         "  .  . 

genius  supplied  the  public,  through  its  columns,  with 

an  unceasinor  fountain  of  satirical  and  serio-comic 
pieces  in  prose  and  poetry  for  manv  vears.  It 
was  in  this  journal  that  the  juvenile  \\Titings 
of  some  of  the  greatest  writers  of  Bengal  such  as 
Bankima  Cliandra  and  Dinabandhu  Mitra  were 
accorded  a  place  1)\  him.  tor  he  was  never  slow  in 
appreciating  talent  in  voung  w  riteis  and  in  givnig 
them  the  encouragement  the\'  deserved.  Icvara 
Chandra's  noble  friend  and  patron  died  in  the  year 
1832.  Disheartened  bv  this  blow  oi  fortune,  the 
poet  stopped  Prahhakani  for  some  time,  but  it  re- 
appeared as  a  bi-weeklv  in    1836.    and    in     1839  he 


VL  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGK    &    LllKKAlURE.         763 

made  it  a  daily  paper.  Besides  the  Prabhakara 
he  edited  the  Samvad  Ratnavali  which  was  started 
in  1849.  He  translated  the  Bhagavata  into  Bengali 
verse  and  also  the  Provodha  Chandroday  Natak 
which  he  called  Vodhendu  Vikasha  in  Bengali, 
He  was  a  voluminous  versifier;  it  is  said  that 
he  composed  more  than  50,000  couplets.  Igvara 
Chandra  died  in  February,  1858. 

Thus  the  wayward  lad  and  spoilt  child  lived 
to  wield  great  influence  in  the  literary  atmosphere 
of  Bengal,  immediately  before  it  became  charged 
with  European  influence.  He  was  pre-eminently 
a  poet  of  the  old  school,  and  with  him  died  the 
last  echoes  of  the  age  of  Bharata  Chandra  and  Jaya 
Narayana  Sen.  Satire  was  his  forte  and  bright 
wit  sparkles  in  his  lines  directed  against  what  was 
false  and  artificial  in  society.  At  home  he  was  a 
genial  friend  and  his  company  was  sought  for  by  the  , 

wealthy  and  talented  alike.  He  kept  no  accounts 
and  could  have  amassed  a  fortune,  had  he  desired 
to  do  so.  His  income  from  the  Prabhakara  was 
great  ;  and  besides  he  was  endowed  with  monthly 
pensions  and  honorariums  from  many  rich  men  in 
Bengal  ;  he  spent  money  heedless  of  the  morrow, 
and  was  always  ready  to  help  the  needy.  No 
friend  was  refused  a  loan  when  he  wanted  it  and  character. 
many  did  not  repay,  but  the  poet  never  asked  his 
money  back.  In  the  sketch  that  Bankima  Chandra 
draws  of  him  we  find  it  mentioned  that  lyvar 
Chandra  distributed  prizes  and  rewards  amongst 
young  men  who  showed  skill  in  literary  composition, 
and  young  Bankima  Chandra  who  was  destined  at 
a  subsequent  time  to  \^  in   far    greater    laurels    than 


764        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    ^    LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

his    patron,    was    also  the  recepient  of  prizes  from 

hinv 

So  lived  and  died  lyvara  Chandra, — one  of    the 

most    remarkable    men  of  his  time  in   Bengal.     He 

was    a    born  satirist  and  a  born  poet.     He  adorned 

whatever  he  touched  with  his  brilliant  wit.       When 

he    would    vilify   a    rival,    his  style  would  sink  into 

the  grossest  and  most  atrocious    obsceneties.     This 

had  grown    to   be   the  fashion  amongst  the    literary 

Vulgar         ,-,^^p    qj:    j.}^j^    time.       Irvara     Chandra's     scathinor 
satires.  .      .  ,        . 

attacks    on    his  rival  Gauri  Cankara  Bhattacharvya, 

commonly  known  as  Gurgure  Bhattacharyya,  in 
the  Sombad  Prahhakara,  and  the  latter's  charges 
in  answer  published  in  his  journal  the  Rasaraja, 
form  a  literature  of  the  worst  type  that  ever  saw 
light  ;  and  Mr.  Lang,  the  popular  Christian  mis- 
sionary, whose  name  is  inseparably  connected  with 
the  indigo  disturbances,  felt  the  necessitv  of  mov- 
ing the  authorities  to  enact  a  law  against  obscene 
writings,  owing  to  these  perverse  and  scurrilous 
publications. 

Yet,  in  spile  ol  such  writings  li,'vara  Chandra 
often  disclosed  in  his  poems  a  highlv  religious  turn 
of  miiul.  He  was  not  great  enough  to  irtroduco 
innovation  in  taste  and  free  himself  from  the  vices 
of  tlu;  age.  In  the  collection  of  his  pocMiis  bv 
Babu  Manindra  Chandra  (nipta,  we  find  no  less 
than.  70  pieces  devoted  to  religious  subjects,  and 
all  of  them  bear  evidences  of  their  writer's 
spirituality  and  faith. 


Specimens 
of  hi5 

W'c  gi\c  below 

somt-'  spccinuMis  of   his  writing. 

writings. 

(a).      l-"ri)ni  the 
ot  Pausa" 

poem     "  l*\-stivity  in    the  munth 

VI.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE      ik    LITERATURE.          765 

*"The  young  wife  has  scarcely  time  to  braid  her 
dishevelled  hair.  If  per  chance  she  spoils  a  curry^ 
the  mother-in-law  and  sister-in-law  are  furious  with 
her.  They  say  '  What  hast  thou  done  ?  It  takes 
one's  breath  away  to  see  the  extent  of  your  folly. 
Your  mother  could  not  teach  you  anything  better  young  wife. 
than  this  ?  If  we  went  without  food  for  years,  still 
we  would  not  touch  this  curry.  The  beautiful  face 
of  the  young  wife,  sweet  and  lovely  as  a  full  blown 
lotus,  is  drowned  in  tears  ;  her  sorrows  she  can  not 
express,  and  she  bears  those  rebukes  though  her 
heart  is  bursting  with  grief." 

This  is  a  true  picture  of  young  wife  ;  peculiarly 
placed  as  she  is  in  Hindu  society,  she  must  suffer 
all  the  ills  of  life  patiently  without  a  word,  till  she 
grows  to  be  herself  the  mother  of  children,  and 
has  a  chance  to  maltreat  some  other  young  wife 
placed  in  her  charge,  by  way  of  retaliation. 

fdj.  On  the  w'idow  marriage  act,  w^hich  had 
been  passed,  it  will  be  remembered,  in  the  teeth  of 
the  opposition  of  the  orthodox  community. 

[It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  Hindu  widows 
are  not  allowed  to  wear  shell-bracelets  nor  allowed 
to  take  fish  or  meat  of  any  kind.] 

^^  ^K^  ^t^  ^m,  ^"5  ^f^  ^^5 1 


766       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [  Chap. 

Widow-  *"  All  are  saying,  let  not  the    reformers,    deter- 

mined as  they  are  to  save  the  young  widows,  take 
up  the  case  of  elderly  matrons — our  wrinkled- 
faced  greyhaired  grandams.  Wlio  so  bold  as  to 
dare  approach  them  with  an  offer  of  shell  bracelets 
and  fish  ?'' 


The 
first  kiss. 


fcj.     The  lirst  kiss  of  love. 

t"A  fount  of  the  utmost  happiness,  that  a  lover's 
heart  can  wish  for,  is  in  the  first  kiss  of  love. 

''  We  hear  of  the  nectar  in  Indra's  heaven  for 
which  the  very  angels  are  suppliants,  a  drop  of 
which  fills  their  minds  with  celestial   joy, 

"  for  which  the  demon  Rahu  periodically  swal- 
lows the  moon. 

"  But  the  nectar — sweet  nectar,  I  do  not  covet 
in  preference  to  this  first  kiss  of  love." 


^^^  'll^  *lf^  V^  1^^^  • 
^r^^^  'ctft^ll  ^r^  ^^  ^^  ^^  N 

^l'^  ^1  '^\U  f^l  '^l^  m^  ^^  \\' 

c^  ^^u^  '^T^  ^.^^.  c^  ^^tc^  <ttl  •'' 

t"a«|^  ^r.9f?l  1H.  ^5(ajg^?^  I 
•^^t^  ^H^^W.  C^f^l^^  <f^  II 

C?lt^^tf^  5  ^U  1K^  ^5  'l^  ^n  II 
(T\  'SJ^t?!  ^*}1  ^f3i  ^-[fj^  vli^  'Jfl  I 


vVI,  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  767 

"  Or  look  at  wine,  the  favourite  drink  of  the 
Asuras,  even  a  touch  of  whose  cup  fills  the  mind 
with  pleasure, 

"  drunk  with  this,  the  yadavas  fought  and  died, 

'*  wine  that  kept  Vala  Rama  in  a  never  ruffled 
cheerful  mood — now  become  a  familiar  article  with 
the  civilised  world  ; 

*'  even  that  drink — wine,  sweet  wine, — 1  covet 
not  in  preference  to  this  first  kiss  of  love." 

]:*'  Diamonds  are  found  in  the  mines  of  Gola- 
kanda, — 

"  On  the  tops  of  the  mount  Sumeru  are  mines 
of  gold  and  silver, — 

"In  the  sea  near  Ceylon  the  pearls  called  Gaja- 
mukta  are  found  in  abundance, — 


t  ^^n^  ^«(1  fm  cn^  ^^t^T  ^n  I 

U^^^  ■<^W  Vl^  ^WT  f^^J^lH  I 
^^^  -^^  ^<I1  ^tft  m  '^^  I 

^fsf  ntt  2\^u^  'm-s{  ^^^  II 

:|:  '}\c\^^  cm^  ^i^  ^^t5  ^T?P^  I 
^^^  ^n^m  W.'^'^  C^^^^  II 


768      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE*       [  Chap, 


cal 
sketches- 


"If  Kuvera,  the  god  of  wealth  were  to  come 
with  all  these  and  offer  them  to   me, 

"  I  would  cast  them  all  away  for  this  my 
love's  first  kiss." 

But  I^vara  Chandra  will  always  be  admired  for 
the  pains  he  took  to  collect  biographical  accounts 
of  some  of  our  early  poets,  as  Bharata  Chandra, 
Rama  Prassda  and  some  of  the  old  kaviwalas.     He 

Biojcraphi.  travelled  in  various  places  of  Bengal  to  unearth 
valuable  materials,  and  regularly  published  in  Sa7n- 
vad  Prabhakara,  the  accounts  which  he  gleaned  by 
his  patient  research.  Much  of  the  information 
that  has  come  down  to  us  about  the  lives  of  our 
great  literary  worthies  is  based  upon  these  ac- 
counts. 

I9vara  Chandra  composed  many  songs    for    the 

Kavi  songs.  Kavi  parties.  In  them  we  find  the  same  ready 
wit  and  the  sound  realistic  pictures  of  domestic 
life  in  Bengal,  given  with  that  remarkable  fidelity 
which  characterises  his  other  writings. 

His  poems  arc  growing  obsolete  and  the  great 
popularity  which  they  once  enjoyed  is  now  a  thing 
of  the  past.  The  humour  of  our  elders  has  lost 
much  of  the  old  Havour  owing  to  the  more  fastidious 
taste  that  prevails  now.  Some  of  the  \\itty  say- 
ings once  admired  appear  to  us  puerile  and  it  is  to 
be    feared,  that    50    years  hence,  I^vara    Chandra's 


Growing 
out  of 
date. 


^TTf^^  ^^1^  ^^^  ^'"^1  ^W^  I 


VL  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  769 

poems  will  only  be  read  by  a  few  students  of 
Bengali  who  would  desire  to  trace  the  history  of  its 
progress. 

I9vara  Chandra's  style  bears  evident  traces  of 
Bharata  Chandra's  influence  ;  and  the  influence  of 
his  own  is  stamped  on  the  works  of  Hema  Chandra 
who  succeeded  to  his  high  place  in  Bengali  poetry, 
a  quarter  of  century  after.  Most  of  the  social 
satires  of  Hema  Chandra  have  a  ring  of  I^vara 
Chandra's  celebrated  verses  on  '  our  old  ^iva  '  as 
Mr.  Marshman  was  humourously  called  by  him. 

I^vara  Chandra's  prose  is  far  from  being  happy. 
It  is  highly  pedantic,  and  has  even  an  element  of 
grotesqueness  in  it. 


His  influ- 
ence on 
Hema 
Cliandra. 


The  Folk-literature  of  Bengal. 

Bengal  possesses  a  rich  folk-literature,  very 
little  of  which  has  yet  been  put  into  writing.  The 
grandmothers  may  be  heard  to  tell  these  stories  to 
their  grandchildren  every  evening  in  remote  villages, 
— -stories  which  have  come  down  from  a  very  early 
age.  The  Rev.  Lai  Behari  Dey  published  some 
of  these  stories  in  English,  but  those  gleaned  by 
him  from  the  resources  available  in  towns  represent 
only  a  very  small  fraction  of  such  literature,  and 
the  most  beautiful  of  these  were  not  accessible 
to  him,  as,  being  a  Christian,  he  could  not  have  full 
command  of  the  resources  of  the  Hindu  home. 
Lately  Babu  Daksina  Ranjana  Mitra  Mazumdar 
has  published  two  volumes  of  folk-tales  in  Bengali. 
He  has  attempted  to  reproduce  them  in  the  very 
language  of  the  rustic  women  from  whom  he 
collected    them.     In    some    cases    he   recorded  the 


Daksina 

Babu's  col= 

lections. 


97 


7)0      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    8c    LIIERATURE.       [Chap. 

Stories  by  a  phonograph  at  the  time  they  were 
delivered  ;  so  that  their  language  remains  re- 
markably faithful  to  the  narration  of    the    villagers. 

As  specJ-      The      language     owes     not     the      least     colouring 
mens  of  old  r      ^       \     ^  i  iv  o  r       ^u 

dialect.       o"*    rehnement    to    moflern    literary    Bengali.      1  he 

dialect  spoken  in  the  country  five  hundred 
years  ago,  of  which  specimens  are  to  be  found  in 
the  written  literature  of  the  period,  remains 
unchanged  in  the  colloquial  language  of  our 
backward  villages,  not  subjected  to  the  influ- 
ences of  the  outside  world  ;  and  Daksina  Babu's 
collection  has  not  only  preserved  the  spirit  of  the 
old  folk-lore  unpolished  by  the  touch  of  the  compiler, 
but  has  retained  even  those  old  and  quaint  forms  with 
all  their  mannerisms,  which  best  indicate  the  g-^nius 
of  our  tonorue. 

There  are  altogether  i6  stories  in  the  two  volumes. 
Some  of  them  are  meant  simply  to  amuse  the 
children,  which  is  the  primary  object  of  all  nursery 
tales.  There  are  others,  like  the  stories  of  Malan- 
chamala  and  Kanchanamala,  which  though  sufficient- 
ly wild  and  romantic  to  amuse  the  voung,  have 
also  deeper  meanings  to  interest  more  thoughtful 
readers.  The  characters  of  the  heroines  of  these 
stories  possess  a  living  interest.  The  ideals  of 
chastitv  and  devotion  to  the  husband,  which  they 
hold  up,  open  vistas,  as  it  were,  into  the  domestic 
life  of  tlu!  Hindu  women  of  past  days,  and  enable  us 
to  sec  [\\r  workings  of  their  souls — the  purity  of 
their  hearts  and  tlu^  wondtM-ful  spirit  of  sacriiice 
w  hieh  act  uated  them  in  there  everv-tlaN'  conduct. 
Malancha.  The  pathos  created  by  Malaiichainala 's  sufferings, 
her  sacrlliecs,  and  devotion  to  her  husband  are 
matt«Ts  dillieiill  to  l)e  convexed  to  those  uhose  idea 


VL  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE  77  I 

of  wifehood  is  different  from  that  which  governs 
Hindu  women.  The  Hindu  wife  in  those  days 
bore  all  kinds  of  ills  from  her  husband  with  un- 
tiring patience  ;  she  lived  with  her  co-wife,  to  whom 
often  the  husband  was  devoted  and  bore  her  neglect 
and  his  contempt  in  a  surprising  spirit  of  resigna- 
tion ;  and  inspite  of  all  maltreatment  cherished  only 
the  best  feelino-s  for  her  husband.  A\\  this  was 
sometimes  done  with  a  grace, — a  saintliness  and 
devotion  which  place  her  sorrows  above  our  pity. 
They  may  be  looked  upon  almost  in  the  light  of 
martyrdom.  The  supernatural  element  prevails  in 
the  story  of  Malanchamala,  with  all  imaginable 
excesses  of  wild  fancy,  and  this  constitutes  its  in- 
terest for  the  young;  but  as  we  proceed,  the  griefs 
of  the  heroine  becomes  the  all-absorbing  subject 
of  the  readers.  Her  woes  claim  a  tear  at  every 
page.  She  like  Behula  restores  her  husband  to 
life  ;  she  saves  him  from  the  flames  of  the  funeral 
pyre  ;  follows  him  like  a  shadow  ;  and,    all    unseen  i^?!^^* 

by  him,  ministers  to  his  every  comforts.  She  was 
married  to  him  when  he  was  a  mere  child.  The 
child  grows  up,  but  Malanchamala  does  not  show 
herself  to  him  till  he  becomes  a  handsome  youngman 
and  has  married  a  princess.  Many  years  of  fasts,  and 
vigils,  heart-rending  anguish,  and  cruel  treatment 
from  her  royal  father-in-law,  who  does  not  allow 
her  to  live  in  his  palace  because  she  is  of  an  in- 
ferior caste,  are  rewarded  with  this,  that  her  hus- 
band marries  the  princess  and  lives  in  the  palace 
of  his  new  bride's  father.  And  this  husband  had 
been  the  apple  of  her  eye  ;  in  the  funeral  ground, 
in  the  deep  shades  of  the  wilderness  she  had  saved 
him  from  death,  undergoing  unheard    of  hardships, 


love. 


772       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LirLRATUKE.       [Chap. 

and  bringing  to  him  all  the  ministering  care  of  a 
guardian  angel  !  The  young  wife  looks  through 
a  window  in  the  moonlight  and  sees  her  husband 
and  his  new  bride  happy  together.  Malanchamala 
—  chaste,  devoted  and  faithful  to  her  husband,  as 
fidelity  itself,  peeps  through  the  lattices  of  the  win- 
dow, and  sees  her  husband  in  the  arms  of  the 
princess ;  it  was  like  Enoch  Arden  peeping  into 
the  room  of  Phillip  and  discovering  Anne  as  his 
wife  ;  but  our  Malanchamala  is  no  earthly  woman  ; 
she  is  heavenly  in  every  sense  of  the  word.  She 
sings  : — 

"  Live  in  happiness,  O  Prince  ;  live  in  happi- 
ness, O  Princess. 

"  If  I  am  a  chaste  woman,  my  words  will  not  be 
in  vain. 

"Let  your  ancestors  in  heaven,  O  Prince,  watch 
the  candles  that  light  up  this  chamber  and  preserve 
you  from  all  ill. 

"  May  the  children,  that  are  born  to  your  new 
wife,  walk  beneath  royal  umbrellas  for  fourteen 
generations  to   come  ! 

"  O  h\^rests,  O  trees,  O  land,  O  waters,  keep 
guard  !  Let  mt-  know  wlien  they  awake,  that  I 
mav  sti-al  .iWdV  unseen  1)\-  either. 

"  Let  the  towers  of  the  palace,  where  my  husband 
reigns,  endure  tor  ever. 

"  Let  tin-  sun  and  the  moon  be  as  guards  ot  his 
city. 

"  May  my  royal  father-in-law's  palace  and  the 
tlirone  of   mv  husband  be  victorious  for  ever. 


VL  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  773 

''  And  may  the  shell-bracelets  of  the  Princess 
and  her  vermilion  mark,  the  signs  of  her  wifehood, 
— endure  for  ever. 

"Grant  me  this  boon,  O  God.  I  brought  up  my 
husband  with  great  pain,  and  now  what  can  I  covt^t 
more  than  to  see  him  happy  with  a  princess  ? 

"Though  I  die  and  am  reduced  to  dust  I  shall 
ever  rejoice  at  this  sight  of  the  happiness  of  my 
husband. 

"  If  I  die  now  and  am  transformed  into  a  bird  or 
a  lower  animal,  or  whatever  else  may  befall  me,  I 
care  not,  as  I  have  seen  my  beloved  happy." 

This  song  is  couched  in  the  idioms  of  at  least 
live  centuries  back."^  The  story  has  been  worked 
into  such  life-like  details,  that  the  woman  Malancha- 
mala  does  not  here  pose  as  a  great  heroine.  She 
does  not  seem  to  attempt  at  reaching  any  inacces- 
sible height.  Her  woes  give  rise  to  great  pathos, 
but  with  all  these  she  continues  to  attract  us,  as  an 
unassuming  lovely  village-girl  that  she  is. 

Our  Bengali  folklore  shows  how  peculiarly  situ- 
ated a  Hindu  wife  might  be  in  the  midst  of  en- 
vironment and  influences  favourable  to  the  de- 
velopment of  a  spirit  of  sacrifice,  devotion  and 
fidelity.  Her  growth  was  often  as  natural  as  that  of 
a  flower,  and  is  quite  faithfully  portrayed  in  the  old 
literature  of  the  country,  and  even  in  this  unassuming 
folklore,  where  nothing  has  been  put  forward  for 
the  sake  of  display.  The  story  of  Kanchanamala 
also  shows  the  familiar  ideal  of  the  Hindu  wife.  Her 
husband  neglects  her.  but  she  persists  in   her  devo-  mala. 

*  Thakur  Dadar  Jhuli  by  Daksina  Mitra  p.  195. 


774         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LllEKATURE.    [Chap. 

tion.  For  seHish  reasons  her  husband  comes  re- 
luctantly at  a  certain  crisis  to  obtain  her  permission 
for  undertaking  a  sea  voyage,  promising  her,  as 
a  reward,  a  necklace  of  pearls,  a  fine  pair  of  shell- 
bracelets  and  vermilion  to  adorn  her  forehead. 
But  she  answers,  "  You  are  my  necklace  of  pearls  ; 
you  are  my  shell-bracelets  and  vermilion  mark  ; 
I  do  not  want  any  other.  Only  take  me  with 
you  my  husband,  I  shall  be  at  your  bidding  and  be 
happy.''  These  stories  are  interspersed  with  songs 
in  language  which  is  generally  very  antiquated. 
Many  facts  about  old  Hindu  society  and  about  the 
sea-voyages  undertaken  by  the  merchants  of  Ben- 
gal are  to  be  found  in  these  stories  ;  and  there  are 
other  elements  which  indicate  Bhuddistic  influences, 
such  as  instances  of  the  wonderful  powers  of  Siddlias, 
and  descriptions  of  Tantrick  rites.  There  are  some 
and  Mos-  stories  on  which  Mahomedan  influence  has  evi- 
*^T«l"l!"'  dently  left  its  impress,  as  for  instance  in  the 
story  of  Madhumala,  the  introduction  of  fairies 
is  certainlv  no  creation  of  the   Hindu  fancy. 

The  songs  with  which  those  stories  abound  are 
sung  to  the  favourite  village  metre  known  as 
Bhalial  sura.  This  rythem  and  cadence  is  peculiar- 
ly distinctive  of  Bengal  ;  it  has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  refined  melodies  of  Sanskrit  or  I^ersian  music. 
There  art!  six  R  a  eras  and  thirty  si.\  Rcjginies — 42 
chief  scales  or  musical  modes  of  the  Hindus  ;  but 
the  Bhatial  sioa  is  not  included  in  the  range  of 
this  higher  musical  system.  l')hatial  is  the  cadence 
t)f  tlie  ru^tics,  and  its  plaintive  and  appealing 
notes,  so  unassuming  and  simple,  go  straight  to  the 
heart  and  create  tlu'ir  own  pathos,  without  possess- 
ing  anv    of     those  niceties  of   sound  which  charac- 


ences. 


VL  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         775 

terise  the  Ragas  and  Raginies.  The  power  of  the 
Bhatial  to  strike  the  tender  cords  of  the  human 
soul,  was  found  out  by  the  Vaisfiavas  who  refined 
and  enriched  it  with  modulations  and  made  from 
it  that  soul-captivating  air — the  Manohara  Sai. 
The  writers  of  religious  songs  adopted  it  with 
peculiar  modifications  to  form  the  Baul  sura  which 
produces    emotions  peculiar  to  an  ascetic  mood. 


Supplementary   Notes, 

TO 

CHAPTER  VI. 

I.    Miscellaneous  Poems. 

11.     Mainly  on  style,  literary  tastes,  and  language. 
111.     Early  prose-literature. 

We  must  remember  tliat  during  that  period 
when  the  Bengali  language  was  being  most  rapidly 
developed  and  its  literature  was  growing,  the  Hin- 
dus had  already  lost  their  political  supremacy.  By 
far  the  lareer  section  of  the  Hindus  lived  in  villasfes, 
and  for  them  henceforth  history  lay  almost  entirely 
in  the  story  of  their  social  changes.  Descriptions 
of  society  and  its  revolutions  are  found  in  many 
works  of  the  Vaisfiavas.  We  have  also,  however, 
a  small  number  of  works  on  political  historv. 
Some  of  those  written  in  poetry  are  noticed  below. 
We  reserve  our  treatment  of  the  hi!=torical  works 
written  in  prose  for  our  account  of  Bengali  prose, 
upon  which  we  have  not  yet  touched. 

1,    Miscellaneous  Poems. 

(a)   Historical  poems. 

I.  Rajamala,  a  history  of  the  Rajas  of  Hill 
Tippcra.  This  work  was  undertaken  at  the  com- 
mand of  Maharaja  Cri  DhaniKi  ManiUya  (1407 — 
1439  A.D.)  by  two  Brahmin  pchol^rs  of  his  court — 
Cukre(;vara  and  Vaficc^vara  who  were  inhabitants  of 
Assam.  Durlabha  Chandai  a  hoary  headed  old  man, 
a  courtier  and  the  Kador  of  theCliandai  community 
at  the  time,  had  nuich  information  about  the  early 
historv  of  Tippi^ra  ;  and  Qukrt^;\ara  anrl  N'ane^vara 


VI.  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  777 

frequently  consulted  him  while  compiling  the  Raja- 
maU.  It  also  appears  that  there  existed  in  frag- 
mentary condition,  earlier  works  on  the  same  sub- 
ject from  which  much  help  was  received.  Those 
to  which  reference  is  made  in  the  Rajamala  are 
(i).  Rajamalika  (an  earlier  work  on  the  Tippera 
Rajas),  (2).  Yogini  Malika,  (3).  The  Laksmana 
Alalika  (probably  a  history  of  Raja  Laksmana  Sen 
ot  the  Sen  dynasty  of  Bengal)  and  (4).  Varunya 
Kalirnaya.  The  Rajamala  was  written  in  simple 
metrical  verse. 

We  have  also  seen  a  small  treatise,  evidently 
very  old,  in  which  the  history  of  the  Tippera  Rajas, 
traced  from  Duryya,  son  of  Yayati  of  the  Lunar 
race,  is  embodied  briefly  in  verse. 

2,      Ma/iarastra  Purana  by  Gd-ng^r^ma.     This         Maha. 

is  an  historical    work  in  Beng-ali  verse,  which  eives  ra'^tra 

.       .  ^  Purana. 

an  account  of  the  Maharatta  raids  in  Bengal  led  bv 

Bhaskara  Pandit  in  1741  A.  D.  These  raids,  com- 
monly known  in  our  country  as  the  Vargira  han- 
gama^  gave  rise  to  a  feeling  of  general  unrest  and 
panic,  inspiring  the  well-known  nursery  song,  sung 
up  to  the  present  day  by  mothers  to  lull  naughty 
children  to  sleep.  This  couplet  which,  like  all 
nursery  songs,  does  not  convey  any  clear  meaning, 
runs   as  follows — 

^"  The  child  is  asleep,  the  whole  village  is  re- 
lieved. 


98 


778      BENGALI    LANGUAGK    cSl    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

•'The  Maharatta  raiders  have  overun  the  country. 

and  the  Bulbulis  [Turdus  joco^us)  have  eaten  up 
the  crops. 

"How  shall  we  pav  the  rent?" 

Gangaraina  wrote  his  historical  poem  in  1750 
A.  D., — seven  vears  before  the  battle  of  Plassev. 
His  account  of  the  raids  seems  to  be  a  faithful  one. 
The  author  describes  how  Alivardi  Khan,  the  Nawab 
was  suddenly  attacked  by  Bhaskara  Pundit  at  Bur- 
dwan  and  made  a  captive  there  for  a  short  time. 
This  is  borne  out  by  a  statement  in  Tarikhi.Yusufi, 
though  in  Mitaksarin,  Tarikhi  Bangals.  and  in  the 
accounts  of  Mr.  Hohvel  we  do  not  find  this  inci- 
dent mentioned.  Gaui^^aiama  gives  a  great  many 
facts  about  the  Maharatta  raids  which  will  be  found 
interesting  to  the  readers  of  the  history  of   Bengal. 

3.  Samscr  Gazir  o^an.  This  poem,  which  runs 
through  4,000  couplrts,  dt^sciibes  the  life  and 
achievements  of  Sainser  gazi  who  was  originallva 
robber,  and  who  grew  so  powerful  as  to  dethrone  a 
king  of  ripi:)era  and  proclaim  himself  its  chit-f  for  a 
time.  Samser  gazi  lived  200  vears  ago,  and  the 
poem  commemoiating  his  exploits  is  sung  by  the 
rustic  folk  of  Tippera  to  this  da\-.  It  is  said  that 
Samser  used  to  carry  the  vast  riches,  he  obtained 
by  looting,  to  the  depths  of  the  jungle  in  the 
Udayapura  hills.  He  would  tlun  dismiss  the  car- 
riv-rs  and  with  tlu-  hol[)  of  a  carpenter  make  deep 
cavities  in  th«^  trunks  of  large  Cal  trees,  where  he 
stored  his  hoards,  and  after  carefully  closing  them 
up  wilh  blocks  of  timber,  and  effacing  all  Uiarks 
of  the  work,  he  uould  cut  off  the  head  of  the  poor 
artisan,   thus    reinovin"-     all    chances    of   detection. 


VI.]         BKXGALI    TANGUAGE    &    LITiiRAnjRE, 


779 


Chau- 

dhuri's 

Ladal. 


Ill  this  way  absolute  secrecy  was  secured.  It  is  said 
that  even  now  stray  wood-cutters,  while  applying 
their  axe  to  the  trunks  of  ^ala  trees  in  the  deep 
forest,  sometimes  unexpectedly  find  themselves  in 
possession  of  treasure  stored  up  there  by  the  famous 
robber.  Tiie  Samser  Gazir  gan  was  composed 
shortly  after  his  death. 

4.  Chaudhur'i' s  Ladai,  a  poem  describing  the 
tight  between  the  two  Zeminders,  named  Rajanara- 
yana  Chaudhuri  and  Rajachandra  Chaudhuri.  The 
fighting  took  place  at  Babupur,  seven  miles  to  the 
north  of  Noakhali,  about  100  years  ago,  when  British 
rule  was  not  yet  settled  in  that  quarter.  Raja- 
narayana  was  the  more  powerful  of  the  contending 
rivals.  He  is  said  to  have  founded  a  town  by  cut- 
ting down  a  great  jungle  which  had  belonged  to 
Sindur  Kazi.  The  town  was  called  Rajaganja. 
The  author  of  the  poem  was  a  Mahomedan,  as 
appears  from  his  preliminary  verses  in  praise  of 
Khoda.  There  is  an  interesting  account  in  the 
poem,  of  Rangamala,  a  beautiful  damsel  who  is 
said  to  have  played  an  important  part  in  the  affairs. 

5.  The  Raids  by  Kookis  of  Hill  Tipper  a  on  the 
villages  of  the  plains.  This  poem  was  written 
about  a  century  ago,  and  is  still  reproduced  from 
memory  by  many  old  men  of  the  Tippera  district. 

6.  Dara  Sekh.  This  is  a  poem  by  Dvija  Rama     pgrS  Sekh, 
Chandra.     It  gives  an   account    of  the   misfortunes 

of  the  Prince  Dara,  the  eldest  son  of  Jahangir. 

7.  A  poem  on  Pratapa  Chand  who  claimed  the 
the  ^^<7^/ of  Burdwan,  by  Anup  Chandra  Datta,  an 
inhabitant  of  ^rikhanda.     The  peoni  was  written  in 

1844  A.D. 


Raids  by 
Kookis. 


Pratapa 
Chand, 


Short 
historical 
treatises. 


780      BENGALI    LAiNGUAGE    ik    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

There  are  numerous  small  poetical  treatises, 
written  about  a  century  ago,  describing  the  flood 
of  the  Damodara  and  its  devastating  effects  on  the 
villages  of  Birbhum  ;  and  on  Babu  Rajkumar  Sen 
of  Kirtipa^a  w!io  died  of  poison  administered  to 
him  by  Ki9ore  Mahalanavis,  his  Dewan,  and  on 
various  other  subjects  of  minor  importance.  The 
poem  oil  the  flood  of  the  Damodara  was  written 
by  Napher  Chandra  Das  in  1823. 


(6)    Metaphysical  and  other  works. 

I.      The  Maya  71  mi r a  Chayidrika  by  Ramagati 

Sen,  which  I  have  already  mentioned  on  page    682. 

Maya  Jg  a  work  treating  of  the    processes    of  Yoga.     He 

Timira  •       1        r 

Chandrika.     begins  the  poem  in  the    form   of  an    allegory,  much 

on  the  lines  of  the  well  known  Sanskrit  work  Pra- 

bodha  Chandrodaya  Xataka.      The  poem  begins  as 

follows  : — 

■^"  The  mind  goes  in  a  fit  of  anger  to  the  soul — 
that  Prince  whose  capital  town  is  the  body  and 
whose     palace    is    the    heart  ;    false     vanity  is    his 


^511    -^JT^  J\\i{\   ^l'S\   l\^\   ^?J?Jt^    II 

■^\%v^  \1<  ^t^  C^K^5  ftj#l5l  I 
^•^^n  ^5|15Tn  C?lt«.  ^f^Tf^  I 


VL  ]        BENGALI    LANGUALiH:    <S:    LriEKAlUKK.  781 

crown  ;  pompous  arrogance  keeps  his  royal  com- 
pany ;  lust  and  greed  are  his  two  dear  friends.  The 
heavenly  maidens  peace,  forbearance  and  kind- 
ness do  not  visit  the  palace,  having  been  insulted. 
There  ignorance  reigns  supreme  as  the  favourite 
queen,  pandering  to  all  the  foolish  desires  of  the 
Prince,  who  is  found  steeped  in  the  well  of  foul 
passions." 

After  this  the  various  processes  of  Yoga  are 
detailed  in  the  poem,  on  the  merits  of  which  we 
can  not  pronounce  any  judgment. 

2.  Yoga  sara  or  the  essence  of  Yoga.     As   the 

name  implies,  this  book  describes  Yoga,  leading  Yoga  S§ra. 
to  the  emancipation  of  the  soul,  and  attainment  of 
the  stage  of  beatitude,  step  to  step.  The  author's 
name  is  not  found  in  the  book  ;  he  introduces  him- 
self by  his  title  Gunaraj  Khan.  He  undertook  the 
work  at  the  command  of  a  rich  man  named  ^achi- 
pati  Majumdar. 

3.  Hadamala,  a  poem  relating   to    Yoga.     The      Hadamala 
,,      ,  .  ,  and  other 

author  s  name  is  not  known.  poems  on 

Yoga. 

4.  Jnana  Pradipa  by  Saiyad  Sultan    who    calls 

himself  a   disciple   of  tlie   saint    and    Fakir   named 
Saha  Hosen.     Though    a    Mahomedan,    the    author 

'^rtf^,  'iU,  ^^1,  ^f^,  ^J^^^n  ^]f\  i 
'^U^-5]  H^®1  ^f^i^Tl  'iftft  I 

^f«  ^K^  ^wi  ^ti:^  ?t^t^  ftt"^fl  II 


by    Jaya- 
narayana, 


782       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

acknowledges   the   God  ^iva  as  the  authority  in  all 
matters  relating  to  Voga. 

5.  Tanu  Sadhana — a  poem  on  Voga.  The 
author,  who  was  a  Mahomedan.  writes  elegant  Ben- 
gali and  has  a  profound  respect  for  the  tenets  of 
the  Hindu  Castras. 

6.  J  nana  Chautisa.  This  poem  contains  onlv 
152  couplets.  The  author  Saiyad  Sultan  explains 
the  metaphysical  truth  embodied  in  the  symbol  of 
Civa  and  ^akti  and  describes  the  processes  of 
Yoga.     This  book  was  written  in  1780  A. 13. 

There  are  ether  small  treatises  on  Voga,  a  briet 
notice  of  which  is  to  be  found  in  the  catalogue  of 
old  Bengali  Mss.  published  by  Munsi  Abdul  Karim 
in  the  Sahitva  Parisad  Patrika  issued  froni  Cal- 
cutta. 

The  above  poems  were  written  within  the  last 
200  years  ;  the  latest  of  them  comes  up  to  the 
middle  of  the  19th  century. 


Translation   ol     Kai;!    Khanda  b\-    Javanara\ana 

(ihosala.      Passiiu'  from  the  subject  of   metaphysics, 
Kaci 
Khanda        nn  <-'  shall  here  take  up  a  work  of  translation,    which 

(l('s«'rv('s    a    somewhat     elaborate     ncjtice.      It     was 

compiled  bv  its  illustrious   author    with  the    ludp    of 

inanv  distinguished  Pundits. 

Irom  a  copper-plate  inscri[)tion  prepared  \^\ 
Kaja  Kali  Cankara  (Jhosala  of  ^Bhukailasa — son  c^t 
Raja  Jayanarayafia.  we  glean  the  following  parti- 
(  ulars  about  th<-  poet.  jayanSrayana  was  born  in 
( )ctul)rr,  1752.  lie  received  a  sound  education  in 
Sanskrit.  Persian.  1  lindi.  Knglish  and    French.      He 


VL  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LH  LRATURE.  783 

inherited  from  his  father  a  vast  property  which 
comprised  the  vilHages  of  Govindapur,  Garya  and 
Behala.  He  obtained  the  title  of  Maharaja  from 
the  emperor  of  Delhi  for  his  patriotism  and  muni- 
ficience,  and  founded  a  college  at  Benares  which 
was  called  Jayanarayana  College  after  him.  He 
built  a  temple  moreov^er  for  the  worship  of  the  image 
of  Karuna  Nidhana  (Krisfia)  at  Banares  in  1790. 
He  enjoyed  the  confidence  of  Warren  Hastings, 
and  helped  the  Government  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany in  their  work  of  Survey  and  Settlement  in 
various  provinces  of  Bengal.  Javanarayaha  died  in 
1 8 18  A.D.  at  Benares  in  his  66th  year. 

The  translation  of  Kayi  Khanda  was  however  the 
joint  work  of  several  scholars  and  one  of  its  chief 
contributors  was  a  Kayastha  nobleman  named  Nara- 
sinha  Deva  Ray  who  bore  the  title  of  Cudramahi. 
The  translation  took  many  years  for  its  completion. 
Here  is  the  account  given  by  Jayanarayana  himself 
as  to  how  the  arduous  work  was  gone  through. 

■^''Dwelling  at  Benares,  which  is  situated  on  the 

five  noble  streams  of  the    Ganges,    I    was    desirous    tory  of  this 
r        .  .  ,  .         .  rill-  T        compila- 

of  writing  something   in  praise  of  the  holy  city.     1  tion. 

thought    of    translating    the    Sanskrit    work    Ka9i- 

Khanda   into    Bengali,    but   found    none  who  could 

t^\^  ^^n  ^<(  ^Wl^  ^1  C5?f^  II 

^HH  '^Rn  ^'^  cvn  ^t^  ^i^  0 


The  his- 


784        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

help  me  in  the  undertaking.  In  the  month  of 
January  in  1792,  an  opportunity  presented  itself 
for  the  fulfilment  of  my  wishes,  ^rijukta  Nara- 
sinha  Deva  Rav  of  the  ^udramahi  family  and  an 
inhabitant  of  Patuli,  visited  the  city  of  Benares. 
With  him  came  Jagannatha  Mukerjee,  and  in  the 
month  of  February  the  work  was  commenced  by 
us  jointly.  Rama  Prasada  Vidya  N'agi^a,  a  learned 
Sanskrit  scholar,  explained  the  text  and  Narasinha 
Ray  prepared  his  drafts  of  the  translation  in  prose, 
based  on  the  interpretations  given  by  the  former. 
Jagannatha  Mukerjee  turned  them  into  metrical 
verse  ;  Narasinha  Ray  corrected  the  rhymes  and 
prepared  fair  copies;  when  forty  chapters  were  thus 
completed,  the  learned  Vidya  \^agi9a  died,  in  Sep- 
tember, and    Jagannatha  Mukerjee   went    home    to 


»t5  ^uf  w^^n  Ti^f]  ^i^^i  I 
^^71  ^a^  m]  ^r^^i  nt^^i  II 


VL  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  785 

Bengal,  for  one  year.  Owing  to  these  causes,  the 
book  could  not  make  any  progress.  In  the  mean- 
time Narasinha  Ray  removed  himself  from  the 
house  which  he  occupied  at  Benares  to  Bangalitola  ; 
there  he  found  a  companion  and  friend  in  X'alarama 
\'achaspati  who  was  a  profound  scholar.  Jointly 
with  Vakrecvara  Panchanana,  another  Pundit,  they 
finished  the  translation  of  75  chapters, — Vakre- 
cvara contributing  two  chapters  one  on  Kagi  Pan- 
chakro^I  and  the  other  describing  a  journey  through 
the  city.  The  work  now  again  came  to  a  stand- 
still for  various  reasons.  After  this,  however,  we 
happened  to  meet  with  a  Pundit  named  Uma- 
cankara  Tarkalankara.  Though  by  the  will  of 
Providence  this  excellent  man  is  blind  in  both 
eyes,  yet  he  is  possessed  of  some  very  admirable 
qualities.  He  is  a  native  of  Ka^ipur  and  a 
thoroughly       truthful    man    of    a    highly     religious 

^t«ft  n^?:^i^  ^t<i  ^^i^  s'l'i  I 
^t^^  ^^jt^  '^^]^m  n^n^  II 

^ff]fi  ^^^  ^tti  h^^^t^n  ^^  I 

n^tf^ii^?[i\*i  fk^^H-'^'i  II 

09 


786      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

temperament.  He  never  dreams  of  doing  harm 
to  any  one,  appreciates  merit  in  others  ;  and  is  a 
true  advocate  of  noble  ideas.  The  blind  Pundit 
became  eager  to  help  in  the  completion  of 
the  work.  His  father  Rgma  Chandra  Vidyalankara 
is  also  a  learned  Pundit  of  a  quiet  and  obliging 
disposition.  With  the  latter  I  travelled  for  six 
months,  in  search  of  good  and  reliable  manuscripts. 
The  accounts  of  different  festivities  held  in  the 
different  parts  of  the  year  are  giv^en  in  Bengali 
poetry,  literally  translated  from  the  Sanskrit  texts. 
Vi^nu  Rama  Siddhanta,  a  high-minded  scholar 
and  a  friend  of  the  blind  Pundit,  helped  us  with 
a  right  interpretation  of  these  Sanskrit  texts,  and 
Narasinha  Ray  finally  published  the  work  when 
completed.  The  description  of  the  city  of  Benares 
and  of  the  origin  of  this  work  added  to  the  book, 
is  my  own.     In  it    I    have    given  a  faithful  account 

^#t^Tt^^^  f^^l  5^^  r^^^  (I 

f^^^  ^t<i  ^k^  ^fm  n^ife^  I 

^^t^??ic^?r  ^%  ft^^m  ^t^  I 
^^fe  ^t^t^^  ^kl^^  ^ft^<i  I 


VL  ]         BENGALI   LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE  787 

of    my   own  observations.       Raja  Jayanarayaha  of 
the  family  of  Ghosala,  here  ends  his  account.'' 

The  translation  of  Kayi  Khanda  is  complete  in 
1 1,200  lines;  it  forms  a  record  of  patient  labour, 
carried  on  by  half  a  dozen  scholars  for  many  years. 
In  the  Bhahita  (signature)  at  the  end  of  each  chap- 
ter we  find  the  name  of  Raja  Jaya  Narayana,  given 
no  doubt  by  way  of  courtesy,  having  regard  to  the 
high  position  and  munificence  of  this  scholarly 
nobleman  who  initiated  and  maintained  this  under- 
taking, as  the  patron  of  the  scliolars.  The  main 
portion  of  the  work  was  done  by  Narasinha  Deva 
Ray  of  Patuli  whose  descendants  now  dwell  at 
Bansberia  in  the  district  of  Hughly. 

But  the  chief  interest  of  the  work  lies  in  the 
supplementary  account  of  the  City  of  Benares 
which  the  Raja  himself  gives  in  Bengali  verse. 
Literal  translations  from  the  Sanskrit  have  little 
value  in  this  country.  The  learned  do  not  care  to 
read  translations  instead  of  the  original  texts,  and 
those  who  do  not  know  Sanskrit,  do  not  care  to 
read  literal  translation,  in  which  they  do  not  find 
an  adequate  or  modernised  expression  of  the 
thoughts  to  which  they  are  accustomed.  The  trans- 
lation of  Ka9i  Khanda  is  thus  a  lost  labour, 
though  the  labour  that  produced  it  was  great. 

But   the   supplementary   account   of  the  City  of     a  descrip- 
Benares  is  full  of  interest.     In  simple  and  unassum-  city    ^ 


^^^  ^<*{  C^H  ^TM  ^t^*l  I 

^i^\m  ^^\n  ^%i  U^^'i  H" 


788         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap< 


The 
Qhatas. 


The 
Postas. 


Dhararas 


A  place  tor 
suicide. 


ing  language  the  Raja,  who  was  a  pious  man,  jotted 
down  notes  in  verse  of  what  he  saw  in  the  Holy 
City,  a  hundred  years  ago.  He  begins  his  descrip- 
tion of  *  the  abode  of  ^iva.'  as  Kaci  is  called,  with 
a  few  poetic  lines  in  which  its  semicircular  shajje, 
as  observed  from  the  Ganges,  is  compared  to  the 
crescent  moon  on  the  forehead  of  ^iva.  He  next 
gives  a  short  notice  of  the  bathing  ghatas — the 
Parvvnath  ghata,  the  Asi  ghata.  the  X'aidyanath 
ghata.  the  iNarada  Fande's  ghata  and  so  on.  'I'here 
were  then  altogether  53  bathing  ghatas  at  Benares 
and  all  of  these  are  faithfully  noticed.  Though  the 
notes  are  short,  the  writer  makes  them  interesting  by 
his  witty  remarks  in  many  of  them.  He  then  pro- 
ceeds to  give  a  description  of  the  Fostas  (embank- 
ment), the  chief  amongst  which  is  the  Mirer  Fosta  ; 
it  is  120  ft.  in  height  and  600  ft.  in  breadth.  Hur- 
riedly taking  a  note  of  the  great  houses,  some  of 
which  were  seven  stories  high,  he  gives  an  account 
of  the  Dhararas  or  pinnacles.  The  pinnacle  named 
Cri  Madha\a  Rayer  Dharara  rises  to  a  height  of 
172  ft.;  at  135  ft.  there  is  a  seat  for  visitors,  from 
which  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  City  of  Benares  may 
be  taken.  *"  Like  the  cliffs  of  Mount  Sumeru,  it 
appears  as  if  the  Dharara  might  pierce  the  heavens." 
At  the  lime  when  the  Raja  lived  at  r)enares.  thi^ 
Diiarara  was  used  by  the  desperate  and  unhappy  a^ 
a  placi-  for  committing  suicide.  'J'he  Raja  lia> 
giNcn  a  \i>{  of  the  peuple  who  killeil  lluinseKes 
(luriiiL;  hi>  lime  1)\   ihruwing  lliemsel\e>  down    iroiii 


VI*  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &,    LIIERATUKE.  7S9 


the  above-mentioned  seat  in  Dharara.  A  young 
Ksetri  with  liis  lady-love  had  disappeared  for  three 
days,  and  on  the  fourth,  they  were  found  dead  in 
close  embrace  on  the  ground-floor  of  the  temple  ; 
they  had  evidently  thrown  themselves  down  from  the 
great  height,  after  enjoying  each  other's  company 
(or  three  days.  But  death  does  not  always  come 
to  the  unfortunate,  though  he  may  sincerely  wish 
for  it.  ■^"  Another  person  ascended  the  great  height 
and  threw  himself  down,  but  he  fell  on  the  top  of  a 
tree,  and  catching  hold  of  a  branch  reached  the 
ground  safe,  and  quietly  glided  into  his  own 
chamber." 

Warren  Hastings  stayed  in  the  garden  house 
adjoining  this  temple  for  a  time  when  he  was  in 
that  City  for  carrying  on  hostile  operations  against 
Chait  Singh,  Raja  of   Benares. 

Instead  of  the  modern  centralisation  of  nuinici-  fhe  light- 
pal  arrangements,  there  was  the  mutual  agreement  *"roads 
of  honest  and  public-spirited  citizens  : — f"  In  the 
Mahajantola  the  lanes  were  so  dark  that  neither 
the  sun  nor  the  moon  could  look  within  them.  At 
night  the  residents  here  kept  lights  in  their  windows 
for  the  convenience  of  the  passers-by.'' 

^f^m  n^  ^^s  ^^?ii  f ft^  1 
^^mt^^  f^^  ^z^  Z^^  ^ft^  h" 

f^^^^  fe^^  ^?iC[^  ^^1 II 
vii^t?(«i  f^*famcn,  nftc^^  'ftc^  I 


790      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

The  writer  of  the  sketch  made  notes  of  all  that 
he  saw,  the  short  lines  call  up  living  pictures  be- 
fore one's  imagination.  Regarding  the  Buddhist 
Lamas  (Priests)  he  says  : 

_,^    ,  _     _  ■'^''l  he  ascclics  called  Lamas  who  outwardly  pro- 

1  he  Lamas.  .  '    * 

fess  renunciation  are  in  reality  full  of  worldliness. 
They  transact  a  prosperous  loan-business  and 
trades  of  various  kinds  ;  and  everyone  of  them  is 
immensely  rich,  having  residential  houses  like 
palaces." 

The  various  amusements  and  religious  festivities 
of  Benares,  the  mode  in  whicli  the  citizens  passed 
their  evenings  in  idle  gossip  lounging  on  the  banks 
g  .,  I  of  the  Ganges,  and  other  matters  chiefly  of  social 
gatherings,  and  domestic  interest  have  been  briefly  noted.  A 
chapter  is  devoted  to  the  silk  industry  for  which 
the  Benares  weavers  have  always  been  so  famous. 
We  lind  in  this  chapter  a  list  of  various  kinds  of 
cloth  which  used  to  be  manufactured  there, — the 
far-famed  Benares  Sadi,  the  line  silken  stuff  colour- 
ed with  various  dyes,  a  piece  of  which  used  to 
sell  for  Ks.  200,  velvet  of  the  first  quality,  striped 
industry  ^'^^^  ^^^^'^  which  turbans  were  made,  silk  adorned 
w  ilh  gold  embroidery  and  so  on.  He  concludes  his 
remarks  under  this  head  by  saying. — t"  They  show 
admirable  skill  in  making  artistic  designs  on  cotton 
with  coloured  silk  threads,  but  they  can  not  produce 


VL] 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE. 


791 


fine  cotton  pieces  of  the  first  quality."  While  writing 
these  lines,  the  Raja  evidently  had  in  mind  the 
unapproachable  muslins  of  Dacca. 

Next  he  proceeds  to  describe  the  temples.  The 
accounts  are  vivid  and  life-like.  He  begins  with 
a  description  of  the  temple  of  Ahalya  Bai,  the 
famous  Maharatta  queen,  who  spent  three  lakhs  of 
rupees  on  building  a  beautiful  shrine  at  Benares. 
Next  he  describes  the  temple  of  Visnu  Mahadeva, 
Kanchi  and  others.  The  architectural  points  of 
the  edifices  are  mentioned,  and  the  use  served  by 
their  important  apartments  is  also  described  at 
some  length. 

The  lanes  of  Benares  were  at  one  time  scenes 
of  bloodshed,  assassination  and  plunder.  The 
Ahir  Rajputs  are  described  as  always  carrying 
sw^ords  with  them.  "^^  Each  looks  like  a  king  of 
death  {^^].  If  he  happens  to  have  a  grudge  against 
a  man,  he  does  not  feel  the  least  scruple  in  wound- 
ing him.  Every  month  there  is  deadly  strife,  and 
many  heads  roll  on  the  ground  as  a  result." 

Our  author's  account  of  the  Hindu  women  who 
visited  the  shrines  or  lived  holy  lives  in  the  city, 
during  his  time,  verges  on  the  poetic  : — 


The 
temples- 


Lanes  of 
the  city — a 

scene  of 
bloodshed. 


^'' M-H^  ^m^  II 

^t'^VS  ^fs  ^11^  *2tt^  ^5  ^^  I 

^''^^n;9  ^v5t^f%  ^t^  ^-5  ^%  h" 


79^        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATUKE.    [  Chap, 

The  Hindu  ■^'' Some    of    them    wear  bracelets  made  of  the 

horns  of  rhinoceros,  mounted  in  i^old  which  look 
like  dark  clouds  lined  by  lii^^htning.  Their  lovely 
tresses  that  hang  loosly  down  their  backs  are 
])0('rlcss  ;  over  the  breasts  of  some  hang  necklaces 
of  bright  pearls,  which  look  as  though  over  the 
peaks  of  the  Himal;^^■•''  n<>\v<*'l  iIk-  wliifo  stream 
of  the  (janges." 

But  the  Raja  knew  where  to  stop.  At  this 
stage  of  his  description,  he  suddenly  cuts  it  short 
by  saying  :  — 

t"The  sight  of  women  should  create  in  the 
mind  feelings  of  respect ;  never  should  any  unholy 
thouoht  be  entertained." 

This  account  of  Benares  giving  a  topography 
and  other  details  about  the  city  of  a  particular 
period  will  increase  in  value,  in  course  of  years, 
and  will  possess  the  same  interest  as  the  account 
of  Jeruselem  by  Mandevile,  Brahmakhanda  by 
\'va?a.  and  \avadwipa  by  Narahari  Chakravarty. 


The  inter 
change  of 
cu.stom.s 
and  ideas 


Hindus    and    Mahomedans    had    now    lived    in 

lUMigal    for  long    vears    in    close  proximity  and  on 

bet.  Maho-     terms  of  peace  and  unity,  and  they  were    natural!)- 
medans  & 


Hindus. 


^^'\k\  ^JlT^tl  ^l^l^  ^fc^  11'" 


VI.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGR      &    LITERATURE.         793 

influenced  by  one  another  in  many  respects.  In 
Ksemananda's  Manasa  Mangala,  written  more  than 
300  years  ago,  we  find  a  passage  in  which  it  is  told 
that  in  the  steel-house  made  for  Laksmindhara, 
along  with  many  other  charms  to  ward  off  evil  in- 
fluences, a  copy  of  the  Koran  was  kept.  Many 
a  Mahomedan  offered  puja  at  Hindu  temples,  as 
the  Hindus  offered  s'lnni  at  Mahomedan  mosques. 
In  the  N.  W.  P.  the  Hindus  celebrated  the  Maho- 
rum  festivals  with  as  great  enthusiasm  as  the 
Mahomedans.  Mirza  Hosen  x\li,  a  native  of  the 
Tippera  district,  who  lived  a  hundred  years  ago, 
not  only  composed  songs  in  praise  of  the  goddess 
Kali,  but  worshipped  her  at  his  house  with  great 
eclat ;  and  Gariv  Hosen  Chaudhury  of  Dacca,  a 
contemporary  of  the  Mriza,  another  Mahomedan 
zeminder,  was  a  devout  worshipper  of  ^itala 
Devi,  the  goddess  of  small  pox,  worshipped  by 
the  Hindus.*  Gol  Mahamud  is  to-day  the 
leader  of  a  professional  party  of  singers  in  Tippera 
who  sing  only  praises  of  the  goddess  Kali,  and  his 
party  carries  the  palm  in  this  respect  and  gets 
engagements  in  preference  to  Hindu  parties  at  the 
houses  of  the  orthodox  Hindus.  Hindus  have 
borne  Mahomedan  names  and  the  Mahomedans  are 
often    called    bv    Hindu    names  and  such  instances 


*Gariv  Husen  Choudhury,  when  only  24,  had  gone  a-hunting 
in  the  jungles  on  the  banks  of  the  Boori  Ganga,  where  he  rhanced 
to  see  an  image  of  Citala  Devi  in  clay  placed  on  the  sand  bank,  and 
-^ailing  her  a  witch,  aimed  a  shot  at  the  clay  image,  as  a  mark  of 
is  contempt.  The  bullet  fell  on  one  of  the  eyes  of  the  image, 
-nd  disfigured  that  side  of  the  face.  That  night  Gariv  Husen 
^ught  fever,  and  the  symptoms  of  small  pox  quickly  followed. 
The  goddess  is  said  to  have  appeared  to  him  in  a  dream  and  told 
him  that  she  would  spare  his  life,  but  take  one  of  his  eyes,  as  he 
had  done  hers.  Gariv  Husen  recovered  with  the  loss  of  an  eye, 
and  since  then  turned  into  a  devout  votary  of  the  goddess. 

100 


7Q4       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    ^    LIIEKAIURE.      [  Chap, 

are  very  common  in  this  country  even  now.  In  the 
Statesman  of  the  17th  November  19 10,  there  is  a 
leader  on  an  article  from  the  pen  of  the  Hon'ble 
Mr.  Mazhal-uI-Haque  on  this  mutual  assimilation 
by  the  Hindus  and  the  Mahomedans  of  the  customs 
and  thought  of  each  other.  The  article  appeared 
in  the  magazine — -"  Modern  Behar."  We  quote 
from  the  Statesman, — "  From  the  begining  the 
Musalman  invaders  adopted  wholesale  the  customs 
of  the  Hindus,  says  Mr.  Mazhar-ul-l  la(|ue,  and 
when  these  went  entirely  against  their  religious 
ideas  they  so  adapted  them  as  to  give  a  semblance 
of  conformity  to  their  own  religion.  From  birth 
to  death  at  every  stage  of  life,  the  Mahomedan 
in  India  perform  ceremonies  which  are  of  purely 
Hindu  origin.  When  he  is  born,  the  songs  sung 
are  not  of  Musalman  conception  but  those  in 
which  allusions  to  (Jri  Krisiia  are  frecjuent.  Tlu" 
series  of  ceremonies  'which  are  performed  during 
pregnancy  are  adopted  from  the  Hindus,  and  the 
.symbols  of  Hindu  religions  and  philosophical  ideas 
play  the  most  important  part.  At  marriage  the 
ceremonies  are  even  more  llinduised.  In  Islam 
the  simple  reading  of  the  Nikah  is  quite  sufficient 
to  complete  the  marriage  contract,  and  unnecessary 
and  wast<>ful  ceremony  has  always  been  expressly 
di'^rour  igcd.  Rut  the-  Indian  ^lusalman  goes 
through  a  l«)ng  scries  of  festivities  and  ceremonies, 
most  of  whirh  are  bodilv  importations  from  the 
jiinihi^  whilr  others  arc,  adapt «^d  with  slight 
nioditications  Id  giv<>  them  some  colour  of  Maho- 
mcdanism.  The  rustom,  in  connection  with  mar- 
riage ceremonies  to  which  .Mahome<lan  ladies 
attach  llic  greatest  Imj^ortanre.  is  of   purelv    Hindu 


VI.  J  BENGALI    LANGUAGfc:    8i    LlihiKAlUKE.         795 

origin  ;  so,  too,  is  the  line  ot  vermilion  and  the 
dot  on  the  forehead,  while  the  bridal  songs  are  all 
in  Hindi,  a  language  which  is  certainly  not  the 
mother-tongue  of  the  Musalmans.  Funeral  rites, 
too,  can  be  easily  traced  to  a  Hindu  origin,  and 
widow  re-marriage,  which  is  not  only  permitted 
but  enjoined  by  Islam,  is  considen;d  a  disgrace  in 
Muslem  as  well  as  in  Hindu  society.  The  mutual 
participation  in  religious  festivals  is  a  phenomenon 
which  strikes  even  the  European  observer,  though 
perhaps  none  have  had  the  ex})erience  of  Mr. 
Mazhar-ul-Haque  himself,  \\ho  relates  that  in  his 
childhood  at  Mohorum  time,  he  has  seen  Hindus 
weeping  as  copious  tears  at  the  recital  of  the 
incidents  of  Karbala,  as  any  pious  Shia  would  do. 
But  perhaps  the  most  striking  instance  of  the 
sympathy  of  ideas  to  which  Mr.  Mazhar-ul-Haque 
refers  is  the  well-known  sight  of  Hindus  revering 
the  shrines  of  Musalman  saints  and  martyrs  in  the 
same  degree  as,  if  not  in  a  greater  degree  than, 
Musalmans  themselves.  Mr.  Mazhar-ul-Haque  re- 
pudiates the  idea  that  this  is  to  be  attributed 
merely  to  the  superistitious  nature  of  the  Hindu. 
"  It  is  to  be  ascribed  to  a  deep  truth  ingrained  in 
"  the  human  nature  and  discovered  by  Hindu 
"  philosophers.' '  No  man  is  absolutely  bad  or  good. 
•Some  are  more,  others  less  so.  If  a  man  was 
adored  by  his  own  people  who  know  him  well,  the 
good  in  him  must  have  predominated  over  the 
bad,  and,  acting  on  this  principle,  the  Hindus 
adore  and  worship  the  good  qualities  of  the  man 
and  not  the  man  himself.  "  To  me,"  says  Mr. 
Mazhar-ul-Haque,  "  this  worship  of  the  Musalman 
'*  saints     and    pious    men    by    the    Hindus    reveals 


A  com  moil 


6at\a  l*ir 


796      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

"  anollicr  side  ot  iheir  lovable  nature,  and  my 
*'  heart  goes  out  to  them  in  gratefuhiess  and 
*'  fraternal  love." 

Ihc  Mahomedans  of  Rajsliahi  have  the  mono- 
poly of  Bliasan  gan  or  songs  on  Manasa  Devi. 
Jn  Chittagong  this  fusion  of  ideas  and  inter- 
change of  customs  and  usages  seems  to  have 
reached  its  highest  point.  In  a  Bengali  poem 
railed  the  Bhelua  Sundari,  written  by  Hamidulia 
of  Chittagong,  we  read  that  the  Brahmins  who  had 
assembled  to  find  out  an  auspicious  day  for  the  herob 
journey  abroad,  consulted  the  Koran  for  the  pur- 
pose. The  hero,  who  was  the  son  of  an  orthodox 
Hindu  merchant,  obeyed  the  injunctions  'as  if  they 
were  laid  down  in  the  Vedas'  and  started  on 
his  \oyage,  'praying  to  Allah'  for  his  safety  1  Kven 
at  the  present  time  the  lower  clases  of  Hindus  in 
Chittagong  use  the  expression  Allar  hukum  (com- 
mand in  the  same  sense  as  '  Deo  volente."  Aptav- 
uddin,  another  Mahomedan  poet  of  Chittagong 
who  wrote  a  poem  called  the  Jamil  Dilaramin  1750. 
writes  that  his  hero,  who  was  a  Mahomedan,  went 
to  the  nether  worlds  to  seek  a  boon  from  the 
.Saptarsies  or  the  seven  sages  of  the  Hindus. 

When  the  two  communities  mixed  so  closelv. 
and  wt-re  so  greatly  influenced  by  one  another,  the 
result  was  that  a  common  God  was  called  into 
existence,  worshipped  by  Hindus  anil  .Mahomedans 
.ilik<  .  II  i->  name  was  formed  by  compounding  an 
Arabic  word  with  a  Sanskrit  word.  He  was  called 
Satya  rir.  Theri  are  many  poems  on  Satya  I'ir 
in  old  Htmgali.  some  of  which  are  noted  below: — 

I.  Satya  I'irer  I'anchali  by  l-'akir  Chand,  an 
inhabitant  of  ^ucliia  in  Chittagong.  written  in  1734. 


Vi»  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGH:    &    LIIEKAIURE.  jg-f 

2.  SaLya  Pir  by  Ramananda. 

3.  Satya  Pir  by  Cankaracliaryya  written  in 
1636  A.D.*  A  complete  Ms.  of  this  poem  has  been  re- 
covered by  Babu  Nagendra  Nath  Vasu  from  Mayur- 
bhanja.  It  is  a  voluminous  work  and  is  divided 
into  15  chapters.  The  book  discloses  a  curious 
fact  about  the  origin  of  the  god  Satya  Pir.  It  is  a 
legendary  account,  but  by  comparison  with  the  story 
in  another  work  on  Satya  Pir  by  Nayek  Mayaj 
Gaji,  we  glean  the  fact  that  the  Emperor  Hosen 
Shah  of  Gauda  who  tried  to  ensure  the  good  will 
of  his  Hindu  subjects,  was  the  originator  of  the 
Satya  Pir-cult,  which  made  Hindus  and  Mahom- 
edans  join  hands  in  worshipping  a  common  God. 
Though  in  Orissa  Satya  Na  ray  aha  and  Satya  Pir  are 
reckoned  as  the  same  God,  they  do  not  appear  to  be 
identical  in  Bengal.  There  is  not  a  village  in  Ben- 
gal where  Satya  Narayana  is  not  worshipped  once 
evey  week,  but  in  these  pujas  the  Mahomedans  do 
not  join  with  the  Hindus. 

Poems  on  Satya  Narayana  are  to  numerous  to  be 
mentioned  here,  as  there  is  hardly  a  village  in 
Bengal  in  which  there  is  not  a  poem  on  the  God  ; 
they  scarcely  deserve  any  notice  being  generally 
very  short.  We  have  quite  a  heap  of  Mss.  on  the 
subject  giving  short  stories  to  illustrate  the  might 
and  the  grace  of  the  deity  :  but  none  of  them  has 
risen  to  the  dignity  of  a  poem  except  the  Hari  Lila 
by  Jaya  Narayana  and  Ananda  Mayi  about  which  we 
have  already  written,  on  pages  683-687.  Amongst 
these  Mss.  we  may  mention  one  by  Kavi  Chandra 
containing  a  description  of  a  river  trip  from  Hugli 
to    the    Bay    of    Bengal    witli    short  notices  of  the 


79S      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LIlEKAIUKt.        [Chap. 

places  lying  un  bolh  .sido  ut  the  river.  This  ac- 
count may  be  found  interesting  by  students  of  Geo- 
graphy as  it  was  written  more  than  200  years  ago. 

in  a  work  called  \"amini  V'ahal  by  Karimulla — an 

Hymns  to      inhabitant  of  Sitakundu  in  Chittas^onor  ^1780  A.D.\ 
9iva  and         ,      ,         .  ,^    ,  ,         .  5      »      / 

Sarasvati       ^h^'  r.erome.  a  AlMhomedan.  is  represented  as    pray- 

^]ne^an'       i^g    to  the    God   ^iva    and  in  another  work   named 
poets.  Imam    Vatr§r    Puthi,  the    Mahomedan  author  has  a 

hymn  addressed  to  Sarsvati,  tlie  goddess  of  learn- 
ing, beginning  with  the  lines  — 

*"  Hail  O  Sarasvati,  thou  art  my  muthrr. 
"  Thy  helpless  child  invokes   thee  ;  will  thou  not 
hear." 


Karamali. 


Karam  Ali,  a  leading  poet  ol  C  hitiagong.  sang 
e.\f]uisitel\-  on  Radha  and  Krisna.  One  of  his  />a//as 
runs  thus :  — 

+■'  Kadha  wept  and  said,  who  amongst  you.  () 
mv  maids  will  bring  Krisna  to  me  ? 

'*  X'riuda.  niy  hiend,  help  me  by  bringing  him 
her«-  from   Mathura." 

"  My  heart  l)uin>  with  the  lire  ol    love. 

"The  (uckooson  yotuler  boughs  coo  pleas. iiitly 

^1  ^^t^  ^i^^  ^ff^  ^m  "^i^  •{!  h'  ■ 

«^  ^n  ^^1  x^  ^f^  c^w.^ 
n^\m  om  ^ft  ^t^jt^w  c'^K^  ii 
ci3^ti;r«i  ^c^  cm?  2^5f^  ^n^  I 


VI.  ]  BRNGAIJ    LANGUAGK    &    LI TRRATURE.  799 

"  How  can  I  describe  the  a^ony  that  are  caused 
by  their  notes. 

''  O  maids  of  my  heart,  tell  me  who  was  so 
cruel  as  to  cause  the  moon  of  the  Vrinda  iijroves  to 
depart  from  here  ! 

*'  No  more  do  the  bowers  resound  with  the  sweet 
notes  of  his  flute  calling  '  Radha  Radha.' 

"  Alas  !  am  I  become  as  nobody  to  him  ?  D  how 
sorrowful  am  I,  when  I  think  upon  this  ! 

"  The  poet  Karam  Ali  savs  ''  Hear  me  Radha, 
Krisha  is  always  in  thine  heart,  enjov  the  spiritual 
union,  and  do  not  Aveep." 

There  are  short  poetical  treatises  on  music  in  Musical 
old  Bengali  literature,  mainly  written  bv  the  Maho-  treatises 
medans. 

1.  Raga  Mala  or  an  account  of  the  various 
modes  of  Indian  music  with  a  poetical  description 
of  the  presiding  deity  of  each,  and  with  songs  in 
illustration  by  Ali  Mian,  Aloal,  and  Tahir  Mahmud. 

2.  Tala  nama — a  similar  work  containing 
songs  by  Saiyad  Ainuddin,  Saiyad  Murttaja,  Nasir- 
uddin,  Alaol,  Gayeja,   Dvija    Raghu   Nath,    Bhava- 


C^  ^ff  ^   2}t«l  T^fe,  ^l"^^  'n^  t 

^-^t^c^  ^t?fi  ^c?i  m^  ^t  ^1%  II 

cit  en  ic^^  ^i^r  ^tc^  ^ift  ^T?  iff  I 

«;m^  ^sf  5{f^ir  ^mft,  (M^m  '^^^  ^tt  n 
T^W'i^  '^\W^  c^t^qt^  2\K''\^  ^ft  n" 

Karam  Ali, 


Soo         BRNGALl    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [Chap, 

nancla  Amin,    Hira   Mani  and  other  writers.     This 
book  was  compiled  in  1840. 

3.  Sfisti  Pattana— a  work  on  Indian  music 
compiled^by  Daneya  Kaji,  Xasir  Mahamud  and 
Baksh  Ali.  This  book  also  gives  an  account  of 
various  modes  of  Indian  music,  with  a  number  of 
songs  in  illustration   of  each. 

4.  Dhyana  Mala  by  Ali  Raj.  Ali  Raj  was  a 
lin«*  poet.  In  this  book  he  gives  a  detailed  ac- 
count of  various  modes  of  music — of  the  six 
Ragas  and  36  Raginies  with  directions  as  to  the 
hour  and  season  suited  for  singing  each,  and  ac- 
counts of  the  deities  presiding  over  them.  The 
songs  given  in  illustration  are  all  composed  bv 
Ali  Raj. 

5.  Raga  I  aler  Puthi — a  poem  on  Indian  music 
compiled  by  Jivan  Ali  and  Rama  lanu  Acharvva. 

^)-     Raga  Tala  by  Champa  Gazi- 

7.  Pada  Sariigraha — This  work  also  deals  with 
music.  It  Is  besides  a  compilation  of  songs  b\- 
different  poets  (if  whntn  Lai  V'eg  contributes  a 
large  number. 

8.  Jubia — a  short  treatise  containing  only  20 
songs.  Tln'se  used  formerly  to  be  sung  on  tlie 
occasion  of   Mahomedan  marriages. 

(c)   Stories. 

\\'<:  ha\f  a  jirctty  large.'  number  of  stories 
written  bv  MahouuMlan  writers,  most  of  them 
composed  in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  and  in  the 
earlier  half  of  thr  18th  century.  In  most  of  them 
the  (Ircadent  tastr  wliich  marks  the  age  of  P>harata 
("handr.i    is    prominent.       Though    the    heroes    and 


Lor 


VI.]  BENGAM    LANGUAGE    &    LlTEKAtURfe.         Sol 

heroines  are  generally  Hindus,  yet  the  inspiration 
of  these  poems  seems  to  have  come  from  Persian 
tales  and  poems. 

Under  this  head  we  should  beo-in  with  Lor 
Chandrani  by  Daulat  Kaji, — a  poem  mentioned  by 
Alaol  in  his  Padmavati.  Alaol  himself  completed  ChanUranj 
the  book,  for  Daulat  Kaji  had  not  lived  to  finish  it. 
The  supplementary  portion  of  Lor  Chandrani  was 
contributed  by  Alaol  in  the  year  1657.  Daulat  Kaji's 
work  was  composed  early  in  the  17th  century.  He 
had  undertaken  to  write  the  poem  at  the  command 
of  Uzir  Asraf  Khan  of  the  Court  of  Runta  Dharma- 
Raja  of  Rosang  (Chittagong)  whose  capital  is 
described  as  situated  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the 
river  Karnafuli.  The  supplementary  portion  by 
Alaol  excels  the  original  poem  of  Daulat  Kaji  in 
poetical   merits. 

Sapta  Payakar  by  Alaol — This  poem  contains 
seven  stories,  each  said  to  have  occupied  one  night 
in  its  narration. 

Ranga  Mala  by  Kavir  Mahmud. 

Rejoan  Saha  by  Samser  Ali. 

Bhava  Labha  by  Samsuddin  Chhiddik. 

A  passage  in  this  poem  runs  as  follows  : — 

"  O  my  mind,  on  the  ocean  of  this  world,  you 
have  put  out  for  trade  but  could  win  no  profit. 

''  You  forgot  your  real  master  and  did  not  serve 
him  as  you  should  have  done. 

"The  riches  you  sought  are  within  you.  How 
foolish  are  vou  to  seek  them  elsewhere  ! 

"  Call  upon  Him  who  is  the  soul  of  your  soul 
and  He  will  orive  vou  relief, 


Sapta 

Payakar 

and  other 

stories. 


lOl 


f>(»2      BKNGAIJ    LANGUAGE    &    LlTEkAlUKK.       [Chap, 

^'  The  poet  Chhiddik  here  tells  how  he  spent  his 
life  in  vain  pursuits,  when  he  should  have  been 
serving  his  Master." 

Eusuf  Jelekha — a  l^engali  rescension  of  Per- 
sian poem  of  Mahabbat  nama  by  Abdul   Hakim. 

Laveli  Majanu — a  famous  Persian  tale  rendered 
into  Bengali  verse  by  Daulat  Tzir  Baharam. 

^'amin  Jelal  and  Tliaitanva  Silal — n  love-storv 
bv  Mahoriied  Akbar. 


((/)    Buddiiist  poems  recovered  from  Chittagong. 

I^gj^jjl^^  Bauddha  Ranjika  bv  Nila  Kamala  Das.    This  is 

a  translation  of  tlu:  Burmese  work  Thadu  Thanginto 
Bengali  metrical  verse.  The  date  of  compositicjn 
of  this  work  is  not  known,  but  the  Ms.  is  more 
than  loo  vears  old.  Xila  Kamala  Das  translated  it 
>mder  orders  of  Rani  Kalinrll,  wife  of  Raja  Dharma 
Baks  of  th<'  Chittagong  Ifill  trncts.  It  gi\<>s  an 
account  of  F-)uddha's  life  from  his  birth  to  the  time 
of  his  preaching  the  doctrine  of  Xirvana.  It  is 
lh<'  ()id\-  book  vet  found  in  old  Bengali  literature 
in  which  lUiddha's  life  is  described. 


INilar 


Xilar  \  ara  .Masa.  Who  this  Xila  Lila)  was  n*^ 
Vara  Masa.  on.-  k  nows  :  but  the  Bengali  ladi(^s  still  observe  a 
l.ist  <Mi  .1  particular  dav  of  April  in  memory  of 
Lila\ali.  krom  the  poem  und(^r  notice  it  appears 
th.-it  Xila's  husband  turned  a  ]')ud(lhist  monk 
renouncing  his  hc^me.  anrl  Xila  passed  through  un- 
heard of  hardships  to  get  him  back  and  win  him 
tn  the  sw«'ets  of  a  domestic  life.  Th(^  poem  has 
(  nun-  down  to  us  as  a  rustic  song  ;  but  though 
W(»\-en    intn    crude  rlunie^,    it     has    a    deep    pathos 


VL  J       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    6i    LllEKAlUKE. 


8u 


which  explains  to  us  the  impression  thai  the  uot-s 
ul  Lila  must  once  have  made  on  the  popular  mind. 
Lila's  husband  is  described  as  having  been  an  in- 
habitant of  Nanda  Patana  in  Sulluk.  His  father's 
name  was  Gangadhara  and  his  mother's  name  Kala- 
vati. 


J  he  works  by  Mahomedan  writers  noticed  ini- 
der  the  head  '  iMiscellaneous  works  '  have  been 
mainly  brought  to  light  by  the  researches  of  Munsi 
Abdul  Karim,  late  Head  Master  of  the  Anwara 
School  in  Chittagong.  We  have  not  been  able  to 
see  these  Mss.,  but  brief  notices  of  them  have 
from  time  to  time  appeared  in  the  Vangiya  Sahitya 
Farisat  Patrika  from  wliich  our  accounts  are  glean- 
ed. The  Mss.  may  be  traced  with  the  help  ol 
Munshi  Abdul  Karim.  Considering  the  fact  that  a 
large  number  of  these  Mss.  is  being  destroyed 
every  year  by  white  ants,  worms  and  Hre,  as  the}' 
are  generally  preserved  in  wretched  straw-built 
huts,  immediate  efforts  should  be  made  to  rt;- 
cover  them.  Otherwise  we  may  only  rise  to  the 
consciousness  of  the  necessity  of  preserving  them 
when  it  will  be  already  too  late. 

The  works  mentioned  above  disclose  plenty  of 
songs  by  Mahomedan  writers  on  Radha  and  Krisna. 
which  show  that  the  love  sonors  of  the  Vaisnavas 
were  appreciated  beyond  the  pale  of  their  own 
society,  and  inspired  even  that  race  of  Fconoclasts 
who  had  once  gloried  in  breaking  up  Hindu 
temples.  The  soil  of  India  favours  the  growth  of 
toleration  and  s}'mi)athy  in  religion,  and  it  is  no 
wonder    to    lind    that    those    who    came    with    the 


Mas. 

brought  to 

light  by 

M.  Abdul 

Karim. 


Moslem 
writers  of 
Radha- 
Krisna 
songs. 


8o4     BENGALI  languagh:  &  iJiKKATUKii.     [  Chap. 

sword   became,    in    course    of   Lime,  uiiiLed  to  us  in 
love  and  ii^ood  will. 

The  workb  of  Mahomedan  writers  mentioned 
in  this  book  are  all  written  in  more  or  less  san^- 
kiilised  IVngali,  and  not  in  that  style  known  as 
Mu.sulmaniii  Ban^rala.  which  shows  an  admixture  of 
Urdu,  Persian  and  Arabic  words  with  corrupt 
Benofali. 

Works  ^   y.^^^   literature   of  the   rustic  Mahomedans  is 

written  in 
Musalmani     to  be    found   written    in    Musalmani    Banij^ala.   and 


Bangala. 


there  are  many  works  of  this  class,  some  of  which 
may  be  traced  back  to  the  i6th  century.  Hut  for 
various  reasons  we  have  not  found  it  convt-nient 
to  include  books  written  in  Musalmani  Bangala  in 
the  present  work. 


II.     Mainly  on  style,  literary  tastes  and  language. 

The  chief  feature  of  the  poetical  literature  dealt 
wllh  in  this  eha[)tf"r  is  its  wealth  of  chJiaudas  or 
metres  adopted  from  Sanskrit.  Though  in  the 
earlier  epochs  some  of  our  writers  had  tried  to  intro- 
duce Sanskrit  metres,  their   attempts  were    marked 

with  that  crudencss    which    often  characterises    the 
The 

Sanskrit       products  ol    beginners.      Bahrata  Chandra  has  done 
metres  in  ,  .  v ^        t  \^  •   i  •  . 

Bengali.       yeoman  s    service    to    our   literature  by  enriching  it 

with  various  Sanskrit  metres,  some  of  which  he 
imitated  to  perfection  in  liengali.  His  totaka  and 
hliujani^a  pniyata  are  almost  faultless — a  success 
which  could  not  have  been  anticipated  in  a  lan- 
guage that  seemed  so  unsuited  as  our  own  for  the 
rich  and  \-.iric(l  inctn-s  of  Sanskrit,  especially  as 
iheri-    is    no    disiinction    between    long    and    short 


VL]         BENGALI    LANGUAGH:    Sl    LiTEKATUKli.  805 

vowel  sounds  in  its  syllables.  Rama  Prasada  was 
the  Hrst  to  attempt  some  of  the  Sanskrit  metres 
in  high-flown  Bengali,  and  though  his  efforts  w^ere 
not  crowned  with  a  full  measure  of  success,  yet  he 
discovered  the  innate  strength  of  our  language, 
which  gave  promise  in  his  writings,  of  happier 
developments.  In  the  Vidya  Sundara  by  Rama 
Prasada  we  often  find  the  right  accent  of  vowels 
not  adhered  to,  as  required  by  the  particular  metre 
that  he  attempted.  For  instance  in  h'xstotaka  in  the 
line  <ff?^  \^  fc^^  m^  '^^li\  the  ^  is  untenable  in  \ 
and  ^  owing  to  its  short  sound.  In  the  Hari  lila 
by  Jaya  Narayana,  another  clever  poet,  who  tried  his 
hand  at  Sanskrit  metres  in  Bengali  compositions, 
we  find  his  bhiijan^a  prayata  faulty  in  many  places, 
as  for  instance  in  the  lines  ^f^T^II  ^^C^?I  ^ci  ^tf^C^  1 
^tmm^C^  ^^  ^'^  ^[f^t^,— the  t  in  the  second  and 
the  eleventh  letters  and  the  ^1  in  the  tenth  letter 
of  the  ist  line  are  incorrect,  and  in  the  second 
line  the  ist.  the  7th,  the  loth,  and  the  nth  letters 
do  not  conform  to  the  rules  required  by  the  metre: 
the  first  three  ought  to  have  short  sounds  and 
the  last  (the  nth)  a  long  sound.  Numerous  in- 
stances of  such  faults  may  be  found  :  but  it  was 
surely  a  bold  step  for  writers  to  attempt  Sanskritic 
metres  in  a  language  which  had  no  long  short  and 
vowel-sounds  in  its  current  forms.  But  Bharata 
Chandra  had  a  remarkable  aptitude  for  hitting  on 
the  most  appropriate  words,  and  though  he  had  chandra"s 
to  struggle  against  these  disadvantages,  vet   he  put         signal 

•   I  ,  •  1         ,  "^  success, 

the    materials   at  his  command  to  the  best  possible 

use.  His  remarkable  power  of  choosing  elegant 
expressions  is  best  evidenced  by  the  fact  that 
though    he    successfully    introduced    some     of    the 


8u6      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    ik.    LITEKAIURE.       [  Chap, 

noblest  Sanskrit  metres  into  l^engali.  yet  there  is 
no  trace  of  any  struggle  on  his  part  for  this  end. 
lie  creates  pictures  in  words,  as  for  instance,  in 
his  description  of  ^iva's  great  wrath,  to  which  I 
have  already  referred  on  page  668.  This  could 
not  have  been  grander  in  any  other  language. 
When  we  peruse  his  poems  we  are  so  powerfully 
captivated  by  his  descriptions,  that  we  quite  forget 
that  they  were  wrought  in  one  of  the  most  difficult 
metres  of  Sanskrit,  with  a  perfection  hitherto  un- 
e(jualled  in  Bengali.  Bharata  Chandra's  writings 
have  sufferetl  considerably  in  the  hands  of  his 
copvists  who  were  ignorant  oi  the  rules  of  Sans- 
krit verse.  They  occasionally  tampered  with  the 
readings,  and  copyists  as  a  class  have  always  done 
so  in  regard  to  all  other  poems,  with  this  difference 
that  in  the  case  of  works  written  by  other  poets 
they  have  occasionally  improved  on  the  orignal  by 
such  changes,  whereas  in  the  case  Bharata  Chan- 
dras's  works  they  have  invariably  done  more  harm 
than  good,  as  the  change  of  a  single  syllable  would 
disturb  his  scheme  of  metre,  a  matter  of  which 
ordinary  copyists  had  no  knowledge. 


I  (juote  below  the  famous  lines  in   the  h/injangu 
Civa's  .      ,  \  ••       I 

anjjcr  in       pnivdtu  describing  (^.iva  s  anger.    .Now  ni  the  prmt- 

bliuianea  .     ,     ^         •       i  i  i-        »       r^^^ 

prnyata.        vi\    books    we    find    l"f^l  ui  lh<-  second  hue  tor  t«(Sl. 

^-^t]  in  the  17th  line  for  ^N  ?  having  been  chang- 
ed to  5r.  as  the  word  forms  a  compound  with  ^^t^. 
The  metre  contains  12  lettirs  in  each  line  and 
ruiKslhus  -  -  ^  .      The  t(  \t  should 

be  reduced  to  thr  lollowing  form  lor  a  right  (  xposi- 
tion  ol    th«'  metre  ;  — 


VI.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    ik    LITHRATURE.  S07 

^^I  ^1  ?P  :5  ^  Cn  1  ^Tl«f  ^  IT  IW  I 

^  fer  ^fe  ^  fei  ^  &  >i's  ^  S  ^  5n  1 
f^  c^  't  «f  ^t  ?:n  fR  »ii  ^t  ^  nt  m\\ 

^  ^  5«^  ^  ^  «Rf  ^  i^  ^  fe  ^t  ^^  1 

^  ^  ^'^  ^  ^  ^^  'I  ^f  n  ^  ^t  t^  B 
vf  ?r  'ji  ^^^  q  ^  f  ?:^  ^  ^  It  ^1 1 
^  li  ^  8  'T  im  1  ^1  ^  ft  WT  ^1 II 

^^^^  ^^^^  ft^si  c^i^  ^t?:^  ti 

f  ^5|^^  fe«1§«T.  ^^^^    ^^^1    I! 

^^^5^  ^^^'l  ^^]^^  Vl^  II 


So«        BRNGALI    I.ANGl'AGE    &   LlTFRATURR.       [Chap. 

^  51  IV  5  ^T  ^  ft  ^t  ^  fe  "^C^  II 
f^  ^1  ^t  U  ^1  «t  f«J  !I1  ^  ^  ^I  IB  I 
^  ^  ft  ^  ^  ?:5f  fi  It  ?t  f^  IT  C&  K 


^^l^  ^^z^ 

^  ?:^  ^  ^  ^  ^  1 

^^W]ltW^ 

^^^1  ^^t«iiii 

:^  f^  ^  c^t  ?  c^  t»i  1 
en  fs  _^  ^  ^  c^  v^  II 

^515'^  ^^  ^^^  c^t^  c^ii:^  I 

^TJ.Vi  ^t^l  fn^U^  ftllC^  II 

Urn  ^\fw  ^ifff^i  ^^  m^5  I 

^^^Tl  ^^I5f  f'l^flS^  fl«ltC5  II 

3i??r.2f  7T5^2^  5^^  ^^  ifts^i  I 
5^^f?  ttr;^  ^v^  ^<it^t  II 

-I^t^t^  C^^t^  ^H  fl^J^  II 


VL  ]        REXGA[,l    LANGUAGE    &   LITER ATURR,  809 

^  ^M1  ^  C^  W  ^  ^ti:^  ^  ^t  U\  I! 

^  ^  5f  ?f  !ir  r^  ^  ?:^  ^t  ^  ^  c^  I 

Besides  closely  following,  as  far  as  possible  in 
Bengali,  some  of  the  noble  Sanskrit  metres,  Bharata 
Chandra  performed  a  much  more  arduous  task  by 
making  the  couplets  composed  in  Sanskrit  metres 
rhyme  with  one  another.  Sanskrit  verse  does 
not  require  this,  but  the  readers  of  Bengali  during  added!^ 
this  period  considered  it  to  be  an  indispensable 
condition  of  poetical  compositions.  With  all  these 
self-imposed  restrictions  in  his  poem  Bharata 
succeeded  in  hiding  the  art  he  had  employed,  and 
the  verses  run  clear  and  limpid  reflecting  the 
merry  and  sublime  sentiments  of  the  poet's  soul. 


t^  c?  iff  cw  ^i)  c^  ^-^  c?  11' 


02 


SlO        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

Long  after  Bharata  Chandra,  Valadeva  Palit,  a 
poet  who  wanted  to  revive  the  old  taste  for  artistic 
poetry,  which  had,  however,  in  his  time  grown  to  be 
a  thing  of  the  past,  employed  in  his  Bengali  poem 
called  Bhartrihari  Kavya,  all  the  chief  metres  of 
Sanskrit.  He  was  a  true  student  imbued  with  a 
refined  classical  taste  and  his  Sanskrit  vocabulary 
was  immense.  With  all  these  qualities,  however, 
Valadeva  ho  failed  to  make  any  impression  in  the  literature 
of  his  period.  Bharata  had  been  essentially  a  poet 
of  his  age  which  had  demanded  in  Bengali  poetry  a 
close  conformity  with  the  rules  of  Sanskrit  rhetoric; 
alliteration  and  other  figures  of  speech  were  pro- 
minent characteristics  of  the  period,  and  the  school 
begun  by  Bharata  Chandra  served  as  a  model  to  a 
host  of  writers  ;  he  had  besides  been  a  born  poet, 
who  adorned  all  that  he  touched,  and  if  he  em- 
HIs  at-  ployed  Sanskritic  metres,  it  was  because  a  keen 
revive         appreciation   of  the   beautv  of  their  sound  so  com- 

Ssnskrit       pletelv  possessed  hi<  ^oul  that  he    could    not    resist 
metres.  ... 

their  How  in  his  Bengali  poetrv.    X'aladeva,  however. 

wrote  with  the  pedantic  object  of  showing   himself 

hiarncd,  andh(^  succeeded  in  this  end,  for  his  r(^aders 

certainly    gave    him   a  certificate  that   his  ingenuity 

elicited    iheir    admiration  ;     but     the   laurels   which 

adorn  the  brow  of  a  true  poet  were  not  reserved  for 

a  writ(Mof  his  conceit  and  pedantry.     I  quote  below 

two  extracts  from  the  writings  of  X'aladeva  Palit  to 

illustrate  th(^  metres  Malinivritti   (containing  fifteen 

letters  in  each  line     running  thus:     --^^^ 

- .111(1   \'.irii(,\asthavila   containing    12 

letters   in    eaclO^    running    thus  :  .   .       ^ 

—  -  —   rcspeetivel)  . 


VL  ]      iu^:ngali  language  &  litkratukh.        8ii 
Malinivritti : — 

Vam^asthavila  : — 

The  lines  in  the  Malini  chhanda  are  nearly  cor- 
rect. In  the  third  line  of  the  stanza  in  Varhgasthvila 
the  writer  commits  a  mistake  in  compounding 
fft^^Rt  which  shotdd  have  been  Tft^Jffft.  There 
are,  besides,  some  other  inaccuracies  also.  Vala- 
dcva  Palit,  when  putting  Bengali  verse  in  Sanskrit 
metre,  omits  to  conform  to  the  rule  observed  by  the 
preceding  Bengali  writers,  v'lz.^  that  all  metrical 
verses  should  rhyme.  Strictly  speaking  the  words 
^^nQ  ^t^l'I^l  are  untenable  in  a  Bengali  poem  which 
requires,  that  after  the  first  word  in  a  line  containing 
three  letters  there  should  be  a  corresponding  word 
containing  three  letters. 

The  bulk  of  the  old  poetical  literature  of  Ben- 
gal is  in  the  metre  called  the  Payara.  It  consists  of  Chhanda. 
14  letters  in  each  line,  and  there  is  a  caesura  after 
8  letters.  If  the  first  word  in  a  line  of  Payara  con- 
sists  of  two  letters,  either  the  second  must  have 
four  letters  or  the  second  and  the  third  must  have 
two  letters  each.  If  the  first  word  has  four  letters, 
the   second  word   must  have   either  four  letters  or 


8l2      BKNGALl    LANGUAGE    <S:    LllliKAlUKK.       [Chap* 

the  second  and  ihc  third  words,  two  letters  each. 
If  tlie  hrst  word  has  three  letters,  the  second  word 
must  have  three  letters  as  well.  That  verse  is  defec- 
tive which  violates  this  rule,  though  all  the  letters 
counttxl  in  a  line  may  come  up  to  14.  The  hrst 
line  rhymes  with  the  second  and  the  two  rhyming 
lines  make  an  entire  stanza.  The  word  Fayara  has 
been  evidently  derived  from  the  word  Pada.  The 
w  ord  '  Paya  '  in  Bengali  which  means  the  foot  of  a 
bedst<;ad,  or  '  Tripaya  '  which  means  a  three-footetl 
light-stand,  illustrates  the  similar  forms  derived 
from  the  word  Pada. 

The  next  favourite  metre  of  the  old  poets  was 
.p  .  ..  the  Tripadi.  The  Tripadi  was  a  verse  of  the  Rig 
Veda  containing  three  padas  or  hemistiches.  The 
verses  were  called  Tripada  Riks  {vide  Panini  IW 
1,9).  This  metre  which  is  traced  to  the  Rig  \'eda 
was  adopted  in  Prakrita  and  through  tiiat  channel 
passed  into  Bengali.  In  Tripadi  as  in  the  case- 
of  Payara,  there  was  in  the  early  times  no  hard  and 
fast  rule  about  the  number  of  letters,  but  £(raduall\ 
as  the  study  of  metre  reached  perfection,  the  number 
of  letters  in  each  hemistich,  of  which  there  are 
three  making  a  half  stanza,  was  fixed.  The  first  tuo 
half-lines  which  rh\ me,  contain  six  letters  each,  and 
shoots.  '  ^'*^'  1^'^i'^^l  half-line  which  rhvmes  with  the  6th  con- 
tains eight  letters.  ja\adeva  introduced  this  Sans- 
kritie  metre  though  without  obserxing  any  delinite 
nundjcr  in  the  letters.  Rhyme  was  no  ncctssary  con- 
dition. The  half-stanza  '  ^if^^^iW^,  ^t^'lf^^ti:?!  ^^^- 
NC'lt^^C^i^i' — sounds  as  the  keynote  to  the  modern 
rrij)adi  in  Beiigah.  In  the  next  half-stanza,  how- 
ever.   '—^  ^?p  f^'^i^r^f^.  -ni^ft^^^  'W\^  ^°  ^^C^*!'^" 


VL]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    cS:   LlTliKAlUKE.  813 

llie  tirst  half-lines  do  not  rhyme.  They  consist  be- 
sides of  seven  letters  each,  and  the  third  half-line 
of  eiglit  letters.      In    Prakrita,  the  verses  like  ^5<J- 

(Fingala)  illustrate  that  the  Tripada  and  the  Dvipada 
metres  first  traced  in  the  Rig  Veda  had  branched 
off  into  many  quaint  forms  in  the  Prakrita  language. 
The  Dvipada  and  Tripada  metres  attained  perfec- 
tion in  Bengali  ;  and  various  metres  in  this  tongue, 
such  as  the  "^Dirgha  Tripadi,  tLaghu  Tripadi, 
IBhanga  Tripadi,    §Dirgha    Chaupadi,    ||Hinapada 


Chandi  by  Kavikankana. 
Vidyasundara  by  Bharata  Chandra. 

c^z^  c^?f  cMc^,  c^i^  c^^  mz^,  u^^  Am^  c^f  r' 

Vidyasundara  by  Bharata  Chandra. 

Annada  Mangala  by  Bharata  Chandra. 

II  "  5"tl  ^3(  ^Z^\  ^^  I 

Annada  Mangala  by  Bharata  Chandra. 


8l4      HKNGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

Tripadi,  ^Matra  Tripadi  and  tMatra  Cliatuspadi, 
ike,  have  been  formed  in  Bangali  by  an  archaic 
manipulation  of  tlie  Dvipada  and  Tripadi  metres, 
as  also  by  an  artistic  combination  of  them. 

The  earlier  Tripadi  metres  were  of  a  crude  form. 
Tripadi'.^'^  There  was  neither  that  elegant  rhyming  nor  that 
fixity  in  the  number  of  letters  in  each  line  which  have 
rendered  it  now-a-days  one  of  the  most  lovely  metres 
in  our  tongue.  We  quote  the  following  extracts 
from  the  Mahabharata  by  Kavindra  Faramervara, 
written  400  years  ago,  to  show  how  cjuaint  in  form 
it  was  in  those  days. 

"  ft^  ^i'^  "i^,  cw^^^  ^^^. 

and  its  ft^^'l'^,  ^^^  ^'U^> 

example.  ^^^I^  ;^^^  ^^m  H 

^^^  ^^1  ^tf^  ^n^J  ^1  C^tC^^  I 

vt\  ^c^  ^^n,     (Jim  fm  ^^. 


->-•  ^i\  ^^  ^^6^,  s^<^5  g<t  ^1 1 

\'icl\asun(hira  by  IMiarata  Chandra. 

i  "c^  r^r'^^^tf^fi^.  •i^-f^'^fff^.  c^^jf^^tf-^f^.  ^i-^m^  W" 

Annada  Mans^ala  hv  Mharata  Chandra. 


VL  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  815 

In  all  the  earlier  works  we  find  Tripadi  adopted 
in  Bengali  verses  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  senti- 
ments of  grief ;  it  was  considered  to  be  the  fit  metre 
by  the  poets  of  old  school  for  giving  expression  to 
feelings  of  mourning  or  of  any  dire  loss,  and  it  was 
called  5ft5t^  which  is  no  doubt  a  corrupt  form  of 
the  word  v\i^ft. 

The    artistic    school  of  Bharata  Chandra  greatly        Folly  in 
,    ,,  r  1  1  alliteration 

improved   the   resources  ot  our  language,  and    con-      and  puns. 

tributed   to  that  eleo-ance  for  which  it  has  now  won 

universal  praise  ;  but  their  attempts  often  produced 

abortive  results  also  in    the    craze  for    alliteration, 

evinced    not    only   by  poets  but  by  writers  of  prose 

during  this  period.     Alliteration  and  puns  on  words 

became   a    notorious    literary    folly,    many    writers 

having  carried   them  to    abnormal    excesses.     One 

can    hardly   imagine    how   a   sane  man  could    have 

produced  a  composition  like  the  following  ; — 

"c?i  "in^  ^%  ^t  '^^t^  ^f^^t*^  c^fw^ 
^t^^^t^  »15J  5^f 111  ^^t^  5tNojHt<r  mn  ^^^^^  ^t^i 

Even  gifted  writers  like  lyvara  Chandra  Gupta 
were  not  free  from  the  great  folly  of  the  age,  and 
we  find  his  prose  writings  often  disfigured  by  too 
much  indulgence  in  alliteration.  In  the  Ci^u 
Vodhaka,  an  elementary  book  for  children,  that 
used  to  be  read  in  the  Pathagalas  half  a  century  ago, 
there  is  much  useful  and  instructive  information  for 
the  boys  to  which  no  one  can  take  objection,  but 
there  is  an  atrocious  model  letter  in  it  which  must 
have    been     contributed    bv     a     pedantir    Sanskrit 


8i6      BENGALI    L.WGUAGR    &    LITERATURR.       [Chap, 

scholar,  the  silliness  of  which,  not  to  speak  of  its 
wicked  taste,  passes  all  limit  of  decency,  specially 
as  it  has  been  incorporated  in  to  a  juvenile  reader. 
We  need  not  dwell  upon  the  letter  which  is  an 
example  of  a  wife  writing  to  her  husband,  but  to 
show  how  a  spirit  of  alliteration  prevailed  in  the 
a£^e.  we  quote  its  first  lime. 

Xot  only  in  regard  to  alliteration  but  in  puns 
on  words  also,  the  fashion  ran  to  excess.  We 
quote  below  passages  from  various  writers  to  show 
the  sort  of  puns  which  characterised  the  writings 
of  the  day.  Examples  of  them  are  only  too  nu- 
merous in  the  writings  of  standard  authors  of  this 
period  : 

'•V9  fill,  ^i^i^,  ^R^-5tf«r^t?:^^  ^^^s^  fk^r'i 

Da(,arathi. 
"  "51®^  #tr«f  ^t^  ^f^  T^  T? 

Krisfia  Kamala. 
The     ivjjiral    writer    of    the    age    like    Butler's 
1  ludibras 

...could  not  ope 
lli>  inoulh,  but  outllew  a  trope." 

r.ui  ariiliciality  can  never  completely  crush 
nature.  Like  those  tiny  weeds  and  plants  whose 
rootlets  pierc«'  through  adamantine  rocks  and  draw 
I  heir    sa])   from  stones,  the  literature  of  an  age  jiejd 


VL  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  817 

in  the  iron    grip    of    rhetoric,    has    yet    strange  off-  How 

shoots    which,    thouo^h    humble,  discover  a  strength         "^1"!!^ 
'  o  J  t>  asserts 

not  possessed  by  the  great, — sufficient  to  assert  the  herself. 
victory  of  nature  over  all  the  forces  and  appliances 
employed  to  thwart  her.  Some  of  the  Kaviwalas, 
who  were  almost  illiterate,  composed  songs  in  un- 
assuming and  artless  language,  which  charmed  even 
the  highly  educated  of  this  age  of  rigid  classic 
taste  by  their  simplicity.  The  Uma  sanffita,  of  which 
I  have  already  spoken  in  a  foregoing  chapter,  com- 
posed by  writers  of  meagre  education,  discloses 
a  style  in  which  simple  and  elegant  words  produce, 
without  any  attempt  at  puns  or  alliteration,  a  far 
greater  effect  on  the  emotions  than  all  the  grand- 
iloquent phraseology  at  the  command  of  a  poetic 
master  of  rhetoric  could  do. 

Not  only  some  of  the  Kaviwalas,  but  also 
Nidhu  Babu,  who  was  a  man  of  light  and  leading, 
preferred  simple  words  and  a  plainness  of  style 
which  strikes  us  by  its  contrast  with  the  spirit  of 
pedantry  that  guided  contemporary  writers. 

When  Sanskrit  metres  were  being  so  closely 
adopted  in  Bengali  poems,  and  learned  scholars  were 
trying  to  place  the  art  of  writing  poetry  hopelessly 
out  of  reach  of  the  common  mortals  by  imposing 
subtle  rules  on  all  forms  of  versification,  Dayarathi 
Ray's  new  school  of  doggerel,  called  Panchali,  as- 
serted itself  in  bold  defiance  of  all  metrical  rules, — 
rhyming  being  the  only  condition  in  their  composi- 
tion. He  certainly  took  his  cue  from  the  sort  of 
verses  made  extempore  by  the  ICaviwalas  as  sequel 
to  their  songs.  The  Bengali  poetry  of  a  very  early 
age  had  been  called  Panchali.     This  was    a    period 

107 


8lS         KENGALl    LANGUAGE    &    IJ  lEKAl  URE.     [  Chap, 

when    the    metre  Payar  had  not  been  fossilised  into 

Dafarathis     i  «  lettt^rs  with  the  rules  of    caesura  and  the  arrang^e- 
Panchali—  ,,.,,.  ,  .   , 

a  depar.        ments  of  words  in  each  line  to  which  I  have  already 

classical       referred.     Pai^chali   was    tht-    metre   for  the  masses. 

model.         Xhe  last  letter  of  the  first  line  agreed  with  the    last 

letter    of   the    second    line  ;     and  no  other  restraint 

was  put  upon   it.      Sometimes    we    get    couplets    of 

the  following  nature  : — 

Manik  Chandra  Rajar  Gan. 

The  lirst  line  contains  20  letters  and  the  second 
line  19.  There  are  also  numerous  instances  of  very 
short  lines,  as  "  '$!<!  ^Vf^^  1^^  ^'T]  ^ic|  ^'f^  "  f  13  letters. 

Da^aralhi  revised  the  Panchali  with  this  dirter- 
ence  tiiat  without  conforming  to  the  rules  of  the 
Pavar,  Tripadi,  or  any  other  kind  of  Bengali  metre, 
he  had  still  a  wav  of  rhvming  of  his  own,  and  the  ex- 
pressions that  he  particularlv  chose  were  not  crude 
or  inelegant  as  in  their  earlier  prototypes,  but  were 
generall\  of  a  refincHl  charat  ter.  though  simple  and 
colloquial.  Tht'  I'anchali  suitcil  the  understanding 
of  illiterate  audiences  uho  were  taken  by  surprise 
by  th(*  wondi'rful  rapidity  and  flow  of  doi^gerel- 
rhymf.  which  took  a  wild  lourse,  owing  to  its 
freedom  from  the  restraints  of  anv  regular  metre. 
1  cjuotc  a  few  verses  from  Davarathi's  Panchali. 

"^mr^  Vm^  ^^^^  ^«1— n  (letters; 

^I'-l  *^"<1  ^1  ^1  ^<?-l— 10  Jelters) 

^1  OM^  '^l^  ^'"^  ^^l^^  ^t^n— 13  (letters^i 

^r«R  ^^J^^  ni?:^  -i]-?!  -10  .letters^ 

^tf'l  ^?l/^  ^t^  ^'^— q  Jetters) 

C*lTv?1  ^^K^  C^t^t  i^fft  ^TC^I— II  (letters; 


VL  j        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERAIUKE.  819 

The  first  line  rhymes  with  the  second,  the  third 
with  the  sixth  and  the  fourth  with  the  fifth,  so  he 
follows  no  fixed  code.  Besides  this,  while  going 
on  with  his  verses  in  the  above  strain,  he  suddenly 
introduces  a  quite  different  form,  which  shows  some 
affinity  with  the  Tripadi,  more  often  breaking  its 
rules,  however,  than  conforming  to  them. 

When  the  rules  of  metre  had  put  such  complex 
restraint  on  metrical  compositions,  the  Panchaliand 
the  extempore  verses  of  the  Kav'iwalas  opened 
out  a  new  channel  for  the  free  expression  of  the 
thoughts  and  sentiments  of  our  masses  for  whom 
Bengali  had  already  became  too  learned, — not  so 
much  in  its  vocabulary  as  in  its  artistic  forms  and 
in  the  subtle  conditions  of  its  metre. 

This    was    an    age    when    a  display  of  classical        Learned 

learnins:  was  made  through  the  vehicle  of  the    ver-        discus- 
^  °  sions. 

nacular.   and  as  a    matter    of  course    it    was    most 

in  evidence  in  the  discussions  of  scholarly  Brah- 
mins on  various  points  of  philosophy  and  literature. 
On  these  occasions  there  were  animated  scenes  in 
which  the  Brahmins,  in  the  enthusiasm  of  advocat- 
ing their  own  points,  often  dragged  their  opponents 
by  the  locks  of  hair  that  dangled  behind  their  shaven 
heads,  or  otherwise  offered  what  appeared  like 
affronts  of  a  personal  nature.  These  of  course  never 
reached  anv  very  immoderate  excess.  The  lock  was 
really  pulled  to  draw  the  attention  of  the  opponent 
to  the  points  which  his  rival  Pundit  had  so  enthu- 
siastically tried  to  establish,  in  a  heated  scene  of 
this  nature  box  after  box  of  snuff  was  emptied  of 
its  contents  in  a  few  moments,  and  the  discussion 
sometimes    continued    day   and    night.     There  was 


820      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

invariably  a  judge  or  mediator  where  two  Pundits 
argued,  and  his  duty  was  not  only  to  give  the  final 
verdict,  so  that  the  vanquished  might  not  argue  any 
more,  but  also  to  interrupt  when  any  irrelevency 
or  want  of  moderation  marked  the  controversy. 
The  Pundits  were  generally  called  to  a  rich  man's 
house  on  the  occasion  of  ^rads  and  other  religious 
ceremonies,  and  those  who  excelled  in  open  contro- 
versy with  their  rivals  were  entitled  to  special  re- 
wards, though  many  would  not  accept  any  gift 
whatever,  priding  themselves  both  on  their  scholar- 
ship and  their  poverty.  This  system  of  inviting  the 
Pundits  by  rich  men  is  still  preserved  in  Bengal 
in  form  \  but  with  the  decadence  of  the  spirit  of 
The  patronising   Sanskrit    learning,   the  matter  has  lost 

meetins:  the  great  importance  and  interest  which  it  once 
learned.  possessed.  In  rich  men's  houses,  the  well-known 
Pundits  not  only  of  Bengal,  but  of  the  whole  of 
India,  used  to  be  assembled  for  the  discussion  of 
Philosophy,  Logic,  Poetry,  Astronomy,  Theology 
and  other  subjects.  Thus  learning  received  a  social 
impetus,  and  even  fresh  life  on  such  occasions. 
Opportunities  were  frequently  offered  to  Pundits  for 
such  meetings,  so  that  during  a  period  when  there 
were     no     facilities    of     communication,     and     no 

proper   conveyances  for  undertaking  long  journies. 
And  its  ,  .  ,  ,.  •        1  •    .       1 

jfreat  use-     this   system    kept   alive   a  continual  interchange  ot 

high  thoughts  and  thus  contributed  to  the  preserva- 
tion and  development  of  classical  learning.  The 
Pundits  led  very  simple  lives,  without  coveting 
earthly  fortunes  or  caring  for  luxury  of  any  kind, 
and  were  (juite  indifferent  to  praise  or  blame — often 
really  devoted  to  a  high  spiritual  life  and  to  the 
cause    of  leayiing.     The    following    passage    trom 


fulness. 


VI,]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  82 1 

Jaya  Narayana's    Hari   Lila  shows  what  the  discus-  The 

sions  of  the  Pundits  were  like.     The  poet  describes    ^^^^J^^Pt'o" 
a  meeting  on  a  festal  occasion.  meeting 

^  "  The  learned  Brahmins  received  letters  of  in- 
vitation and  hastened  to  attend  the  meeting. 

"  They  were  present  there  with  the  sole  object 
of  furthering  the  cause  of  their  religious  doctrines 
and  were  not  prepared  to  accept  any  gifts. 

"Their  faces  beamed  with  intelligence,  and 
dressed  in  white  garments,  they  seated  themselves 
on  scarlet-coloured  Bhutan  seats. 

"  They  wore  the  sacred  Ganges'  mud  on  their 
foreheads  ;  and  white  sacred  threads  adorned  their 
breasts. 

"  As  soon  as  they  took  their  seats  they  com- 
menced an  animated  discussion. 

'^  The  Logicians  stepped  forward  to  discuss  the 
question  of  conclusions  from  given  premises,  and 
the  evidence  of  the  senses,  pointing  out  the  connec- 
tion between  proof  and  the  thing  proven. 


^m^f^  i^m^^  ^^1 II 


822       BENGALI    LAXGIMGF:    &    MTF.RATURE.       \    Chap. 

"  J  hey  cited  Kusumanjali  as  their  authority  and 
tried  to  establish  the  fact  of  the  divine  existence 
by  various  methods  of  argument. 

"  In  a  discussion  about  words  and  topics,  con- 
taining long  compound  words  of  which  each  would 
take  half  an  hour  to  recite,  the  grammarians  began 
to  find  fault  with  one  another's  arguments,  and  made 
home-thrusts  against  their  opponents,  basing  their 
discourses  chiefly  on  the  supplement  by  Gopinatha. 

"  In  another  quarter  sweet  discourses  on  rhetoric 
were  going  on.  Their  subject  was  figurative  allu- 
sions and  the  suggestions  they  contained.  They 
drew  illustrations  in  support  of  their  theories  from 
the  Kavya  Prakav^- 

"There  were  fair  fights  on  literary  subjects  also. 
The  mediators  were  often  called  in  to  give  their 
verdict  in  respect    to   the    interpretations   given    by 


^i^  ^it5  ^?T!i  '!'^;^  II 

C^l^^t^  ^f^ff^  ^t^i  II 

>^fj^  7it<5iT  ^i-^  ^iTi.  'li^^^^U^  ^u. 


VI.]        BENGALI    I.ANGI'AGR    6c    LirKkATURE.  823 

opposing  parties,  of  the  meanings  of  lines  from  the 
Raghu,  the  Bhatti,  the  Ci^upala  Vadhaand  the  Nai- 
sadha  Kavva. 

"  Those  who  discoursed  on  the  Puranas  quoted 
chapter  and  verse  from  Va^istha,  and  others,  who 
elected  Astrology  as  the  subject  of  their  discourse 
discussed  particular  conjunctions  of  planets  and 
their  aspects,  positions,  and  influences  in  regard 
to  human  life.  Their  chief  authority  was  the 
Suryya  Siddhanta. 

"  The  X'edantists  held  that  the  supreme  soul  per- 
vades all  ;  virtue  and  vice,  which  appear  to  us  as 
such  from  a  superficial  point  of  view,  are  merely 
phenomenal.  .\11  alike  spring  from  Him.  There  is 
nothing  hostile  or  friendly.     Such  ideas  are  merely 

i^Hl  m^  C^\^  nti,  ^ffe^J  ft^Tfl  ilfe, 

<if^^  f^^'si^^cj,  ^^^^  ^fQ5  siK^ 

^^.  ^5,  ^t^,  l^^.'<^  (I 


824      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap, 


The  edu- 
cation of 
women. 


Arabic, 

Persian, 

and  Hindi. 


illusive.  He  alone  is  really  root  of  all.  This  is 
the  view,  the  Vedantists  argued,  that  was  held  by 
Cankaracharyya ;  also  the  great  law-giver  ^ula 
Pani,  Manu,  and  others  have  openly  avowed  this 
truth." 

Amongst  respectable  people  the  women-folk 
not  only  received  a  sound  education  in  Bengali,  but 
often  acquired  a  good  knowledge  of  Sanskrit  also. 
Anandamayi's  education  made  her  a  match  for  any 
ordinary  Sanskrit-knowing  Pundit  ;  and  of  her  liter- 
ary compositions,  bearing  evidences  of  great  pedan- 
try, we  have  already  spoken  in  full.  Yajnegvari,  a 
poetess  who  composed  songs  for  a  Kavi  party,  lived 
in  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century,  and  some  of 
her  songs  show  creditable  command  over  the  lan- 
guage. Gangamahi  Devi,  a  sister  of  the  poet  Jaya 
Narayaha  Sen  and  a  native  of  Vikrampur  in  Dacca, 
composed  a  large  number  of  songs,  which  the 
women  of  that  place  sing  up  to  now.  during 
marriage  festivities. 

In  the  courts  of  the  Hindu  Rajas  it  was  consi- 
dered an  indispensable  acquirement  for  a  scholar  to 
have  a  knowledge  of  Arabic,  Persian  and  Hindus- 
thani.  The  I^undits  who  scrupulously  avoided  all 
court-influences,  considered  a  knowledge  of  any 
other  language  than  Sanskrit  as  profane,  just  as 
they  would  not  touch  a  non-Hindu  or  a  low  caste 
Hindu  for  fear  of  contamination. 


<}'^*[t5f  ^C^  ^t^  m^  I 

^^^^  b^Tl1  ^^  ^l^  11'' 


VI.]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATUKE.         .^25 

But  those  Brahmins,  wlio  did  not  soar  so 
hii^h  in  their  fancieil  greatness  and  cared  for  the 
f'avoLir  of  the  Rajas,  acquired  Bengali,  Persian, 
Arabic  and  Hindusthani  along  with  Sanskrit,  and 
Bharata  Chandra  Ray  Gunakara  was  a  man  of  sound 
(^dture  in  all  these  tongues.  In  describing  a  con- 
versation between  the  Emperor  Jahanglr  and  Raja 
Man  Sinha.  our  poet  savs  : — 

*"  It  would  be  fit  in  the  nature  of  thinsfs  to  oive 
the  gist  of  the  conversation,  that  took  place  between 
Raja  Man  Sinha  and  the  Emperor  in  Arabic,  Per- 
sian and  Hindusthani,  for  it  must  have  been  carried 
on  in  a  mixed  lano-uas^e.  I  have  studied  these  Ian- 
guages  and  can  write  in  them ;  but  the  account 
would  scarcely  be  intelligible  to  ordinary  people. 
Besides,  by  giving  the  discourse  in  different  lan- 
guages I  should  destroy  the  effect  on  the  reader's 
mind  of  my  own  poetry,  and  it  would  lose  much 
of  its  simplicity.  So  I  must  be  content  with  bor- 
rowing only  occasionally,  words  from  those  langu- 
ages in  my  Bengali." 

But  though  he  curbed  his  desire  in  this  instance 
to  display  his  varied  scholarship,  he  did  not  always 
use     such    discretion.     He  adopted  a  heterogenous 


f^^  C^  ^^^  C^t^  ^-^^K^  ^f  ft  II 
104 


R26 


HKXC.ALl    LANGUAGE    c^    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 


Change 


meaning. 


language  in  a  certain  short  poem  for  the  purpose  of 
display.  The  following  extract  will  show  what 
5uch  efforts  were  like. 

"  »trt^ft^  ^n:«i'^5.  ^nm^  c^n^  ^^?. 
^■^_^l  C^^l  ^3fSll,  g  ^t^i  c^  a^i. 

Some  of  the  words  that    were    largely    used    in 

undergone      j|^p     ,3|_]^  century  have  ijrown  obsolete       The  word 
by  words  .  ^  . 

in  use  and      'Cm*^'  for  instance,  which  we  meet  with  frequently  in 

Bharata  Chandra's  poems,  is  no  longer  used  in  writ- 
ing. The  word  seems  to  have  no  meaning  ;  it  was 
only  used  to  einpiiasise  a  statement  or  merely  to  fdl 
up  a  space  in  a  line  of  verse  which  did  not  come 
up  to  the  fixed  number  of  letters  rec|uired  by  the 
metre.  Ihe  words  C^^l,  C^ftf^,  ^^^%  CW.^,  ^^m, 
v^C'T,  -fifs^  are  not  now  used  in  prose-writings  ; 
thov  are  confined  to  poetry. 

There  aif-  numerous  words  in  Bengali  which 
havr  lost  their  original  Sanskrilic  significance. 
The  word  ^f^«  is  derived  from  ^fs-love,  but  the 
former  word  in  ((ollotiuial  P)engali  has  i^een  de- 
graded in  sense,  anrl  imjilics  an  illicit  Ionc.  It  was 
the  promiscuous  mixing  of  m^Mi  and  women  in  thi^ 
lower  ordt^rs  of  Vaisfiava  society,  which  by  leading 
to  immorality,  caused  the  degeneration  in  the  mean- 
ing of  this  wortl.  l*ut  at  the  lime  of  Chandi  Das, 
and  even  of  the  poets  of  a  subsequent  age,  the 
word  was  still  true  to  its  original  significance  in  cur- 
rent Bengali  and  impli<Hl  a  pure  sentiment.  Chandi 
Das  wrote  short  discourses  using  the  word  to 
iinply  a    highly  refined    and    nustere    feeling.      The 


VL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGt:   ik    LllERAlUKb:.  8J7 

word  ^f^  lias  two  meanings  in  Sankrit  ;  it  means 
colour  and  attachment.  In  Bengali  it  has  come 
to  signify  tits  of  anger,  probably  owing  to  one's 
face  and  eyes  being  reddened  under  passion.  But 
at  the  time  of  Chaitanya,  400  years  ago,  the  Ben- 
gali word  had  not  yet  lost  its  original  meaning.  In 
the  Kadcna  by  Govinda  Das  we  find  it  used  in  the 
sense  of  love  or  attachment,  as  in  the  line  ''^U^  ^=5|;(9f 
^^  ^l^  ^^^/'  There  is  no  difference  in  Sanskrit 
between  the  words  ^t^  and  ^^?It^.  In  Bengali,  the 
one  implies  anger,  and  the  other  love,  though  the 
words  ^fi?^  and  ^?^^f^^ — participal  adjective-forms 
of  the  two  words  respectively — have  retained  their 
Sanskritic  significance.  The  Bengali  word  derived 
from  Sanskrit 'S^t  (lit.  one  who  maintains),  a  hus- 
band, has  been  degraded  in  Bengali  and  is  not  used 
in  decent  society,  though  I  can  not  make  out  the 
reason  why.  The  word  N«t^t^^  (lit.  a  store-keeper) 
does  not  possess  its  original  elevated  sense  ;  it  now 
generally  means  with  us  a  menial  servant.  The 
word  ^\^  in  colloquial  Bengali  means  the  hus- 
band's elder  brother  ;  but  in  Sanskrit  it  means 
shining,  splendid.  The  Hindu  women  of  Bengal 
consider  it  sacrilegious  to  name  the  elder  brothers 
of  their  husbands.  When  he  is  to  be  mentioned, 
they  refer  to  him  by  some  qualifying  adjective.  The 
word  ^f^^,  originally  'shining,'  must  have  been 
thus  reduced  to  its  present  restricted  meaning. 
The  words  §1^  and  3)^t^  (endowed  with  Cri — 
fortune)  in  Sanskrit  have  the  same  meaning,  but 
in  Bengali  Si^g«  is  used  in  regard  to  elders  or 
equals,  and  ll^R  invariably  to  junior  relations. 
The  word  C^\:^  in  Sanskrit  means  *  fierce,'  though 
there  is  a  rare  use  of  it  in  that  tongue  implying  sun- 


828      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LIlERAiUKE.       [  Chap. 

shine.  In  Bengali  CW  is  the  commonest  term  to 
signify  sun-shine,  and  except  scholarly  folk,  no  one 
knows  that  orii^inailv  its  meanins:  was  herce.  The 
word  '(^^V'y^  has  been  restricted  in  Bengali  to  im- 
ply that  particular  festivity  of  the  Vaisfiavas  in 
which  cooked  food  is  indiscriminately  distributed 
amongst  the  poor,  who  assemble  there  without  in- 
vitation. The  word  literally  means  a  great  festi- 
vity, and  in  Sanskrit  it  is  always  used  in  that 
sense.  Similarly  the  word  ^^^5{,  which  in  Sanskrit 
means  reciting  or  singing,  has  been  restricted  in 
Bengali  to  a  particular  kind  of  singing  of  God's 
name  by  a  procession  party  of  the  Vaisnavas. 

Betijcali  We  find  frequent  references  to    sculi)tural    work 

sculptors.       ,  .       r  1  •        I  •  • 

done    in    Bengal   on   stone  m  which  the  artisans  of 

Navadvipa    excelled.     Raja    Java    Narayana   in  his 

Ka^i  Khanda  says  that  many  orders  of  stone  images 

for  the  temples  at  Benares  were  executed  bv  Nadia 

artisans.   In  the  Bhakti  Ratnakara  we  find  the  name 

of  one  renowned  sculptor  to  be  Nayana  Bhaskara,  a 

resident  of  Halisahar  in  Twenty-four  Parganas. 


lanj^uage. 


111.     Early  Prose  Literature. 
Bengali  '"^  j)eople  who  had  lost  their  political  supremacy, 

a  mixed  -^^d  had  no  voice  in  the  administration  of  their  own 
country, — who  had  retired  to  quiet  village-life  and 
j)astoral  occupations,  and  had  scarcely  any  occa- 
sion to  commune  with  the  rest  of  the  world, — what 
need  had  they  for  cultivating  prose?  Outside  their 
(juiet  homes  they  came  to  towns  only  for  trade  or 
to  transact  litigation  in  courts,  and  had  to  deal  with 
a  heterogenous  p(^oj)le  who  would  not  recognise 
[)ure  Bengali  as  a    medium    of  communication.      In 


VI.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    ik    LilEKAlUkE.  829 

their   correspondence   or   documentary  writings  the 

F^engalis  had  to  adopt  a  mixed  language,  into  which 

not    only    Persian  and  Arabic  but  even  Portuguese 

elements  had  entered  in  no  inconsiderable    degree  ; 

for    these    people    were    a  great  power  in    Bengal, 

more   than   two  centuries  and    a  half  aoro  ;  and    we    . 

.  Portuguese 

read     the     followmg    account    of     their  language,      elements. 

having    been   adopted,    for    business    purposes,    by 

Europeans    and    Bengalis  alike.     We    quote    from 

Mr.  Marshman's  history  of  the  ^ri  Ramapur  Mission 

Vol.  I.*     The  writer  refers   to    incidents  occurrinsf 

in  1759. 

"Portuguese  came  in  with  the  Portuguese  power 
two  centuries  and  a  half  before,  and  survived  its 
extinction.  It  was  the  Lingua  Franca  of  all  foreign 
settlements  around  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and  was  the 
ordinary  medium  of  conversation  between  the  Eu- 
ropeans and  their  domestics  ;  while  Persian  was 
the  language  of  intercourse  with  the  native  courts. 
Elven  in  Calcutta  Portuguese  was  more  commonly 
used  by  the  servants  of  the  company  and  the 
settlers  than  the  language  of  the  country.  The 
charter  granted  to  the  East  India  Company  at  the 
beginning  of  the  i8th  century  contained  a  provi- 
sion that  they  should  maintain  one  Minister  at 
each  of  their  garrisons  and  superior  factories,  and 
that  he  should  be  bound  to  acquire  the  Portuguese 
language  within  a  twelve-month  of  reaching  India. 
Clive,  who  was  never  able  to  ijive  an  order  in  anv 
native  language,  spoke  Portuguese  with  fluency. 
The    use    of  this    lanofuasre    has    since    died   out  in 

*    pp.  21—22. 


830       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    ik    LliEKAlUKE.       [Chap, 

Hcngai  so  coniplclely  that  the  descendants  of  the 
Portuguese  now  speak  Bengali  from  their  cradle. 
Yet  down  to  so  late  a  period  as  1828,  the  Governor 
of  ^ri  Kaniapur,  a  Norwegian,  received  the  daily 
report  of  his  little  garrison  of  30  sepoys  from  the 
Native   Commandant,  a    native    of  Oudh    in  Porlu- 


The  nature 

of  the 

mixed 

language. 


A  small  number  of  words  subjoined  in  the  foot- 
note* are  some  of  the  remnants  retained  in  Bengali 
of  the  great  admixture  of  Portuguese  which  our 
language  must  have  once  borne  in  business  and 
domestic  colloquies. 

The  prose,  in  which  business  transactions  were 
conducted  in  Bengal,  was  thus  a  medley  of  many 
different  languages,  and  it  was  to  this  point  that 
Mr.  Halhed  one  of  the  Hrst  Bengali  grammarians 
refers  with  regret.  In  the  very  nature  of  things  a 
pure  Bengali  prose  could  not  grow  up.      J'hc  Maho- 


"'•'Bengali. 

Portuguese. 

Bengali. 

Portuguese. 

(.w^c\^^ 

. .  Jalapa. 

Cil^ 

.  Rvsto  (futu! 

C^]^\ 

.  Toca  to  iiotr 

^^f^ 

.  SorU-. 

down). 

«it^T^n 

.  .\nanaz. 

C^t^l 

Annona 

•«lt<I1 

.  Aya. 

fruit'. 

^t^^t^^^l  . 

.  Alcelrao. 

Hm 

,.   I'ij.a. 

^fn  (ft^) . 

. .  Couvi. 

Clt5^ 

.   Prcgo. 

^t^T^<l1 

. .  Catatua. 

wi^ 

l-'ornia. 

r^ti^ 

.  Cris. 

f^^i 

.   1-ita. 

C*fft<11 

.  Cathedera. 

C^T^l 

..   Boia. 

''HICW 

.  Grade. 

^^^1 

.  Verga. 

f^^l 

.  Igrija. 

^i^f© 

.   I'.aldi. 

5tf«I 

.  Chave. 

cm^t^ 

...   Ilotao. 

mum 

.  Janella. 

VI*]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITEKATUKE.  83 1 

medans  did  not  recognise  it  in  their  courts,  and  the 
people  had  no  power  to  assert  their  own  tongue 
in  the  held  of  business.  As  long  as  Mahomedans 
held  the  supreme  power,  Arabic  and  Persian  were 
recognised  by  all  as  the  chief  languages  of  the 
Court,  and  in  the  mixed  dialects,  which  grew  up, 
an  admixture  of  these  two  languages  was  held  to 
be  a  point  of  'glory.  Says  Mr.  Halhed  in  thr 
preface  to  his  grammar  published  in  1778  : — 

''  At  present  those  persons  are  thought  to  speak 
the  compound  idiom  (Bengali)  with  the  most  ele- 
gance, who  mix  with  pure  Indian  verbs  the  greatest 
number  of  Persian  and  Arabic  nouns." 

What  this  prose  was  like  may  be  seen  from  the 
documentary  writings  still  prevalent  in  courts. 
The  court  language  still  favours  a  preponderence 
of  Persian  and  Arabic  elements  in  Bengali,  as  in 
'  ^t^  '^I^K^  ^mtlf  ^1  ^^T^  '  or  in  '  VQ^T^I  ^lH^  ^1U\ 
&I^1  ^\^^^  ^fi^-'  Curiously  enough  remnants  also 
of  Sanskrit  elements  still  persist  in  the  language  of 
the  courts,  reminding  us  of  the  ancient  days  of 
Hindu  supremacy,  when  all  court  transactions 
were  carried  on  in  Sanskrit.  The  form  '  <P>^J  ^^ 
•si^fsiWt  ^1^T^R^'  has  preserved,  though  in  a  ridicu- 
lously corrupt  style,  some  of  the  legal  terms  of  the 
Hindu  age.  In  ordinary  letters  written  by  the 
gentle  folk  of  Bengal  there  was  a  large  admixture 
of  Persian  words.  Mr.  Beveridge  published  some 
letters  of  the  Maharaja  Nanda  Kumara  in  the 
National  Magazine  of  September,  1872,  written  to 
Radha  Krisna  Ray  and  Dinanatha  Samantaji  in 
August,  1756.  We  quote  an  extract  from  one  of 
these  letters. 


Causes 
leadifii^  to 
the  devel- 
opment of 

modern 
prose. 


The  early 
Kent^ali 
prose- 
works. 


The  ^unya 
Purana. 


S32      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap, 

"  ^^D^  ^  ^m^  jf^  ^^^  1T%1  ^tm?  ^t^  ^fir^^ 
nr5,  ^i^i  a  ^t^,  m5^  ^t^nr  ^fi  c^tn  ^?^,  t^ 
'(^^^^f,  ^isg^<i  wt%^.  ^tntf^  ^^1  ^:5.  ®^r^T^  c^t!i«ft«f 

"SW  ^ft^l,  vilf^^?!  vil^  nn  ^'^  ^IC^  ^r^^  5ftp[^1  1" 

I  may  add  here,  that  the  chief  causes  that  have 
contributed  to  the  development  of  Bengali  prose  in 
modern  times  are  r)  the  preference  of  Bengalis  to 
live  in  conjested  cities,  (2)  the  establishment  of 
Post  offices  all  over  the  land,  (3)  the  easy  means  of 
communication  afforded  by  railways  and  steamers, 
helping  the  unification  of  different  provincial 
dialects  by  eliminating  provincialisms,  (^4)  tin- 
great  efforts  of  Missionaries  and  of  (jovernment, 
particularly  in  the  earlier  periods  of  British  rule,  to 
spread  education     amongst  the  masses. 

But  though  circumstances  did  not  favour  the 
development  of  Bengali  prose  before  the  advent  of 
the  English  on  the  field,  and  though  Mr.  Nathenie! 
Prassy  Halhed  could  not  lay  his  hand  upon  anv 
prose-work  in  Bengali,  as  he  tells  us  in  his 
preface,  such  works,  nevertheless,  did  exist  in  the 
country  in  his  time,  and  long  before  it,  though  they 
did  not  possess  that  importance'^which  would  render 
them  accessible  to  anv  casual  entjuiry.  I  shall 
here  notice  some  of  the  books  that  have  come  down 
to  us,  as  specimens  of  earlv  Bengali  prose. 

r.  rh('  Cunya  Purana  is  one  of  the  earli(\st 
works  in  Bengali,  upon  which  we  have  alreadv 
written  (page  30).  It  was  composecf  in  the  loth 
century  and  though  it  was  recast  in  subse(juent 
times,  the  few  |)rnse  portions  which  it  contains  have 


VI.] 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LIIERATUKR. 


833 


retained  their  antiquated  form.  The  sentences  are 
like  short  riddles  and  sound  more  like  poetrv  than 
prose.     Here  is  a  specimen, 

■^"Who  is  the  scholar  in  the  western  gate  ?  Cvetai 
with    four  hundred  followers.      Chandra,  the   Police 

Officer the    messenger   is    not    afraid   of    thee, 

(*hitra  Gupta  keeps  a  register."  The  portion  left 
out  is  unintelligible.  There  is  a  very  considerable 
portion  of  prose-writing  in  the  book  in  this  style, 

2.  Along  with  this  writing  may  be  placed  the 
specimen  of  prose  which  we  have  found  in  the 
Deva    Damara   Tantra,   running  as  follows   ''C^f>ltt 

"^  51^1  ^•T  ^^^1  I  We  avow  our  inabilitv  to 
translate  or  interpret  this. 

3.  A  small  prose  treatise  ascribed  to  the  poet 
Chandi  Das,  who  lived  500  years  ago,  has  come 
down  to  us.  It  is  called  Chaitya  Rupa  Prapti. 
The  booklet  seems  to  interpret  in  mystic  language 
the  incantations  and  riddles  of  the  Tantrikas.  The 
Ms.  copy  in  our  possession  was  written  in  the  year 
1674.     The  preliminarv  sentence  runs  thus  :  — 


Cunya  Purana. 


Deva 
Damara 
Tantra. 


Chaitya 

Rupa 

Priptl 


105 


f?34         RKNGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

A    host    of    writers    of    the  Sahajiya  cult  wrote 
Prose         short  treatises  in  prose  or  introduced  prose  passages 

wof*lcs  hv 

Sahajiyas.     in  their  poetical   works.     We    briefly    notice    them 

below. 

1.  Dvada^a    Pata    Nirnaya    written    early  in 
the  1 6th  century  by  Nilachala  Das. 

2.  Achraya    Nirnaya    by  Chaitanya  Das. 

3.  Rupa  Gosvamir  Karika.  Rupa  Gosvami, 
who  is  said  to  have  written  this  book,  was  born  in 
1489  A.D.  He  was  a  contemporary  and  follower 
of  Chaitanya  Deva.  The  Ms.-couy  with  us  was 
written  in  1675. 

4.  Ragamayi  KanS  by  Krisha  Das  Kaviraja 
who  lived  in  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century. 

5.  Atma  Tattva  Jijnasa. 

6.  Dasyadasatattva  Bhavartha.  The  copy  with 
us  was  written  in  1685  A.D. 

7.  Alamvana  Chanrika  by  Krisna  Das  Kaviraja. 
The  Ms. -copy  found  was  prepared  in  1655  A.D. 
and  the  composition  of  the  treatise  must  have  been 
at  least  half  a  century  earlier. 

8.  Upasana  Tattva — the  Ms.  is  dated    1755. 

9.  Siddhi  Tattva — the  Ms.  is  dalrd  {755. 

10.  Trigunatmika  Do. 

1 1.  Atma  Sadhana. 

12.  Bhoga  Patala. 

13.  Deha  Bheda  Tattva  Nirupana. 

14.  Chandra  Chintamahi  by  Prema  Das. 

15.  Atma   Tattva   Jijnasa  Saratsara  by  Krisha 
Da^. 

16.  Sadhana  Tray  a. 

17.  ^ikj^a  Patala. 


VL  ]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.         S35 

18.  Siddhanta  Tika  by  Damu  Ghose  Gosvami. 

ig.  Krisna  Bhakti  Parayana. 

20.  Upasana  Nirnaya. 

21.  Svarupa  Varnana. 

22.  Rajamala  by  Narottama  Das. 

22-     Delia  Kadacha  by  Narottama  Das. 

24.  Champaka  Kalika.  This  book  describes 
the  incidents  of  the  release  of  Sonatana  Gosvami 
from  prison. 

25.  Atma  Tattva. 

26.  PanchangaNigudha  Tattva. 

27.  Hari  Namer  Artha. 
2S.     Gosthi  Katha. 

29.  Siddhi  Patala. 

30.  Jijnasa  Prahali. 

31.  Java  Manjuri. 

32.  Vraja  Karika. 

33.  Rasa  Bhajana  Tattva  copied  in  1650. 

34.  Vrindavana  Parikrama  copied  early  in  the 
1 8th  century. 

35.  Vedadi  Tattva  Nirnaya. 

36.  Vrindavana  Lila  copied  in  the  middle  of 
the  1 8th  century. 

We  have,  besides,  in  prose  a  vast  number  of 
treatises  on  medicine  and  on  the  genealogies  of 
old  families  written  within  the  last  three  centuries. 

Of  the    books,     mentioned    in    the  above    list, 
Nos.    6,   7,  9,  10,  12,  14,  18,  25,  27,   28,  29,  30,  31, 
32,  34,  35.  36  are   written    in    prose    and  the     rest 
are  in  prose   and    poetry  combined.     Genealogical      OeneaJozi- 
works  are  numerous,  and  in  many  of  them  we    find      cal  works 
elaborate  passages  in    prose.     We  quote   below  a 


in  prose. 


836      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &,    LITERAIUKE.       [Chap. 

specimen  ol  prose  from  one  such  work  on  the 
Barendra  Brahmins  of  Bengal. 

^"  Adi  Sur  was  a  powerful  King.  He  l^roughl 
Lo  his  capital  li\e  hirahminsof  Hve  different  (iotras  : 
— Xarayaha  of  ^andilya  Gotra.  Dharadhara  of 
Batsya  Gotra,  Susen  of  Ka^^yapa  Gotra.  Gautama 
of  Bharadvaja  (iotra.  and  Paragara  of  Savarna 
Gotra. 

*'  The  whole  of  Bengal  was  made  pure  by  the 
holy  influence  of  these  Brahmins,  and  after  the 
country  had  been  thus  improved,  Adi  Sur.  the 
King  died." 

One  thing  strikes  us  liere.  Prose  was  more 
often  adopted  by  the  Sahajiya  Vaisnavas  than  by 
other  sects  for  the  exposition  of  their  doctrines. 
Nos.  3-2,34,  and  35  show  elaborate  specimens  of 
prose.  The  Sahajiyas  who  were,  as  we  think,  ori- 
oinallv  a  Buddhist  sect,  imbibed  this  taste  for 
writing  in  prose  from  a  very  early  age.  when  the 
Buddhists  used  to  elucidate  their  views  in  prose 
in  the  Prakrita  language. 

We    have    come    upon    translations     of     Bhgsa 

I  ,. ,;.  I  'arichchada — a  work    on    Lo^ic,  and  of  \'vavastha 

and  Law        Pattva,     a    book    on    Hindu    Law.   copied    in    177^. 

In    prose.  r  //J 

whit  h    show    that  prose  was  adopted    at    least    two 

centuries  ago.  for  dealinin  with  hii^hlv  uK^taphysical 
'(s^^TC^I^    ^^   3[mi    '^'\^^^    ^ftc^^  :--"^'?(1    ^f5tll-t>? 


VI.  ]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  8j7 

subjects.     We    quote  a    passage    from    the     Bhasa 
Parichchada. 

■^^"The  disciples  of  the  sage  Gautama  approach- 
cd  him  with  these  words.  How.  master,  may  our  parich- 
deliverance  be  obtained  ?  Graciously  enlighten 
us  on  this  point  :  Gautama  said — '  deliverance 
may  be  obtained  by  a  knowledge  of  the  predica- 
ments,' The  disciples  wanted  to  know  what  were 
these  predicaments,  and  Gautama  replied  : — *  Seven 
predicaments  may  be  enumerated,  z^/^  ; — 'i)  Sub- 
stance, (2)  quality,  (3  action,  (4)  genus,  (5)  differ- 
ence,  (6)  co-inherence,  and  (7)  non-existence.'  " 

The  language  of  the  treatises  in  the  list  just 
given  is  invariably  very  simple,  though  owing  to 
our  ignorance  of  the  special  terms  and  technicalities 
used  by  the  Sahajiya  Vaishavas,  much  of  their 
writings  is  unintelligible  to  us.  The  sentences  arc 
generally  short  and  rarely  loaded  with  compounds. 
Here  is  a  passage  which  may  be  taken  as  a  speci- 
men of  the  sort  of  style  used  by  them.  We  quote 
from  the  Karika  by  Rupa  Gosvami  who  lived  400 
years  ago,  f  Victory  be  to  Radha  and  Krisha ! 
First  of  all  a  classification  of  subjects  ;    proceeding 


:5^T,  ^«i,  ^'^^  ^m^w.  f^*t^,  'i^^m,  ^^r?i    ^^?r 
'««if^<fi    *i^^^«i. 'n^^«t.  ^n^^i,  ^n^^.  '^^^•i.  ^^ 


838        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

with  the  enumeration  of  the  qualities,  we  should 
note  live  points  : — perception  of  sound,  of  smelK 
Karika.  Qf  colour,  of  taste  and  of  touch.  These  belong 
to  Radha  and  Krisfia  alike.  The  first  perception 
belongs  to  the  ear,  the  second  to  the  nose,  the 
third  to  the  eyes,  the  fourth  to  the  tongue  and  the 
fifth  to  the  skin.  These  five  perceptions  create  a 
desire  for  love." 

Kaminl  ^^   Kaniini   Kiimara,    a    poem    \\ritten  in    the 

Kumara.       middle    of  the    i8th    century,    we    find    a    passage 

written  in  simple  prose,    showing   a    contrast    with 

the  subtle  and  abstruse    style     of  the  learned  men 

of  the  period.     We  quote  the  passage  below. 

■^"  When  the  merchant  again  and  again  swore  in 
this  manner,  the  lady  smiled  and  addressed  Sona 
and  said,  "  Well,  my  servant.  This  thief  has  thus 
foresworn  himself  several  times,  and  has  sur- 
rendered himself  entirely  to  us.  Suppliant  for 
mercy  as  he  is,  he  should  not  be  further  molested. 
In  his  present  predicament,  he  deserves  to  be 
treated  with  indulgence  because  he  is  so  helpless. 
This  is  what  the  sacred  books  enjoin.     The  number 

^15  ^^  I    M  n^  ^"=1  Sl'i^  ^rff^^i:^^  ^^1     "K^^i 
^<,  'n^^'i  ^ith:^,  ^"1^*1  c^c3f,  ^^^^  ^^c^,  ^8  '^*f^«i 

■^"'^Vft't^  ^fs^t^^^  ^^^^  -^^l  ^^2  'f'^^  ^^U^ 
^^fl   ^^^   ^T'!J    ^^^  CTl^n^^  ^l^^^  ^fil^1  ^i^C^^  I 


VL]  BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  83 

of  our  servants  besides  is  not  sufficient ;  though 
he  may  not  be  trusted  with  any  responsible  work, 
what  harm  if  he  be  appointed  to  prepare  silims  of 
tobacco  for  us  ?  That  would  be  a  great  service 
in  the  present  state  of  things.  Sona  said  'well 
said,  my  master ;  let  him  be  kept  as  a  servant.' 
Kamini  thus  taking  the  sense  of  Sona  addressed 
him  thus:  "Well,  thief,  the  highly  criminal  act 
that  you  have  committed,  deserves  a  severe  punish- 
ment, but  owing  to  your  solicitations,  humility 
and  promises  we  excuse  you  this  time.  You  must 
now  become  our  constant  attendant  obeying  our 
commands  in  all  respects.  Whatever  we  may  be 
pleased  to  order,  it  will  be  your  duty  to  execute 
promptly.  If  you  play  the  truant,  you  will  at  once 
be  brought  before  the  king  without  mercy ;  on  the 
other  hand  if  you  can  please  us  by  your  obedience 
and  prompt  execution  of  our  orders,  we  promise  to 

c^?  f'Tft  T^^  "^i^  I    ^^  T^v^^  mvjy{^  ^ft^  ^^J 

^l^n  cmnt^  ^f^^  n^t'^^f  ^f^m  ^-^n^x^  #^^c^^  i 
"^^  c^^  ^Pi  a  ^^'S  ^f^^t^  ^t^  ^n^  ^^  c^tTti:^ 

(.WQ^\    ^f^,    f^l    C^5p(t^  f^^^  5J^7n©1  N8  f^^U  ^t^f% 

^t^i  ^ft^  ^^^«ft^  c^tI  ^'^  ^fiic^,  ^mr.^  ^.-^jj^i  ^T^m 

"^W:^  ^t^til  f^^&  C^!l«)  ^ft^,  ^^  ^t^  ^^^  ^t^  I  f<ip^ 


840      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

consider  your  case  favourably  in  future.  When 
the  naerchaiit  heard  this  he  thought.  "  By  Rama,  it 
is  a  great  relief.  I  am  out  of  danger  now."  He 
folded  his  hands,  and  said  to  Kamini.  'Sir.  the  great 
relief  you  have  given  to  your  most  humble  servant 
by  granting  him  pardon  is  a  proof  that  m  a  past 
life  vnu  were  one  of  his  kith  and  kin,  or  else  how 
ran  this  act  of  favour  at  the  hands  of  a  stranger 
be  explained  ?  Now.  by  God.  f  say  you  are  my 
God-father,  1  accept  you  as  my  master.  Whatever 
order  you  may  graciously  be  pleased  to  make, 
it  will  be  my  duty  as  a  humble  servant  to  execute 
to  the  best  of  my  powers,  and  if  required  even 
with  my  life.'  Kamini  said,  'What  work  will  you 
do  here?  There  is  not  much  to  be  done.  I  would 
simply  put  yon  in  charge  of  my  huka  for  the 
present ;  one   word   more,   how  long  shall  I  address 


'^U  '^Vi^  ^tfJtll  ^t^'^J  ^^t^  ^\^V^  ^t?^,  ^7;^  C«T^t^ 

^t^  ^n     C>T  ^f51    ^^^   ^tf«^    5tC^    ^  9l    ^fi   ^^^ 
9^515?.  'sit^f  vflJ^s  ^^1  c'^t^t^^  Cl^t^  (3Vk    'TPt^I    'I^^?!    ^1 


VI.  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  §4! 

you  as  a  thief,  I  give  you  a  name  ;  I  shall  lience- 
forth  call  you  Rama  Vallabha.'  The  merchant  said 
'So  be  it  sir.'  After  such  conversation  Kamini  said, 
*  Now  my  Rama  Vallabha,  do  kindly  prepare  a  silini 
of  tobacco  for  me.'  Rama  Vallabha  immediatelv 
prepared  a  si  Urn  and  bringing  the  huka  held  the 
pipe  before  Kamini.  Rama  Vallabha  being  appoint- 
ed to  the  work  soon  became  an  expert  in  the  art, 
and  it  became  the  subject  of  his  constant  thought, 
so  much  so  that  if  Kamini  called  him  while  dining 
or  while  asleep,  saying  'Where  have  you  gone,  my 
Rama  Vallabha?'  He  would  immediatelv  answer, 
'Sir,  I  am  preparing  tobacco.'  " 

F'or  conveving  the  humour  of  the  passage  an 
introduction  to  the  story  is  necessary.  The  young 
merchant  Kumara,  the  husband  of  Kamini,  went 
to  a  distant  country  for  trade  immediately  after 
his  marriage.  There  he  fell  in  love  with  a  young 
princess  and  was  admitted  into  the  Raja's  harem 
in  the  guise  of  a  maid  servant.  There  he  stayed 
for  a  fairly  long  time,  till  his  wife  Kamini 
became  anxious  about  his  safetv,  and  started  in  the 


^tPrmii   fwt^^  ^fci^  'a^t^i  'im^r  ^^^n 
^?:5it^^«!t^tc^  '^':^i^  f%^c^  ^tf^^  'pfe^'p  'w.^  zv^  ^?r« 

^■u{  ^^  ^t'lt^  'fTfer^  Ttfec"?  ?t'i'j^c»?r  ^t'lt^  'Ti^^ 

J  06 


842        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

guise  of  a  prince  with  her  maid,  Sona,  who  was 
also  dressed  as  a  young  man.  After  a  weary 
search^they  traced  out  Kumara,  and  learning 
all  about  him  went  to  the  palace  of  the  Raja, 
whose  daughter  had  kept  him  in  her  vicinity  as  a 
lover.  Kamini,  who  was  a  very  beautiful  woman, 
played  her  part  as  the  young  prince  so  well,  that 
the  Raja  offered  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  her. 
After  the  marriage  was  over,  she  at  once  detected 
the  guilty  man,  her  own  husband,  and  brought 
the  matter  to  the  notice  of  the  Raja,  playing  her 
mock-anger  with  admirable  tact.  The  Raja  in 
great  consternation  offered  the  thief  to  his  false 
son-in-law  saying  that  he  might  inflict  any  punish- 
ment on  him  that  he  liked,— at  the  same  time  he 
begged  him  to  pardon  his  daughter.  Kamini,  on  the 
pretext  of  going  away  for  a  short  time  on  business, 
marched  honu^wards  with  her  husband  who  thought 
hvv  to  be  the  prince  and  had  not  recognised  her 
as  his  loyal  and  loving  wife.  This  passage  describes 
what  took  place  after  she  had  taken  the  thief  into 
custody.  She  gave  him  the  name  of  Rania  Vallabha, 
because  it  was  held  sacrilegeous  in  those  days  for 
a  IlJiulu  wife  to  utter  the  name  of  her  husband. 


Px^fore  we  close  the  account  of  our  early  prose, 
we  should  note  some  points  about  it.  Though 
the  above  passage  is  connected  with  the  incidents 
of  an  illicit  love,  which  forms  the  subject  matter 
of  the  poem  Kamini  Kumara,  the  author  of  which 
belongs  to  the  depraved  school  of  Bharata  Chandra, 
yet  the  rest  of  our  early  prose  which  we  have 
noticed,  shows  that  it  was  mainly  employetl  for  the 
purpose    of     m('t;ij>hvsical    and    r<"ligious    writings. 


VI.]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  84J 


The  translation  of  the  Sanskrit  work  on  Logic 
called  the  Bhasa  Farichchada,  in  simple  Bengali, 
was  indeed  a  bold  attempt,  for  even  in  the  present 
advanced  development  of  our  prose  literature,  the 
subject  is  considered  to  be  too  intricate  for  Bengali, 
especially  as  it  would  be  most  difficult  to  translate 
the  technical  words  of  Sanskrit  Logic.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  the  various  translations  of  the  Hindu 
Law-books  compiled  in  prose  two  centuries  ago. 
We  find  mention  in  a  poem  named  Kirti  Lata 
by  Raja  Prithvi  Chandra  of  Pakur,  of  an  author 
named  Radha  Vallabha  Carma  who  translated 
most  of  the  Hindu  Law-books  before  the  battle 
of  Plassey.  All  this  shows  that  though  prose-writing 
was  not  much  in  favour  with  the  authors  of  past 
ages  in  Bengal,  yet  on  account  of  the  high  develop- 
ment which  our  language  had  already  attained 
through  its  vast  poetical  literature,  there  would  be  no 
difficulty  experienced  by  any  author  in  attempting 
translation  into  Bengali  prose  the  most  abstruse 
and  metaphysical  of  Sanskrit  works.  This  fact 
also  explains  why  our  prose  has  developed  so 
wonderfully  within  the  last  half  century.  The 
literary  language  was  already  in  a  highly  prepared 
state,  so  it  needed  no  great  effort  to  bring  our 
prose  to  a  considerable  degree  of  perfection  within 
a  comparatively  short  time. 

In  early  times  prose  was  classified  in  Bengali 
as  a  sort  of  metre.  With  what  justification  they 
called  it  so  is  not  known  ;  but  prose  passages  are 
generally  found  introduced  by  the  word  ^ifj  ^^. 
In  a  poem  in  praise  of  Chandi  Das  by  the  poet 
Vaishava  Das  we  find  the  line — "  ^f^^  f^^3(rf 
^WJ^W^^^"  which    indicates    that   prose   pass- 


The  de- 
velopment 
of  poetical 
literature 
helping  the 

cause  of 
prose. 


The  prose 
metre.* 


844      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap, 

ages  also  along  with  poetic  used  to  be  sung  or 
chanted.  This  is  substantiated  by  the  fact  that  the 
genealogical  accounts  of  the  noble  families  of  the 
Hindu  community  in  Bengal  used  to  be  chanted 
by  Kulacharyyas,  though  a  considerable  portion  of 
them  was  written  in  prose.  The  Kathakatas  even 
in  our  own  day  show  unmistakably  how  prose  pass- 
ages may  be  used  for  the  purposes  of  vocal  music. 
Most  probably  it  was  owing  to  this  adaptability  of 
prose  to  the  purposes  of  song,  as  found  in  Bengali, 
that  they  called  it  ^sfj  ^^ — the  prose  metre.  The 
authors  of  early  prose  in  many  cases  used  to  in- 
clude their  hhanita  or  signature  in  the  same  form 
in  which  they  did  so  in  their  poetical  compositions. 
The  last  lines  of  the  passage  from  Kaniini  Kumara 
quoted  above  run  as  follows  :  — 

^Kali  Krisna  Das  author  of  the  poem  Kaminl 
Kumaraj  says  that  Rama  Vallabha  in  course  of  time 
became  so  clever  and  practised  a  hand  at  the  art 
of  preparing  tobacco,  that  he  would  not  wait  till  his 
lull  name  was  pronounced.  As  soon  as  Txama'came 
out  ot  Kaminl's  lips,  Rama  \  allabha  was  ready  with 
his  tobacco." 

When  a  whole  paragraph  was  finished  the  sign 
ol  punctuation  was  1 1  ;  but  after  the  completion  ol 
the  sentence,  the  sign  generally  used  was  i. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


THE  MODERN  AGE. 

I.  (a)  The  epoch  ushered  in  by  European  workers — 
civilians    and    missionaries. 

(b)  Dr.  Carey  and  his  colleagues. 

(c)  Bengali  works  written  by  Europeans. 

(d)  A  new  ideal  in  the  country. 
II.  (a)  The  College  of  Fort  William. 

(b)  The    Pundits    of    the  College— Mrityunjaya— 

Rama   Rama   Vasu— Chandi  Charan  Munsi — 
and  Rajiva  Lochana—Their  Bengali  works. 

(c)  The  Rev.  K.   M.   Banerjee  and   other  authors 

who    followed   in     the    wake    of    European 
writers — a  list  of  their  publications. 
III.  General   remarks  chiefly  indicating  the   charac- 
teristics of    the   new  age   and    its  contrast   with  the 
earlier  one. 
IV.  (a)   Decadance  of    the     high     spiritual     ideal     in 
Hindu   society  and  the  advent  of  Raja  Rama 
Mohana  Roy. 

(b)  A  comprehensive  review  of  his   life  and  work 

(c)  The  writers  that  followed  Raja  Rama  Mohana 

Roy  —  Devendra     Natha      Tagore.  —  Aksaya 
Kumara  Dutta  and  others. 


I.  (aj  The   new    epoch     ushered     in     by     European 
workers,— civilians  and  missionaries. 

Whatever  remnants  of  prose  we  may  be  able 
to  unearth  from  old  records  and  manuscripts  in 
order  to  vindicate  the  glory  of  our  past  literature, 
it  must,  for  the  sake  of  truth,  be  admitted  that  they 
were  too  insignificant  to  deserve  prominent  men- 
tion in  a  history  of  literature.  Disconnected  from 
the  story  of  the  later  development  of  prose,  that 
has  grown  up  like  a  rich  harvest  during  the  British 
rule,  they  would  scarcely  deserve  more  than  a 
passing  notice. 


Early 
prose-  of  a 
minor  im< 
portance. 


846      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

I  have  said  more  llian  once  in  the  foregoing 
chapters  that  the  heart  of  Bengal  lay  in  her  vil- 
lages,— contented  as  these  were  with  their  never- 
ceasing  fountain  of  domestic  and    spiritual    happi- 

Benf«alis  .^      Qur  people  did  not  hitherto  care  for  the  world 

hitherto  ^       ^  . 

content        outside  the    pale    of    their    homes.      I  hey    workctl 

vill^ge^ifc.  'i"<^  sang,  prayed,  fasted  and  had  visions  of 
God.  They  heard  the  bird  Kokil  coo  from  the 
mango  boughs  in  spring,  and  saw  their  favourite 
flower,  the  lotus,  bloom  in  their  tanks  in  autumn  ; 
and  blithely  did  they  sing  about  all  these,  and 
about  the  sweets  of  home  life.  They  were  content 
with  loving  their  kith  and  kin,  their  mothers, 
wives  and  children,  and  thought  that  God  re- 
vealed Himself  to  them  in  domestic  tenderness. 
They  pursued  the  nicities  of  Logic  or  indulged  in 
abstruse  metaphysical  contemplations,  and  disci- 
plined their  mind  that  they  might  take  a  quiet 
and  ungrudging  view  of  the  ills  of  life  and  en- 
counter nobly  the  supreme  penalty  of  nature  when 
in  due  course  it  would  come  upon  them. 

But  this  village  life  underwent  a  suildcn  distur- 
bance. Political  changes  were  of  little  importance 
to  the  people.  They  heard  from  gossips  that  the 
Bailsah,  who  ruled  from  the  throne  of  Murshidabad, 
had  been  ousted  by  the  English,  and  that  a  great 
battle  had  been  fought  at  Plassey,  but  this  did  not 
seem  at  all  any  important  news  to  them.  Now, 
luiwever,  for  the  lirst  time  in  history,  a  set  of  people 
came  with  the  distinct  object  of  improving  them 
spiritually  and  morally.  1  he  iMussalmans  had  not 
done  so, — not  even  the  great  Akbar  in  his  dream 
ul  .1  political  ciiijtire.  The  Portuguese,  the  Burmese 
and  the    Maharatlas    had    all    overrun    the    country 


VIL]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    8i   LITERATURE.  847 

during  successive  ages.       They   came    to    loot    or 

judge  criminals — restore  rights  or  seize   them  ;  that 

was  in  the  eyes  of  the  Hindus  the  true   function    of 

their   foreign     sovereigns.     The    Mussalmans    had 

come  with  the  Koran,  but  often  with  a  dagger  also, 

as  an  alternative  for  the  acceptance  of  their   faith  ; 

those  that   failed    to  be  convinced  were  sometimes 

forcibly  served  with  beef  and  made  converts. 

But    here   came   a    people    who    showed     real 

anxiety  to  ameliorate  the  condition    of  the  people.    A  caH  from 

■^       .  .  .  r      r  outside. 

Bent  on  high  motives  of  philanthropy  and  love,  they 

did   not  apply  force    but    used    gentle    persuasion. 
Besides  they  showed  a  great  anxiety  to  give  to  our 
countrymen  the  sort  of  education   which  they  had 
not  yet  had,  notwithstanding  their  higher  flights    in 
theology  and  metaphysics.     A  class  of  philanthro- 
pic men,  whose  mission  was  the  propaganda  of  the 
great  love    of  their  master,  Jesus  Christ, — the  mis- 
sionaries in  the   earlier   stagfes   of  British  rule  did 
for  our  country  and  her  literature  what  we  can  not 
too  highly   eulogise.     They  approached   with   love 
and  so  touched  the  heart  of  the  people.     Dr.  Carey 
called  us  semi-barbarians  in  a  letter  to  a  friend,  but 
he   had   no  contempt  for  the  people  ;  it  was  a  dona 
fide   statement    which    we    may    very    well  excuse, 
when  we  know  that  he  was  truly  inspired   with   the 
spirit  of   Christian  love  for  his    fellowmen    and    did 
not  mean  to  abuse.     This  love  touched  the  heart  of 
the  Bengalis.  In  fact  the  ardour,  with  which  the  mis- 
sionaries and  even  some  members  of  the  Civil  Service 
commenced   their   self-imposed    task    of  educating 
the  masses  and  ameliorating  their  condition,  elicits 
our  unqualified  respect  and   admiration.     The   first 
Bengali    types     in    the   country  were     those     em- 


^4^      BENGALI    LANGl'AGF    8:    LITERATURE.       [  CHap. 

Halhed's  ployed  in  printing  a  Bengali  grammar  by  Mr.  Xa- 
thenial  Prassy  Halhed  who  was  a  Civilian  and 
oriental  scholar  and  "  was  so  well  acquainted  with 
the  language  as  sometimes  to  pass  in  disguise  as 
a  Native.""^  The  grammar  was  printed  in  17 78 
A.D.  in  a  press  at  Hugli.  The  punches  of  the 
fount  were  prepared  by  Mr.  Wilkins  who  rose  to 
great  distinction  as  an  oriental  scholar,  and  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  the  Gita  which  was  the  first 
Sanskrit  work  made  accessible  to  the  scholars  of 
Hurope  by  translation.  Mr.  Wilkins,  who  was 
afterwards  decorated  with  knighthood,  belonged  to 
the  Service  of  the  East  India  Company,  and  in  his 
researches  in  the  field  of  Sanskrit  lore  was  a  re- 
ccpient  of  the  distinguished  patronage  of  Warren 
Hastings.  Wilkins  made  it  the  mission  of  his  life 
to  improve  the  condition  of  the  masses  of  Bengal 
by  giving  them  a  general  education  for  which 
Pijiicliesby  printing  was  essentially  necessary.  In  his  zeal  to 
do  so,  he  acquired  the  art  of  punch-cutting  and 
prepared  a  set  of  Bengali  punches  with  his  own 
hands,  after  he  had  been  seven  years  in  this  coun- 
try, and  in  this  stage  he  also  trained  another  hand  to 
do  the  same  work.  Fanchanana  Karmnkara  and  his 
relation  and  assistant  Manohara  Karmakara  Inlong- 
ing  to  thr  caste  of  blacksmiths,  were  instructed  in 
the  art  of  punch-cutting  by  Mr.  Wilkins  ;  and  the 
worry  and  troubU-  attending  the  enterprise  for 
years  would  h:\\r  hrcn  ronsidercMl  not  worth  un- 
dergoing, had  ikU  Mr.  Wilkins  proceeded  with  a 
true  Christian  spirit  of  patient  philanthrophy. 
in     fart     the     amelioration     of    the    condition      of 

•    A  ilrsi-iiptivr  .atnloixur  oi    n«'njjnli  work-;  by  J.  L.ing,  j).  20 


VII.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    c^    LITRRATURE.         849 


the  people,  amongst  whom  he  was  called  upon  to 
work,  had  become  the  all-absorbing  matter  of  his 
thought.  Through  the  labours  of  Panchanana 
Karmakara  and  his  relative  and  colleague  Manohara 
the  art  of  punch-cutting  became  domesticated  in 
India.  We  do  not,  however,  mean  to  sav  that  the 
art  of  printing  in  a  crude  form  was  not  known  in 
Bengal  before  Charles  Wiikins  came  to  the  field. 
We  have  come  across  a  Ms.  nearlv  200  years  old 
which  was  printed  from  engraved  wooden  blocks. 
But  the  art  was  not  in  general  use  ;  a  strav  en- 
deavour for  decorative  purposes  does  not  prognos- 
ticate a  system  or  a  regular  cultivation  of  the  art, 
so  we  m:iy  rightly  pass  over  it. 

The  next  notice  that  we  have  of  printing  in 
Bengali  is  that  of  the  printed  Code  of  Regulations 
drawn  up  by  Sir  Elija  Impey  on  which  all  subse- 
quent legislation  has  been  based.  Ihe  regulations 
were  translated  by  Mr.  Jonathan  Duncan,  after- 
wards Governor  of  Bombay,  and  were  printed  at 
the  '  Company's  Press'  in  1785.  The  great 
Cornwallis  Code  of  1793,  translated  into  Bengali 
by  Mr.  Forster,  who  was  in  his  time  the  most 
distinguished  European  scholar  of  Bengali,  was 
printed  at  the  same  press  but  from  an  improved 
fount,  which  continued  to  be  the  standard  of  Ben- 
gal types,  till  a  neater  and  a  smaller  fount  was  pre- 
pared by  Dr.  Carey. 

Next  to  Sir  Charles  Wiikins.  Natheniel  Prassey 
Halhed  and  Graves  Chamney  Haughton  came  a 
host  of  European  scholars  in  Bengali  and  other 
oricintal  languages,  many  of  whom  belonged  to  the 
^ri    Ramapur   Mission,    but   none    of    them  was  so 

107 


Pancha- 
nana and 
Manohara. 


Crude 

printing 

known, 

200  years 

ago. 


Early 
printing. 


850       BENGALI    LANGUAGt    &    LIIERAIURE.       [  Chap. 

conspicuous    in  liis  efforts  to  improve  the  resources 
Dr.  Carey,     of    Bengali  prose  or  help  the  circulation  of  Bengali 
printing  as  was  Dr.  Carey 


(b)  Dr.  Carey  and  his  colleasue.s. 

He  had  starte(i  in  life  as  a  cobbler.  When, 
however,  by  his  great  rliligencc.  piety,  scholarship 
and  strength  of  character  he  had  raised  himself  to 
a  position  of  eminence  as  missionary,  he  was  din- 
ing one  summar  day  in  1786  with  the  Governor 
General,  the  Marquis  of  Hastings,  at  Barrackpur 
Park,  opposite  Cri  Ramapurand,  "overheard  one  of 
the  guests,  a  general  officer,  making  enquiry  of  one 
of  the  Aides-de-Camp,  whether  Dr.  Carey  had  not 
been  a  shoemaker,  on  which  he  stepped  forward 
and  exclaimed,  '  No  Sir.  only  a  cobbler  !"  '•  Carey 
might  be  seen  "  writes  John  Clark  Marshman 
•' walking  eight  or  ten  miles  to  Northampton  with 
his  wallet  full  of  shoes  upon  his  shoulders  and  then 
returning  home  with  a  fresh  supply  of  leather  to 
fulfil  his  cngagcntMiK  with  a  rTOvi'rnment  con- 
tractor." 

This  man  canu,'  subsequently  as  a  missionary 
to  Bengal  and  felt  a  true  Christian  love  for  the 
people  around  him  who  appeared  to  him  to  be 
sunk  in  superstition,  vice  and  idolatory.  He 
learnt  Sanskrit,  Bengali,  Persian  and  Maharatti, 
r.ot  with  a  view  to  know  the  people  or  profit  by 
the  wisdom  contained  in  oriental  books,  but  with 
the  object  of  bringing  a  large  mass  of  humanity, 
whom  he  sincerely  believed  to  be  grovelling  in 
darkness,  to  light.  We  may  regret  that  Dr.  Carey 
failed  to  observe  tin-  religious  life   in  Bengal  which, 


Z/^-.' 


.-./ 


I 


VII.  ]       BENGALI    language:    &    LIlEkAlURE.         85I 

inspite  of  superstitions,  was  permeated  with  a 
noble  purpose  and  a  spirit  of  true  devotional 
fervour.  But  we  can  by  no  means  ignore  or  un- 
derestimate the  great  pains  and  the  indefatigable 
industry  that  mark  his  endeavours  to  improve  the 
lives  of  the  Bengalis  by  spreading  education  and 
by  disseminating  the  truths  of  the  Gospel  among 
them.  To  him  we  pre-eminently  owe  the  rapid 
development  of  Bengali  prose  before  Raja  Rama 
Mohana  Roy  took  up  the  work  right  earnestly. 

The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  Dr.  Carey  were 
many  and  great.  It  was  his  greatest  ambition  in  life 
to  publish  a  translation  of  the  Gospel  in  Bengali. 
When  after  years  of  hard  and  unremitted  labour, 
he  had  brought  the  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment almost  to  completion,  he  estimated  the  cost  of 
printing  at  Calcutta  of  10,000  of  copies  at  Rs.  43750. 
This  was  quite  beyond  his  means,  and  he  thought 
of  getting  the  book  printed  in  England.  At  first  he 
proposed  to  obtain  punches  from  Caslon,  the  emi- 
nent letter-founder  in  London,  calculating  that  the 
cost  of  each  punch  would  be  ^s.  only  ;  but  he  was 
wrong ;    the    cost    of  the    punches  was   a  guinea  a     m^  efforts 

piece.     So   he    oave     up   the   idea    of  o^ettinsf    the      }^  PTi/*?' 
^  /^  ^  the  Bible. 

book  priiited  in  England,  though  before  doing  so 
he  had  made  another  attempt  to  engage  the 
services  of  a  letter-founder  whom  he  knew  at  Der- 
by. In  1798  he  read  an  advertisement  that  a  letter- 
foundry  was  established  for  the  '  country  language  ' 
at  Calcutta.  Dr.  Carey  lost  no  time  in  corres- 
ponding with  the  projector  of  the  scheme,  and 
found  that  the  punches  of  the  foundry  were  cut  by 
Panchanana,  who  had  been  trained  bv   Sir    Charles 


852       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LlIEKAlUkE.       [Chap. 

W'ilkins.  Soon  after  a  printing  press  constructed 
of  wood  was  advertised  for  sale  and  Dr.  Carey  im- 
mediately purchased  it  for  £j^o.  Panchanana  was 
once  more  found  out  and  his  services  engaged  by 
the  tl)e  Qri  Ramapur  Mission.  Here  Panchanana 
completed  a  fount  of  700  separate  punches  for 
Devanagri  letters  and  their  compounds.  Panchanana 
was  now  an  old  man,  so  his  worthy  colleague 
Manohara,  already  mentioned,  was  called  in  to  assist 
him  and  "  was  subsequently  employed  for  fortv 
years  at  the  (^ri  Ramapur  press  and  to  his  exertions 
and  instruction,  Bengal  is  indebted  for  the  various 
beautiful  founts  of  the  Bengali,  Nagri,  Persian, 
Arabic  and  other  characters  which  have  been  gra- 
dually introduced  into  the  diflerent  printing  estab- 
lishments.' * 

All  this  was  due  to  the  indefatigable  industry 
of  Ur.  Carey  and  his  colleagues.  They  were  de- 
termined to  publish  the  Bible  in  Bengali,  and  this 
Carey  was  ultimately  able  to  do.  Imagine  his  great 
delight  when  on  the  i8th  of  March,  liJoj,  Mr. 
Ward  set  the  Hrst  types  with  his  own  hands  and  pre- 
sented him  with  the  first  sheet  of  the  Testament. 
We  find  the  following  account  of  him  in  the  notice 
of  his  rareer  published  l)y  the  British  ant!  Foreign 
Bible  Society  at  his  death  in  1834.  "The  extent 
of   his  zeal  may  be  judged  by  the  fact  that,    in  con- 

neacuuires     1"'^*^^'"'^    ^^'^^'^    '^^-^    colleagues,    he  has  been  instru- 

BcnKiili.        mental  in  gixiuL;  In  the    iribt^s   of   Asia    the    sacred 

scripture.s    in    whole    ov    in  part  in  betwec^n  30  and 

.|n  (iifT<^reut  languiges."      f le  MC(|Liircd  Bengali  with 

a  thoroughness  which  ww  scarcely  lind  in  any  other 


History  of  Cri   Ramapur  Mission  Vol.  L,  p.  179. 


Vll.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITEKAIUKE.         853 

foreigner  who  has  studied  our  language.  He  had 
employed  Pundits  to  help  him  to  acquire  know- 
ledge of  Bengali,  and  when  they  declared  that  he 
was  fit  to  address  the  people  he  commenced 
preaching  ;  and  in  1 794  we  find  him  devoted  to 
this  task  in  the  jungly  tracts  of  Sundarvans.  He 
writes  on  the  i6th  January,  1798.  "I  spoke  in 
Bengali  for  nearly  half  an  hour  without  an  inter- 
mission." "But"  says  he  later  on  "  I  recollect 
that  after  I  had  preached  or  rather  thought  that  I 
had,  for  two  years  (in  Bengali},  a  man  one  day 
came  to  me  and  declared  that  he  could  not  under- 
stand me,  and  this  long  after  my  flattering  teachers 
had  declared  ihat  every  one  could  understand  me. 
I  feel  the  impression  which  that  poor  man's  remark 
made  on  me  to  this  day.""^ 

But  we  presume  that  it  was  his  peculiarity  of  ac- 
cent in  pronouncing  the  letters"^,  if  etc.  which  must 
have  made  his  speech  in  some  cases  unintelligible  to 
people.  Reading  his  Bengali  works  on  various  sub- 
jects, one  is  struck  with  his  wonderful  command  over 
the  idioms  and  colloquial  forms  of  our  dialect  so 
difficult  for  a  foreigner  to  acquire.  Dr.  Carey  was 
not,  however,  the  man  to  be  daunted  by  failures.  He 
composed  a  short  and  simple  marriage  service  in 
Bengali  for  meeting  the  growing  demand  of  such 
formulae,  as  there  was  already  a  good  number  of 
native  Christians,  whose  marriage  ceremonies  were 
to  be  celebrated  according  to  the  new  rites  for 
which  there  was  yet  no  guide  in  the  vernacular. 
He  besides  composed  songs  in  Bengali  and  we  find 
one  of  his  friends   writing  about  himself    and    Dr. 


*  Memoir  of  Dr  Carey  by  Eustace  Carey. — p.  503, 


854        HKNGALl    LANGUAGt    &    I.IIERAIURE.      [Chap, 

Carey  "This  morning  brother  Carey  and  I  took  our 
stand  like  two  ballad-singers  and  began  singing  in 
Bengali  before  one  of  ^iva's  temples.""^  Of  course 
now-a-days  a  European  Missionary  singing  a  Ben- 
gali song  is  no  strange  spectacle  in  this  country  : 
but  Carey  was  the  pioneer  in  all  such  matters  and 
he  was  inspired  by  a  real  zeal  to  bring  the  people 
who,  according  to  his  notions,  erred  in  religion,  to  the 
creed  which  he  considered  to  be  the  only  true  one  ; 
and  Hindus  have  always  judged  of  a  people  by  the 
sincerety  of  their  faith  and  not  by  the  loftiness  of 
their  doctrines,  of  which  their  own  ^astras  furnish 
sufficient!}'  great  and  noble  examples.  Before 
these  sincere  souls  took  up  the  task  of  propagating 
their  religious  faith  "  there  had  been  no  indication 
that  the  conquerers  of  Bengal  possessed  any  reli- 
gion at  all,  excepting  the  hoisting  of  the  flag  on 
Sundays  and  the  official  attendance  of  the  few  at  the 
Sunday  tnorniug  service  ''  and  it  was  the  earnest 
t-ndeavour  of  Carey,  Marshman.  Martyn  and  their 
colleagues  to  remove  this  impression.  Ihev  spared 
no  [)ains  to  bring  the  lost  sheep  to  the  fold.  In  the 
Sundervans  Dr.  Carey  lost  a  son,  but  he  could  induce 
The  rcAuIt      "^  person,  not  evi-n  a  Mahomedan,  to  make  a  coffin, 

!*5.  cimi  the  distress,  to  which  he  and  his  wife  were  |)ut, 

sacrifice.  ' 

(an  hardly  be  adequately  described.  All  this  he 
underwent  with  a  patient  and  even  a  glad  heart., 
l)ecause  though  the  people  opposed  him,  he  wanted 
lo  dt)  i;«)()d  to  them, — to  return  ^j^ood  for  <  vil,  as  the 
^n-.tf  ina>ter  had  enjoined  upon  all  true  followers 
el  his  creed.  Iliis  great  love  attracted  the  people 
an<l    all    (liHiculties,    .ill    j)rol)lems —however    insur- 

•  .M'tnoi)   p    I  '<j 


VII.]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LIIEKAIUKE.         855 

inountable  or  intricate — are  overcome  by  love.  The 
best  men  of  the  land  during  the  first  epoch  of  the 
British  rule  were  drawn  to  Christanity  by  the  noble 
examples  of  philanthropic  love  displayed  by  the 
Christian  missionaries.  They  were  not  attracted  bv 
the  inherent  qualities  of  Christanity  so  much  as  by 
the  examples  of  suffering  for  love  before  them.  It 
was  owing  to  these  traits  of  disinterestedness  in 
the  life  of  early  missionaries  that  men  like  the  Young  men 
Rev.  K.  M.  Banerjee.  the  Rev.  Lai  Behari  De,  g^gHcL^I,. 
Michael  Madhu  Sudana  Datta,  Govinda  Chandra 
Datta  and  last  though  not  the  least  of  this  glorious 
band,  Dr.  K.  C.  Banerjee  had  embraced  Christanity. 
For  nearly  a  century  the  enlightened  Hindus  were 
dazzled  by  the  glare  of  western  civilisation ;  and 
showed  no  inclination  to  admit  that  anything  could 
have  been  noble  or  great  in  the  past  of  their  own 
nation.  The  great  personalitv  of  Chaitanya  Deva 
and  his  heavenly  love,  the  poems  of  Chandi  Das  and 
the  lays  of  other  \^aisnva  poets,  the  songs  of  Rama 
Prasada,  the  vivid  and  noble  portraitures  of  domes- 
tic life  found  in  Kavi  Kaiikana's  poems  and  the  ex- 
quisite touches  and  elegance  of  Bharat  Chahdra's 
style  could  now  command  no  attention  from 
the  educated  young  men  of  Bengal  ;  in  fact,  Bengal 
with  her  wealth  of  noble  ideas  lay  far  off,  though 
so  near,  and  Europe,  removed  from  us  by  land  and 
sea  became  nearer  and  dearer  to  the  new  generation 
of  the  Hindus  who  came  in  touch  with  the  mission- 
aries. In  the  domestic  circle  the  parents  became 
anxious  for  children  who  under  the  spell  of  mis- 
sionary influeuce  failed  even  to  admire  the  patient 
and  self-sacriticing  love  for  religion  which  had 
marked -the  Hindu  women  of  the  past,  and  revolted 


856      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LllEKATUKE.      [  Chap. 

against  all  that  was   old   and   had    been    sacred    in 
popular  estimation.     The  gods  had  now   become  to 
them   mere   earthen  clay,   the  temples  were   unholy 
and  tlie  hallowed    precincts  of  their   homes  a   hole 
of  superstition.     Their    noble     literature     was     no 
more  tlian    a    miserable    scribbling    and    shreds    of 
paper  which  they  should    consign    to  the    fire  or  to 
worms.     The  songs   of  Rsdha  and    Krisfia    which. 
were  expressed  in  the  highest  language  of  poetry, 
and  were  hitherto  a  fountain  of  joy  and  inspiration 
to  the  rich  and  the  poor  alike,  now  became  horrible 
to  them  ;  and  one  of  our  greatest  countrymen  of  that 
age  was  known  to  declare  that  Krisha,  the  supreme 
soul,    was     worse    than    a    sweeper.     The    Hindu 
shrines  had  once  been  desecrated  by    Mahomedans 
who  had  thrown   beef  and  other  unholy  things  into 
them    to     destroy     their    sanctity  ;     but    they    had 
only     half      succeeded,     for    thousands    of    hearts 
ha-^l    remained    true    to    them.      Rut   now   our   own 
people,   the  educated   classes,    lost     faith     in     the 
temples,  and  looked    upon    them  as  pandemoniums 
and  the  gods  enshrined  in  them  as  Beelzebubs   and 
Molochs,    whether   they   belie\ed    in  Christanity  or 
not.      The    victory    of  the    missionaries    was    com- 
plete.    The  secret  of  their  success,  I  beg  to  repeat, 
lay  in    the    circumstance   of  their    approaching    us 
with  love.     They  had  shown  a  system  of  organiseil 
philanthrophy    hitliertt)    unknown    to    the    country. 
Their    charity,    devotion,    zenl    and   sympathy  had 
drawn  awa\-  those  who  were  the  natural  ornaments 
of  our  society,  and  poor  Bengal  may    consider  this 
love    to    have    been    tlie   greatest   of  her  disasters, 
since  more  than  the  sword    it   upset  time-honoured 
huar\-  institutions  and  alienated  true  hf-arts. 


Vll.  ]       BKNGAI.I    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATUKE.         857 

True  love  never  spends  itself  in  a  single  c  han- 
nel.  Dr.  Carey  and  his  colleagues  did  not  con- 
sider their  work  done  by  merely  propagating  the 
truths  of  Christianity.  Tht-y  wanted  sincerely  to 
give  our  countrymen  education,  according  to  their 
ov/n  standards,  in  all  departments  of  knowledge  ; 
and  the  wonderful  activity  displayed  by  them  in 
their  labour  of  love  draws  forth  our  greatest  ad- 
miration, when  we  consider  that  the  Government 
of  the  East  India  Company,  afraid  of  disturbing 
the  conservative  views  of  our  people  in  the  earlier 
stages,  did  not  assist  but  often  obstructed  them, 
Tiiere  is  not  a  subject  in  which  these  Europeans 
did  not  come  forward  to  write  books  in  Bengali  in 
order  to  spread  education  amongst  the  masses. 

Dr.  Carey  wrote  the  following  books  in  Bengali 
besides  numerous  treatises  on  Christianity  and  the 
translation  of  the  Bible. 

1.  A  Dictionary  of  the  Bengali  language  in 
three  volumes,  quarto  size,  containing  80,000  words 
—the  work  of  thirty  years.  The  original  price 
was  Rs.  120.     This  book  came  out  in  18 15 — 25. 

2.  A  Bengali  Grammar  published  in  180 1.  It 
had  passed  through  four  editions  before  1855. 

3.  Kathopakathana  or  Colloquies,  published  in 
August,  1 80 1. 

4.  Itihasamala,  or  garland  of  stories,  published 
in  1 8 12.  It  contains  150  short  stories  at  that  time 
current  in  Bengal. 

The  last  two  books  form  a  rich  mine  of  idioms 
of  the   spoken   dialect   of   Bengal,  (rum    which  Tek 

108 


Dr.  Carey's 
Bengali 
works. 


S58       BENGALI    LANGUAGK    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap 

Clifind  Thakur  took  the  cue  for  his  style  in  the 
composition  of  liis  masterpiece  in  Bengali — the 
Alaler  Gliarer  Dulala.  Dr.  Carey  writes  in  the  pre- 
face to  his  Kathopakathana  :  ''  That  the  work  might 
be  as  complete  as  possible,  I  have  employed  some 
sensible  natives  to  compose  dialogues  upon  sub- 
jects  of  domestic  nature  and  to  give  them  precisely 
in  the  natural  style  of  the  persons  supposed  to  be 
speakers."  So  he  did  not  write  the  whole  of  the 
book  himself,  but  the  dialogues,  other  than  those 
written  on  domestic  subjects,  are  his  composition, 
and  they  do  him  a  great  credit.  He  had  a  high 
regard  for  Bengali  as  a  language.  He  says  of  it 
in  the  aforesaid  preface,  "This  language...  current 
through  an  extent  of  country  nearly  equal  to  Great 
Britain when  properly  cultivated,  will  be  in- 
ferior to  none  in  elegance  and  perspicuity. "  He 
wanted  not  only  to  educate  and  elevate  the  masses 
of  Bengal,  but  also  to  develop,  as  best  he  could, 
the  resources  of  a  language  for  which  he  had  a 
great  respect.  The  style  of  his  colloquies  inspired 
many  of  our  countrymen  to  write  i:i  the  current 
dialect,  and  not  onh-  do  we  find  it  imitated  in  a 
pre-eminent  degree  in  Alaler  Gharer  Du'ala  and 
Hutum  Pechar  Naksa,  but  even  in  the  stvle  of  a 
Bankima  Chandra  and  Dina  X'^andu  Miira.  1  quote 
a  passage  from  his  collotjuies.  Or.  C::rev  appended 
an  Knglish  translation  which  I  adopt  with  some 
modifications. 


Specimens  ^"Yesterday  at   1 2  o'clock  my  youngest  wife  had 

of  collo-        rofikoH  the  dinner,  and  mv  children  had  first    eaten 
quial  style. 

*"  ^t5T  fn^  Cf^\    c^T^    C^^  ?  tf«(C^f^^,  t^H  ^ZKJ 


VII,]       BENGALI    LANGUAGK    &    LIIERAIURE.  859  r 

their   rice.     At   tliat    moment    the    middle    woman 
came  in  and  set  up  a  quarrel." 

"  None  of  the  women  of  your  house  can  bear 
to  see  any  good  happening  to  another." 

"  What  can  I  say  ?  There  is  no  place  where  1 
can  go  and  stay  for  4  or  5  days,  and  allow  the 
breeze  to  blow  on  my  face  (enjoy  peace)." 

"  Why  don't  you  go  to  your  brother's  house  and 
stay  there  for  a  few  days?" 

"  What,  go  to  their  house  !  If  I  were  to  go  to 
their  house,  do  you  think  I  should  be  preserved 
from  these  abusive  women  ?  There  is  not  one  of 
them  who  can  bear  to  hear  of  my  brothers.  My 
husband  scarcely  stays  at  home  at  all,  on  account 
of  their  quarrels.  When  he  does  come,  he  him- 
self abuses  and  scolds." 

"  Formerly  you  lived  on  such  good  terms. 
Strange,  you  are  always  differing  now." 


^tTf^  ^jt^i  ^t?:^  ^t^  '^tt^tf^^,  l^t^  TW!:]  vm 

"  (^\^V\\    ^tft^  ^t^l^^l    CP^   -^\^   ^t^   cwf^^^ 

w»r  'fm  ft^  -^n  ^t^t'T  -^wA  1" 

(^%\     ^§1  f^f^  f«f^  ^'f  ^r^f^tf^?!  «?f5?T  ?f^^  5it? 


Mo      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

"  If  I  could  only  give  my  daughters  in  marriage, 
I  would  take  seven  mustard  seeds  and  balhe  (an 
idiom  in  Bengali  signifying  great  relief  of  mind). 
I  would  offer  betel  to  Kulai  Chandi  and  send  puja 
to  Suvachani." 

"Where  do  you  think  of  marrying  your  girls? 
In  the  country  or  outside  it?" 

"I  cannot  say  what  God  intends.  I  think  it 
would  be  well  to  marry  them  near  liome." 

"  What  do  all  the  brothers'  wives  say  ?  What 
say  the  uncles  and  aunts?  What  all  agree  upon  is 
proper." 

"As  it  happens  I  will  go  home  ;  if  the  evening 
comes  I  shall  be  scolded." 

'•  C^TO^  1W^-^  ^^^  ^^I^T   f^,    ^^^    ^1^    '^^^^T 

fwTii  ^\^  ^U,  ^^n  ^i\^  ^^ft  ^^1  ^t^  f5f5,  5^u^  nL'^1 
••  CI  c^t  ^^*.  «jtf^  ^t^'l  ^rl,  c^«ii  cni^r  «/:^5it 


VII.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         86l 

The  colloquy  under  the  head  "  Quarrels  of 
Women  "  beginning  with  "  Where  have  you  been, 
gossip?  Is  none  of  the  business  of  the  evening  in 
your  mind  ?  "  presents  to  us  a  disagreeable  scene, 
which,  assuming  that  some  pundit  wrote  it  for  Dr. 
Carey,  though  he  himself  aj~>pends  an  English  trans- 
lation, should  not.  for  the  sake  of  decency,  have 
found  a  place  in  a  missionary's  book.  We  find 
slang  of  a  most  revolting  type  used  freely  in  that 
dialogue,  and  we  wonder  how  Dr.  Carey  could  have 
published  it  in  his  own  name.  This  goes  to  show 
that  even  a  European  missionary  of  such  spotless 
reputation  as  Dr.  Carey's  was,  could  not  escape 
from  that  corrupt  taste  of  the  age  which  marks  tlje 
writing  of  I^vara  Gupta  and  Gauri  Qankar  Bhatta- 
charyya. 

We  quote  below  two  more  extracts  from  Dr. 
Carey's  Bengali  writings,  which  will  illustrate  his 
great  command  over  the  language.  I  take  both 
of  them  from  his  Itihasamala  or  Garland  of  Stories. 

I.     ^"  Once  upon  a  time  a  thief  was  running  awav 
•  ,     .  •  1        .    1       r  1  1  '       The  story 

vyith  the  articles  stolen  from  a  house,  and  was  pass-      of  a  thief. 

ing  by  the  fields  adjoining  the  village.  A  plough- 
man, who  happened  to  see  him,  said,  'Would  you 
mind  returning  those  things  to  the  rightful  owner  ? 
If  you  do  not,  I  shall  have  you  punished  in  the 
court  of  the   king.'     The  thief  replied,  '  iMind  your 


862       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

own  business,  fool,  (t  you  show  any  undue  en- 
thusiasm in  this  matter  I  shall  make  you  suffer 
capital  punishment  at  the  hands  of  the  king.'  The 
ploughman,  who  was  naturally  very  angry  at  the 
audacity  of  the  thief,  caught  hold  of  him  with  the 
stolen  articles  and  brought  him  before  the  king  to 
whom  he  related  the  whole  story.  When  the  king 
asked  the  thief  what  he  had  to  say  in  reply,  he 
answered,  *  (ireat  king.  I  saw  that  this  man  was 
sittini^  with  these  articles  in  a  jungle  :  I  told  him 
that  he  looked  like  a  thief  and  threatened  to  bring 
liim  before  your  majesty,  if  he  would  not  return  tiie 
articles  to  the  owner.  But  ti.e  man  abused  me  for 
saying  so.  Be  pleased  to  judge  this  thief  as  he 
deserves.'  The  king  asked  if  there  was  any  eye- 
witness to  substantiate  the  statement  of  either  ;  but 
both  of  them  declared  that  there  was  none.  The 
king  ordered  his  officers  to  take  away  both  of 
them,  and,  after  tightly  binding  each  to  a  corpse,  to 
burn  them  at  separate  places.  He  desired,  more- 
over,   that   his   order    should    be    quickly  executed. 

tF5[^  CM5I:^  <lfilTI1  ?TWf^  T%n  T^'?  ft^l  f^^^^^ 
'pf^^  I      ^^^^  ^^i%  C5Hr^  ^tft^l  fesSTTI  ^Ul^,    d 

^f'^^^^  (M  ^ft  C5H  ^^^1  1    ^f^5  ;3iT  ^tr^!im  ^t5U^ 

f*r^1    «l!$T,    ^^^1  C"^I^f^^  'I^I^IC^*!  f^^^  ^?^1  ^rt^ 

^t?tc^  tU  ^nK'f  ^-^it^T  ^ftc^.  ^irfsi  t^K"^  ^^K^ 


Vll.]  BKNGAI.l    LANGUAGE    6l    LllKKAlUKK.  863 

After  publicly  passing  this  sentence,  he  brought  the 
officers  into  his  privale  chamber,  and  instructed 
them  to  keep  a  secret  watch  upon  these  men  after 
they  had  been  bound  to  the  corpses  as  directed. 
They  were  instructed  to  listen  to  the  conversation  of 
the  two  and  report  it  to  him  at  once.  The  officers 
accordingly  took  the  two  men  to  the  river  side, 
where  they  bound  them  to  two  different  corpses  ; 
and  on  the  pretext  of  going  away  to  bring  fuel  for 
burning  them,  hid  themselves  close  by,  so  that  they 
could  overhear  without  being  seen.  The  two  men 
tliinkiiig  they  were  left  to  themselves,  now  felt  sure 
that  death  was  inevitable,  upon  which  the  ploughman 
said  to  the  thief,  *  Well,  thief,  you  are  a  remarkably 
clever  fellow,  you  have  succeeded  in  bringing 
death  and  ruin  upon  me  though  I  am  innocent.' 
The  thief  said  in  reply,  '  I  begged  you  not  to  adopt 
tilt-  course  you  took,  saying  that  if  you  quarrelled 
with  me  your  life  would  pay  the  forfeit.  For  my 
part,  I  am  a  thief,  and  death  is  just  the  punishment 
that  I  deserve.      But  you  are  going  to  lose  your  life 


^^i^  ^f^^i  'm^1  c^^  ^(t  r     ^JT^?  ^^fe  ^^T^ 
«^t  *ii:^?  ^f^^  ^51^  ^^^  ^t5  ^<i,  t^ic^  ft^^  ^t  5!i  I 

n»5t^  f^^C^  *^  ifft^TS  fifni^  ^ff^Tll  ^fe?T^  '(^  ^^^^l^ 

^t  «ic^?  ^ft^  ^'^^  ^^^  '^%^  ^ft^i  ^Hz'^v^  T^^i^ 


564        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.       [Chap, 

out  of  slieer  foolishness.'  The  ofTicers  overheard  the 
conversjition  and  at  once  report^^d  to  the  King 
who,  on  knowing  tlie  facts,  inflicted  a  suitable 
puni.^liment  o!i  the  thief  and  duly  rewarded  the 
ploughman." 

How  23  Ji      •>^"  A    husbandman  went  with  his  ploup^h    to 

fish  dis-  ,  ,  ^  ,    ^  ^.   ,^ 

appeared,  tlie  fields  one  day,  and  got  24  fish  from  a  neighbour- 
ing canal.  He  came  hack  to  his  home  and,  after 
having  made  over  the  fish  to  his  wife  for  cooking, 
returned  to  his  duties.  His  wife  prepared  a  currv 
with  the  fish  and  wanting  to  know  the  taste  of  her 
preparation  took  a  sip  from  it.  She  found  that 
it  tasted  well,  and  then  she  thought,  '  But  I  don't 
know  how  the  fish  tastes  ;  let  me  eat  one.'  So  she 
ate    a    fish,   and  then  she  thought  '  But  still  I  donot 

^^«i5f Q  ^f^r^f !'    t'^iv^  CT  2j^j^3  ^f?^  '^mfk  ^i^ 

^"  v^^    9^^r^  ^r^^  Ff^^  fniai  c^R  ^\z^  c^t&i 
'pf?c^  f*f^  'sjnfr  *;^^t^  ^fti^  c^^      ^^^  ^r^^ 

CT    i(<^^T    ^!?&    nt^    '15f<^l  ^r.^  f^«T5^1  ^f^^,  c^  ^^^ 

^tf^^i  TtI^^  c^f^  2i^!;i  ^1^^1   c^R^  c^  c^m  ^^T 


VIL]    BENGALI  l.ANGUAC.I-;  ^1  IJIKKAlUkh:.    865 

know  how  that  one  on  the  di^h  would  taste,  and 
she  ate  the  second  fish  also.  In  this  manner  she 
proceeded  till  she  had  finished  all  but  one  ;  and 
when  her  husband  came  home,  she  presented  him 
with  a  dish  of  rice  and  a  single  fish.  The  husband- 
man wondering  said  '  what  is  the  matter?  I  got  24 
fish;  what  about  the  rest  ?'  His  wife  gave  him  the 
following  account  of  the  fish. 

"You  brought  24  fish.     A  kite    fell    upon    them 
and  took  away  eight  ;  sixteen  rt^mained. 

''  I  took  them  to  the  tank  for    washing  and  eight 
swam  away  in  the  water  ;  eight  remained. 

"  [  got  two  bundles  of  fuel  in  exchange    of   two 
fish. 


^[^tV3     M%1     CWft,     ^51     ^ift^l     vfl^&l      ^V7[J       •^\^c\  I 

^i^'t  ^t^  c^m  I 
109 


866       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         [Chap. 

"  Your  good  neighbours  ought  to  have  a  share. 

*'  I  presented  them  with  six  ;  and  then  only  two 
remained. 

"  I  ate  one  to  see  how  it  tastes:  there  remained 
only  one. 

"  Look  for  that  on  the  dish. 

"  If  you  are  a  true  man  eat  the  bone  and  keep 
the  flesh  (for  me). 

"  Because  you  have  got  such  a  wife  as  myself, 
you  are  furnished  with  a  true  account. '^ 

The  above  two  extracts  illustrate  the  easy  and 
simple  style  which  is  to  be  found  in  some  of  the 
text  books  compiled  for  the  college  of  Fort  William 
in  which  Dr.  Carey  taught  the  Hti.galee.  fiindus- 
thani,  and  Maharathi  languages.  He  not  onlv 
contributed    vtrv    considerably    himself   to  Bengali 


A  friend  of 
Ben{!:ali        prose  literature,  but  always  befriended    those    who 

look  good  vernacular  work  in  hand.      For    instance 

we  lind  that   1  lu'ikur's  Bengali  and  Fnglish  Diction- 


wnters. 


^  nt^^ii:^  mfe^  cw«i  II 


VIL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  867 

ary,  an  admirable  work  of  scholarship,  was  com- 
piled for  the  Fort  W^illiam  College  in  1805  at  the 
suggestion  of  Dr.  Carey.  He  employed  Rama  Rama 
Vasu  and  Rajiva  Lochana  to  write  Pratapaditya 
Charita  and  Krisha  Chandra  Charita  respectively, 
the  former  of  which  appeared  in  1801,  and  the 
latter  in   1805. 

Thus    lived    Dr.    Carey    in    Bengal   from    1793 

when    he    first  landed  here  till  his  death  in  1834. —  His 

r  .1  VI  11  colleagues. 

one  01  those  rare  spirits  who,  crossing  the    barriers 

of  their  national  prejudices,  by  dint  of  that  all- 
embracing  brotherhood  which  every  true  Christian 
should  feel  for  all  men,  worked  without  a  thought 
of  reward  or  personal  aggrandisement.  He  and 
his  colleague  Mr.  J.  Marshman  had  nothing  to 
bequeath  to  their  children  at  death,  but  enough  as 
heritage  to  the  suffering  race  whose  cause  they 
espoused,  not  under  obligation  or  extraneous 
mandate,  but  according  to  the  dictates  of  their  own 
consciences  through  which  their  God  spoke  to  them. 
Amongst  his  other  colleagues  the  name  of  YateS; 
W.  Marton  (of  whom  the  Rev.  J.  Long  says  '  He 
is  one  of  the  ablest  Bengali  scholars  ever  produced 
in  the  country'),  and  the  Rev.  J.  Pearson  deserve  a 
special  mention  as  having  greatly  furthered  the 
cause  of  our  prose  literature. 


(c)  Bengali  works  written  by  Europeans 

The  works  written  in  the  vernacular  language 
about  this  time  by  European  writers  cover  a  vast 
field.  We  cannot  name  all  of  them.  We  confine 
ourselves  to  the  following  list  of  works,  and  our 
list   even    here  is  not  exhaustive    as   we    have    not 


868       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LIlEKAlUkE.       [Chap 

included  tliose  that  deal  with  Christianity.  There  is 
a  great  literature  of  translations  of  the  Bible  and 
treatises  on  Christianity  which  we  cannot  undertake 
to  dwell  upon  at  present.  The  list  below  is  mainly 
based  on  the  catalogue  on  vernacular  works  com- 
piled by  the  Rev.  J.  Long  in  1855.  Mo^t  of  these 
works  were  no  doubt  written  for  educational 
purposes. 


Arithmetic. 

1.  Smith's  zemindary  papers,  printed  at  the 
Cri  Ramapore  press  in   181 7. 

2.  Mr.  May's  Arithmetical  Table  selected  from 
those  employed  in  the  native  schools.  It  was 
published  in   18 17  and  called  May-Ganita. 

3.  Harley's  Arithmetic — Ganitanka.  First  Edi- 
tion appeared  from  Chinsura  in   18 19. 


Dictionarv. 

I  Rt  ngali  Dictionary  b\'  Forster, — a  Civilian 
and  Sanskrit  Scholar.  It  contains  18000  words. 
I'ul)li>lu'(l  ill   171CJ  in  two  volumes.      Price  Rs.  60. 

Miller's    Bengali    Dictionary,    j)ublished    in 
iSo  r .      i*rice  Rs.  ;i,2. 

3.  Ilauoliton's  Glossary,  j)ublishcd  in  1825. 

4.  HauL;litnn's  Brng.ili-to-h'n^lish  Dictionary, 
published  ;it  the  expense  of  the  C\3urt  of  Directors 
m   183.V      It  contains  40,000  words.      Price  Rs.  80. 

^.      Marshman'.s  lun^ali  Dictionarx'.      Published 


VIL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGli    &    LllKRAlUKE.  869 

6.  Marshman's  Bengali  and  English  Dictionary, 
published  in  1829.     Price  Ks.  10. 

7.  Rev.  J.  Pearson's  School  Dictionary,  pub- 
lished in  1829. 

8.  Morton's  Dictionary.  600  pages,  Quarto 
size.      Published  in  1828.      Price  Rs.  6. 

9.  Mendie's  Abridgment  of  Johnson's  Diction- 
ary (Bengali  and  English).  First  Edition  appeared 
in  1822. 

10.  Rozario's  Dictionary — 1837.     Price  Rs.  6. 


Ethics  and  moral  tales. 

1.  Dr.  Gilchrist's  Bengali  translation  of  y^sop's 
Fables — in  1803. 

2.  Upadegakatha  or  moral  tales  by  Stewart — 
in  1820. 

3.  Satguha  O  Viryya  (95  anecdotes  illustrating 
virtue  and  valour).  Price  Re.  1-8  as.  compiled  by 
a  Cri  Ramapore  Missionary  in  1829, 

4.  /Esop's  Fables  translated  by  Marshman. 

5.  Hitopade^a  by  Yates.     Published  in  1841. 

6.  Parasika  Itihasa  by  Kneane. 


Geography. 

1.  Bhugola  Evarii  Jyotisa   (dialogues    on    Geo- 
graphy and  Astronomy)    by  Pearson.    Published   in 

1824. 

2.  A    Map    of    the    world    in    Bengali    by    G. 
Herklotts  (1825). 

3.  J  Sutherland's  Geography  of  India. 


870         BKNGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

4.  Fearce's  Bhugola  Vrittanta     Geography^ — 
in  1818. 

5.  Sandy's  General    Geography    in    Bengali — 
in  1842. 


Grammar. 
r.     Halhed's  Bengali  Grammar — in  1778. 

2.  Carey's  Grammar — in  1801. 

3.  iMurray's  English  Grammar  translated  into 
Bengali  by  Rev.  J.  Pearson — in  1820. 

4.  Sir  C.  Haughton's  Grammar.  Price  Rs.  15. 
Published  in  1S21. 

5.  J.  Robinson's  Bengali  Grammar  (a  transla- 
tion of  Carey's  Anglo-Bengali  Grammar).  Pages 
109. 

6.  Keat's  Bengali  Grammar  (Ket-Vyakarana). 
Published  in  1820.  Pages  59.  Price  2  as.  From 
1 820- 1 854  upwards  of  15,000  copies  were  sold. 

7.  Wcnger's  Bengali  Grammar.  Pages  156. 
Price  Re.   1-4  as. 


History  and  Biography. 

1.  Goldsmith's  History  of  England  translated 
into  Bengali  by  VeVw  Carey  in  18 19.     Pages  412. 

2.  Captain  Stewart's  Moral  tales  of  History 
with  selections  of  historical  subjects  such  as — 
glinijisrs  o{  the  early  days  of  I^ngland,  with  moral 
instruction,  historical  anecdotes — illustrative  of 
friendship,  industry,  justice,  pride,  anger  ;  the  arrival 
ol  the  English  in  India,  the  Rules  of  the  per- 
mani-nt  settlement. 


VII.]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  87 1 

3.  Itihasa  Samuchaya  or  Epitome  of  ancient 
history  by  Pearson.  Pages  364.  Price  Re.  i. 
This  book  gives  an  account  of  the  history  of 
Egypt,  Assyria,  Babylon,  Medea,  Persia,  Greece 
and  Rome. 

4.  Prachina  Itihasa  by  Pearson.  Published  in 
1830.  Pages  623,  compiled  from  Rollin  and 
Anquetel  ;  it  gives  brief  account  of  the  Egyptians, 
Assyrians,  Babylonians,  Medes  and  Persians, 
Grecians,  Romans,  treating  of  manners,  customs, 
buildings,  natural  productions,  laws,  Government 
and  history  of  those  States, 

5.  Vanga  De9a  Puravritta  translated  from 
Marshman's  History  by  Wenger.     Pages  284. 

6.  Dharma  Pustaka  Vrittanta  by  Mrs.  Haeberlin. 
Published  in  1846.      Pages  252  with  27  woodcuts. 

7.  Kala  Kramika  Itihasa  by  G.  Pearce,  pub- 
lished in  1838.     Pages  89  with  10  wood  cuts. 

8.  Daniel  Charita  by  Morton.  Pages  345  ; 
— in  1836. 

g.  Puravritta  Samksepa  by  J.  Marshman  ; — 
1^33-     Pages  515.     Price  Rs.  3. 

10.  Bliarata  Varsiya  Itihasa  by  J.  Marshman. 
Two  Volumes,  1831.     Price  Rs.  8. 

11.  Tucker's  History  of  the  Jews  translated 
into  Bengali  by  J.  Kempbell.  Pages  257.      1845. 

12.  Mahammad  Jivana  Charita  by  Rev.  J.  Long. 
Pages  121.  Founded  exclusively  on  Arabic  autho- 
rities as  given  in  the  works  of  Sprenger,  Weile,  and 
Caussin  de  Percival — treats  of  Geography,  Natural 
History  and  religious  state  of  Arabia  previous  to 
iMahammad's  time,  Mahammad's  youthful  days,    his 


872       BKNGALl    LANGUAGE    &    LITKRATURE.        [Chap. 

trading,  when  40  years  old  he  announces  a  new 
faith,  opposition  of  his  relatives,  becomes  a  warrior, 
his  polyt^amy.  messages  to  foreign  rulers,  regula- 
tions for  his  followers  :  death  in  tiie  midst  of  his 
plans.  "The  second  part  now  in  the  press  will  take 
in  the  spread  of  Moslemism,  the  Koran,  Moslemism 
as  at  present,  the  festivals  and  sects  of  the  Maho- 
medans/' 


Medicine 


I.  Carev's  Bengali  Anatomy  (Hadavali  \'idya) 
Pages  638.  Price  Rs.  6.  Published  from  the 
Cri  Ramapore  press  in  1820.  Designed  in  18 18  to 
form  the  first  part  of  a  Bengali  Encyclop.'edea,  to 
consist  chiefly  of  translation  of  'esteemed  compen- 
diums  of  European  art  and   science.' 

J.  Bachelor's  Medical  Guidr.  Pages  358.  Price 
Re.  I. 


Mensuratioi 


I.  Robinson's  Bengali  Mensuration  (Bhumi 
F\iriin3na)  1850.  The  author  was  an  Inspector  of 
(ioveriimcnt  Schools  in  Assam  and  the  neiglihour- 
ing  districts.  I'his  work  gives  the  elements  of  land- 
surveying  and  rules  for  finding  the  areas  of  16 
jilain  figures,  it  contains  10  problems — to  find  the 
;irea  of  a  stjuare,  of  a  rectangular  parallelogram  : 
an  ()bli(iue-angled  j)arallelogram,  a  trapezium,  a 
circle,  ellipse,  two  sides  of  right-angled  triangle, 
a  triangle,  a  right  angled  triangle.' 


I 


VIL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LI  lERATUKE.  873 

Readers. 

1.  Yule's  Spelling  book — ^igu  Vodhodaya.  A 
spelling  book  with  short  sentences  and  verses  for 
readinor. 

o 

2.  Haughton's  Selections,  containing  10  stories 
from  the  Tota  Itihasa,  4  from  the  Vatriya  Simha- 
sana  and  4  from  the  Purusa  Pariksa.  Published 
in  1822.     Price  Rs.  10. 

3.  Ksetra  Bhagana  Vivarana  or  Agri-horticul- 
tural Transactions,  by  J.  Marshman,  pages  730. 
Published  in  1831  in  two  volumes. 

4.  Cigu  Ciksa  or  Object  Lessons — by  J.  Weit- 
brecht,  in  1852. 

5.  Pragnavali — by  J.  Long.  This  book  contains 
questions  on  the  animal,  vegetable  and  mineral 
kingdoms,  taken  from  objects  in  this  country — de- 
signed to  call  forth  the  curiosity  of  the  young 
people,  and  show  them  the  wonders  existing  in 
common  objects  around  them. 


Natural  Philosophy. 

1.  Padartha  Vidya  Sara  or  Natural  Philosophy 
and  History  by  Yates,  compiled  from  Martinet's 
Catechism  of  nature,  William's  Preceptor's  Assist- 
ance and  Bayley^s  Useful  Knowledge,  designed  as 
an  easy  entrance  to  the  path  of  science — treats 
of  the  properties  of  matter — the  firmament  and 
heavenly  bodies,  air,  wind,  vapour,  rain,  earth, 
man,  animals,  birds,  fishes,  insects,  worms,  plants, 
flowers,  grass,  grain,  minerals  and  miscellaneous 
productions.     Published  in  1825. 

2.  Yate's  Padartha  Vidya — 1824.     Pages  91. 

iio. 


874      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap, 

3.  Kimiya  Vidya  Sara  or  Chemistry  by  Mack, 
pages  337— price  Rs.  2-8  as, — treats  of  Chemical 
forc(.'S,  Caloric,  Light,  Electricity,  Chemical  sub- 
stances, Oxygen,  Chloride,  Bromine,  Hydrogen, 
Nitrogen,  Sulphur,  Phosphorus,  Carbon,  Boron, 
Selenium,  the  steam  ens^ine-. 


Miscellaneous. 

1.  Rev.  J.  Pearson's  Patha9ala  \^ivarana — a 
translation  of  the  more  im.portant  part  of  Dr. 
Bell's  instruction  for  modelling  and  conducting 
schools.      Published  from  Chinsura  in  18 ig. 

2.  Patra  Kaumudi,  composed  by  the  Rev. 
J.  Pearson,  contains  286  letters  on  familiar  sub- 
jects, commercial  and  familiar  correspondence, 
forms  of  leases,  zemindary  accounts  and  other 
forms  in  common  use.  First  edition  18 19,  sixth 
edition   1852  ;  8,500  copies  sold  within  this  period. 

3.  Pathavali  by  the  Rev.  J.  Long — extracts 
chieBy  from  native  works,  on  the  life  of  a  shepherd 
astronomer,  Punjab  salt  mines,  silk  worms,  Moslem 
saints,  frog  in  a  tone,  printing  the  wonderful  veil, 
the  transparent  watch,  the  lower  of  Pnndiia,  ghata- 
murders,  steam  engines,  women  devoted  to  Christ, 
a  wond(!rful  spring,  the  gold  and  silver  of  Scrip- 
ture, balloons,  Rama  MohanaRay,  productions  of 
India-tin,  lead  and  copper  of  Scripture,  human 
body,  Siamese  twins,  breathing,  sagacity  o\' 
elephants,  etc. 

4.  Sanuada  Sara  or  selections  from  the  native 
press  by  Rev.  J.  Long,  1853;  pages  198.   Price  6  as. 

5.  ^'ates'    Prose    selections,  vol.  1,  1847.  P^gt^s 
428.     Price  Rs.  5. 


VIL  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.         S75 

6.  Prose  selections  from  Bengali  literature  by 
Yates,  vol.  II,  Octavo  size,  pages  407;  gives  18 
tales  of  a  parrot,  9  letters  from  the  Lipimala,  14 
stories  from  Vatriga  Sirhhasana,  notices  of  Indian 
kings  from  the  Raja  vail,  the  History  of  Raja 
Krisua  Chandra  Ray  of  Krishnagar,  16  moral  tales 
from  the  Purusa  Pariksa,  5  chapters  of  the  Hito- 
pade^a,  9  moral  essays  from  the  Jnana  Chandrika 
and  9  from  the  Jnanarfiava,  4th  chapter  of  Pravodha 
Chandrika,  chapters  against  idolatry  from  the  Tatta 
Praka^a,  History  of  Nala  from  the  Mahabharata, 
specimens  of  Rama  Mohona  Ray's  hymns,  selec- 
tions from  two  native  newspapers. 

7.  Vakyavali  Jdiomatical  exerciseS;  by  J.  Pear- 
son, pages  294,  Price  Re.  i.  A  phrase-book  with 
examples  of  words  alphabetically  arranged  ;  "  very 
useful  for  either  natives  wishing  to  learn  colloquial 
English  idioms  or  Europeans  wishing  to  know 
Bengali  dialogues."  Forms  of  letters  and  notes  ; 
appeared  in  1819. 

8.  Sara  Sarhgraha  by  Yates,  1845. 

We  have  quite  a  large  number  of  Law  books 
translated  into  Bengali  by  European  writers. 
Forster's  translation  of  the  Regulations  of  1793,  a 
work  about  400  pages, — is  a  curiosity  both  as  to  style 
and  typography.  We  have  besides  the  Regulations 
of  1802 — 1809,  pages  504,  translated  by  TurnbuU 
and  Sutherland.  Ditto  1816 — 1821  by  Wynch;  the 
Navavidhana  or  abstract  of  miscellaneous  Regula- 
tions of  1793 — 1824;  Dewani  Ain  Sara  and  Rja 
Samparkiya  Ain  (in  two  volumes)  by  Marshman, 
any  many  other  works  of  this  nature. 


876        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap, 

9.  In  1818  a  Bengali  Encyclopaedea  was  com- 
menced at  Cri  Ramapore,  but  only  one  part,  Carey's 
Anatomy,  was  completed.  In  1828  the  society  for 
translating  European  sciences  with  H.  Wilson  as 
president  started  the  Vijnana  Sevadhi,  a  serial  on 
the  plan  of  the  Library  of  useful  knowledge.  It 
reached  15  numbers  embracing  Indian  Geography, 
Hydrostatics,  Mechanics,  Optics,  Pneumatics  and 
Brougham's  discourse  on  the  advantage  of  Science. 

10.  Virgil's  yEneid.  First  book  translated  into 
Bengali  by  J.  Serjeant,  a  Civilian  and  a  student  of 
Fort  William  College,  pages  65  ;  it  came  out  in  1805. 

11.  Shakespeare's  Tempest,  translated  into 
Bengali  by  Monckton,  a  student  of  the  Fort  Wil- 
liam College. 

12.  First  Part,  Robinson  Crusoe.  Pages  261. 
Translated  into  plain  Bengali  by  the  Rev.  J.  Robin- 
son, illustrated  by  18  wood-cuts.  A  second  edition 
was  published  in  1855. 

13.  Pilgrim's  Progress,  translated  into  Bengali 
in  two  volumes  by  Felix  Carey. 

14.  Gladwin's  Pleasant  stories,  translated  into 
Bengali,  by  George  Gallowway  in  1S40. 

15.  Mylius'  School  Dictionarv,  translated  by 
J.  Lavandii.-r. 

16.  Historv  of  a  lion. 

17.  Life  of  Ivitik  Chand  by  the  R(>v.  J.  Lawson. 

iS.  Madhu's  conversation, — by  the  Rev.  W. 
MorliMi. 

i().  Lamb's  Tales  from  Shakespeare,  trans- 
liici]  l.v  Dr.   Rnrv. 


VII*]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  877 


20.     Memoir 
W.  Ward. 


of  Pitamvar    Singh  by   the    Rev. 


"On  the  31st  of   May,  1818,  the  first  newspaper  News-' 

ever   printed   in   any  oriental  lanoruas^e,  was  issued    papers  and 
^  ^  t5      t,   )  Magazines. 

from  the  Cri  Ramapore  Press  ;    it    was    called    the 

Samachara  Darpana  or  the  'Mirror  of  News.^   It  was 
started   jointly  by  Dr.    Marshman    and   Dr.  Ward. 

In  February,  18 18,  Dr.  Marshman  published 
the  Dikdargana,  a  monthly  journal,  in  which  amongst 
other  subjects,  there  was  given  an  account  of  the 
life  of  Raja  Krisna  Chandra  of  Nadia. 

The  Satya  Pradipa  by  Mr.  Town  send, — started 
in  1850,  was  a  most  useful  paper  ;  it  gave  2.  precis 
of  news,  correspondence,  wood-cuts  with  descrip- 
tions of  objects  in  art  and  nature. 


The  above  list  shows  that  European  writers, 
chiefly  missionaries,  were  the  pioneers  in  all  depart- 
ments of  vernacular-writing  which  grew  into  favour 
with  the  awakening  of  Hindu  intelligence  under 
British  rule.  Every  subject,  from  the  principles  of 
Arithmetic,  Botany,  Astronomy,  Anatomy,  Chemis- 
try down  to  Law,  is  comprised  in  this  list.  The 
extraordinary  energy  displayed  by  foreign  writers 
in  mastering  the  idioms  and  technicalities  of  our 
language,  and  dealing  with  such  widely  divergent 
subjects,  is  a  sure  proof  of  the  earnestness  of  their 
philanthropic  mission.  The  writer  of  the  present 
treatise  can  hardly  refrain  from  giving  expression 
to  his  gratitude,  while  reviewing  these  works,  for 
the  impetus  given  by  them  to  the  native  mind  in 
acquiring  the  knowledge  so  essential  for  the  needs 
of  modern  civilisation.  They  laid  the  foundations 
upon    which   the    vast    fabric    of  our   present-day- 


The 

impetus 

given  by 

European 

writers. 


878      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.       [  Chap< 

literature  is  based — a  literature  which  though  neces- 
sarily lacking  in  originality,  chiefly  consisting  as  it 
does  of  translations  and  compilations,  promises  to 
rise  to  universal  esteem  under  favourable  circums- 
tances, when  it  shall  have  passed  its  noviciate  in 
acquiring  all  that  it  can  assimilate  from  the  vast 
resources  of  occidental  learninor. 


Contact 

with  the 

west. 


The  past 
ideal. 


(d)     A  new  ideal  in  the  country. 

In  the  chapter  on  the  Pauranic  Renaissance,  we 
noticed  how  mythological  stories,  fraught  with  a 
s{)irit  of  noble  martyrdom  and  sacrifice,  had  eleva- 
ted the  minds  of  the  people,  and  helped  in  spiritua- 
lisinor  them.  The  Pauranic  revivalists  had  held 
the  earliest  torch  to  enlighten  our  masses  after 
Buddhism  had  declined  in  the  country.  The  efforts 
of  the  missionaries  and  European  scholars  in 
giving  culture  through  the  medium  of  Bengali,  now 
again  after  a  lapse  of  nearly  700  years,  served  to 
awaken  the  Bengali  mind  to  the  consciousness  of 
new  ideas,  the   ideal  of  western  civilisation. 

It  was  as  if  the  home-stayers  of  Bengal  had 
suddenly  left  the  precints  of  home  and  launched 
out  into  the  wide  world.  Hitherto  the  highest  and 
noblest  ideas  that  had  inspired  the  Hindu  mind  in 
Bengal  had  drawn  their  impetus  from  home  and 
from  domestic  life.  Obedience  to  parents,  loyalty 
to  the  husband,  devotion  to  brothers  and  sacriiices 
to  be  undergone  for  guests,  servants  and  relations, 
had  all  been  ek^vated  into  the  highest  virtues,  and 
the  Puranas  had  supj)lit^d  inexhaustible  examples, 
illustrating  each  of  these  qualities.  Kama  who  left 
tlu'  throne  and  became  an   ascetic,  and  Visma,  who 


VIL  ]        BENGALI    LAr^GUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         879 

took  the  VOW  of  celibacy,  foregoing  his  rightful 
claims  to  the  throne  of  Indraprastha,  typify  the 
highest  example  of  filial  obedience.  Sita,  Savitri, 
Damayaiiti,  Cakuntala,  Behula  in  the  past  and 
hundreds  of  those  in  the  later  age  who  courted 
death  on  the  funeral  pyre  of  their  husbands,  showed 
that  the  ideal  of  nuptial  duties  in  this  land  was 
capable  of  raising  women  to  the  highest  martyrdom. 
Hanumana  typifies  devotion  to  a  master,  and 
Ekalavya  to  the  religious  preceptor.  The  home 
was  the  great  sanctuary  where  sacrifices  and 
martyrdoms  were  to  be  undergone  for  the  sake 
of  those  sacred  ties  which  bind  one  to  it  ;  and  this 
would,  according  to  the  notion  of  the  Hindus, 
iiifalliably  lead  him  to  a  realisation  of  the  supreme 
duty  which  a  man  owes  to  God, — culminating  in^.a 
glorious  renunciation  of  home  for  the  good  of  the 
soul  and  of  the  world.  Indeed,  in  a  place  where 
a  joint  and  undivided  family  system  required  a  man 
to  live  and  eat  together  with  all  his  near  kinsmen, 
it  would  be  impossible  to  live  in  harmony  without 
elevating  the  domestic  duties  into  the  highest 
virtues.  Hence  no  other  nation  has  ever  given  so 
high  a  value  to  domestic  duties,  identifying  them 
so  closely  with  the  spiritual. 

The  literature  of  a  race  inspired  with  such  ideas 
has  a  unique  value.  Its  scope  may  be  compara- 
tively small,  but  within  its  own  narrow  limits,  it  is 
deeper  and  purer  than  one  could  expect  from  a 
literature  covering  a  wider  range.  The  Bengali 
literature  of  the  past  had  been  reserved  for  the 
Bengalis  alone  ;  a  fact  which  gives  it  an  original 
character,  displaying  the  subtle  turns  of  the  intel- 
lectual and  spiritual  qualities  of  the  race  ;    and  one, 


S8o         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap» 

who  may  feel  interested  in  studying  our  national 
ideas  and  aspirations,  would  do  well  to  read  this 
ancient  literature,  which,  for  a  century  after  the 
English  conquest,  lay  neglected  and  uncared  for, — 
consigned  to  the  care  of  the  Batatala  publishing 
agencies  of  Calcutta. 

The  old  From  the  home  to  the  world — it  was    a   descent 

and  the         .  ,        tt-       i  i         i    •  r  ,      ,    r 

new.  iroFii    the    Himalayas   to  the  plains, — from  the  lofty 

spiritual   idea    permeating    the    Hindu    home, — the 
visions   of  beatitude   which    it    was    the    dream   of 
every   great   Hindu    to    attain, — to    the    matter-of- 
fact  world  and  to  an  observation    of  things  that  are 
taking  shape  and  changing  all   arround  ; — from  the 
great  examples   of  Bhisma   and    Rama — cherished 
in  the  heart  of  every    Hindu — the   loftiest   like  the 
loftiest  peak  of  the  Himalayas, — to    the    stories    of 
Duval's  assiduity  in  learning,  and  Sir  Philiph    Syd- 
ney's offering  his  cup  of  water  to  the  dying  soldier  ; 
— from  the  pursuit  and  acquisition  of  Yoga    to    the 
knowledge    of    a    Geographical    catechism, — to  be 
able  to  point  out    Popocatepetl    on    a   map    of  the 
globe, — from    the    celestial    songs    of    Radha     and 
Krisfia,   which    while    gratifying    all    our  yearnings 
for  the  loftiest  of  human  love,  have  kept  a  door  con- 
stantly open  heaven-wards, — to  the  stories  of  Paul 
and  Virginia  or  of  y^neas  and  Dido  :  the  descent  is 
as    gr(\at    as  one  from  the  Himalayas  to  the  plains. 
But     a    race     of      people     confined     within     the 
narrow  grooves  of  their  own  thoughts  were   dragg- 
vd    out    to    observe    the    wonders   of  the  world,  of 
which  thev  had  hitherto  known  nothing,    nor   cared 
to   know, — nipping    in    the   bud  all  curiosity  about 
the    material    world    by    fabrication     of    monstrous 


VII.  ]       BRNGAIJ    LANGUAGF.    &    LITERATURE.         88l 

stories  to  explain  the  origin  of  things.  To  ex- 
plain earthquakes,  they  had  fabricated  the  story  of 
Vasuki,  the  great  serpent  who  upholds  the  earth, 
as  shaking  his  hydra-heads  a  little.  To  explain 
the  origin  of  the  universe  they  had  invented  the 
story  of  the  golden  t^gg  that  burst  ;  with  regard  to 
the  sea  their  idea  was,  that  there  were  seven  seas 
— 'One  of  curd,  one  of  wine,  one  of  salt,  one  of 
milk,  and  so  forth  ;  and  as  to  the  earth,  that  it 
consisted  of  seven  islands  and  had  a  triangular 
shape.  I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  the  race,  who 
first  formulated  the  principles  of  Arithmetic, 
Trigonometry,  Geometrv  and  Astronomy,  and  from 
whom  the  world  learned  these  sciences,  was  so 
stupid  as  not  to  know  the  simple  truths  of  Physical 
Geography,  a  Bhaskaracharyya  or  a  Varaliamihira 
certainly  knew  them,  and  many  things  more,  in 
advance  of  their  age.  But  after  the  revival  of 
Hinduism  the  spirit  of  inquiry  had  been  directed 
from  the  material  to  the  metaphysical  world  ;  the 
masses  cared  not  to  know  the  facts  or  the  laws  of 
the  external  world,  and  were  content  with  fables 
regarding  them,  because  the  temporal  had  no 
longer  any  attraction  for  them.  They  took  the 
same  interest  in  the  outer  world  as  a  globe-trotter 
takes  in  what  he  sees.  Their  knowledge  of  their 
surroundings  was  as  superficial  and  as  full  of 
mistakes  as  that  of  one  who  merely  passes  through  a 
countrv,  thinking  that  this  is  not  his  true  home. 
The  Hindus  showed  the  subtlest  knowledge  with 
regard  to  that "  world  which  they  considered  to 
be  the  only  real  one.  and  their  Metaphysics  is  a 
mixture  of  the  simple  and  the  complex,  in  various 
grades  of  spiritual  thoughts,  springing    from    those 

HI 


882      BRNGAIJ    LANGUAGE    &    LirRRATURE.       [  Chap, 

of    home    life — reaching  the  loftiest   range-    in    tlie 
conception  of  the  Nirguna. 

Nothing  strikes  a  man  so  greatly  as  his  contact 
with  a  person  who  possesses  qualities  other  than 
his  own,  and  the  Bengalis  are  a  race  who  owing 
to  their  keen  intellectual  powers  can  at  once  enter 
upon  a  new  field,  as  soon  as  it  is  presented  to 
them.  European  hand-books  and  manuals  took 
them  bv  surprise.  They  disclosed  a  world  to  them 
of  which  they  knew  nothing.  They  saw  in  the  civili- 
sation of  Europe  a  success  and  acquisition  of  power 
which  struck  them  with  wonder  and  they  became 
willing  disciples  of  the  new  teachers.  In  the  pas- 
sionate sincerity  of  our  race  to  acquire  new  know- 
ledge, thev  forgot  their  home,  their  literature,  their 
wonderful  success  in  metaphysical  learning,  and 
their  great  spirituality,  and  felt  that  they  were 
dwarfed  in  the  presence  of  that  great  materialistic 
civilisation  which,  armed  with  thunder  and  Hehtnine 
and  with  the  tremendous  power  of  steam,  stood 
knocking  at  their  door — demanding  audience. 

\'oung  Bengal,  as  the  new  generation  of  the 
Bengalis  were  then  called,  became  thoroughlv 
anglicised  in  spirit.  Tliey  exulted  in  Shakespeare's 
dramas  and  Milton's  poetry;  thev  read  Schil- 
ler's Robbers  and  (joethe's  Faust;  they  could 
name  all  the  English  dramatists  of  the  Elezabethan 
age — Marlow,  Philip  Massinger,  Ford,  John  Webs- 
Bengal.''  ^^^'*'  ^cn  Johnson  and  Shirley  and  reproduce  from 
memory  lines  from  still  earlier  dramatists  and  from 
Holinshcd's  chronicles  which  Shakespeare  had  im- 
proved on,  in  many  a  noble  line.  They  grew  mad 
after  Shelley's   Epipsychidion,  Keat's  Hyperion  and 


VIL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         883 

even  after  Chatterton's  Death  of  Charles  Bodwin. 
Poor  Chandi  Das,  poor  Vidyapati  and  Kavi  Kan- 
kana  I  the  tears  of  your  departed  spirit  fell  on  the 
big  towns  of  Bengal  which  lay  under  the  charm  of 
European  influence, — mixed  with  nocturnal  dews 
and  unheeded  by  Young  Bengal,  who  despised 
their  own  country  from  the  bottom  of  their  hearts 
and  yet  posed  as  representatives  of  the  people 
in  public  meetings  ! 


The  College  of  Fort  William. 

The  College  of  Fort  William  established  by 
r.ord  Wellesley  in  1800  was  an  institution,  which 
having  directly  in  view  the  imparting  of  knowledge 
of  different  languages  and  other  subjects  to  the 
European  candidates  for  the  Civil  Service,  proved  to 
be  a  bond  of  sympathy  and  good  will  between  the 
rulers  and  the  ruled.  The  test  of  proficiency  was 
high  and  severe.  It  was  laid  down  that  "  Before 
any  Civilian  could  obtain  a  degree,  he  was  required 
to  demonstrate  his  knowledge  of  the  native  lan- 
guages by  holding  in  regard  to  the  service  in  Ben- 
gal, four  disputations  in  the  Persian  or  Bengali  lan- 
guage   before    all    Calcutta    in    an  august  assembly 

comprised    of    the    natives    of  rank    and    learnincr,       A  know- 
...  ledge  of 

Rajas,   Foreign    Ministers,    Pundits  and  Munsies.''    the   verna- 

It  w^as^further  ordained  that  "  no  promotion  was   to     se'nUal  for 

be   given    in   the  public  service  throughout  India  in    ^^^  Rulers. 

any  branch  of  the  service  held  by   Civilians    except 

through  the  channel  of  the  College." 

This  College  w-as  a  place  where  the  European 
candidates'for  the  Civil  Service,  European  profes- 
sors and  some  of  the  best  Indian  intellects  met    oi^ 


884      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LllERATURE.       [Chap. 

terms  of  intimacy.  It  was  not  a  meeting  between 
officers  and  their  subordinates  which  necessarily 
becomes  formal  for  the  discharge  of  official  func- 
tions, but  of  those  who  made  it  a  great  point  of 
their  earnest  endeavours  to  understand  one  another 
mutually.  The  study  of  the  oriental  languages, 
a  high  standard  of  proficiency  in  which  was  made 
compulsory,  enabled  the  Civilians  to  comprehend 
the  inner  feelings  and  ideals  of  the  vast  population 
whom  they  were  called  upon  to  rule.  The  College 
of  Fort  William  produced  the  most  salutary  results. 
creating  a  sympathetic  attitude  in  European  minds 
towards  the  native  community,  and  both  section^ 
derived  great  profit  from  an  interchange  of  thoughts. 
In  the  case  of  our  countrymen,  this  result  was 
manifest  in  the  adoption  of  European  manners  and 
in  the  preference  given  to  the  civilisation  ol  the 
west,  and  in  the  case  of  the  European  Civil 
servants,  in  their  sympathetic  attitude  towards  the 
people  of  this  country,  and  in  the  hearty  interest 
taken  in  all  the  movements  of  reform  calculated  to 
improve  the  condition  of   the  latt«'r. 

The  \  ast  ^ '^^'     ''^'\^^'    ^l     studies    marketl    out    tor    the 

raiiKc  of  stmi.MU.s  in  the  Collei^e  was  verv  extensive.  It 
studies  cmbracttd  the  modern  languages  ot  Europe,  the 
(ircek.  Latin  anil  Hnglish  Classics;  Gcograj^h^•  dud 
Maihcniati(>  ;  gcmral  Ilistorv.  Botany.  Chemistry 
and  Aslrununi\  ;  luhics  .md  jurisjirudencc.  the 
laws  of  nations — of  l^ngland.  and  in  reference  to 
Indian  studies  the  Arabic,  Persian.  Sanskrit  Hin- 
dustani. Brngali,  Telegu.  Mahratta.  Tamil  and 
('anare.se  languages  and  the  history  <>\  the  anti- 
«|uiti.>  ,)t  Hindustan  and  the  Oecan. .  Thr 


I 


VII.  ]       BENGALI    LAiNGUAGE    &    LH  EKA  lURE.         885 

college  was  considered  one  of  the  most  important 
departments  of  the  State,  and  the  Senior  members 
of  the  Government  were  required  in  virtue  of  their 
office,  to  take  a  share  in  its  management.  Lord 
Wellesley  proposed  to  erect  a  spacious  and  magni- 
ficent edifice  for  the  institution  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  of  Calcutta  at  Garden  Reach,  suit- 
able  for  the  accommodation  of  all  professors  and 
500  students  with  a  public  hall,  library,  chapel  and 
other  requisite  apartments." 

"  Such  was  the  gr^nd  institution  which,  Lord 
Wellesley  projected  to  qualify  the  public  function- 
aries for  their  ofiicial  duties.  It  was  the  noblest 
and  most  comprehensive  plan  of  usefulness  which 
had  been  devised  since  the  Factory  had  grown 
into  an  Empire." 

"  The  incitements  to  exertion  in  the  College  of 
Fort  William  were  of  the  highest  and  most  effective 
nature  and  its  moral,  economical  and  religious 
discipline  such  as  was  admirably  calculated  to 
promote  all  that  was  virtuous  and  useful  in  civil 
society.* 

"  Several  of  those  who  attained  the  highest 
posts  in  the  empire,  and  many,  who,  if  they  did  not 
reach  such  a  proud  eminence  yet  departed  with  the 
esteem  of  the  high,  and  confidence  of  the  lowly, 
laid  the  foundation  of  future  success  within  the 
precincts  of  the  College.  The  well-known  names  of 
Macnaghton.  Bayley,  Jenkins,  Haughton,  Prinsep 
and  others,  are  sufficient  to  prove  the  justness  of 
this  observation. "t 


*  Memoirs  of  Dr.  Buchanan  Vol.  I,  Pao-e  208. 
t   Calcvitta  Review,  Vol.  V. 


886       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LlfERATUKE.       [Chap. 

(b)  The  Pundits  of  the  College. 

The  movement  for  undertaking  literary  and 
scientific  works  in  Bengali  prose,  mainly  initiated 
by  the  Europeans,  served  to  evoke  the  zeal  of  the 
enlightened  native  community  who  pursued  it  with  » 
great  vigour  and  activity.  Some  of  the  best  prose 
works,  on  the  lines  indicated  in  the  vernacular 
writings  of  Europeans,  were  compiled  by  the 
Pundits  of  the  Fort  William  College,  where  Dr. 
Carey,  as  a  professor  of  the  vernacular  langnagt-. 
wielded  a  great  influence,  and  was  evrr  ready  to 
render  all  possible  help  to  all  undertakings  to 
promote'the  cause  of  vernacular  literature.  The 
works  written  by  Bengali  authors  in  this  period 
mainly  follow  European  models  in  style,  and  the 
best  of  them,  making  all  possible  allowances,  scarce- 
ly possess  the  worth  o\  second  class  literary  pro- 
ductions, whereas  most  of  the  others,  while  embody- 
ing rudimentary  information  in  all  departments  of 
useful  knowledge,  are  mere  translations  of  European 
works — mostly  school-books. 

TIk-  Pundits  of  the  Fort  William  College,  as  I 
have  said,  wrote  many  Bengali  prose  works  about 
this  time  which  enjoyed  great  popularity  not  only 
with  thr:  native  community  but  with  the  luiropeans, 
specially  the  candidates  for  Civil  Service  Examina- 
tion who  had  to  read  them  as  text-books  in  that 
College. 

"  At  the  head  of   the   establishment  ol  Pundits."' 

Mrityun-         .a  the  I'ort  William  Collefi^e)  writes  1.  C.  Marshman 
ja.va 

in    his    hi>tor\     ot   Cri    Ksmapur      Mission,     stood 

■  Mrityunjaya,  who   although    a  native    of    Orissa,"^' 

Miitv  unj.tv.i      Tarkdlankara   wa;.     born     in      1762    A.  D.    at 

Miilnapur 


VIL]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    AND    LITKRATL'RE.       887 

usually  regarded  as  the  Boeotia  of  the  country,  was 
a  colossus  of  literature.  He  bore  a  stron^  resem- 
blance to  our  great  lexicographer  not  only  by  his 
stupendous  acquirements  and  the  soundness  of  his 
-critical  judgments  but  also  in  his  rough  features 
and  un\yeildv  figure.  His  kno\yledge  of  the  Sanskrit 
classics  was  unrivalled,  and  his  Bengali  composition 
has  never  been  surpassed  for  ease,  simplicity  and 
vigour.  Mr.  Carey  sat  under  his  instruction  two 
or  three  hours  daily  while  in  Calcutta,  and  the  effect 
of  this  intercourse  was  speedily  visible  in  the 
superior  accuracy  and  purity  of  his  translations. 
In  the  English  preface  to  the  Probhoda  Chandrika, 
Marshman  says  of  Mrityunjayaas  "  one  of  the  most 
profound  scholars  of  the  age." 

Of  the  Bengali  works  written  by  Mrityunjaya, 
his  Prabodha  Chandrika  is  a  monument  of  learn- 
ing;  it  contains  dissertations  on  Hindu  Astronomy, 
Rhetoric,  Law,  Logic.  Philosophy  and  other  branch- 
es of  learning  of  which  the  author  was  a  perfect 
master.  He  makes  a  curious  hotch-potch  of  the 
wliole  by  combining  the  serious  with  the  comic. 
Tiie  metaphysical  subjects  are  huddled  up  with 
colloquies  of  artizans  and  rustics,  and  the  whole 
is  treated  without  much  care  for  arrangement  or 
system.  The  book  was  written  in  1813.  An 
edition  of  it  appeared  in  1833  ^^ter  the  author's 
death.  Marshman  further  says  in  the  preface, 
"  the  book  is  written  in  the  purest  Bengali  of  which 
indeed    it    may    be    considered    one    of    the     most 

beautiful  specimens Any    person    who  can 

comprehend    the    present    work    and  enter  into  the 
spirit    of  its  beauties  may    justly    consider    himself 


888        BENGALI    I.ANGl'AGE    Sc    LITERATURE.      [Chap. 

master  of  the  language."  Mrityunjaya  Tarkalankara 
wrote  Raj  avail  in  1808.  It  traces  the  history  of 
India  from  the  earliest  time  down  to  Timur.  Mr. 
Ward  in  his  work  on  the  Hindus  bestows  a  high 
encomium  upon  this  book.  It  contains  some  of  the 
traditions  about  ancient  Hindu  kings  which  may  be 
of  much  help  to  the  students  of  Indian  history  in 
substantiating  thereby  some  of  the  informations 
derived  from  copper-plate  inscriptions  and  other 
historical  sources.  The  book  is  written  in  a  simple 
style,  though  some  of  the  expressions  used  by  the 
learned  author  appear  quaint  to  us,  owing  to  lapse  of 
years.  Mrityunjaya's  third  work  Vatrica-sinhasana 
is  a  collection  of  tales  illustrative  of  Vikramaditva's 
romantic  self-denial  and  liberality  to  a  beggar,  to  a 
Brahmin,  to  a  scholar,  to  the  poor,  to  a  pundit  and 
to  an  enemy. 

Though  the  Pundit  lived  in  close  touch  with 
his  distinguished  European  students,  and  was  high- 
ly admired  by  them  for  his  learning  and  characttir, 
he  was  an  orthodox  Hindu  all  his  life.  His  pamphlet 
called  "  a  defence  of  idolatry  "  shows  the  i^weep  of 
his  scholarly  arguments  and  the  sincerity  of  his  con- 
viction in  defending  the  creed  of  his  forefathers. 
Mrityunjaya  translated  the  Sanskrit  work  Hitopa- 
d(\\a  into  Bengali.  The  book  appeared  in  iSoi. 
"  It  treats  of  friendship,  discord,  uar  and  peace 
in  42  fables,  in  which  after  the  manner  of  /Esop. 
animals  are  introduced  to  teach  Ethics.  The 
original,  like  Telemachu^i.  wns  uiitt^n  for  the  ethi- 
cal instruction  of  a  king's    son  at   Palibothera," 

Mrityunjaya    also     translated   from    Sanskrit    a 
treatise  on  the  Hindu  law  of  inheritance. 


VIL]        BF.NGALl    LANGUAGE    Si    lAVFMMVRK.         iJSg 

Next  to  Mrityunjaya,  we  find  Rama  RamaVasu —  Rama 
a  Kayastlia  held  in  hiorh  esteem  by  the  Europeans  at  Vasu" 
Fort  William  College,  for  his  great  learning  in 
different  oriental  languages.  Says  Dr.  Carey  about 
him  "  a  more  devout  scholar  than  him  I  did  never 
see.''  Rama  Rama  Vasu  was  born  towards  the 
end  of  the  i8th  century  at  Chinsura.  He  got  his 
early  education  in  a  pathacala  at  the  village  of 
Nimta,  a  place  in  Twenty-four  Parganas  already 
noted  as  the  birth-place  of  the  old  poet  Rrisna 
Rama.  ''RamaBasu"  writes  Dr.  Carey  "before 
his  1 6th  year  became  a  perfect  master  of  Persian 
and  Arabic.     His  knowledge    of  Sanskrit   was    not 

less    worthy  of  note He  was  of  a  peculiar 

turn  of  mind.  Though  amiable  in  manners  and 
honest  in  dealinsfs  he  was  a  rude  and  unkind  Hindu 
if  any  body  did  him  wrong.' '  Rama  Vasu  was  ap- 
pointed as  a  Pundit  in  the  Fort  William  College  in 
tSoo,  but  owing  to  difference  of  opinion,  resigned 
his  post  shortly  after. 

Rama  Vasu's  Pratapaditya  Charita  published 
in  1 80 1  at  Cri  Rampur  was  one  of  the  first  works 
written  in  modern  prose.  "  Its  style,  a  kind  of 
Mosaic,  half  Persian  half  Bengali,  indicates  the 
pernicious  influence  which  the  Mahomedans  had 
exercised  over  the  Sanskrit-derived  languages."  ^ 
We  find  the  following  account  of  the  book  in  the 
descriptive  catalogue  of  books  by  the  Rev.  J.  Long. 
'The  first  prose  work  and  the  first  historical  one 
that  appeared  was  the  life  of  Pratapaditya,  the  last 
king  of  the  Sagara  island  by  Rama  Vasu,  (page 
156)."     The  Rev.  J.  Long  also  condemns  this  style 


*  Calcutta  Review  1850. 
113 


Sgo      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &.    LITERATURE.       [Chap, 

of  the  book  as  corrupted  by  an  admixture  of  Per- 
sian, but  this  estimate,  I  must  say,  is  not  just,  for 
in  the  descriptions  of  wars]  and  court-affairs  the 
language  could  not  in  those  days  avoid  a  mixture 
of  Persian  in  which  all  court  affairs  were  managed 
even  in  the  States  under  the  control  of  Hindu 
Rajas.  The  great  Sanskrit  scholar  and  poet 
Bliarata  Chandra  himself,  who  introduced  some  of 
the  choicest  Sanskrit  metres  in  Bengali,  could  not 
describe  war  or  court  scenes  without  having  re- 
course to  Persian  words.  In  describing  domestic 
or  religious  matters  Rama  Vasu  generally  avoided 
Persian  and  Arabic  words.  His  style  is  quaint  and 
affected  ;  at  any  rate  as  one  of  the  earliest  speci- 
mens of  modern  Bengali  prose  we  mav  often  ex- 
cuse his  faults,  and  be  prepared  to  admit  that  he 
wrote  a  connected  story  in  an  interesting  and  lively 
manner.  The  other  works  by  Rama  \'asu  were  hi> 
(i)  Li  pi  mala,  or  a  guide  to  letter- writing  contain- 
ing a  number  of  models  for  letters.  This  treats 
also  of  business,  religion,  and  Arithmetic, — print- 
ed at  the  ^ri  Ramapur  Press  in  1802,  2)  Attack 
on  Brahmins.  Rama  X'asu  was  a  friend  of  Raja 
Rama  Mohana  Roy  who  had  kindly  revised  the  Ms. 
of  Pratapaditya  Charita  before  it  was  published. 
From  some  of  his  writings  it  appears  that  he 
favoured  the  views  of  his  enligfhtened  friend. 

Two    other    works    written    bv    l^indits   of  the 

charana        '■'^''^     William    College    respectively    are      i)     lota 

Lochana."      ^fHn^^a    by    Chandi   Charan  Munsi  which  appeared 

in   1826,    (2)  Krisna  Chandra    Charita    bv    Rajiva 

Lochana  Mukhopadhaya.  which  came   out  in     1S05. 

I  h(!    style    of  both    these    works    is   elegant.      We 


1 


ViL  ]       BKNGALI    LANGUAGb:    &    LITEKAlUKb:.  89I 

ijuote  an  cxtnict  trom  Rajiva  Lochana's  Kri§ha 
Chandra  Charita.  Raja  Krisna  Chandra  of  Nava- 
dvipa,  an  account  of  whom  we  gave  in  a  foregoing 
chapter,  is  the  subject  of  this  memoir.  The  Raja, 
called  by  the  Rev.  J.  Long  '  The  Augustas  of  the 
East '  was  a  great  friend  of  the  English,  and  had 
been  chiefly  instrumental  in  persuading  Mirzafar 
and  other  leading  men  of  Bengal  to  form  a  secret 
alliance  with  them  on  the  eve  of  the  memorable 
battle  of  Plassey.  The  extract  refers  to  the  defeat 
of  Sirajuddaulla,  his  destitution  and  miserable  end. 

■^"The  English  next  came  to  the  field  of  Plassey  Krisna- 
and  began  to  fight.  The  soldiers  of  the  Nawab  Charita, 
saw  that  their  great  generals  were  fighting  in  a 
half-hearted  manner  and  that  the  volley  of  fire 
opened  on  them  by  the  P^nglish  was  killing  hun- 
dreds of  them.  In  deep  dismay  many  died  fight- 
ing desperately.  Mohana  Das,  a  general  of  the 
Nawab  saw  that  the  fighting  was  not  conducted  as 
it  should  be,  and  informed  the  Nawab  that  some  of 
his  generals  had  conspired  against  him  and  were 
trying  to  bring  ruin  upon  him.  The  Nawab  wonder- 
ingly    asked    how    that    could    be  ?     Mohana    Das 

fts  ^fii^   %^i^  c^^  ^  :crm  ^  ^fm  ?(t«i"5Ttn 


892         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LHERA1URE.    [Chap. 

submittcdthat  tiie  Commander-in-Chief  Mirzafar 
Khan  liad  made  a  secret  league  with  the  English  and 
was  not  fighting.  Mohana  Das  wanted  an  army  to 
lead  to  the  held  to  destroy  them  and  warned  the 
Xawab  against  placing  confidencL-  un  any  one  at 
such  a  critical  hour.  He  advised  his  master  besides 
to  keep  a  close  walch,  and  guard  the  eastern  gate 
with  till-  remaining  arm\.  The  Xawab  was  alarm- 
ed at  this  information,  and  placed  Mohana  Das  at 
the  head  of  25,000  soldiers,  and  gave  him  every  en- 
couragement to  tight  at  Plassey.  Mohana  Das 
began  to  light  with  remarkable  zeal,  which  alarmed 

^^^  the  Enirlish  ;  Mirzafar  saw  that    matters   would    noi 

assassina-  ° 

tion  of         stand  well  for  him,   if  Mohana  Das  should  gain  the 

Das.  \ictory  over   the   English,    and   the  present  Nawab 


^f?^i  ^^  ^ft^^^i  ^1  ^^iii?f  fm^vm  ^t^itr^  fts^  t^m 
^t#l  ^^7  ^1^1  ^t^^K^T  <2ltf^?:^^  ^im  ^Ki(  m^^  c^t^ 

^^H  C'\^^^  ^K^^  ^i^j  2|^f  ^f^^i  ^11^  ^t^]  ^^^^K^ 
'^if't^iii  m^^^  wt^^^  ^fe»i  ^t^m  ci^j  %i  ^^m^  ^ttf>! 

Ki'^]  ^«j^  ^  ^\^i^  ^^5  ^^^  I    c^i^^  Tii\i7]7(  T^iu"^ 

vf)  ^"2  ^t«i  ^fei  .^1  ^tfjH  c^t^^  vri>j  rt^mc^  ^^f^^ 

^t^r^^'P  ^I'^vii?!  c^t^^i   ^^■i>^^^  f^^]^=i  ^f^^^-  5|<ji^^  , 


VIL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITEI^ATURE.         893 

continue  to  reign,  the  lives  of  all  of  them  would  be 
forfeited.  So  it  appeared  to  him  of  vital  import- 
ance to  check  Mohana  Das.  Apprehending  dire 
disaster.  Mirzafar  sent  a  messenger  who  declared 
liimsf^lf  as  bearing  a  message  from  the  Nawab  to 
Mohana  Das.  He  said  that  it  was  the  order  of  the 
Nawab  that  the  general  should  at  once  appear 
before  him.  Mohana  Das  said  that  it  was  not  pos- 
sible for  him  at  that  stage  of  the  fight  to  leave  the 
battle-field.  The  carrier  of  the  false  message  said, 
"  How  is  it  that  you  do  not  obey  the  Nawab?" 
.Mohana  Das  now  felt  sure  that  it  was  all  a  trick. 
W'hy  should  the  Nawab  call  him  at  such  an  hour  ? 
So  he  at  once  beheaded  the  man  and  resumed  the 
light.  Mirzafar  was  terror-struck  ;  he  thought  all 
hope  would  be  gone  if  things  were  allowed  lo 
continue  in  that  manner  any  longer.  So  he  called 
in  a  relation  of  his  own,  and  ordered  him  to  tro  as 
a  soldier  of  the  English  and  kill  Mohana  Das.  That 
person  immediately  took  a  gun  with  him  and  going  Flight  of 
close  to  Mohana  Das  fired  at   him;    So  fell  Mohana 


^^2^^^«i  fmi^  ^%i  ^r^^  Hfii;*^^^  ^ft^i  %^^B 

^^^K^^  c^^j  ^t^T  cnn^  ^i^^  f^^^  m^  ^ft?[i  m^^ 
^t^i^  ^t  ¥^^  I  ^T^i  ntl^i  vii^5fiT  Tn^j  cv^^  wn^ 
\^^^  m^  ^ftin  ^ftt^t^i  c^^t^^  ^m'f*  '^iftr^  c^i  ^fc«i 


894      BKNGALl    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.        [Chap. 

DSs.      I'he  army   ol  the  Nawab  dispersed  and   fled 
and  victory  was  obtained  by  tlie  English. 

"  Sirajuddaulla  heard  all  and  saw  that  there  was 

no  way  to  escape,    so  he  thought  it  prudent  to  beat 

a  retreat.    He  embarked  on  a  boat  and  fled.   Mirzafar 

Ali  Khan  brought  all  this  to  the  notice  of  the  F^nijlish 

(jeneral,  and    going    to    the    Fort    of  Murshidabad 

hoisted    the    P^nglish     flag    from     \\hich    all     knew 

that   the    noble    people  of  England  had  gained  the 

1        e  *!.        victory.     Thev  were  ail  so   delii^hted   at  the   event 
Joy  cf  the  -  -  ^ 

people  at      that   they   beoran   to  shout  for  joy  and  play  on  vari- 
the  Victory  ^        ^  ,;*        ,         T    ,        ,  .    , 

of  the         <»us  ui.struments    ot   music,     r'eople    ot  the    higher 

Lnj;  IS  1.  qI^^^  went  in  great  numbers  with  presents  to  the 
English  General,  w^ho  received  them  cordially,  and 
ordered  that  those  officers  who  w^ere  already  dis- 
chartjiniif  State  functions  should  all  be  reinstated. 
He    distributed    tokens    of    his     favour,    moreover, 


f^i^^i\\  #<ic^^  c^t^  ^i^  ^^\  H\t>  ^tn^  '^^'V  hft 
^^^.  ^^54<i^  ^if^  iii^H  ^tc^  n=ii^^  ^f5 1    t^tt  f^ 

^«r<^i  ^riTii  Uir\  7^^ir\  <^7\  fsr^f?  i5("f^?:5f<i  w^ 
^?=?i  I     ^'^5?  ^^'s  r,^i^  ^^««ft   ^ftIC^5    ?i^^   ^r^ 

vil^'<    ^t^Tl    ^t^T   ^tfe^    J^tfl^  1       ^t^#I<I    5l?ft5T  ?t^t^ 


VII.]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERAIURE.         895 

among  them.  They  placed  Mirzafar  AH  on  the 
throne  of  Murshidabad  and  instructed  tlie  officers 
to  carry  on  official  work  with  care,  so  that  the 
empire  might  flourish  and  the  poor  might  not 
suffer.  The  officers  began  to  work  as  they  were 
bidden. 

*'  After  his  defeat  the  Nawab  in  the  course  of  his  jh^  gad 
flight  became  oppressed  with  hunger  ;  for  three  ^fJa^ab 
days  he  had  had  no  meal,  and  when  on  the  fourth 
day  his  boat  was  passing  by  the  abode  of  a  fakir  he  or- 
dered a  man  to  go  to  him  and  tell  him  that  a  certain 
man  was  very  ill  and  that  he  wanted  to  eat  food  at 
his  place.  The  fakir  hearing  this  came  near  to  the 
boat,  and  recognised  the  Nawab,  v'ho  looked  ex- 
ceedingly pale.     He  thought    ''once    upon    a   time 

^,^x  ^'5^^t^  ^i-i  ^1  nt?i  I    ^^^^  ^W^.^t?:-<i  ^t^T 

^^^  ^^J^  ^f^'^,  ^l^f  ^^H  f^^^  ^^  ^f%C^f    ^^t^T^ 

c?fei  ^m^  ^<ft^i:^  ^f^^^^^  ^t  ^f^^^^  "^K^  fn!ii  ^U 

W^S   "^t^H   ^Ul"^^  I      ¥f^!J   -ill   ^t^J   ^^^   ^ft'si 


896      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    Sc    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

the  Xawah  oppressed  mc  and  now  the  time  for  re- 
taliation  has  come.  I  shall  brinor  him  up  to  Mirza- 
far  "  Rut  with  joined  palms  he  said  "  I  am  arrang- 
ing the  dinner  quickly ,  so  that  you  may  continue 
your  journey  as  soon  as  possible  after  partak- 
ing of  it."  The  Xawab  was  highly  pleased  with 
the  courteous  reception  thus  given  him  by  the 
Fakir,  and  went  to  his  house  in  great  confidence. 
The  fakir  began  to  make  arrangements  for  the  meal, 
but  in  the  meantime  he  had  sent  a  secret  message 
to  an  ofTicer  of  Mirzafar  reporting  that  the  Nawab 
was  fleeing  and  that  he  should  lose  no  time  in  seiz- 
ing him.  As  soon  as  the  officer  got  this  informa- 
tion, he  hastened  to  the  fakir's  abode  with  a  body 
of  men,  seized  the  Nawab  and  sent  him  to  Murshi- 
dabad." 

Fort   William   College   with   its   orlorious  record 
Fort-  .  .        ^^ 

Willam        of  usefulness  in  various  departments  of  knowledge 

Uis^otved       — '^^^^    with    what    particularly    interests  ourselves. 
in  1854.       it^  labours  in  the  cause  of  Bengali  prose    literature 


'^r,i{  ?n:<j[^  f?T5t^  ^f?!Trffw'^  ^t^^  c*ft»f   ^k^    t^rf 
^^^ini  ^f7{^\  ^^%'^  ff^5T  ^t^tr??;?^!  'sitft^^^  ^f?. 

^t^^tfll    ^^C?T    C^T^^   ^ft^1    f\%^    ^^^  t       ^^l^'S 
f«f^    ^R^JST  ^^]7[    ^':5T'?    ^^    ^t!I1    ^^^?!?  ^^'f\l^  '^^^ 

'^Um^  I    ^f^?i  'it^TTt^^^  ^tc^it'?'^  ^ft?:i5  mU^  ^^i 
^•Rt  ^n  '^z^^  f^^'^i  ^^:?5  ^t!5i  ^^t^25t7:^?:*f^?^t?:^  «r%^i 


VII.]         BENGALI    LANGUAGK    cSc    LMRKAIUKE.  897 

gradually  decayed  in  importance  from  the  time  of 
the  foundation  of  Haileybury  College  in  1S07, 
till  its  final  extinction  in    1854. 

The  Bengali  prose  works  written  by  various 
luthors  early  in  the  19th  century,  though  occasion- 
ally encumbered  with  compound  words  and  quaint 
and  high  flown  style,  often  show  great  erudition, 
as  the  writers  were  all  learned  Pundits.  They 
enriched  the  prose  literature  by  translations  either 
from  English  or  from  the  Sanskrit,  Arabic  and 
Persian  languages.  These  works  were  gene- 
rally compiled  with  great  care ;  and  considering 
the  disadvantages  from  which  the  earlv  labourers 
in  any  field  must  always  suffer,  we  may  excuse 
many  of  their  inevitable  short-cominors.  Perso- 
nally,  we  have  hitherto  neglected  the  literature 
of  this  period  being  repelled,  on  the  one  hand,  by  the 
quaint  bombastic  style  of  our  learned  countrymen, 
and  by  tiie  errors  in  idiom,  on  the  other,  into  which 
European  writers  of  Bengali  have  so  frequently 
fallen.  Rut  this  was  an  age  in  which  Bengali  prose 
had  been  taken  up  in  earnest  by  men  who  spared 
no  pains  to  contribute  to  its  development ;  and 
there  is  surely  much  in  these  writings  which  will 
repay  careful  perusal  by  the  writers  of  Bengal, 
at  the  present  day. 


(c)  The  Rev.  K.  M.  Banerji  and  other  authors  who 
followed  in  the  wake  of  European  writers.  A 
Ii5i  of  their  publications. 

Foremost   amongst   those   who   laboured   in  the 
lield  of   Bengali  prose  under  the  influence   of  Eng- 

"3 


Sq^        BENGALI    LANCrACE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

lish   education   and   the    missionaries,  was  the  Rev. 
K.  M.  Banerji. 

Born  in  1 8 13  at  Calcutta,  this  scholar  was  train- 
ed in  the  Hindu  College  and  was  one  of  the  most 
diligent  pupils  and  admirers  of  Dr.  Razario  whose 
influence  upon  "Young  Bengal''  was  unbounded 
in  his  time.  His  pupils  were  imbued  with  Euro- 
pean tastes,  and  though  many  of  them  rose  to  great 
K.  M.  •miiience  in  later  times,  nearly  all  of  them  despised 

lianerji.  the  orthodox  religion  and  bv  their  unrestrained  con- 
duct created  great  alarm  in  the  minds  of  the  Hindus. 
The  comrades  of  Mr.  Krisna  Mohana  Banerji,  in 
the  enthusiasm  of  their  reformation,  used  to  throw 
bones  and  meat  into  the  neighbouring  liouses,  and 
then  cry  out  that  it  was  beef  which  they  had  deli- 
berately thrown  there  to  pollute  the  homes  of  their 
Hindu  friends.  Kri?na  Mohana  in  his  vouth  was 
unsparing  in  his  abuse  of  those  who  happened  to 
hold  a  different  view  from  himself  in  matters  of 
religion  and  used  to  call  the  illustrious  Radha 
Kanta  Deva.  who  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
orthodox  community,  by  the  name  of  Gadha  Kanta. 
the  word  '  gadlia  '  meaning  an  ass. 

Krisha  Mohana  embraced  Christianity  in  1832, 
and  after  the  hey-day  of  his  youth  had  pass- 
ed, was  held  in  high  esttM'm  by  luiropcans  as  well 
as  bv  our  countrvrnen  for  the  soundness  of  his 
views,  his   great    scholarship    and    his    coolness    ot 

tt*!nj>rT. 

His  lincy.  ^^^^  chief  work  in  Bengali  was  the  l'/{/y(j    Kalpa 

ciopncdea      Pyufua  or  Kncyclopaidea  Bensralensis.    It  was  start- 

ensls.  ,-,1  under  the  patronage  of  the  Government  in   1S46, 

and    dedicated    by     permission     to    the    Governor- 


Vil.  ]       BENGAIJ    LANGUAGE    ^    LII EKATUKE.  899 

General  of  India.  The  following  are  some  of  the 
subjects  which  the  Encyciopaedea  was  designed  to 
embrace — 

(i).  Ancient  History — Egypt,  Babylon,  Greece, 
Rome,  India.  Manners,  Customs,  opinions  etc.,  of 
the  Egyptians,  the  Babylonians,  the  Greeks,  the 
Romans,  the  Hindus  and  other  Asiatic  nations. 

(2).  Modern  History— of  Europe,  England, 
India,  Bengal,  America,  etc. 

(3).  Science,  Geography,  Mathematics,  Natur- 
al Philosophy,  Astronomy,  Metaphysics,  Moral 
Philosophy,  etc. 

(4).  Biographies  of  eminent  men, — politicians, 
scholars,  etc.,  European  and  Asiatic,  ancient  and 
modern,  more  after  the  form  of  Cornelius  Nepos, 
than  the  more  elaborate  work  of  Plutarch. 

(5).  Miscellaneous  readings  containing  detach- 
ed pieces  of  various  kinds  adapted  to  the  compre- 
hension of  the  people  of  Bengal.  Anecdotes, 
orations,  speeches,  accounts  of  travels  and  voyages. 

Thirteen  volumes  of  the  projected  Encyclo- 
paedia came  out,  vt£! : — 

1.  History  of  Rome  Vol.  I. 

2.  Do.  do.   Vol.  II. 

3.  Geometry  Vol.  I. 

4.  Do       Vol.  II. 

5.  Miscellaneous  extracts  Vol.  I. 

6.  Do.  do.      Vol.  II. 

7.  Biography  (containing  the  lives  of  Confu- 
cius, Plato,  Alfred,  and  Vikramaditya). 

8.  History  of  Egypt, 
g.     Geography. 


900      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LMbKATURt.       [Chap. 

10.  Moral  tales. 

11.  Watt's  On  The  Mind  Vol.  1. 

12.  Do.  do.  Vol.  II. 

13.  Life  of  Galileo. 

The  Encyclopajdea  contains  much  useful  informa- 
tion for  the  enlightenment  of  the  Bengal  public  who 
had  hitherto  had  no  knowledge  of  the  outside 
world,  but  it  shows  no  original  research  in  any  held 
by  the  compiler,  consisting,  as  it  does,  mainly  of  tran- 
slations from  standard  European  writers.  The  X'idya 
Kalpa  Druma  by  Dr.  K.  M.  Banerji  and  the  Vivi- 
dhartha  Samgraha  by  Dr.  Rajendra  L§1  Mitra 
(started  in  ^851}  are  two  monuments  of  patient 
labour  giving  that  up-to-date  information  in  Science 
and  Art  which  was  so  essential  for  the  dessimina- 
tion  of  useful  knowledge  amongst  our  countrymen 
in  the  earlier  half  of  the   19th  century. 

y^  lij;t  of  There  was  at  the  time  quite  a  legion  of   Bengali 

puhiica-       works  on  the  aforesaid  lines,  most  of  which  have  sunk 
tions. 

into  oblivion,  after  their  brief  day  of  usefulness    in 

enlightening  the  masses  of  Bengal  ;  and  we  can 
only  name  some  of  them  to  show  in  what  direction 
the  wind  blew  in  our  literature.  For  the  list  furnish- 
ed below  we  have  had  to  depend  mainly  upon  the 
descrij)tivc  catalogue  of  Bengali  books  by  the  Rev. 
J.  Long  publislunl  in   1S55. 

1.  A  Dictionary  by  Rama  Kamala  Sen  (Grand 
l.illur  of  the  illustrious  Kev'ava  Chandra  Sen) 
pp.  I  s.U-  "  A  work  of  great  research — the  result 
ol  15  yrar>'  labour — a  translation  of  Todd  and 
Johnson  containing  the  meanings  in  Bengali  ot 
5800  i*'nglish  words — a  perfect  chaos  of  materials 
for   future     lexicographers  and     a    work  of    great 


Vocabulary 


Vil*  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &.    LllEkAiUkE.  got 

industry  with  Radha  Kama's  famous  Cavda  Kalpa 
Druma."  The  price  of  the  book  was  Rs.  50  per 
copy. 

2.  ^avda  Sindhu — translation  of  the  Amara 
Kosa  in  Bengali  by  Pitamvar  Mukerjee  of  Uttar- 
para,  1909. 

3.  Rama  Kisana's  vocabulary — English,  Latin 
and  Bengali,  1821. 

4.  Anglo  Bengali  Dictionary  by  Tara  Chand 
(75,000  words).     Price  Rs.  6. 

5.  Dictionary  by  Jaya  Gopala. 

6.  Do.         by  Laksmi  Narayaha. 

7.  ^avda  Kalpa  Tarangini  by  Jagannath 
Mallik. 

These  three  works,  all  published  in  1838,  givt: 
suitable  Bengali  substitutes  for  the  Persian  terms 
prevalent  in  courts. 

8.  Dictionary  by  Jaya  Narayaha  Carina, 
(16,000  words),  1838, 

9.  Ratna  Haldar's  Vangabhidhana(6224  words) 

1839. 

lu.  Anglo  Bengali  Dictionary  by  Radhanath 
De  &  Co.  A  vocabulary  giving  the  meaning  of 
words  relating  to  Grammar,  Heaven,  Earth,  the 
Body,  Natural  Objects,  Apparel,  Minerals,  and 
Agriculture,  1850. 

II.  Parasikad/iid/iana  or  Persian  dud  Bengali 
Dictionary  by  Jaya  Gopala,  1840; — contains  about 
2500  Persian  words  arranged  alphabetically  with 
the  Bengali  meanings. 


ij02       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &,    LllEKAiURE.       [Chap, 

Grammar.  12.     Ganga  Ki^ore  BhaLtacharyya's  Vyakarana. 

13.  A  Bengali  translation  of  the  Mugdhavodha 
by  Mathura  Mohana  Dutta  of  Chinsura,  1819. 

14.  Bha?a  Vyakarana,  1823. 

15.  Kama  Mohana  Ray's  Vyakarana,  1833. 

16.  \'raja  Kigore's  Bengali  Grammar,  1845. 

17.  Bhagavana  Chandra's  Bengali  Grammar. 
1845. 

18.  Sanskrit  Grammar  in  Bengali  by  Deven- 
dra  Nath  Tagore,  1845.  ^^^^  ^  "  Extends  to  Pro- 
nouns— gives  the  rules  of  Sandhi  and  the  declensi- 
ons written  after  the  European  system  of  Philo- 
logy,— simple,  well  illustrated  by  examples,"  pub- 
lished by  the  Tatta  Vodhini  Sabha- 

19.  ^yama  Charaha's  Anglo  Bengali  Grammar, 
pages  408 — the  most  elaborate  grammar  that  had 
appeared  up  to  that  time.  Government  patronised 
it  liberally  taking  100  copies  at  Rs.  10  per  copy  ; — 
contains  much  information  on  the  prosody  of 
Bengali  poetry. 


History.  20.      History  of   India  by  Govintla  Chandia  Son. 

1836. 

J  I.  History  of  Bengal — a  translation  of  Mar.sh- 
inan's  history,  pages  337.  1840. 

2J.  Vangala  Itihasa  by  l^hvara  Chandra  Vidya- 
sagara  from  the  battle  of  Plassey  down  to  Lord 
William  lu-ntinck's  administration.  1849. 

2}^.  History  of  the  Punjab  by  Raja  Xarayaha 
iianerji,  pages  194,  gives  much  information  res- 
[)ecting  the  Punjab.  Ka^mir,  Kabul,  Kandahar    and 


VIL  ]       BENGALI    I.ANGUAGR    Si    LITRR ATURR.         go^ 

the  country  of  the  Shikh«,  derived  from  the  Raja 
Tarangini,  Ain-Akvari,  Seyar  Mutakharirn,  Prinsep's 
Life  of  Ranjit  Singh,  Lawrence's  adventure  in 
the  Punjab  and  MacGregor's  Cikhs. 

24.  Rome  Puravritta  by  K.  M.  P)anprji,  pages 
610. 

25.  Bharatvarser  Itihasa  bv  Vaidya  Nath  Baner- 
ji.  Two  volumes,  pages  352,  1S48.  Compiled 
from  Manu,  Yajnavalka,  the  Ramayaha,  the  Maha- 
bharata,  the  Rajavali,  Book's  Gazetteer,  Marsh- 
man's  History  of  Bengal,  etc.  One  object  of  this 
book  was  to  oppose  the  views  given  in  Marshman's 
India  which  the  author  thinks  are  too  much  against 
the  Brahmins  and  in  favour  of  Christianity.  The 
books  treats  of  the  Chronology  of  ancient  Hindu 
King's,  their  residences,  mode  of  government,  origin 
of  caste  and  other  matters  ; — -a  defence  of  Hindu 
character. 

26.  Bharatvarser  Itihasa  by  Gopala  Lai  Mitra, 
pages  201,  1840. 

27.  Rajavali  by  ^yama  Dhana  Mukerjee, 
1845- 


28.  Life  of  Bhavani  Charana,  "editor  of  the  Biography. 
Chandrika  and  the  great  leader  of  the  Pro-suttee 
party."  "  A  curious  piece  of  biography  "  I  find  the 
following  notice  of  the  subject  of  this  memoir  in 
John  Clark  Marshman's  History  of  Crirampur  Mis- 
sion. In  1 82 1  a  native  newspaper  was  started 
in  Calcutta  which  maintained  great  influence  in 
native  circles  for  many  years.  It  was  designated 
the  Chandrika,  and  was  edited  by  Bhavani  Charana, 


904      RFNGAIJ    LANGUAGE    &    LITFRATURE.       [Chap, 

a  Brahmin  of  great  intelligence  and  considerable 
learning,  though  no  Pundit,  remarkable  for  his  tact 
;Lnd  energy  which  gave  him  great  ascendency 
;imong  his  fellow  countrymen.  The  journal  was 
intended  to  check  the  liberal  tendencies  of  the 
age,  and  it  soon  became  the  organ  of  the  orthodox 
Hindus.  During  the  life  of  its  able  and  astute 
editor,  it  was  considered  the  great  bulwork  of  the 
current  superstitions.  Its  success  was  owing  not 
only  to  the  popularity  of  the  opinions  which  it 
advocated,  but  also  to  the  charm  of  pure  and 
simple  style. "^ 

29.  Satya  Itihasa,  pages  239,  1830.  Sketches 
of  Semiramies,  Sesostris,  Homer,  Lycurgus,  So- 
crates, Demosthenes  and  Alexander. 

30.  Jivana  Charita  by  I^vara  Chandra  ^arma, 
ii>49.  Lives  of  Copernicus,  Galileo.  Newton,  Hers- 
chell,  (}rotius.  Linoeus,  Duval,  Thomas  Jenkins, 
S.  \V.  {ones. 


31.     Ajnana  Timira  Na^aka,  rS38.      Bv    X'aidya 

Moral  tale.H    \'ath  Acharyya  of   Kanchanpara. 
and  other 
.subjects.  32.     Fra^asti  Prakayika,    1842.     By   Krisna   Lai 

Deb,  compiled  from  original  Sanskrit  of  \^araruchi  of 

ihr  Court  of  X'ikramaditya  ;   gives  rules  according  to 

the  Castras  for  writing  letters— the  colour  and  size  of 

the  paper,  the  titles  of  letters  and  mode  of  address. 

Sonic  curious  things  are  to  be  found   in    this    work. 

^ueh  as, — a  person  is  to  write  to  a  young  girl  in  red 

pa])er  with  r(Ml  ink.  to  a  great  man  in  gold-coloured 

letters,  to  a  man    of  middle    rank    in    silver,    to    a 

•  Vol.  II.  p.  241. 


VIL]        BRNGAIJ    LANCUAGK    8l    LITRRATURR.         905 

common  man  on  copper  or  tin  coloured  paper, 
before  marriage  on  vermilion  ;  a  letter  to  a  great 
man  is  to  be  six  finger-breadths  long,  to  a  person 
of  middle  class  18  inches;  receiving  a  letter  from 
a  Raja  or  Guru  it  is  to  be  laid  on  the  head,  from  a 
friend  on  the  forehead;  from  a  wife  on  the  breast. 

33.  Jnana  Kaumudi.  on  letter-writing  by  Rame- 
c,-vara  Banerjee  of  Gopalapur. 

34.  Lipi  Mala  by  Rama  Rama  vasu,  1802, 


34.  Pa^vavali  (Animal  biography)  by  R.  C. 
Mitra. 

35.  Pakhi  Vivarana — on  birds,  by  R.  C.  Mitra, 
pages  660,  1 834. 

36.  Padartha  Vidya  by  P.  C.  Mitra,  1847. 

37.  Vividha  Patha — Miscellaneous  readings, 
1847. 

38.  Patradhara  by  Jay  a  Gopala  Tarkalankara. 
1821. 

39.  Vanarastaka,  1834.  By  Raja  Kali  Kissen. 
A  man  disguised  as  a  male-ape  questions  Raja 
Vikramaditya. 

40.  StrJ  C'lksa  Visayaka  (on  female  education) 
by  Goura  Mohana  De,  18 18,  gives  evidence  in  simple 
language  in  favour  of  the  education  of  Hindu 
woman  "  from  the  examples  of  illustrious  ones  both 
ancient  and  modern  and  particularly  of  Indian 
females,  such  as  Rukmini,  Khana,  X'idyalankgr  (?) 
who  gave  lectures  at  Benares  on  the  ^astras.  Sun- 
dari  of  Faridpur  skilled  in  Logic,  Ahalya  V'ai  who 
conversed  in  Sanskrit  and  erected  many  buildings. 

114 


9o6      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

41.  Stri  Durachara— a  reply  to  the  above  in  the 
language  of  fierce  ire  published  in  1840. 

42.  Hita  Katha— 100  ethical  stories  by  Raja 
Ki^ore  of  Pulasati. 

43.  J  nana  Pradipa — moral  tales  by  Gauri 
Qankara  Bhattacharyya,  1848. 

44.  J  nana  Ratna — selection  of  morals  by 
Prema  Chand  Ray.  1842,  gives  tales  and  anecdotes 
to  illustrate  the  following  subject  : — Duty  to 
pan^nts  and  teachers — Knowledge  and  folly. 

45.  Jnana  Chandrika — selection  of  ethical 
pieces,  1838,  by  Gopala  Mitra. 

46.  Niti  Katha — Moral  tales  by  Rama  Kamala 
Sen,  prepared  at  the  suggestion  of  a  Revd.  gentle- 
man who  was  the  father  of  a  late  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  the  North-Western  Provinces. 

47.  Manoranjana  Itihasa  by  Tara  Chand  Datta, 
i8ig.  "  The  school-hook  Society  alone  had  sold 
18,000  copies"  of  the  book  before  1854.  The 
writer  was  in  the  employment  of  the  late  Captain 
Stewart  of  Burdwan. 


48.     Raja  Kali  Kissen's — "  A  lithography  of  an 
Orrery,"  1826. 

4().      Geograi)hv    and    eclipses    by  the  same  au- 
thor, in  1836. 
OeoRraphy.  .S<^       h:i<'m(Mit:irv    Geograiihv    published    by   the 

Tatta  Vodhini  Sabha.  1S40. 

51.      Bhugola  bv  Ksetra  Mohana  Datta,  1S40. 

c^2.      Geograi)hy      of     Asia    and    l^urope    by  the 
Rev.  K.  M.  I^anerji.   1848. 


ViL]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITEkATLlRE.         907 

53.  Sande^avali — (Indian  Gazetteer),  pages 
346,  by  Rama  Narsinha  Ghosa. 

54.  Map  of  the  world — the  first  specimen  of  a 
map  engraved  in  Bengali, — executed  by  a  Bengalee 
Ka^i  Natha  under  the  superintendence  of  C.  Mon- 
tague. 1 82 1. 


55.  Geometry  by  K.  M.  Banerjee,  1846.  Geometry. 

56.  Bhuvana   Parimaha   Vidya    (Land  survey- 
ing) by  Vraja  Mohana,  1S46. 


57.  ChittotkarsaVidhana— a  philosophical  work      Miscella- 
by   the    Rev.    K.    M.    Banerji,  pages    600    in    two         neous. 
volumes,  1849-50. 

58.  Phrenology  by  Radha  Vallaba  Das,  1850. 

59.  Bramly  Vaktrita  or  Dr.  Bramly's  speeches 
by  Udaya  Cliarana  Adhya,  1836. 

60.  Atma  Raksa  by  Raja  Krisna  Mukherjee. 
Compiled  from  Nidana,  1849. 

61.  Dravya  Guha  by  I^vara  Chandra  Bhatta- 
charyya,  1835. 

62.  Ausadha  Kalapavali  by  Madhu  Sudana 
Gupta,  1849,  pages  244. 

63.  Jala  Chikitsa  (water  cure)  by  Prema  Chand 
Chaudhuri,  1850.  The  writer  professes  having 
experienced  wonderful  beneiits  from  Hydropathy ; 
he  points  out  its  advantages  to  others  in  the  various 
uses  of  water  applied  internally  and  externally  to 
different  parts  of  the   body   for    costiveness,    fever, 


9o8      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   ik   LllEKATURE.       [Chap. 

rheumatism,  measles,  smali-pox,  dysentery,  etc.  Me 
fortifies  liis  arguments  by  quotations  from  the 
Hindu  medical  C^astras. 


Periodicals  ,       Dikdarrana    by   Criramai)ore    Missionaries, 

and  *  J     ^  I 

Magazines,     i^ib. 

2.  (josi>el  Magazines,  1823. 

3.  Brahmanical     Magazine  by    Rama   Mohana 
Ray,  1 82 1. 


^astra  Prakfic^a,  1851. 

Jnanodaya  by  R.  C.  Mitter,  1831. 

V^ijnana    Sevadhi    by    Ganga  Charana  Sen, 

Jnana  Sindliu  Taranga   by    Rasika  Mallick, 


6 
1832 

7 


i^'our-anna  Magazine,  1833. 
X^idya  Sara  Sariigraha,  1834. 
10.     Vidya  Dar^ana  b\-  .\ksa}a    Kumara    DaLta, 


r\34- 


I  I      X'idya  Dari,ana  by  Prasanna  Kumara  Ghose. 
1 2.      Kaustabha  Kiraha  by  Raja  Xarayaha  Mitra. 


1840. 


13.  Jagatvandhu  l-'atrika  edited  by  llie  siudml^ 
ol    the  Hindu  College,  1840. 

14.  Salya  Sancharinl  by  (^\ama  (  iiarha  15ose, 
1846. 

15.  riu'  Kfiyastha  Kiraha.  i84().  it  gi\es  l^a^^- 
l.ilioiih  Iroin  ihe  Turahas  and  advueate.*-  the  claim> 
o\    Kavaslhab  lo  wear  the  nrahmanical  thre'ad. 


VII*]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    ik,   LllEKAlUKE.  909 

16.  The  Durjana  Damana  Navatni  by  Thakur 
Das  Bose,  (Tri-monthly),  1846  ;— opposed  Young 
Bengal,  defended  idolatry,  had  as  its  symbol  the 
picture  of  a  cross  fastened  by  a  charm  to  signify 
that  it  would  restrain  Christian  influence. 

17.  Hindu  Dharma  Chandrodaya  by  Hari 
Narayana  Gosvami. 

18.  Jnana  Sancharini — organ  of  the  orthodox 
community,  1847. 

19.  The  Kavya  Ratnakara,  edited  by  the  stu- 
dents of  the  Hindu  College,  1847. 

20.  Muktavali  by  Kali  Kanta  Bhattacharyya. 
Commenced  at  the  instigation  of  Raja  Narayan  of 
Andul,  opposed  the  right  of  Kayasthas  to  wear  the 
Brahmanical  thread,  1848. 

21.  Bhakti  Suchaka  by  Rama  Nidhi,  1848. 

22.  Rasa  Ratnakara  by  Jadu  Natha  Pal,  1849. 

23.  Satjnana  Ranjana  by  Govinda  Chandra 
Gupta,    1849. 

24.  Duraviksanika  by  Dvarika  Natha  Mazum- 
der,  1850. 

25.  Dharma  Marma  Prakayika  from  Konna- 
gar,  1850. 


1.  Bengal     Gazette     by     Gangadhar     Bhatta-         New^ 
charyya,  1816.  papers, 

2.  The  ^ri  Ramapore  Darpaha,  1818. 

3.  The  Kaumudi,  edited  by  Rama  Mohana  Ray 
and  Bhavani  Banerjee,  1819. 

4.  Chandrika    by    Bhavani   Charan,     1S22.     It 
was  for  many  years  the  native  "Times  of  Calcutta/^ 


910      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITKKATURE.        [Chap. 

5.  Timira    Xav'aka    by    Krisna     Mohana    Das. 
1823. 

6.  Vanga  Duta  by  Xila  Ratana  Haldar,  1825. 

7.  Sudliakara  l)y  Prenia  Chand  Ray,  1830. 

8.  Prabhakara  by  fsvara  Chandra  (iupta,  1830. 

9.  Sabha  Rajendra  by  Maulvi  AlimoUa,  1821. 

10.  The  Jnananvcsaha   by    Rasika  Mallik  and 
Daksina  Mukhcrjce,  students  of  the  Hindu  College, 

.831. 

11.  The    Ratnakara   by  Vraja  Mohona  Sinha, 

183.. 

12.  The  Sara  Samgraha  by  Veni  Madhava  Dc, 

KS31. 

13.  Katnavali  by  Jagannatha  Mullik,  1832. 

14.  Sudharh^u  by  Kali  Kinkara  Datta,  1835. 

15.  13ivakara  by  Ganga  Narayan  Bose,  1837. 

16.  Saudamini  by  Kali  Chandra  Datta,  1S38. 

17.  (juhakara  by  Giri(;:a  Chandra  Bose,  an   ex- 
studcnt  of  the  Hindu  College,  1858. 

18.  The     Mrityunjaya     by     Parvati    Charaha 
Datta,  1838. 

H).     The   Rasaraja    by   (iauri  ^ankara  Bhatta- 
charyya,  1839. 

20.  Aruhodaya    by    Jagannarayah    Mukhcrjee, 
1S39. 

21.  The  Murshidabad  Patrika,  1840. 

22.  J  nana  Dipika  by  Hhagavata  Charaha,  1840. 
2-i^.      Sujana     Kanjana     by     (iovinda     Chandra 

Gupta,  1840. 


VIL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGF    &    LITERATURE.         91I 

24.  Bharata  Vandhii  by  Cyama  Charana  Baner- 
jee,  1841. 

25.  Ni^akara  by  Nllgmvara  Das,  1841. 

26.  The  Bhringa  Data  by  Nilakamala  Das. 

27.  Raja  Rani  by  Ganga  Narayana  Bose,  1844. 

28.  Jayada  Dipaka  by  Maulvi  Ali,  1846. 

29.  The  Marttanda,  1846. 

30.  The  Jnana  Darpana  by  Uma  Kanta  Bhatta- 
rharyya,  1846. 

31.  The     Pasandakirana    by    Igvara    Chandra 
Gupta,  1846. 

32.  Rungpui"  Varttavaha  by  Nila  Ratan    Mu- 
kherjee,  1847. 

33.  Jnana  Sancharini  from  Kanchdapada,  1847, 

34.  Siidhi  Ranjana  by  I^vara  Chandra    Gupta, 
1847. 

35.  Akkala  Gudum  by  Vraja  Natha,  1847. 

36.  The  Dikvijaya  by  Dwaraka  Natha  Mukher- 
jee,  1847. 

37.  Jnananjana  by  Chaitanva  Charana  Adhikari. 
1847. 

38.  Sujana  Vandhu  by  Nivarana  Chandra    De, 
1847. 

39.  The  Manoranjana  by  G.  C.  De,  1847. 

40.  The    Jnana    Ratnakara     bv     Vi^^vamvara 
Ghose,  1848, 

41.  Dinamani  (scandalous),  1848. 

42.  The  Ratna  Varsana  by  Madhava  Chandra 
Ghose  of  Bhowanipur,  1848. 


912         BF.NGALI    LANGUAGF    8z    L!TRRATURR.    [Chap. 

43.  Rasa  Sagara  by  Rama  Gopala  Ranerjee  of 
Kiclflerporo.  1848. 

44.  The  Aruiiodaya  by  Panchanana   Ranerjoe, 
1848. 

45.  Ra<a    Mudgara — advocated    Hinduism,   bv 
Ksetra  Mohona  Ranerjee  1849. 

46.  The  Mahajana  Darpana  bv  Java  Kali  Rasu. 
1849. 

47.  The  Satya  Dharma    Praka<;il<^ — •'^•i   organ 
of   the  Karta-bhajas. 

48.  Varana^i  Chandrodaya. 


1 


49.  The  Rhairavananda,  1849, — ^o^h  edited  by 
Uma  ^ankar  Rhattacharyya,  a  blind  scholar  who 
helped  Raja  Jaya  Narayana  in  his  translation  of 
Ka^i  Khanda. 

50.  Vardhamana  Chandrodaya  In  Riima 
Tarana  Rhattacharyya,  1850. 

51.  Vardhamana  wSamvada.  1850. 


Ml.      General  remarks  chiefly  indicating  the 

characteristics  of  the  new  age  and   its 

contrast  with  the  earlier  one. 

'l^hese  are  some  of  the  products  of  the    literary 
Labours  of  our  countrymen  in  the  vernacular  tongue 

iiiidcr  {hv  intellrctual  stimulus   of  the    lirst    contact 

rhe  growth  ,      ,-  p,  ,•  1     .1  1        -^u 

of  the  uitn    i^urope.       J  hey    continued    the    work  with  an 

modern        ardour  which  has  grown  without    intermission,    and 
literature.  V 

our   j>r('scnt    day  literatuic  is  the  richest  among  the 

vernaculars  ol  India  in  (jualil v  .ind  in  its  manv-sided 
activity.  Fhe  lists  1  furnish  embrace  the  literature 
{)(  a  period  ending  1S50.  ))ul  it  i<;  onlv  at  and    .ifter 


VII.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         913 

the  middle  of  the  19th  century  that  we  can  see 
tlie  full  harvest  grown  from  the  seeds  sown  at  the 
beginning.  The  works  on  various  subjects  written 
in  Bengali  after  the  n)odel  of  European  works 
abound  like  "  leaves  by  the  streams  of  Vallom- 
brosa,"  and  it  will  be  a  hard  task  for  the  historian 
of  the  present  epoch  of  our  literature  to  make  his 
selection  from  amongst  the  very  considerable 
materials  which  will  be  at  his  command. 

Bengali  literature,  previous  to  the  advent  of  the 

Europeans   on  the  field,  was  mainly  in  the  hands  of 

the  Vaisfiavas  and    ^aktas.     The  songs    of  Krisna 

Kamala  who  belonged  to    the  former  and  of  Rama 

Prasada  who  belonged  to  the  latter  sect,  are  the  last 

great  utterances   of  the  two    cults,    the    echoes    of 

which  will  rinsf  in  the  ear  of  future   orenerations   of  . 

^  ^  representa- 

Benoralis    for    agres    to     come.       The     yatrawalas,  tive 

,  ,  ,  ,     ,.,  ,  r       ,       -  character 

kavnvalas,  2.na  pancfialikars    drew   profusely   irom     of  our  past 

the    vast  resources  of  our  past  lore,  and  having  put       '  erature. 

the  old  sentiments  in  modern  garb  appealed  to    our 

masses.     But    with   these  people  the  last  echoes  of 

our  past   literature   have    nearly    died    out.     There 

are  still  kirtanas,  kathakatas  and  yatras,    but  they 

no    longer    contribute    to    the  rich  literature  of  the 

past.     They  only  recite  what  the  old    masters   have 

sung    or    said,    and    are   mere  relics  of  institutions 

which  were  once  a  living  force  in  the  country. 

The  old  literature  of  Bengal  was  a  truly  repre- 
sentative literature;  Bharata  Chandra's  writings  and 
Alaol's  style,  though  so  artificial  and  loaded  with 
classical  figures,  were  yet  accessible  to  the 
masses  of  Bengal.  The  literature  of  the  Bengalis 
belonged  essentially  to  them  all, — not  to  the  literate 


9t4      BENGALI    I.ANGUAGK    &    IJTERATUKE.       [Chap. 

merely,  but  to  the  whole  race.  For  hundreds  of 
years  its  ideas  had  been  made  familiar  to  the 
whole  country  by  innumerable  ways  and  means. 
The  whole  rare  had  assimilated  these  sentiments 
which  found  expression  in  their  literature ;  and 
even  the  finished  expressions,  and  the  highly 
coloured  metaphors  that  had  characterised  the 
productions  of  latter-day  Sanskritic  Bengali  were 
not  unintelligible  to  the  people.  The  best  evidence 
of  this  statement  will  be  found  in  the  fact  that 
very  low  classes  of  men  and  even  those  who  are 
thoroughly  illittMate,  have  preserved  up  to  the 
present,  works  like  the  Padmavat  which  are  still 
being  printed  for  them.  This  shows  great  advance- 
ment on  the  part  of  the  people  in  mastering 
a  highly  wrought  literary  >lylr.  and  the  past  litera- 
ture of  Bengal  was  the  medium  through  which  the 
words  ol  her  poets  and  scholars  were  communicated 
to  the  lowly,  the  humble  and  the  poor,  who,  often 
without  knowing  the  alphabet,  could  understaiul 
the  most  difhcult  points  in  the  Hindu  |)liilosophy 
or  poetry  under  the  educative  influences  of  their 
own  herinlitv  and  environment. 

Rut  t(Mvards  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  the 
rhe  old  W'lisfiavas  and  the  ^aktas  were  practically  driven 
out  of  the  field.  Our  vernacular  literature 
passt^d  into  the  hands  of  luiropeans  ;  and  they 
traintul  a  class  of  |)e«^pl(^  to  write  manuals  and 
srliool  books  after  thr  manner  of  their  own  standard 
works.  Mr.  Wilkiiis  trained  i*anchanana  Knrmakara 
in  the  art  of  punch-cutting,  but  this  wns  not  all; 
it  was  the  luiropeans  and  chieflv  the  mission.) lies 
who    trained    the    Pundits    to    write  Bengali, — not 


school 
upset. 


VIL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LllKKArURE.         915 

as  they  would  have  it,  but  as  their  European  masters 
wanted  it. 

The  Vaisnavas  and  the  ^aktas,  who  had  hitherto 
been  at  the  helm  of  our  literature,  inspite  of  their 
occasional  indulgence  in  ornamental  style,  always 
meant  their  works  for  readers  who  would  under- 
stand them.  But  the  great  Sanskrit  scholars,  the 
Bhattacharyyas,  as  the  Tol  pundits  were  called,  had 
hitherto  nothing  to  do  with  vernacular  literature. 
They  were  now  considered  fit  to  write  in  the 
vernacular  tongue  on  account  of  their  proficiency 
in  Sanskrit.  Their  classical  accomplishments,  how- 
ever, proved  an  utter  disqualification  for  the  purpose. 

We  have  seen  that  the  specimens  of  early 
Bengali  prose  that  have  come  down  to  us  were 
all  written  in  simple  language.  They  were  generally 
used  for  the  interpretation  of  the  doctrines  of 
particular  creeds  or  of  Sanskrit  texts.  So  the 
writers  found  it  expedient  to  adopt  popular 
language. 

But  the  Bhattacharyyas  not  accustomed  to  write 
Bengali  showed  the  defects  and  faults  of  untrained  Bhatta- 
hands.  They  affected  a  pedantic  style  which  ^  aryyas 
sounded  strange  to  the  Bengali  ear.  In  their 
efforts  to  display  their  great  learning  they  wrote 
in  a  ridiculous  style  which  was  difficult  not  only 
to  foreign  people  but  also  even  to  Bengalis  them- 
selves. The  pedantry  of  the  old  school  of  poetry, 
though  sometimes  carried  to  excess,  had  in  it 
elements  which  suited  the  genius  of  our  language. 
It  was  absurd  in  some  places,  but  it  was  a  natural 
though  a  peculiar  growth.  The  pedantry  of  the 
Bhattacharyyas  on  the    other  hand — the    voUies   of 


The 


stvle. 


916      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    ik    LilliKAlURE.       [Chap. 

high    sounding   compounds  that  they  poured  out — 

were     unbearable     in     our  language.       It    was    as 

if  "iants    had    been    let  loose  ;    and  the  artistically 

decorated  gardens,  into  which  they  had  found  entry, 

could    ill    bear   their    heavy    and    unwieldy    tread. 
Specimens      ...  .  r    1     •  1         t-i 

of  their        ^ve  (juote  liere  a  tew  specimens  ot  their  style.      1  he 

great     f-'undit    Mrityunjaya    of    the    Fort    William 

College,  whom  Dr.  Marshman  compared  to  Johnson 

in  all  respects,  wrote  in  his  Pravodha  Chandrika. 

In  a  translation  of  the  Guvcrnment  Regulations 
and  r.aws  entitled  the  Adalata  Timira  XaV'^na,  by 
one  Kama  Mohana  Kay  (he  could  not  have  possibly 
been  the  illustrious  Rama  Mohana  Roy)  printed  in 
182^,  we  fnul  a  preliminary  prayer  in  prose,  ad- 
dressed to  God  as  follows  : — 


*"Thc  Malaya  breeze,  re.sounding  with  the  warbles  of  the 
ciukoo,  is  becoming  drenched  with  the  transparent  particles  of  the 
over -flowing  sprays  of  water." 

t"  To  him  who  is  the  cause  of  the  creation,  of  the  preservation 
and  of  the  final  dissolution  of  the  universe  which  occurs  again 
and  again  in  cycles — who  is  beyond  all  comprehension  and 
whom  no  language  can  express, —  no  thought  however  subtle 
iMM  reach,— to  Him  who  is  the  saviour  of  all  men,  groimd  down 
and  distressed  by  Providential  and  physical  and  other  evils,  who  is 
mercy  itself  and     the    one    great    eiiuitable    Judge    of    the    deeds 


VIL]       F5ENGALI    LANGUAGE    AND    LITERATURE.      917 

All  this  is  a  single  sentence,  which  moreover 
is  not  yet  complete  :  it  appears  like  some  monstrous 
sea-reptile  coiling  into  a  thousand  folds  and  drag- 
ging itself  to  an  appalling  length. 

The  author  of  *'  Praphulla  Jnananetra  "  is  I^ana 

chandra   Banerjee      This  writer  grievously  errs  in 

every  sentence  in  spelling,  yet  poses  as  a  great  and 

erudite  scholar.      His  address  to  Hare  Krisna  Addy      Praphulla 

Jnana- 
in  the  dedication  shows  that,  however  inferior    may         netra- 

be     his    qualifications,    he    desires  to    surprise    the 

readers  by  his  pedantry. 

"'crtn^^t^  ^ft^t^j^?^  ^-^^  ^^?  f^fe  ^'m 
w^T^t<^  5^^  f^^T?f  *ftt^1 " 

(which  means. — '  being  enabled  to  cross  the  illimit- 
able and  the  deep  sea  of  ignorance  bv  the  boat 
of  thine  help).' 


virtuous  or  otherwise  of  men,  of  the  oviparous,  acquatic,  and 
amphibious  animals,  of  worms  and  birds,— to  Him  who  is  the 
great  law-maker  of  the  universe,  who  for  the  good  of  the  world 
created  the  moving  celestial  bodies — the  sun,  the  moon  and 
the  innumerable  stars,  who  observes  all,  and  only  a  glimpse  of 
whose  attributes  is  obtained  by  our  perception  of  sight,  hearing 
etc., — after  offering  numberless  salutations  to  that  great  Master 
of  the  universe,  next  with  humility  and  respect  do  I  approach 
the  benevolent  judges  of  right  and  wrong  with  the  prayer  that — ," 


9l8        BENGALI    LANGUAGK/&    LITERATURE.      [Chap, 


Sarvamoda 
Tarans:ini. 


Represen- 
tative 
character 
lost 


In  "  Sarvamoda  Tarangini  "   writlcn  in    1850, — 
a    work    expounding    theistic     principles,    we     find 

"  >i?:#tnm7  >T^*rfe'iH  t^i^^n^^]  ^'^t^I  t^^®?^  «>^i 

The  whole  literature  ui  the  period  abounds 
with.such  absurd  instances  ot  pedantry.  They  are 
specimens  of  composition  by  untrained  hands. 
Those  who  were  the  natural  leaders,  so  long  ac- 
knowledged to  be  the  masters  of  the  vernacular 
style  of  composition, — at  whose  hands  and  by  whose 
disinterested  and  self  sacrificing  labour  Bengali 
literature  had  flourished  and  attained  distinction, — 
the  X'aishava  and  ^akta  writers  were  ousted  from 
the  field,  and  in  their  place  the  Tol  pundits,  who 
knew  nothing  of  our  past  literature,  whose  study  was 
confined  to  Sanskrit,  were  called  in  to  write  Bengali 
books  ;  the  result  was  that  their  unwieldy  style 
and  its  uncouth  form  struck  a  discordant  note  to 
the  spirit  of  our  language.  Besides,  the  subject- 
matter  w^hich  they  chose  was  all  upon  the  model  of 
Kuropean  books.  This  naturally  failed  to  appeal 
to  our  masses  unacquainted  with  the  new  spirit 
which  was  ins[)iring  the  authors  of  our  modern 
prose.  Modern  literature  thus  lost  that  represen- 
tative character  which  the  yellow  leaves  of  the 
old  Mss.  had  so  pre-eminently  possessed.  A 
foreign  plant  was.  as  it  were,  engrafted  on  an 
old  tree  and  it  re(]uire(l  years  for  the  graft  to  grow 
and  become  a  true  and  living  l)rnnch  of  our 
litc^rature. 


and  tlic 

llnk 
broken. 


1  \\v  old  s(  lu)(»l  had  bn-n    a    hujuoge-nec^us    crea* 
tion  ;    one  would  h(;ar  the  cclioc    of   \'idya[)ati,  who 


Vn.  J       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         gt^ 

died  400  years  ago,  in  Bharata  Chandra  who  lived 
250  years  afte'-.  The  choes  of  Chandi  Das's  songs, 
sung  500  years  ago,  were  traceable  in  the  lays  of 
the  modern  kavkvala  ;  and  the  joys  and  sorrows, 
pain  and  pleasures,  embodied  in  the  Bengali  litera- 
ture extending  over  a  period  of  700  years  worked 
in  the  minds  of  the  u  hole  Bengali  race  and  found 
a  ready  response  from  every  soul.  The  niceties 
and  even  the  pedantry  of  our  past  literature  proved 
no  barrier,  as  I  have  said,  to  our  masses  in  enjoying 
the  productions  of  the  artificial  school  of  poetry 
which  grew  up  under  circumstances  natural  to  the 
soil.  But  now  the  link  was  suddenly  snapped. 
Our  old  lilt  raturc  was.  as  it  were,  walled  up,  and 
a  new  one  substituted  which  the  people  found 
inaccessible  to  them,  and  thus  Bengalis  ceased  for 
half  a  century  to  understand  the  written  Bengali  of 
this  age, — a  time  required  by  the  masses  to  train 
themselves  up  to  the  new  style  and  to  tlie  new  sub- 
ject matter.  Even  now  the  works  of  some  of  our  best 
modern  poets,  wrought  in  the  simplest  of  terms, 
seem  unintelligble  to  a  large  section  of  the  people, 
because  of  the  European  ideas  in  them  with  which 
tliey  are  not  familiar  ;  and  yet  these  readers  can  scale 
all  the  heights  of  the  mystic  metaphors  of  Bharata 
Chandra  and  Alaol. 

Persian    scholars  no  less  than  Sanskrit-knowino;     ^  ^     , 

^     Admixture 
pundits  contributed  their  share  towards  making   the    of  Persian. 

style  of  modern  prose  in  its  early  stages,  cumber- 
some and  corrupt  to  a  degree  ;  and  we  have  found 
such  specimens  of  writing  in  Rama  Rama  Vasu's 
Pratapaditya  printed  at  Criramapore  Press  in  1800 
A.D.     Lipimala    or    model    letters    by    this    author 


920      RK^r.AIJ    F.ANGUAGE    &    LITEKATURE.      [  Chap. 

shows  a  style  which  was  in  current  use  in  the 
country  for  long  years.  The  epistles  on  mercan- 
tile and  state  affairs  show  a  greater  preponderance 
of  Persian  words,  whereas  the  correspondence  of  a 
domestic  and  personal  nature  and  those  on  religi- 
ous subjects  were  generally  free  from  such  admix- 
ture. The  addresses  to  high  personages  contained 
Lipimali.  stereotyped  sentences  which  were  full  of  corrupt 
Sanskrit  words.  The  form  seems  to  have  come 
down  from  a  very  remote  age.  Here  is  a  curious 
specimen  of  the  usual  form  of  one  Raja  addressing 
another.     We  take  the  extract  from  the  Lipimala- 

When  Bengali  literature  had   been    thus    placed 

in    inexpert     hands     and     committed    to    pedantic 

follies    from    which    there    seemed   no    way    of   its 

resuscitation,  the  European  writers  of  Bengali  cut  a 

new    channel    of  their    own    and  made  the  style  of 

vernacular  prose  flow    into    it ;    it    was    thus    saved 

J^^  .  .      from    the    mazv    and    intricate    ])aths    of    involved 
colloquial  -  ... 

style  sentences  and    compound    wdrds    in    w  hich    it    had 

favoured  ,,•,/■       -i-i       i-  .        n 

by  the         entangled    itself.       I  he  hAiropean   writers    naturally 

Europeans,     (^l^osr    simple    and   short    sentences    and   colloquial 

words    and   obliged     the     pundits     to    write     in     a 

similar    style.      However   high  a  pundit   might   soar 

in  the  atmosphere  of  classical  learning,  he  certainly 

knew  the  eollocjuial   ilialect  of    his    country,   though 

he    had    hitherto    treated     it    with    great    contempt 

and    had     never     thought    of     adopting     it     as     a 

n^'dium     for    literary    coinposilicm.      We    find    Dr. 


VIL]      BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.         92I 

Carey  employing  Pundits  to  write  a  portion  of 
his  colloquies  in  B^norali,  and  even  Mrityunjaya,  the 
great  scholar  was  made  to  introduce  a  colloquial 
style  into  his  Pravodha  Chandrika.  Side  by 
side  with  his  ^B^rrfi^^^t^iT^  f^^^Tf^  ^«tt9|a  ^'t:!Il 
^tPTC\5^^"  we  find  :— 

f^  >fc^  f%l^  ^tl,  cw^  c?R  t?  ^"^  ^f^  f^l  "^^^^^ 
^i^  ^tfi  fiii  55?,  ^t  ^55^  fif!ii  ^rl^  J  t^tc«  ^i^T^  3ft 
^!^^,  ^^^  f^ii  ^^1  ^ftr  ^\^  12^^  ?  i^t^  ^1,  fnii  '^irii ; 

The  great  Pundit  Mrityunjaya,  who  could  dis- 
course on  all  the  six  systems  of  Hindu  philosophy, 
would  hardty  have  condescended  to  adopt  the  des- 
pised patois  of  the  country  and  choose  such  an 
humble    subject    for   treatment,  had  it  not  been  set 

*  "  The  mistress  of  the  house  said  '  Is  molasses  the  only  thing 
required  for  cooking  "r  There  is  no  oil,  no  salt,  no  rice,  no  vegetable 
of  any  kind  :  the  fuel  is  wet.  What  about  the  spices  ?  My  son's 
wife  is  out  of  health  and  cannot  work.  Who  will  grind  the 
spices  and  who  prepare  the  vegetables?  Her  Lord  said,  '  Look 
closely  ;  is  nothing  available  in  the  house  '?  See,  woman,  if  you 
can  find  out  some  refuse  rice  and  make  cakes  with  it.  We  shall 
take  them  with  molasses.'  The  mistress  said,  'Indeed,  is  the 
preparation  of  cakes  so  simple  then  r  They  say  that  the  making 
of  cakes  is  like  putting  gum  in  the  hands,  if  once  it  sticks,  it  takes 
a  good  deal  of  time  to  clean  it  off.  Cake  preparation  takes  much 
time  and  is  full  of  trouble.  You  never  cooked  anything  in  your 
life,  husband,  therefore  you  speak  so  foolishly.  Had  you  had  an 
ordinary  woman  for  your  wife  you  would  by  this  time,  no  doubt, 
have  had  much  bitter  experience.'  " 

116 


922      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

on  him  as  a  task  by  the   European   masters  of  Fort 
William   College. 
The    Euro-  It    was    unavoidable  that  European's  writing   in 

BeneaU  Bengali  would  now  and  then  commit  mistakes  of 
idiom.  Instances  of  translating  '  C^t^T^t  fel^5<I  V^V 
as  'the  flying  journey  of  Gopala  '  and  '  ^fe  f^^^"^ 
^t^^f^^  ^V  as  '  did  not  shed  its  seeds'  or  '  bad  hu- 
mours of  the  body  '  as  '*fi^C5^  ^Z  ^ft^^l'  and  similar 
writings  which  would  amuse  every  Bengali,  abound 
in  the  prose  writings  of  the  foreign  scholars  ;  and  if 
they  had  had  occasion  to  cultivate  our  language 
with  the  earnestness  with  which  we  are  acquiring 
English,  it  is  certain  that  we  should  have  had  as 
ample  materials  at  our  command  to  amuse  our- 
selves as  the  ridiculers  of  "  Babu  English"  have 
at  theirs. 
Errors  in  We    find    in    the    Sarasariigraha     by     the    Rev. 

Yates  D.  D,  a  very  good  scholar  of  Bengali,  such 
lines  as  "  ^t^^^  ^<^1  ^t^tl«ttr  ^^    ^^^   ^3   ^^^   ^tc^ 

The  writer  confounds  ft^l  with  f^C^^^I  in  the  last 
line.  In  a  Bengali  vocabulary  the  difference  in 
meaning  of  the  two  words  is  not  indicated  ;  and  it 
is  only  to  be  known  by  a  mastery  of  the  idiom, 
hence  this  writer  fell  into  such  an  error. 

In  a  grammar  of  the  Bengali  language  by  the 
Rev,  J.  Keith.  \\<"  iind  the  following  curious  speci- 
men : — 


idioms. 


Vil.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.         923 


In  Satguna  O  Viryyer  Itihasa  written  in  1829 
by  a  ^rirampur  missionary,  we  come  across  the 
following  sentences  on  the  title  page  : 

'*  ^^?i  c^m^  ft^K^f  ^t5fmi  '«i^r^  ^^1  ^^t  c^n  I 

But  inspite  of  these  unavoidable  defects  met  with 
now  and  then  in  the  use  of  Bengali  idioms,  the 
vernacular  style  of  the  foreii>n  writers  commended 
itself  generally  for  its  simplicity,  closeness  of  argu- 
ment, and  directness  as  contra'sted  with  the  high 
flown  unmeaning  jargons  of  scholarly  pedants  ;  and 
the  latter  had  gradually  to  adopt  the  simpler  style 
of  the  European  which  erred  occasionally  in  idiom, 
but  w^as,  generally  speaking,  correct  and  elegant. 

The  indirect  benefit  deriv^ed  from  the  writino- 
of  vernacular  works  by  Europeans  w^as  great,  for 
they  controlled  Bengali  prose  ;  and  though  it  was 
taken  out  of  the  hands  of  the  Vaisfiavas  and  the 
^aktas,  it  came  once  more  to  competent  hands, 
who  made  it  a  vehicle  of  thought  and  not  a  show 
thing  to  be  admired  for  artistic  excellence  or 
rendered  too  abstruse  for  popular  understanding  bv 
pedantic    follies. 

Europeans  ceased  to  take  the  great  interest  in 
the  vernacular  literature  as  they  had  done  in 
the  first  half  of  the  19th  century,  only  when  the 
native  hand  grew  sufficiently  strong  to  take  up  the 
w^ork  in  right  earnest,  and  this  our  country  men  ere 
long  did,  even  beyond  all  expectations  of  their 
friendly  patrons. 

The  great  zeal  of  the  European  writers  of 
Bengali  prose  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  Mr. 
Felix   Carev   coined   scientific    and  technical  terms 


General 

excellence 

of  style. 


Indirect 
benefit. 


Scientific 
and  techni- 
cal terms. 


924      BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.      [Chap, 

for  writing  on  those  subjects  in  Bengali.  How  far 
he  succeeded  in  his  attempt  is  not  the  question, 
but  it  sliows  the  ardour  of  his  soul  in  attempting 
to  bring  the  vernacular  language  of  Bengal  up  to 
the  standard  of  the  advanced  languages  of  the 
world.  In  the  descriptive  catalogue  of  Bengali 
by  the  Rev.  J.  Long,  we  find  the  following  reference 
to  this  fact, — ''  Goldsmith's  History  of  England 
(Bengali  translation  of)  came  out  in  1819.  Pages 
412,  by  Felix  Carey,  an  able  Bengali  scholar, 
the  history  closes  with  the  peace  of  Amiens  in 
1802.  A  useful  glossary  of  technical  and  difficult 
words  was  appended,  though  some  names  are  ren- 
dered curiously.  Admiral  of  the  Blue  is  Nilpata- 
kadhyernava,  Whig  is  Svatantra  Paksapsti." 
"  Hadavali  or  Anatomy  by  Carey.  The  glossary 
of  the  technical  terms  by  the  translator  Felix  Carey, 
a  good  Bengali  scholar,  is  of  use  to  translators." 
Book*  in  Under  European  influence    a    taste    for    writing 

*^*stv?e '"'  ^"  ^^^^  colloquial  language  came  into  considerable 
favour  ;  and  writings  like  Alaler  Gharer  Dulala  and 
Hutum  Pechar  Naksa,  which  are  usually  supposed  to 
be  our  first  attempts  at  witty  writing  in  the  collo- 
quial dialect,  were  preceded  and  anticipated  in  style 
by  numerous  works  which  served  as  models  to  Tek 
Chand  Thakur  and  Kali  Prasanna  Siriiha  in  later 
times.  Some  of  these  earlier  works  reached  a 
high    level  of  success  and  were  very  popular  at  one 

The  ablest      time.      Nowhere  in    the    whole    range    of  colloquial 
satire  of  r     1  •  -      1         1  1 

the  time.       literature  of  this  epoch,  do  we  tind  a    better  sample 

of  style  or  display  of  naive  humour,  and  of  scath- 
ing satire  than  in  the  Nava  Babu  \'ilasa  or  sketch 
of  a  modern  Babu  by  Pramatha  Nath  ^arma,  pub- 
lished  in  1823.     The  Rev.  J.  Long   in    1855   wrote 


Vllt]        BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.        925 

of  this  book  as  "one  of  the  ablest  satires  of  the 
Calcutta  Babu  as  he  was  thirty  years  ago.  New 
editions  of  the  work  are  constantly  issuing  from 
the  press.  The  Babu  is  depicted  as  germinating, 
blossoming  in  flower,  in  fruit.  The  Babu  under 
Guru  Maha^aya,  under  the  Munsi,  devoted  to 
licentiousness  and  his  lament  for  past  folly.  It 
is  a  kind  of  Hogarth's  Rake's  Prayers.''  The  book 
was  analysed  at  length  in  the  Quarterly  Friend 
of  India,  1826. 

I  quote  below  an  extract  from  this  book.  There 
is  no  need  for  any  comment  on  the  corrupt  taste 
which  prevails  in  it — which  was  the  vice  of  the 
age  and  the  spirit  of  the  time. 

^  ''  Then  came  dancing  girls — three  or  four 
parties  of  them — a  glorious  band, — those  who 
generally  appear  in  the  foremost  row  of  a  marriage 
procession  and,  riding  on  Taktarama  fa  state  palkee\ 
dance  to  the  admiration  of  the  on-lookers.  When 
all  had  joined  the  party,  the  Babu  witli  his  Chadar 
on  his  neck,  as  a  sign  of  humility,  and  with  clasped 
palms,  addressed  Bakna  Piary  and  other  dancing 
girls, — the  best  of  their  kind,  reputed  far  and 
wide,    and    worshipped     by    the     public,    and   said 


#l^t5^-<i  ^^5^^  ^5nc«i3  ^^^^'itwc?  ^^n?:nfi  c^tmn 
^n  *1^^^  CT(^  ^^Tl^^^  I    cit  I'^c^  ^^  v<%  ^^ 


926        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

*'  Be  pleased  now  to  take  a  bath/'  The  other  ad- 
mirers of  these  fair  creatures  appeared  on  the  scene 
and  at  the  request  of  the  Babu  rubbed  perfumes 
on  their  delicate  persons,  and  with  Kanchagolla  (a 
rich  pudding)  cleaned  their  long  black  hair ;  the 
servants  with  a  feeling  of  great  reverence  took  them 
to  tanks,  and  in  a  sportive  spirit  poured  water  upon 
their  heads,  and  then  tonic  the  admirers  who  bath- 
ed them  with  rose-water.  At  this  stage  the  tailor 
came  and  produced  a  bundle  of  fine  clothes.  There 
were  in  the  bundle  beautiful  Sadies  made  by  the  far- 
famed  weavers  of  ^antipur,  Amvika,  Vadagachhi. 
Dacca,  Chandrakona,  Khasvagan  and  other  places. 
Some  of  these  line  stuffs  had  beautiful  borders  in 
imitation  of  Kashmir  shawls,  others  with  borders  in 
which  the  hgures  of  crabs  were  neatly  woven  with 
The  recep-  the  threads,  and  others  where  the  amulet  was  imita- 
^'dandng^  ted.  These  elegant  borders  were  of  different  colours. 
girls.  purple,  blue  and  crimson.  The  BarSnagar  striped 
Sadies  looked  particularly  gay.  These  clothes  were 
distributed  by  the  tailor  among  the  worthy  votaries 
of  the  terpsichorean  art.  Then  in  the  pleasure 
garden  the  Babu  and  his  friends  seated  them- 
selves   on    costly      seats     with     the     accomplished 


^•tf^^i  %'^H'^  ^Ui^^  I     "fiF^n^  ^f%iJi-  ?tsftntr^ 
51^1,  53^^i«ii.  ^tn^i'nvi.  ^^i^^n^  2j^s  ^^^^  ^kM^"^ 

c^i^.  ^^t'^'Hc^^,  m.^  ^jfef^^"lc^  ^  5i^t^  ^fiic^^  I  ^^^^fl 


Vn»  ]      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &  LITERATURE.        937 


hirelings.  The  servants  brought  to  them  various 
kinds  of  sweetmeats,  meat  and  wine  in  pro- 
fuse quantities,  when  a  fool  of  an  East  Bengal 
Brahmin  said  that  there  should  be  separate  seats 
at  dinner.  Hearing  this  the  high  priest  of  the 
Babu — the  jewel  of  the  forehead  of  all  pandits — 
stepped  forward  and  said  '  O  thou  the  most  despised 
of  all  mortals,  dost  thou  not  know  the  sacred 
books,  dunce  and  illiterate  as  thou  art?  This  is  a 
Bhairavi  chakra  (a  circle  of  the  Tantricks), 
as  people  of  various  castes  are  present  here  and 
women  have  joined  us.  In  a  Bhairavi  chakra  no 
caste  distinction  should  be  observed.  You  want 
authority  !     Here  it  is  : — = 

Recites  a  Sanskrit  coupiet  here  which 
means  ; — 

'Those  who  join  a  Bhairavi  chakra^  whatever 
caste  they  may  belong  to,  should  be  considered  for 
the  time  as  the  best  of  Brahmins.  They  should  all 
drink  wine,  till  they  turn  tipsy  and  reeling  fall  to  the 
ground  and  rise  to  drink  again.  If  they  do  so  they 
shall  be  free  from  all  future  births  and  attain  final 
emancipation.' 

'*  \Mien  authority  had  thus  been  quoted  all  were 
quite  satisfied  and    the    Hindus,    Mahomedans    and 

%1  %1  ^^S  %1  ^^2  ^^f^  ^tl^ 


Upsetting 

of  caste* 

rules  in 

the  Chaltra. 


g2S      BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.      [Chap, 

women  of  ill  fame  sat  together  with  a  clear  con- 
science, and  began  to  eat  various  preparations  of 
meat  and  other  dainties  with  profuse  quantity  of 
wine." 

The  Pundits  took  up  Beno^ali   prose    under   the 
direction     of    European     writers    of    Bengali ;  and 

A  Serio-  under  their  direction  also  the  former  had  to  come 
comic 

aspect.  down  from  high  flown  bombasts  to  colloquial  sim- 
plicity. The  best  works  produced  by  the  Pandits 
during  this  epoch  of  our  literature  are  charac- 
terised, on  the  one  hand,  by  ascent  to  obscure 
heights  and,  on  the  other,  by  descent  to  slang  ; — 
from  the  cloudy  region  of  philosophical  dissertations 
to  the  housewife's  harangue  with  her  husband  on 
the  question  of  the  preparation  of  cakes.  There 
was  no  via  media.  When  the  theme  soared  high, 
it  became  mystic, — the  phalanx  of  compound  words 
scarcely  left  a  loop-hole  for  the  ordinary  reader's 
understanding  to  penetrate  into  it  ;  but  when  it 
came  down  from  these  heights  it  grovelled  in  the 
mire  of  vulgarity ;  street  scenes  were  described  in 
terse,  forcible  but  exceedingly  corrupt  style  ;  all 
limits  of  decency  were  exceeded  on, — coarse  and 
flat  jokes  passed  for  humour,  and  the  Bengali 
prose  of  the  period  presented  a  seriocomic  aspect 
which  j)u/zlcs  us  in  its  seriousness  and  almost 
repels  wlu'n  it  tries  to  amuse. 

rhe  Rood  l^ut  the  advent  of  the  Pandits  into    the  field    of 

JM-ngali.  though  associated  in  the  earlier  stages  of 
its    modern    prose    with    uncouth   efforts  verging  on 

l^abuvilas,  Page  38. 


result, 


VIL]        BENGALI    L/VNGUAGK    &    LITKRATURE.         l)20 

the    ridiculous,    was    not    an    unmixed  evil.     Their 
productions    materially    aided  the  cause  of  Hen^^ali 
style    in    the   long  run.     The  pundits  had  a  perfect 
command  over  the  Sanskrit   vocabulary   and   Sans- 
krit grammar  and  aimed  at  a  pure  grammatical  style 
which  was  gradually  introduced  into  Bengali  prose, 
mainly  through  their  influence   and    by    their    writ- 
ings.     Under  the  salutary    control  of  the  European 
scholars  these  pundits  were  trained  to    write    in    a 
simple   style   and  they  no  longer  despised  the  collo- 
quial dialect  fron)    which   they    gradually    imported 
a   large   number   of  simple  and  elegant  expressions 
into    the    written     language.     Modern    prose    was 
developed  both   in   purity  of  style  and  in  resources 
of  words  by  the  efforts  of    these   scholarly    writers, 
and  abundant  proofs  of  this  are  to  be  found  in    the 
standard    works   of    the    19th    century,    written  by 
them.       In    the    prose    works    of     I^vara     Chandra 
Vidyasagara  we  have  that  crowning  success  in  prose 
composition  to  attain    which    the  pundits  had  been 
struggling    for  half  a   century.     The  high  sounding 
compounds  were  reduced  in  his  writings  to  simpler 
and   more   elegant  forms,  the  coarse  and  the  vulgar 
element  was  entirely  eliminated  ;  and  living  at    this 
distance    of  time,    as  we  do.  we  cannot    help  being 
struck  with    the    inimitable  grace  and  purity    of  his 
style.      He  saved  our  prose  alike  from  pedantry  and 
vulgaritv  and  adopted    a  golden    mean    which  only 
a  finished  master  of  Sanskrit  and   gifted    literature 
could  have  been  capable  of  achieving. 

The    printing   of  Bengali    books    was   a    costly      xhe  high 
affair  in  those  days.     We  have  seen  that  Dr.  Carey        ^^^■^^x.tl 
calculated  the  cost  of  printing  ten  thousand    copies        books. 
of  the  Bengali  New  Testament    at    Rs.  43750,    and 


930      BENGAIJ    LANGl'Ar.F.    &    LITERATURE.        [Chap. 

that  even,  at  the  wroniJ^  estimate  of  the  cost  of 
a  punch  as  55.  wlifreas  it  was  really  a  guinea. 
Considering  the  (^normous  expenditure  on  printing 
as  also  the  very  limited  sale  of  Bengali  books,  we 
should  not  be  surprised  at  the  high  price  set  on 
manv  of  the  books  of  this  period;  for  instance 
Mitter's  Bengali  Dictionary  was  published  in  1801. 
"  equal  to  an  8vo  of  50  pages ";  the  price  was 
Rs.  32.  Tara  Chand  Chakravartv's  Anglo  Bengali 
Dictionary;  pages  25,  price  Rs.  6.  "  The  original 
price  of  Krisna  Chandra  Charita  by  Rajiva  Lochana 
Rs.  5  onlv  for  120  pages.  It  barely  paid  its 
expenses  then,  so  limited  was  the  demand  for  Ben- 
gali books." 

Journals  The  energetic  devotion  displayed    in    the    cause 

Itudetltl.  ^*"  learning  by  the  students  of  the  Hindu  College 
under  the  influence  of  Dr.  Richardson  and  Mr. 
D'Rozario  is  evidenced  in  the  list  of  Bengali  news- 
|)apers  and  magazines  of  this  period  already  given 
on  a  foregoing  page.  Along  with  a  hundred 
other  channels  into  which  that  energy  flowed  for 
promoting  the  cause  of  learning,  no  less  than  four 
journals  (Nos.  13,  k^  pp.  goS-goq  and  No'^.  10  and 
17  p.  (jii.)  were  edited  and  conducted  by  the 
students  of  the  Hindu  College. 

^f^^  It    is    curious    to  observe  that  when  the  luiijlish 

excellence  ^ 

of  the         were    introducing    European     educational    methods 
Hindu  1        ,        ,  r  ,  11 

method  in      "il<>  '^^'r  sclioois.  thev  were    irequentiv    struck    with 

arithmetic.  ^|^^.  excellence  of  IIk-  Hindu  method  of  teaching 
already  current  in  our  Patha^alas,  and  this  they 
freelv  admitted.  An  l^nglish  writer  in  the  London 
Asiatii  journal.  1  8  1  7.  bestows  a  high  panegyric  on 
the  arithmetical  rules  sel  to  doggerel  rhymes  by 
Cubliankara  who  is  said  to  have  been  "the  Cocker  of 


Kaia  J<ama   M.  ■! 


I  illy  |)h«)l('i;ra|5hc(l  lov  Mr.  I\. 
ill  Urilish  Miuscuiii.      Hv  kiiul 


ptiiniAMt 


atitijct*  Jrini  ilic  oil  faintiiij 
TMi.   R.  \.  Cliallcrjff. 


VII.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGK    «&    LirKKATUKE.  93 1 

Bengal."  "  These  rules  "  wrote  another  Englisli  re- 
viewer in  the  middle  of  the  19th  century  "  have  been 
clianted  for  150  years  in  40,000  schools.  Thus 
the  Hindus  took  the  lead  in  a  practice  which  have 
been  since  introduced  into  our  infant  schools."  In 
the  May-Ganita  printed  at  ^riramapore  in  1817,  the 
author,  Mr.  May,  says  of  the  ^ubhankari  Aryyas 
in  his  preface  to  the  book  : — ''  It  is  remarkable  that 
many  coincidences  may  be  traced  between  tliem 
and  the  most  improved  kind  of  arithmetical  tables 
adopted  in  the  schools  in  Britain  on  the  new 
model." 


IV  (a)  Decadance  of  the  high  spiritual  ideal  in 
Hindu  Society,  and  the  advent  of  Raja  Rama 
Mohana  Roy. 

When    Buddhism     had     sunk      into      depraved        A  touch 
Tantrik    rites,    sophistry    and   atheism,    the    Hindu  side. 

Society  awaited  but  a  touch  from  outside  for 
blossoming  into  that  living  faith  which  is  so  pre- 
eminently observed  in  the  lives  of  Chaitanya  and 
Nanaka.  The  Renaissance  brought  about  bv  the 
great  Cankara  required  only  a  touch  with  the  faith 
of  Islam  to  develop  the  creed  of  faith  into  the 
creed  of  love,  which  in  the  i6th  century  showed 
itself  in  the  glories  of  renunciation  and  the  spiri- 
tual ecstasies  of  so  many  ardent  souls.  Similarly 
also  when  towards  the  end  of  the  i8th  centurv, 
the  religion  of  the  Hindus  was  more  or  less  reduced 
to  superstitious  practices,  and  empty  ceremonies, 
and  ritual,  Hindu  society  required  only  a  touch 
from  outside  to  be  restored  to  a  realisation  of 
high  spiritual  truths.  The  Christian  Missionaries 
awakened  the  spirit  of  research  into  religious  truth 


93-     BENGALI  LANGUACE  &  lueratukh;.     [  Chap. 

once  more  in  the  minds  of  our  countrymen,  who 
were  never  found  slow  to  respond  to  a  call  for 
putting  fortli  their  best  activity  in  the  cause  of 
religion. 

The  simple  ways  taught  by  Chaitanya  Deva,    of 

reciting  the  name  of  God  and    of    praying    to    Him 

in    the    spirit    of    true  renunciation  had    gradually 

fallen    into    disfavour.       Pompous  processions  and 

great  festivities  accompanied  with  dances  of   nauch 

girls     and     display   and    flourish    of     materialistic 

grandeur  now  attracted    people    to    religion,  wdiich 

had.  however,  lost  its  serious  character,  and  become 

a  source    of    amusement  to  the  vulgar.       The  great 

Ostenta-       devotees   had    alreadv    bee^un    to    realise    the    use- 
tion  in  ."    .    . 

religion.       lessness    of    a    multiplicity    of     religious  rites,  and 

the    vanity    which    in    many    cases    prompted    the 

ostentation  of  religious  festivals  in  Bengal.       Raja 

Kama  Krisna  expressed  the  idea  in  one  of  his  songs 

that  he  would  tling  away  his  rosary  into  the   waters 

of    the    (ianges  as    soon    as    true    devotion  for  ihe 

divine    Mother    should    dawn    on    his    mind. — thus 

showing  an  utter  disregard   of  formal    observances 

in    religion  ;  and  Kama  Prasada,  already  quoted  on 

page  716,  said    of     himself  that    lie    was    a   foul  to 

worship      an      image     of     clay,    when      his      divine 

Mother    was    manifesting    herself    throughout     the 

whole   universe.       lie    said    how    luolish    it  was  le> 

kill   "oats    befor(>    the    ima<i"e    instead    ol     sacriiic- 

mil;  the  passKMis — his  real  enemies,  and  that  it   was 

but     so    miuh    rnrrgv     wasted    to    visit    the  sacred 

shrines.      1 1    ones  uiiiul  is  tixed   on    the    lotus    feet 

ol    the  .Motlu  r,  Iherr    he    will    ftel    all    the    sanctity 

ol     the    (iani;(>    and    ol    ihe  bob  cities  of    P)cnar(> 

and  (lava. 


VIL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LllKkAlUKE. 


933 


Violation  of  petty  rules  was  regarded  as  a 
great  sin  in  the  code  of  the  Brahmins.  "  That 
infidel  who  has  not  cleansed  his  teeth  before 
sunrise,  has  no  right  to  worship  God.""^  "  One 
who  takes  Putika  {Basel la  luclda  on  the  twelfth 
day  of  a  lunation  is  worse  than  a  murderer  of 
Brahmins."  "  One  who  takes  a  meal  while  touch- 
ing the  seat  with  his  feet  is  to  be  reckoned  as  a 
beef  eater. "t 

"  If  one  raises  a  cup  of  w^ater  with  his  left 
hand  and  drinks  therefrom  he  commits  the  offence 
of  him  who  drinks  wine."  j 

These  were  some  of  the  rules  for  the  uuidance 
of  a  Hindu  householder's  life.  "  Murder,  theft  or 
perjury,  though  brouglit  home  to  the  guilty  man 
by  a  judicial  sentence,  so  far  from  inducing  loss 
of  caste,  is  visited  in  their  society  with  no  peculiar 
mark  of  infamy  or  disgrace.  A  trifling  present  to 
the  Brahmin  commonly  called  Prayaychitta,  with 
the  performance  of  a  few  idle  ceremonies,  are 
held  as  sufficient  atonement  for  all  those  crimes  : 
and  the  delinquent  is  at  once  freed  from  all  tem- 
poral inconvenience  as  well  as  dread  of  future 
retribution. "§ 


Smriti. 


Severe 
codes  for 

petty 
offences. 


t  Raja    Rama   Mohana  Roys  Bengali  works    edited  by    Raja 
Narayan  Bose  p.  620. 

%   Raja    Rama    Mohana    Roy"s  Bengali  works,  published  from 
thel'anini  Karyalaya,  Allahabad,  page  228. 

t    Raja  Rama  Mohana  Roy's  English  works,   published  by  Cri 
Kanta  Roy    vol.1,  p.  203. 


934         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

The  plant  lulasi  is  sacred  with  the  Vaisfiavas 
and  the  Bel  tre«'  with  the  ^aivas.  When  regarded 
in  theligiit  of  simple  devotion  and  as  possessed  of 
emblematic  significance,  these  plants  have  a  charm 
for  the  Hindus  which  is  indescribable.  When  the 
pious  wife  lights  the  evening  lamp  at  the  foot  of 
the  sacred  Tulnsi.  the  darkness  of  evening  yields 
to  that  (juiet  light  glittering  through  the  leaves, 
and  the  vermillion-marked  forehead  bends  low  in 
the  act  of  making  obeisance  to  the  deity  whose 
symbol  it  is.  the  small  scene  breathes  poetry  to 
the  soul  which  feels  in  its  presence  as  before  some 
alter ;  but  when  the  atrocious  Brahminic  code 
lays  down  "  the  great  sinner  who  seeing  a  Bilva 
tree  or  a  tiilasi  plant  does  not  instantly  bow  down. 
will  be  sent  to  hell  and  be  ainicted  with  leprosy,*'* 
— the  poetry  and  spirituality  of  the  whole 
vanishes,  and  our  mind  revolts  against  such  ordin- 
ances and  feels  strongly  against  Brahminic  tyranny. 
The  horrid  hook-swinging  festivity  called  the 
Chadaka.  the  custom  of  throwing  children  to  the 
Sagara.  human  sacrifices  olfrred  to  Kali  and 
other  atrocious  ceremonies  performed  under  the 
sanction  and  control  of  th(^  Brahmins  compelled 
our  enlightened  rulers  to  check  them  by  enacting 
new  l.iws.  and  if  the  missionaries  were  unsparing 
in  their  abuses  of  our  religion  and  called  us  semi- 
barbarious.  lluv  were  justiiied  in  thrir  condemna- 
tion ol  thf  erlmrs  that  jxTxailed  in  the  lower 
^liaUim  of   our  socirty. 

»I^Tfv5  ^^^\  C^t^^  ^^tt^U^I"^  %5TC^  II 

Skanda  Puraha. 


VIL]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         935 


The  pure  faith  promulgated  by  Chaitanya  was 
now  giving  its  last  flicker.  In  the  lower  order  of  the 
Vaisnava  community  men  and  women  mixed  promis- 
cuously and,  interpreting  the  emblematical  religion 
in  the  light  of  gross  sensualism,  preached  unres- 
trained licentiousness  ;  and  the  cries  of  those  who 
were  forcibly  made  to  play  sutties, —  though  subdued 
and  unheard  owing  to  the  noisy  music  deliberately 
kept  to  drown  them,  rose  to  heaven  where  the  Lord 
heard  them  though  men  would  not.  The  mission- 
aries drew  attention  to  these  matters.  Such  were 
some  of  the  superstitions  and  crimes  that  per- 
vaded the  whole  of  our  society  at  the  moment  we 
are  considering.  Young  men  of  the  new  generation, 
who  had  not  fathomed  the  depths  of  religious 
life  that  still  pervaded  the  quiet  villages  of  Bengal 
inspite  of  their  superstitions,  ran  to  the  extreme,  and 
in  the  general  sweep  of  their  reformatory  procedures 
turned  their  backs  upon  good  and  evil  alike,  indiscri- 
minately condemning  all  in  their  own  society.  They 
did  not  wish  to  reform  but  aimed  at  totally  upsetting 
society,  which,  though  in  its  lower  grades  showed 
Brahminical  craft  and  oppression,  had  in  its  great 
heights — on  its  topmost  pinnacles,  an  unequalled 
glory  which  is  conspicuous  in  the  doctrines  of 
love  and  renunciation  inculcated  by  the  Vedanta. 

Young  men  saw  wrongs  on  all  sides  and  did  not 
care  to  hear  of  the  speculative  theology  of  the 
Hindus  or  to  keep  the  patience  to  scale  its  great 
height  themselves.  They  felt  that  Christianity  was 
better  than  their  own  religion  owing  to  the  moral 
principles  which  were  a  living  force  amongst  its 
votaries.  ''Young  Bengal"  showed  a  decided 
leaning  towards  the  new  creed. 


Leanings 
towards 
Christia- 
nity. 


g3^>      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 
Raja  Rama  At  this  juncture  stepped  forward  Rama  Mohana 


Alohana 
Rov. 


l\ov.  born  at  the  village  of  Radhanagar  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Hughli  in  the  year  1774, — the  year  in  which 
the  great  Rama  Prasada  Sen  died  at  Halisahara. 


(b)  A  comprehensive  review  of  his  life  and  work. 

As    I    look    upon    the    portrait    of    Raja   Rama 

Mohana,  with  his  huore  turban  on  his  head,  his  loose 

flowing  garments,  his  dark  eye  brows   bent   in   seri- 

A  born        ,,^^    thought    and  his  brilliant  eyes  with  their  medi- 
fighter.  ^  ... 

tative  look, — a  voluminous  book  held  tightly    in   his 

right    hand    and    lips    which    display  determination 

and  the  power  of  persuasive    eloquence,  -  the    high 

forehead    beaming    with     intellectuality, — his    tall 

robust  figure  erect  to  its  full  height, — he  appears  to 

me  rather  as  a  warrior  bound    for    the   battle  field, 

than   as  a  pious    religious  man — the  part  he  chose 

to  play  in  life. 

He  was  in  fact  a  born  lighter.  The  combative 
element  is  not  only  found  throughout  his  stupend- 
ous writings  in  English,  I)engali,  Sanskrit  and 
Persian,  but  even  in  the  hymns  he  offered  to  God. 
lie  could  not  forget  the  lighting  and  controversial 
spirit  even  when  he  was  addressing  praises  to  the 
Deitv.  Referring  to  the  rite  of  Prana  pratistha 
or  "  cndownuMit  of  animation  "  and  that  of  subse- 
(|uentlv  throwing  the  clav  image  in  the  water  after 
the  p^<j^  i^  over,  Rama  Mohana  sings  in  one  of  his 
hvinns  "  O  deluded  mind,  whom  do  xou  invok(\  and 
whom  do  you  cast  away."  .\gain,  dealing  with 
the  swinging  ceremony  in  the  Dolotsava  he  sings  : 
"  N'oii  w.int  to  swing  him  who  moves  the  sun,  the 
moon  and  the  -^tars  '    How  vain  your  efforts  are  !   He 


VII*]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    AND    LITERATURE.      937 

who  feeds  the  beasts,  and  birds,  fishes  and  men, 
how  absurd  it  is  to  think  of  feeding  him  !  The  Deitv 
who  pervades  the  whole  universe,  with  what  pro- 
priety can  you  say  to  him  '  stay  here  '  (refers  to  the 
mantra  t^  ■fe'l)  &c.) 

•'  It  is  vain,  if  you  do  not  accept  the  truth  ;  it 
is  like  taking  food  through  the  nose  wlien  you  are 
endowed  with  a  mouth. ""^ 

When  half  a  century  before,  Rama  Prasada  had 
composed  songs  in  this  strain,  there  had  been  a 
sincerity  in  his  utterances,  and  there  was  no  pole- 
mic spirit  in  them  ;  he  was  actually  engaged  in  all 
the  multifarious  ritual  of  Hindu  worship,  and  passing 
through  them  as  an  orthodox  Hindu,  he  only  re- 
freshed his  consciousness  of  the  clay  image  as  an 
emblem  by  referring  to  the  monotheistic  views 
which  he  really  held  and  realised  through  all  the 
rites  to  which  he  had  to  conform  outwardly.  But 
Raja  Kama  Mohana  had  given  up  all  such 
Hindu  practices  and  declared  them  idolatrous.  His 
hymn  to  the  Deity   in    the    passages    quoted   above 

^3f  -^  <5t5  ^, 

^^  rnt  *t5t^^^  ^?T^^  c^r^f^T  i 
^^  fei  ^^  ^t^  r 

"  Tv5T  '^^\  ftj^l  T^f%  ^<^t^ 

118 


938        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.     [Chap 

sounds  tho  trumpet  of  battle  ;  and  though  he  appa- 
rently applied  to  himself  the  word  'deluded',  it  is 
really  meant  for  those  who  held  views  in  religion 
other  than  his  own. 

Throughout  all  his  writings  this  combativeness 
is  obvious.  He  probably  felt  it  necessary  for  the 
times,  believing  that  people  had  begun  to  accept  the 
image  as  God  Himself  and  forget  that  it  was  a 
mere  emblem. 

As  a  combatant  he  was  superior  to  most  who 
came  in  contact  with  him,  not  only  by  the  strong 
and  forcible  manner  in  which  he  marshalled  his 
arguments,  based  on  a  learning  which  was  most 
extraordinary,  but  in  the  equanimity  of  temper  that 
he  preserved  throughout  all  controversy.  Seldom 
or  never  did  he  resort  to  the  language  of  abuse  so 
freely  indulged  in  against  him  by  his  opponents. 
He  was  master  of  many  languages, — Hebrew.  Greek. 
Persian,  English,  Sanskrit,  Arabic  Hindusthani  and 
Bengali,  and  knew  something  of  French  besides. 
The  missionaries  found  in  him  a  scholar  who  could 
point  out  flaws  in  their  translations  of  the  Bible  and 
refer  them  to  the  original  text  in  Hebrew,  or  Greek.* 
His  antagonists  were  generally  brought  to  their 
knees  by  the  solid  learning  of  the  Raja  who,  with 
all  res[)ect  for  the  scriptures  of  different  religions, 
lluropean  as.sailed  his  opponents  with  ample  ({notations  from 
admirers.  j^|^^.  books  held  sacred  by  them,  and  beat  them  on 
thrir  own  ground   in    the    most    effective    way.      In 


*  "  He  ai);ti.>  ilir  matter  very  fairly  and  quotes  with  areat  ease 
and  tlucncy  the  passatjes  of  both  Old  and  New  Testaments  ex- 
plaining,' some  maltranslations  of  Hclirew  which  Trinitarians  some- 
times urged  in  their  favour 

Monthly  Repository,  1822. 

Page,  754. 


Vil»  J       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    ik    Lll  EKAIURE. 


939 


fact    his    giant    intellect   struck    every  one  with  the 
sense    of    his    superiority,    and  the    testimonies    of 
admiration  left  by  Europeans  are  even   more   lauda- 
tory   than    those    which    he   received   from  his  own 
countrymen.  Sir  John  Bowring,  while  greeting    him 
with    an   address   of  welcome    from    the   Unitarian 
Society  of  London,  said    '*  I  recollect  some    writers 
have  indulged  themselves  with  inquiring,  what  they 
should    feel,    if  any    of  those    time-honoured    men, 
whose    names    have    lived   through    vicissitudes    of 
ages,    should    appear  among  them.     They  have  en- 
deavoured to  imagine  what   would   be    their    sensa- 
tions  if  a   Plato,  or  a  Socrates,  a  Milton  or  a  New- 
ton, were  unexpectedly  to    honour  them    with  their 
presence.     I  recollect  that  a  poet,  who  has  well  been 
called  divine,  has  drawn  a  beautiful    picture    of  the 
feelings  of  those  who  Hrst  visited  the  scenes  of  the 
southern  hemisphere,  and  there    saw,    for    the   first 
time,  that  beautiful  constellation,  the  Gold  Cross.    It 
was  with  feelings  such  as  they  underwent,  that  I  was 
overwhelmed  when    1    stretched    out    in  your  name 
the  hand  of  welcome  to    the    Raja    Kama    Mohana 
Roy."^ 

Dr.  Booth,  an  American  physician  of  London, 
wrote  to  Mr.  Estlin  on  the  27th  November.  1833, 
''  I  have  studied  his  (Raja  Rama  Mohana  Roy's) 
writings  with  a  subdued  feeling  since  his  death  and 
risen  from  their  perusal  with  a  more  confirmed  con- 
viction of  his  having  been  unequalled  in  past  or 
present  time."t  The  Rev.  J.  Scott  Porter  said  in  a 
funeral  sermon  on  the  death  of  the  Raja  — preached 

*  Monthly  Repository,  June,  1831.     (Vol.  V,  pages  417-20.) 
t  Last    days    of    Rama     Mohana     Roy     by    Mary    Carpenter 
i'age   174. 


940       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LMERATURE.      [  Chap. 

in  the  meeting-house  of  the  first  Presbyterian  con- 
gregation, Belfast,  on  the  lothof  November,  1833  : — 
"  Never  have  I  known  a  person  who  brought  a 
greater  variety  of  knowledge  to  bear  upon  almost 
every  topic  on  which  he  conversed,  never  one 
whose  remarks  were  more  original,  solid  and  use- 
ful  ..,— one    of    the    most    extraordinary    men 

whom  the  world  has  witnessed  for  centuries."  ^  The 
Rev.  J.  P'ox  spoke  of  the  Raja  in  his  sermon  deli- 
vered at  Finsbury  Chapel,  South  Place,  on  Sunday 
October  14,  1833,  "His  presence  has   passed    away 

as  a  poetic  image    lades    from    the    brain  I 

And,  '  being  dead,  he  yet  speaketh  '  with  a  voice 
to  which  not  only  India  but  Europe  and  America 
will  listen  for  generations. "t  The  Rev.  R.  Aspland 
preached  a  funeral  sermon  in  the  New  Gravel  Pit 
Meeting,  Hackney,  in  the  course  of  which  h( 
said  "  the  name  of  Rama  Alohana  Roy  will  endure 
as  long  as  the  history  of  religious  truth. "{  Lieuten- 
ant-Colonial Fitzclarence,  latterly  Earl  of  Munstcr. 
wrote  '  in  his  Journal  of  a  Route  across  India 
through   Egyi:)t   to   England     in    the    years    of   181 7 

and  1818  .      "The  most  extraordinary  Brahmin 

His  learning  is  most  extensive,  as  he  is  not  onl\- 
conversant  with  the  best  books  in  iMiglish,  Arabic. 
Sanskrit,  Bengali  and  Hindusthani  but  has  eviMi 
studied  rhetoric  in  .\rabic  and  luiglish.  and  (|uotes 
Locke  and  Bacon  on  all  occasions. "S  The  I^ngli^h 
editor  ol  the  I ndia  Gazetta  referred  to  him  wliilt 
wtiling  about  his  controversy  with  Dr.  Marshman  a.s 
"  a   most     gigantic     conibatant    in    the    theological 

*  Last  days  of  Rama  Mohana  Roy  Page  223. 

t             fio  ilu.                      do.    242. 

\              do.  do.                       do.     207. 

$              do.  do.                      do.    40. 


VII 


BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LMERAIURE. 


941 


field. "^  Many  English  writers  wrote  verses  on 
his  death,  and  those  by  Miss  Dale,  Miss  Acland, 
Mrs.  Thomas  Woodforde,  the  Rev.  W.  J.  F^ox,  and 
Dr.  Carpenter,  quoted  in  '  The  Last  Days  of  the 
Raja  Rama  Mohana  Roy  '  by  Mary  Carpenter,  are 
not  only  exquisite  as  pieces  of  poetic  composition,  but 
also  breathe  those  sentiments  of  profound  love  and 
respect,  which  his  great  personality  raised  in  the 
minds  of  all  who  came  in  contact  with  him.  The 
tender  care  with  which  he  was  attended  by  the 
ladies  at  Stapleton  Grove  during  his  last  illness, 
and  their  tears  at  his  death,  lend  deep  pathos  to  the 
description  of  the  scene  of  his  death  at  Bristol ;  and 
our  heart  goes  forth  in  gratitude  to  those  kind 
friends  of  a  foreign  clime  who  not  only  appreciated 
the  noble  qualities  of  the  great  Indian  but  felt  for 
him  a  veneration  which  annulled  all  distinctions  of 
birth  and  associations. 

In  his  controversies  with  the  ^riramapore  Mis- 
sionaries, some  of  whom  went  the  length  of  calling 
him  a  heathen,  his  mild  answers  bearing  the  im- 
press of  superior  reasoning  power,  showed  that  he 
was  a  far  better  Christian  in  spirit  than  his  adver- 
saries ;  and  the  impression  they  made  on  the  mind 
of  the  distinguished  William  Roscoe,  who  poured 
over  the  Raja's  Precepts  of  Jesus  with  admiring 
delight,  amply  testifies  to  the  great  appreciation  of 
his  writings  throughout  the  whole  of  Christendom. 
Mr.  Recorder  Hill  writes  about  his  encounter  with 
the  celebrated  Robert  Owenf  : — "  one  of  the  guests 
was  Robert  Owen  who  evinced  a   stroni]^    desire    to 


Robert 
Owen's 
defeat. 


*  Last  days  of  Rama  Mohana  Roy,  Page  17. 
j  do.  do.  do.     III. 


rj42       BENGALI    LANGUACt    6i    Lli  bKAlUKE.       [  Chdp. 


bring  uvL-r  ihc  Raja  Lu  his  socialibtic  opinions.     He 

persevered  with  great  earnestness,  but  the  Raja,  who 

seemed  well  acquainted  with  the   subject  and    who 

spoke     our     language     in      marvellous    perfection, 

answered    his    arguments    with    consummate    skill, 

until  Robert    somewhat    lost    his    temper. — a    very 

rare    occurrence  which    I    never    witnessed  before. 

The   defeat  of  the  kind  hearted  philanthropist  was 

Other         accompanied  with  great  sauvity  on  the   part    of  his 
European  >.      ta       -t-     r.      .  .        i        .   ,  i       r-.    • 

admirers,     opponent.        Dr.    1.    Boot  wrote  about  the  Raja  to 

Mr.  Estlin,  in  November  1833  : — "to  me  ^e    stood 
in  the  single  majesty  of,  1  had  almost   said,   perfect 
humanity,   no  one  in    past  or  present  ever  came  to 
my    judgment  clothed  in  such  wisdom,  or  humility." 
Another  Englishman  spoke  of  him  a^     *  a  rare  com- 
batant.     We  are  constrained  to  say  he  has  not  met 
with  his   match    here/'     "It  is  well  known  "  writes 
Mary  Carpenter  (p.  252)  "  tiiat  Mr.  William  Adam  a 
Baptist    of  Criramapore,  w^ho  endeavoured  to  make 
him  a  convert  to  orthodoxy,  concluded  his    task    b\ 
acknowledging    himself    a    coiuert      to     the      true 
l^vangelical  opinions  of  the    Raja-         1  he    greatest 
j)hilosopher    of  England    at   the  time,  Jeremy  Ben- 
ihatn.  ga\e  him  a   cordial    rece})tion    and  addressed 
him    a.s    "  intensely    admired    and    dearly     beloved 
collaborator  in    the    service    ot    mankind."      "Your 
works,"  wrote  Bentham   to    the    Raja,    "are    made 
known  to  me  by  a  book    in    which    I    read    a    style 
which,  but  for  the  nam(  ot  .1  I  lindu,  I  should  certain- 
ly have  ascribed  to  the   pen  of  .1  superiorly  educat- 
ed .nul  instructed  luigli>hman  "   and    in    the    same 
lrlt(  1    while    praising  the  great  work  of  James  Mill 
on  the  History  of  India,  iientham  remarked,  "though 
■  t>>    1"     tho    stvlc  I    wi^h    I     could    with    truth    and 


VIL  ]       BENGALI    f.ANGUAGR    &    LITRRATURE.         943 


sincerity  pronounce  it  equal  to  yours. ""^  The  poet 
Campbell  was  also  one  of  his  great  admirers. 
When  he  landed  in  England  the  Raja  met  with  a 
reception  which  only  the  most  exalted  men  of 
Europe  could  expect  to  receive.  He  was  presented 
to  His  Majesty  the  King  by  the  President  of  the 
Board  of  Control  and  had  a  place  assigned  to  him 
among  the  foreign  ambassadors.  The  highest 
honours  were  publicly  accorded  to  him.  ''  Persons 
most  remarkable  for  their  social  standing  and  liter- 
ary eminence  sought  his  society  and  highly  esteem- 
ed the  privilege  of  intercourse  with  him.  He  was 
received  into  our  English  homes  not  only  as  a 
distinguished  guest  but  as  a  friend."t  During  his 
short  stay  at  Paris  he  was  more  than  once  at  the 
table  of  Louis  Philippe.  Wherever  he  went  he 
had  to  attend  meetings  according  him  a  most 
hearty  and  cordial  reception.  Mary  Carpenter 
writes  that  she  had  herself  met  some  of  those 
''  who  still  treasured  the  remembrance  of  the 
Raja  ;  one  of  these,  now  a  grayheaded  man,  recol- 
lected when  a  young  midshipman  on  arriving  at 
Calcutta,  going  to  visit  the  magnificent  residence 
and  grounds  of  the  Brahmin  who  was  even  then 
celebrated.  It  was  in  the  Circular  Road  at  the 
Eastern  extremity  of  the  town.  He  did  not  see 
the  master  of  the  mansion,  but  he  picked  up  in  the 
large  aviary  a  relic  in  remembrance  of  the  dis- 
tinguished man  which  he  still  treasures."  J 

Social    and    religious    reformation  he   chose   as 
the  chief  object  of  his  pursuit.    His  evidence  before 


Reception 
in  Europe. 


A  midship- 
man's re- 
collections. 


*  Bowring's  works  of  Bentham,  vol.  X;  pa^e  586. 
T   Mary  Carpenter's  life  of  the  Raja,  page  65, 
i         Do.  do.  page  67. 


944      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LllERATURE,       [Chap, 


Evidence 

before  the 

select  Com= 

mittee. 


On  Educa- 
tion. 


Broad 
sympathy 
and  cosmo- 
politan 
views. 


the  Select  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons 
in  England  regarding  the  Judicial  and  Revenue 
system  of  India  and  his  essay  on  the  European 
colonisation  show  a  masterly  grasp  of  the  subject 
as  also  the  vast  range  of  his  study  and  minute 
observation  in  every  detail  of  the  administrative 
(juestions  of  tlie  country,  upon  which  the  British 
press  bestowed  at  the  time  their  highest  encom- 
iums. His  writing  materially  assisted  the  Govern- 
ment in  enacting  legislation  for  the  administration 
of  the  country  on  a  more  solid  and  efficacious 
basis.  His  letter  on  the  question  of  education 
preceded  the  memorable  minute  of  Lord  Macaulay 
and  sounded  the  key  note  of  the  future  educational 
policy  of  the  Government. 

In  fact  in  every  department  of  thought,  calcu- 
lated to  advance  the  cause  of  his  countrymen,  his 
great  intelligence  and  zealous  advocacy  of  all 
that  he  considered  right  have  left  a  powerful  im- 
press. In  all  movements,  whether  of  social  or  poli- 
tical nature,  the  start  that  he  gave  to  the  enlightened 
Hindu  Society  of  Bengal  has  kept  it  going  forward 
up  to  the  present.  Thoroughly  acquainted  with 
the  political  conditions  in  Europe,  the  sympathy  of 
his  great  mind  went  forth  to  the  cause  of  liberty 
and  freedom,  wherever  it  was  at  stake.  His  humane 
feelings  were  also  as  cosmopolitan.  When  on  one 
occasion  he  attended  divine  worship  at  Carter 
Lane  Chapel,  the  Minister  was  reading  a  letter 
from  a  clergyman  in  that  quarter  describing  the 
sufferings  of  the  poor  people  in  the  west  of  Ire- 
land, tluMi  in  a  state  of  lamentable  distress. 
Writes  .Mr.  Poter  on  the  occasion  "the  tears  that 
fell  from  his,    CRaja's)    <'ves    rleclared    how    deeply 


VII,]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         945 

he  was  moved  by  the  reciter."^  He  materially 
contributed  to  the  fund  collected  for  affording  them 
relief. 

For  women  the  sympathy  of  his  heart  was  ever 
in  readiness  ;  and  one,  who  reads  his  arguments  in 
favour  of  tlie  abolition  of  Suttee,  cannot  but  be 
struck  with  the  great  humanity  with  which  he  ad- 
vocated the  cause,  as  also  with  the  high  reverence 
in  which  he  held  Indian  women.  When  a  pro- 
Suttee  champion  declared  woman-kind  as  weak, 
frail  and  irreligious,  his  honest  indignation  burst 
forth  in  a  glorious  speech  in  which  the  sufferings, 
the  devotion  and  the  firmness  of  Hindu  Women 
are  so  vividly  represented,  that  no  poet  could  do  it 
in  better  language  or  in  more  effective  form.  He 
suffered  all  kinds  of  persecution,  intolerance  and 
abuses  from  his  opponents  who  even  tried  to  way- 
lay and  belabour  him,  but  reading  his  answers  to 
the  charges  made  against  him  by  orthodx  Hindus,  Good  for 
and  even  by  the  clergy,  one  is  struck  with  his  gentle 
and  persuasive  eloquence,  his  kindly  words  indicat- 
ing a  sweet  and  unruffled  temperament.  These 
are  found  in  sharp  contrast  to  the  foul  and  wanton 
abuse  of  his  antagonists.  He  himself  says  in  some 
of  his  answers  that  as  a  child  frets,  when  the  well- 
meaning  doctor  gives  him  medicine,  but  the  doctor 
heeds  it  not,  even  so  does  he  treat  those  who  without 
understanding  his  good  intentions  are  crying  down 
his  works.  He  was  never  weary  of  arguing  in 
favour  of  what  he  considered  to  be  the  truth. 
Such  an  untiring  champion  of  truth  is  scarcely  to 
be    met    with    now.     Mr.    Arnot     writes     of  him, 

*  Miss    Carpenter's    "  Last  Days  of  Raja  Rama  Mohana  Ray," 
page  225. 

119 


evil. 


946        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

Vindicates  "  During  the  greater  part  of  the  period  of  Rama 
*of  Qod!^  Mohana  Roy^^  residence  at  Calcutta,  the  whole 
powers  of  his  mind  were  directed  to  the  vindica- 
tion of  the  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  God.  In  this, 
he  maintained,  the  sacred  books  of  the  Hindus  and 
Mussalmans,  Jews  and  Christians  agreed  ;  and  that 
all  apparent  deviations  from  it  were  modern  cor- 
ruptions. He  propagated  it  day  and  night  by 
word  and  writings,  with  the  zeal  of  an  apostle  and 
the  self-denial  of  a  martyr.  He  was  ever  ready 
to  maintain  it  against  all  gain-sayers,  from  the  be- 
liever in  thirty  three  millions  of  God  to  the  denier 
of  one,  for  both  extremes  are  common  in  the  East. 
The  writer  remembers  finding  him  at  his  Garden 
House  near  Calcutta,  one  evening,  about  7  o'clock, 
closing  a  dispute  with  one  of  the  followers  of 
Buddha,  who  denied  the  existence  of  the  Deity. 
The  Raja  had  spent  the  whole  day  in  the  contro- 
versy, without  stopping  for  food,  rest  or  refresh- 
ment, rejoicing  more  in  confuting  one  atheist  than 
in  triumphing  over  hundred  idolators  :  the  credulitv 
of  the  one  he  despised  ;  the  scepticism  of  the  other 
he  thought  pernicious  ;  for  he  was  deeplv  impress- 
ed with  the  importance  of  religion  for  the  virtue 
and  happiness  of  mankind.""^ 

His  pro-Christian  tendencies  are  well  known. 
Yet  he  would  not  agree  with  the  missionaries  in 
Rejects  their  orthodox  views.  When  the  ^ri  Ramapur  mis- 
sionaries advanced  their  argumtMits  in  support  of 
them  iracles  of  Christ,  the  Rsja  cjuietly  reFiiarkcd  : — 
"  His  miracles  were  less  stupendous  than  those  of 
the  Hindu  who  drank  up  the  ocean  and    discharged 

♦  •'  Last  Days  in  England  "  by  Miss  Mary  Carpenter,  page  299^ 


miracles. 


Vn.  ]   BENGAM  LANGUAGE  Sc   LI  1  ERATURE.    947 


it  from  his  body."*  Though  attacking  the  idola- 
trous practices  of  the  Hindus,  the  Raja  boldly  de- 
clared his  profound  respect  for  the  Hindu  philo- 
sophy before  his  European  friends.  An  English 
writer  writes,  "  he  (the  Raja)  asserts  that  he  has 
found  nothing  in  European  books  equal  to  the 
scholastic  philosophy  of  the  Hindus. "t 

He  combined  in  himself  the  best  elements  of 
European  and  Asiatic  ideals.  In  spirituality  he 
was  a  Vedantist  and  in  morality  he  was  a  follower 
of  Christ. 

This  extraordinary  man,  with  his  noble  efforts 
in  all  works  of  reformation,  did  a  great  service  to 
the  cause  of  Bengali  literature  to  which  we  shall 
refer  hereafter.  We  here  briefly  give  a  sketch  of 
his  life  as  narrated  by  himself. 

"  My  ancestors  were  Brahmins  of  a  high  order 
and,  from  time  immemorial,  were  devoted  to 
the  religious  duties  of  their  race,  down  to  my 
fifth  progenitor  who,  about  one  hundred  and  forty 
years  ago,  gave  up  spiritual  exercises  for  worldly 
pursuits  and  aggrandisements.  His  descendants 
ever  since  have  followed  his  example  and,  accord- 
ing to  the  usual  fate  of  courtiers,  with  various  suc- 
cess, sometimes  rising  to  honour  and  sometimes 
falling  ;  sometimes  rich  and  sometimes  poor  ;  some- 
times excelling  in  success,  sometimes  miserable 
through  disappointment.  But  my  maternal  ances- 
tors, being  of  the  sacerdotal  order  by  profession 
as  well  as  by  birth,  and  of  a  family  than  which 
none  holds  a  higher   rank  in  that  profession,  have 


Respect  for 

Hindu 
Philosophy. 


An  auto- 
biographi- 
cal ac- 
count. 


•  History  of  Cri  Ramapur  Mission  Vol.  I,  page  238. 
t  Monthly  Repository  1818,  Vol.  XV,  pp.  2-4. 


948       BENGALI    LANGUAGK    &    l.llERATURE.       [Chap. 

up  to  the  present  day  adhered  to  a  life  of  religious 
observances  and  devotion,  preferring  peace  and 
tranquillity  of  mind  to  the  excitements  of  wordly 
grandeur. 

"  In  conformity  with  the  usage  of  my  paternal 
race,  and  the  wish  of  my  father,  I  studied  the 
Persian  and  Arabic  languages, — these  being  indis- 
pensable to  those  who  attached  themselves  to  the 
courts  of  the  Mahomedan  princes  ;  and  agreeablv 
to  the  usage  of  my  maternal  relations,  I  devoted 
myself  to  the  study  of  the  Sanskrit  and  the  theo- 
logical works  written  in  it,  which  contain  the  bodv 
of  Hindu  literature,  law^  and  religion 

"  When  about  the  age  of  sixteen,  I  composed  a 
manuscript  calling  in  question  the  validity  of  the 
idolatrous  system  of  the  Hindus.  This,  together 
with  my  known  sentiments  on  that  subject,  having 
produced  a  coolness  between  me  and  my  imme- 
diate kindred,  I  proceeded  on  my  travels,  and 
passed  through  different  countries,  chiefly  within, 
but  some  beyond,  the  bounds  of  Hindustan, 
with  a  feeling  of  great  aversion  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  British  power  in  India.  When  I  had 
reached  the  age  of  twenty,  my  father  recalled  me. 
and  restored  me  to  his  favour ;  after  which  I  first 
saw  and  begun  to  associate  with  Europeans  and 
soon  after  made  myself  tolerably  acquainted  with 
their  laws  and  form  of  government.  Finding  them 
generallv  more  intelligent,  more  steady  and  moder- 
ate in  their  conduct,  I  gave  up  my  prejudice  against 
them,  and  became  inclined  in  their  favour,  feeling 
persuaded  that  their  rule,  though  a  foreign  yoke, 
would    1(  .id    inoro  speedilv  and  surely  to  the  ameli- 


VIL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         949 

oration  of  the  native  inhabitants  ;  and  I  enjoyed 
the  confidence  of  several  of  them  even  in  their 
public  capacity.  My  continued  controversies  with 
the  Brahmins  on  the  subject  of  their  idolatry  and 
superstition,  and  my  interference  with  their  custom 
of  burning  widows,  and  other  pernicious  practices, 
revived  and  increased  their  animosity  against  me  ; 
and  through  their  influence  with  my  family,  my 
father  was  again  obliged  to  withdraw  his  counte- 
nance openly,  though  his  limited  pecuniary  support 
was  still  continued  to  me. 

"  After  my  father's  death  I  opposed  the  advo- 
cates of  idolatry  with  still  greater  boldness. 
Availing  myself  of  the  art  of  printing,  now  estab- 
lished in  India,  I  published  various  works  and 
pamphlets  against  their  errors  in  the  native  and 
foreign  languages.  This  raised  such  a  feeling 
against  me,  that  I  was  at  last  deserted  by  every 
person  except  two  or  three  Scotch  friends,  to 
whom,  and  the  nation  to  which  they  belong,  I  will 
always  feel  grateful. 

"The  ground  which  1  took  in  all  controversies 
was,  not  that  of  opposition  to  Brahminism,  but  to 
a  perversion  of  it ;  and  I  endeavoured  to  show  that 
the  idolatry  of  the  Brahminism  was  contrary  to 
the  practice  of  their  ancestors,  and  the  principles 
of  the  ancient  books  and  authorities  which  they 
profess  to  revere  and  obey.  Notwithstanding  the 
violence  of  the  opposition  and  resistance  to  my 
opinions,  several  highly  respectable  persons,  both 
among  my  own  relations  and  others  began  to  adopt 
the  same  sentiments. 

"I  now  felt  a  strong  wish  to  visit  Europe  and 
obtain,  by  personal  observation,    a    more    thorough 


950      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap< 

insight  into  its  manners,  customs,  religion  and  poli- 
tical institutions.  I  refrained  however,  from  carry- 
ing this  intention  into  effect  until  the  friends  who 
coincided  with  my  sentiments  should  be  increased  in 
number  and  strength.  My  expectations  having 
been  at  length  realised  in  November,  1830.  I  em- 
barked for  England,  as  the  discussion  of  the  East 
India  Company's  Charter  was  expected  to  come 
on,  by  which  the  treatment  of  the  natives  of  India 
and  its  future  government  would  be  determined 
for  many  years  to  come,  and  an  appeal  to  the  King 
in  Council  against  the  abolition  of  the  practice  of 
burning  widows  was  to  be  heard  before  the  Privy 
Council  •,  and  His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  Delhi 
had  likewise  commissioned  me  to  bring  before  the 
authorities  in  England  certain  encroachments  on 
his  rights  by  the  East  India  Company.  I  accord- 
ingly arrived  in  England  in  .\pril.   1831."* 

Rama  Mohana  Roy  was  requested  to  give  his 
evidence  before  the  Select  Committee  of  the  House 
of  Commons  on  the  Judicial  and  revenue  systems 
of  India.  He  was  also  examined  on  the  condition 
of  the  native  inhabitants  of  India.  His  answers, 
His  work  ^^  already  mentioned,  were  remarkable  as  showing 
land  his  great  command  over  the  subjects    in    which    he 

was  thus  consulted.     Through  his  earnest  attempts 


♦  Miss  Carpenter  introduced  this  Autobioj;jraphi(aI  sketch 
into  her  hook  '  Last  Days  in  Entjland  ot  Raja  Rama  Mohana  Roy" 
with  the  followinij  remarks.  :  — 

"  The  following  letter  trcjin  Rama  Muhana  Roy  himself  lir>t 
appeared  in  the  '  Athen;cum  '  and  in  the  Literary  Gazette,  from 
one  or  other  of  which  it  was  copied  into  various  papers.  It  was 
written  ju.st  before  he  went  to  Krance.  It  was  probably  designed 
for  some  distinguished  person  who  had  desired  him  to  give  an 
outline  of  his  history  ;  and  he  adopted  this  form  for  the  purposr. 
I'hr  letter  may  be  considered  as  addressed  to  his  friend  .Mr.  Gor- 
»lon  of   Calcutta." 


VIL]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LllERAlURE.  95! 


the  appeal  against  the  abolution  of  Suttee  was 
rejected  on  the  nth  of  July,  1832.  After  a  resi- 
dence of  three  years  in  Europe  Raja  Rama  Mohana 
Roy    died    at    Bristol    on   the   27th    of  September, 

1833- 

How  far  the  Raja's  strenuous  and  self-sacrific- 
ing efforts  against  idolatry  may  have  succeeded  will 
enofaofe  us  for  a  few  moments.  As  a  heated  contro- 
vercy  was  going  on  in  the  vernacular  tongue  on  this 
point,  we  consider  ourselves  justified  in  summaris- 
ing here  the  arguments  advanced  by  the  other 
side.  From  the  time  of  the  Risis,  when  Usas  appear- 
ed to  them  as  beautiful  nymph  of  the  horizon 
clothed  in  purple  apparel,  down  to  the  days  of  the 
Puranas,  the  religious  history  of  India  has  been  one 
in  which  monotheism  has  constantly  adopted  the 
garb  of  allegory,  in  order  to  appeal  more  potently  to 
popular  minds;  and  the  vast  pantheon  of  the  Hindu 
gods  and  goddesses  have  an  emblematical  signifi- 
cance which  has  been  repeatedly  emphasised  by 
the  writers  of  theological  treatises.  The  Raja  him- 
self admitted  ''there  can  be  no  doubt  however,  and 
it  is  my  whole  desire  to  prove,  that  every  rite  has 
its  derivation  from  the  allegorical  adoration  of  the 
deity,  but  at  the  present  day  all  is  forgotten";^ 
and  again  "  many  learned  Brahmins  are  well  in- 
formed of  the  pure  mode  of  divine  worship. "f 

The  position  taken  by  his  opponents  was  not 
without  a  rational  basis  ;  and  the  controversy  was  as 
interesting  as  it  was  learned.  In  the  spiritual  world, 
as    in    poetry  and  even  in  Mathematics,  the  symbol 

*    Ens^Ush  works  ot   Raja  Rama  Mohana  Roy/vol.  I,  page  5. 
t  r>o.  do.  vol.  I,. page  127. 


and  death. 


Gods  and 

goddesses 

of  the 

Hindus. 


952       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap, 

is  adopted  for  convenience.  As  in  the  geometrical 
definition  of  a  line  or  point  the  basis  is  taken  for 
granted,  or  as  in  the  play  of  Hamlet  the  historic 
facts  need  not  be  authentic,  so  in  any  subject  the 
ground-work  may  always  be  called  in  question  ; 
but  the  stupendous  facts  which  rest  upon  it  are  not 
therefore  to  be  ignored  or  undervalued.  The 
whole  civilisation  of  the  Hindus,  their  vast  poetic 
literature,  their  architectural  achievements,  shrines, 
temples,  the  geography  of  India  as  revealed  to 
them  in  a  spiritual  light — the  sacred  Ganges,  the 
Godavari,  the  Brahmaputra,  the  snow-topped 
Himalaya  and  the  Vindhya  hills,  all  are  associated 
with  religious  stories  and  episodes,  underlying 
which  there  is  the  Vedanta  Philosophy  which  in- 
vests external  forms  with  spiritual  truth  ;  and  the 
idea  of  the  Supreme  Being  permeates  all  that  may 
superficially  strike  us  as  irrational.  From  the  lays 
of  Jayadeva,  Chandi  Das  and  Vidyapati  to  the 
Kirtana  and  the  Agamani  songs  of  Bengal,  our 
whole  vast  lore  of  devotional  sentiment  is  no  literary 
curiosity  to  our  people  ; — it  is  a  perpetual  fountain 
of  faith  to  the  humble  as  well  as  to  the  enlightened. 
The  gods  and  goddesses  oi  the  Puranas,  like  the 
Usas  of  the  Risis,  represent  the  attributes  of  one 
who  attracts  us  through  their  familiar  forms  even 
as  the  sun  approaches  us  through  a  thousand  rays 
of  light.  This  vast  religious  fabric  was  not  created 
in  a  day.  It  has  taken  deep  root  in  our  soil  for 
hundreds  of  vears.  Such  gods  as  these  could  not  be 
dismissed  at  a  word,  however  great  might  be  the 
power  that  cried  to  them  '  Vanish  !  '  Even  when  Raja 
Rama  Mohana  Roy  was  decrying  what  he  called 
idolatry  iri  unsparlni-   l.inoua^^e,    there  were  already 


VIL]       BENGAL!    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.         953 

Europeans    who    were    attracted    by    it,— nay    had 

adopted  the  'idolatrous  practices'  themselves.    The       Huropean 
•  converts  to 

facts  disclosed  by  the  extracts  quoted  below  should     Hinduism. 

be  judged  independently.     The  comments  made  on 

them  are  what  one  naturally  expects  from  tlie  biassed 

persons  from  wliose  writings  they  are  taken. 

•'Mr.  Twining  and  Major  Scott  Waring  were 
joined  in  their  missionary  crusade  by  a  colleague 
in  the  person  of  a  *'  Bengal  officer,''  Col.  Stewart, 
generally  known  in  India  under  the  name  of  "  Hin- 
du Stewart/'  He  had  abjured  Christianity  and 
become  a  worshipper  of  the  Hindu  deities.  He 
exposed    himself    equally     to     the    ridicule   of    his 

own    countrvmen,     by    oroinfj   down    in    the   morn-  ^.    ^ 

'        -^    ^       ^  Hindu 

ing  to  the  Ganges,  with  flowers  and  sacrificial  Stewart. 
vessels,  to  perform  his  ablutions  according  to  the 
Hindu  rituals.  At  a  subsequent  period,  he  asked 
permission  to  accompany  the  army  in  its  progress 
towards  the  capital  of  Nepal,  that  he  might  have 
an  opportunity  of  paying  his  devotion  at  a  cele- 
brated shrine  of  Qiva  which  lay  on  the    route 

The  Bengal  officer  exhibited  the  most 
profound  respect  for  the  Hindu  religion,  and  enter- 
tained the  most  lofty  conceptions  of  the  morals  and 
virtues  of  the  Hindus  ;  and  he  now  came  forward 
to  denounce  the  sacrilegious  attack  of  the  mission- 
aries 'on  the  sacred  and  venerable  fabric  of  Hin- 
duism.' In  his  pamphlet  called  *  The  Bengal 
Officer's  Pamphlet  '  published  in  1808,  he  says, 
*'  wherever  I  look  around  me  in  the  vast  re^jion  of 
Hindu  mythology,  I  discover  piety  in  the  garb  of 
allegory:  and  I  see  morality,  at  every  turn  blended 
with  every  fable  ;  and  as  far  as  I    can    rely  od    my 

120 


954      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.       [  Chap 

judgment,  it  appears  the  most  complete  and  ample 
system  of  Moral  Allegory  that  the  world  has  ever 
produced. "■'^ 

We  find  from  the  introduction  to  Abridgement 
of  Vedanta  by  Raja  Rama  Mohana  Roy,  published 
in  1816,  that  he  attacked  "that  system  of  popular 
idolatry  on  which  Sir  Thomas  IMunro,  and  Mr. 
Lushington,  and  Mr.  Marsh  had  bestowed  the 
highest  eulogium  three  years  before  in  the  presence 
of  the  Parliament. "t 

Mr.  W.  Ward  of  the  Criramapore  Mission  seem- 
ed to  be  particularly  hostile  to  any  who  advocated 
the  cause  of  Hinduism.  In  his  work  on  the  Hin- 
dus, he  writes,  "The  Rev.  Maurice  has  attempted 
to  describe  the  Hindu  ceremonies  in  the  most 
florid  colours.  It  might  have  been  expected,  (idola- 
try being  in  itself  an  act  so  degrading  to  man  and 
so  dishonourable  to  God)  that  a  Christian  Divine 
would  have  been  shocked  while  writing  in  this 
manner.  If  Mr.  Maurice  thinks  there  is  something 
in  Hinduism  to  excite  the  most  sublime  ideas,  let 
him  come  and  join  in  the  dance  before  the  idol  or 
assist  the  Bramhins  in  crving  Huree  bul  :  Huree 
bul  !  "t 

hVom  this  Mr.    Maurice    himself,   we     quote    the 

f(^lIo\ving    interesting    and      sympathetic     passage. 

Maurice  on     "Mr.     I'drbes    of     Stanmore    Hill    in     his     elegant 

Hinduism.      nuiseum  of  Indian   rarities  numbers  two  of  the  bells 

that  have  been  used  in  devotion    by  the    Brahmins, 

*  History  of  tht-  Crirainaporo  Mission  by  John  Clark  Marshman, 
vol.  I,  pp.  :V54— 5^'- 

i  "  History  of  thv  Criramapore  Mission,"  vol.  II,  page  128. 
X   Introductory  Remarks,  Ward's 'on  Hindus'  vol.  II  page  ixxv. 


VIL  ]      BENGALI   LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.         955 

as  great  curiosities,  and  one  of  them  in  par- 
ticular appears  to  be  of  very  high  antiquity,  in 
torm  very  much  resembling  the  cup  of  the  lotus, 
and  the  tune  of  it  was  uncommonly  soft  and  melo- 
dious. I  could  not  avoid  being  deeply  affected 
with  the  sound  of  an  instrument  which  had  been 
actually  employed  to  kindle  the  flame  of  that 
superstition,  which  I  have  attempted  to  unfold. 
My  transported  thoughts  travelled  back  to  the 
remote  period  when  the  Brahmin  religion  blazed 
forth  in  all  its  splendour  in  the  caverns  of  Elephan- 
ta :  1  was,  for  a  moment,  entranced  and  caught 
the  ardour  of  enthusiasm.  A  tribe  of  venerable 
priests,  arrayed  in  flowing  stoles  and  decorated 
with  high  tiaras,  seemed  assembled  around  me, 
the  mystic  song  of  initiation  vibrated  in  my  ear  ; 
I  breathed  an  air,  fragrant  with  the  richest  per- 
fumes and  contemplated  the  deity  in  the  fire  that 
symbolised  him."  Dr.  Ward  quotes  this  passage 
from  an  article  written  by  the  Rev.  Maurice  in  the 
fifth  volume  of  ''  Indian  Antiquities  ''  and  treats  it 
with  great  contempt.  But  it  is  the  last  part  of  the 
article  which  most  of  all  annoys  him.  This  runs  as 
follows. 

''  She  (the  Hindu  religion)  wears  the  similitude 
of  a  beautiful  and  radiant  cherub  from  heaven, 
bearing  on  his  persuasive  lips  the  accents  of  pardon 
and  peace,  and  on  his  silken  wings  benefaction  and 
blessing.''* 

Dr.  Ward  also  finds  faults  with    Mr.    Halhed    of    pro-Hindu 

the    Civil  Service,  the  first  writer  on  Bengfali  gram-    ^®"^"^*^f 

Z'       °  of  Halhed 

mar,  because    he    "  seems    to    prefer    Hinduism    to    and  Jones. 

♦  '  Ward's  'on  the  Hindus, '  vol.  IL 
Introduction,     Page  IXXVI. 


95^        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   8l   LITERATURE.    [  Chap< 

Cliiistianity ;  "  and  coiulemns  even  Sir  William 
Jones  for  his  pro-Hindu  tendencies.  The  great 
scholar  was,  according  to  tlie  critic,  "  accustomed 
to  study  the  Castras  with  the  image  of  a  Hindu 
god  placed  on  his  table." 

The  Hindus  were  never  known  to  posseiss  anv 
proselytising  zeal  ;  yet  the  poetry  and  devotion 
wliicii  pervaded  the  allegorical  mode  of  their  wor- 
ship could  not  fail  to  commend  itself  to  many  an 
enlightened  European  who  would  openly  avow  his 
partiality  tor  it.  '1  hese  foreign  admirers  of  our  reli- 
gion were  Raja  Rama  Mohana's  contemporaries — 
a  circumstance  which  shows  that  the  Hindu  religion 
in  Bengal  had  not  yet  sunk  into  utter  grossness  as 
it    was    represented  lo  have  done  by  its  reformers; 

Hinduism      (or,    in    that    case    it    could    not    have  counted     its 
in  our  ,        ,  ,        i         i     •         . 

village-         votaries  among  the    Europeans    wlio    lived    in    the 

country.     Almost  a    century  has  pssed  since  Rama 

Mohana  Roy  breatlied  his  last.      The    incense   still 

burns    in    the    Hindu    temples    at    the    time  of  the 

Arati    or    evening   service  :   the    village  potters  still 

prepare  clay  images  of  the    gods.      1  he   au^picious 

sound  of  the  evening    conch    still    resounds  beyond 

the  temples  across  our  helds  and  lawns.  The  sacred 

books    Bhagvata.    Chandi    and    other  Puranas,  still 

tind    hundreds    of  listeners,  whose  love  is  far  more 

ennobling  than  if  the  works  had  possessed  a  mere- 

1)'    literal  V    interest    and    how    dreary  would  be  the 

Hindu      home     without    these    things!     To    me    it 

appears  that  if  the  allegorical  lorms  of  our  religion 

were  all  swept  aw^v.  the  whole  Hindu    civilisation, 

interv(!ning  between  the  period   of  the    X'edas    and 

that  of  Rama  Kri^tha  Faramaharhsa's  sayings,  would 

be    overthrown,    and    the    spiritual   soul  of   India, 


llUtllCb. 


VIL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  957 

thousands  of  years  old,  would  have  to  be  born 
anew,  as  a  child  of  to-day,  losing  the  benefit  of 
the  rich  heritage  transmitted  by  our  forefathers 
through  the  ages  of  the  past. 

But  has  the  Raja's  mission  failed  in  its  attempt  j-y^^  ^^^^ 
to  lead  our  society  to  a  realisation  of  the  truth  that  ccssof  the 
symbols  are  not  to  be  mistaken  for  realities  and  that  mission. 
the  deity  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  them  ?  Every 
right  thinking  man  must  emphatically  say  '  no  '  to 
this  enquiry.  The  enlightened  Hindu  youth  of  the 
present  day  has  reverted  to  the  Vedanta  Philo- 
sophy ;  and  the  movements  of  the  revivalists,  though 
often  displaying  ridiculous  niceties  in  their  meta- 
physical interpretations,  have  constantly  aimed  at 
taking  a  rational  and  sensible  view  of  matters. 
The  modern  Hindu  is  not  the  Hindu  of  the  old 
school.  In  the  general  awakening  of  the  intellect 
and  in  the  widening  of  the  search  after  spiritual 
truth  which  followed  Raja  Rima  Mohana  Roy's 
advent,  the  Hindus  have  not  neglected  to  make 
their  position  secure  by  studying  the  ^astras  in  a 
new  light ;  it  has  been  a  point  of  their  constant 
efforts  to  interpret  rationally  what  a  great  number 
of  people  of  the  preceding  generations  did  blindly. 

The  Raja  has  therefore  been  directly  instru- 
mental in  helping  the  cause  of  monotheism  by 
founding  the  Brahmo  Samaja,  and  indirectly  bv 
giving  a  stimulus  to  Hindu  Society,  which  in  its 
anxiety  to  defend  itself  against  the  Rationalists, 
soon  came  forward  to  propound  myths  about  the 
gods  in  accordance  with  monthiestic  principles,  for 
which,  however,  it  had  ample  authority  in  its  scrip- 
tures.    Like  all  great  men  the  Raji  came  to  minis- 


The  Raja's 


958        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

ter  to  a  real  need  of  society.  It  may  be  that  the 
enlightened  people  of  Bengjal  would  without  him 
have  been  drawn  more  irrevocably  to  Christianity, 
being  dissatisfied  with  the  existing  state  of  their 
religion.  The  spirit  of  the  Raja  not  only  domin- 
ates the  F3rahmo  Samaja  of  to-day,  but  his  influence 
is  distinctly  traceable  in  the  general  a  wakening  of 
the  Hindu  mind  to  a  consciousness  of  new  ideals 
in  the  spiritual  world. 

This  great  man  approached  his  countrymen 
through  the  vehicle  of  his  mother  tongue.  Before 
Rama  Mohana  the  prose  literature  that  existed  was 
of  very  minor  importance.  The  Europeans  had 
already  set  themselves  to  the  task  of  compiling 
work  in  Bengali  Grammar  and  vocabularies.  They  had 
prose.  begun  to  translate  the  Gospel,  and  those  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  judicial  administration  had 
found  it  expedient  to  translate  the  Laws  and 
Regulations  into  the  vernacular.  There  was  a 
general  activity  in  Bengal  among  an  enlightened 
though  limited  circle  of  men  to  contribute  to 
our  prose  literature — an  activity  which  as  I  have  said 
in  a  foregoing  chapter,  was  largely  due  to  the  ener- 
getic efforts  of  missionaries  in  bringing  home  to 
the  people  the  truths  of  the  Bible,  as  also  to  tlieir 
sincere  desire  to  promote  the  condition  of  our 
countrymen  by  a  diffusion  of  western  education. 
Rama  Mohana  Roy  is  generally  know  n  as  the  father 
of  the  Bengali  prose  ;  but  we  have  seen  that 
some  of  the  earliest  writings  in  Bengali,  composed 
in  the  10th  century  A.I),  were  in  prose.  Small  and 
cnin  large  trtaiiscs  were  written  in  simple  Bengali 
'The  father  prose  before  the  advc  nt  of  the  Europeans.  The 
°  prose/        assertion    of  "  fatherhood  "    therefore    can    not    be 


VIL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.        959 

countenanced.  Even  before  any  book  had  been 
published  in  Bengali  prose  except  the  Regulations 
and  Vocabularies,  Ram  Basu's  Pratapaditya  Charita 
came  out  in  the  year  1800.  It  has  been  urged 
by  many  people  that  Rama  Mohana  Roy  in  his 
sixteenth  year  (1790  A.D.)  wrote  a  book  in  Bengali 
prose  ''  against  idolatry  of  all  religions."  True, 
he  wrote  a  pamphlet  bearing  that  name,  but  it  was 
written  in  Persian  with  an  Arabic  preface.  The 
Vedanta  Sutra  was  his  first  work  in  Bengali,  and  this 
appeared  in  18 15.  In  the  Vedanta  Sutra  he  himself 
refers  toatranslationof  Bhasaparichchheda  in  Bengali 
prose  as  having  already  existed  before  he  began 
to  write  in  Bengali.^  We  have  mentioned  several 
translations  of  the  above  work  on  Logic,  while  deal- 
ing with  the  old  Bengali  literature.  If  one  reads 
the  translations  of  the' Bhasaparichchheda,  the  latest 
of  which  was  written  nearly  a  century  before  Rarna 
Mohana  Rov's  Vedanta  Sutra,  one  will  be  struck 
with  the  similarity  of  language  in  the  above  treatises 
with  the  stvle  of  Rama  Mohana  Roy.  The  mis- 
sionaries had  taken  up  Bengali,  in  riorht  earnest,  and 
they  had  required  no  impetus  from  the  Raja  in 
adopting  the  vernacular  prose  as  the  medium 
through  which  to  approach  the  people  of  Bengal. 

But  all  these  considerations  hardly  detract  from 
the  glory  which  attaches  to  the  name  of  Raja  Rama 
Mohana  Roy  for  his  furtherance  of  the  cause  of 
Bengali  prose.  The  literary  works  by  Europeans 
in  Bengali  were  mostly  translations,  and  whatever 
credit  and  reverence  may  be  due  to  these  authors 
for  undertaking  a  task  which  required  them  to  over- 

*  Raja  Rama  Mohana  Roy's  Bengali  works;  P.  267. 


960      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.      [Chap, 

come  the  difficulties  of  a  foreign  tongue  and  master 
its  idioms,  their  works,  judged  from  the  standpoint 
of  pure  merit,  have,  we  are  constrained  to  observe, 
no  great  attraction.  They  scarcely  rise  above 
the  level  of  school-books.  They  were  pioneers 
in  the  field  of  their  labours,  so  we  need  not  under- 
rate their  laudable  efforts  ;  but  except  awakening 
the  Hindu  mind  to  a  sense  of  its  own  duty  in 
literature  and  diverting  it  into  practical  channels, 
tiieir  productions  have  not  served  any  essential  or 
permanent  purpose.  These  works  will,  in  time  to 
come,  be  looked  upon  merely  as  literary  curiosities, 
to  be  preserved  on  the  shelf  amongst  old  and  rare 
books. 

Their  Bengali  imitators  set  themselves  mostly 
to  the  task  of  compiling  and  translating  English 
works,  which,  though  extremely  necessary  at  that 
early  period  of  the  diffusion  of  western  education, 
possess  no  remarkable  merit  or  permanent  interest. 
The  whole  of  this  period  in  the  history  of  our 
literature,  inspite  of  its  great  activity  diverted  to 
useful  purposes,  strikes  us  as  singularly  barren  of 
originality  ;  and  the  greatest  productions  then 
worked  out,  though  they  required  years  of  patient 
and  indefatiguable  industry,  are  no  land-marks  in 
the  history  of  our  piogress  ;  and  our  minds,  while 
full  of  admiration  for  the  noble  band  of  writers, 
involuntarily  turn  to  thr  old  literature  for  the 
^^ratification  of  those  desires  which  true  and  ori- 
ginal composition  can  alone  fulfil.  There  was 
much  in  the  prose  writings  of  thib  age  lo  interest 
the  intellect  but  little,  to  give  pleasure  or  satisfac- 
tion to  the  soul. 


VII.]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.         961 

■  Raja  Rama  Mohana  Roy  rose  on  the  horizon  of  The 

our    letters    at  this  stage,  and  all  lesser  lights  grew      worlX^of 
dim  at  his  advent.     The  whole  aspect  of  our  litera-      ^^^  KSJa. 
ture    became    changed.       He   wrote   the     following 
books  in  Bengali : — 

1.  \^edanta    Sutra.     Quarto    size,    114    pages, 
1815  A.D. 

2.  Vedanta  Sutra,  15  pages,  1815. 

3.  Talavakara  Upanisad,  11  pages;  1816. 

4.  I^opanisad,  24  pages,  18 16. 

5.  Sahamarana  Visaya  (on  the   Suttee),  part    I, 
33  p^g^s,  and  part  II,  12  pages  18 19. 

6.  Do.  Part  III,  21  pages,  1829. 

7.  Pathya  Pradana,  139  pages,  1823. 

8.  Brahmanistha  Grihasther  Laksana,   5  pages, 
1826. 

9.  Kayasther     Sahita    Madyapana      Visayaka 
Vichara,  4  pages,    1826. 

10.  Vajra  Suchi,  6  pages,  1830. 

11.  Anusthana,  13  pages,   1829. 

12.  Suvrahmanya     Castrir     Sahita       Vichara, 
5  pages. 

13.  Prarthana  Patra,  3  pages. 

14.  Atmanatma  Viveka,  17  pages. 

15.  Brahmafia  Sevadhi,  38  pages,  1721. 

16.  Padri  O  ^isya  Samvada,  4  pages. 

17.  Brahma  Sarhgita,   116  songs. 

18.  Brahmopasana,  3  pages. 

19.  Gayatrir  Artha,  7  pages,  18 18, 

20.  Kathopanisad,  34  pages,  18 17. 

21.  Mundakopanisad,  9  pages. 

22.  Mandukyopanisad,  26  pages.  18 19. 

23.  Gosvamir  Sahita  Vichara,  30  pages,  18  r 8. 
121 


962         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [Chap 

24.  Kavitkarer  Sahita  Vichara,  35  pages,  182  i. 

25.  Bhattacaryyer  Sahita  Vichara,  80  pages, 
1817. 

26.  Gaudiya  X'yakarana,  80  pages,  1833. 

27.  Samvada  Kaumudi,  20  pages. 

The  English  works  of  Raja  Rama  Mohana  Roy 
have  been  edited  by  Jogendra  Chandra  Ghose, 
M.A.,  B.L.,  and  published  by  ^rikantha  Roy  of 
Calcutta  in  three  volumes. 

The  Bengali  works  of  the  Raja  referred  to 
above,  were  collected  and  published  by  Raja  Naray- 
ana  Vasu  and  Ananda  Chandra  Tarkavagi^a  in  1873. 
The  collection  contains  over  800  pages  (quarto 
sizeL  Most  of  his  Bengali  treatises  are  short ; 
but  the  vast  learning  which  he  displays  in  each  of 
these  productions,  together  with  the  closeness 
Their  of  argument    and    sincere    and    ardent    desire    for 

truth,  lends  them  an  importance  second  to  none  in 
our  literature.  His  interpretation  of  the  Vedanta, 
chiefly  based  on  the  commentary  of  ^ankara- 
charyya.  gives  in  lucid  Bengali  prose  what  would  be 
impossible  for  any  other  person  of  his  age  to  have 
done  in  the  vernacular.  The  intricacies  of  one  of 
the  most  abstruse  subjects  that  ever  engaged  the 
human  intellect, — the  difficulties  of  a  language 
whose  prose  was  not  yet  properly  formed,  were  all 
overcome,  and  the  truths  of  the  great  Philosophy 
were  brought  within  the  easy  reach  of  every  man 
of  ordinary  intelligence  in  a  masterly  way.  The  Raja, 
like  a  Risi,  realised  the  truths  of  the  Vedanta  and 
expressed  them  frcMU  his  own  soul  through  his  verna- 
cular writings.  Wc  repeat  that  it  would  have  been 
impossible  for  any  other  man    of  his   age,    however 


merit 


VIL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  963 

learned,  to  have  reduced  such  great  and  abs- 
truse truths  to  pristine  simplicity  in  a  language 
which  as  yet  was  so  inadequate  to  the  purpose  as 
our  own.  It  was  possible  for  the  Raja  to  do  so 
only  because  he  was  a  himself  a  seer  of  these  truths 
like  the  great  sages — the  Risis  of  the  past. 

His  controversies  similarly  display  his  great 
powers,  his  logical  acumen,  and  his  vast  classical 
erudition. '  He  gives  precedence  to  reason  in  every 
step  of  his  arguments  ;  and  it  is  the  light  of  his  own 
soul  that  he  brings  forward,  in  order  to  dispel  the 
darkness  of  superstition  and  ignorance  that  prevails 
all  round.  Nowhere  does  he  make  his  motive  pro- 
minent. He  brings  forward  a  whole  array  of  texts 
from  Sanskrit,  Hebrew,  Persian  and  Arabic  in 
favour  of  what  he  advocates,  so  that  while  arguing 
with  a  Maulvi  he  seems  to  be  himself  a  Maulvi, 
with  a  missionary,  he  appears  to  be  a  Christian, 
and  before  a  Bhattacharyya  he  comes  in  the  garb 
of  the  Brahmin  that  he  was.  While  holdins:  a 
controversy  with  a  Mahomedan,  the  Raja  quotes 
from  the  Koran,  with  a  Hindu  from  the  Castras, 
and  with  a  Christian  from  the  Bible.  He  does  not 
decry  even  the  most  obvious  evils  on  his  own  au- 
thority, but  he  brings  his  whole  learning  to  bear 
upon  each  topic ;  and  the  quotations  he  makes  are 
of  an  overwhelming  nature  and  display  his  minute 
knowledge  of  the  different  theological  systems  of 
the  world.  This  power  of  keeping  his  personal 
opinions  in  the  back  ground  and  advancing  them 
merely  on  the  authority  admitted  by  his  anta- 
gonists, required  a  colossal  range  of  studies  which 
in  his  age  only  Rama  Mohana  Roy  possessed. 
This    accounts    for    his     unique     position    and    his 


964      BENGALI    LANGUAGF':    &   LITERATURE.        [Chap* 

great     ascendency  over    his    rivals    in     discussion. 
Another    noteworthy    feature    in     his     writings    is 
the  entire    absence   of  any    outburst  of  feeling.     It 
miglit    have    been    supposed  that    a    man    who    so 
deeply  felt    the   wrongs    that    prevailed  all  around, 
would  denounce  them  in  the   fiery   language   of  an 
ardent    enthusiast    in     the    cause    of  reformation. 
But  his  great   intellectuality    and    deep    conviction 
made    him    proceed      quietly  in    controversy,    like 
a  doctor  in  the  process  of  a  serious  sur^^ical  opera- 
tion ;  occasions,  however  serious,  did  not  disturb  his 
temper.     This   superior  control    over  himself  is  to 
be  traced  distinctly  in  all  his  writings.      What  was 
said  of  some   of  his    English  works  by  his  English 
reviewer  in  the    Monthly   Repository    for  Septem- 
ber,   1833,   applies  equally  to  his  Bengali  writings 
also.     '■  The  method  and  coolness   with    which   the 
Kaja  arranges  and  states  his  facts,  in  contrast  with 
the-  rousing    nature    of  those   facts,  are  as  remark- 
able   as    anything    in    the    whole    affair  ;   and     the 
courtesy  with  which   he    accounts,    where    he    can, 
for  the  rise  and  growth  of  abuses,  will  not  impede, 
but  hasten  the  rectification    of  those   abuses.     The 
Kaja   appreciates   too    well    the  nature  and    opera- 
tion   of  free    institutions,    not   to  have  felt  many  a 
thru!)    of  indignation,    many   a  pang  of  grief,  when 
witnessing  the    oppressed    condition    of  the    ryots 
of  his    country,    and  the  various  kinds  and  degrees 
of  guilt    among    his    countrvmen.  which  have  been 
originated    by     r»ritish    misgovernment  ;    but    when 
the    cause    can  be  best  served  by  a  plain    statement 
(j\  farts,  he  can    adduce  them  with  all    the  calmness 
of  a  mere  observer.    That  which  it  makes  our  spirits 
sink  to  read,    he  states  unaccompanied  by  reproach 


VII*  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         965 


or  entreaty.  Suggestions  on  which  we  should 
stake  our  lives,  and  which  we  should  be  apt  to 
thrust  in  the  face  of  friend  and  foe,  he  offers  in 
their  due  connection,  and  with  a  moderation  most 
likely  to  ensure  them  a  hearing." 

fiowever  trivial  or  puerile  were  the  charges 
made  against  him,  he  listened  to  every  point  urged 
by  his  opponents  wdth  great  attention,  and  in  his 
anxious  solicitude  to  bring  conviction  of  the  truth 
home  to  the  party,  he  gave  a  sensible  reply  to  their 
foolish  abuses  and  revilings  prompted  by  ani- 
mosity, with  a  surprising  quietness  of  temper. 
I  quote  a  passage  from  his  Bengali  writing. 

■^  ''  The  tirst  argument  in  support  of  idolatry,  is 
that  the  Supreme  Being  is  beyond  all  power  of 
human  comprehension  and  cannot  be  expressed 
by  words;  hence  the  necessity  of  worshipping  a 
Deity  endowed  with  form  and  other  attributes,  as 
Master  of  the  universe.  The  plain  answer  to 
this  is  : — If  a  person  in  his  early  childhood,  before 
he  has  had  any  knowledge  of  his  father,  is  kid- 
napped, or  by  other  causes  separated  from  home, 
would  it  be  proper  for  him,  when  growing  into 
manhood,  to  call  some  object  before  him  his 
father  ?     Rather  should  he   not,  when    observing   a 

^''  S\^^  :  v£lt  Vt^U^  ^^  ^n^^^f  1  ^?  f^ttl  ^W  -SK'^ 

f^^n  ^ti^  ^ra  ^tt  ^^«ii^  ^^^«i  f^ftx^^j  ^nt^^i 
^t^*fj^  ^^  I    ?^rir  ft^t^  ^-^  ^^  I    c^  c^H  ^jf%5 


Extracts 

from  his 

Bengali 

prose. 


966      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap, 

religious  ceremony  or  engaged  in  a  prayer  for  the 
good  of  his  father, — say  'Peace  be  unto  him  who  has 
begotten  me  !'  In  the  same  way,  it  should  be  un- 
derstood, though  the  Divine  Being  may  be  incom- 
prehensible to  us,  that  we  may  always  address  Him 
as  the  creator  and  preserver  of  the  universe  with- 
out giving  Him  fictitious  attributes  and  a  fancied 
name.  The  quality  and  nature  of  many  objects 
of  creation, — such  as  the  sun  or  the  moon,  are  not 
fully  known  to  us  ;  how  is  it  then  possible  for  us 
to  know  the  nature  of  the  creator  !  But  observing 
the  objects  around  us,  and  the  laws  which  govern 
the  universe,  we  are  conscious  of  His  omnipotence 
and  of  His  divine  dispensation  which  is  good  for 
all  :  and  with  such  a  consciousness  we  are  always 
quite  free  to  approach  him.  Our  common  sense 
tells  us  that  the  creator  is  mightier  than  his 
creation,  and  that  a  created  object,  as  forming  but 
a  part  of  the    universe,  cannot  be  its  master.     The 


^^  ^^^  nt^^^^  ^wi^  fn^t^in  5!^^  ^f^?:'?^  ^^ 
^i^  ^5^  cTt  ^jfe  fn^t^  '^UKH  c^t^  fe^i  '^km 

^^U   ^^^1  f^^H  ^5f^  ^t^s^l  ^f^^T^  "^im  vfit  ^i^  c^ 

^^Ul^  c^  ^m^  '^^n  cm  ^i^  f^%  ^^t^  ^nt=^^i  ^t^^ 
I'pj  ^ft?:^  ?^  ^t^t<j  ^^^]  c^\^  -^"^^  ^t^  M'l  f^^n 

5^^I5    ^"^X    f^^Ul^    \^U5  %]^]^  ^^  ^^\  f^Tl^^^  ft»5^ 


VII.]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LIl  ERATURE.         967 

supporters  of  idolatry  urge  that  the  worship  of  an 
invisible  power  is  impossible.  This  argument  is 
curious,  since  they  may  observe  that  their  own 
countrym.en  and  the  people  of  other  countries 
have  found  it  quite  possible  to  pray  to  the  invisible 
Deity.  The  second  point  urged  is  : — It  is  not  at  all 
worthy  of  a  good  soul  to  leave  the  ways  of  their 
ancestors  and  of  their  own  people  and  trample 
upon  old  customs. 

A}is. — People  seem  to  be  carried  away  a  good 
deal  by  their  love  for  ancestors  and  kinsmen.  But 
it  is  the  lower  animals  only  which  altogether  follow 
the  beaten  track  of  their  own  kind.  How  should  a 
man,  endowed  with  a  sense  of  right  and  wTong,  be 
justified  in  following  a  certain  path  merely  because 
his    forefathers    adopted    it  ?     Blind    faith    in    past 


^^  a  ^t  ^^^  ^t^i  2t^t?r  ?5s?i  f^ft^  ^'nv^^  ^t]  t^i 

^t  i«f  f^^  |^t<r  ^TtfJ  c^T^  ^^  t^^  ^#1  f^  ^%?:^ 
^#l^m  ^^1  VI I  ^t^  ^^  ^«f^  ^1*5^1  ill  a  '^sri^'t^ 
fii^t^¥  ^^i^t  f^^t^t?    ^i^^    ^^^»f    ^nr^^i 

'^^d^i  c^  ^^^^  ^^^^^  ^ff  TltC^^  ^t^^  ^^^1  ^^^ 
^ft^i  ^^ti  ^^t5  ^^^  t^t^  m^t^^  %5^  ^9  a  c^^^ 


968      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap, 

aiithoritv  is  inadmissible  with  a  progressing  race. 
But  inspite  of  their  advancing  this  argument,  we 
see  that  our  countrymen  never  gave  such  absolute 
authority  to  custom  in  by-gone  ages.  Amongst 
the  Hindus  one  born  in  a  Vaisnava  family  is  often 
seen  to  change  his  faith  and  become  a  Cakta ;  and  a 
Caikta  is  similarly  observed  to  accept  the  Vaisfiava 
faith  ;  witliin  the  last  hundred  years  the  people  of 
Bengal  have  adopted  the  views  of  Raghunandana 
in  their  religious  observances,  and  in  this  respect 
there  has  been  an  entire  deviation  on  their  part 
from  following  the  beliefs  and  practices  of  their 
ancestors.  We  read  in  history  besides  that  when 
the  five  Brahmins  first  came  to  Bengal  they  had 
socks  on  their  feet,  wore  coats,  and  they  came 
riding  in  bullock  carts.  Such  practices  are  now  con- 
sidered as  sacrilegeous  on  the  part  of  Brahmins. 
In  olden  times  a  Brahmin  would  never  accept 
service  under  a  Yavana  or  foreigner,  nor  learn  any 

ts«1  ft^?5^1  ^1  ^ft^l  '^^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^VJ^  'TT^^H  «il^t 
tf^^'f   ^'^    ^R  ^H  3C-5tn^iT  ^f  ^^  '^  ^^^  fe^  ^"^t^ 

^?7T^  ^t^usf^  nrc^^^  cit^i  ^^^  ^fTi  t^fff  c^»l  ^^' 


VII.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGR    &    LITI-R ATURE.         969 

language  other  than  the  Sanskrit ic  ;  they  were  also 
prohibited  from  teaching  Sanskrit  to  non-Hindus  ; 
but  they  do  all  these  things  now.  So  it  is  evident 
that  we  liave  not  over  zealously  persevered  in  our 
old  customs  and  manners.  Why,  therefore,  should 
we  be  Ird  by  an  idle  prejudice  in  their  favour  in 
the  matter  of  faith  itself  which  concerns  the  good 
of  our  souls  and  our  hereafter. 

The  third  argument  in  support  of  idolatry  is 
that  the  knowledge  of  the  absolute  makes  a  man 
unht  for  all  practical  purposes.  To  him  good  and 
evil,  fire  and  \\ater,  sweet  scent  and  obnoxious 
stench  become  all  the  same  as  he  rises  above  the 
phenomenal  ;  such  a  knowledge  is  therefore  not 
compatible  with  the  pursuits  of  ordinary  men. 

A?is. — What  they  mean  to  imply  by  this  is  not 
clear.  You,  sirs,  will  admit  that  Narada,  Sanat- 
Kumara,  ^uka,  Va^istha,  Vyasa,  Kapila  and  other 
sao^es  had  a  knowledp-e  of  the  absolute  and  invisi- 
ble  Brahma.     Nevertheless  these  sages    recognised 

^N^T?f  ^z^^  ^t^i<i  f%^  ^^'itT^I  ^^1  -^^'s  ^^  ^4  U^n^ 

^m  ^^^  ^K^T  f^<\'^  ^ft^1  n<T^1^€^  ^^^    ^^5|^    C^§1 

^f^^^j^  c^\fk^  ^:5t^^  ^H  ^K^  ^1,  ^^^^^  ^^<iit 
^T^T?ii  f^  2f5ri^ci  ^^T^T  ^^^1  ^um  ^t^i  mf^c^  ntft 
j^wf^  ^^  <*i4  ^it^  ^f^5T  ^^p-5  ^^mi^  %^^  ^«^^ 

122 


970       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [  Chap, 

fire  as  fire  and  water  as  water  ;  they  administered 
justice,  and  taught  their  disciples  ;  so  how  can  you 
urge  that  they  had  lost  all  consciousness  of  the 
phenomenal  world  ?  Besides  it  seems  very  curious 
to  me  that  you  believe  that  by  worshipping  your 
gods  the  knowledge  of  the  visible  world  becomes 
keener  ;  but  by  praying  to  the  invisible  and  absolute 
Power,  people  become  mad,  and  lose  all  conscious- 
ness of  the  external  world.  The  knowledge  of 
the  world  is  not  interfered  with  by  a  knowledge 
of  the  Deity,  as  a  man  who  has  the  knowledge  of 
God  still  continues  to  live  in  the  world  and  his 
eyes  and  ears  continue  to  perform  their  functions, 
and  if  he  lives  with  his  father,  son,  and  others, 
he  continues  to  fulfil  his  duties  to  them  and  all  this 
is  the  will  of  the  Supreme  being.  It  is  not  indi- 
cated where  a  knowledge  of  God  clashes  with  the 
knowledge  of  the  world.  The  sages  of  the  past  who 
were    endowed    with  a  knowledg^e  of  the  true    God 


^t  o\  ^it:^5  fe^t^^K^  ^:5[^a  ^H  ^r:^  '^i^   ^ 
fent^f^ns  ^m^:5  ^K^^  ^f^^%   ^^^1  C^lt^  f^^  5TI 

CE^  ^st^  ^t5  ^51^3  m^  c^^  ^\T^i^^  ^t^t<T  ^^^  vflt 


Vll.  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LllEKATURE.         971 

according  to  your  own  admission,  did  nothing  less 
than  ordinary  people  in  worldly  matters,  nay  they 
did  it  with  a  more  elevated  and  refined  sense  of 
duty.  Some  of  the  supporters  of  idolatry  say  ''  Is 
it  proper  to  discard  the  view  held  by  all  the  ^^'orld 
and  in  preference  to  follow  the  opinions  of  one  or 
two  men  ?  [Was  there  no  scholar  born  before  him? 
and  is  there  none  who  is  equal  to  him  in  learning 
now?  Would  they  not  also  arrive  at  the  same 
conclusions,  if  there  were  any  truth  in  this?" 

Ans.  Tliough  I  am  pained  at  these  reflections, 
yet  I  feel  inclined  to  answer  them  for  the  further- 
ance of  my  cause.  In  the  first  instance,  India 
does  not  form  even  one  twentieth  part  of  the  earth 
already  known  to  us.  The  country  inhabited  main- 
ly by  the  Hindus  is  known  as  Hindusthan.  Ex- 
cluding this  Hindusthan,  more  than  half  of  the  en- 
tire   population    of  the    rest    of  the    globe    profess 


n^r^^  ^k^  ff^t?  ^'^  fn^tf  ^ft«  ^ipm  ^  ^^^«i 

^'ll^^   ^tUl^    (?l^.^^   ^    T^?f    f^!!?:^!^  ^^1  ^^  ^r^^  I 
T5  5!T  ^t^  ^m  ^f?r^1  5^  ^^  ?Tl%J?f  ^^\  5ir^  c^  ^c<^ 

^t^  '^  CK^  nf^i5  fts  f^l^^  ^1  ^^%  "^m  c^^ 

^^i  fen?:^«f  ^fii^^  ^1  I     ^^]fn^  ^m;  ^r^^  ^c?l<r 
mi'i  c^^*i  ^r?^T  ^:f  ^^  ^^tf^  ^'^\^ivm  ^i^  fra 


(J-J2      BENGALI    LANGUAGR    &    LlTliKATURE.       [Chap. 

faith  in  an  invisibles  Supreme  Being.  In  Hindus- 
llian  itself,  the  Xirvanists,  the  Nanaka  Panthis,  the 
followers  of  Dadu,  the  disciples  of  ^iva  Xarayaha — 
ascetics  and  householders  alike — worship  one 
Supreme  God.  How  is  the  view  then  tenable  that 
the  worship  of  one  Supreme  God  is  against  the 
established  ways  of  all  the  world?  If  the  next 
contention, — that  scholars  before  me  have  not  join- 
ed such  mode  of  prayer  were  true — how  could  \\e 
then  possess  the  works  of  Vyasa,  Va9lsth:i  and 
other  sages  who  promulgated  the  pure  doctrine  of 
thfism  I  The  divine  Cankaracharyya  and  other 
commentators  of  the  Vedas  have  all  tried  to  estab- 
lish monotheistic  principles,  and  Nanaka  who  lived 
only  a  fevv  centuries  ago,  enjoined  the  worship  of 
one  Supreme  Being  as  an  imperative  duty  on  the 
part  of  both  the  Sannyasins  and  householders  be- 
longing to  the  sect    founded    by    him.      In    modern 

%^t'^;^  f^^  «ii^  ^t^^  ^ft^  ^P^^^^  ^^  U^^^ 
"^^nm^  fe^T^^i  r^K^  ^k^\  ^K^^  ^t  fe^fw^^^^ 

^inj^  ^'PT^t?  -^^mt  c^^?i  3f^  '^tn^  vn^'v  ;^^t*im^i<; 


VIL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITEKATURE.         973 

times  there  are  thousands  of  men,  Irom  Bengal  to 
the  Punjab,  wlio  uphold  and  preach  the  noble  theis- 
tic  principle." 

The  above  shows  that  he  had  a  rational  answer 
for  every  argument  of  his  antagonist,  however  petty 
or  foolish  ;  and  the  great  patience  with  which  he 
would  try  10  convince  them,  knowing  fully  well  that 
they  were  simply  maligning  him,  is  to  be  explained 
by  his  great  love  and  his  eagerness  to  lead  others 
from  error  to  truth.  To  know  the  superior  merits 
of  his  composition,  readers  are  referred  to  his 
Vedanta  Sara  in  Bengali  and  to  his  English  works. 
As  the  field  traversed  by  him  in  his  original  works 
comprehends  a  wide  range  of  theological  matter 
containing  technicalities,  we  do  not  find  it  con- 
venient to  give  further  extracts  or  translations 
from  them. 

The    Benorali    p-rammar    written    by    the    Raja,  The 

.  ,        .  .  ,  .  Bengali 

though  a  short    treatise,   bears    the    impress    of  his      grammar. 

great  genius  Some  of  the  Europeans  had  already 
been  in  the  field  with  treatises  on  this  subject. 
Mr.  Halhed's  Bengali  grammar,  which  is  one  of 
the  earliest  attempts  in  the  direction,  is  more  in- 
teresting as  a  \'ocabulary,  since  it  gi\-es  on  a 
somewhat  elaborate  scale  the  meanings  of  words 
and  translations  of  short  sentences.     It    also   gives 


^r^f^^^^  ^mi  ^^  cw*f  ^^r?f  n*t^  n^j^  ^^5  ^^^ 

Vedanta  Sara. 


974        RENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.      [Chap< 

selections  from  some  of  our  old  poems.  The 
purely  grammatical  element  is  not  very  prominent 
among  the  \arious  subjects  comprised  in  the 
book.  The  Bengali  writers  who  wrote  grammar 
before  Raja  Kama  Moliana  Roy  had  in  their 
heads  the  rules  of  Sanskrit  grammar,  and  thonght 
that  the  Bengali  language  as  a  matter  of  course 
was  bound  to  conform  to  them.  But  Raja  Rama 
Mohana  Roy  discarded  Sanskrit  grammar  in  so  far 
as  its  rules  could  not  be  philologically  applied  to 
Bengali.  We  refer  our  readers  to  pages  727  and  738 
of  his  Bengali  works.  He  observed  the  genius  of 
our  language,  and  in  what  respects  it  differed  from 
Sanskrit ;  he  formulated  principles  based  on  the 
natural  laws  which  govern  Bengali,  and  treated  the 
subject  scientitically.  He  also  indicated  the  broad 
lines  on  which  a  comprehensive  Bengali  grammar 
might  be  compiled.  Unfortunately,  however,  no 
other  writer  on  the  subject  after  Raja  Rama 
Mohana  Roy  was  possessed  of  his  great  insight  to 
continue  the  work  that  he  had  commenced;  and  the 
Bengali  grammar  has  since  fallen  liopelessly  into 
the  hands  of  Sanskrit-knowing  pandits.  These 
with  their  erudite  enunciation  of  rules  about 
Sanskrit  compound-words  and  its  prosody  have 
dominated  the  situation.  Following  too  closely 
the  steps  of  Mugdhavodha  they  are  applauded  by 
critics  who  l)elong  to  the  same  school.  The 
Gaudiya  Bha^a^  \')^karana  by  the  Raja  is  a 
higlily  original  jjublication  and  contains  many  im- 
portant rules.  On  |)age  724  he  deals  with  the  pro- 
nunciation of  words.  IJe  says  that  in  Bengali  the 
difference  of  jjronunciation  between  ^,  ^,  f,  is 
not    observed  ;    but     there     are    certain    exceptions 


VII.]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    AND    LITERATURE.      975 

to  this  rule.  When  »f  is  joined  with  ?,  %  ^  it  is 
pronounced  as  y\,  as  in  21^1,  'J^tT  and  ~S\'^  ;  Similarly 
when  5f  is  joined  with  ^,  ^,  ^,  ?r,  ^  it  retains  its 
Sanskritic  sound  of  ^  as  in  ^^,  "^t^,  ^^,  ^f§".  In  all 
other  places  it  is  pronounced  as  *f.  The  chapter 
on  Case  is  full  of  original  observations.  In  the 
dative  case,  says  the  Raja,  those  words  which  bear 
the  long  vowel  "STl  in  the  last  letter  adopt  C^  or  ^ 
as  suffix.  But  those  ^>ords  which  have  t.  ^.  ^,  ^» 
vil,  (^,  ^Q,  ^§  in  their  last  letters  adopt  only  C5  to 
denote  the  locative  form.  Instances  of  the  former 
are  to  be  found  in  the  forms  ^fe^tC^  and  ^f^^H, 
^t^TC^  and  ^m\^,  '^f^m^  and  *f^?r  etc.,  and  of  the 
latter  in  ^fe^,  ^t^^^,  <I^^C«  etc.  Regarding 
the  forms  of  Bengali  words  in  singular  and  plural 
numbers,  the  learned  author  gives  curious  rules 
which  are  nevertheless  correct  and  testify  to  his 
accurate  observation.  The  suffixes  v^frf,  '^^sT  etc., 
are  generally  adopted  to  indicate  the  plural  num- 
ber ;  in  the  case  of  men  and  higher  beings  the 
suffix  ^1  is  often  used,  and  it  is  generally  speaking 
restricted  to  them  only  ;  when  however  the  suffix 
<I1^is  used  in  the  case  of  lower  animals  it  is  implied 
that  such  words  do  no  longer  signify  them  ;  for 
instance  ^^  T^cT  means  cows,  but  '>T^1  is  used  to 
imply  those  men  who  are  stupid  as  cows.^ 

Before  we  close  the  account  of  Raja  Rama 
Mohan  Roy  we  have  to  say  a  few  words  regarding 
the  movement  led  by  him  for  the  abolition  of 
Suttee.     His    Bengali     pamphlets    against    Suttee  The 

were  translated  by  him  into  English  ;  and  they 
aim    chiefly    at    establishing   the  superiority  of  an 

•  Bengali  works  of  Raja  Rama  Mohana  Roy.     Page  733. 


Suttee. 


976       BENGALI    LANGUAGH:    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap, 

unimpeachable  and  pure  widowhood  of  woman*in 
accordance  with  the  rules  of  Brahniacharyya  after 
the  death  of  her  husband,  over  the  practice  that 
largely  prevailed  in  his  time  of  self  immolation, 
against  which  he  fought,  in  conjunction  with  Euro- 
pean clergymen  and  officials. 

Like  other  reforms  this  was  also  proposed  and 
carried  out  at  the  teeth  of  great  opposition. 
\\'hil(»  alluding  to  the  contiuversal  literature  that 
sprang  up  in  connection  with  this  movement,  we 
propose  to  take  a  dispassionate  view  of  the  historv 
of  Suttee  in  Bengal.  It  is  an  usage  which  was  pre- 
valent amongst  the  ancients.  The  rile  was  practised 
in  early  times  amongst  the  Thracians,  the  Geta?, 
and  the  Scythians.  Diodorus  wrote  in  B.  C.  44  and 
he  describes  it  to  have  occurred  in  the  army  of 
Eumenes,  upwards  of  300  years  before  the  Christian 
era  '  Diodorus  Siculus  lib  XIX,  Chapter  II. ;  The 
Danish  Northmen  of  Europe  retained  the  recollec- 
tions of  Suttee  in  the  story  of  Balder,  one  of 
the  sons  of  Odin.* 

The  custom  grew  in  India  as  a  natural  result 
of  the  peculiarly  organised  social  institutions  of 
the  Hindus.  It  has  been  more  than  once  observed 
in  the  for(^going  chapters  that  the  Ilindus  aspire  to 
a  realisation  of  (iod  through  the  various  domestic 
ties  which  bind  tin  in  lo  tlu  ir  homes.  Without 
this  \alue  gi\-en  t(^  domestic  virtues  which 
was  the  main  basis  of  the  fndo-Arvan  civilisation, 
their  joint-lamiU-  s\slem  could  uni  have  stood. 
It  is  the  call  of   home  that  has  alwa\s  made  Mindus 


•  The  Cyclopaedia  ut    India  by  Balfour,  P.  781. 


Vllt]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    Si    LIIERAIUKE.         977 

endure  the  greatest  sacrifices.  Their  immortal 
epics  bear  striking  evidences  of  this  ideal  as 
governing  society.  But  no  sacrifice  within  the 
precincts  of  one's  home  is  raised  to  so  high  a 
point  of  merit  as  that  prompted  by  sacred  nuptial 
devotion.  There  are  a  thousand  fables,  stories  and 
poems  illustrating  these  noble  sacrifices  of  devoted 
wives  for  their  husbands.  The  Hindu  woman  lives 
in  the  atmosphere  of  this  ideal.  From  her  ten- 
derest  years  she  is  trained  up  to  it.  The  stories  of 
Savitri,  of  Sita,  of  Damayanti,  of  Behula — these 
are  what  a  Hindu  girl  is  accustomed  to  hear  every 
evening  in  Bengal  and  even  when  she  is  a  mere 
child  she  willingly  fasts  on  the  day  of  Savitri  Brata. 
The  Hindu  woman  grew,  as  Spartan  boys  did  in 
ancient  Greece, — under  great  hardships  imposed 
on  them  by  society,  but  they  were  meant  for  a 
great  purpose.  Even  now  the  stories  and  poems 
that  she  reads  are  full  of  high  ideas  illustrative  of 
the  noblest  virtues  attendant  upon  faithful  wife- 
hood. The  ideal  embodied  in  them  would  fasci- 
nate and  attract  any  tender  soul  ;  for  the  tales  of 
supreme  sacrifice  undergone  for  love,  never  pass 
in  vain  with  those  young  audiences  who  are  most 
susceptible  to  nobility  of  spirit. 

The  love  of  a  Hindu  wife  is  scarcely  expressed 
in  passionate  utterances.  It  pervades  her  whole 
life.  The  sacrifices  she  runs,  the  spirit  of  resigna- 
tion and  of  entirely  losing  herself  in  the  thought 
of  doing  good  to  her  husband,  raise  her  love  be- 
yond all  sorts  of  mundane  considerations,  not  to 
speak  of  any  for  her  own  comforts.  It  is  this 
spirit  which  made  women  court  death  willingly  on 
the  funeral  pyre  of  the  husband.     They  often    died 

123 


978       BENGALI    LANGUAGK    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap. 

there  like  mute  images  without  uttering  a  word, — 
without  lieeding  the  sensations  of  pain  caused  to 
the  body.  While  their  husbands  lived,  such  women 
were  not  known  to  display  their  great  love  out- 
wardly. They  ministered  to  the  wants  of  numerous 
members  living  together  in  the  family,  and  gave 
the  minutest  attention  to  each  of  them  and  to  the 
servants  ;  but  they  really  lived  and  moved,  without 
ever  saying  so,  in  the  thought  of  their  husbands  ; 
they  kept  the  vermillion  mark  on  their  forehead 
and  the  shell-bracelets  on  their  wrists  ;  and  prized 
these  sacred  signs  of  wifehood  more  dearly  than 
their  lives.  A  Hindu  wife  would  sooner  agree  to 
be  killed  than  allow  them  to  be  removed.  This 
patient  all-engrossing  sentiment,  this  love  without  a 
thought  of  return,  constant  and  unchangeable 
through  all  vicissitudes  of  life,  in  spite  of  many 
ills, — its  object  only  the  offering  of  life-long  devo- 
tion and  humble  service  to  the  husband, — is  ex- 
pressed in  many  of  the  old  poems  of  Bengal. — in 
our  folk-lore   and    in    those    rustic    sono-s    which    I 

o 

have  mentioned  in  previous  chapters. 

The  peculiar  position  of  the  Hindu  wife  trained 
her  silently  to  sacrifices  of  all  sorts  for  domestic 
feeling.  She  is  not  the  joy  or  inspiration  of  social 
gatherings  as  a  western  woman  is.  Outside  her 
home  there  is  absolutely  no  scope  for  the  apprecia- 
tion of  her  cjualities.  Praise  from  outside  world 
would  he  as  assuredlv  spurned  by  her  as  abuse. 
Even  in  one's  own  familv,  it  would  not  be  good 
taste  to  allude  to  the  beaulv  of  a  woman  who  has 
once  borne  a  child.  Her  environment  develops  her 
domestic  instincts  more    than    anything    else.      Cut 


VIL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         979 

off  from  the  rest  of  the  world — in  her  own  little 
home  she  is  trained  to  an  idealism  of  the  highest 
sort,  without  the  facts  being  observed  by  any. 
She  would  only  be  seen  in  public  when  she  was 
to  ascend  the  funeral  pyre  of  her  husband.  Foreign 
people  are  apt  to  suppose  that  her  martyrdom  was 
the  result  of  compulsion,  oppression  or  supersti- 
tion. But  those,  who  possess  a  more  intimate 
knowledge  on  the  point,  will  see  in  Suttee  only  an 
excess  of  that  idealism  that  made  Savitri,  in  our 
earliest  times,  shudder  at  the  thought  of  her  com- 
ing widowhood  and  Tara  express  a  wish  to  burn  her- 
self with  her  deceased  husband  in  the  Ramayana. 
Suttee  is  the  highest  realisition  of  that  dream  of 
womanhood,  the  perfection  of  which  was  imagined 
by  the  ancients  to  lie  in  an  all  absorbed  thought  of 
the  husband.  Each  country  has  a  peculiar  idea  of  its 
own  to  inspire  its  people  with  a  spirit  of  self-sacri- 
fice, the  growth  of  which  has  depended  upon 
a  succession  of  causes  and  circumstances  peculiar 
to  itself.  Some  people  in  the  world's  history  have 
staked  their  fortune  and  life  for  what  they  called  ''  a 
national  cause,"  others  for  what  they  believed  to  be 
the  "  word  of  God," — as  the  iconoclasts  once  made 
it  the  mission  of  their  lives  to  destroy  temples  and 
images  at  any  cost  or  sacrifice.  Hindu  women 
similarly  elected  to  die  out  of  the  devotion  they 
bore  to  their  husbands.  Of  various  reports  left  of 
the  Suttee  by  European  observers,  who  were  drawn 
to  involuntary  admiration  on  witnessing  such  scenes, 
I  quote  two  below.  This  will  be  helpful  in  rightly 
understanding  the  controversy  held  by  the  pro- 
Suttee  champions  against  the  attempts  of  the 
Raja. 


gSo      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LIIERATURE.       [  Chap. 

"The  widow  was  a  remarkably  handsome 
woman,  appart-ntly  about  thirty,  and  most  superbly 
attired.  Her  manner  was  marked  by  great  apathy 
to  all  around  her,  and  by  complete  indifference  to 
the  preparations  which  for  tlie  first  time  met  her 
eye.  From  this  circumstance  an  impression  was 
given  that  slu;  might  be  under  the  influence  of 
opium  ;  and  in  conformity  with  the  declared  inten- 
tion of  the  European  officers  present  to  interfere, 
should  any  coercive  measure  be  adopted  by  the 
Brahmins  or  relations,  two  medical  officers  were 
requested  to  give  tlieir  opinions  on  the  subject. 
They  both  agreed  that  she  was  quite  free  from  any 
influence  calculated  to  induce  torpor  or  intoxica- 
tion." 

"Captain  IJurnes  then  addressed  the  woman, 
desiring  to  know  whether  the  act  she  was  about 
to  perform  was  \oluntary  or  enforced,  and  assuring 
her  that,  should  she  entertain  the  slightest  reluc- 
tance to  the  fulfilment  of  her  vow,  on  the  part  of 
the  British  Government  he  would  guarantee  the 
protection  of  lier  life  and  proi)erty.  Her  answer 
was  calm,  heroic  and  constant  to  her  purpose.  "1 
die  of  my  own  free  will  ;  give  me  back  mv 
husband,  and  1  will  consent  to  live.' 

"i^rr  the  renewal  of  the  horrid  ceremonies  of 
death  was  permitted,  again  the  voice  of  mercy,  of 
expostulation  and  vwn  of  entreaty  was  heard  ; 
but  the  trial  was  vain,  and  the  cool  and  collected 
manner  with  which  the  wonian  still  declared  her 
determination  unalterable  chilled  and  startled  the 
nio^t  courageous.  Ph\sical  pangs  evidently  ex- 
(  ited     no     fear.s     in    her;    her    singular    creed,    the 


VIL]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.  981 

customs  of  her  country,  and  her  sense  of  conjugal 
duty,  excluded  from  her  mind  the  natural  emotions 
of  personal  dread  ;  and  never  did  a  martyr  to  a 
true  cause,  go  to  the  stake  with  more  constancy 
and  firmness  than  did  this  delicate  and  gentle 
woman  prepare  to  become  the  victim  of  a  deli- 
berate sacrifice  to  the  tenets  of  her  heathen  creed. 
Accompanied  by  the  officiating  Brahmin,  the 
widow  walked  seven  times  round  the  pyre,  repeat- 
ing tlie  usual  mantras  or  prayers,  strewing  rice 
and  cowries  on  the  ground,  and  sprinkling  water 
from,  her  hand  over  the  bystanders,  who  believed 
this  to  be  efficacious  in  preventing  disease  and 
expiating  committed  sins.  She  then  removed  her 
jewels,  and  presented  them  to  her  relations,  saying 
a  few  words  to  each  with  calm  soft  smile  of  en- 
couragement and  hope.  The  Brahmins  then  pre- 
sented her  with  a  lighted  torch,  bearing  which — — 
"Fresh  as  a  flower  just  blown. 
And  warm  with  life,  her  youthful 
pulses  playing," 

she  stepped  through  the  fatal  door,  and  sat  within 
the  pile.  The  body  of  her  husband  wrapped  in 
rich  kinkaubs,  was  then  carried  seven  times  round 
the  pile  and  finally  laid  across  her  knees.  Thorns 
and  grass  were  piled  over  the  door ;  and  again  it 
was  insisted  that  free  space  should  be  left,  as  it 
was  hoped  that  the  poor  victim  might  yet  relent, 
and  rut^h  from  her  fiery  prison  for  the  protection 
so  freely  offered.  The  command  was  readily 
obeyed  ;  the  strength  of  a  child  would  have  suffi- 
ced to  burst  the  frail  barrier  which  confined  her, 
and  a  breathless  pause  succeeded ;  but  the  wo- 
man's   constancy   was    faithful    to  the  last.     Not  a 


982        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.       [Chap* 

sigh  broke  the  death-like  silence  of  the  crowd, 
until  a  slight  smoke,  curling  from  the  summit  of 
the  pyre,  and  then  a  tongue  of  flame,  darting  with 
bright  and  lightning-like  rapidity  into  the  clear 
blue  sky,  told  us  that  the  sacrifice  was  completed. 
Fearlessly  had  this  courageous  woman  fired  the 
pile,  and  not  a  groan  had  betrayed  to  us  the 
moment  when  her  spirit  fled.''  "^ 

The  following  is  quoted  from  Bengal  Under 
The  Lieutenant  Governors  by  C.  E.  Buckland, 
Vol.   I,  pages  1 60- 16 1. 

"Although  it  does  not  fall  within  his  Lieutenant 
Governorship,  I  think  the  following  account  of 
a  Suttee,  as  narrated  by  Sir  F.  Halliday,  70  years 
later,  will  be  considered  interesting,  and  it  has 
never  been  printed  elsewhere  : — 

"Suttee  was  prohibited  by  law  in  1829.  At 
and  before  that  time  I  was  acting  as  Magistrate  of 
the  district  of  Hoogly.  Before  the  new  Maw  came 
into  operation,  notice  was  one  day  brought  to  me 
that  a  Suttee  was  about  to  occur  a  few  miles  from 
my  residence.  Such  things  were  frequent  in 
Ilooghly  as  the  banks  of  that  side  of  the  river  were 
considered  particularly  propitious  for  such  sacrifices. 
When  tile  message  reached  me.  Dr.  Wise  of  the 
Medical  Service  and  a  clergyman  (whose  name  I 
forget),  who  was  Chaplain  to  the  Governor  General, 
were  visiting  me  and  expressed  a  wish  to  witness 
the  ceremony.  Accordingly  we  drove  to  the  appoin- 
ted place  where  a  large  crowd  of  natives  was 
assembled    on    the    river  bank  and  the  funeral  pile 


♦  Mrs.  Porstan's    Random    Sketches    during   her   residence  in 
one  of  the  northern  provinces  of  Western  India  in  1839. 


VII.]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.         983 

already  prepared,  the  intended  victim  seated  on 
the  ground  in  front  of  it.  Chairs  were  brought 
for  us,  and  we  sat  down  near  the  woman.  My  two 
companions,  who  did  not  speak  the  language, 
then  began  to  press  the  widow  with  all  the  reasons 
they  could  urge  to  dissuade  her  from  her  purpose, 
all  of  which  at  their  request  I  made  the  woman 
understand  in  her  own  language.  To  this  she 
listened  with  grave  and  respectful  attention  but 
without  being  at  all  moved  by  it  ;  the  priests  and 
many  of  the  spectators  also  listening  to  what  was 
said. 

At  length  she  showed  some  impatience  and 
asked  to  be  allowed  to  proceed  to  the  pile.  Seeing 
that  nothing  further  could  be  done,  I  gave  her  the 
permission,  but  before  she  had  moved,  the  clergy- 
man begged  me  to  put  to  her  one  more  question, — 
''Did  she  know  what  pain  she  was  about  to  suffer?" 
She  seated  on  the  ground  close  to  my  feet,  looked 
up  at  me  with  a  scornful  expression  in  her 
intelligent  face  and  said  for  answ^er,  '*  Bring  a 
lamp":  the  lamp  was  brought,  of  the  small 
sauce-boat  fashion  used  by  peasants,  and  also  some 
ghi  or  melted  butter  and  a  large  cotton  wick. 
These  she  herself  arranged  in  the  most  effective 
form  and  then  said,  "Light  it  •,"  which  was  done 
and  the  lamp  placed  on  the  ground  before  her. 
Then  steadfastly  looking  at  me  with  an  air  of  grave 
defiance  she  rested  her  rio-ht  elbow  on  the  orround 
and  put  her  finger  into  the  flame  of  the  lamp. 
The  finger  scorched,  blistered  and  blackened  and 
finally  twisted  up  in  a  way  which  I  can  only  com- 
pare to  what  I  have  seen  happen  to  a  quill  pen  in 
the  flame  of  a  candle.     This  lasted  for  some    time, 


984      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap, 

during  which  she  never  moved  her  hand,  uttered 
a  sound  or. altered  the  expression  of  her  counte- 
nance. She  then  said: — "Are  you  satisfied  ?"  to 
which  I  answered  hastily,  "  satisfied,"  upon  which 
with  great  deliberation  she  removed  her  finger 
from  the  flame,  saying:  "Now  may  I  go  ? "  To 
this  1  assented  and  she  moved  down  the  slope  to 
the  pile.  This  was  placed  on  the  edge  of  the 
stream.  It  was  about  4J  ft.  high,  about  the  same 
length,  and  perhaps  3  ft.  broad,  composed  of  alter- 
nate layers  of  small  billets  of  wood  and  light  dry 
brushwood  between  four  upright  stakes.  Round 
this  she  was  marched  in  a  noisy  procession  2  or  3 
times  and  ascended  it,  laying  herself  down  on  her 
side  with  her  face  in  her  hands  like  one  composing 
herself  to  sleep,  after  which  she  was  covered  up 
with  light  brushwood  for  several  inches,  but  not  so 
as  to  prevent  her  rising  had  she  been  so  minded. 
The  attendants  then  began  to  fasten  her  down  with 
long  bamboos.  This  1  immediately  prohibited  and 
they  desisted  unwillingly  but  without  any  show  of 
anger.  Her  son,  a  man  of  about  30,  was  now 
called  upon  to  light  the  pile. 

It  was  one  of  those  frequent  cases  in  which  the 
husband's  death  had  occurred  too  far  off  for  the 
body  to  be  brought  to  the  pile,  and  instead  of  it  a 
part  of  his  clothing  had  been  laid  thereon  by  the 
widow's  side.  A  great  deal  of  powdered  resin  and, 
I  think,  some  olii  had  bec'n  thrown  upon  the  wood 
which  first  gave  a  dense  smoke  and  then  burst  into 
flame.  Until  the  flames  drove  me  back  I  stood 
near  enough  to  touch  the  pile,  but  I  heard  no  sound 
:uul  saw  no  motion,  except  one  gentle  upheaving 
of  the  brushwood  over  the  bodv,  after  which  all  was 


VII.]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.  985 

still.  The  son  who  had  lighted  the  pile  remained 
near  it  until  it  was  in  full  combustion,  and  then 
rushing  up  the  bank  threw  himself  on  the  ground 
in  a  paroxysm  of  grief.  So  ended  the  last  Suttee 
that  was  lawfully  celebrated  in  the  district  of 
Hooghly  and  perhaps  in  Bengal." 

But  sacrifices  made  by  a  few,  under  promptings 
of  extraordinary  sentiments,  are  not  such  as  may 
be  enforced  in  the  case  of  every  widow  in  a 
society.  The  Suttees  in  later  times  increased  in 
number  from  very  many  causes  besides  that  of 
affection.  Within  six  or  seven  centuries  before  the 
abolition  of  the  rite,  tlie  Hindu  widows  found  their 
position  insecure,  as  the  country  was  overrun  by 
the  Mahomedan  conquerers  and  by  the  Burmese 
and  Portuguese  marauders  who  seized  helpless 
young  widows  and  carried  them  away  or  which 
was  worse,  put  them  to  indelible  infamy.  Even 
Nawabs  and  noblemen  would  sometimes  not  let  eo 
the  opportunity  to  do  the  same  as  the  robbers  did, 
regarding  beautiful  Hindu  widows.  The  genealogical 
works  referred  to  by  us  in  pp.  73 — 91  contain  many 
instances  of  such  atrocities.  The  number  of  Suttees 
must  have  grown  largely  in  proportion  owing  to 
these  causes.  Besides  when  one  family  boasted 
of  its  Suttees,  the  other  families  wanted,  for  the 
sake  of  increasing  their  prestige,  to  possess  similar 
records  of  sacrifice  from  among  their  own  mem- 
bers, so  what  had  been  in  early  ages  a  practice  of 
but  rare  occurrence  became  frequent,  often  under 
compulsion.  The  following  incident  will  show  to 
what  a  heinous  extent  of  barbarity  the  practice  of 
Suttee  might  be  carried. 

124 


986        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

■^ '^  About  the  year  1796,  the  following  most 
shocking  and  atrocious  murder,  under  the  name  of 
Sahamarana,  was  perpetrated  at  Majilpur,  about 
a  day's  journey  south  from  Calcutta.  Banchha- 
rama,  a  Brahman  of  the  above  place,  dying,  his 
wife  at  a  late  hour  went  to  be  burnt  with  tiie  body  : 
all  the  previous  ceremonies  were  performed  ;  she 
was  fastened  on  the  pile,  and  the  fire  was  kind- 
led ;  but  the  night  was  dark  and  rainy.  When  thf 
hre  began  to  scorch  this  poor  woman,  she  contrived 
to  disentangle  herself  from  the  dead  body,  and 
creeping  from  under  the  file,  hid  herself  among  some 
brushwood.  In  a  little  lime  it  was  discovered  that 
there  was  only  one  body  on  the  pile.  Tiie  relations 
immediately  took  the  alarm  and  searched  for  the 
wretch  ;  the  son  soon  dragged  her  forth,  and  in- 
sisted that  she  should  throw  herself  on  the  pile, 
or  drown  or  hang  herself ;  she  pleaded  for  her  life 
at  the  hands  of  her  own  son,  and  declared  that  she 
could  not  embrace  so  horrid  a  death — but  sh(^ 
pleaded  in  vain  :  the  son  urged,  that  he  should  lose 
his  caste,  and  that  therefore  he  would  die  or  slie 
should.  Unable  to  persuade  her  to  hang  or  drown 
herself,  the  son  and  the  others  present  then  tied 
her  hands  and  feet,  and  threw  her  on  the  funeral 
])ile,  where  sht^  (juickly  perished." 

We  ask  our  rc^aders  to  read  the  vernacular 
treatises  of  the  Raja  on  Suttee-rites,  which  are 
master-pi(*ces  of  close  argumentative  writings  dis- 
closing his  great  humane  feelings  and  profound 
scholarship. t 

*   Ward's  on  the  Hindus,  Vol.  II,  Part  III,  Page  304. 

t  Raja  Rama  Mohana  Roy's  Bengali  works,  Pages  167-223. 


VIL  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.         987 

Raja  Rama  "Mohana  was  born  in    Bengal   when 

all  the    brightness  had  faded  from  the     illuminated 

pages  of  our  history,  when  the  glorious  had  grown 

ignominous  in  many  places,  when  faith  and  devotion 

had  been  reduced  to    superstition,  "  sweet    religion 

become      a    mere    rhapsody    of    words,"    and     the 

scarcely  audible  beatings  of  the  heart  indicated  the 

loss  of  all  social  vitality.  He  led  us  from  superstition 

to  faith,  from  darkness  to  light ;  and  though  he  may 

seem    to    have    found    nothing-   good  in   the  Hindu      ^^^  fruit 

.  of  the 

religion    of    his    own    day, — not    even    in    the  self-        Raja's 

sacrificing  devotion  of  true  hearts  which,  though 
few,  still  weilded  the  greatest  influence  in  ihe  coun- 
try, yet  we  must  remember  that,  generally  speak- 
ing, it  was  not  the  season  for  extolling  a  deterior- 
ated virtue,  for  admiring  the  atrocious  slaughter 
of  women — too  heinous  an  offence  to  be  condoned 
by  idle  panegyric.  The  movements  in  various 
fields  of  enlightenment  started  by  the  Raja 
have  borne  ample  fruit.  The  educated  com- 
munity have  followed  his  lead  in  the  general 
awakening  of  the  intellect  observed  thorough- 
out  the  country  after  his  advent.  The  Raja  was  a 
great  admirer  of  the  English  people  and,  with  a 
sincere  heart,  approached  them  with  prayers  to  aid 
him  in  his  beneficient  attempt  at  reform,  and  he 
found  a  ready  response  and  sympathetic  hearing 
from  the  rulers  of  the  land.  Though  a  scholar  of 
world-wide  renown  and  a  perfect  master  of  the 
most  important  classical  and  many  modern  lan- 
guages, he  did  not  despise  his  mother  tongue.  He 
wrote  master-pieces  in  Bengali.  "  It  is  a  remark- 
able fact  that  the  address  he  presented  to  Lord 
William  Bentinck  was  in    Bengali,    a  circumstance 


988      BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.       [  CHap. 

which  showed  how  deep  was  his  love  for  his 
mother  tongue."*  His  works  in  Bengali  struck  the 
keynote  of  a  new  style,  for  though  the  Raja  was 
full  of  admiration  for  the  English,  yet  he  would  not 
accept  any  matter  second-hand  ;  with  him  began  an 
attempt  at  free  enquiry  after  truth.  The  works 
by  the  missionaries  and  those  that  wrote  under 
their  instructions  consisted,  as  already  said,  mainly 
of  compilations  and  translations  :  but  in  the  Ben- 
gali works  of  the  Raja  begins  a  new  epoch  and  a 
movement  for  the  right  understanding  of  the  truths 
of  our  own  religion.  Kama  Mohana  Roy  began  with 
the  Vedanta;  and  taking  the  cue  of  rational  explana- 
tion from  him  we  have  come  down  to  the  Purahas. 
l'>om  the  time  of  Rama  Mohana  Roy,  Bengali  litera- 
ture in  its  poems,  romances  and  theologial  works,  has 
striven  to  restate  the  truths  contained  in  our 
classics  in  the  light  of  western  rationalism  of  thought ; 
it  has  tried  to  combine  the  realistic  mode  of  think- 
ing peculiar  to  the  west  with  oriental  idealism ; 
sometimes  the  occidental  element  has  been  too  pro- 
minent in  Bengali  writmgs  almost  alienating  itself 
from  our  national  ideal  in  the  views  propounded, 
at  others  verging  on  extreme  conservativeness, 
and  blind  orthodoxy.  The  conflict  is  going  on 
w  ithout  intermission  up  to  the  present,  and  a  har- 
moiiv  has  not  yet.  I  am  afraid,  crowned  the  at- 
tempts of  the  opposing  forces  in  this  field.  But 
all  the  same,  we  are  conscious  of  a  great  activity 
m  «Hir  literature  and  we  owe  it  preeminently  to 
I  Ik-  devoted    labours  of   Raja    Kama  Mohana    Roy, 


•  The    English    work.s    of   R.ija  R. una  Mohana    Roy.     Vol.  I, 
Intrixluction,  page  XIX. 


VII*  ]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &   LITERATURE.         989 

who  advanced  its  cause,  not  only  by  writing  monu- 
mental works  in  Bengali  himself,  but  by  raising  a 
controversy  which  has  contributed  a  great  deal  to 
the  rapid  development  of  prose.  Taking  this  view  of 
matters,  it  cannot  be  considered  unjust  to  call 
him  the  father  of  modern  Bengali  prose. 


(c)  The  writers  that  followed  Raja  Rama  Mohana 
Roy — Devendra    Natha  Tagore — Aksaya 
Kumara  Datta  and  others. 

After  the  death  of  Raja  Rama  Mohana  Roy  the 
spirit  of  reform  lay  dormant  for  a  while.  Even 
the  Brahma-Sabha  that  he  had  established,  suc- 
cumbed to  those  othodox  forms  against  which  the 
great  leader  had  fought  all  his  life.  In  the  year  1862 
it  was  found  that  the  Brahmins  only  were  admitted 
to  it,  and  that  they  h.eld  meetings  with  closed  doors 
against  all  of  other  castes.  Igvara  Chandra  Nyaya- 
ratna  used  to  lecture  before  a  select  body  of 
Brahmins  in  the  Theistic  Hall  :  and  in  one  of  the 
subjects  that  he  chose,  he  argued  that  Rama 
had  been  an  incarnation  of  God.  The  mission- 
aries knew"  Rama  Mohana  Roy  to  be  their  great  foe 
inspite  of  all  professions  of  amity  and  peace  on 
both  sides ;  for  under  the  outward  form  of  Uni- 
tarian Christianity  which  the  Raja  seemed  to  pro- 
fess, he  was  founding  a  new  Theistic  Church  based 
on  the  Vedanta  Philosophy  and  on  Christian 
Morals.  This  w^ould  inevitably  draw  to  itself  those 
educated    Hindus  who,    if  such  a  society    had    not      ^c^twufe's 

been  oroanised  by  the  Raja,  would  have  gravitated         of  the 

.     .       ^,        ,  .,,.  missiona- 

towards  the  Christian  Churches,  and  proved  willing  ries. 


990        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

converts.  The  death  of  the  Raja,  and  a  total 
absence  in  the  field  of  any  suitable  personage  on 
whom  his  mantle  could  fall,  gave  an  opportunity 
for  a  time  to  the  Christian  Missionaries  to  renew 
their  attempts  at  proselytising  with  redoubled  zeal. 
Stray  cases  come  to  our  notice  which  show  the 
vigorous  procedure  of  these  gentlemen.  In  1845, 
Ume^a  Chandra  Sarkar  and  his  wife  were  converted 
by  Dr.  Duff  in  a  manner  which  created  a  great 
sensation  amongst  the  whole  native  population  of 
Calcutta.  In  fact  on  the  very  day  of  their  conver- 
sion, the  Hindus  raised  Rs.  40,000  to  found  a  Hindu 
School  in  order  to  counteract  the  influence  of  Chris- 
tian teaching  in  the  schools  established  by  the 
Missionaries. 

At  this  juncture  another  great  man  appeared  to 
take  up  the  work  of  the  great  reformer.  His  intel- 
lectual powers  were  not  so  great  as  those  of  Rama 

Mohana  Roy,  but    his    strength    of  character,  faith 
Devendra       ...  ^  r        r        ^i 

Natha         '"  religious  views,  power  01   sacrihce  tor    the   cause 

lajfore.  ^f  what  he  considered  right,  high-mindedness  and 
unflinching  advocacy  of  theism  have  deservedly  lift- 
ed him  to  the  rank  of  a  Risi  in  popular  estimation. 
Devendra  Natha  Tagore  has,  moreover,  furthered 
the  cause  of  Bengali  literature  in  no  inconsider- 
able degree.  He  was  the  son  of  the  distinguished 
Dwaika  Natha  Tagore  who  was  called  Prince  Dwar- 
ka  Natha  in  l^ngland,  and  wlu)  enjo)ecl  the  great 
cc^nlidciKc;  of  our  revered  and  beloved  Oueen  Vic- 
toria duiing  his  stay  in  that  country.  Devendra 
Natha,  heir  to  a  princely  fortune,  and  a  man  of  re- 
mark;il)K-  handsome  features  and  rare  accomplish- 
ments, in  his  i-arlv  youth  realised  the  truth  that 
life  was  short,  fortune  was    transitory    and    religion 


VII.]         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.         99 1 

the  only  solace  of  life.  Impelled  by  a  sense  of 
moral  duty, — for  there  was  no  legal  obligation, — he 
handed  over  his  immense  inheritance  to  his  father's 
creditors,  who  could  have  claimed  no  hold  upon  it. 
And  the  effect  which  this  noble  act  of  sacrifice 
produced  on  the  minds  of  the  people  was  evi- 
denced by  the  bestowal  of  the  title  of  Maharsi  or 
great  Risi  on  him  by  his  countrymen.  His  creditors, 
fortunately,  were  no  Shylocks.  They  arranged  for 
the  liquidation  of  debts  in  a  way  convenient  to  the 
youthful  owner  of  the  property  ;  but  all  the  sam.e  a 
considerable  portion  of  it  had  to  be  sold.  Rut 
Devendra  Natha  was  indifferent  to  worldly  con- 
siderations. I  quote  an  extract  from  his  auto-bio- 
graphy which  is  written  in  a  simple  nnd  attractive 
style. 

■^"My    grand-mother    loved  me  very  much.      In     An  extract 

childhood  I  cared  not  for  any  one  else    but    her.      I        ^''^"l-^*^ 

J  autobiO' 

used  to  take  my  meals  with  li^^r,  sit  by  her  the  whole  graphy. 
live-long  day  and  shep  on  the  same  bed  with  her. 
When  she  went  lo  Kaligh  Lta  to  visit  the  shrine  I 
used  to  accompany  her  thither.  At  one  time  she 
went  to  Vrindavana  and  Puri  leaving  me  at  home. 
I  recollect  how  bitterly  I  wept  owing  to  my  separa- 
tion from  her.  She  was  intensely  devoted  to  re- 
ligion.    Every     day     at    early    dawn    she  used   to 

^^t:^H^,  c^t^sT,  ^^^'^\  ^t^r^  fs^^^  ^f  ^  i     f^f^  ^t^"^- 
^^  ^t^^^,  ^tft  ^t^t^  ^ff^^  ^tt^t^i  I    fsf^  ^M 

^f^f^^  ^f^  v2t^K^  ^5rt^r^  ^^^^  I     vfi^i  ^ifsf^^ 


992      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [  Chap. 

bathe  in  the  Ganges  and  weave  garlands  for  the 
tutelary  god  Salagrama.  Sometimes  she  fasted 
from  sunrise  to  sun-set  and  offered  '  argha  '  to  the 
sun.  I  stayed  with  her  on  the  roof  and  got  by  heart 
the  hymn  addressed  to  the  sun,  hearing  it  uttered 
so  often.  "  O  Thou  of  the  colour  of  the  Java. 
offspring  of  Ka^yapa,  radiant  with  rays,  the  dis- 
peller  of  darkness  and  destroyer  of  sin,  O  Sun. 
I  salute  thee." 

My  grand-mother  sometimes  fasted  the  whole 
day  and  night,  and  during  the  whole  of  such  nights 
Kathakatas  and  Kirtana  songs  went  on  in  the 
house  \  We  could  not  sleep  owing  to  the  noise. 
She  used  to  supervise  the  household  work  and  her- 
self assisted  the  domestics  in  their  service.  Owing 
to  her  efficient  managfement  and  firm  control,  all  the 
work  of  our  house  was  conducted  with  strict  regu- 
larity. When  the  inmates  of  the  house  had  all  taken 
their    meal    she    would  cook  her  own  food  herself.    I 


^^c^  fsf^  fs^^ft^' ^ff^r^m^f^  ^f^^^^T— '^c^r?^ 
Vila's  cnf  xi^  '^jAn  '^%  «f^^i  «f^^i  ^^^  ^^t^  ^^?i 

^^^^'.   ?l«IC^ft  f^^f^^tl"        ffiff^^     ym    v£l^    fffST 
^f^TfT?    ^fil^^iT,    51^^  ^tfii  ^^1  ^9^  ^-^x  ^fR  ^^  : 

^^1    ^f^l?J    *fr»TC^    ^'.^^    ^^^    ^t^T  ^'^^R^^^  t^N^  I 


VII.]        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.         993 

used  to  share  her  plain  meal  composed  of  boiled  rice 
and  simple  vegetables  (  ^ft^t^  )  ;  this  food  I  re- 
lished more  than  my  own.  The  beauty  of  her 
person  was  as  great  as  her  accomplishments,  and 
her  faith  in  religion  was  equally  great.  But  she 
could  not  bear  the  visit  of  Ma-gosains  'women 
who  posed  as  teachers  of  the  Vaisnava  faith)  to  our 
house.  Though  her  faith  whs  mixed  with  supersti- 
tion she  also  evinced  a  considerable  freedom  in  her 
religious  views.  With  her  I  often  visited  the  im- 
age of  Gopiiiatha  in  our  family  residence.  I  never 
wanted  to  come  out  of  the  temple  without  her.  I 
used  to  sit  on  her  lap  and  throuorh  the  window 
quietly  observe  all  that  passed.  My  grand-mother 
is  no  more  ;  but  after  how  many  days  of  weary 
search  for  the  truth  have  I  found  One  who  is 
more  than  even  my  beloved  grand-mother  ever  was 

^  I    ^rm  *T?1^  c^^^  ^^?i  fk%  i5ti^rc^  c^'^f^  -^mi 

^\fm\  ^tfta  ^TTfnc^  «t^  mfn^t^i  ^      ^t^^  opIvb 

c:gjt?:^  ^?n  ^^^^^  ^^1  cfff^?:^r^  1    M^^\^  ^^jii 
125 


994         BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [Chap. 

to  me  !  Seated  on  the  lap  of  the  divine  Mother 
I  quietly  observe  all  that  transpires  through  Her 
wishes. 

Shortly  before  her  death  iny  grand  mother  one 
day  told  me  *  I  have  decided  to  bequeath  to  you 
all  that  I  have  in  the  world,  I  won't  give  it  to  anv 
one  else.'  Thereupon  she  gave  me  the  key  to 
her  box  ;  I  opened  it  and  found  some  gold  and 
silver  coins  in  it.  I  told  people  that  I  had  found 
parched  rice  in  my  grand  mother's  box.  In  tht- 
year  1835  her  end  drew  near.  My  father  had  nt 
that  time  gone  on  a  trip  to  the  ntrighbourhood  of 
Allahabad.  The  physician  said  that  the  patient 
should  no  longer  be  kept  at  home.  Whereupon 
our  relations  came  and  brought  my  grand  mother 
down  to  the  ground-floor  and  made  preparations 
to  take    her    to    the    Ganges."^     But    she    was    still 

^[51?  "^Kw  ^tf^fei   ^1^^^  c^^  I     ^tft  ^5t?  ^1^ 

■^^i^  ^^j^^  ^fti:^  f%fe^^.  J^ffT  ^rf^^i  ^k^ 
c^i^c^  ^t^  w.^  ?M1  ^^r^  ^1 '    ■'i^^^  T^c«^  ^t^^ 

*  The  usual  custDm  of  ihc  HiiuUis  is  to  take  thi-  dyi'ig  pooplf 
to  the  hank  of  the  Gansjjcs  or  to  any  other  river  that  may  be  near, 
when  the  case  is  dcrlared  as  hopeU-ss  and  death  is  experted 
at  every  moment. 


VII.]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.  995 

hoping  to  live  and  did  not  like  to  be  carried  to  the 
Ganges.  She  said  ''If  Dwarka  Natha  ( her  son  ) 
were  here,  he  would  never  allow  you  to  remove 
me  from  home  as  you  are  doing."  The  men  did 
not  pay  any  heed  to  her  words,  but  went  on  carry- 
ing her  towards  the  Ganges  ;  upon  which  she 
said,  ''  As  you  have  not  obeyed  my  wishes  I  shall 
cause  you  great  trouble.  I  shall  not  die  soon."^  On 
reaching  the  Ganges  they  placed  her  in  a  hut  of 
tiles.  She  lived  three  nights  in  that  situation.  I 
was  with  her  all  this  time.  On  the  night  previous 
to  the  day  when  she  would  expire,  I  was  seated  on 
a  mat  spread  near  the  tiled  hut,  the  full  moon  had 
risen  on  the  horizon  and  close  by  me  was  the 
funeral    ground.     At    that  time  they  were  singing 

^tft^  I    f%^  ftfsf^i  ^t^^  ^tf^^^  Ff^,  'n^n  v^^l^ 

^^]  ^^  ^m  ^^r^  '^^n  f^u  c^f%,  c^^f^  ^tf^  cmz^^ 
y\^m^  ^^  ^^  fw^.  ^Tfs^  ^^  ^ft^  ^]  r  wi^vsi 
^t<ii  ^^  c^nn  M^t^^  ^t^^t^^  ^t'^i  ^t^  I     cmK^ 

fK^^  ^*1^    ^%1    "^rf^.    ^    f^^  ^f<'^t<l  ^tft— RStVf^ 

*  If  a  person  does  not  die  soon  on  reaching  the  Ganges,  the 
carriers  are  required  to  wait  there  till  her  death  and  undergo  great 
hardships. 


996      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LlTERAiURE.       [Chap. 

kirtana  songs  around  my  grand-mother.  One  ran 
thus  :— 

"  When  will  that  blessed  day  come,  when  I 
shall    leave    this    mortal    body    reciting  thy    name, 

0  Hari?" 

A  gentle  breeze  was  carrying  the  sound  to  my 
ear  ;  suddenly  at  that  moment  a  strange  emotion 
passed  over  my  mind.  F'or  the  time  being  I  be- 
came an  entirely  different   man  from  what  I   was, — 

1  frit  a  total  abhorrence  for  wealth.  The  mat  on 
which  I  sat  appeared  to  me  to  be  my  proper  and 
lit  place.  The  rich  carpets  and  all  seemed  worth- 
less and  of  no  value  to  me  ;  I  felt  a  complacency 
and  joy  which  I  had  never  experienced  before.  I 
was  only  i8  years  old  at  the  time. 

So  long  1  had  lain  deep-plunged  in  the 
pleasures  of  luxury.  I  had  never  for  one  moment 
lelt  any  longi  i^  for  truth.       I  never  cared  to   know 


^c^^tr.^  f^^l^  ^f^^  I     a  M^^3  ^"^1  ^ft^i  ^tf^. 

it^lt  '«lt^H  "^V^  S^  C^l^  ??^^.  sil^-^  \l'<^    ^£\■^.    ^f  ^- 


VII,  ]       BENGALI    LANGUAGF.    &    LITERATURE,         997 

what  religion  or  God  was  ;  nobody  gave  me  any 
instruction  on  the  subject.  The  joy  I  felt  on  the 
funeral  ground  that  day  overflowed  my  soul. 
Language  is  feeble  ;  how  can  I  express  it  or  con- 
vey what  I  felt  to  otliers  ?  No  one  can  experience 
this  joy  by  filling  his  head  with  logical  discussions. 
Who  says  there  is  no  God  ?  Here  is  the  evidence 
of  his  existence  :  I  was  not  prepared  for  it ;  how 
could  I  then  have  felt  such  joy  !  With  this  spirit 
of  asceticism  and  joy  I  came  home  at  midnight.  I 
could  not  sleep  that  night.  The  reason  of  my 
sleeplessness  was  this  ecstasy  of  soul  ;  as  if  moon- 
light had  spread  itself  over  my  mind  for  the  whole 
of  that  night.  At  dawn  I  went  to  the  bank  of 
the  Ganges  to  see  my  grand-mother.  I  found  her 
drawing  her  last  breath.      '  They  had   brought    her 

f^||  vSrtfsT  ml,  ftf^  9\U  ^t^  I  ^^K^^  c^^  ^^^ 
^t^^,  ^s^t?:^f  (7\  '^^tft^  i^'^  ^t^^  'siu{  ^t<r  ^u  ^1 1 
^t^  ^4^)  ^^^,  ^tf^  cr  ^T^^  pp^^n  c^i^^^ 
^t^^  •?     ^1^1  "^t^tfir^  ^m^  I      ^4    ^%i    ^% 

^T^tC^  ^  ^^^  fsf^tf^^^^  I       C^  ^m  ^%^  i^Tl"  ?      viil 

^]Ui^  ^mt^  T^m  ^1^  ^1 1    ^  ^fet?r  ^H«i  "^i^^ 

It^l    ^tft    C^^    ^^^1   ^t^^-C^Jt<^^1  ^TTO  ^^U  ^ff^!l1 


The  Early 


998      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       [Chap, 

down  to  the  Ganges  and  were  enthusiastically 
reciting  in  a  loud  voice  "  Ganga-Narayaha 
Brahma  "  She  died  immediately.  I  approached  her 
and  saw  that  one  of  her  hands  lay  on  her  breast, 
the  middle  finger  pointed  towards  heaven.  '  Recite 
the  name  of  Hari  '  she  said  at  the  last  moment 
pointing  with  her  finger,  which  remained  fixed 
towards  heaven.  As  I  saw  it  I  surmised  that 
while  leaving  this  world  it  was  God  and  hereafter 
that  she  pointed  to  me,  beloved  as  I  was.  My 
grand-mother  was  not  only  my  greatest  friend  in 
this  life,  but  also  my  friend  in  the  hereafter." 

In  the    year  1845,  Devendra  Natha  organised  a 


Brahma  band  of  workers  who  accepted  the  Brahma  Dharma 
amaja.  and  gave  up  "  idolatrous  practices."  The  number 
swelled  to  five  hundred  in  1849.  We  find  the 
name  of  Aksaya  Kumara  Dutta,  the  great  Bengali 
writer  of  this  period,  in  the  list  of  the  first  batch 
of  Brahmas. 

..^  In    the   vear    184^,    the   Tatta   Bodhini  Patrika 

Akhsaya  '  ^^" 

Kumara        ^vas  started  by  Devendra  Natha    l^agore  and    Babu 
Aksaya  Kumara    Datta  was    appointed    as   editor. 


^<^^it?f5  ^U^  ^^:'^<i  "^5fi  ^m^'\  5^"  ^f^r^^w  I 

^^  ^'^j'^^^.  vii^'v  ^r^if^^i  '^^i^^  ^w*i  ^K^  i  f^r^ 

"^Ri^it^"  ^f^^  ^f^?f  -ptk^  -^^Vh"^  '^'^l^\K^  ^f^^ 
^r.%  '5:^r<^   f^^^    ^f^TTl    ^t^1^^    C^<flt?1    C^^^    "  ^ 


VIL]         BENGALI    LANGUAGR    &    LIIKKAIUKR.         999 

Devendra  Natha  Tagore  compiled  a  code  for  the 
guidance  of  Brahma-life  from  the  Upanisada  in 
1848,  to  which  he  also  appended  a  Bengali  trans- 
lation. This  serves  as  the  hand-book  and  guide  to 
the  modern  Brahmas, — specially  to  the  members 
of  the  Adi  Samaja  The  Bengali  translation  does 
great  credit  to  the  compiler  owing  to  its  simplicity 
and  elegance,  and  it  is  a  interesting  point  to  note 
that  Devendra  Natha  dictated  the  treatise  to  Aksaya 
Kumara  Datta  who  took  it  down,  the  whole  thing 
occupying  only  three  hours. 

The  great  activity  and  the  religious  earnest- 
ness displayed  by  the  band  of  noble  workers  has 
borne  great  fruit  in  various  spheres  of  Bengali  life. 
Bengali  literature  particularly  has  been  immensely 
profited  by  them.  The  Tattta  Bodhini  Patrika 
under  the  editorship  of  Babu  Aksaya  Kumara  Datta 
weilded  an  influence  which  it  is  difficult  to  con- 
ceive now-a-days.  "  It  is  scarcely  possible  "  writes 
Mr.  R.  C.  Dutt  "  in  the  present  day  when  journals 
have  multiplied  all  over  the  country  to  describe 
adequately  how  eagerly  the  moral  instructions  and 
earnest  teachings  of  Ak9aya  Kumara  conveyed  in 
that  famous  paper,  were  perused  by  a  large  circle 
of  thinking  and  enlightened  readers.  People  all 
over  Bengal  awaited  every  issue  of  the  paper  with 
eagerness ;  and  the  silent  and  sickly,  but  inde- 
fatigueable,  worker  at  his  desk  swayed  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  the  thouglits  and  opinions  of  the 
thinking  portion  of   Bengal."''^ 


*  Literature  of  Bengal  by    R.  C.  Dutt,  Page  87. 


1000    BENGALI    LANGUAGE   &    LITERATURE.         [Chap« 


I^wara 
Ciiandra 

Vidya- 
Sagara. 


Tek  Chand 
TI  akur. 


Extracts 

from 
Aksaya 
Habu's 
works. 


It    was    at   this  time  also  that  the  young  l9wara 
Chandra    Vidyasagara,     who     had    already  passed 
through   his     novitiate   in   the   art  of   Bengali  com- 
position   as    a  pandit  in    Fort  William  College,  was 
first  winning  his  laurels    in    the  literary   field.     He 
had  already  written  his    Vatriga    Sirhhasana   which 
showed    unmistakable    traces    of  that   elegant   and 
correct  style  which  later   on    developed    so    splen- 
didly  in    his    Sitar  Vanabasa,  (Jakuntala  and  other 
works.     It  was  at  this  time  also  that   Peary    Chand 
Mitra    [nom  de  plu77te)  Tek  Chand  Thakur — whose 
'  Alaler  Gharer  Dulal  '  or  '  The  Spoilt  Child  '  many 
European  writers  have    so    freely    eulogised,    some 
comparing  it  with  the    best  productions   of  Moliere 
or    Fielding, — was    trying     to    master    the    simple 
and  colloquial  style  spoken  by  the  gentle  and  rustic 
folk  of  Bengal.     We  can  not  however   review    the 
works    of    these    master-minds,     as    our    scope     is 
limited  to  a  treatment  of  the  subject    up    to    ICS50. 
and  most  of  their  works  were  written  in  the  decade 
that    followed    that    year.      Babu    Aksaya    Ivumara 
Dutta,  however,  whose  life  like  Pope's  was   ''a  long 
disease^  "    had    alreadv    written  a  considerable   por- 
tion of  those  valuable    contributions    to    the    Tatta 
Bodhini  Patrika  by  1850, — which  were  subsequent- 
ly compiled  by  him  and  published    in    the    form    of 
sei)aratf    books  such    as,    '  Charu     Patha,'    '  \'ahya 
Bastur  Sahita  M§nava  Prakritir  Samvanda  X'ichsra  ' 
cvc.  and  we  trust  it  will   not    be    going    beyond    the 
limit  t(^    give    a  few  extracts  from  his    contributions 
to  the  Tattva  Bodhini    Patrika-       I  lu-     following   is 
taken  from  one  of  the  issues  of  tlu'  paper  published 
in  1850. 


VII.]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       lOOl 

^  ''  A  heart  void  of  love  may  be  compared  to  a 
desert  throusli  which  no  current  of  water  flows. 
Both  are  barren  and  fruitless.  It  is  a  highly  for- 
tunate circumstance  for  us  that  our  Almighty  Father 
has  endowed  the  beings  of  the  earth  with  abun- 
dance of  love  and  devotion.  There  are  persons 
who  love  wealth,  some  seek  after  reputation,  some 
knowledge,  but  those  that  are  particularly  blessed 
love  God.  There  is  no  object  higher  than  love. 
If  there  were  no  love  in  this  earth,  where  then 
would  have  been  the  heart  to  enjoy  the  beauty  of 
a  delightful  garden,  diffusing  pleasant  fragrance  in 
the  breeze,  the  glad-some  beauty  of  a  night  clothed 
in  the  charming  white  light  of  the  full  moon  ! 
Where  then  would  have  been  the  pleasures  of 
conversation  with  one's  devoted,  chaste  and 
accomplished  wife,  whose  face  radiant  with  love's 
glow,  beams  forth  the  light  of  the  full  moon  ! 
Where  would  have  been  without  love  the  sweet 
smiling  faces  of  children,  beautiful  as  painted 
cherubs  and  innocent,  pure  and  gay  as  flowers, — 
the     wonderful    harmony    that    pervades    a  family 

ft^^  viit  c^  dtf%^<  n!iT;c^'^<i  ^^K^z^  ^^^it^  cm 
f^^5«i  ^fiim^^^  I    c^^  ^1  m^^,  c^^  ^1  ^i^^,  c^^ 

mm^  1^^^^  c*rt^i,  (^^tit^  ^i  ^^^<\  ^^\^f\  ^R'li 

f^%  ^^^  f^'^^  ^^^^  C^Ttfe   c^t^t^  ^1   <S^^5) 
126 


1002       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LIIERAIUKE.      [Chap. 

of  spotless  reputation,  the  members  bound  by 
tit^s  of  love  and  full  of  revert-nce  for  religion  ! 
Where  would  have  been  that  vivifying  and  heavenly 
intercourse  with  friends  of  high  character,  dearer 
to  us  than  our  own  selves,  and  in  whose  hearts  dwell 
self-sacrihcing  love  and  all  high  qualities  '  Where 
would  have  been  those  soul-stirring  poems,  store- 
houses of  high  and  lofty  emotions,  which  over- 
whelm us  with  the  never-failing  effect  of  their 
sweet  and  matchless  melody  ! 

Imitation  This    appears    like  a    Bengali  version  of  one  of 

of  Hnglish     |^)-,^  familiar  essays  of  the    Rambler    with    Seneca's 
style.  ... 

sayings  as  head-lines,  the  difference  being  that    the 

oriental  imitation  is  even  more  over-coloured 
and  high  flown  than  the  style  of  Dr.  Johnson  himself. 
The  writings  of  Addison  and  Steele  in  the  Spec- 
tator and  those  of  Dr.  Johnson  in  the  Rambler  sup- 
plied models  for  the  Rentxali  writer,  who  combined 
with  his  Moral  and  Theological  discourses  disser- 
tations on  Etiolgy  and  Science  much  after  Paley. 

^i'^l^f\    ^fef^^l    f?!^«5jt<l    C'^K^^)    f^J    C^^i^lt^^^ 

H^r-f^?   U^^^   '[^S.    C^t^lH     ^1     ^^"^^     §|t'e^7?; 
f-l'=^fn  n*IT^^  ^ft^lC^^  ^f»6?tT   ^^*f^^1,    CPt^lt!!   ^1    5iSf- 

^itff^  ^w  nf^^.  ^^f'u  fe-5^  '^l'An^  U^'^^  "^nm^ 


Supplementary  Notes  to 
Chapter  VII. 

(\)    Three  early  centres  of  Vernacular  writings, 
(it)    The  patronage  accorded  to  Vernacular  writers 
(iil)     Peace  and  her  boon. 


(i)     Three  early  centres  of  Vernacular  writings: — 

Before  the  advent  of  Chaitanya  Deva  we  tind 
three  recognized  centres  of  Vernacular  composi- 
tion. The  songs  of  the  Vaishavas  had  for  then- 
principal  seat  the  historic  land  of  Birbhum  and  its 
contiguous  districts.  Java  Deva  hailed  from  Kenduli 
in  Birbhum  ;  and  a  few  centuries  after  him,  Chandi- 
Das  sang  his  celestial  lay  from  the  village  Nannur 
in  the  same  district.  When  Vaisnavism  was  at  its 
zenith  in  Bengal,  its  chief  exponents  and  song- 
masters  flourished  in  this  part  of  the  country. 
This  Vaishava  movement  belonged  to  the  people 
and  required  no  aristocratic  patronage  to  push  it 
in  its  forward  course ;  it  drew  its  nutrition  straight 
from  the  soil  and  soon,  by  its  own  power,  attained 
a  most  luxuriant  growth. 

In  Eastern  Bengal  where  Vaisnavism  was  yet 
unknown,  the  traditions  of  the  Buddhistic  age 
were  the  inspiration  of  the  songs  of  the  Manasa 
and  Chandi  cults.  The  traditions  of  Behula's  won- 
derful devotion  and  Chand-Sadagar's  stern  defi- 
ance to  Manasa  Devi, — the  story  of  Dhanapati 
Sadagara  and  his  adherence  to  the  ^aiva  faith  in 
the    face    of    great    dangers — belong    to    a    period 


Birbhum, 

the  early 

Vaishava 

centre. 


1004      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [  Chap. 

when  Brahmanic  influence  had  not  yet  commenced. 

Eastern        As    I    have    already    said,    the    chief    actors  in  the 

the^entre     drama    of  these    stories    belong  to    the  mercantile 

of  Renais-      classes   and    some    of  them    are    of  even    humbler 
sance. 

origin.  The  Brahmin  has  hardly  any  function  to 
discharge  in  them.  Though  after  the  Hindu  Re- 
naissance, these  stories  were  recast  by  the  Brah- 
mins and  worked  out  from  mere  popular  fables  into 
poems  of  great  beauty,  their  original  ground-work, 
with  its  traditions  of  a  society  which  is  anterior  to 
that  built  up  by  Brahmanical  influence,  remains 
unchanged.  The  earliest  writer  of  Manasa-mangala, 
that  we  have  yet  been  able  to  trace,  was  one  Hari 
Dutta.  He  lived  in  Mymensing,  or  somewhere 
in  its  vicinity,  more  than  six  hundred  years  ago. 
Narayana  Devaand  Bijaya  Gupta  came  after  him  in 
the  15th  century  and  latterly  Sasthibara  and  Ganga 
Das,  father  and  son,  wrote  Manasa-mangalas,  which 
the  subsecjuent  poets  of  the  Manasa  cult  of  east 
and  west  alike  imitated.  These  early  poets  were 
all  of  Eastern  Bengal.  We  must  remember  that 
the  tale  of  Manasa  Devi  is  of  much  older  date 
than  even  six  hundred  years.  In  this  country 
earlier  efforts  are  always  lost  when  a  gifted  suc- 
cessor assimilates  and  embodies  the  best  features 
of  his  predecessors'  works  in  his  new  poem.  Thus 
nearly  a  dozen  early  poems  of  the  M aha blia rata, 
wrillrn  btlorc  Ka^i  Das,  were  all  forgotten 
by  the  people,  until  cjuite  lately,  these  N\orks  were 
again  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  public  by  scholar- 
ly rest-arch.  1  he  earlier  poets  of  the  Manasa-cult 
all  wrote  their  poems  in  ICastern  Bengal  ;  and 
these  supplit'd  ins[)iration  to  the  poets  of  the 
Western  ilistricts  in  a    subsequent    age.      Kctakadas 


VIL]    BENGALI    LANGUAGE   AND    LITERATURE.       1005 

Kshemananda  and  otiier  poets  of  the  Rada 
Deya  abridged  the  story  described  by  East 
Bengal  poets,  adding  some  poetical  features  which 
the  improved  resources  of  our  tongue  had  placed 
at  their  command.  The  Chandi-cult  had  also  its 
earliest  exponents  in  the  poets  of  Eastern  Bengal. 
Madhavacharyya  was  a  native  of  iMymensing  and 
Dvija  Janardana,  probably  of  Tipara.  Owing  to 
to  the  great  beauty  of  Mukundarama's  poem  written 
in  later  times,  preceding  attempts  in  the  same 
field  which  had  belonged  to  Eastern  Bengal,  were 
cast  into  the  shade.  Manuscripts  of  these  early 
works,  from  two  to  three  centures  old,  have  been 
recovered  not  only  from  Eastern  Bengal  but  also 
from  the  Rada-Dega,  showing  that  they  were  at  one 
time  read  by  the  people  of  the  whole  of  Bengal. 
We  thus  see  that  poems  belonging  to  the  various 
Cakta-cults  had  for  their  earliest  home  the  much 
despised  east  of  the  country,  which  remained  poli- 
tically free  for  more  than  a  century,  after  western 
Bengal  had  been  conquered  by  the  Mahamadans. 
The  Sen-kings  at  Vlkrampur  patronised  Brahmins  ; 
and  it  was  natural  that  in  the  13th  century  Vikrampur 
should  be  turned  into  an  important  seat  of  classi- 
cal learning.  The  first  translation  of  the  Mahabha- 
rata  was  undertaken  by  Sanjaya,  probably  a  Brahmin 
of  Vikrampur.  He  belonged  to  the  Varat- 
dwaja  Gotra,  and  compiled  the  translation  in  an 
abridged  form.  The  next  translation  of  the  great 
epic  by  Kabindra  Paramegvara,  an  inhabitant  of 
Chittagong  rose  to  the  highest  point  of  popularity  ; 
it  was  written  in  the  latter  part  of  the  15th  century, 
and  was  read  by  the  people  of  east  and  west 
alike.      Manuscripts     of    this     recension      of    the 


I006      BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &   LITERATURE.    [Chap* 

iMahabharata,  written  about  three  centuries  ago,  have* 
been  received  not  only  trom  Chittagong,  Noakhali, 
Dacca,  Mymensing,  Tippara,  and  Sylhet,  but  also 
from  various  parts  of  Western  Bengal.  We  have 
with  us  an  old  manuscript  of  the  poem  recovered 
from  the  village  of  Khalisani,  near  French  Chan- 
darnagar,  and  several  otlurs  are  to  be  found  in  the 
library  of  Babu  Nagendra  Nath  \'asu,  obtained  by 
him  from  Patrasayer  and  other  villages  of  Birbhum. 
A  manuscript  of  this  poem  about  200  years  old  was 
collected  by  the  late  Mr.  Umesh  Chandra  Batabyal 
from  a  village  in  the  district  of  Rangpur.  We  may 
conceive  from  all  this  how  extensively  popular 
Kabindra's  Mahabharata  was  in  those  days. 
.\mongstthe  older  recensionists  of  the  Mahabharata, 
the  influence  of  Kablndra  Paramec^vara  was  the 
greatest  on  Xityananda  and  Ka^i  Das — the  two 
great  luminaries  who  have  enlightened  our 
masses  on  the  beauties  of  the  classical  epic  in 
comparatively  recent  times.  There  is  a  host  of 
other  early  Eastern  Bengal  poets  on  the  subject  of 
the  Mahabharata  whose  works  will  be  found  men- 
tioned in  the  body  of  this  book. 

Kritlibasa.  the  earliest  writer  of  the  Ramayaha, 
L;i)t  his  education  in  l*lastcrn  Bengal,  somewhere 
on  tlu-  banks  oi  tlu:  Padma,  as  he  has  himsclt  iii- 
lormed  us,  in  hi.s  .iuto-biography.  His  ancestors 
had  belonged  to  X'ikramapur.  and  the  family  were 
<lri\en  to  i'hulia  by  the  oppression  of  Tugral  Khan 
111  the  vrar  \^4^-  Sasihibar  and  (iangadas, 
whose  p()em>  have  been  already  mentioned  here 
in  connectlion  with  Manasa-Hlerature,  wrote  ela- 
borate   works    on    the    Ramavana  and    the    Maha- 


VII.  ]       BENGAL!    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.       IO07 

bharata,  about  350  year  ago.  These  poets  were 
inhabitants  of  Jhinardi  in  Vikrampore  ;  manus- 
cripts  of  their  poems  have  been  found  in  large 
numbers,  in  various  districts  of  Western  Bengal, 
as  they  have  been  in  the  native  districts  of  the  poets 
themselves.  It  will  thus  appear  that  Eastern  Bengal, 
having  been  one  of  the  great  seats  of  Sanskrit  learn- 
ing, produced  a  number  of  translations  that  helped 
to  disseminate  Pouranik  ideas  amongst  the  masses. 
Before  the  advent  of  Chaitanya,  Eastern  Bengal 
thus  formed  the  chief  nucleus  of  Vernacular  com- 
position, ^akta-cult  had  strong  adherents  in  that 
part  of  the  country  and  classical  learning  was  en- 
couraged by  Hindu  Kings  and  noble  men.  These 
helped  powerfully  in  the  importation  of  Sanskrit 
words  into  our  tongue — a  process  which  is  especi- 
ally conspicuous  in  the  translations  that  were  com- 
pil{-d  in  that  province. 

This  wave  was  retarded  by  the  democratic 
movement  in  letters  that  was  inspired  by  Chait- 
anya. The  \'aisnavas  adopted  Bengali  as  the 
chief  vehicle  ior  the  teachinor  of  their  religion  and 
at  once  monopolised  the  right  of  producing  litera- 
ture    in     it.     This     accounts     for     the    flourishing        Eastern 

orrowth  of  vernacular  literature    in    the   Rada  Deca        Bengal 

,  ^  ,  '  falls  to  the 

from    the     lolh    century    onwards.     The    light  that  back 

came  from  the  East  gradually  subsided  below  the  S»*<^"" 
horizon  of  our  letters,  and  under  \'aisnava  influence, 
even  the  ^akta  writers  of  Western  Bengal  profited 
by  the  general  intellectual  awakening  there,  and 
wrote  poems  of  considerable  beauty,  which  gradu- 
ally over-shadowed  the  works  written  by  the  poets 
of  Eastern  Bengal,  till  the  latter  lost  all  the  lustre  that 


lOoS       HENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.     [Chap 

she  had  once  possessed.  She  had  once  occupied  the 
place  of  pioneer  in  Vernacular  composition,  but 
this  has  now  passed  completely  out  of  our  tnemory. 
The  Battala-publishers  have  confined  their  attention 
to  inanuscripts  of  Bengali  poems  of  comparatively 
later  date,  such  as  were  available  in  the  vicinity 
of  Calcutta,  and  this  fact  has  further  helped  to 
obliterate  the  memory  of  the  early  poems  of  Eastern 
Bengal  until  recent  discoveries  brought  to  light 
heaps  of  long  forgotten  manuscripts  mainh-  from 
the  houses  of  the  rustics  of  that  countr\'. 

The    third     seat     of     Vernacular    composition, 

which  was  perhaps  one    of  the    oldest,    was    North 

rhe  Songs     Bengal.     The    songs   of  the    Pal    Kings    were  first 

Kings  and      ^ung  in  the  old    capital  of  Cauda   and    its    vicinity. 

Dharma.  Ramai    Pandit    composed    his    Manual    of  Dharma 

mangala  ^ 

poems,  worship    in  Bengali    towards    the    end    of  the  loth 

came  from  ,,               ,            •       i       i-       •         r  n      i           i 

North  century.   He  was  born  m  the  district  ot  liankura  but 

Bengal.  (}auda  was  his  chief  of  field  of  work.  The  story  of 
Lausen,  to  be  found  in  the  Dharma-Mangala,  relates 
to  the  adventures  and  successes  of  the  hero  who 
was  a  nephew  of  the  King,  Darmapal  II.  and  the 
incidents  of  the  poem  gather  round  the  old  capital 
of  Bengal.  The  Darma-cult  flourished  under  the 
patronage  of  the  Pal  Kings,  and  the  X'ernacular 
literature  of  this  cult  had,  for  its  original  home,  the 
historic  land  where  these  Kings  reigned. 

We  thus  arrive  at  the  following  conclusions  :  — 
(i)  Rada  D('(;a  in  olden  times  was  the 
favoured  seat  of  the  growth  of  \'ais- 
hava  id(\is.  Long  before  Chaitanya, 
she  delighted  in  X'aisnava  songs  and 
in    the    study  of  the  Bhggabata   which 


Siimmarv 


Vll,]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE. 


1009 


was  first  translated  into  Bengali  met- 
rical verse,  about  425  years  ago,  by 
Maladhara  Basu,  one  of  her  illustrious 
poets. 

(2)  Eastern     Bengal    produced    the    earliest 

works  of  the  Chandi  and  Manasa-cults, 
and  her  learned  writers  compiled  most 
of  the  earliest  recensions  of  the  Sans- 
krit epics.  Eastern  Bengal  thus  gave 
the  earliest  impetus  towards  the  dis- 
semination of  Pouranik  ideas  amongst 
the  masses, 

(3)  From  North  Bengal  we  received  our  songs 

of  the  Pal  Kings  and  our  earliest 
Dharma-mangals.  These,  as  we  have 
said,  deal  with  the  exploits  and  adven- 
tures of  Lau-sen,  a  nephew  of  the 
King  Darmapala  II  of  Gauda. 

These  were  the  three  centres, — the  early  fields 
of  the  activities  of  our  poets  in  vernacular  com- 
position. Rada  Dega  in  the  i6th  century  came  to 
the  fore  and  dominated  the  great  intellectual 
awakening  brought  about  by  Chaitanya. 

II.— The  patronage  accorded  to  Vernacular  writers. 

In  the  first  chapter  of  this  book,  we  indicated 
how  the  Hindu  Courts,  following  the  examples  of 
Moslem  chiefs  and  noblemen,  extended  their  pat- 
ronage to  the  Vernacular  poets.  Bengali  gradually 
became  a  favourite  vehicle  for  the  expression  of 
thought  with  scholarly  people  ;  and  we  scarcely 
find  a  poet  of  any  renown  who  was  not  rewarded 
and  patronised  by  some  noble  man.     The  Vaishava 

127 


10 10        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [Chap. 

poets  alone  did  not  care  for  such  patronage,  but  all 
others  considered  it  a  great  privilege  and  honour  to 
dedicate  their  poems  to  their  rich  patrons,  extoll- 
ing their  qualities  in  terms  of  high  sounding  pane- 
gyric and  poetry. 

We  find  Kavi  Kankana  patronised  by  Bankura 
Roy,  Raja  of  Arrah  Brahman  Bhumi  at  a  very  criti- 
cal moment  of  his  life,  when  S  maunds  of  rice  offer- 
ed by  the  Raja  to  the  famished  members  of  the  poet's 
family  elicited  his  grateful  acknowledgements  which 
have  found  a  place  in  the  immortal  poem  of  Chandi. 
But  gradually  the  Rajas  became  more  bountiful  to 
the  vernacular  poets  and  towards  the  end  of  the 
17th  and  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century,  we  find 
vernacular  writings  of  merit  very  considerably 
rewarded.  We  have  seen  that  Raja  Jaya  Naray- 
ana  of  Bhu-kailasa  made  considerable  sacrifices  of 
time  and  money  to  bring  his  translation  of  the 
Ka^l  Khanda  to  a  satisfactory  completion.  He 
travelled  in  different  parts  of  the  country  for  a 
period  of  six  months  in  quest  of  Mss.  of  the 
Sanskrit  poem.  This  journey  in  those  days,  made 
in  a  style  befitting  the  rank  of  a  Raja  of  his  high 
Remunera-    ^^^^'^^'    meant    a    very     considerable    expenditure 

tion  to  the      Besides    this,    he    had     to     maintain    a    lon^    timt^ 
poets  and  .    ^  ,  . 

copyists.       nearly  a  dozen  Pundits  for  the  purpose.   Raja  Krisha 

Chandra's    bounty    towards    classical  learning  was 

well-known.     His  liberal  gifts  to   Bharata  Chandra 

and  Rama    I^rasada,    two    gifted   X'ernacular  poets 

of    his    time,    is    also     not    less     worthy  of    note. 

Bharata  Chandra  was  appointed  his    Court-poet  on 

Rs.    40    a    month.      This   amount  about  the  time  of 

the  battle  of  Plassey  was  not  at  all  insignificant  or 

small,  when  we    see    that    Warren    Hastings    at    a 


VII.]       BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITEKAFURE.       lOII 

much  later  period  drew  a  pay  of  Rs.  300  a  month, 
as  member  of  the  Council.  Major  Rennell  as  Sur- 
vey General  of  India  was  in  1767  granted  a  pay  of 
Rs.  300  a  month,  and  this  amount  was  considered 
to  be  unusally  high  requiring  an  elaborate  explana- 
tion from  the  authorities  !  We  find  Jaya  Chandra  a 
Raja  of  the  Chittagong  district,  granting  an  allow- 
ance of  Rs.  10  per  day  to  the  poet  Bhavani  Xatha  for 
translating  a  poem  called  the  Laksmafia  Digvijaya 
into  Bengali  verse.  This  book  was  compiled  about 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  must 
have  occupied  the  poet  for  at  least  six  months. 
Rs.  300  a  month  in  those  days  must  have  been 
equal  to  at  least  10  times  its  present  value. 

Not  only  poets  but  even  copyists  of  vernacular 
poems  received  a  high  remuneration  for  their 
labour.  A  copyist  of  the  18  Parvas  of  the  Maha- 
bharata  by  Kavindra  Paramegwara  wrote  the  fol- 
lowing concluding  paragraph  at  the  close  of  his 
]\Is.  in  1714  A.D. 

''This  Mahabhrata,  containing  18  Parvas 
(copied  by  me)  belongs  to  Cri  Govinda  Rama  Roy. 
The  total  number  of  pages  is  789.  My  name  is 
Ananta  Rama  Qarma — copyist.  The  remuneration 
promised  is  the  maintenance  of  my  family  for  life 
in  a  becoming  style.  On  this  condition  I  have 
copied  the  work  with  great  care.  Besides  this,  I 
have  received  rewards  in  cash  ;  and  orders  for 
daily  allowance  and  annual  gifts  have  also  been 
obtained.  Good  luck  attend  the  donor,  ^aka  1636- 
1124  B.S.  This  the  25th  day  of  Kartic.  Finished 
on    Thursday    at    noon^     at   Solagram — the   native 

*   Major   Reunell's    life    in    Asiatic    Society's   Journal    No.    3 
Vol.  Ill  p.  2. 


I0I2        BENGALI    LANGUAGE    &    LITERATURE.    [Chap, 

village  of  the  copyist."  This  Solagram  is  in  the 
District  of  Tippera  and  the  Ms.  from  which  the 
above  is  quoted  now  belongs  to  the  Asiatic  Society 
of  Benoral. 

III— Peace  and  her  boon. 

A      peaceful     administration     stimulates     and 
nourishes  intellectual  activities  ;  and    under   British 
rule  we  are  in  enjoyment  of  the  manifold  benefits  of 
peace.     This   has  caused  the  rapid  and    astonishing 
The  growth  of  our  prose  within  the  past  century.   Bengali 

growth  of  now  heads  the  list  of  the  Vernaculars  of  India  in 
parole.  point  of  its  many-sided  literary  activities  and  general 
excellence.  Many  books  written  in  our  tongue 
have  been  translated  into  the  Vernaculars  of  other 
provinces  of  India  ;  and  the  number  of  our  readers 
is  fast  increasing,  as  the  field  and  scope  of  our 
language  are  widening.  This  excellent  result  is 
in  a  large  measure  due  to  Bengal  being  the  chief 
seat  of  Government.  We  have  been  in  touch  with 
the  civilisation  of  the  West  earlier  than  other  Pro- 
vinces. By  the  introduction  of  Bengali  into  our 
University,  a  healthy  impetus  has  been  given  to  the 
cause  of  Vernacular  literature,  and  we  may  confi- 
dently hope  thai  this  will  be  productive  of  striking- 
ly good  results.  May  my  country  steadily  advance 
in  her  onward  course  under  the  benign  administra- 
tion of  our  present  Rulers.  Our  review  of  the 
Bengali  Literature,  however,  ends  with  1850.  The 
historian  of  a  later  epoch  of  this  literature  will 
havi*  to  acknowldge  with  gratitude  the  deep  debt 
which  our  tongue  has  owed  to  England  and  her 
people  in  comparatively  recent  times. 

THK    EN  P. 


INDEX. 


■^•>^M« 


Abalokitecwara 

Abhirama  Das 

Acharyya  Prabhu    ... 

Achyutananda 

Acoka 

Adalat  Timira  Nacana 

Addison 

Adisamaja 

Adityarama 


402,  405 

224 

...       509 

•••  513 
29,  405-406 

916 
...  1002 
...       999 

224 


Aduna  57,  60,  61,  479 

Advvaitacharyya  139-140,  432,  447, 

461,  495,  497,  567,  568 
Adwaitamangala  496-497 

Adwaita  Prakaca    ...  ...       497 

Adwaita  Sutra  Kadcha  ...       479 

Adwaita  Vada        ...  ...       237 

Adwaita  Vilasa       ...  ...       497 

.^neas...  ...  ...       880 

^sop   ...  ...  ...       8S8 

Agamani  Songs       ...         241 — 245,  952 
Aghorapanthi  ...  ...       451 

Agni  Deva  ..  ...        153 

Agradwipa  ...  ...       616 

Ahalya  Bai  791,  905 

Ai  ...  ...  ...       392 

Airavata  ...  ...       523 

Aitareya  Aranyaka  ...       1,4 

Ajaya  162,351 

Akavai  ...  ...       744 

Akbar  52,  137,  138,  335 

Akrura  520,  532 

Akrura  Samvada    ...  ...       732 

Akshaya  Kumara  Datta  998 — 1002 

Akshaya  Patni        ...  ...       744 

Alaka   ...  ...  ...       726 

Alaler  Gharer  Dulal  858,  924,  1000 
Alaol      12,  13,  no,  160,  235,  622,  626, 

654.  799;  801,  913,  919 
Alarka  ...  .,.        161 

Alauddin  ...  ...       627 

Ali  Mian  .,  ...       799 

Ali  Raj  ...  ...       800 

Ali  Vardi  Khan      ...  ...       778 

Amala  274,  289,  291 


Amara... 
Amaravati 
Amdala 
Ambatta  Sutta 
Ananda  Adhikari   .. 


PAGE. 

•••       375 

726 

...       231 

...       151 

732 

Ananda  Chandra  Tarkavagica  962 

Anando-nayi  681—687,  797,  824 

Ananda  Micra         ...  ...       208 

Ananda  Tirtha        ...  ...  4 

Ananga  Pal  ...  ...         go 

Ananta  23,  469 

Ananta  Das  ...  ...       542 

Ananta  Rama  Carma  ...     ion 

Aniruddha  ...  ...        276 

Angada  Raybar       ...  ...        188 

Annada  ...  ...       637 

Annada  Mangal          620,  637,  638,  662, 
664,  667,  668,  671,  672,  674,  678,' 

813.814 

Annapurna  266,  297,  672 

Antony  707,  708 

Anupa  Chandra      ...  ...        292 

Anupa  Chandra  Datta  ...       779 

Anuragavali             ...  ...       770 

Ap  Devi                    ...  .,.       266 

Aphorisms               ...  ...          16 

Aptavuddin             ...  ...       7^6 

Aranya  Kanda  177,  19^ 

Arddha-magadhi  Prakrita         ...  8 

Arddha-naricwara  ...       231 
Arithmetical  works,  A  List  of: —      868 

Arjuna  197,  200,  201 

Aryyavarta  i ,  4,  386 

Assyria                     ...  ...       297 

Ashtamangala           ..  ...       334 

Ashtavimcati  Tattva  74,  140 

Atharva  Veda         ...  ...       266 

Atica  Dipankara     ...  ...           2 

Atmaram  Das         ...  ...       513 

Attack  on  Brahmins  ...       890 

Aurangzeb               ...  ...       615 

\  Awashgarah            ...  ...       219 

,  Ayan  Ghosha  118,  127,  525 

j  Ayesha                     ...  ...       651 


^  Read  c  as  9=*f,  sh  as  9=^,  s  as  Jf,  d  as  d=\5. 
128 


I0I4 


INDEX. 


Ayodhya 
Ayodhyarama 
•Babu'  ... 
Babu  Vilasa 
Bactria 

Badiujjamal 

Bather  Bak 

Baikuntha 

Baka 

Bakna  Peary 

Baksa  AH 

Balarama  Kavikankan 

Ballala  Sen 

Ballava  Deva 

Banchha  Rama 

Bankaraja 

Bankima  Chandra 

Bankura  Rai 

Bara-Bhuans 

Bara  Khan 

Basudha 

Bauddha  Ranjika    ... 

Bauls 

Beal      ... 

Beatrice 


i8o,  182,  216,  735 

225,  364,  365*  683 

•••       394 


...       297 

623,  624,  634 

271,  287 

36,  726 

520,  521 

...       925 

800 

•••       335 

55 

209 

...       986 

...       266 

759,  761,  858 

14,  338,  lOIO 

53 
288,  341 
•••  495 
...  802 
403,  404 

53 
120 

Behula    254,  256,  263,  365-376,  282-294 
297.  397.  611,771,  796,  879.  977,  1003 


Banerjee  K.  C.   (Rev.) 
Banerjee.  K.  M.  (Rev.) 
Bcnkata  Bhatta 
Beveridp^e  (Mr.) 
Bhabahhutl 

Bhabananda  Mazumdar 
Bhabaiii  Cankara 
Bhabani  Charana 


855 

-       855 

...       511 

...       831 

693 

666,  667  i 

359-360  , 

903-904 


Bhabani  Das 

Bhabani  Nath  Das  Sarasvati 

Bhabani  Prasada 

Bhade  ... 

Bhadra  ... 


14,  225 

279 

229-230  I 

...       582 

•••       435 

Bhagavata  12,  139,  162,  220—225,  465, 
506,51 1,  520,^552,  580,  585,  597,  956, 

1007 


Bhagavati 
Bhapiratha 
Bhatjyavanta  Dhubi 
Bhairavi  Chakra     . 
Bhaktainala 
Bhaktarama 

Bhakti  Ratnakara 
5>2,   543     545, 

Bharata 


374.  5«9.-  581 

363.  477»  700 

•••       599 

...       927 

545 
224 

405,  504,  507.  5«i. 

547.    553.  55C\  577 

606,  828 

180,  181,  735 


Bharata  Chandra     9,  14,  378,  384,  390, 

620,   621,   624,   627,  636,644,651, 

654,   656—660,  662—678,  681,  687, 

690,  730,  763,   768,    769,  800,   806, 

809,  810,    813,    815,   825-826,   842. 

855»  890 

Bharata  196,  208,  209 

Bharat  Pandit         ...  ...       209 

Bharavi  ...  ...        597 

Bharu  Datta  308-309,  358 

Bhasan  Yatra         ...  ...  255 

Bhasha  Parichchheda  836-837,  843. 

959 

Bhaskaracharyya    ...  ...  881 

Bhaskara  Pandita  ...  ...  77S 

Bhatti  Kavya           ...  ...  210 

Bhava  Labha          ...  ...  801 

Bhavananda  Amin  ..  ...  799 

Bhavishya  Parva    ...  ...  i 

Bhavishya  Purana  569,  654 

Bhikshus                   ...  ...         45 

Bhila  Pantha  456,  573 

Bhima  70,  197,  212 
Bhima  Sen 

Bhishma 

Bhisma  Parva 

Bhrigu 

Bhriguram  Das 

Bhrigu  Samhita 

Bhringi 

Bhugarva  Goswami 

Rhumi  Chandra 

Bhusukru 

Bibhishana 

Bimala 

Birna 

Bit-Palo  ...  ...  3 

Bodhicharyyavatar  ...     5,  38 

Bopp  ...  ...        no 

Boro   Buddor  Temple  ...  2,  396 

Brahma  ^i^^,  37,  227,  324,    523,  669 

Brahma  Khanda    ...  654,  792 

Brahma  Vaivarta  Purana  ...       445 

Brajabuli  ...  546,  550,  600 

Buckland  ...  982 

Buddha,  64,  66,  151,  404-406,  497,  574, 
694,  802 

Budhan  ...  ...       510 

Burnes  ...  ...       980 

Ca(  hi  Devi  408.  415-417.  425,  428, 

44S-449.  468,  484.  568 

Cachi  Nandana       ...  ...       554 


627 

197,  880 

208 

30 1 

209 

5 

..       241 

..       480 

••       375 

■•       581 

215.  217 

..       299 

..       581 


INDEX. 


1015 


Cachipati  Mazumdar 

...       781 

Caci  Cekhara 

... 

...       555 

Caci  Mukhi 

...       447 

Caibya 

... 

168 

Caitela 

... 

...       581 

Caiva-cult 

...       238 

Caiva  Sarvaswasara 

141 

Caka 

.. 

...       372 

Caka  Era 

... 

...       385 

Cakta-cult 

... 

...       250 

Cakti         ...  33.238-239,252,463 

Cakuantala        197,  209,  210,  870   looo 
Calibahana  ...  328-333,  357 

Calya  ...  ...       200 

Cambhu  ...  ...       228 

Cambhu  Chandra  616,  696 

Cani  ...        165 

Cankara  ...  188-190,931 

Cankara  Bhatta     ...  ...       514 

Cankaracharyya         163,  225,  238,  367, 
402,  797,  824,  962,  972 

Cankara  Vijaya      ...  ...  6 

Cankha  Datt  ...  ...       347 

Cankara  Kavichandra  224,  249 

Cantanu  ...  ...        161 

Canterbury  Tales  ...  ...        178 

Canti   Parva  ...  ^97)  208 

Carana  ...  ...       208 

Carey  (William)  847,  850-854,  857,  858 

866,  867,  886-889,  921 

Carey  (Felix)  ...  923-924,  929 

Carmishtha  ...  ...        197 

Cavda  Kalpadruma  ...       901 

Chaichag  ...  ...        207 

Chaipalli  ...  ...       435 

Chaitanya  Bhagavata,  55,  252,  334, 
410-413,  418,  419,  443,  464-472, 
480,    550,  569,  599,  605,  606,   610, 

611 
Chaitanya  Chandrodaya  480,  551 

Chaitanya  Chandrodaya  Kaumudi 

581 

Chaitanya  Chandrodaya  Nataka      555 

Chaitanya  Charita  ...       514 

Chaitanya  Charitamrita    445,471,  472, 

476-489,    552,   669,   577,  599,    608, 

658 

Chaitanya  Das       ...  403,480,511 

Chaitanya    Deva,     46,    140,    224,    374, 

385.     389.     400,    403-404,    409-444 

536-540,    545,   551.   553-55^,    561, 

565-582,     605-606,     616,     732-733, 

735,  827,    855,  931,  932,    935,  lOOI, 

1007 — 1009 


Chaitanya  Ganoddeca  ...       514 

Chaitanya  Mangal    471-77,  489-95,608 
Chaitanya  Rupaprapti  ...       833 

Chaitanya  Vallava  Dutta         ...       466 
Chait  Sing  ...       789 

Chakraveda  ...  ...       468 

Chakraditya  ...  339 — 340 

Chakravarti  Ghanarama  ...       371 

Chamatkara  Chandrika  ...       517 

Champa  ...  ...  3 

Champa  Gazi         ...  ...       800 

Champaka  Nagar,  256,  259,   263,  269, 

270,  274-275,  286 

Champai  Ghat       ...  ...         30 

Champatipati          ...  ...       560 

Champati  Ray        ...  ...       556 

Chandi     ...   14,  157,  162,  225-237,  250, 

253,   375,  379.  408,   413,  ^37>   681. 

956,  lOIO 

Chandibati  ...  ...       337 

Chandi-cult  ...  ...       297 

Chandidas,     39-45,    1 15-135 »    i39-Hi, 

149.    383.    389.  393,  398,  484,  539> 

545,   546,   549,   576,  581,  601,   826, 

833,  843,  855,  883,  919,  952 

Chandi  Devi     "^ 

or  [...  294-363 

Chandi  ; 

Chandi  Kavya    162,  254,  341,  384,  610, 

620 

Chandi   Mangala        167,  250,  335-359 
Chandi  Nataka      ...  ...        667 

Chandra  ...  ...       833 

Chandra  Bhana     ...  683,  685-687 

Chandra  Cekhara  Deva  ...       466 

Chandra  Kanta      ...  687-688 

Chandra  Ketu  237,  262,  367 

Chandrapati  ...  ...       293 

Chandravali  ...  727-728 

Chand  Ray  ...  ...       6S0 

Chandrika  ...  903-904 

Chand  Sadagara        ...  236,  253,  255 — 

286,  297,  320,  347—349'  3^7 >  1003 

Charles  I  ...  ...       343 

Charu  Patha  ...  ...     1000 

Charvaka  ...  ...  18 

Chaucer  ...  ...       177 

Chaurangi  ...  375,  407 

Chautica  ...  254,  256 

Chedi  ...  ...       216 

Chhakadi  Chattopadhaya        ...       554 
Chhatna  ...  ...       119 

Chhaya  ...  ...       309 

Chhota  Haridas     ...  ...       439 


ioi6 


INDEX. 


PAGE. 


Chillianwala 

...       406 

Chinta 

162,  165 

Chintaniani 

421 

Chintamani    Didhiti 

...       421 

Chiranjiva  Sen 

...       545 

Chitole 

...       435  , 

Chitra  Gupta 

...       833  1 

Chitrakura 

...       181 

Choranandivana     ... 

...       435 

Chora  Panchacat     .. 

...       651 

Chudamani  Das     ... 

...       514 

Cicupala  Vadha     ... 

...       823 

Cirii  Vodhaka 

:::  l^ 

Cikhi  Mahiti 

Cila  Bhadra 

...      407 

Cinj^adara 

...      372 

Citala  236,  237,  365-367,  793. 

Citala  Mangala     ...  237,  365-367  | 

Civa  ...  37.  55  63-73,  227,  231-233,  I 
251-254,  257,  289,  300,  339,  342,  } 
345.  360  362.  368,  374.  375'  39^, 
394,  422,  427,  463,  469,  523,  568, 
574.  594.  575.578.  585,  591.  596. 
626,  666,  668,  696,  700,  724,  782, 
718,  798,  806,854,  953 

Civa  Charan  Sen  188,  362 

Civa  Chaturdaci  ...        249 

Civananda  Chakravarti  ...        480 

Civananda   Kara    ...  ...       368 

Civa  Narayana       ...  335 

Civa  Nivasa             ...  679-681 

Civa  Rama  Das     ...  ...        195 

Civa  Rama  Varhaspati  ...       617 

Civa  Simha             ...  14,  H' 

Civayana                   ...  14.  246,  249 

Civi       ...                  ...  ...        161 

Civu  Kirtaniya       ...  ...       584 

Clive                          ...  829 

Cowell    (Prof.)       ...  336.  342,  345 

Crabbe                      ...  ...       336 

Cri        ...                  ...  ...       368 

Cridas                        ...  4S0,  547 
Cridhara        32.  267,  375,  423,  4^4,  428 

Cridharma   Itihasa  ...        195 

Cridharma  Manikya  ..        776 

Crihar^hi                   ...  ...        171 

Crikanta  Deva         ...  ...        225 

Crikaran  Nandi           202,  203,  207,  393 

Crikhanda  432,  489,  512,  545,  547.  549- 

551.  553'  607 

Crikh(«tnri                  ...  512,  549 


Crikrishi 


7:  324.  465.  793 


Crikrishna  Manj;,ila  ...        224 

Crikiishn.i  X'ijay.i  222,  394 

Cri  M.idhaba  Raycr  Dharara   ...       788 


PAGE. 

Cri  Majhi  Kait       ...  ...       599 

Crimanta  Sadagara         254.297,324 — 

333>  342,  597.  652 

Crimanta  Khan      .  .  ...       337 

Crinivasa  Acharyya  464,  487, 

488,  505-513.  546,  550.  562,  564- 

565.  576.  578 

Cri  Rama  Prasada  Dei  ...       599 

Crivasa  ...  442,  464,  466 

Crivatsa  ...  162,  165,  173 

Cuka  Deva  ...  590.  748 

Cukrecwara  ...  776,  824 

Culapani  ...  -••       824 

Cunya  Purana  26-33,36,47.56, 

68-70,  100,  104,  105,  248,  334,  366, 

479,  832-833 

Cunya  Vada  ...  28,  401 

Cuvankara  ...  ...        930 

Cuvramati  ...  ...       43© 

Cvetai  ...  ...       833 

Cyamadas  371.  477,  478,  496 

Cyama  Kunda        ...  ...       534 

Cyama  Lai  Datta  ...  ...       225 

Cyamananda       446,5^0.512,513,597 
Cyama  Roy  ...  ...       249 

Daca  Kumar  Charita  9,  618 

Dacaratha  ...  161,  179-181 

Dacaratha  Jataka  ...  ...  77 

Dacarathi  "i  536,  579,  743-752 
Rai  j  754-  758,  816-818 

Dacarathi's  works,  A  List  of : — 

751-752 
Dadhiclii  ...  ...        161 

Daivaki  ...  517-519.532 

Daivakinandana     ...  ...       367 

Dak  ...        18,  22,  99,  105 

Dakarnava  ...  5,  16 

I  Dakarnava  Tantra  ...         25 

]   Daker  Vachana   17,  19,  22,  2^,  391,  608 

Dak  Goala  ...  .^         2s 

I   Daksha  ...  67,  666 

I   Dakshina  Ranjana  Mitra  Majumdar  769 

Dakshina  Ray         ...  377-3/8 

'   Dak  Tantra  ...  ...  17 

L')amayanti  162,  197,617,618,879, 

977 

Damodora  ...  434,  545 

Daniodara  Das  ...  ...       224 

Damunya  ...  337-347 

Dana  V'akyavali  ...  ...        141 

Dandakaranya  ...  ...        181 

Danda  Kavis  ...  ...       696 

Dandi  I'arva  ...  ...       599 

Daneca  Kaji  ...  ...       800 


INDEX. 


IOI7 


PAGE. 


Dangas                    ...  ...  396 

Danha5                     ...  ...  56 

Dante                         ...  ...  120 

Danuja  Madhava    ...  ...  171 

Dara  Sekha             ...  ...  779 

Darius                       ...  ...  53 

Daulat  Kazi             ...  ...  801 

Dayaram  Das          ...  ...  367 

Delai  Chandi          ...  ...  251    , 

Deogram                  ...  ...  654  [ 

Deva  Damar  Tantra  ...  833  , 

Deva  Goshtha         ...  ...  523  { 

Devagram                ...  ...  32s  \ 

Devayani  Upakhyana  ...  599  ' 
Devendra  Natha  Tagore          990 — 995  j 

Devidas  Sen            ...  ...  335  I 

Devi  Prasad  Ray    ...  ...  743 

Devivara  Ghatak    ...  ...  84 

Dewan  Braja  Kicore 

Dewan  Raghunatha  Ray 

Dewan  Rama  Dulal  Nandi 

Dhakur 

Dhamma 

Dhana 

Dhananjay  Micra 

Dhanapati  Sadagara 


Dheguna 

...       582 

Dhiman 

3 

Dhritarastra 

199,  212 

Dhruva 

...       161 

Dhruva  Charita 

225 

Dhuma  Ketu 

...       646 

Dhundi  Rama  Tirtha 

434 

Dhusa  Datta 

347 

Dhyani  Buddha 

...       403 

Dictionaries,  A  List  of  : — 

...       868 

723 

722 
722 

...  48,50 

...    581 

270 

...     340 
162,  236,  253, 
1003 

Dhanya  Manikya    ...  ...       207 

Dhanya  Purnima  Vrata  Katha          379  j 
Dhara  and  Drona  ...  590-597 

Dharadhara  ...  ...       836  j 

Dharani  Kathaka  ...  ...       588 

Dharma  26,  49,  68,  375,  376,  576  I 

Dharma  cult  ...  ...  26 

Dharma  Das  ...  ...         31   j 

Dharma  Ketu  ...  ...       357  j 

Dharmamangal  14,  26,  28,29,35,48-52,  I 

54-55t   ^54.  3^^>  3^7,  370-377,  57^.  ' 

608,  1008  ; 

Dharma  Manikya  ...  ...       209  I 

Dharma  Pal  II,       ...  30,  1009 

Dharma  Raj  ...  ...         27 

Dharma  Thakura  16,  26,  28,  31-33,  52, 
55,66,  84,370,371,374,375 


Dido 

Dinanath  Samantaji 

Dinavandhu  Mitra 

Dirghajangha 

Divya  Sinha 

Doma  Pandits 

Dombi 

Dona  Julia 

Don  Juan 

Draupadi 

Drona 

Drona  Parva 

Duff  (Dr.) 

Duncan,  Jonathan 

Durga  33,  67,  72,  228,  229;  590,  59i,  695 

Durga  Bhakti  Tarangini  ...        141 

Durgamani  Devi    ...  ...       760 

Durika...  ...  ...       510 

Durlabha  Chandai ...  ...       776 

Durlabha  Mallika  29,  60 

Durvala       313,  315- 3i9,  326,  328,  620 


397,  880 

...   831 

...   858 

216 

-  553 
28 

...   581 

45,  397 

45 

198 

161,  590,  597 

208,  210,  218 

...   990 

849 


Duryyodhana 
Duti  Samvada 
Duval  ... 

Dwaipayana  Das    ... 
Dwapara  Yuga 
Dwaraka 

Dvvarakecwara 
Dwija  Abhirama    ... 
Dwija  Banikantha ... 
Dwija  Durga  Prasad 
Dwija  Durga  Ram... 
Dwija  Hariram 
Dwija  Hridaya 
Dwija  Janardana      325, 
Dwija  Kalidas 
Dwija  Kamala  Kanta 
Dwija  Kamsari 
Dwija  Kavi  Chandra 


^97, 


213 
740 
880 
208 


225, 


436 

338 

207 

224 

365 

...        187 

...       294 

...       294 

334,  335,  1005 

-  379 

-  365 
225 

...       208 
208 
224 
208,  799 

371,  779 

..       208 

209 


Dwija  Lakshinath  ... 
Dwija  Raghunath 
Dwija  Ram  Chandra 
Dwija  Ram  Chandra  Khan 
Dwija  Ram  Krishna 

Dwija  Valaram 

Dwija  Vamcidas 

Dvara  Vasini 

Ekalavya 

Elephanta 

Emperor  of  Cauda  11,  49,  50,  53 

Ethics   and    moral  Tales,  A  List  of  : — 

869 
Fakir  Chand  ...  ...       jpg 


■•       293 
..       294 

334 
161,  879 
•       637 


ioi8 


INDEX. 


Fakir  Rama 

Fakiruddin 

Fikir  Chand 

P'iringi  Kali 

Folk  Literature 

Forester  (Mr  ) 

Fort  William  College 

Fulia 

Gadadhara  218,  2ig, 

Gadanhati 
Gajendra  Mokshana 
Garuda 
Gakula 

Gokulananda  Sen  ... 
Gakul  Das 
Gakul  Mangal 
Gana  Deva 
Ganapati 
Ganapati  Thakur 


PAGE.    { 

...        195  i 
...        171 

...      695  : 
...      707  i 
769-775  , 
...      449  I 
883,  884  ' 
171— 176  , 
423-  424, 
,  432,  583 
...      582 
225 
201 
145.  596;  729 
...      563 
...       547 
224 

...       567 

...       463 

138,  140 


419. 
428 


Gandari 

Gandhari 

Gandharva  Ray 

Ganeca  37,  240,  242,  247, 

Ganecwara 

Ganga  Bhakti  Tarangini 

Ganga  Bhata 

Gangadas  Sen 


581 
212 

173 
724 
...        140 
140 
652,  653 
185—187,  208,  293, 
418,  599,  1004,  1006 
Ganga  Devi  363—365 

Gangadhara  ...  ...       803 

Gangamani  Devi    ...  ...       824 

Ganga  Narayan  Chakravarti    442,  498, 

499.  583 

Ganga  Rama  777>  778 

Gangura  269,  272.  273,  275,  389 

Gariv  Housen  Chaudhuri  ...       793 

Gauda  2,  30,  48,  49,  53,  in,  115- 

172,  198.  202,  279,  312,   313,   315) 

3n>  334,  385.  1008,  1009 

Gaudecwara  ...  ...  48 

Gandiya  Bhashar  Vyakarna      ...       924 
Gaur  Chandra         ...  ...       461 

Gauranga  Deva      ...  ...       503 

Gauranga  \'ijay     ...  ...       554 

Ganr  Chandrika  538,  543 

Ganri  Cankar  Bhattarharjy-T  )    ^(r     q^ 

or    Gurgure  Bhattacharjya  j    '   "*' 
Gauridasa  477,  551 

Gaiiri    Kanta  ...  ...       371 

Gaur  Mohan  Das  ...        563 

Gaur  Mohan  Dc  ...       905 

Gaya-Pattan  ...  ...       141 


PAGE. 

Gayatri  ...  43,  123 

Gayeja  ...  ...       799 

Gayen  ...  ...       163 

Gazi  ...  ...         37 

Geographical  Works,  A  List  of  : — 

869,  906 
Geometry,  Works  on 
Ghagara 


Ghana  Cyama  Das 

Ghanaram 

Ghantecwara 

Giasuddin  Toglak 

Giridhara 

Giripuri 

Girivraja 

Gita 

Gita  Chandrodaya 

Gita  Chintamoni 

Gita  Govinda 

Gita  Kalpalatika 

Goda 

Godai 

Golaghat 

Golaka  Chandra     . 
Gol  Mahamud 
Gopal  Bhatta 
Gopal  Uriya 
Gopal  Vasu 
Gopal  Vijaya 
Gopi  Bhaktirasagita 
Gopi  Chandra    ^    .. 
Gopi  Chand       )     .. 
Gopinatha 
Gopinath  Acharjya 
Gopinath   Dutta     .., 
Gopinath  Nanii     .. 
Gopi  Pal 

Gopi  Raman  Sen  .. 
Gopi  Vallava  Das  .. 
Goraksha  Natha     .. 


Goshtha 
Gosthi  Katha  Karika 
Gabardhana 
Gobardhana  Das    ... 
Govinda  Adhikari  ... 
Govinda  Chandra  Dutt 
Govinda   Chandra  Pal 
Govinda  Chandra  Raja 
Govinda  Charan     ... 
Govinda  Das      117,  225, 
545.  546,  547 »  549. 

Govinda  Goswami 


:—  ...       907 

279,  2S0 

-  553 
14.371 

279,  280 
...  140 
235.  640 
...  458 
...  215 
196,  197.433,551 
...  563 
"-  563 
235,  629  690 

".       563 
270 

337 

299.  303 

...       293 

...       793 

479'  480,  508,  509.  511, 

665,  666,  730,  731,  922 

...      477 

224 

•••       515 

57,  59,  60.  293 

164,  497,  49S 

473,  822,  903 

...  581 
199,  20S,  210 

-  337 
163,  467 

...       682 

510,513 

'.  29,  375>  376, 

407,  707 


520,  53: 


735 

86 

221 

500,  502 

732 

•••       855 

...  29,  30 

60,  62,  63 

...       436 

293.  439;  440, 

553.  653-656, 

670,  827 

...       408 


INDEX. 


IOI9 


Govindajee 

Govinda  Karmakar    444,  446 
Govinda  Litamrita 
Govinda  Manga) 
Govindananda  Ghosa 
Gozla  Gui 

Grammars — A  list  of 
Grierson,  G.  A,  56, 

Guabari  257,  258,  259, 

Guia     ... 
Guna  Chandra 
Gunaraj    Khan     12,  195,222 
Guna  Sindhu 
Gupta  Sadhana  Tantra 
Guru  Dakshina 
Guru  Prasad  Vallabha 
Hadamala 
Hadavali 

Hadipa  28,  62,  375, 

Hadisiddha 
Haidee 
Hakanda 

Hakanda  Parana    ... 
Haldighat 

Mr.  Halhed,  Nathanial  Prassy 
830-832.  848,  849, 
HaHiday,  Sir  F. 


477. 


480 
479 


479»  550 
224 

•••  555 
...  703 
870,  902 

135.  33^ 

267,  273 

...       471 

...       195 

368,  781 

..       638 

42 

..       225 

••       732 

..       781 

..       924 

376  407 

29.  56 

397»  651 

51 

47 

406 

no, 

973 
982 


15. 

955. 


Hamidulla 

Hamlet 

Hamsaduta 

Hanuman 

Hare  Krishna  Addy 

Haradhan  Datta  Bhaktinidhi 

Harai  Ojha 

Hari 

Hari  Chandra 


626,796 
..  952 
225 
260,  879 
..  917 
489,  562 

-       495 
14,  996,  998 

33 


Harica  Chandra  168,  169.  376 

Hari  Charan  Das  ...  ...       497 

Haridasa      31,294,467,471,472,500, 

509,  510,  606 

Hari  Datta  252,  277-278,  1004 

Harihoda  ...  ...       666 

Hari  Lila  669,  670,  681-684,  79i> 

821 


Haripal 

Hari  Ram  Tarkasiddhanta 

Hari  Sadhu 

Hariti  Devi 

Hari  Vallabha 

Hari  Vamca 

Harsha  Charita 

Haru  Thakura 

Hashtapaikar 

Haughton 

Haya  Bibi 


270, 


49.  50 

9,  617 

274 

365 

•••       563 

...  I,  599 

...       618 

704,  705 

624 

..       849 

37 


PAGE. 

...  769 
...         249 

513.550 
67,  241 

137,  138 

•••       953 

620,  638,  649,  6S2 

665,  673,  731 

...       800 

161,  700 

—  902-903 

History  &  Biography — Works  on  : — 

870-872 
Hitopadeca  ...  ...       888 

Hcernle    (Dr.)         ...  ...       no 

Horiuzi  temple       ...  ...  2 

Husen  Saha  12,  202-205,  222,  279, 

474,  476,  503,  797 


Hem    Chandra 

Hemayata  Simha  .., 

Hem  Lata  Devi 

Himavat 

Hijra  Era 

Hindu  Stewart 

Hira  Malini    "i 

or  Hira  j 

Hiramani 

Hiranya  Kacipu     ... 

History — Works  on 


Hutum  Pechar  Naksa 

Icana  Chandra  Banerjee 

Icana  Nagar 

Icana  Pandit 

Ichhai  Ghosha 

Ichani    Nagar 

Icvar  Bharati 

Icvara  Chandra  Gupta 


858,  924 
...       917 

139.  497 
...       340 

50,51 

310 

...       442 

743 »    758-769. 
815,  861 

Icvara  Chandra  Nyayaratna     ...       989 
Icvara  Chandra  Vidyasagara  929,  1000 
Icvara  Puri  422,  426,  470 

Imam  Yatrar  Puthi  ...       798 

Impey,  Sir  Elija     ...  ...       849 

Jndra  37,  298,  318,  342,  523 

Indra  Deva 

Indra  Dumna 

Indra  Naryana  Chaudhuri 

Indra  Prastha 

Itihasamala 

Jacac  Chandra 

Jacoda 

Jacovanta  Adhikari 

Jadavacharyya  Goswami 

Jadavas 

Jadu  Nandi 

Jagadananda        173, 

Jagai 


-  ^53 
...  89 
664,  665 
...  879 
...  857 
224 
324 
340 
480 
153 
337 


221 


Jagamohan  Mitra   ... 
Jagannath 
Jagannath  Das 
Jagannath  Micra    ... 
Jagannath  Mukerjee 
Jagannath  Sen 
Jagannath  Temple... 
Jagat  Rama 
Jagat  Mangal 


177.  483.  553-554 
431.  573 
...  293 
218,  406,  474 
...  403 
...  471 
...  784 
...  293 
...  89 
...  187 
...       218 


1020 


INDEX. 


667. 
495. 


161 


Jagat  Vallabha 
Jahangir 
Jahnabi  Devi 
Jaimini... 
Jaina  mala 
Jajnecwari 
Jalalpur 
Jallan  Cekar 
Jamil  Dilarama 
Janaka 
Janakinath  Das 

Janakinath  Kavikanthahara     ... 
Janardana 
Jarasandha 
Jaya  Datta 
Jayalankara 

Jayananda  471-477,582, 

Jay  Chandra 
Jay  Chandra  Adhikari 
Jay  Deva       27,  483.  484  539>  581, 
629, 
Jay  Deva  Das 
Jay  Narayana  (Raja)  782, 

Jay  Narayana      669,  670,  681-684, 
797 
Jay  Narayan  Sen 
J  ay  ram  Das 
frsiis  Christ 
jhamatpur 
Jhinardwipa 
Jiva 

Jiva  Goswami 
Jivan  All 
I  Ivan  Chakravarti 
jnana  Chautica 
J  nana  Das 
Jnana  Pradipa 
Johnson 

fones,  Sir  William 
juhia 
Karhar... 

Ka.  idasa  7,  97,  152,  2o8,  211, 

214-220,  224,  233,  1004, 

Karikhanda       782,  783,  787,  828, 

Kaci  Micra 

Kari  Natha 

Kaci  Pancharrori    ... 

Kat-yapa 

Kadali  Pat  tan 

Kadamvari 

Kadcha  by  Govinda  Das 

4.16—464 
Kadna  Sen 
Kahna  ... 


360-363,  763, 


504-  5 1 1 


549 


375 

437» 
471,  406,  !;^6 


293  I 
825  i 
512  1 
207 

40 
824 
622 

52 
796 
183 
293 
279 

311 

I 

140 

77 
608 

14 
732 
601, 
812 

293 
828 

687, 
821 

824 

365 
78 
477 
185 
479 
547 
800 

225 
782 

,  550 
781 

1002 
956 
800 

435 
212, 
ioo5 

lOIO 

434 
195 
785 
992 

.  376 
9 

438. 

.  55> 
398 
581 


Kahthalia       ...       ...   229 

Kaikeyi        ...        180,  181 

Kailasa   32,  64,  67,  73,  241,  245,  246, 

342,  368,  374,  524,  666,  696 

Kala  Chand  Pal,  ...       ...   732 

Kalatirtha       ...       ...   435 

Kalavati        ...       ...   803 

Kaldanta       ...       ...   267 

Kali  238,  521,  577,  588,  637,  651,  652, 

653'  655,  707,  708,  713—721,  793'  934 

Kali  Cankara  Ghoshal  ...       782 

Kali  Charan  Gope...  ...       599 

Kalidaha  260,  273 

Kalidas  210,  445,  693 

Kalika  Mangal  637,  65s 

Kalikrishna  Das     ...  ...       688 

Kalinga  2,  52,  304,  308,  358,  385 

Kalipa  375,  376 

Kaliprasanna  Simha  ...       924 

Kaliya  521,  522 

Kaliya  Damana  523,  732 

Kalketu        162,  254,  297-309,  343-346, 

353-359.647 
Kalnagini  ...  ...       267 

Kalnemir  Ray  vara...  ...        195 

Kalu  Doma  ...  ...         51 

Kalu  Karmakara    ...  ...       257 

Kalupa  28,  407 

Kama  Deva  350,  351,  360-362,  643 

Kamala  Kanta        ...  ...       225 

Kamala  Kanta  Bhattacharyya...       722 
Kamalakar  Chakravarti  ...       496 

Kamalakar  Das       ...  ...       489 

Kamal  Narayan      ...  ...       294 

Kamini  839-844 

Kamini  Kumar  687,  688,  838.  844 

Kamsa  220,  221,  517-521,  525,  532, 

536/544.  732 
Kamsanarayana  (Rajat  ...  11 

Kanchagadia 
Kanchan  Mala 
Kanchi 
Kaneda 

Kangal  Harinath 
Kankan 
Kami  Bhatta 
Knaya  Kumari 
Kanya  Kuvja 
Kapila 
Kapilavastu 
Karbala 
Karim  Ali 
Karimulla 
Karmabad 
Karu 


5 '2.  547 

770,  773-774 

638,  652,  653,  791 

49.  50 

...       711 

■■•       582 

44 

435.  462 

•••       385 

...       969 

406,  497 

-       795 

798,  799 

...       798 

406 

200,  205 


[NDEX. 


I02I 


PAGE. 


Karnagada 

14,  249 

Karnamrita 

513,  547 

Karnananda 

550 

Kama  Parva 

208 

Kama  Sen 

48-50 

Karta  Bhajas 

...       403 

Kartika 

37,  86,  240,  242,  247 

335 


Karuna  Nidhana    ...  ...       783 

Kathakas  585-596 
Kathakathas                  585-596,  913,  992 

Kathopakathana     ...  ...       857 

Kaucalya                  ...  ...        162 

Kaucalya  Chautica     ^  ...        195 

Kaustuva                 ...  ...       217 

Kavandhas               ...  ...       330 

Kavi  Cekhara         ...  ...       224 

Kavi  Chandra  188,  365,  797 

Kavi  Kankan  Chandi  608,  622 

Kavi  Kanthahara  ...  ...         82 

Kavikarnapur    279,  294,  480,  495,  551, 

555 
Kavindra  Paramecwara    8,  11,  12,  108, 
201-204,  209,  211,  393,  606,814,  1005, 
1006,  lOII 
Kavindra  Trilochan  Das  ...       279 

Kavipati  ...  •••555 

Kavir  Mahomnnad ...  ...       801 

Kavi  Vallabha         ...  ...       224 

Kavi  songs  696-709 

Kaviwalas  696-709,  768,  913,  919 

Kaviwalas,  A  List  of  : —  705  -706 

Kavya  Prakaca       ...  ...       822 

Kecava  Chandra  Sen  ...       900 

Kecava  Kacmiri  420,  421 

Kecava  Samanta    ...  ...       434 

Keci      ...  ...  ...       520 

Kedar  Khan  173,  174 

Keith,  (Rev.  J.)       ...  ...       922 

Kedar  Ray  ...  ...       680 

Kelly  (Mr.)  ...  ...       707 

Ketaka  Das  237,  288-292,  793, 

1004 
Khana  25,  107,  905 

Khanar  Vachana  19,  25 

Khanjan  Acharyya  ...       457 

Khelarama  55,  370,  371 

Kheturi  498,  554,  694 

Khullana       162,  297,  309-333,  350-359, 

397.  598 
Kicore  Mahalanavis  ...       780 

Kicori  Bhajas         ...  ...       403 

Kisori  Mohan  Goswami  ...        193 

Kirnahara  ...  ...        122 

Kirtana  579-585,  95^;  99^;  99^ 

Kirtaniya  580-585 


Kirti  Chandra 

Kirti  Chandra  Das 

Kirti  Lata  ...  ...       843 

Kirti  Naca  ...  ...       680 

Krimira  ...  ...       221 

Krishna       118,  123,  125,  130,  I34,'i36, 

141-149,    198,    202,    212,    213,  216, 

,         218,    220-223,  324.  389;  427--.,  436. 

437.    440...,   449»   450  -.,    468,  471, 

472,   478.   479,   487.    503,    507-565. 

574.    575.    578.    580,    585,  597.  ^^3, 

606,  624,  696,   699,   701,   704,   705, 

727-730,    732,    735-739.    744.    747, 

753.  798.  799,  803,  838,  856,  8S0 

Krishna  Chaitanya  ...       433 

Krishna  Chandra    9,  14,  154,  225,  371, 

388,   616-622,   666.    679,   680,  68r, 

696,  877,  1 010 

Krishna  Chandra  Charita  867,  890-896 

930 
Krishna  Chandra  Datta  ...       549 

Krishnacharyya      ...  ...       581 

Krishna  Das  218,  224,  496,  510, 

Krishna  Das  Chakravarti         ...       480 
Krishna  Das  Kaviraja        477-489,  505, 
507.  550,  577 >  658 
Krishnakamala  534,  535,  728-730,  733- 
740,  816,  913 
Krishnakarnamrita  ...       479 

Krishna-kathaka     ...  ...       589 

;   Knshnakinkara       ...  ...       224 

I  Krishna  Lai  Dev    ...  ...       904 

I   Krishna  Mandala  ...  ...       510 

j  Krishna  Mohan  Banerjee  (Rev.)      898- 

900 
Krishna  Mohan  Ciromoni        ...       589 
Krishnananda         ...  ...       292 

Krisnananda  Vachaspati  ...  9 

Krishnanda  Vasu  ...  ...       208 

Krishna  Pandit       ...  ...       1,5 

Krishnarama      367,  369,  377,  656,  678, 

682,  889 

Krishna  Vijay         ...  ...       387 

Krittivasa      7,  11,  94,  97,  in,  170-185, 

187,    188,    193,    200,  219,  250,  387, 

389,  570-572,   1006 

Kriyayogasara        ...  ...       599 

Kshema  Chandra  ...  ...       662 

Kshemananda  288-297,  793,   1004 

Kshetranath  Chudamani  ...       589 

Kshitica  Vamcavali  Charita     ...       388 
Kuchuttya  ...  ...       338 

Kuci  Nagar  ...  ...       404 

Kui       ..'.  ...  ...       392 

Kukhuri  ...  ...       581 


129 


1022 


INDEX. 


PAGE. 


Kulai  Chandi 

Kula  Panjika 

Kulingrama 

Kumara 

Kumar  Hatta 

Kumar  Nagjar 

Kumudananda  Chakravarti 

Kunda  Nandini 

Kunja  Vihari  Das 

Kurma  Purana 

Kumar  Sambhava 

Kuru 

Kurukshetra 

Kuver  Pandit 

Kuvcra 

Larch i ma  Devi 

Lahana  162 

Lakhai  Chandi 

Lakshapati 

Lakshana 

Lakshman  Bandyopadhyaya 

Lakshmana  Dig  Vijaya 

Lakshman  Malika 

Lakshman  Sen        55,  80    137-138,  581', 

777 
Lakshman  Simha  ...  ...       249 

Lakshmi      240,  367-368,  374,  412,  46Q. 
585,  588 
Lakshmi  Charita  367-368 

Lakshmi  Devi  424-425 

Lakshmindra       257,  263-292,  389,  397, 

'611 


..       860 
82 

12 

841,  842 

426 

•••  545 

...  480 

...  651 

..  194 

...  569 

•••       597 
...       197 

194,  213,  406,  465 

...       495 

523,  724,  726 

■•.       137 

297.  309-333.  598 
...       251 

310,  31 1 
181,  182,  458,  588 
190 

lOli 

777 


Lakshmi  Priya 

-       505 

Lakshmi  Vai 

451.  452 

Lala  Babu 

...       694 

Lala  Ram  Prasad  ... 

...       682 

Lalita 

...        148 

Lalita  Vistar 

27,  107 
...       703 
...       800 

Lahi  Nanda  Lai      ... 
Lai  Veg 

Lai  Vihari  Do  (Rev.) 

769.  855 

Lamas 

...       790 

Lanka 

182,  216 

Lanka  Kanda 

195 

Laskara  Paragal     ... 

202 

Last    Days  of   Raja  Ran 

a  Mohan  Roy 

(Mary  Carpenter) 

942-045 

'''"i"  ^*'"                   33>  47-52,  254,   1008 

La>i  Sen  Badala     ... 

732 

Leonara 

I  20 

Life  i)f  Bhavani  Charan 

003-904 

Lila 

314.  315 

Lila  Sanuidra 

-    563 

Lilavati 

...    802 

Lipiniala 

890,  9IQ-020 

PAGE. 

Lochan  Adhikari  ...       7^2 

Lorhan  Das  474,  489-495 

Lokha  Dumani  51,  S2 

Lohata  ...  ...         52 

i  Lokanath  Das         ...  ...       514 

i  Lokanath  Das  Goswami  480,  511 

j  Lokanath  Datta      ...  ...       208 

Lokanath  Micra      ...  ...       340 

Long  (Rev.  J.)  867,  868,  889,  891,  900, 

924 
Lora  Chandrani  624,  801 

Lui  ...  ...       581 

Lui  Chandra  52,  376 

Lushington  (Mr.)   ...  ...        954 

Macaulay  (Lord)     ...  ...       9^ 

Madan  64,  342 

Madan  Datta  ...  ...       '335 

Madan  Pal  53^  "55 

Madhai  43 1 ,  573 

Madhava  32,  190,  225,  606 

Madhavacharyya        335,  23^,  365,  377, 
610.  1005 
Madhava  Micra      ...  ...       511 

Madhava  Das  ...  ...       225 

Madhava  Ghatak  85,  225 

Madhava  Ghosha   ...  ...       555 

Madhavi  439,  447,  556,  ^60 

Madhavi  Das  ...  ...'      556 

Madhikavana  ...  ...       435 

Madhukara  260,  274,  322.  396 

Madhumala  ...  ...        774 

Madhura  Rasa        ...  ...        116 

Madhu  Sudan  Datta  (Michael)  855 

Madhu  Sudan  De  ...  ...       293 

Madhu  Sudan  Kavindra  ...       656 

Madhu  Sudan  Napita  ...        20H 

Magadha  1,4,  1 1 1,  283 

Mahabharata     i,  7,  10-13,  97,  104,  152, 
153,    157,    165,    185/196-220,    393, 
569,  585.  731.  814,  1004,  1007,  ion 
Mahadeva  73,  261,  263,  791 

Mahajnan  258,  375 

Mahamaya  ...  ...       226 

Mahanad  ...  ...       375 

Maha  Prasad  V^aihh.ua  ...       514 

Maharastra  Purana  ...        777 

Mahavamca  ...  ...  3 

Mahavira  4.  407 

Mahayan  School     ...  ...  32 

i\Lahayanists  402,  403 

NLaheca  ...  S9 

^^'lhi^la  Dharmis    ...  403 

Mahi  Pal  55,  467,  581 

Mahishasura  227,  228,  250,  307 

Mahomet  ...  ...         78 


INDEX. 


1023 


Mahotsava  ...  ...       612 

Mahudya  50,  51,  371 

Maina  31-33,  48 

Majilpur  ...  ...       986 

Maladhara  ...  ...       333 

Maladhar  Vasu     12,  222-224,  391,  552, 

1009 
Malanchamala  770-773 

Mamud  Sherif  337 1  33^ 

Mana  ...  ...       270 

Manasa-cult  252,  294 

Manasa  Devi      115,  236,  237,  251,  252- 

294»  37^,  379,  4^i3.  467.  79^, 

1003,  1004 

Manasa  Mangal    165,  167,  250,  254, 

256,  278,  280,  283,  288,  292,  793, 

1003,  1004 

Manasa  Mangal  Gayan  ...       741 


Mana  Santoshini    ... 

514 

Manasar  Bhasan 

236,  288,  611 

Mandakini 

...       i8i 

Mandara 

32 

Mandarani 

...       582 

Mangal  Chandi          298, 

334,  335,  365- 

378 

-       332 

Mangala  Kota 

Mangala  Gans 

163-170 

Mangal  Gayakas 

162-170 

Mangal  Thakur 

-       583 

Manik  Chandra  Raja 

56 

Manik  Chandra  Rajar  G 

an       105,386- 

388,   498,  560 

601,  608,  818 

Manik  Datta 

334 

Manik  Ganguli              "^ 

or                      C 

Manikram  Ganguli       J 

55.  371 

Manohar  Das 

508,  509,  562 

Manohara  Karmakara 

848,  849 

Manohar    Sahi,      The 

musical 

mode  ; 

579)  581-584 

Manohar  Sahi  Singers  A  list  of  : — 583- 

584 
Man  Simha         342,  666,  667,  674,  825 
Manthara  ...  ...       620 

Manu  I,  4,  5,  53.  75,  824 

Manual  of  Buddhism,  by  Dr.  Kern    402 
Mara  ...  ...         64 

Markandeya        172,  223,  235,  298,  334 
Markandeya  Chandi  ...       298 

Marsh  (Mr.)  ...  ...       954 

Marshman  850,  854,  867,  877,  886- 

887,  916 

Marton  W.  ...  ...       867 

Marty  n  ...  ...       854 

Mathur  ...  ...       584 


Mathura      145,  220,  465,  517,  520,  536, 

544.  580,  532,  535,  536,  701,  732,  798 

Matsatirtha  ...  ...       435 

Matsa  Purana         ...  ...       569 

Maurice  (Mr.)  954"955 

May  (Mr.)  ...  ...       931 

Mayapur  ..  ...       4r5 

Mayatimir  Chandrika  682,  780 

May  Ganita  ...  ...       931 

Maynagada  51,52,398 

Mayura  ...  ...       373 

Mayura  Bhatta  47,  48,  55 

Max  Muller  ...  ...       107 

Medicine,  works  on  : —  ...       872 

Melamala  ...  ...         84 

Mela  Prakaca         ...  ...         84 

Menaka  343,  244,  574,  703 

Mensuration — works  on: —      ...       872 
Meru  32,  198 

Miller's  Bengali  Dictionary      ...       930 
Mina  Ketan  Rama  Das  or  Rama 

Das  ...  ...       478 

Minanatha  28,  375,  376,  407 

Minapur  ...  ...       415 

Mir  Mahammad  13,  622,  627,  632 

Mirza  ...  ...     623 

Mirzafar  617,  694,  890,  896 

Mirza  Housen  Ali  ...  ...       793 

Miscellaneous  works  : —      874-878,  907 
Mitaksharin  ...  ...       778 

Mithila    14,  iii,  135-140,  181,  385,  407 
Mohan  Das  891-893 

Mohinta  ...  ...       581 

Moral  Tales  and  other  works     904-906 
Mrichchha  Katika  77,  106,  108 

Mriga  Byadha  Samvada  ...       249 

Mriga  Lubdha         ...  ...        249 

Mrityunjay  Tarkalankara  886-889,  916, 

921 
Muhammad  ...  ...         37 

Mukgdhavodha       ...  ...       974 

Muktalatavali  ...  ...       532 

Muktaram  Sen        ...  ...       335 

Mukunda  ...  ...       553 

Mukundaram  Kavikankan  14,  162, 

336-359.    360,    365,    597.    622,   813, 

855.  883,  1005,  lOIO 

Muluk  F'ateabad     ...  ...       279 

Muniva  Khan  ...  ...       337 

Munjacri  ...  ...       402 

Munro  (Sir  Thomas)  ...       954 

Muralidhara  ...  ...       733 

Murari  Cila  307,  353*359 

Murari  Gupta      41 9;  432,  457,  466,  480 

495 


1024 


INDEX. 


Murari  Ojha 
Nadevasi 

Nafar  Chandra  Da? 
Najjapanfhapadi     ... 
Na;i;arjuna 
N'aimisharanya 
Naishadha 
Naishadha  Charita 
Naishadha  Kavya  ... 
Nakula 
Nala 

Nalanda  2, 

Nala  I'pakhyaria    ... 
Nanaka 

Nanda  Gho.sha    519,  520,  532, 
Nanda  Kumar  (Maharaj) 
Nanda  Lai 
Nanda  Patana 

Nandaram  Das  208,  218, 

Nandaram  Ghosha  . 
Nandi    ... 

Nannura  119, 

Narada         213,  241,  427,  588, 
Naradas 

Naradiya  Pnrana    ... 
Narahari 

Narahari  Chakravarti        410, 
498.  504.    511.    5»2,    553, 

Narahari  Das        432,  489  497 

Narahari  Sakar 

Narasimha 

Narasiniha  Das 

Narasimha  Dt-va  Rav        283, 


P.\GE.    I 

..       462 

..       780  I 
••       435  I 

402,  403  : 

■.  597  ' 
•  599 
617,618 
...  823 
121,  197 
161,  197 
406,  407 


Narasimha  Ojha 
Nara.simha  Ray 
Narayana 
Naravan  Das 


«aray 


an  Dfva 


293 
283-287. 


N  a  ray  an  Tirtha 

Narcndra  Narayan  Ray 

Naroji 

Narottam.i 

Narottama  I  )as 

N.irottam  Thakiir 

Narotfarna  Vilasa 

Nas.iraf  Saha 

Nasir  Saha 

Nasir  Mah.tmud 

Nasirnddin 

Natural  Philos«jphy,    works 

Nava  Bahu  Vilasa 
Navadwipa 


435.  436, 
442,  460 
446,  498 

108 

201. 


208 

931.  972 

.  544.  729 

...       831 

...       293 

803 
,  219,  224 

224 

241 

122,  1003 

.  725.  969 

359.  654 

...       569 

-  538 
412,  446, 
556.  563. 
577 
.  507;  792 
551.607 

•••  495 
225,  556 
556,  783. 

784.  787 
171 

785.  786 
.551.836 

224 
393,  1004 
...       458 

662 

.  456  573 
,512,  694 

499,  577 
546,  556 
109,  405 

2(J2,   204 

II,  1 40 

...     800 

..  799 
n  :~873- 
874 
...  924 
•55.  409 


Navadwipa  Chandra 

409 

462,  484 

Nava  Jaya  Deva 

•••      137 

Nava  Kissen  (Raja) 

705.  732 

Navingaur 

.-     336 

Navy  a  Nyaya 

...     409 

Nayan  Bhaskara 

...     828 

Nayani   ... 

...       51 

Nayan  Krishna  Kar 

...     229 

Nayantara 

...     687 

Nayak  Mayaz  Gazi  ... 

...     797 

Nenga    ... 

...     388 

Newspapers  ; — a  List  of 

009-912 

Nicambhu 

.'..     228 

Nichhani  Nagar           263 

.  273 

274,  289 

Nidhiram 

...     365 

Nidhu  Babu             ^ 

or                      [ 

Ram  Nidhi  Gupta  ) 

752 

-758,817 

Nila,  Lila 

802,  803 

Nilkamal  Das 

...     802 

Nilkantha 

...       65 

Nilamvara 

^5^, 

298,  309 

Nilar  Varamasa 

...     802 

Nimai 

415-444 

Niinai  Das 

208,  209 

Nimai  Sannyasa 

514.732  735 

Nimraja... 

...     434 

Niranjan 

34 

Nirvan    ... 

33 

Nishada  .. 

...      161 

Nitai  Das 

...     578 

Nitya  Gopala  Goswami 

...     740 

Nityananda          188,  211 

-213. 

366,  430, 

431  •  .   447.- 465.  467.  478. 

502,  508, 

512,  567. 

508, 

S/S,  1006 

Nityananda  Chakravarti 

^.•  367 

Nityananda  Das 

•••  513 

Nityananda  Ghosha 

208, 

209,  218 

Odin  ...  ...     970 

Pada  Chintamani  Mala  563,  564 

Pada  Kalpa  Latika  510,  537,  ^61; 

Pada  Kalpataru         510,  537,  538,  542, 
549»  554.  555>  563-565   599.  608 
Pada  Kartas, — a  List  of : —        557-559 
Padamrita  Samudra  556,  565,  576 

Padarnavasaravali    ...  ...     563 

Pada  Samgraha        ...  ...     800 

Padma  261,  394,  497 

Padn>a  Purana      1  J,  280,  344,  389,  391, 

\393 

13,  622,  623,  914 

no,  622 — 637,  6s4 

.1     88S 

...  1002 

...     390 


37. 


i'.tdmavat 

l^admavati 

Palibothera 

Pa  Icy 

Panchagaudecwara 


INDEX 


1025 


Panchajanya 

...     217 

Panchakota 

...      187 

Panchala 

...     385 

Panchali 

385,  744-752 

Panchalikars 

...     913 

Panchanana  Karmakara  848,  849,  852, 

914 
Pandit  Adwaita  Das  Babaji        ...     584 

Pandit  Guna  Das     ...  ...     293 

Pandit  Nagar            ...  ...     279 

Pandu    ...                   ...  ...      197 

Panini     ...                  ...  ...     812 

Panipat    ..                  .^  ...     406 

Panna  Narasimha     ...  j       354 

Pantha  Bhil               ...  ...     434 

Paracara  335,  836 

Parasurama                ...  ...     225 

Paradise  Lost            ...  ...     371 

Paragal  Khan  11-13,203 

Paragalpur  203,  204 

Parakiya  Rasa  116,  117 

Paramananda  Adhikari  ...     732 

Paramananda  Puri  ...  ...     477 

Paramananda  Sen    ...  ...     555 

Paramecwari  Das    ...  ...     554 

Parcvanath  Hills      ...  ...         3 

Parikshita  153,  590 

Parvati   ...                  ...  ...       43 

Patika     ...                   ...  ...       62 

Paundraka  Vasudeva  ...          1 

Payagrama                 ...  ...     683 

Pearychand  Mitra  ...    1000 

Peron  Basantapur    ...  ...     662 

Periodical  and  Magazines         908—909 

Phulia,  see  Fulia  ...    1006 
Phullara        162,  298-309,  354,  358,  609 

Picchala  tantra          ...  ...     366 

Pinak      ...                   ...  ...       63 

Pingla     ...                  ...  ...     625 

Pirulya  ...                   .,.  ...      477 

Pitamvara  Adhikari...  ...     732 

Pitamvara  Das          ...  ...     225 

Poyasni  ...  ...  '        ..       435 

Prabhakara  759^  762,  763 

Prabhasa  544,  747 

Prabodha  Chandrika  ...     887 

Pracasti  Prakacika  ...  ...     904 

Prafulla  Jana  Netra  ...     917 

Pragiyotisha               ...  ...          i 

Prahlada  161,  700 

Prahlada  Charitra    ...  ...     225 

Prajna  Paramita  402,  403 

Prakrita  Chandrika...  ...          4 

Pramatha  Nath  Carma  ...     924 

Pranarama  Chakravarti  ...     678 


Prasada  Das  ^^^^  ^^^ 

Pratapaditya        136,  666,  667,  889,  919 
Pratapaditya  Charita  867,  889.  890 

Pratap  Chand  ...  ...     yyg 

Pratap  Rudra     433,  442,  458,  476,  552, 

581 
Pravoda  Chandika  916,  921 

Pravoda  Chandrodaya  Nataka         763, 

780 
Prema  Chandra  Adhikari 
Prema  Das 
Prema  Vilasa 
Prithvi  Chandra  (Raja) 
Prose    works     by    Sahajiyas, 


of: 


...      732 

551,  581 

508,  513 

...     843 

—a      list 


Pundarika  Vidya  Vinoda 
Purana   ... 

Purusha  Pariksha     ... 
Purushottama  Gupta 
Purushottama  Siddhanta  Vagica 

Pushpaketu 

Putana 

Radha  118,  120,  124,  127,  130 

141-149,  223,  231,  389,  392, 
503,    507-547.    555.    561,    562, 


606, 
753» 


624,   696,   699. 


834-835 
...     466 

-  435 
...  141 
490 
513. 
551 
309 
520 

466, 
603, 
735, 


_,     727-730,    ._. 

798;    799»   803,   837,  838,  856, 

880 

Radhakanta  Deva  898,  901 

Radha  Krishna  ...  ...     2Q3 

Radha  Krishna  Ray  ...     831 

Radha  Krishna  Lilamrita  ...     5151 

Radha  Madhava 

Radha  Mohan  Sarkar 

Radha  Mohan  Thakur 

Radha  Vallabha  Carma 

Radha  Vallabha  Das 

Radhika 

Ragamala 

Raga  Tala 

Raga  Taler  Puthi      ... 

Raghava  Pandita 

Raghu 


...      193 

-.  731 
556,  562-565 
...  843 
•••  555 
...     724 

...  800 
...  512 
703;  823 

74^  79> 
140,421,471 
Raghunandan  Goswami,  190,  555 

Raghunath  293,  460,  479,  488 

Raghunath  Ciromani  4-^9,  421 

Raghunath  Das    446  480,  500-503.  694 


697, 
Raghunandan  Bhattacharyya 


Raghunath  Ray 

Raghunath  Sinha  Bhup 

Raghu  Rama 

Raghu  Ram  Das  Kanthabharana 

Rai  Cekhara 


338 
187 
249 
279 
117 


1026 


INDEX. 


Raids  by  the  Kookis  ...     779 

Raja  Arjiina               ...  ...     279 

Raja  Ballava  360,  616,  679-6S7 

Raja  Chandra  Chaudhiiri  ...     779 

Raja  Dharma  Baks  ...     802 

Raja  Ganera              ...  ...     495 

Rajaganja                   ...  •••779 

Raja  Jaynarayana     ...  ...    loio 

Raja  Krishna  Chandra  Datta      ...     599 

Raja  Kumara  Sen     ...  ...     780 

Raja  Mala  776,  777 

Raja  Najjar  679-682 

Raja  Xarayan  Chaudhuri  ...      779 

Raja  Narayan  Datta  •  •     599 

Raja  Narayan  Ray  ...     367 

Raja  of  Pakvapalli  498,  499 

Rajapanji                    ...  ...      138 


Raja  Raja  Simha 


>92 


Raja  Rama  Mohana  Ray       7,  890,  916, 
936-989,  999 
Rajasiiya  215-217 

Raja  V'aidya  Nath  Bhanja  ...     514 

Rajavali  ...  ...     888 

Raja  V'ir  Haniira      ...  ...     488 

Rajcndra  Choi  .  .       30 

Rajondra  Das  199,  209 

F^ajendra  Lai  Mitra  l,i<aja)  87,  900 

Kajiva  Lochan  Mukhopadhaya         867, 
890-896,  930 
F<aj  Narayan  Vasu  ...     962 

Rama  77,  i()i,  170-195,389,40(5, 

>7^-S73-  588,  735.  844,  880 
K.mia  Dcva  Naga     ...  ...       64 

Ramai  Pandit  29-32,  34,  37,  67, 

375,  407,  1008 

Rimati,  Ramavati     ...  ...       53 

U.imananda  436,  797 

Ramay.ma  1,  7,  10,  il,  94,  97,  157, 

1 6 J,     i7o-i9(),    200,    219,    220     250, 

^()2,  368,  389,  393.  407,  570- 

.S7.^.  5^5,  t>-'o.  7J.S.  979'   »oo<^' 

k.imhUT                       ...  ...    1002 

Ran)  Chandra            ...  ...     293 

Ran>  Chandra  Kaviraj  499,  511 
Ram  Chandra  X'idyalankar         ...      786 

\<:\u\  Charitii              ...  ...      5S2 

Ram  (?inj;,i                  ...  ...      482 

R.imdas  Ad.ik             ...  ...        55 

R.imdas  S<'n                ...  ...      -'93 

Ramdhar  Ciramuni  ...      588 

Ramrtwara  1471,  246,  J49 

Rami  119.  ij  J 

Rani  Ciati  ...     ()8j 

Ram  (i.iti  Sm             ...  ...      78^ 

Ram  Ciopal  D.is       ...  ...     55? 


Ram  Gopal  Sarbabhaiima 

Ram  Govinda  Das   ... 

Ram  Jivan 

Ram  Jivan  Rudra     ... 

Ram  Kamal  Sen 

Ram  Kicore 

Ram  Krislma 


P.\GE. 

9 
..  194 
..       292 

••       195 
900 

••     73.3 
..     249 

Ram  Krishna  (  Maharaj  )  721,  932 

Ram  Krishna  Chakravarti          ...     491 
Ram  Krishna  Paramhamsa        674,  956 
Ram   .Mohan  191,  916 

Ram  Narayan  Gop  ...     599 

Ram  Nath  ...  ...     435 

Ram  Nidhi  ...  ...     293 

Ram  Nidhi  Gupta  743,  752-758 

Ram  Prasad  Munsi  663,  656-662 

Ram  Prasad  Ray      ...  ...      187 

Ram  Prasad  Sen    9,  367,  573,  654,  678, 
695,  712-721,  748,  754,  768,  855,  913, 

936,  937)  1 010 
Ram  Prasad  Vidyavagica,  ...     784 

Ram  Raj  ...  ...     249 

Ram  Ram  Sen  ...     712 

Ram  Ram  Vasu  867,  889,  890,  919 

Ram  Rasayana         ...  ...      194 

Ram  Ray     349,  433,  440,  442,  553,  560 
Ram  Sarkar  ...  ...     225 

Ram  Tanu  ...  ...     225 

Ram  Tanu  Acharyya  ...     800 

Ramtanu  Kaviratna  ...     225 

Ram  Vallabha  ...      840 — 844,  740 

Ram  Vallabha  Vidyavagica       ...         9 
Ram        Vasn's        Pratapaditya 
Charita  ...  ...     959 

Ran_^a  Dhama  ...  ...     435 

Ranga  Lala  ...  ...     759 

Ran£^a  Mala  ...  ...     779 

Rani  Bhabani  ...  ...      721 

Rani  Kalindi  ...  ...     802 

Ranjavati  49,  50,  52,  397 

Ranjitram  Das  ...  ...     3^^ 

Rantu     ...  ...  ...     582 

Rasa  Kalpavali         ...  ...     553 

Ra.samanjuri  553,  563,  667 

Rasamaya  ...  ...     235 

Rasamaya  Das         ...  ...     690 

Rasaraja  ...  ...     763 

Ivashu  Narasimha  700,  701,  704 

Rasikaiianda  ...  ...     513 

Rasik  Das  ...  ...     584 

Rasik  Manijal  ...  510,  513 

Rasik  Miirari  ...  ...     510 

Rastikhan  ...  ...      203 

Rati  ...  342,362 

Ralikanta  Sen  ...  ...     293 


INDEX. 


1027 


* 

PAGE. 

P.\GE. 

Ratiram 

...       249 

Samvada  Ratnavali 

...       763 
263,  268,  275 

Ratna  Garva  Acharyya 

-     554 

Sanaka                256, 

2S9, 

Ratnanu 

••.     339 

Sanaka  Nagar 

^"            >      /J 
...       256 

Ratna  Sen 

627,  632,  633 

Sanatan  32,^46,  280, 

425, 

439,  460,  479, 

Ravana    25,    182,    183,   i 

88,   300,   368, 

503,  504 

572 

Sanatkumar 

-      969 

4TC 

Ray  an  i 

...     278 

Sandhi  Tirtha 

Ray  Cekhara 

—     555 

Sandhyakora  Nandi 

...  582 

...     547 

Ray  Gunakara 

662665 

Sangita  Madhava     . 

.. 

Ray  Mangal 

377>  379 

San  jay          106,  no, 

198- 

200,  207,  210, 

Ray  Ramananda 

•••     552 

1005 

Readers— a  list  of  : — 

...     873 

Sanjay  Ketu 

298,  309 

Rebecca 

...     651 

Sankura                    "^ 

Rejoan  Saha 

...     801 

or                            i 

259,  276 

Reneti     ... 

...     582 

Sankoor  Gadudia    ) 

Renuka 

..      301 

Santali 

263-266,  269 

Richardson  (Dr.) 

...     930 

Santi 

...     581 

Robert  Owen 

941—942 

Santosha  Datta 

-     549 
...     801 

Rohitacwa 

...     169 

Sapta  Payakar 

Rourava 

7 

Sarada  Mangal 

»87,  335.362 

Rudra  Deva 

63.  66,  575 

Sarada  Pattam 

...     376 

Rudrapati 

-     435 

Sarasangraha 

...     922 

Rui 

...     392 

Sarasvat 

-     385 

Rukmini 

280,  905 

Sarasvati                43 

240 

369.  374,  798 

Runta  Dharma  Raja 

...     801 

Saravati 

•••     545 

Rupa                       46,  462 

.  479.  503.  504 

Sari  Mia 

•••     753 

Rupa  Goswami 

550.  837 

Saru 

...     391 

Rupa  Narayan  Ghosh 

82,  23 1 

Sarvaci,  ... 

—     317 

Ruparama 

55.  82,  370 

Satgaon  or  Saptagrama 

...     369 

Ruparay 

337.  647 

Sat  Dharmis 

.. 

...       36 

Rye  Unmadini            534, 

535,  728,  730, 

Sati 

45,  67..  342 

734.  735 

Sati  Maina 

...     624 

Sadaciva 

•••     733 

Satya  Narayan 

236, 

237,  663.  671 

Sadguna  0  Viryyer  Itihasa        ...     023 

683,797 

Sagara 

153.  8S9 

Satya  Pir 

796,  797 

Saha                              263 

267.  275.  289 

Satya  Pirer  Panchal 

...     796 

Saha  Deva 

...     197 

Satya  Pradipa  by  Townsend      ...     877 

Sahadeva  Chakravarti    35,  55.  374-377 

Satyavai 

451,  452,  454 

Sahajiya-cult 

37-46,  116 

Satyavana 

...     162 

Saha  Jahan 

-     235 

Satyavati 

.. 

...     161 

Saha  Housen 

...     781 

Savara 

...     582 

Sahamarana 

...     986 

Savitri 

162, 

20S,  879,  977 

Saha  Suja 

-.     235 

Savitri  Vrata 

...     977 

Sahitya  Darpana 

...     625 

Selimabad 

'288, 

337.  341.  344 

Saiful  Mulluk 

623,  634 

Semeremis 

...     297 

Sakshi  Gopal 

•■•     434 

Seneca 

...  1002 

Samachar  Darpana  ... 

...     877 

Serajaddiilla 

891-896 

Sameta-Cekhara 

3 

Shasthi  Devi 

369—370 

Samgha 

26,  47 

Shashthi  Mangal 

369—370 

Samola 

52 

Shashthi  Vara  Sen 

185, 

208,  209,  294, 

Samser  Ali 

...     801 

1004,  1006 

Samser  Gazi 

...     778 

Siddhas 

...     115 

Samser  Gazir  Gan 

778,  779 

Sidha,  Sidhi 

...     217 

Samsuddin  Chhiddik 

...     801 

Sidhavatecwara 

•••     434 

Samvada  Provakara 

762  764 

Simhala 

3 

10. 


NDEX, 


Simhavahini 

Simhavahu 

Simulia 

Simulgada 

Sindavada 

Sindur  Kazi 

Singi 

Sita         77,  162,  179-1.S7, 

Sita  Charita 

Sitapati 

Sita  Rama 

Sitarama  Das 

Sitar  Vanavasa 

Skanda  Purana 

Solagram 

Solaman 

Sollipur 

Soma  Ghosli.i 

Somanath 

Sona 

Sona  Ray 

Spectator 

Srigal^hata 

Sristi  Pattan 

Steele 

Stri  Ciksha  Vishayaka 

Stri  Parva 

Sua 

Subuddhi  Micra 

Sucila 

Siulama 

Sudama  Charitra     ... 

Sudam  Das 

Sudam  Subala  Adhikari 

Siidhakara  Mandal   ... 

Sugriva 

Suja 

Suka 

Sukavi  Das 

Sukha  Das 

Sultan  Guiasuddiii    ... 

Sulluk 

Sumeru 

Sunanda 

Sundari 

Siinetr.i 

Sund.ir.i         173,  254,  638 

Sundara.Malla 

Simd.ira  Vans 

Sm.iiIi.-i 

i  va 

S.;ryya  Das  Sarkcl  ... 
Suryya  Siddhanta'  ... 


PAGE. 

...  341 

3 
...  52 
...  52 
...  414 
...  779 
...  217 
'9^.  301,  371. 
879»  977 
•••  514 
...  294 

;7.  370,  371 
...  225 

195,  1000 
366,  93 1 
...  1012 

...  624 

53 
...  48 
...  436 
838,  839,  842 
647,  649 
...  1002 
...  271 
...  800 
...  1002 
...  905 
. . .  203 
...  391 
...  471 

•••  333 

528,  529 

...  225 

...  294 

•••  732 

-.  555 

...  182 

...  623 

—  373 
...  294 
...  294 
II 
...  803 
...  788 
...  477 
...  905 
...  683 
-<'\S3.  ^\S4.  665 
■••  495 
•••  377 
226,  228 
51 
...  463 

•••     495 
...     S23 


Suttee 
I  Suvachani 
I  Suvala 

Suvarnagrama 

Svapna  Vilasa 

Svarupa  Damodara 
]  Svarupa  Varnana 

Svati 
I  Swarna  Grama 
I  Suvarna  Rekha 
I  Sydney  (Sir  Philip) 
j  Syed  Ainuddin 

Syed  A  lac! 

Syed  Mahommad  Khan 

Syed  Murttaja 

Syed  Musa 
j  Syed  Sultana 

Tahir  Mahommad    ... 
1  Talanama 
!  Tamraparni 
j  Tandaka 

I  Tantra  Ratnakara     ... 
i  Tanu  Sadhana 
I  Tapan  Ojha 
,  Tappa 
i  Tara 

Tara  Chand  Chakravarti 
j  Tarakecwara 
j  Tarini  Sen 
I  Tarikhi  Bangala 

Tarikhi  Yusufi 

Tasso 

Tattva  Chintamoni 

Tattva  Vodhini  Patrika 

Tej  Chandra  (Maharaj) 

Tek  Chand  Thakur 

Telemachus 

Telia  Vudhuri 

Teywettya 

Thadu  Thane,' 

Thakurani 

Thakur  Dadar  Jhuli 

Thakur's    Bengali    and 
Dictionary 

Thakur  Sing 

Theological  works  of  the 
vas,  A  List  of : — 

Timur 

Tinkadi,  Tinu 

Tirthankars 

Tirtharama 

Todar  Mulla 

Tota  Itihasa 

Trilochan 

TriK)chan  Chakravarti 


975- 


729 


PAGE. 

986 

S60 

...       528 

...       171 

.  733-735 
...  480 
...  479 
...  529 
...     171 

•••     434 

...     880 

...     799 

622-637 

...     624 

...     799 

...     623 

781—782 

...     799 

...     799 

435.  462 

...     582 

...     567 

...     782 

...     340 

753-75S 

...     979 

...     930 

-     374 

573 

778 

778 

1 20 

...     421 

998-1002 

...     722 

858,  924,  1000 


572, 


•  •  547 

•••  337 

..  802 

...  251 

•••     773 

English 

...     866 
708,  709 

Vaisna- 

5'5-5»t' 

...     888 

...     750 

3>  4 

1  ;  ;>  452-456 

...      138 

...     890 

32 

J08,  209 


INDEX. 


1029 


Trilochan  Das 

...     489 

Trimanda 

...     434 

Trinavarta, 

220;  324,  520,  521 

Tripurasura, 

567. 568 

Trivankoo, 

...     435 

Triveni,  ... 

—     335 

Tulasi  Das, 

191.  193 

Udaynag, 

267 

Uddharana  Datta, 

...     511 

Uddhava  Das, 

•••     555 

Uddhava  Samvada, 

...     225 

Udyoga  Parva, 

...     197 

Ujani,  312,  313,  3i5>  319^324- 328, 

Ujani  Nagar  ...  ...     286 

Uma,    231,  232,  241-250,  302,  368,  383, 

573;  574)  ^^^,  696 

Umacankara  Tarkalankara,        ...     785 

Umapati  Ray,  ...  ...     340 

Umichand,  ...  ...     694 

Upendra  Micra,         ...  ...     514 

Usha,      ...  ...  ...     276 

Ushaharana,  ...  ...     225 

Ushnisha  Vijay  Dharini,  ...         2 

Uttara  Kanda,  ...  ...      190 

Utkala,  385,  476 

Uttara  Goshtha,        ...  ...     525 

Uttara  Kocala,  ...  ...     406 

Uzir  Asraf  Khan,     ...  ...     801 

Vacishtha,  ...  ...     823 

Vaculi  Devi,  119,  121,  251,  467 

Vadarika,  ...  ...     579 

Vagdinir  Pala,  ...  ...     249 

Vaicampayana,  ...  ...      196 

Vaidya  Nath  Mangal,  ...     249 

Vaikuntha,  227,  531 

Vaishnava  Vandana,  ...     556 

Vaishnavachara  Darpana,  ...     514 

Vaishnava  Das,  555,  843 

Vaka       ...  ...  ...     221 

Vakrecwara  Panchanana,  ...     785 

Valadeva  Palit,         ...  ...     810 

Valarama,    221,  223,  465,  520,  545,  732 
Valarama  Bandy opadhyaya        ...      190 
Valaram  Das,  293,  549,  550 

Valaram  Vachaspati,  ...     785 

Vali,...  205,  427,  469 

Vallabha  Ghosha,     ...  ...     294 

Vallala  Sen,  80,  81,  83,  87,  90 

Valmiki       166,  176,  179,  185,  190,  193, 

364,  407,  570,  573,  585,  693 

Valya  Lila  Satra,     ...  ...     496 

Vamachara  ...  ...       38 

Vamana  Bhiksha      ...  ...     225 

Vaniana  Purana       ...  ...     569 


PAGE. 


513.  55  i 

-  5»3 
...  294 
388.  554 
...  471 
563,  564 

-  434 
...  458 
...  294 
...  732 
...  512 
293,  776 

7*617 

I 

...       82 


Vamciciksha 

Vamcidas  Thakur    ... 

Vamcidhana 

Vamcivadana 

Vaishnavachara  Darpan 

Vaisnava  Das 

Vaitarani 

Valaram  Das 

Vanamali 

Vanamali  Sarkara    ... 

Vana  Vishnupur 

Vanecwara 

Vanecwara  Vidyalankara 

Vanga    ... 

Vaninath 

Varada  Pattam         ...  ...     375 

Varaha  Mihira  25,  881 
Vara-Masi                         23,  24,  301-302 

Varmukhi                  ...  ...     a^^q 

Vararuchi                   ...  ...     qqa 

Vardhaman  Das       ...  ...     294 

Varendra                   ...  ...         3 

Varendra  Dhakur     ...  ...       85 

Varoch                       ...  ...     ^^6 

Varunya  Kalirnaya  ...  ...     777 

Vasanta  Ray             ...  ...     550 

Vasanta  Sena            ...  ...       77 

Vastraharana             ...  ...     225 

Vasu  Deva         433;  457.  5^8,  519,  532, 

544 

Vasu  Deva  Datta     ...  ...     466 

Vashu  Deva  Ghosha  ...     555 
Vashu  Deva  Sarvabhauma       409,  421, 
442,  461,  476 

Vasu  Ghosha  432,  538 

Vasuki  51P 

Vasupujya                 ...  ...         4 

Vasu  Rannananda    ...  ...     552 

Vatrica  Simhasana  ...  ...     888 

Vatuka  Bhairava      ...  ...     567 

Vayu  Purana            ...  .-,.     569 

Vedanuja                   ...  ...     171 

Verakuli                     ...  ...     512 

Vetals     ...                  ...  ...     330 

Vicakha...                  ...  ...     526 

Vicarada                    ...  ...     476 

Vichitra  Vllasa         ...  ...     734 

Vichitra  Viryya        ...  ...     212 

Vicwakarma  228,  300,  724 

Vicwamitra  168,  169 

Vicwamvara              ...  ...     415 

Vicwanath  Chakravarti  ...     511 

Vicwarupa  216,  415 

Vicwecwara               ...  ...     294 

Vidagdha  Madhava...  ...     550 


130 


1030 


INDEX. 


Vidu  Brahmini         ...  ...     621 

Vidya  638-653,  665,  666,  673 

Vidya    Kalpadruma,    or,    Enclopaedea 

898-900 
Vidyapati         11,  14.  115.  "9-  ^35-149. 

484.    545»   54^h   549.  550,578.581, 

599,  601,  630,  883 

V^idya  Sundara  254,  620,  636,  637-653, 

665-668,    678,    730,    731,  753»    813, 

814 
Vidya  Sundara  Gayan  ...     740 

Vidya  Vachaspati     ...  ...     476 

Vijay      ...  ...  .-.     294 

Vijay  Gupta  8,    276-283,  344.  387-389. 

39».  393^394 

Vijay  Siniha  ...  ...         3 

Vikan  Cukla  Das     ...  ...      195 

Vikramaditya  9,  888,  904 

Vikrama  Kerari  319,  326,  357 

V'ilapa  Kusumanjali  ...     555 

Vipra  Das  ...  ...      294 

Vipra  lagannath        ...  ...     293 

Vipra  Janakinath      ...  ...     293 

Viprarata  Deva         ...  ...     293 

\'ipra  kay  ...  ...     504 

Vipra  Ruparam         ...  ...     225 

Virat  Parva  ...  ...     218 

Vira  Vahu  571-573 

Vir  Bhadra  Goswanii  ...     547 

VirtTwara  Nyava  panrhanana       9,  617 
Vir  Hamvira     '  505-508,  512,  556 

Virginia  ...  ...     880 

Vir  Simha    638,  644,  646,  649,  650,  654 
Visfi        ...  ...  ...     137 

Vishma  ...  ...      161 

Vishnu      33,  37,  153,  190,  19S,  231-233 

374.  405.  425.  427.   465.   469.   47o» 

501,   517,    518,    520,    569,  572,  573, 

585,    588,   590,    591-596,   605,    606, 

669,  695,  725,  726,  791 

Vishnu  Kanrhi  ...  ...     435 

Visnu  Kuinari  ...  ...     662 

Vishnu  Pal  ...  ...     294 

Vishnu  Priya      425,  428,  449,  484,  490, 

491 
Vishnu  Rama  Siddhanta  ...     786 

Vivada  Sara  ...  ...      141 

Vivarta  Vilasa  ...  ...     488 

Vividartha  Sanigraha  ...     900 

V(M  ahularirs — a  list  of : —  000-901 

Vddhrndu  \'ika<a    ...  ...     yC;^ 

Von  Nror's  Akbar    ...  ...     344 


Vrahma  Vaivarta  Purana  ...     369 

Vraja  Lai  ...  ...     231 

Vrajavali  ...  ...     386 

'  Vrinda  324,  427,  441,  534-536,  545. 

561,  798,  799 

Vrindabana  Das  55,  410,  412,  418, 

464-47  T,  490,  550 

j  Vrindavana  221,  386,  438,  478,  480, 

486   487,    489,   505.    511,    517.519, 

I         520,    523,    524,    532,    544,  545,  580, 

1  599,  726,  732,  733,  735,  991 

I  Vrisha  Bhanu  1 18,  525,  526 

Vrisha  Datta  339-34 1 

Vudhuri  ...  ...     546 

Vulan  Mandal  ...  308,  358 

Vyasa  172,  198,  209,  210,  215,  666, 

693,  792,  969,  972 

Vyasacharyya  ...  ...     506 

Vyavastha  Tattva     ...  ...     836 

Ward  (Mr.)  851,954,955 

Warning,  Major  Scott  ...     953 

Warren  Hastings       789,  847,  850,  877, 
883,  loio 
Wilkins,  (Mr)  ...  ...     914 

Wise  (Dr.)  ...  ...      982 

Yacoda        519-525.  529-  532.  536,  544, 

574.  590,  5961  703.  736 

Yacoraja  Khan,        ...  ...        12 

Yacovanta  Simha     ...  ...     249 

Yadunandan  Chakravarti  ...     551 

Yadunandan  Das  513,  550 

Yadunath  231    232,  235,  293 

Yadunath,  Acharyya  ...     554 

Yajnavalkya  75,  445 

Yama  228,  523 

Yama  Ketu  ...  ...     646 

Yamini  Vahal  ...  ...      798 

Yamuna  Devi  ...  ■••      733 

Yates  (Rev.)  ...  ...     922 

Yatras  724-743.  9^3 

Yatrasiddhi  Roy      ...  ...       32 

Yatrawalas  73^-743,  74-*'  9' 3 

Yayati    ...  ...  ^         ^     ...     777 

Yoga  Jivan  Micra    ...  ...     5^4 

Yoga  Maya  ...  ...     506 

Yagasara  ...  ...  _^78i 

"S'ogorwara  ...  ...      140 

Yogini  Malika  ...  ...     777 

Yogi  Pal  ...  ...2  467 

Young  Bengal  88     935 

I  Yudhisthira  161,  197,  198,  215-217 

^'ung  Chuaiig  ...  ...     404 

Zelekha  618,  610 


Bengali  works  by  Babu  Dinesh  Chandra  Sen. 

1.  BANQA    BHASA-O-SAHITYA.    (History  of  the  Bengali 

Languase  &  Literature.) 

2.  RAMAYANI  KATHA.     (Sketches  from  the  RamSyafia.) 

3.  BBHULA.    (The  bride  of  Lalcsmindra.) 

4.  FULLARA.    (The  hunter's  wife.) 

5.  SATl.    (The  devoted  wife  of  the  Great  god  fiva,) 

6.  JADA  BHARATA.    (The  princely  ascetic.) 

7.  TINA  BANDHU.    (Three  freindsJ 


OPINIONS. 


1.    BANGA     BHA5A.0.SAH1TYA— (History      of      the     Bengali 
Language  and  Literature.) 

Copies  of  Correspondence  between  the  Government  of  India 
and  the  India  office. 

NO.  364  of  1899. 
GOVERNMENT  OF  INDIA. 

FINANCE  AND  COMMERCE  DEPARTMENT, 
PENSIONS   AND    GRATUITIES. 

To 

The  Rig*ht  Hon'ble  Lord  Georg-e  Francis  Hamilton, 

Her  Majesty's  Secretary  of  State  for  India. 

Simla,  the  26th  October^  i8gq. 

iMy  Lord, 

We  have  the  honour  to  forward,  for  your  Lordship's  con- 
sideration, a  letter  from  the  Government  of  Bengal,  No. 
2^)37 — Mis.,  dated  the  21st  August,  1899,  enclosing  a 
memorial  from  Babu  Dinesh  Chandra  Sen,  B.  A.,  in  which 
he  prays  for  a  pension  in  recognition  of  his  services  as  the 
autlior  of  a  work  entitled  Bangabhasa-0-Sahitya,  a  history 
of  the  Bengali  Language  and  Literature. 

This  work  has  been  pronounced  by  competent  authorities 
to  be  of   considerable   original  research  in  the  history  of   the 


OPINIONS.  3 

language  and  literature  of  Bengal  and  is  the  first  attempt  at 
a  complete  history  of  Bengali  literature.  The  materials  on 
which  the  work  is  founded  were  contained  in  manuscripts 
hitherto  unknown  to  students,  scattered  over  many  districts 
of  Bengal,  and  the  great  labour  involved  in  discovering  and 
collating  them  has  told  seriously  on  the  health  of  Babu 
Dinesh  Chandra  Sen. 

We  consider,  that  in  a  country  like  India,  whose  scientific 
literature  at  the  present  day  consists  almost  entirely  of  compi- 
lations or  translations,  the  appearance  of  a  meritorious  work 
of  original  research  is  deserving  of  some  recognition  at  the 
hands  of  the  Government  and  we  accordingly  recommend 
for  your  Lordship's  sanction,  the  proposal  made  by  the  Gov- 
ernment of  Bengal  that  the  Babu  should  be  given  a  pension 
of  Rs.  25  a  month,  with  effect  from  ist  April,  1899. 


We  have  the  honour  to  be, 
My  Lord, 
Your  Lordship's  most  obedient  &  humble  servanti 
(Signed)     CuRZON  OF  Kedleston. 

,,  W.  S.   A.  LOCKHART. 

E.    H.    H.    COLLEN. 

A.  C.  Trevor. 
C.  M.  RiVAZ. 
^,  C.  E.  Dawkins. 

T.  Raleigh. 


4  OPINIONS. 

INDIA    OFFICE. 

London^  21st  December  i8gg. 

FINANCIAL. 

No.   248. 

To 

His  Excellency  the  Rigrht  Honourable 

The  Governor  General  of  India  in  Council. 

My  Lord, 

I  have  considered  in  council  your  letter  of  the  26th  of 
October,  Xo.  364,  proposinor  that  a  special  pension  of  Rs.  25 
a  month  should  be  granted  to  Babu  Dinesh  Chandra  Sen. 

2.  Your  recommendation  is  based  on  the  opinion  of 
competent  authorities  who  consider  that  a  work  by  Babu 
Dinesh  Chandra  Sen  entitled  Banga  Bhasha  O  Shahitya 
exhibits  considerable  original  research  in  the  history  of  the 
language  and  literature  of  Bengal.  You  also  state  that  the 
labour  involved  in  discovering  and  collating  the  manuscripts 
on  which  the  work  is  based,  has  told  seriously  on  the  health 
of  till    author. 

J.      ^'our  proposal  is  sanctioned. 

1  have    (Sec, 
Sd.)      (JEORGI-    HaMILION. 

EXTRACTS  FROM  LETTERS  AND  REVIEWS. 

l)r.  (t.  a.  Gricrson,  C     ^'..  C.  1 .  E..  icntcs    from   Simla. 

"  It  i>  ;ui  .uliunable  and  original  account  of  Bengali 
Literature,  it  must  long  remain  the  standard  authority  on 
the  subject.' 


OPINIONS.  5 

Mr.  H.  J.  S.  Cotton,  C.  S.,   C.  S.  /.,  late  Chief  Commissioner 
of  Assam,  wrote  under  date,  March  24,  i8gy. 

''  Babu  Dinesh  Chandra  Sen's  History  of  Bengali 
Language  and  Literature  appears  indeed  to  be  a  work  of 
great  erudition  and  labour." 

Mr.  F.  H.  Skrine,  late  Conunissioner  of  the  Chittagong 
Division,  ivrote  on  the  22nd  January  i8gy. 

"  The  History  is  a  work  of  profound  research  and  severe 
thankless  toil,  which  I  deeply  regret,  has  affected  your  health. 
I  say  'thankless'  because  it  is  much  to  be  feared  that  your 
countrymen  will  not  evince  a  proper  appreciation  of  your 
labour  in  the  interest  of  culture  and  knowledge ;  and  unless 
Government  comes  to  the  rescue  by  purchasing  a  number  of 
copies  of  the  book  for  distribution  amongst  its  officers,  you 
are  likely  to  be  out  of  pocket  by  your  disinterested  exertions. 

The  task  has  not  yet  advanced  beyond  a  description  of 
the  Bengalee  language  in  the  times  before  British  Rule. 
The  second  part,  if  it  appears  at  all,  will  not  be  a  satisfactory 
record  of  progress.  Bengali,  as  I  have  said  in  print,  is  a 
true  daughter  of  ancient  Sanskrit,  and  approaches  its  parent 
more  nearly  than  any  Indian  language  in  the  qualities  which 
have  rendered  Sanskrit  so  unrivalled  a  medium  for  the  ex- 
pression of  the  highest  ranges  of  human  thought.  It  unites 
the  mellifluousness  of  Italian  with  the  power  possessed  by 
German  of  rendering  complex  ideas,  and  I  cannot  but  regret 
that  so  little  encouragement  has  been  afforded  by  the  State 
to  its  cultivation.  If  a  tithe  of  the  pain  given  by  the 
Bengalis  to  acquire  a  smattering  of  English  had  been  devoted 
to  their  mother  tongue,  they  would  long  since  have  ceased 
to  merit  the  reproach  of    producing  little  or  no  original  work. 

However,  this  is  not  their  fault  but  their  misfortune. 
Thanks  to  the  decision  arrived  at  by  the  influence  of  Lord 
Macaulay,  Bengali,  in   common    with    the    other   vernaculars, 


6  OPINIONS. 

has  pined  in  the  cold  shade  of  official  disdain.  He  who 
seeks  to  illustrate  them  receives  neither  recognition  nor 
praise ;  and  he  cannot  look  forward  to  the  worldly  success 
which  attends  a  very  moderate  expertness  in  the  English 
tongue.  -5^  ^  -^  Wishing  you  a  speedy  recovery  and 
patronage  of  an  enlightened  Government,  etc." 

Later  on,  Mr.    Skrine  wrotQ  to  Dr.  Martin. 

"  It  is  an  epoch-making  book.  Babu  Dinesh  Chandra 
Sen  has  entirely  broken  down  by  the  severe  labour  entailed 
by  this  colossal  task. 

Extract  from  a  letter  from  Dr.  Martin,  Director  of  Public 
Instruction,  dated  the  2gth  November  i8gy. 
"  I  have  the  honour  to  request  that  you  will  be  so  good 
as  to  send  70  copies  of  it  (History  of  Bengali  language  and 
literature  )  to  this  office,  with  a  bill  of  cost.  You  may  also 
circulate  a  copy  of  Pandit  Hara  Prosad  Sastri's  review  of 
your  book  to  aided  colleges  and  schools  of  Bengal,  with  the 
intimation  that  in  the  opinion  of  this  office,  the  book  is 
deserving  of   a  place  in  their  libraries." 

Extract  from  a  letter  from  Mr.  A.  Pcdler,  F.R.  S.,  Director 
of  Public  histruction,  dated  the  2nd  March,  i8gg. 

"  I  have  the  honour  to  state  that  I  am  willing  to  subscribe 
to  70  copies  of    this  edition. 

"  I  am  to  add  that  I  fully  appreciate  the  value  ot  the  work 
otherwise  I  should  not  be  subscribing  to  the  2nd  as  well  as  to 
the  1st  edition." 

Luzac's  Orioital  List  says  ;  — 

|-5abu  Dines  Clumder  Sen's  "  Banga  Bhasa  andSahitya'" 
or  "  Language  and  Literature  of  Bengal,"  divides,  as  its 
titlt.'  indicates,  into  two  parts.  The  first  is  a  courageous  and 
learned  attempt  to    shew  that,  as  under    Buddhistic  influence. 


OPINIONS.  y 

Sanskrit  degenerated  into  loose  Prakrit  dialects,  so  with  the 
revival  of  Hinduism,  the  modern  Languages  of  India  recover- 
ed much  of  the  dignity  and  classical  correctness  of  Sanskrit. 
In  this  part  of  his  work,  the  writer  makes  copious  use  of 
the  researches  of  European  scholars,  and  especially  of  Dr. 
Hoernle  and  Dr.  Grierson,  which  do  in  fact  shew  that  the 
Bengali  and  its  cognate  dialects  are  the  survivals  through 
Prakrit  of  the  speech  of  the  first  Aryan  invaders  of  India. 
The  writer,  however,  in  his  patriotic  zeal,  goes  further  than 
this,  and  practically  denies  the  existence  of  any  indigenous 
influence  at  all.  He  traces  all  Bengali  inflections,  all  Bengali 
metres  to  Sanskrit  origins,  and  though  he  admits  the  existence 
of  a  few  words  which  cannot  "be  traced  to  Sanskrit  originals, 
he  regards  these  simply  as  unwelcome  intrusions  into  a 
literature  from  verbal  expressions.  In  short,  his  history  is 
one  of  literary  Bengali  which  is  even  more  highly  sanskritiz- 
ed  now  than  English  was  latinized  in  the  i8th  century.  Even 
if  we  do  not  accept  all  the  writer's  conclusions,  we  cannot 
help  seeing  how  natural  it  is  that  so  enthusiastic  a  scholar 
should  recognise  the  importance  of  upholding  the  dignity 
and  value  of  a  literature  which  has  been  too  little  studied 
even  by  Bengalis.  No  student  of  the  modern  languages 
of  India  can  read  this  part  of  Babu  Dines  Chander  Sen's 
work  without  profit  and  enjoyment,  so  obvious  is  the  scholarly 
zeal  with  which  it  is  written.  The  second  part  of  the  book 
is  entirely  original,  and  is  a  record  of  the  author's  search  for 
manuscripts  of  works  written  before  the  British  occupation 
of  India.  We  have  here  a  description  not  only  of  the 
standard  works  which  every  student  of  Bengali  reads,  but 
of  works  of  about  a  hundred  authors  hitherto  forgot- 
ten. To  the  European  reader,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that 
all  this  is  Hindu  literature.  It  was  a  literature  of  revolt 
against  Muslim  tendencies  and  has  no  trace  of  Mahomedan 
influence.     Some  day,   Babu    Dines  Chunder  Sen  may  write, 


S  OPINIONS. 

we  hope,  of  Bengali  literature  under  British  rule  ;  a 
literature  broadened  and  enriched  by  European  culture.  In 
this  literature,  Babu  Dines  Chander  Sen's  History  will  itself 
occupy  a  high  place  as  an  outcome  of  European  methods  of 
scholarship  applied  to  Eastern  learning. 

Extract  from  the  Calcutta  Gazette  of  March  24,  iSgy. 
"  Vangabhasa  O  Sahitya"  is  perhaps  the  most  noteworthy 
book  of  the  year.  It  is  the  outcome,  as  the  author  says,  of  six 
years'  patient  labour  and  research.  In  it  the  history  of  the 
Bengali  language  and  literature  has  been  traced  from  the 
earliest  times  down  to  1838  A.  D.  The  writer  has,  for  the  first 
time,  brought  to  light  a  number  of  minor  Bengali  poems,  the 
discovery  whereof  will  greatly  help  the  cause  of  linguistic  re- 
search in  Bengal.  He  has  remarkably  succeeded  in  utilising 
the  materials  at  his  command.  The  book  is  perhaps  the  first 
systematic  and  accurate  treatise  on  the  subject,  showing  a 
great  improvement  in  this  respect  over  its  predecessor,  the 
late  Pandit  Ramgati  Nayaratna's  book.  The  chapters  of  the 
book  on  case-suffixes  and  verbal  inflexions  in  Bengali  may  be 
regarded  as  perhaps  the  first  systematic  and  the  most  success- 
ful attempt  at  the  solution  of  a  very  knotty  problem." 

The  Englishman  devotes  two  leaders  of  its  two  successive  issues 
of  the  24th  and  2^th  December,  i8gy,  to  the  review  of  the 
hook  from  which  the  following  short  extract  is  taken  : — 
''  The    work    which  under  the  above  title  (Bangabhasha  0 
Sahitya)  has  been  recently  published  by  Babu  Dinesh  Chandra 
Sen,    Head   Master  of  the  Victoria  School  at  Tipperah,  is  one 
of  the  most  valuable  contributions  to  the    historv   and    growth 
of  thr  language  and  literature  of  Bengal  that  have  vet  appear- 
ed, and  will  have  the  result    of    modifying    several    previously 
accepted    conclusions    on    the  subject.      It  is  based  chiefly  on 
researrhrs    made    throughout    Eastern  Bengal,  with  the  object 
of  discov(^ring  the  numerous  ancient  manuscripts    which    have 


OPINIONS*  9 

long  lain  hid  in  the  houses  of  cultivators  throughout  the  rural 
villages  of  Eastern  Bengal,  and  whose  existence  was  previ- 
ously not  suspected. 

As  the  book  is  written  in  Bengali  and  its  contents  will  be 
available  to  comparatively  few  European  readers,  a  review  of 
its  contents  and  of  the  conclusions  that  it  leads  to  may  be 
found  to  be  of  interest.  It  was  in  1892,  when  engaged  in 
writing  a  treatise  on  the  origin  and  growth  of  the  Bengali 
language,  that  Babu  D.  C.  Sen  happened  by  chance  to  come 
across  an  ancient  manuscript  of  the  poem  Mrigalabdha  by  Rati 
Deb  and  on  further  enquiries  he  ascertained  from  reliable 
sources  that  there  were  many  such  ancient  books  existing  in 
the  villages  of  Tippera  and  Chittagong.  He  thereupon  set  to 
work  to  find  out  and  procure  such  as  could  be  got,  and  visited 
many  rural  villages  for  the  purpose.  He  succeeded  in  obtain- 
ing a  certain  number  and  in  ascertaining  the  existence  of 
others,  but  they  were  frequently  worm-eaten  and  otherwise  ill- 
preserved  and  it  was  sufficiently  clear  that  unless  their  con- 
tents could  be  preserved  by  means  of  printing  them,  the  bulk 
of  this  valuable  material  must  be  ultimately  lost.  Mr.  Sen 
consequently  wrote  for  advice  to  Professor  Hcernle,  from 
whom  he  received  valuable  assistance,  and  also  from  Pundit 
Kara  Prashad  Shastri  under  whose  advice  Pundit  Benode 
Behari  Kabyatirtha  of  the  Asiatic  Society  went  to  Comilla  to 
assist  him  in  his  search  and  continued  to  do  so  from  time  to 
time  for  short  periods. 

Together,  they  discovered  several  further  manuscripts,  and 
in  the  intervals,  the  author  continued  his  search  by  himself 
throughout  the  villages  of  Tippera,  Noakhali,  Sylhet,  Dacca 
and  Eastern  Bengal  generally.  He  thus  collected  numerous 
ancient  manuscripts.  The  task,  however,  was  one  of  difficulty, 
as  the  peasants  in  whose  houses  they  were  to  be  found,  were 
unwilling  to  part  with  them  or  even  to  show  them  fearing  that 

b 


10  OPINIONS. 

the  enquiry  was  being  made  with  the  object  of  imposing  a  tax 
on  the  owners  of  books.  Others  were  unwilling  to  part  with 
manuscripts  that  had  been  in  their  families  for  several  genera- 
tions. Babu  D.  C.  Sen,  however,  persevered  in  his  enquiries 
in  spite  of  all  obstacles  and  the  results  of  his  six  years'  labours 
are  now  incorporated  in  his  History  now  published.  The  cost 
of  publishing  the  work  which  would  have  been  beyond  the 
author's  means  has  been  borne  by  the  Maharaja  of  Tippera 
who  deserves  the  thanks  of  all  students  of  the  Bengali  lan- 
guage. *  *  -^  The  thanks  of  all  students  of  Bengali 
literature  are  due  to  Babu  Dinesh  Chandra  Sen  for  the  labours 
he  has  patiently  carried  on  for  six  years,  in  the  face  of  many 
difficulties." 

Extract  from  a  lengthy  review  by  Afahamahopadhyaya  Pundit 
Hara  Prasad  Sastri  MA.,  Principal,  Sanskrit  College, 
Calcutta,  in  the  Calcutta  University  Magazine,  May  1897. 

"The  graduates  of  the  Calcutta  University  are  often  re- 
proached with  renouncing  the  study  of  literature  as  soon  as 
they  enter  into  the  world.  In  many  instances  the  reproach  is 
well  deserved.  It  is.  therefore,  with  the  greatest  pleasure  that 
we  introduce  Babu  Dinesh  Chandra  Sen,  B.  A.,  to  the  notice 
of  our  educated  countrymen  as  a  gentleman  who  has  done  a 
good  deal  of  original  research  in  the  field  of  Bengali  literature. 
The  result  of  his  researches  and  labours  has  been  embodied 
in  a  handy  volume  entitled  '  Bangabhasa  O  Sahitya'  in  which 
he  gives  a  history  of  Bengali  literature  which  has  cast  into  the 
shade  all  previous  works  on  the  subject.  Indeed,  this  is  the 
first  work  on  the  history  of  Bengali  literature  which  deserves 
thr  name.  Many  hundreds  of  volumes  of  manuscripts,  hither- 
to unknown  to  the  educated  public,  have  not  only  been  brought 
to  light,  but  classified,  arranged  and  criticised.  Different 
schools  of  poetry  taking  their  rise  at  ditferent  periods 
of  national  (wistencc,  hav(^  been  traced  to  their  natural 
historical     causes,     and    the     lives     of     nearly     a     hundred 


OPINIONS.  U 

authors  have  been  saved  from  oblivion.  The  literature  of 
Eastern  Bengal  was  absolutely  unknown.  Nobody  even 
thought  that  there  were  Bengali  poets  in  Dacca,  Tipperah  and 
Chittagong  who  translated  the  whole  of  the  Ramayan,  the 
Mahabharat  and  the  large  number  of  other  works  bearing  on 
Hindu  religion  and  traditions,  into  Bengali.  The  credit  of 
bringing  this  vast  body  of  literature  to  public  notice  is  entirely 
due  to  Babu  Dinesh  Chandra  Sen  and  to  him  alone." 

Extract  from  an  article  by  Mahamahopadhya  Hara  Prasada 
Shastri,  M.  A.,  in  the  Calcutta  Review,  dated  October 
iSgy,  {the  article  covers  14  pages  of  the  Journal.) 

•  Bangabhasa  O  Shahitya'  is  the  title  of  a  Bengali  work  by 
Babu  Dinesh  Chandra  Sen,  B.  A.,  Head  Master  of  the  Victoria 
School,  Comilla,  on  the  history  of  Bengali  language  and 
literature.  It  is  a  neat,  handy  volume  running  through  403 
octavo  pages,  replete  with  information  of  the  highest  value  to 
students  who  take  any  interest  in  the  past  of  Bengali  races  or 
in  their  literature.  ^  "^  ^  An  active  search  for  Bengali 
manuscripts  began  in  various  quarters,  led  by  that  admirably 
useful  body  of  learned  men,  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal. 
Many  private  individuals  also  devoted  themselves  to  the  work. 
The  Bangiya  Sahitya  Parishad  or  Bengal  Academy  of  Litera- 
ture was  started  with  this  as  one  of  its  special  objects.  But 
by  tacit  consent  it  was  agreed  that  one  scholar  should  be 
entrusted  with  the  work  of  compiling  and  digesting  the  infor- 
mation already  collected,  and  Babu  Dinesh  Chandra,  whose 
enthusiasm  and  earnestness  in  the  matter  was  an  object  of 
admiration  to  all  concerned,  took  it  up.  Every  one  helped 
him  with  the  result  of  his  researches.  For  the  first  time  in  the 
history  of  Bengali  literature,  all  jealousy^  obstructionism  and 
petty  feelings  were  set  aside  to  enable  him  to  produce  a  great 
work.  Whoever  reads  Dinesh  Babu's  preface  with  care  will 
be  struck   with  the  modest,  yet  straightforward,  dignified,  yet 


t2  OPINIONS. 

grateful,  acknowledgment  of  the  services  he  has  received  from 
his  collaborators.  *  *  *  He  had  to  collect  MSS.  either 
himself  or  through  friends,  to  read  them,  to  classify  them,  and 
to  digest  them.  The  remoteness  of  his  residence,  in  an  out- 
of-the-way  corner  of  Bengal,  was  a  great  drawback  to  him. 
It  entailed  a  great  deal  of  correspondence  on  him,  and  the 
progress  of  his  work  was  often  hindered  by  the  dilatoriness  of 
correspondents.  But  he  has  surmounted  all  those  and  other 
difficulties,  and  his  work  is  now  before  the  public.  The  public, 
in  its  turn,  has  received  him  kindly  and  his  work  is  appreciated. 
^  "^^  ^  In  the  matter  of  Eastern  poets,  Babu  Dinesh  Chandra 
deserves  the  credit  of  a  discoverer.  He  has  laid  bare  one 
stratum  of  thought,  and  one  phase  of  authorship,  the  value  of 
which  cannot  be  over-rated.  His  services  in  respect  of 
Vaishnava  literature,  too,  are  very  great." 

Mr.  A.  C.  Sen,  hL  A.,  C.  S.,  late  District  and  Sessions  Judge, 
Rangpur,  wrote  referring  to  the  illness  of  the  author 
caused  by  his  labours  in  compiling  the  ivork — 

"  It  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  the  great  work  is  both 
his  monument  and  epitaph." 

Mr.  B.  C.  Mitra,  M.  A.  C.  S.,  District  and  Sessions  Judge, 
Cut  tack,  writes — 

"  I  can  say  with  the  utmost  confidence  that  it  is  a  work 
which  will  ensure  the  permanence  of  your  name  and  loving 
labour  in  the  annals  of  Bengali  literature.  I  am  thinking,  as 
soon  as  I  am  permitted  time,  of  writing  a  review  of  it.  For 
the  present,  I  will  content  myself  with  saying  that  it  is  a  book 
uf  the  merits  and  usefulness  of  which  I  entertain  the  very 
highest  ()[)inion.  In  wealth  of  details,  it  rivals  Morley's  First 
Sketch  ;  in  [)ower  of  graphic  language,  it  rivals  Taine  ;  in 
wubtk'ty  of  critical  analysis,  it  rivals  Dowden.  Your  close 
study  of  the  earliest  classics  in  Bengali  has  been  helpful  in 
investing   your   language    with    a    delicacy,    a    refinement,  a 


OPINIONS.  [ij 

clirectncss  vvhich  relieves  and  vivities  the  rtiinutiae  of  details 
that  your  industrious  research  has  brought  to  light,  I  think, 
for  the  first  time.  I  anxiously  await  the  publication  of  your 
second  volume,  and  earnestly  wish  that  you  will  soon  recover 
health  and  spirit  for  that  undertaking. 

Mr.    K.    C.    De,  B.  A.  C.  S.,    Magistrate   and   Collector    of 

Faridpur,  writes — 

"  I  have  made  time  to  read  through  almost  the  whole  of 
your  book  with  great  interest  and  not  inconsiderable  profit  to 
myself.'! 

Raja    Benoy   Krishna    Bahadur   of   Sobhabazar,    Calcutta, 
writes — 

**  You  have  dealt  with  the  subject  in  a  manner  which  has 
extorted  admiration  and  appreciation  from  every  quarter. 
Babu  Hirendra  Nath  Dutt,  M.  A.,  B.  L.,  Rai  Jotindra  Nath 
Choudhury,  M.  A.,  B.  L.,  Babu  Mano  Mohan  Bosu  and  several 
others  who  have  had  opportunities  of  reading  your  book, 
speak  very  favourably  of  your  efforts.  Indeed  every  one 
speaks  in  high  terms  of  your  very  creditable  performance. 
Although  one  or  two  gentlemen  differ  with  you  on  certain 
points,  but  none  the  less  they  appreciate  your  work  and  your 
precious  labour.  The  language  of  the  book  is  all  that  can  be 
desired.  It  now  remains  for  me  to  congratulate  you  most 
sincerely  on  the  celebrated  work  you  have  published  in  Ben- 
gali language.  Every  Bengali  gentleman  is  grateful  to  you 
for  this  rich  and  splendid  production  from  your  pen." 

Extract  from    the   half-yearly   report  of  the  Peace  Associa- 

tio?t,  Calcuttay  for  iSgy. 

Babu  Dinesh  Chandra  Sen  has  published  his  book 
'  ^f  ^T^l  ^  Tlf^^'  and  a  copy  of  it  has  been  presented  to  the 
Association.  Babu  Dinesh  Chandra  was  the  first  Vidyasagar 
medalist  of  the  Association  and  he  says  in  the   preface  to   his 


i4  OPINIONS. 

book  that  the  Vidyasagar  medal  gave  him  the  incentive  for  its 
composition.  '  ^5f^Nl  ^  Itft^j'  has  been  enthusiastically 
received  by  the  public  and  has  been  declared  to  be  an  epoch- 
making  book  in  Bengali  literature.  The  members  congratulate 
themselves  on  having  a  hand  in  the  production  of  the  work. 
Concerned  as  they  are  to  learn  that  the  pressure  of  work 
entailed  by  the  composition  of  the  book  has  shattered  the 
author's  health,  they  pray  to  God  that  he  may  soon  be  restored 
to  health." 

Extract  from  a  circular  from  the  late  Babu  Dinanath  Sen, 
Inspector  of  Schools,  Eastern  Circle,  to  the  Head  Masters 
of  Hif^h  English  Schools  under  him,  dated  Dacca,  the 
<Sth  March,  iSgy. 

"  A  very  important  book  on  the  History  of  the  Bengali 
language  and  literature  has  been  published  by  Babu  Dinesh 
Chandra  Sen,  Head  Master  of  the  Victoria  School  at  Comilla. 
It  is  desirable  that  a  copy  of  the  book  should  be  kept  in  the 
library  of  each  school  in  which  Bengali  is  taught  and  which 
may  have  funds  to  buy  it  "^  ^  *" 

The  late  Ilonble  Babu  Guru  Prasad  Sen,  pleader  of 
Bankipur,  ivrotc — 

"  Now  permit  me  to  say  that  yours  was  the  best  book  I 
read  for  many  a  year  in  Bengali  and  I  at  once  came  to  be  an 
admirer  of  the  author  and  since  then  knowing  that  you  are  a 
Vaidya  and  of  the  same  section  to  which  I  have  the  honour  to 
belong  and  you  belong  to  East  Bengal,  there  has  grown  in  mc 
a  sort  (jf,    I  hope,  permissible  [)ride  in  your  work." 

Rai  Sarat  Chandra   iJas  Bahadur,  C.I  E.,  writes — 

"  I  h.i\("  re;i(l  your  exeelleiit  work  with  keen  interest.  I 
shouJ.i  likr  to  l)uy  a  copy  of  it.  iMom  the  contents  of  the  first 
volume  one  can  draw  a  good  deal  of  information  for  the  inter- 
est of  Europej\n  ^jcholars. 


OPINIONS,  15 

RAMAYaNI  KATHA—( Sketches  from  th«  RImiyana.) 

Sister  Nivedita  (  Miss  Noble  )  says  : — 

*'  Your  Ramsyani  Katha  has  been  most  helpful  and  inspir- 
ing to  all  of  us  who  heard  them  read  together  sometime  ago. 
We  liked  them  very  much  indeed.  I  have  a  very  special 
appreciation  of  your  literary  enthusiasm  for  the  Bengali 
Language  used  for  the  Indian  classics.  You  are  doing  a 
much  greater  and  more  enduring  work  than  you  now  realise," 

Kumar  Sarat    Kumar    Roy   M.A.    of  Dighapatia  says  : — - 

"  Your  Ramayani  Katha  is  another  monumental  work 
which  will  raise  you  high  in  the  estimation  of  the  public — • 
at  the  same  time  benefiting  the  domestic  life  of  Bengal  to  an 
appreciable  degree." 

Mr.    Krishna  Kantha   Malaviya    of  Allahabad  who  is  Iran- 
slating  the  book  in  Hindi  says  : — 

"To  me  the  Ramayani  Katha  possesses  the  world's 
literature  in  itself.  I  have  requested  many  friends  of  mine 
to  acquire  Bengali  only  for  the  sake  of  reading  the  Ramayani 
Katha." 


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