Skip to main content

Full text of "History of the British Empire"

See other formats 


HISTORY 


THE   BRITISH   EMPIRE. 


WILLIAM  FRANCIS  COLLIER,  LL.D., 

TRINITY   COLLEGE,   DUBLIN; 
Author  of  "  Great  Events  of  History,"    "  History  of  English  Literature,"   Ac. 


LONDON: 
T.    NELSON   AND   SONS,   PATERNOSTER  ROW; 

EDINBURGH  ;   AND  NEW  YORK. 


AlUCCCLXVI. 


3-2- 
Cif 

PREFACE. 


THIS  book  aims  at  giving  a  clear  outline  of  British  History, 
retaining  those  details  only,  upon  which  the  life  and  colour 
of  the  story  depend. 

The  earlier  Periods,  during  which  settlers  of  various  names 
and  races  continued  to  pour  from  the  mainland  of  Europe 
upon  these  shores,  have  been  sketched  less  minutely  than 
those  later  times,  when  the  nation,  already  formed  and  rooted, 
began  to  grow  from  within  and  to  expand  her  mighty  en- 
ergies. 

At  the  beginning  of  each  Period  is  given  an  Outline,  in- 
tended to  serve  as  a  framework  for  the  study  of  the  succeed- 
ing chapters.  Each  Period  closes  with  a  picture  of  the  daily 
life  and  manners  of  the  people,  which,  it  is  hoped,  will  be 
considered  both  attractive  and  useful. 

It  has  been  thought  best  to  condense  the  Literary  and 
Artistic  History  into  a  list  of  eminent  men,  with  notes  of 
their  chief  works.  For  convenience'  sake  the  leading  men 
of  the  Brunswick  Period,  whose  names  grow  very  numerous, 
are  given  at  the  end  of  each  reign. 

Since  the  exactness  of  historical  knowledge  depends  greatly 
upon  Chronology  and  Genealogy,  these  have  been  made  pro- 
minent features  of  the  work.  While  the  leading  dates  are 
given  with  the  text  in  the  order  of  time,  they  are  also  grouped 
under  certain  heads ;  in  which  form  they  may  be  made  the 
foundation  of  most  interesting  lessons.  In  the  Genealogical 
Trees  the  line  of  descent  from  Egbert  and  Malcolm  Can- 


IV  PREFACE. 

more  to  Victoria  can  be  clearly  traced,  with  all  its  collateral 
branches. 

Instead  of  the  usual  host  of  questions  for  examination, 
a  few  questions  are  given  by  which  any  reign  may  be  fully 
analyzed.  A  list  of  Colonies,  with  notes  upon  their  situa- 
tion, their  history,  and  their  value,  will  be  found  at  the 
end  of  the  book. 

Although  written  for  Schools,  this  book  will  be  found  to 
contain  all  that  is  necessary  to  work  a  British  History  Paper 
for  the  Government  Certificate  of  Merit,  for  the  Middle 
Class  Degree  of  A  A,  or  for  most  of  the  Civil  Service  Ex- 
aminations. 


CONTENTS. 


Chap.  Pag- 

INTBODUCTION,              ...             ...  ...  ...  ...  9 

ROMAN  PERIOD. 

I.  Roman  Period,               ...             ...  ...  ...  ,  .  13 

Leading  Dates,              ...             ...  ...  ...  ...  10 

SAXON  PERIOD. 

I.  Time  of  the  Heptarchy,                 ...  ...      '        ...  ...  20 

II.  Early  Saxon  Kings,        ...              ...  ...  ...  ...  24 

III.  Time  of  Danish  Rule,     ...              ...  ...  ...  ...  32 

IV.  Saxon  Line  restored,      ...              ...  ...  ...  ...  35 

V.  Scotland  and  Ireland  during  the  Saxon  Period,  ...  ...  39 

VI.  Social  Condition  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  ...  ...  ...  41 

Leading  Authors,           ...              ...  ...  ...  ...  46 

Leading  Dates,               ...             ...  ...  ...        •    ...  46 

Genealogical  Trees,        ...             ...  ...  ...  ...  47 

•  EARLY  NORMAN  KINGS. 

I.  William  I ...              ...  ...  ...  ...  4S 

II.  William  II.,    ...             ...             ...  ...  ...  ...  53 

III.  Henry  I.,        ...,             ...              ...  ...  ...  ...  58 

IV.  Stephen,          ...              ...              ...  ...  ...  ...  60 

V.  Scotland  during  the  Norman  Period,  ...  ...  ...  64 

VI.  Social  Condition  of  the  Normans,  ...  ...  ...  fi6 

Leading  Authors,            ...              ...  ...  ...  ...  71 

Leading  Dates,     -          ...              ...  ...  ...  ...  72 

Genealogical  Tree,         ...             ...  ...  ...  ...  Tl 

PLANTAGENETS  PROPER. 

I.  Henry  II.,      ...             ...             ...  ...  ...  ...  73 

II.  Richard  I.,   ...     ...     ...  ...  ...  ...  78 

III.  John,      ...     ...     ...  ...  ...  ...  8* 

IV.  Henry  III.,  ...     ...     ...  ...  ...  ...  a6 


yi  CONTENTS. 

Ciwp.  P««« 

V.  Edward  I.,      ... 

VI.  Edward  II ...             —  —  $* 

VII.  Edward  IIL,  ...             ...  —  97 

VIIL  Richard  II.,    ...             ...             ...             —  —  103 

IX.  Scotland  and  Ireland  during  the  first  Seven  Plantagenet  Reigns,  107 

X.  Social  Condition  of  the  People  under  the  Plantagenets  Proper,  113 

Leading  Authors,           ...              ...              ...  ...  ...  116 

Leading  Dates,              ...             ...             ...  ...  ...  116 

Genealogical  Tree,         ...             ...             ...  ...  118 

HOUSE  OF  LANCASTER. 

I.  Henry  IV.,     ...             ...             ...             ...  ...  ...  119 

II.  Henry  V. 123 

III.  Henry  VI.,      ...             ...             ...             ...  ...  ...  127 

HOUSE  OF  YORK. 

I.  Edward  IV.,   ...              ...              ...              ...  ...  ...  133 

II.  Edward  V.,     ...              ...              ...              ...  ...  ...  138 

III.  Richard  III ...             ...             ...  ...  ...  139 

IV.  Social  Condition  of  the  People  under  the  Houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  142 
Leading  Authors,           ...             ...             ...  ...  ...  144 

Leading  Dates,               ...             ...             ...  ...  ...  144 

Genealogical  Tree,         ...             ...             ...  ...  ...  145 

TUDOR  PERIOD. 

I.  Henry  VII.,    ...              ...              ...              ...  ...  ...  146 

II.  Henry  VIII.    ...             ...              ...              ...  ...  ...  157 

III.  Edward  VI.,    ...              ...              ...              ...  ...  ...  169 

IV.  Mary  I.,           ...              ...              ...             ...  '  ...  ...  173 

V.  Elizabeth,        ...             ...              ...             ...  ...  ...  177 

VI.  Stuart  Sovereigns  of  Scotland— Ireland,       ...  ...  ...  185 

VII.  Social  Condition  of  the  People  under  the  Tudors,  ...  ...  193 

Leading  Authors,           ...              ...              ...  199 

Leading  Dates,               ...             ...             ...  ...  ...  201 

Genealogical  Tree,         ...             ...             ...  ...  ...  202 

STUART  PERIOD. 

I.  James  I.,        ...             ...             ...             ...  ...  ...  203 

II.  Charles  I.,       ...              ...              ...              ...  ...  ...  209 

III.  Commonwealth,              ...              ...             ...  ...  ...  220 

IV.  Charles  II.,     ...             ...             ...             ..  ...  ...  227 

V.  James  II.,       ...              ...              ...             ...  ...  ...  238 

VI.  William  III.  and  Mary  II.,             ...              ...  ...  ...  247 

VIL  Anne,              ...              ...  253 


CONTENTS.  'VU 

Ch»p.  P»(jl 

VIII.  Social  Condition  of  the  People  under  the  Stuarts,       ...  ...  269 

Leading  Authors,           ...              ...  ...  ...  ...  265 

Leading  Dates,              ...             ...  ...  ...  ...  267 

Genealogical  Tree,         ...             ...  ...  ...  ...  269 

GDELPH  PERIOD. 

I.  George  I.,       ...             ...             ...  ...  ...  ...  270 

Leading  Authors,           ...              ...  ...  ...  ...  276 

II.  George  II.,      ...             ...             ...  ...  ...  ...  277 

Leading  Authors,           ...             ...  ...  ...  ...  287 

III.  George  III.,    ...             ...             ...  ...  ...  ...  289 

IV.  George  III.  (continued),                ...  ...  ...  ...  296 

Loading  Authors,           ...              ...  ...  ...  ...  308 

V.  George  IV.,    ...             ...             ...  ...  ...  ...  310 

Leading  Authors,  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  813 

VL  William  IV.,                   ...             ...  ...  ...  ...  815 

Leading  Authors,  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  318 

VIL  Victoria,         ...             ...             ...  ...  ...  ...  319 

Leading  Authors,  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  831 

VI IL  The  British  Constitution  and  Government,  ...  ...  334 

Leading  Dates,               ...              ...  ...  ...  ...  837 

Genealogical  Tree,         ...             ...  ...  ..  ...  889 

British  Colonies  and  Dependencies,  ...  ...  ...  240 


QUESTIONS  FOE  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  ANY  REIGH. 


1.  Give  the  Period  to  which  the 
reign  belongs — its  place  in  the 
Period— its  opening  and  clos- 
ing Dates. 

II.  Trace  the  Descent  of  the  Sove- 
reign from  the  Conqueror — 
name  the  father,  mother,  bro- 
thers, sisters,  husband  or  wife, 
sons  arid  daughters. 

III.  Describe  the  personal  life,  char- 

acter, and  death  of  the  Sove- 
reign. 

IV.  Describe  the  Foreign  Policy  of 

the  reign — giving  especially  the 
Wars  and  Alliances. 
V.  Describe  the  Domestic  Policy  of 
the  reign. 


VL  Name  and  describe  all  Import- 
ant Laws,  and  other  Constitu- 
tional Changes. 

VII.  Give  any  Dominions  acquired  or 
lost,  and  Colonies  planted,  ic. 
VIII.  Name  the  leading  Statesmen, 
Warriors,  Authors,  Men  of 
Science,  &c.— and  tell  for  what 
they  are  famous. 

IX  Give  and  explain  any  Histori- 
cal Names  or  Titles — such  ai 
Triers,  Ordainers,  Field  of 
the  Cloth  of  Gold,  Ac, 
X.  State  and  describe  the  leading 
Events,  classifying  them  as  re- 
ligious, political,  social,  com- 
mercial, literary,  Ac. 


In  describing  an  event  there  are  six  things  always  to  be  given:  1.  The  Canscs 
2.  The  Time.  8.  The  Place.  4.  The  Persons  concerned.  6.  The  Circum- 
stances. 6.  The  Consequences. 


HISTORY 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE. 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  British  Isles. 
Etymology  of  names. 
Earliest  inhabitants. 


Their  condition  In  Caesar'* 

time. 
Druidism. 


THE  British  Isles  lie  to  the  north-west  of  the  Continent  of 
Europe;  the  larger,  Great  Britain,  being  situated  near  the 
Continent ;  the  smaller,  Ireland,  lying  further  west  in  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  Great  Britain,  called  by  the  ancients 
Albion  and  Britannia,  comprises  the  three  countries,  Eng- 
land, Wales,  and  Scotland. 

The  origin  of  the  names,  Britain,  Albion,  Wales,  and  Scot- 
land, is  wrapped  in  much  obscurity.  Some  have  supposed 
that  the  name  Britain  was  derived  from  Brutus,  a  son  of 
Ascanius  the  Trojan.  The  name  Albion — still  used  in  the 
form  Albyn,  or  Alpin,  as  the  Highland  term  for  Scotland — 
is  supposed  to  have  been  given  to  the  island  by  the  Gauls, 
from  the  chalk  cliffs  of  the  south-eastern  coast.  It  is  a 
Celtic  word,  meaning  '  White  Island,'  and  is  most  likely  con- 
nected with  albus  and  Alp,  Wales,  or  Weallas,  is  thought 
to  have  been  so  named  from  a  Saxon  word,  meaning  '  wan- 
derers' or  'foreigners,'  because  it  was  peopled  by  British 
refugees.  It  was  also  called  Cambria.  The  Welsh  have 
always  called  themselves  Cymri,  a  name  which  probably 
connects  them  with  the  ancient  Ciinbri.  Scotland  took  its 


10  THE  CELTS. 

name  from  a  tribe  called  Scoti, — perhaps  akin  to  the  Scy- 
thians of  Northern  Europe, — who,  early  in  the  Christian 
era,  passed  from  the  north  of  Ireland  into  Britain,  and, 
many  centuries  afterwards,  gave  their  name  to  their  new 
country.  At  the  time  of  the  Roman  invasion  the  southern 
Britons  called  the  inhabitants  of  the  northern  part  of  the 
island  Caoill  daoin,  or  '  people  of  the  woods.'  Hence  the 
Latinized  name  Caledonia.  The  etymology  of  the  word 
England  admits  of  no  doubt.  It  is  another  form  of  Angle- 
land,  and  was  derived  from  the  Angli,  the  chief  of  the  Saxon 
tribes.  The  smaller  island  was  anciently  called  lerne,  a 
name  which  seems  to  have  been  formed  from  the  Celtic  word 
eire,  meaning  *  west.'  The  Romans  called  it  Hibernia  and 
Insula  Sacra.  Its  present  names  are  Ireland  and  Erin,  in 
which  can  still  be  traced  its  old  appellation. 

These  two  islands,  lying  almost  in  the  centre  of  the  land 
hemisphere,  with  the  great  colonies  of  British  America,  Aus- 
tralia, and  Cape  Colony,  with  India,  and  numerous  smaller 
dependencies  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe,  form  the  British 
Empire.  The  obj  ect  of  this  work  is  to  trace,  from  the  earliest 
time,  of  which  we  have  any  sure  knowledge,  to  the  present 
day,  the  events  which  have  united  under  one  Sovereign  so 
many  scattered  lands. 

The  original  inhabitants  of  the  British  Isles  were  Celts. 
The  population  now  consists  of  two  well-defined  races — 
the  Celtic  and  the  Gothic,  branches  of  the  great  Indo-Euro- 
pean or  Japhetic  stock  The  former  are  found  in  Wales, 
Cornwall,  the  Isle  of  Man,  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  and 
the  south  and  west  of  Ireland, — in  all  places  speaking  the 
same  language,  though  in  different  dialects,  and  still  retain- 
ing in  manners  and  dress  many  peculiarities  of  the  ancient 
race ;  while  the  latter  hold  the  lower  and  more  fertile  dis- 
tricts. Akin  to  the  Celts  of  Britain  are  the  Bretons,  or  people 
of  Bretagne,  anciently  Arrnorica,  the  most  westerly  part  of 
France. 

Many  centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  Phoenician  sailors 
from  the  colonies  in  Africa  and  Spain  visited  the  British 
Islands,  led  thither  by  their  rich  tin  mines.  Herodotus, 
writing  about  four  centuries  and  a  half  before  Christ,  men- 
tions the  Cassiterides  or  Tin  Islands  (supposed  to  be  the 


THE  DRUIDS.  1 1 

Scilly  Isles) ;  but  the  Greeks  then  knew  nothing  of  them 
beyond  their  existence. 

From  Csesar,  Tacitus,  Diodorus  Siculus,  and  others,  we 
learn  a  little  about  ancient  Britain.  The  country  seems  to 
have  been  then  full  of  marsh  and  forest,  with  a  few  patches 
of  rudely  tilled  ground  on  the  shore  next  Gaul.  The  natives 
of  the  interior  sowed  no  corn,  but  lived  on  milk  and  flesh. 
Those  far  north  were  often  obliged  to  feed  on  the  roots  and 
leaves  which  grew  wild  in  the  woods.  They  clad  themselves 
in  skins,  leaving  their  limbs  bare ;  and  these  they  stained 
blue  with  the  juice  of  a  plant  called  woad.  They  were  a 
brave  and  hardy  people,  and  had  some  knowledge  of  war. 
Csesar  describes  them  as  fighting  on  foot,  on  horseback,  and 
in  chariots,  which,  from  blades  that  have  been  dug  up  on 
ancient  battle-fields,  seem  to  have  been  armed  with  scythes 
attached  to  the  axle.  Although  divided  into  many  tribes, 
they  chose  a  single  leader  when  danger  menaced  their  com- 
mon country ;  and,  thus  united,  they  were  most  formid- 
able. Those  who  lived  in  the  south  were,  from  their  in- 
tercourse with  Gaul,  more  civilized  than  the  rest.  They 
wore  a  dress  of  woollen  cloth,  woven  in  many  colours ;  and 
were  adorned  with  chains  of  gold,  silver,  or  bronze.  Golden 
and  silver  ornaments  for  the  arms,  neck,  and  head ;  rings  of 
various  metals,  which  Csesar  says  were  the  only  sort  of 
money  they  used ;  spear  and  arrow  heads  of  flint  and  bronze, 
shaped  with  a  delicacy  which,  with  all  our  machinery,  we 
cannot  excel ;  and  great  works  of  rudely  piled  stone,  such 
as  Stonehenge  in  Wiltshire  and  Stennes  in  Orkney,  are  almost 
the  only  memorials  by  which  we  can  judge  of  this  ancient 
people. 

The  religion  of  the  Celts  was  Druidism  ;  their  priests  were 
called  Druids  ;  and  their  chief  sanctuary  was  the  Island  of 
Mona,  now  Anglesea.  The  word  Druid  seems  to  be  con- 
nected with  drm,  the  Greek  name  of  the  oak,  their  sacred 
t/ee.  In  addition  to  their  priestly  duties,  the  Druids  were 
the  bards,  the  lawgivers,  and  the  teachers  of  the  people. 
They  wore  long  white  robes  and  flowing  beards,  to  distin- 
guish them  from  the  people,  over  whom  they  had  complete 
control.  They  believed  in  the  transmigration  of  souls,  and 
taught  the  worship  of  one  God ;  but  the  serpent,  the  sun 


12  Fit  U1T  FEASTS. 

and  moon,  and  the  oak,  shared  their  veneration ;  and  their 
altars  were  stained  with  the  blood  of  men  and  women, 
whom,  as  Csesar  tells,  they  burned  in  large  numbers,  en- 
closed in  immense  cages  of  wicker  work.  These  victims 
were  generally  men  who  had  been  convicted  of  theft  or  some 
other  crime,  their  sacrifice  being  deemed  peculiarly  accept- 
able to  the  gods;  but  in  the  absence  of  such,  they  never 
hesitated  to  immolate  the  innocent.  The  circles  of  stone 
already  referred  to  are  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the 
scenes  of  these  fearful  rites ;  but  it  is  more  probable  that 
they  were  sepulchral  monuments  erected  in  honour  of  de- 
parted chiefs.  The  oak  groves  were  the  dwellings  of  the 
Druids,  and  the  temples  for  their  daily  worship.  Their 
three  chief  feasts  had  reference  to  the  harvest :  one  was 
held  after  the  seed  was  sown,  another  when  the  corn 
was  ripening,  and  a  third  when  the  crop  was  gathered 
in.  Besides  these,  a  solemn  ceremony  took  place  on  the 
sixth  day  of  the  moon  nearest  to  the  10th  of  March, 
which  was  their  New-year's-day,  when  the  Archdruid  with 
a  golden  knife  cut  the  mistletoe  from  its  parent  oak ;  while 
attendant  priests,  with  their  white  robes  outspread,  caught 
the  sacred  plant  as  it  fell  The  traces  of  >lhese  customs  lin- 
ger still,  especially  in  the  south  of  England,  where  the  sports 
of  May-day,  the  fires  of  Midsummer-eve,  the  harvest-home, 
and  the  cutting  of  the  mistletoe  at  Christmas,  are  duly  ob- 
served. 


LANDING  OF  C^SAR. 


13 


ROMAN    PERIOD. 

55  B.C.  to  410  A.D. — 465  years. 

Leading  Features:  THE  DAWN  OF  CIVILIZATION',  AND  THE 
INTRODUCTION  OP  CHRISTIANITY. 


Julius  Cassar  Istads. 

His  return. 

Intentions    of   Augustus 

and  Caligula. 
Lieutenants  of  Claudius. 
Caractacus. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Boadicea. 

Agricola, 

Roman  walls. 

Severus. 

Roman  division  of  Britain. 

Caurausius  and  Allectus. 


Christianity  introduced. 

Withdrawal  of  the  Ro- 
mans. 

Scotland  and  Ireland  dur- 
ing Roman  period. 

Roman  roads  and  towns. 


JULIUS  CAESAR,  having  subdued  the  tribes  of  Gaul,  desired 
to  add  Britain  to  his  conquests.  He  had  left  a  legion 
under  Publius  Crassus  to  guard  the  Venetic  Isles,  the  group 
of  which  Belle-isle  is  chief;  and  from  the  soldiers  he  learned 
the  course,  long  and  carefully  kept  a  secret,  by  which  the 
Gallic  merchants  reached  the  coast  of  Britain.  The  valu- 
able pearl  fisheries,  and  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  island, 
were  inducements  additional  to  the  glory  which  he  expected 
to  reap.  He  first  called  together  a  number  of  Gallic  mer- 
chants, but  could  learn  nothing  of  value  from  them ; 
then,  having  sent  an  officer  with  a  ship  of  war  to  55 
reconnoitre,  he  crossed  the  Strait  of  Dover,  called  B.C. 
in  Latin  '  Fretum  Oceani,'  with  80  ships,  having  on 
board  two  legions,  or  12,000  troops.  He  found  the  high, 
white  cliffs  of  Kent  studded  with  bands  of  Britons,  and  had 
much  difficulty  in  landing ;  however,  the  eagle-bearer  of  the 
tenth  legion  led  the  way,  and  Roman  discipline  prevailed. 
Four  days  after,  a  storm  shattered  the  fleet;  and  Caesar, 
having  repaired  his  vessels,  thought  it  best  to  return  to 
Gaul.  He  had  been  absent  seventeen  days. 

Next  summer  he  landed  on  the  Kentish  shore  with  five 
legions,  comprising  30,000  foot  and  2000  horse.  The  British 
tribes  had  united  their  forces,  and  were  led  by  Cassivelau- 


14  LIEUTENANTS  OF  CLAUDIUS. 

nus,  whose  territory  lay  along  the  Thames.  He  proved  him- 
self a  brave  and  skilful  general,  and  kept  the  Eomans  in 
check  for  some  time,  by  taking  advantage  of  the  woods  and 
rivers.  However,  Caesar  forced  his  way  across  the  Thames, 
and  came  up  with  his  foe,  intrenched  in  the  midst  of  thick 
woods  and  treacherous  marshes.  Here  the  British  chief 
held  out  for  a  while,  in  hopes  that  the  leaders  of  the  Kent- 
ish tribes  would  take  the  Koman  camp  and  burn  the  fleet ; 
but,  when  he  heard  that  they  had  been  foiled  in  this  attempt, 
he  came  to  terms  with  Caesar.  Hostages  were  given,  the 
amount  of  yearly  tribute  settled,  and  Caesar  went  back  to 
GauL 

.„          Until  the    reign  of   the  Emperor  Claudius,  the 
Romans  did  not  return  to  Britain.    Augustus,  first 
Emperor  of  Rome,  had  formed  a  plan  to  do  so,  but 
its  execution  was  prevented.    The  foolish  Caligula  led  his 
troops  to  the  shore  of  Gaul,  opposite  to  Britain ;  where,  hav- 
ing shown  them  the  faint  outline  of  the  hills  in  the  distance, 
he  set  them  to  gather  shells  in  their  helmets,  as  the  spoils 
of  the  conquered  ocean.    This  he  celebrated  on  his  return 
to  Rome  with  a  triumph. 

Plautius  and  Vespasian,  the  lieutenants  of  Claudius,  after 
hard  fighting,  gained  a  footing  on  the  island.  Plautius,  sup- 
plied from  Gaul  with  all  necessaries,  drove  the  Britons  across 
the  Thames ;  but  further  he  could  not  go,  until  the  Emperor 
joined  him  with  new  forces.  Then,  having  crossed  the  river, 
the  Romans  penetrated  Essex,  where  they  founded  their  first 
colony — Camalodunum,now  Colchester  or  Maldon.  Vespasian 
fought  more  than  thirty  battles,  before  he  subdued  the  tribes 
of  Hampshire  and  Wight. 

Plautius  was  succeeded  by  Ostorius  Scapula,  who  disarmed 
all  the  Britons  within  the  Roman  bounds.  This  act  roused 
the  spirit  of  the  natives.  The  Silures,  a  tribe  of  South 
Wales,  took  the  lead ;  and  under  their  chief,  Caractacus,  they 
kept  the  Romans  in  constant  War  for  nine  years.  But  at 
last  the  Romans,  having  forced  their  way  into  the  British 
strongholds,  routed  the  army  of  Caractacus ;  who,  fleeing  to 
his  step-mother,  Cartismandua,  Queen  of  the  Brigantes,  was 
by  her  betrayed  into  their  hands.  He  was  led  in  triumph 
through  the  streets  of  Rome,  aod  was  doomed  to  die ;  but  his 


JULIUS  AGRICOLA.  15 

dauntless  bearing  in  the  Emperor's  presence  won  for  him  a 
free  pardon. 

Another  leader  of  the  Britons  was  Boadicea,  who,  in  Nero's 
reign,  was  Queen  of  the  Iceni,  a  tribe  inhabiting  Norfolk  and 
Suffolk.  She,  having  suffered  shameful  wrongs  and  insults 
from  the  Komans,  called  her  countrymen  to  arms.  She  led 
them  to  battle,  destroyed  Camalodunum  and  London, 
which  was,  even  at  this  early  date,  a  flourishing  com-  6 1 
mercial  town  ;  but,  being  defeated  by  Suetonius  Pau-  A.D. 
linus,  she  killed  herself. 

To  Julius  Agricola,  lieutenant  of  Domitian,  is  due  the 
honour  of   making  Britain  a  Roman  province  in 
more  than  name.    We  have  an  account  of  his  opera-      78 
tions  in  the  works  of  Tacitus,  his  son-in-law.    While     A.D 
he  upheld  the  terror  of  the  Roman  arms  and  checked 
all  revolt,  he  adopted  a  milder  policy.    He  taught  the  arts 
of  peace  to  the  conquered  race,  and  many  high-born  Britons 
assumed  the  Roman  toga,  language,  and  manner  of  life.    He 
did  what  no  Roman  general  had  yet  done,  in  penetrating  the 
pathless  woods  of  Caledonia,  and  extending  Roman  rule  to 
the  shores  of  the  Moray  Frith.    In  this  expedition  he 
had  to  contend  with  many  fierce  foes,  and  fought  a 
battle  at  Mons  Grampius,  with  the  Caledonian  chief      84 
Galgacus,  before  passing  that  great  natural  barrier.     A.D. 
The  scene  of  this  battle  is  uncertain :  many  name 
Ardoch  in  Perthshire  as  the  probable  place.    While  cruising 
upon  the  northern  coasts,  the  sailors  of  Agricola  discovered 
Britain  to  be  an  island. 

This  great  general  built  two  lines  of  forts  from  sea  to  sea, 
for  the  protection  of  the  southern  provinces ;  one  from 
the  Tyne  to  the  Sol  way  Frith;  the  other,  two  years      79 
after,  from  th?  Frith  of  Forth  to  the  Frith  of  Clyde.     A.D. 
The  Emperor  Adrian,  unable  to  hold  the  northern 
ramparts,  raised  that  called.  Vallum  Adriani,  or  the    120 
Picts'  Wall,  close  to  the  first  chain  of  forts  built  by     A.D. 
Agricola.   In  the  reign  of  Antonine  the  Romans,  under 
Lollius  Urbicus,  pushed  their  territory  far  north,  and    138 
restored  Agricola's  second  wall,  which  was  then  called     A.D. 
Vallum    Antonini,  and  at  a  later  date    Graham's 
Dyke. 


16  ROMAN  DIVISION  OF  BPJTAIN. 

More  than  once  a  Roman  governor  of  Britain  assumed 
the  imperial  purple.  This  happened  in  one  case  during  the 
reign  of  Severus,  when  Albinus  led  the  British  legions  into 
Gaul  to  contest  the  Empire.  Severus,  victorious  over  his 
rival,  divided  the  government  of  Britain  between  two  of  his 
lieutenants ;  but  he  was  soon  obliged,  by  the  incursions  of  the 
Caledonians,  to  visit  the  island  in  person.  He  marched  to 
attack  his  fierce  foes  in  their  mountain  fastnesses.  They, 
whose  only  weapons  were  a  dirk,  a  heavy  sword  slung  around 
them  by  an  iron  chain,  and  a  lance  with  a  bell  at  one  end, 
and  whose  sole  protection  was  a  rude  target  of  hide,  soon 
yielded  to  the  skill  and  valour  of  disciplined  legions.  Severus 
traversed  their  forests,  and,  having  inflicted  heavy  punish- 
ment for  their  ravages,  built,  a  few  yards  from  the  wall  of 
Adrian,  a  strong  stone  wall,  requiring  a  garrison  of  10,000 
men.  He  had  scarcely  turned  south  when  the  Caledonians 
rose  again ;  and  in  his  northward  march  to  reduce 
211  them  he  died  at  York,  then  Ebor&cum.  His  son 
A.D.  Caracalla  yielded  to  the  native  chiefs  all  the  terri- 
tory north  of  the  wall  built  by  his  father. 
By  the  Romans,  Britain  was  divided  into  six  provinces. 
These  were  as  follow : — 

I.  BRITANNIA  PRIMA,  including  all  the  country  south  of  Glou- 
cestershire and  the  Thames. 

II.  FLAVIA  C-iESARIENSIS,  the  central  counties,  forming  a  square 
whose  angles  rest  on  the  Wash  and  the  mouths  of  the  Dee,  the 
Severn,  and  the  Thames. 

III.  BRITANNIA  SECUNDA,  Wales  and  that  part  of  England  west 

of  the  Severn  and  the  Dee. 

IV.  MAXIMA  CJESARIENSIS,  from  the  Wash  and  the  Dee  on  the 

south  to  the  wall  of  Adrian  on  the  Tyne. 
V.  VALENTIA,  the  country  between  the  walls  of  Adrian  and  An- 

tonine. 

VI.  VESPASIANA  or  CALEDONIA,  the  tracts  north  of  Antonine's 
wall 

The  first  four  provinces  were  completely  reduced ;  the 
fifth  was  partially  subdued  by  Agricola,  Urbicus,  Severus, 
and  Theodosius,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Valentinian,  and 
gave  his  sovereign's  name  to  the  district ;  the  last  was  merely 
traversed  by  the  Roman  troops,  but  never  conquered. 

(32) 


INTRODUCTION  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  17 

Our  knowledge  of  Britain  during  the  latter  years  of  the 
lLoinan  period  is  very  scanty.    For  twelve  years  the  island 
was  an  independent  state.    Caurausius,  appointed  Count  of 
the  Saxon  Shore  by  the  Emperors  Diocletian  and  Maximian, 
commanded  a  fleet,  which  was  sent  to  defend  the 
British  coasts  from  the  Scandinavian  pirates.    He    288 
established  himself  as  Ruler  of  Britain,  and  actually     A.D. 
forced  the  Emperors  to  acknowledge  his  claim  to  the 
title.    He  fell  at  York  by  the  dagger  of  a  Briton    297 
named  Allectus,  who  seized  the  throne;  but,  three     A.D. 
years  after,  he  too  fell  in  battle  with  the  Emperor 
Constantius  Chlorus,  and  Roman  ascendency  was    300 
restored.    This  prince  married  Helena,  a  British  lady,     A.D. 
by  whom  he  had  a  son,  afterwards  called  Constantino 
the  Great. 

It  is  an  unfailing  rule  in  history,  that,  when  a.  civilized 
nation  subdues  one  less  advanced,  the  ultimate  benefit 
derived  by  the  conquered  people  far  outweighs  any  tem- 
porary loss  at  first  suffered.  The  early  years  of  Roman  rule 
in  Britain  were  but  the  dark  hour  before  the  dawn.  Chris- 
tianity was  introduced  into  Britain  about  the  latter  end  of 
the  first  century ;  some  say  by  Peter  or  Paul.  The  Britons 
suffered  persecution  for  the  Cross  in  the  reign  of  Diocletian. 
St.  Alban,  the  first  British  martyr  for  Christ,  gave 
his  name  to  the  town  of  Hertfordshire  at  which  he  303 
suffered.  Constantino  the  Great,  having  been  born  A.D. 
at  York,  honoured  Britain  as  his  birth-place,  and 
greatly  encouraged  the  teaching  of  the  Christian  faith  in  the 
island.  Thus  the  Britons  received  from  their  Roman  con- 
querors the  greatest  boon  that  could  be  conferred  on  a  nation, 
— '  to  know  Christ  and  him  crucified.' 

At  last  the  incursions  of  the  Goths  and  other  northern 
tribes  became  so  frequent,  and  so  fierce,  that  the  Roman 
soldiers  were  withdrawn  from  Britain  to  guard  the  heart  of 
the  Empire.     Levies  of  the  British  youth  were  employed 
in  the  Roman  service  in  Gaul,  and  elsewhere  on  the 
Continent.     Soon,  the  Emperor  Honorius,  finding  it    410 
advisable  to  contract  the  limits  of  the  Empire,  re-     A.D. 
leased  the  Britons  from  Roman  sway,  and  withdrew 
all  signs  of  authority. 
-- 


18  TRACES  OF  THE  ROMANS  IN  BRITAIN. 

Little  can  be  said  of  Scotland  and  Ireland  during  thia 
period.  The  remains  of  Roman  baths  and  forts  at  Burgh-head, 
Ardoch  near  Dunblane,  and  other  places,  clearly  prove  that 
the  Romans  penetrated  as  far  north  as  the  Moray  Frith. 
But  the  wild  forests  north  of  the  Forth  were  too  dense  for 
the  manoeuvres  of  disciplined  troops,  and  the  Roman  legions 
made  no  permanent  conquest  of  their  savage  denizens.  The 
Orkney  and  the  Shetland  Islands,  with  the  northern  coun- 
ties, were,  during  the  latter  years  of  this  period,  seized  by  the 
Scandinavians,  whose  descendants  may  still  be  found  there. 
Ireland,  or  the  Sacred  Isle,  maintained  intercourse  with  the 
Welsh,  and  was  the  abode  of  the  older  Celtic  tribes,  who 
long  preserved  the  Druidical  worship  in  its  original  forms. 

The  Romans  taught  the  Britons  to  develop  the  resources 
of  their  country.  They  opened  up  the  island  by  making 
roads  paved  with  stone.  These  were  called  Strata;  whence 
our  word  Street.  They  also  laid  the  foundation  of  a  lucra- 
tive trade,  Rome  and  her  continental  provinces  affording  a 
good  market  for  British  produce.  The  chief  exports  at  this 
time  were  corn,  cheese,  lime,  chalk,  oysters,  and  pearls. 
British  cattle,  horses,  and  dogs,  were  much  prized ;  and  large 
supplies  of  tin,  lead,  iron,  with  some  gold  and  silver,  were 
drawn  from  the  island.  A  gold  coinage  was  in  use  shortly 
after  Caesar's  time.  Specimens  have  been  found  stamped 
with  the  figures  of  cattle,  like  the  Latin  pecunia  (from  pecus). 
The  Romans  being  essentially  a  military  nation,  the  words 
introduced  by  them,  and  still  used  by  us,  relate  to  their  posi- 
tion in  the  island,  as  an  army  in  occupation  of  a  conquered 
land.  Their  towns  were  military  stations,  strongly  fortified; 
and  were  called  in  Latin,  castra,  or  '  camps.'  This  word  can 
be  recognised  in  various  forms  in  such  names  as  Chester, 
Winchester,  Leicester,  and  Doncaster.  The  Latin  word 
colonia  can  be  traced  in  Lincoln,  and  Colchester ;  and  the 
city  of  Bath,  although  not  now  called  by  a  Roman  name,  was 
a  leading  Roman  watering-place,  as  recent  discoveries  of  long- 
buried  temples  and  statues  have  shown. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE,  19 


s 

LEADING  DATES  OF  THE  ROMAN  PERIOD. 

landing  of  Julius  Caesar,             ...  ...  ...  ...  B.C.  55 

Return  of  the  Romans  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,     ...  ...A.D.  43 

Death  of  Boadicea,         ...           ...  ...  ...  ...  61 

Agricola  begins  his  government,  ...  ...  ...  78 

Agricola  builds  his  walls,            ...  ...  ...  ...  79 

Battle  of  Mons  Grampius,            ...  ...  ...  ...  84 

Adrian's  Wall  built,       ...           ...  ...  ...  ...  120 

Antonine's  Wall  built,   ...           ...  ...  ...  ...  138 

Death  of  Sever_us  at  York,           ...  ...  «     ...  ...  211 

Britain  independent,      ...           ...  ...  ...  ...  288 

Roman  rule  restored,     ...           ...  ...  ...  ...  300 

Martyrdom  of  St  Alban,               ...  ...  ...  ...  303 

Romans  leave  Britain,   ...           ...  ...  ...  ...  410 


AK11IVAL  OF  SAXON  TRIBES. 


SAXON    PERIOD. 

410  A.D.  to  1066  A.D.-656  years. 


CHAPTER  I. 

TIME  OF  THE  HEPTARCHY. 

410  A.D.  to  827  A.D,— 417  years. 

Leading  Features:  BLOODSHED  AND  CHANGE. 


Miserable    state    of    the 

Britons. 
Arrival         of         Saxon 

tribes. 


Establishment 
Heptarchy. 
Prince  Arthur. 
Bretwalda. 


of     the 


Revival  of  Christianity. 
Heptarchy     reduced     W 

three. 
Wessex  survive*. 


THE  Britons,  who  had  lived  in  peace  under  Roman  protec- 
tion, were  in  a  wretched  plight  when  that  was  withdrawn. 
The  Picts  and  Scots,  breaking  through  the  unguarded  walls, 
pillaged  the  northern  country;  the  pirates  of  the  Danish  and 
German  coasts,  who  had  hardly  been  kept  in  check  by  the 
Roman  fleets,  descending  upon  the  east  and  south,  sailed  up 
the  rivers  in  their  light  flat-bottomed  skiffs,  burning  and 
slaying  without  mercy;  while  the  land  was  torn  by  internal 
strife,  between  a  Roman  faction  under  Ambrosius  and  a 
British  under  Vortigern.  The  petty  British  states  made  a 
feeble  attempt  at  union  by  the  election  of  a  monarch,  whom 
they  called  Pendragon;  but  the  contentions  for  this  office  only 
made  things  worse. 

Vortigern  asked  the  aid  of  the  pirates,  or  sea-kings,  as  they 
called  themselves.  They  were  fierce  men,  of  great  size,  with 
blue  eyes,  ruddy  complexion,  and  yellow,  streaming  hair; 
practised  in  war,  using  the  axe,  the  sword,  the  spear,  and 
the  mace.  Their  chief  god  was  Odin,  or  Woden ;  their  hea- 
ven was  Valhalla.  The  story  of  their  settlement  in  Britain, 
though  true  in  some  points,  rests  on  uncertain  tradition.  It 
it,  that  two  chiefs  of  the  Jutes,  or  people  of  Jutland,  named 


KINGDOMS  OF  THE  HEPTARCHY.  21 

Hengist  and  Horsa,  were  hired  by  Vortigern  for  the  defenca 
of  his  faction.  They  landed  at  Ebbsfleet,  on  the  coast 
of  Thanet  in  Kent;  but,  after  they  had  repelled  the  449 
enemies  of  Vortigern,  they  turned  their  arms  against  A.D. 
himself,  seized  Kent,  and  invited  their  kindred 
over  to  share  the  spoil.  Another  story,  of  British  origin, 
makes  Kent  a  gift  to  the  Jutes  from  Vortigern,  who  fell  in 
love  with  Rowena,  the  daughter  of  Hengist.  For  more  than 
a  century  after  this,  bands  of  invaders,  from  the  countries 
lying  between  the  Elbe  and  the  Rhine,  continued  to  pour 
upon  the  south  and  east  shores  of  Britain,  driving  the  in- 
habitants west  and  north  before  them,  and  seizing  all  the 
lowland  territory.  These  invaders  were  of  three  tribes,  Jutes, 
Angles,  and  Saxons. 

Seven  kingdoms,  called  the  Saxon  Heptarchy,  were  thus 
founded.  These  were, — 

I.  KENT;  founded  by  Hengist,  457  A.I>. 
II.  SOUTH  SAXONY,  including  Sussex  and  Surrey;  founded  by 

Ella,  490  A.D. 
IIL  WEST  SAXONY,  or  WESSEX,  including  all  the  counties  west  of 

Sussex  and  south  of  the  Thames,  Cornwall  excepted ;  founded 

by  Cerdic,  519  A.D. 
IV.  EAST  SAXONY,  including  Essex  and  Middlesex  ;  founded  by 

Ercenwin,  527  A.D. 
V.  NORTHTJMBRIA,  the  land  north  of  the  Humber,  as  far  as  the 

Forth  ;  founded  by  Ida,  547  A.D. 
VI.  EAST  ANGLIA,  including  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  and   Cambridge ; 

founded  by  Uffa,  575  A.  D. 
VII.  MERCIA,  including  the  midland  counties,  east  of  the  Severn, 

north  of  the  Thames,  and  south  of  the  Humber ;  founded  by 

Cridda,  582  A.D. 

The  chief  opponent  of  the  Saxon  invaders  was  Arthur, 
King  of  the  Silures  of  South  Wales.  He  won  twelve  battles. 
The  sixty  '  Knights  of  the  Round  Table '  were  his 
principal  officers.  He  was  slain  by  his  nephew,  Mor-  54  2 
dred ;  and  was  buried  at  Glastonbury,  where  his  A.D. 
coffin  was  found  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II. 

The  Kings  of  the  Heptarchy  were  at  constant  war  among 
themselves,  and  the  bounds  of  the  seven  states  were  always 
changing.  The  King  who  for  the  time  had  the  ascendency 
was  called  Bretwalda,  a  word  meaning  '  powerful  king.' 


22  MISSION  OF  AUGUSTINE. 

Christianity,  which  had  been  forgotten  in  these  wars,  now 
began  to  revive,  and  Pope  Gregory  became  ambitious 
596  of  bringing  the  Saxons  under  the  rule  of  the  Roman 
A.D.  see.  Purchasing  some  English  youths  in  the  slave- 
market  at  Rome,  he  attempted  to  train  them  for  the 
work  of  missionaries;  but  soon  abandoning  this  project,  he  sent 
Augustine,  with  forty  monks,  to  preach  the  cross  in  Britain. 
The  conduct  of  these  emissaries  of  Pope  Gregory  was  such  as 
cannot  in  many  things  be  justified ;  yet  God  overruled  all  for 
good,  and  the  heathenism  of  the  Saxons  gradually  fell  before 
the  power  of  Christianity.  Ethelbert,  King  of  Kent,  influ- 
enced by  his  wife  Bertha,  a  professed  Christian,  was  the  first 
royal  convert ;  and  the  chief  church  was  built  at  Canterbury, 
which  has  ever  since  continued  to  be  the  ecclesiastical  capital 
of  England,  Sebert,  King  of  Essex,  was  also  converted.  He 
destroyed  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Westminster,  and  built  a 
church  in  honour  of  St.  Peter,  where  the  abbey  now  stands. 
The  temple  of  Diana  fell  too,  and  on  its  site  was  raised  a  church 
to  St.  Paul.  Edwin  was  a  famous  Bretwalda  of  this  period, 
who  subdued  Anglesea  and  Man.  His  dominion  extended 
over  nearly  the  whole  country  from  the  Forth  to  the  Thames. 
On  the  southern  shore  of  the  Forth  he  founded  a  city,  still 
bearing  his  name, — Edwin's  burgh  or  Edinburgh.  On  be- 
coming a  Christian  himself,  he  convoked  the  National 
Assembly,  and  explained  the  reasons  of  his  change  of  faith. 
His  chiefs,  following  his  example,  solemnly  renounced  the 
worship  of  the  ancient  gods ;  and  Coifi  the  high  priest  was 
the  first  to  give  a  signal  for  destruction  by  hurling  his  lance 
at  the  idol  in  the  pagan  temple.  Thirty-three  years  previous 
to  the  mission  of  Augustine,  Columba  had  landed  in  Scot- 
land with  twelve  companions,  and  established  a  Christian 
seminary  in  the  island  of  lona.  His  followers  were  called 
Culdees  (worshippers  of  God).  They  founded  institutions 
in  many  parts  of  Scotland,  and  penetrated  into  England. 
Oswald,  successor  to  Edwin  of  Northumbria,  had,  during  an 
exile  among  the  Scots,  wandered  to  lona,  and  received  the 
lessons  of  Christianity.  On  his  return  he  founded  a  monas- 
tery on  Lindisfarne,  thence  called  Holy  Isle.  In  their  prin- 
ciples and  practice  the  Culdees  offered  a  vigorous  opposition 
to  many  of  the  errors  and  corruptions  of  the  Romish  Church. 


EGBERT  SOLE  KING.  28 

The  followers  of  Augustine  set  themselves  to  arrest  their 
progress,  and  bring  the  whole  of  Britain  under  the  spiritual 
supremacy  of  the  Pope.  All  who  struggled  for  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  early  British  Church  were  pursued  with 
unrelenting  hostility;  and  ultimately  the  policy  of  Rome 
triumphed.  Many  words  connected  with  the  Christian  wor- 
ship were  brought  into  use  by  the  Roman  monks,  such  as 
minster,  for  monasterium;  candle,  for  candda;  preach,  for 
proedicare. 

The  seven  kingdoms  were  at  last  reduced  to  three,  North- 
umbria,  Mercia,  and  Wessex.  Northumbria  soon  fell  before 
the  prowess  of  the  Mercian  Kings.  One  of  these,  called 
Offa  the  Terrible,  is  worthy  of  notice.  He  conquered  the 
Welsh,  and  confined  them  to  their  mountains  by  Offa's  Dyke, 
a  ditch  and  rampart  stretching  from  the  mouth  of  the  Dee  to 
the  channel  of  Bristol.  He  also  subdued  a  great  part  of 
Wessex.  He  did  much  good  to  the  church,  although  not  a 
pious  man.  His  palaces,  coins,  and  medals,  prove  him  to 
have  been  a  man  of  some  refinement. 

Wessex  was  the  last  surviving  kingdom  of  the  Heptarchy. 
When  Ofta  died,  Beortric,  a  usurper,  held  the  throne.  He 
had  married  Oft'a's  daughter,  Eadburga,  and  was  upheld  by 
the  influence  of  the  Mercian  King.  Soon  after  her  father's 
death,  Eadburga  poisoned  her  husband  and  fled  to  France ; 
but,  being  driven  from  that  country,  she  fell  into  great  want, 
and  died  a  beggar  on  the  streets  of  an  Italian  town.  Egbert, 
the  true  King,  who  had  been  living  for  fourteen  years  at  the 
court  of  Charlemagne,  returned  to  England  on  his  rival's 
death,  and  received  the  crown  of  Wessex.  He  defeated  the 
Britons  of  Devon  and  Cornwall ;  overthrew  Bernwulf, 
usurper  of  Mercia,  who  was  killed  in  the  battle ;  added  827 
Mercia  to  his  kingdom  of  Wessex;  and  soon  united  A.D. 
under  his  sway  all  the  territories  south  of  the  Tweed. 
The  kingdom  thus  formed  was  called  England,  or  the  land 
of  the  Angli,  from  the  most  powerful  of  the  three  invading 
tribes. 


FIRST  DESCENT  OF  THE  DANES. 


CHAPTER  II. 


EARLY  SAXON  KINGS. 


827  A.D.  to  1017  A.D.— 190  years.— 15  Kings. 


9TH  CENTURY.  *•»• 

EGBERT— began  to  rule 827 

ETHELWULF  (son) 836 

ETHELBALD  (son) 857 

ETHELBERT  (brother) 860 

ETHELRED  I.  (brother) 866 

ALFRED  (brother) 871 


10TH  CENTURY. 

EDWARD  the  Elder  (son) 901 

ATHELSTAN  (son) 925 


EDMUND  I.  (brother) 941 

EDRED  (brother) 946 

ED WY  (nephew) 955 

EDGAR  (brother) 959 

EDWARD  the  Martyr  (son)     975 
ETHELRED  II.,  the  Un- 
ready (half-brother) 978 

llTH  CENTURY. 
EDMUND     II.,    Ironside 
(son) 1017 


Leading  Features:   LAW  AND   ORDER  SLOWLY  IMPROVING; 
THE  DANES  A  CONSTANT  SOURCE  OF  TROUBLE. 


The  Danes. 
Peter's  Pence.            * 
Alfred  the  first  EarL 
Alfred  King. 
War  with  the  Danes. 
Chippenham. 
Alfred's  Hiding-place. 

Ethandune. 
Landing  of  Hastings. 
Improvements  in  Edu- 
cation. 
Law  and  Justice. 
Bible    translated    Into 
Anglo-Saxon. 

The  Five  Burghs. 
Dunstan. 
Dane-geld. 
Massacre  of  Danes. 
Sweyn. 
Triumph  of  Canute. 

EGBERT  was  crowned  at  Winchester,  then  the  chief  city. 
His  achievements  prove  him  to  have  been  a  man  of  fortitude, 
valour,  and  decision.  He  was  called  Egbert  (Bright-eye), 
according  to  the  custom  of  half-civilized  nations,  whose  names 
are  often  derived  from  personal  appearance.  The  Danes  began 
to  be  troublesome  in  this  reign.  They  came,  like  the  Saxons, 
originally  from  the  forests  of  Germany ;  but,  being  worsted  in 
war  with  Charlemagne,  they  removed  to  the  country  we  call 
Denmark.  Akin  to  the  Saxons — for  they  were  both 
787  from  the  Scandinavian  stock — they  hated  these  with 
A.D.  no  common  hatred,  as  renegades  from  the  faith  of  Wo- 
den and  Thor  Their  first  descent  on  the  island  was 


ACCESSION  OF  ALFRED.  25 

at  Teignmouth.  They  continued  their  ravages  till 
Egbert  defeated  them  at  Hengsdown  Hill  in  Corn- 
wall.  Egbert  died  in  the  following  year. 

Ethelwulf,  eldest  son  of  Egbert,  succeeded.  He  had  been 
a  monk  By  his  first  wife,  Osberga,  daughter  of  Oslac  his 
cup-bearer,  he  had  four  sons ;  all  of  whom  in  turn  held  the 
throne.  In  his  latter  days,  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Eome 
with  Alfred,  his  youngest  son,  who  had  been  there  before. 
His  second  wife  was  Judith,  daughter  of  Charles  the  Bald, 
King  of  France.  She  was  probably  not  more  than  twelve 
years  old  when  the  marriage  took  place.  In  this  reign  a 
tax  called  '  Peter's  pence'  was  levied  by  the  Pope,  to  main- 
tain an  English  college  at  Rome.  Tithes  were  also  granted 
to  the  clergy,  and  every  Wednesday  was  set  apart  for  prayer 
against  the  Danes.  Ethelwulf  died  at  Stambridge  in  Essex, 
and  was  buried  at  Steyning  in  Sussex. 

Ethelbald  married  his  step-mother,  Judith  ;  but  was  in- 
duced by  the  Bishop  of  Winchester  to  give  her  up.  She  re- 
tired to  the  court  of  her  father,  by  whom  she  was  imprisoned ; 
but,  escaping,  she  eloped  with  Baldwin,  forester  of  France, 
on  whom  was  afterwards  conferred  the  earldom  of  Flanders. 
She  was  the  ancestress  of  the  Conqueror's  wife. 

Ethelbert's  reign  is  noted  only  for  a  descent  of  the  Danes 
upon  Thanet.  It  closed  in  866  A.D. 

Ethelred  I.  was  hardly  pressed  by  the  Danes,  and  fought 
many  battles  with  them.  Aston  and  Merton  were  the  chief. 
In  the  latter  he  was  mortally  wounded. '  His  brother  Alfred, 
who  was  by  him  created  an  Earl,  was  the  first  to  bear  that 
title  in  England.  During  this  reign  there  was  a  great  famine, 
followed  by  a  pestilence  upon  men  and  cattle.  Edmund, 
Prince  of  East  Anglia,  was  murdered  by  the  Danes,  near  the 
town  called  on  that  account  Bury  St.  Edmunds. 

Alfred,  surnamed  the  Great,  now  became  King.    He  was 
not  the  heir,  for  his  brother's  infant  son,  Ethelwald, 
was  living ;  but  the  nobles  of  Wessex,  it  being  a  time    871 
of  peril,  transferred  the  crown  to  one  better  able  to    A.D. 
guard  its  rights.     He  was  in  his  twenty-second  year, 
and  had  been  for  some  time  married  to  Alswitha,  daughter 
of  a  Mercian  noble.     Though  the  victim  of  an  internal  dis- 
ease which  left  him  few  painless  hours  during  twenty-four 


26  ALFRED  IN  RETIREMENT. 

years,  his  energies  never  drooped  through  all  the  changes  of 
a  toilsome  life.  It  is  said  that  a  love  of  literature  was  first 
stirred  in  his  breast  by  his  mother,  Osberga,  who  promised 
a  richly  bound  and  illuminated  volume  of  Saxon  poems, 
greatly  admired  by  her  sons,  to  him  who  should  first  learn 
to  read  them.  Alfred  won  the  prize,  and  from  that  time  a 
great  love  of  study  distinguished  him. 

The  ravages  of  the  Danes  grew  more  formidable  every  day. 
A  battle  was  fought  at  Wilton,  in  Wiltshire,  in  which  Alfred 
was  defeated.  He  then  entered  into  negotiations  with  the 
Danes,  who  withdrew  from  Wessex  on  payment  of  a  large 
sum.  Their  ravages  were  afterwards  directed  to  Mercia  and 
Northumbria,  where  they  burned  and  butchered  without 
mercy. 

For  many  years  Alfred  held  possession  of  the  country 
south  of  the  Thames.  During  this  time  he  equipped  a  fleet 
that  did  signal  service  against  the  Danes.  After  a  period 
of  prosperity,  misfortune  overtook  the  King  once  more. 
878  Guthrum,  a  Danish  leader,  who  had  taken  post  at 
A.D.  Gloucester,  made  a  night-march  on  Chippenham,  a 
royal  villa  upon  the  Avon,  where  Alfred  was  then  re- 
siding. The  King  fled  in  disguise,  and  sought  refuge  with  a 
swine-herd,  while  his  adherents  were  scattered  by  the  Danes. 
The  chroniclers  of  his  life  tell  a  story  of  his  retirement,  which 
has  formed  a  subject  for  picture  and  for  poem.  The  wife  of 
his  humble  host  set  him  to  watch  cakes ;  but,  in  his  absence 
of  mind,  he  let  them  burn.  She  scolded  him  soundly — 
some  say  struck  him — saying  that,  lazy  as  he  was  in  turning 
them,  he  would  be  active  enough  in  eating  them.  His 
hiding-place  was  Athelney,  a  marshy  island  formed  by  the 
meeting  of  the  rivers  Parret  and  Tone ;  and  here  he  lay  for 
some  months,  visited  at  times  by  his  nobles,  who  were 
gradually  and  secretly  gathering  strength  for  a  fierce 
struggle. 

Hearing  that  the  Danes  under  Ubba  had  been  surprised 
and  beaten  by  the  Earl  of  Devon,  Alfred  resolved  to  strike 
the  blow  at  once.  In  the  disguise  of  a  harper  he  visited  the 
Danish  camp,  and,  by  the  beauty  of  his  music,  won  his  way 
to  Guthruna's  tent,  where  he  was  feasted  for  some  days.  He 
saw  the  carelessness  of  the  Danes,  heard  their  plans  dis- 


POLICY  OF  ALFRED.  27 

cussed,  and  then,  stealing  from  the  camp,  called  his  friends 
together  in  Selwood  Forest.    The  summons  was  joy- 
fully received.    The  Saxons  and  the  Danes  met  at    878 
the  foot  of  Ethandune,  a  hill  in  Somersetshire,  and  the    A.D. 
victory  was  Alfred's.    He  laid  siege  to  the  Danish 
camp,  and  in  fourteen  days  forced  Guthrum  to  capitulate. 
This  chief  with  many  of  his  followers  having  consented  to 
be  baptized  as  Christians,  received  a  strip  of  the  eastern 
coast  from  the  Thames  to  the  Tweed.    This  tract  was  hence 
called  the  Danelagh. 

Once  more  the  Danes,  in  330  ships,  under  Hastings,  landed 
on  the  Kentish  shore,  and  ravaged  the  south  of  the 
island  for  three  years;  but  the  genius  of  Alfred  met    893 
every  difficulty,  and  again  he  was  the  victor.    The  rest    A.D. 
of  his  reign  was  peace. 

During  his  latter  years  he  was  engaged  in  carrying  out 
those  plans  for  his  people's  welfare  which  he  had  conceived 
amid  the  storms  of  his  earlier  life.  He  built  strong  castles, 
both  inland  and  on  the  shore,  where  an  enemy  could  be  best 
withstood.  A  militia  system  was  organized  by  him,  ac- 
cording to  which  all  men  capable  of  bearing  arms  were 
divided  into  three  sets.  One  body  occupied  the  towns  as 
garrisons,  while  the  other  two  were  by  turns  engaged  in  mili- 
tary service  and  the  cultivation  of  the  laud.  He  encouraged 
learning,  both  by  his  example  and  his  laws.  His  court  was 
the  home  of  many  distinguished  scholars ;  and  we  owe  to 
the  King  himself  several  works,  among  which  are  Saxon 
translations  of  '  ^Esop's  Fables'  and  of  '  Bede's  History  of 
the  Saxon  Church.'  He  founded  the  University  of  Oxford, 
and  passed  a  law  enforcing  on  the  nobles  the  education  of 
their  children.  His  day  was  divided  into  three  parts :  one 
devoted  to  business  of  state ;  a  second,  to  prayer  and  study  • 
a  third,  to  sleep,  meals,  and  recreation :  and  these  periods 
he  measured  by  candles,  burning  one  inch  in  twenty  minutes. 

But  perhaps  Alfred's  strongest  claim  to  the  name  '  Great' 
is  founded  on  his  political  institutions.  He  framed  a  code 
of  laws,  in  which  the  chief  enactments  of  Ethelbert  and  Offa 
had  place ;  and  these  he  executed  with  such  stern  impar- 
tiality that  crime  became  rare.  We  can  trace  to  his  wisdom 
many  principles  of  modern  British  law.  Among  such,  trial 


28  TRANSLATION  OF  THE  BIBLE. 

by  jury,  the  great  safeguard  of  our  personal  rights,  stand.? 
pre-eminent.  The  division  of  the  land  into  counties,  hun- 
dreds, and  tithings  or  tenths,  enabled  him  to  hold  all  parts 
under  strict  control ;  and  the  terror  of  his  name  was  so 
great,  that  it  became  a  common  saying,  that  golden  orna- 
ments might  be  hung  up  by  the  road-side,  and  no  robber 

would  dare  to  touch  them. 

901  He  died  at  Farringdon,  in  Berkshire,  and  was  buried 
A.D.  at  Winchester. 

Edward,  surnamed  the  Elder,  Alfred's  son,  succeeded. 
He  was  the  first  to  assume  the  title  '  King  of  England.'  Even 
Alfred,  in  his  will,  called  himself  'Alfred,  of  the  West  Saxons 
King.'  His  cousin  Ethelwald  made  a  desperate  attempt  to 
seize  the  crown,  but  was  defeated  by  Edward,  and  slain. 
This  monarch  is  the  reputed  founder  of  the  University  of 
Cambridge,  although  a  school  had  been  established  there  by 
Sebert  of  East  Anglia  nearly  three  centuries  before.  He 

left  behind  him  many  sons  and  daughters. 
925        Athelstan,  illegitimate  son  of  Edward,  succeeded. 
A.D.     The  leading  event  of  his  reign  is  the  overthrow  of  a 

league  formed  by  the  Scots  and  the  Danes.    He  placed 
in  every  church  a  copy  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Bible,  which  had 
been  translated  by  his  order ;  and  he  encouraged  commerce 
by  granting  the  title  '  Thane'  to  those  merchants  who  made 
three  voyages  in  their  own  ships.     He  died  at  Gloucester. 
Edmund,  son  of  Edward  the  Elder,  succeeded.    He  mar- 
ried Elgiva,  and  left  two  sons,  Edwy  and  Edgar, 
941    WQ°  afterwards  reigned,  though  at  first  passed  over 
A.D.     as  too  young.    He  routed  the  Danes,  driving  them 

from  the  Five  Burghs — Derby,  Leicester,  Nottingham, 
Stamford,  and  Lincoln — which  they  had  long  held.  In  the 
height  of  his  success  he  was  stabbed,  while  sitting  at  supper 
in  Pucklechurch,  Gloucestershire.  Leolf,  whom  he  had 
banished  for  robbery,  six  years  before,  was  the  assassin. 
Edred,  brother  of  Edmund,  was  now  elected  by  the  great 

Council  or  Witenagemot.  He  suffered  from  a  pain- 
947  ful  disease,  which  weakened  both  mind  and  body; 
A.D.  and  for  this  reason  public  affairs  were  managed  by 

his  ministers.  Turketul,  at  first  Chancellor,  and  after- 
wards Abbot  of  Croyland,  and  Dunstan,  abbot  of  Glaston- 
bury,  were  his  chief  favourites.  He  died  at  Winchester. 


DUNSTAX.  2ft 

Edwy,  surnamed  the  Fair,  eldest  son  of  Edmund,  suc- 
ceeded. He  was  a  prince  addicted  to  low  vices,  and 
regardless  of  his  kingly  dignity.  He  incurred  the  955 
hatred  of  Dunstan,  because  he  resisted  the  efforts  A.D. 
of  that  prelate  to  make  the  church  supreme  in  the 
government  of  the  country.  A  quarrel  arose  about  Elgiva 
the  Queen,  and  Dunstan  was  banished.  Elgiva,  who  had 
been  sent  to  Ireland  to  separate  her  from  the  King,  having 
returned,  was  cruelly  murdered  by  Odo,  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury. The  Mercians  and  Northumbrians  rose  in  revolt,  and 
made  Edgar,  brother  of  the  King,  their  ruler.  Edwy  was  forced 
to  content  himself  with  the  counties  south  of  the  Thames , 
and  soon  died,  it  is  said,  of  grief  at  the  loss  of  his  territory. 

The  Witan  then  made  Edgar  King.  He  was  called  the 
Peaceable;  for  during  his  reign  no  foe,  foreign  or 
domestic,  vexed  the  land.  His  form  was  small  and  959 
spare,  but  his  mind  was  full  of  vigour.  All  Albion  A.D. 
and  the  isles  owned  his  sway.  It  was  his  yearly 
custom  to  make  a  progress  through  the  land ;  and,  on  one 
occasion,  eight  princes  rowed  his  barge  on  the  Dee  at  Chester. 
He  favoured  the  clergy,  especially  Dunstan,  whom  he  had, 
when  King  of  Mercia,  recalled  from  exile,  and  whom  he  now 
created  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  has  been  blamed 
for  favouring  the  Danes  of  Northumbria.  It  is  true  that  he 
allowed  them  to  choose  their  own  laws ;  but  he  reduced  their 
power,  by  dividing  the  earldom  between  two  of  his  courtiers. 
He  permitted  the  Welsh  to  pay  every  year,  instead  of  their 
money  tribute,  three  hundred  wolves'  heads ;  a  plan  which, 
in  four  years,  cleared  their  forests  of  these  animals.  By 
his  order,  all  weights  and  measures  used  in  England  were 
reduced  to  a  standard.  He  left  two  sons ;  Edward  by  his 
first  wife,  Elfleda ;  Ethelred  by  his  second,  Elfrida. 

Upon  Edgar's  death  the  succession  was  disputed;  but 
Dunstan's  influence  secured  the  crown  for  Edward. 
His  elevation  to  the  throne  cost  him  his  life  ;  for,  in    975 
less  than  four  years,  he  was  stabbed  while  drinking    A.D. 
a  cup  of  mead  on  horseback  at  Corfe  Castle  in  Dor- 
setshire, the  residence  of  his  step-mother,  Elfrida,  who  desired 
the  crown  for  her  son.    This  sad  fate  procured  for  him  the 
surname  of '  Martyr.' 


30  MASSACRE  OF  THE  DANES. 

The  murder  of  Edward  gained  for  Ethelred  the  throne, 

but  not  the  hearts  of  the  people.  Famine  and  plague 
978  cast  a  gloom  over  the  land,  which  grew  deeper  when 
A.D.  the  Danes  renewed  their  ravages.  The  King,  who 

was  surnamed  '  Unready,'  attempted  to  buy  them 
off;  and  for  this  purpose  levied  a  tax,  called  Dane-geld, 
amounting  to  twelve  pence  in  the  year  upon  each  hide  of 
land  for  all  classes  except  the  clergy ;  but  this  foolish  policy 
had  no  other  effect  than  to  bring  the  pirates  in  larger  swarms 
on  the  English  shores.  This  was  the  first  direct  and  annual 
tax  imposed  on  the  English  nation.  Ethelred's  difficulties 

increased ;  and,  in  his  folly,  he  devised  the  mad 

Nov.  14,    scheme  of  a  general  massacre  of  Danes.     The 

1002     bloody  day  was  the  festival  of  St.  Brice.    Burn- 

A.D.       ing  with  rage,  Sweyn,  King  of  Denmark,  whose 

sister  Gunhilda  was  among  the  slain,  burst  upon 
the  coasts  ;  and,  returning  again  and  again,  took  a  terrible 

revenge.    At  last  Oxford  and  Winchester  fell  be- 

1013    fore  the  invaders.    Sweyn  was  proclaimed  King 

AD.       at  Bath,  and  soon  after  at  London.     Ethelred 

fled  to  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  thence  to  Nor- 
mandy, the  native  place  of  Emma,  his  second  wife.  Sweyn 
died  in  three  weeks  after,  at  Gainsborough  in  Lincolnshire, 
leaving  his  conquests  to  his  son  Canute.  But  the  Saxons, 
having  recalled  Ethelred,  supported  him  so  vigorously  that 
Canute  was  forced  in  turn  to  abandon  the  island.  When 
leaving,  he  took  a  barbarous  revenge,  by  cutting  off  the 
noses,  ears,  and  hands  of  the  Saxon  hostages  whom  he  held. 
Ethelred,  now  triumphant,  provoked  renewed  incursions  by 
repeated  murders  of  his  Danish  subjects  ;  and  his  untiring 
foe,  Canute,  returning,  landed  at  Sandwich,  then  the  chief 
port.  The  Dane  was  pushing  towards  the  capital,  leaving 
a  track  of  blood  and  ashes  behind  him,  when  the  death  of 
Ethelred  transferred  the  crown  to  his  eldest  son,  Edmund. 
Ethelred  was  twice  married ;  first  to  Elfleda,  whose  sons, 
Edmund,  Edwy,  and  Athelstan,  survived ;  secondly  to  Emma, 
daughter  of  Richard,  Duke  of  Normandy,  by  whom  he  left 
two  sons,  Edward  and  Alfred. 

Edmund,  surnamed  Ironside,  struggled  bravely  for  the 
throne  of  his  father  for  seven  months ;  during  which  London 


THE  KINGDOM  DIVIDED. 


31 


was  assaulted  twice,  without  success,  by  the  Danes  under 
Canute.  But,  at  last,  after  a  meeting  in  Olney,  an  island  in 
the  Severn, — where,  some  writers  say,  a  duel  was  fought 
between  the  rivals, — they  agreed  to  a  division  of  the  kingdom ; 
the  Saxon  holding  the  counties  south,  the  Danes  those 
north  of  the  Thames.  The  Dane-geld  was  to  be  levied  off 
both  districts  alike,  but  was  to  be  applied  to  the  support  of 
the  Danish  fleet.  In  a  month  after  this  agreement  Edmund 
died,  leaving  Canute  sole  monarch.  The  cause  of  his  death 
is  uncertain.  He  left  two  sons,  Edward  and  Edmund. 

CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 

FRANCE. 


CHARLEMAGNE,  sole  king,  770 

LOUIS  I.  (le  Debonnaire), 814 

CHARLES  the  Bald, 840 

LOUIS  H., 877 

LOUIS  in., 879 

CHARLES  the  Fat, 884 

CHARLES  the  Simple, 898 


RAOUL, 923 

LOUIS  D'OUTREMER  (IV.),  ..936 

LOTHAIRE, 954 

LOUIS  V., 986 

HUGH  CAPET, 987 

ROBERT  I., 996 


CANUTE  THE  DANE. 

CHAPTER  III. 

TIME  OP  DANISH  RULE. 
1017  A.D.  to  1041  A.D.— 24  years.— 3  Kings. 

CANUTE  (son  of  Sweyn), 1017 

HAROLD  (son),  1036 

HARDICANUTE  (half-brother), 1039-1041 


Leading  Feature:  ENGLAND  DIVIDED  BETWEEN  THE  SAXONS 
AND  THE  DANES. 


Canute     secures     his 

power. 
Dismissal    of     Danish 

troops. 


Claims   to    the   title   of 

'  Great* 
Religious  acts. 
Harold. 


Sons  of  Ethelred  In  Eng- 
land. 

Hardicanute. 
Earl  Godwin's  present 


CANUTE  now  received  the  crown  of  England.  His  first  care 
was  to  remove  all  rivals.  The  surviving  sons  of  Ethelred 
were  Edwy,  Edward,  and  Alfred.  Edwy  he  caused  to  be 
murdered  ;  Edward  and  Alfred  took  refuge  in  Normandy ; 
while  their  mother,  Emma,  married  the  King.  The  infant 
sons  of  Edmund  Ironside  were  conveyed  to  Sweden,  and 
thence  to  Hungary ;  where  Edmund  died  in  youth.  Canute 
at  first  divided  his  English  dominions  into  four  parts,  reserv- 
ing Wessex  for  himself ;  but,  fearing  treachery  on  the  part 
of  his  lieutenants,  he  reunited  all  under  his  own  sway. 

Anxious  to  reconcile  the  Saxons  to  his  usurpation,  he  dis- 
missed the  Danish  soldiers  to  their  own  country ;  but  not 
without  first  rewarding  them  with  large  sums.  He  retained 
a  body-guard  of  3000  men,  whom  he  ruled  with  the  strictest 
discipline.  Having  on  one  occasion  killed  a  soldier  in  a  fit 
of  anger,  he,  in  presence  of  this  band,  laid  aside  his  crown 
and  sceptre,  and  demanded  that  they  should  pronounce  sen- 
tence on  him.  All  were  silent,  and  Canute  imposed  upon 
himself  a  fine  nine  times  greater  than  the  lawful  sum. 
Again,  at  Southampton,  he  rebuked  the  flattery  of  his  cour- 
tiers, by  setting  his  chair  upon  the  shore  and  commanding 
the  waves  to  retire.  While  the  tide  was  flowing  round  his 
feet,  he  sternly  blamed  the  presumption  of  those  who  com- 


HIS  RELIGIOUS  ACTS.  33 

pared  a  weak  earthly  King  to  the  Great  Ruler  of  the  Uni- 
verse.   By  such  acts  as  these  he  won  the  title  '  Great.' 

Besides  England,  he  ruled  over  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Den- 
mark, and  is  said  to  have  exacted  homage  from  Malcolm  of 
Scotland.  In  his  latter  days  he  became  religious  in  life,  after 
the  fashion  of  the  time.  He  endowed  monasteries,  built 
churches,  gave  money  for  masses  to  be  sung  for  the  souls  of 
those  whom  he  had  slain,  and  went,  staff  in  hand,  clad  in 
pilgrim's  gown,  to  Rome  ;  where  he  obtained  from  the  Pope 
that  English  pilgrims  should  be  freed  from  the  heavy 
dues  then  levied  upon  travellers.  He  also  introduced  the 
Christian  faith  into  Denmark  He  died  at  Shaftesbury, 
and  was  buried  at  Winchester.  By  his  first  wife  he  had 
two  sons,  Sweyn  and  Harold.  His  second  wife,  Emma, 
widow  of  Ethelred,  bore  him  a  son  and  a  daughter, — the 
former  named  Hardicanute.  To  Sweyn  was  allotted  Nor- 
way, Harold  seized  England,  while  Hardicanute  was  forced 
to  content  himself  with  Denmark. 

By  Canute's  desire,  the  crown  of  England  was  to  1036 
have  devolved  on  Hardicanute ;  but  Harold,  sur-  A.D. 
named  Harefoot,  seized  it  without  delay.  The  Witan, 
meeting  at  Oxford,  divided  the  country  between  the  rival 
princes ;  assigning  to  Harold  London  and  the  counties  north 
of  the  Thames  ;  to  Hardicanute  the  district  south  of  that 
river.  The  latter,  however,  trifled  away  his  time  in  Den- 
mark, and  left  the  support  of  his  claims  to  his  mother 
Emma,  and  Godwin,  Earl  of  Wessex.  About  this  time, 
Edward,  son  of  Ethelred,  landed  at  Southampton,  to  assert 
his  right  to  the  throne  ;  but,  being  menaced  by  a  formidable 
force,  he  abandoned  the  enterprise.  His  brother  Alfred, 
who  was  soon  afterwards  enticed  over  from  Normandy  by 
a  letter  from  Emma,  met  a  cruel  death  at  Ely,  where  his 
eyes  were  torn  out  by  the  officers  of  Harold.  Emma  in  alarm 
fled  to  the  court  of  Baldwin,  count  of  Flanders.  Harold 
died  at  Oxford,  and  was  buried  at  Winchester. 

Hardicanute  (Canute  the  Hardy)  was  on  his  way  to 
England  with   a   large   fleet?  when   he  heard  of     IAOQ 
Harold's  death.    On  his  arrival  he  was  at  once 
acknowledged  King ;  but  great  discontent  was  at 
first  excited  by  the  oppressive  taxes  he  imposed.     He 

(32)  3 


34  EARL  GODWIN. 

•wreaked  a  poor  revenge-  on  Harold's  dead  body ;  which 
was  by  his  order  dug  up,  beheaded,  and  flung  into  the 
Thames.  Suspicion  of  being  a  party  to  Alfred's  murder  fell 
upon  Earl  Godwin,  and  he  lost  favour  with  the  King  ;  but, 
his  peers  having  sworn  to  his  innocence,  he  was  reinstated. 
As  a  peace-offering,  he  presented  to  Hardicanute  a  ship,  of 
which  the  stern  was  plated  with  gold,  and  which  bore  eighty 
warriors  glittering  with  decorations  of  gold  and  silver.  No 
striking  event  marked  the  reign  of  the  last  Dane  that  held 
the  English  throne.  He  died  suddenly  at  Lambeth,  while 
engaged  in  celebrating  the  marriage  of  a  Danish  noble,  and 
was  buried  at  Winchester. 

CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


SCOTLAND. 


A.r> 


DUNCAN  I.  began  to  rule  1034 
MACBETH, 1040 


FRANCE. 


A.D. 


HENKY  1 1031 


FRENCH  INFLUENCE. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

SAXON  LINE  RESTORED. 
1041  A.D.  to  1066  A.D.— 25  years.— 2  Kings. 

A.D. 

EDWARD  the  Confessor  (son  of  Ethelred), 1041 

HAROLD  II.  (son  of  Earl  Godwin), 1066 


Leading  Feature:  BEGINNING  OF  FRENCH  INFLUENCE. 


Opening     of     Edward's 
reign. 
Favour   shown    to    Nor- 
mans. 
Revolt  of  the  English. 

Visit  of  William  of  Nor- 
mandy. 
Godwin's  death. 
Tower  of  Harold,  [cessor. 
Arrangements  for  a  sue- 

Ben  efits  of  Edward. 
Harold  King. 
Battle  of  Stamford 
Bridge. 
Battle  of  Hastings. 

EDWARD,  son  of  Ethelred  and  half-brother  of  Hardicanute, 
being  then  in  England,  received  the  crown,  chiefly  through 
the  influence  of  Godwin.  The  surviving  son  of  Edmund 
Ironside  had  a  prior  claim  to  the  throne ;  but  this  was  for- 
gotten in  the  joy  with  which  the  people  hailed  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Saxon  line.  So  great  was  the  favour  with  which 
Edward  was  received,  that  he  was  permitted  to  take  back 
all  grants  that  had  been  made  by  his  predecessors, — an  act 
rendered  necessary  by  the  poverty  of  the  throne.  His  re- 
sources were  further  increased  by  the  confiscation  of  trea- 
sure amassed  by  his  unnatural  mother,  Emma.  The  King 
was  about  forty  on  his  accession,  and  had  spent  twenty- 
seven  years  at  the  Norman  court.  It  is  not  surprising, 
therefore,  that  he  regarded  with  peculiar  favour  the  friends 
of  his  youth,  and  bestowed  upon  Normans  some  of  the  chief 
offices  of  state.  The  French  language  and  fashions  were 
adopted  at  the  English  court.  Lawyers  wrote  their  deeds 
and  clergymen  their  sermons  in  Norman  French. 

This  displeased  the  English  nobles,  and  Godwin  was  fore- 
most in  revolt.  Edward  had  married  Edith,  Godwin's 
daughter,  and  had  advanced  his  sons  to  stations  of  honour ; 
but  the  haughty  Earl  snapped  all  ties  of  family  union  and 
personal  gratitude  by  boldly  refusing  to  acknowledge  the 


36  WILLIAM  OP  NORMANDY. 

King's  authority.  A  bloody  fray  had  .taken  place  at  Dover, 
a  town  under  Godwin's  protection,  between  the  burghers  and 
the  retainers  of  Eustace,  a  Norman  Count,  who  had  married 
the  King's  sister.  Edward  commanded  Godwin  to  punish 
the  insolent  citizens;  but  the  Earl  took  the  field  rather 
than  submit.  However,  a  delay  took  place,  until  the  Great 
Council  should  decide  the  points  in  dispute;  and  in  the 
meantime  Godwin's  army  deserted  him.  He  was  forced  to 
seek  refuge  in  Flanders.  The  Queen  was  deprived  of  her 
lands,  and  placed  in  custody  of  Edward's  sister,  the  Abbess 
of  Wherwell,  in  Hampshire. 

As  soon  as  this  revolt  began,  Edward  asked  aid  from 
William,  Duke  of  Normandy ;  but,  when  the  fleet  of  that 
prince  appeared  off  the  English  shore,  all  need  for  help  had 
passed  away.  However,  the  Norman  landed  with  his 
knights,  and  was  hospitably  entertained  by  Edward,  who,  it 
is  related,  appointed  him  heir  to  the  crown.  William  heard 
French  spoken  on  all  sides ;  saw  Dover,  Canterbury,  and 
the  leading  towns  defended  by  Norman  garrisons  ;  and  noted 
many  other  signs  of  Norman  influence. 

Next  year  Godwin  returned ;  and  Edward,  by  the  advice 

of  Stigand,  an  artful  and  ambitious  priest,  became 

1052     reconciled  to  him.    The  Earl  died  soon  after,  leav- 

A.D.  ing  to  his  son  Harold  his  title  and  his  territory. 
Edward,  afraid  of  this  new  rival's  growing  power, 
gave  to  Alfgar  the  earldom  of  East  Anglia,  previously  held 
by  Harold.  This  led  to  war.  Alfgar  was  driven  to  Wales, 
but  in  the  end  he  recovered  his  dignities.  The  appointment 
of  Tostig,  Harold's  brother,  to  the  earldom  of  Northumber- 
land, and  Harold's  own  successes  against  the  Welsh,  greatly 
extended  his  influence.  He  so  far  reduced  the  Welsh  spirit, 
that  they  submitted  to  a  law  dooming  every  Welshman 
found  east  of  Offa's  Dyke  to  the  loss  of  his  right  hand. 

The  horrors  of  a  disputed  succession  now  seemed  impend- 
ing ;  and  to  remove  this  danger  Edward,  by  the  advice  of 
the  Witenagemot,  sent  for  Edward,  son  of  Edmund  Ironside, 
then  an  exile  in  Hungary.  He  came  with  his  wife,  Agatha, 
and  three  children,  Edgar,  Margaret,  and  Christina;  but 
died  immediately  on  his  arrival.  About  this  time  Harold, 
suffering  shipwreck  on  the  Norman  coast,  was,  seized  by 


BATTLE  OF  STAMFORD  BRIDGE.  37 

William,  and  made  to  swear  a  most  sacred  oath  to  favour  his 
pretensions  to  the  English  throne. 

Edward  died  at  the  age  of  sixty-five,  and  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  which  had  been  erected  by  himself  on 
the  site  of  the  old  church  to  St.  Peter.  About  a  century 
after  his  death  his  name  was  ranked  among  the  saints  of 
the  Romish  Church ;  and,  from  his  religious  character,  he 
gained  the  name  '  Confessor.'  The  chief  benefits  he  con- 
ferred upon  his  people  were,  the  compilation  of  a  code  of 
laws,  embracing  all  that  was  good  in  former  legislation ; 
and  the  repeal  of  the  tax  Dane-geld  in  a  time  of  sore  distress 
from  failing  crops  and  dying  cattle. 

Harold,  son  of  Godwin,  was  at  once  chosen  King  by  the 
Witan,  Edgar  Atheling  being  too  young  to  wear  a 
crown  in  times  so  stormy.    But  to  compensate  the    1066 
Saxon  prince  for  this  injustice,   the  earldom  of      A.D. 
Oxford  was  conferred  on  him.     It  was  not  the 
fate  of  Harold  to  wear  his  crown  in  peace ;  for,  from  the  day 
of  his  accession,  the  dread  of  a  Norman  invasion  haunted 
him.    William  resolved  to  stake  on  the  issue  of  a  battle  the 
crown,  which  he  claimed  as  his  own  by  the  bequest  of  the 
Confessor ;  and  all  Normandy  resounded  with  preparation. 

Meanwhile,  unexpected  foes  descended  on  the  shores  of 
England.    Hardrada,  King  of  Norway,  and  Tostig,  the  out- 
lawed brother  of  Harold,  sailing  up  the  Humber,  captured 
York,  the  capital  of  Northumbria.     Harold  pushed  north- 
ward, and  was  met  by  the  invaders  at  Stamford  Bridge  on 
the  Derwent.     There  the  Norwegian  spearmen  formed  a 
glittering  circle,  their  royal  banner  floating  above  them. 
Again  and  again  the  English  cavalry  dashed  upon  the  ser- 
ried ring,  but  without  avail,  until  the  hot  Norway  blood  led 
some  to  break  their  ranks  in  pursuit.     Instantly 
Harold  poured  his  trdops  through  the  gap,  and     1066 
cleft  the  circle  like  a  wedge.    Hardrada  fell  shot      A.D. 
through  the  neck,  and  Tostig  soon  lay  dead  beside 
him. 

This  battle  was  fought  on  the  25th  of  September,  and  on 
the  29th  William  of  Normandy  landed  on  the  coast  of 
Sussex,  near  Pevensey,  and  at  once  pressed  on  to  Hastings. 
Harold  was  sitting  at  a  banquet  in  York  when  the  news 


38  BATTLE  OF  HASTINGS. 

came.  Marching  night  and  day,  he  reached  the  hill  Senlac, 
nine  miles  from  Hastings,  on  the  13th  October ;  and  here  he 
marshalled  his  men,  all  on  foot,  armed  with  heavy  battle- 
axes.  Early  on  the  14th  the  Normans  advanced  to  the 
attack,  led  by  the  consecrated  banner  of  the  Pope,  archers 
in  the  van,  mail-clad  infantry  following;  while  the  main 
strength  of  a  Norman  army,  lines  of  knights,  sheathed  man 
and  horse  in  steel,  brought  up  the  rear.  The  battle  began. 
The  English  battle-axes  did  fearful  execution,  and  the  Nor- 
man lines  gave  way.  A  panic,  increased  by  the  report  of 
William's  death,  was  spreading  fast,  when  the  Duke  rode 
bareheaded  to  the  front  and  restored  their  sinking  courage. 
However,  it  was  not  till  the  wily  Norman,  detaching  bodies 
of  horsemen  as  if  in  flight,  drew  the  English  from  their 
ranks,  that  the  invaders  gained  any  decisive  advantage. 
Even  then  the  islanders  met  the  shock  of  their  steel-clad 
foes  with  the  courage  of  despair ;  nor  was  it  until  sunset, 
when  their  King  fell  pierced  in  the  left  eye  by  an  arrow,  that 
they  broke  and  fled  into  the  woods.  Harold's  mother  offered 
for  the  body  of  her  son  its  weight  in  gold;  but  the  Con- 
queror refused  to  grant  her  request,  and  ordered  the  dead 
King  to  be  buried  on  the  beach.  However,  the  remains  were 
afterwards  removed  to  Waltham  Church.  The  ruins  of  Battle 
Abbey,  built  by  William,  still  commemorate  this  fatal  day, 
on  which  the  crown  of  England  passed  to  a  race  of  French 
Kings,  who  wore  it  during  more  than  three  centuries. 

CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


SCOTLAND. 


AD. 


MACBETH  began  to  rule...  1040 
MALCOLM  ^Canmore),. 1056 


FHAKCE. 


A.D. 


HENRY  I., 1031 

PHILIP  I., 1060 


EARLY  SCOTTISH  HISTORY.  39 

CHAPTER  V. 

SCOTLAND  AND  IRELAND  DURING  THE  SAXON  PERIOD. 


Early  Scottish  tribes. 
Fusion  of  Picts  and  Scots. 


Duncan  and  Macbeth.        I  Patrick. 
State  of  Ireland.  Brian  Bora. 


SCOTTISH  history  does  not  begin  until  the  reign  of  Malcolm 
Canmore,  the  contemporary  of  Edward  the  Confessor  and 
William  the  Conqueror.  Earlier  events  are  wrapped  in  fable. 
We  know  that  the  Romans  traversed  North  Britain,  or 
Caledonia,  as  they  called  it,  more  than  once.  We  know  that 
a  region  called  Strathclyde,  consisting  chiefly  of  the  basin  of 
the  Clyde,  was  inhabited  by  Britons  akin  to  those  of  Wales. 
We  find  the  tribes  of  North  Britain  called  Picts  and  Scots 
at  the  close  of  the  Roman  Period ;  and  we  learn  that  the  Scots 
had  crossed  from  Ulster,  and  had  gradually  spread  over  the 
mountain  districts.  Such  names  as  Galloway  and  Arran,  in 
the  south-west  of  Scotland,  show  a  connection  between  that 
part  of  Britain  and  the  west  of  Ireland,  where  lie  Galway 
and  the  Isles  of  Arran.  About  563  A.D.,  Columba,  crossing 
from  Ireland,  blessed  the  land  with  the  knowledge  of  Christ. 
The  Culdees,  as  his  followers  were  named,  continued  the 
good  work.  Under  the  influence  of  the  Gospel  and  kindred 
causes,  the  Picts  and  Scots  were  blended  into  the  Scottish 
nation  about  843  A.D.,  when  Kenneth  Macalpin  ruled  the 
whole  laud  north  of  the  Forth ;  and,  some  hundred  years 
later,  the  country  was  first  called  Scotland.  But  it  must 
be  remembered  that  the  Border  line  ran  at  this  time  from 
the  shore  of  the  Forth  west  of  Edinburgh  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Solway.  The  story  of  Duncan's  murder  and  Macbeth's 
usurpation,  as  drawn  by  Shakspere,  is  highly  coloured,  for 
the  sake  of  dramatic  effect.  The  facts  are  these,  so  far  as 
we  can  now  judge:  Duncan  ascended  the  throne  in  1034. 
Six  years  after,  he  was  slain  near  Elgin,  in  open  daylight,  by 
Macbeth,  whose  claim  appears  to  have  been  stronger.  His 
son,  Malcolm  Canmore,  escaped  to  the  English  court ;  and 
returning  thence  in  1056,  defeated  and  slew  Macbeth,  and 
was  crowned  King  of  Scotland. 


40  PREACHING  OF  PATRICK. 

IRELAND. 

Ireland  was  in  these  early  times  much  more  civilized  than 
either  England  or  Scotland.  While  Britons  and  Romans, 
Picts  and  Scots,  Saxons  and  Danes,  were  struggling  for  the 
sovereignty  of  the  larger  island,  the  Celts  of  Ireland  lived  in 
comparative  peace.  Draidism  decayed  before  the  divine 
power  of  the  Gospel,  first  preached  in  Ireland  by  Patrick. 
His  native  place  seems  to  have  been  Kilpatrick,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Clyde.  In  his  youth  he  spent  six  years  as  a 
slave  in  Ireland,  and  then  formed  the  resolve  of  preaching 
the  Gospel  in  that  land.  Obtaining  his  release,  he  went  to 
study  for  a  while  in  France ;  and  at  the  age  of  forty  he 
landed  in  Ireland,  432  A.D.  Ere  long  he  was  preaching  to 
the  Druids  in  their  great  temple  at  Tara,  then  the  capital 
of  Ireland.  With  Christianity  the  Irish  people  received  the 
knowledge  of  letters,  and  learning  began  to  flourish  so  much 
among  the  clergy,  that  students  from  the  Continent  flocked 
to  the  Irish  schools.  There  are  still  existing  manuscript 
chronicles  and  other  works  in  the  Irish  Celtic  of  very  ancient 
date.  But  the  ravages  of  the  Danes  destroyed  the  peace  of 
Ireland.  Ashes  and  blood  filled  the  land.  The  great  de- 
liverer of  the  island  from  these  saA7age  pirates  was  a  King 
named  Brian  Boru.  He  defeated  them  in  twenty-five  battles. 
The  last  and  most  glorious  was  fought  on  the  shore  of  Clon- 
tarf  near  Dublin.  After  the  battle,  the  King  was  in  his  tent 
thanking  God  for  his  victory,  when  he  was  discovered  and 
slain  by  some  of  the  fugitive  Danes — 1014  A.D. 


ANGLO-SAXON  CLASSES.  41 

CHAPTER  VI. 

SOCIAL  CONDITION  OF  THE  ANGLO-SAXONS. 


Kinp  and  Queen. 
Freemen    of  different 
ranks. 
Slaves. 
The  Great  Council. 

Crime    and    its    punish- 
ment. 
Ordeals. 
Anglo-Faxon  houses. 
Daily  life. 

Coins. 
Early  idolatry. 
Occupations  of  the 
monks. 
Language. 

AT  the  head  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  nation  stood  the  Cyning,  01 
King  (from  cunnan,  '  to  know.')  He  was  elected  by  the  Great 
Council  from  among  the  relatives  of  the  late  King  ;  and  was 
generally  chosen  on  account  of  his  fitness  for  the  office.  The 
name  '  Queen,'  and  the  honours  of  royalty,  were  conferred 
on  the  wife  of  the  King,  until  Eadburga,  Queen  of  Wessex, 
forfeited  all  distinctions  by  poisoning  her  husband.  From 
that  time  the  Anglo-Saxon  Queens  bore  no  title  but  '  the 
lady ;'  and  none  except  Judith,  wife  of  Ethelwulf,  received 
the  crown,  or  sat  on  the  throne  beside  her  husband.  Indeed, 
in  style  and  position,  the  wife  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  monarchs 
resembled  the  lady  rather  than  the  Queen  of  our  day.  The 
monk  Ingulf  tells  us  that,  when  he  was  a  boy,  Edith,  wife 
of  Edward  the  Confessor,  would  often  stop  him  as  he  came 
from  school,  make  him  repeat  his  grammar  lesson ;  and,  if 
he  did  well,  would  give  him  a  piece  of  silver  and  send  him 
to  the  pantry. 

Next  to  the  King  were  the  Eldermen,  or  Earls.  Governing 
in  the  name  of  their  sovereign  districts  called  shires,  they  led 
to  battle  the  men  under  their  rule,  presided  with  the  Bishop 
over  the  courts  of  justice,  and  received  one-third  of  the  fines 
and  royal  rents  paid  within  their  counties.  The  inferior 
nobles  were  called  Thanes  (from  thegnian,  'to  serve,') and  con- 
sisted of  those  who  possessed  at  least  five  hides  of  land.  The 
lowest  class  of  freemen  were  the  Ceorls  (hence  churl)  or  hus- 
bandmen ;  with  whom  we  may  rank  the  Burghers,  or  inhabi- 
tants of  towns.  The  latter  were  engaged  in  trade,  and  were 
in  most  respects  freemen. 

Two-thirds  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  nation  were  in  a  state  of 
slavery.  The  largest  class  consisted  of  those  who  lived  on 
the  land  of  their  lord,  close  to  his  castle  (Norman,  mile; 


42  "  GOVERNMENT  AND  JUSTICE. 

Saxon  tun,  whence  our  word  town) ;  and  were  called  by  the 
Normans  '  Villains.'  Besides  those  born  in  bondage,  all 
captives  in  war  and  persons  arrested  for  debt  or  crime  be- 
came slaves.  Sad  and  humiliating  was  the  ceremony  of  de- 
gradation. Before  a  crowd  of  witnesses,  the  hapless  man 
laid  down  the  sword  and  the  spear  which  he  had  borne  as 
a  freeman,  and,  whilst  in  a  kneeling  posture  he  placed  hia 
head  beneath  his  master's  hand,  took  up  the  bill  and  the 
goad.  Many  slaves  were  released  by  the  bounty  of  their 
masters;  others,  engaging  in  trade  and  handicraft,  made 
money  enough  to  buy  their  freedom.  Sale  and  purchase  of 
slaves  were  quite  common,  the  usual  price  being  four  times 
that  of  an  ox.  Foreign  slaves  were  often  imported ;  and  al- 
though all  export  was  forbidden  by  law,  the  Anglo-Saxons 
of  the  coast  carried  on  a  profitable  trade  in  men  and  women. 
Bristol  was  long  notorious  for  its  slave-market. 

The  great  council  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  was  called  Witena- 
gemot,  or  '  the  assembly  of  the  wise,'  and  was  formed  of  the 
higher  clergy  and  the  nobles.  They  met  regularly  at  Christ- 
mas, Easter,  and  Whitsuntide,  but  were  often  summoned  on 
special  occasions.  They  were  the  advisers  of  the  King,  the 
judges  of  state  criminals,  and  had  the  general  superintend- 
ence of  the  courts  of  justice.  One  important  branch  of  their 
power  has  been  already  noticed — in  their  hands  lay  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  new  King. 

Throughout  the  land  justice  was  administered  in  various 
courts ;  in  which  also,  before  magistrates  and  witnesses,  all 
bargains  of  purchase  and  sale  beyond  the  value  of  twenty 
pennies  were  concluded.  The  execution  of  the  laws  was 
vested  in  officers  called  Reeves ;  of  whom  the  chief  in  each 
county  was  called  Shire-reeve,  and  was  the  original  of  our 
Sheriff.  The  morality  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  was  very  far 
from  being  pure.  The  characters  of  even  their  best  Kings 
were  stained  with  drunkenness  and  worse  vices.  The  chief 
crimes  were  murder  and  theft ;  and  for  these  certain  fines 
were  inflicted.  On  the  life  of  every  Anglo-Saxon  freeman, 
according  to  his  rank,  was  set  a  price,  called  '  were,'  rang- 
ing from  two  to  six  thousand  shillings.  If  a  man  was  killed, 
the  murderer,  on  conviction,  paid  '  wer&'  to  the  widow  or 
heir  of  his  victim  :  the  transgressor  of  the  law  forfeited  his 


THE  ORDEALS.  43 

'  were '  instead  of  his  life  to  the  King.  Slaves  were  im- 
prisoned or  whipped ;  but  the  meanest  freeman  was  exempt 
from  this  disgrace.  Theft  became  so  common  in  the  time  of 
the  later  Anglo-Saxon  Kings,  that  it  was  punished  by  death. 
This  was  abolished  by  Canute,  who  substituted  mutilation, 
condemning  a  thief,  three  times  convicted,  to  the  loss  of  his 
eyes,  nose,  ears,  and  upper  lip. 

There  were  two  methods  by  which  a  man  accused  of  crime 
could  clear  himself.  The  first  was  by  swearing  publicly  to 
his  innocence,  and  bringing  a  number  of  his  neighbours — 
from  four  to  seventy-two,  in  proportion  to  the  offence — to 
confirm  his  oath.  If  this  plan  failed,  recourse  was  had  to  the 
ordeal.  Those  most  used  were  by  hot  water,  and  by  fire. 
For  the  former,  a  caldron  of  boiling  water  was  set  in  the 
church,  and  a  piece  of  stone  or  iron  placed  in  it.  Before 
witnesses,  the  accused  plunged  his  bare  arm  into  the  water 
and  took  out  the  weight.  The  priest  wrapping  the  scalded 
limb  in  clean  linen,  set  on  it  the  seal  of  the  church.  It  was 
opened  on  the  third  day,  and,  if  the  wound  was  perfectly 
healed,  the  accused  was  pronounced  innocent.  In  the  ordeal 
by  fire,  a  bar  of  red-hot  iron  was  placed  on  a  small  pillar, 
and  the  prisoner,  grasping  it,  made  three  steps  with  it  in  his 
hand,  and  then  threw  it  down.  Innocence  or  guilt  was 
decided  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  ordeal  by  water. 

The  houses  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  improved  very  much  dur- 
ing the  six  centuries  of  this  period.  At  first  they  were 
nothing  better  than  thatched  huts  with  holes  in  the  walls  to 
admit  the  light.  Even  the  cathedrals  and  the  houses  of  the 
Kings  were  built  of  wood,  not  very  well  jointed ;  for  we  read 
of  Alfred  making  lanterns  to  protect  his  candles  from  the 
draughts  that  swept  through  the  chinks  in  his  palace-walls. 
The  dwellings  of  the  lower  and  middle  classes  continued  to 
be  built  of  wood  ;  but  about  the  seventh  century  masonry 
was  used  for  the  chief  buildings.  The  few  stiil  existing  spe- 
cimens of  architecture  ascribed  to  the  Anglo-Saxons  are 
built  of  small  rough  stones,  in  a  rude  and  massive  style. 
But  the  evidence  that  these  are  Anglo-Saxon  rests  on  very 
uncertain  ground. 

The  daily  life  of  even  the  noblest  Anglo-Saxons  was  that 
of  a  half-savage  people.  The  war  and  turbulence,  which 


44  DAILY  LIFE  OF  THE  ANGLO-SAXONS. 

were  the  chief  characteristics  of  at  least  four  centuries  of 
this  period,  were  .not  favourable  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
domestic  virtues.  When  not  engaged  in  war,  the  nobles 
amused  themselves  in  hunting  and  hawking ;  and  when  the 
sports  of  the  day  were  over,  all — master  and  servant — met 
in  the  great  hall.  At  the  upper  end  of  this,  on  a  dais  or 
raised  part,  was  placed  a  rude  table,  canopied  with  hangings 
of  cloth,  to  serve  as  a  protection  from  draughts  of  air,  and 
from  the  rain,  which  often  leaked  through  the  roof ;  and 
round  this  sat  the  lord,  his  family,  and  his  guests.  This 
table  was  served  by  slaves,  who  knelt  as  they  offered  to 
each  huge  joints  on  the  spit ;  from  which  the  chiefs  cut  slices 
with  their  daggers.  The  principal  article  of  food  was  swine's 
flesh ;  besides  this,  game  and  fish  of  various  kinds,  coarse 
cakes,  and  green  pulse  were  used.  The  favourite  drink  was 
mead,  a  liquor  fermented  from  honey  and  water.  Wine, 
beef,  mutton,  and  wheaten  bread  were  delicacies  found  only 
at  the  tables  of  the  highest.  The  chief  servants  took  their 
meal  next,  and  in  turn  passed  the  joints  to  the  lower  end  of 
the  hall,  where  slaves,  hounds,  and  hawks  squabbled  over 
the  fragments  of  the  feast.  The  meal  over,  drinking  began, 
and  continued  till  all,  even  the  clergy,  were  intoxicated. 
To  beguile  the  time,  the  Saxon  harp  of  five  strings  was 
passed  round  ;  and  each  took  his  turn  in  singing  verses  to 
its  music.  This  general  practice  of  the  musical  art  is  almost 
the  only  redeeming  trait  in  a  picture  of  coarse  sensuality  ; 
but  the  tones  of  the  harp  were  soon  drowned  in  wild  shouts 
of  drunkenness,  and  often  in  the  clashing  of  brawlers'  swords, 
nor  did  the  riot  cease  till  sleep  brought  silence.  They  slept 
where  they  had  feasted,  lying  on  straw  or  rushes,  and 
covered  with  their  clothes.  The  ladies  spent  their  time 
more  peacefully,  and  to  more  purpose,  in  the  use  of  the 
needle  and  the  distaff.  The  linen  and  the  woollen  cloths,  of 
which  the  long  cloaks  and  close  tunics  of  their  lords  were 
made,  were  the  produce  of  their  industry  ;  and  some  speci- 
mens of  their  skill  in  embroidery  still  exist,  the  principal  one 
being  the  celebrated  Bayeux  tapestry,  on  which  are  depicted 
in  exquisite  needle-work  the  scenes  of  the  Xorman  Conquest. 
We  know  very  little  about  the  coinage  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons.  They  had  none  but  foreign  gold  ;  the  coin  most 


ANGLO-SAXON  IDOLATRY.  45 

used  was  the  Byzant,  equivalent  to  .£15  sterling  of  our  money. 
Their  silver  coins  were  the  penny,  halfpenny,  and  farthing ; 
which  seem  to  have  resembled  in  size  and  value  our  florin, 
shilling,  and  sixpence.  Their  only  copper  coin,  called  '  styca,' 
was  value  for  one-fourth  of  their  farthing,  or  a  little  more 
than  our  penny. 

When  the  Anglo-Saxons  settled  in  Britain,  they  were  the 
slaves  of  a  gross  and  absurd  idolatry,  which  prevailed  among 
all  the  northern  tribes  of  Europe.  They  dedicated  each  day 
of  the  week  to  a  particular  deity ;  and  we  still  name  the  days 
after  their  fashion.  Sun  daeg  (Sunday),  and  Moon  daeg 
(Monday)  were  set  apart  for  the  worship  of  the  great  lights 
of  heaven ;  Tuiscaes  daeg  (Tuesday),  Wodenes  daeg  (Wednes- 
day), Thores  daeg  (Thursday),  and  Freyaes  daeg  (Friday) 
were  sacred  to  Tuisca,  Woden,  Thor,  and  Freya ;  while 
Saturnes  daeg  (Saturday)  was  devoted  to  the  service  of 
Saturn,  a  god  borrowed  from  the  Koman  mythology. 
Though  Christianity  had  been  introduced  into  Britain  be- 
fore the  time  of  Augustine,  it  was  not  till  he  and  his  fol- 
lowers landed  in  Kent  that  the  heathenism  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  was  overthrown.  The  Anglo-Saxon  priests  spent 
their  leisure  in  the  practice  of  many  arts.  Painting  on  glass 
and  working  in  metals  were  favourite  employments  of  even 
the  highest  ecclesiastics ;  and  not  a  few  churches  owed  their 
bells  and  their  coloured  windows  to  the  Dunstans  of  this 
age.  The  monasteries  were  now,  as  they  continued  to  be  for 
many  centuries,  almost  the  only  seats  of  learning ;  and  from 
their  quiet  cells  issued  the  scanty  pages  of  our  Anglo-Saxon 
literature. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  great  body  of  the  pure 
English  tongue,  as  we  read  it  in  the  Bible  and  the  Pilgrim's 
Progress,  as  we  speak  it  in  our  streets  and  by  our  firesides, 
had  its  origin  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  period.  The  Danes  intro- 
duced some  slight  changes  of  construction,  and  left  a  few 
geographical  names,  such  as  those  ending  in  '  by,'  the 
Danish  for  town  ;  but  their  rule  in  the  island  made  no  per- 
manent impression  on  the  language,  which  has  continued, 
through  all  changes  of  the  nation,  to  be  in  spirit  and  in  struc- 
ture essentially  Saxon. 


46 


ANGLO-SAXON  AUTHORS  AND  DATES. 


LEADING  AUTHORS  OF  THE  ANGLO-SAXON  PERIOD. 

GILDAS, The  first  British  historian— died  570  A.D. 

ALDHELM, A  famous  Latin  scholar — died  709  A.D. 

BEDE, Called 'Venerable '—born at  Snnderland 

— chief  work,  '  The  History  of  the 
Church  of  the  Angles' — died  735  A.D. 

ALCUIN,... Born  at  York — pupil  of  Bede — teacher 

of  Charlemagne — wrote  poetry,  theo- 
logy, and  elementary  science— died 
804  A.D.  TC 

JOHN  SCOTUS  EBIGENA,...A  native  of  Ireland— flourished  about 
middle  of  9th  century — lived  chiefly  in 
France — said  to  have  been  'the  only 
learned  layman  of  the  Dark  Ages.' 

CAEDMON, A  monk  of  Whitby— the  earliest  writer  in 

Anglo-Saxon — wrote  religious  poetry 
on  the  Creation,  &c. — lived  in  the  8th 
century.  X 

ALFRED, King  of  England — translated  the  Psalms, 

Bede's  History,  .ffisop's  Fables,  Inc., 
into  Anglo-Saxon — died  901  A.D. 

ASSEE, A  Welshman — writer  of  Alfred's  life — 

died  909  A.D. 

KLYRICr Called  the  '  Grammarian,'  from  a  Latin 

viraranar  he  wrote — Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  in  close  of  10th  century — 
composer  of  eighty  sermons  in  Anglo- 


l/KADING  DATES — ANGLO-SAXON  PERIOD. 


GENERAL  EVENTS.       AD. 

Landing  of  the  Jutes, 449 

Heptarchy  established, 582 

Landing  of  Augustine, 596 

Cambridge  University  found- 
ed by  Sebert, 644 

First  landing  of  Danes, 787 

Egbert  crowned, 827 

Alfred  made  King, 871 

Oxford    University   founded 
by  Alfred, 886 


Massacre  of  Danes, 1002 


BATTLES. 

Hengsdown  Hill, 835 

Merton, 871 

Ethandune, 878 

Stamford  Bridge, 1066 

Hastings, 1066 


GENEALOGICAL  TREES.  47 

GENEALOGICAL  TREES 

CONNECTING  THE  ANGLO-SAXON  AND  NORMAN  PERIODS. 


SAXON  LINE. 


ETHELRED  II.  married, 
1st,  ELFLEDA.  2nd,  EMMA  of  Normandy. 


EDMUND,       EDWT.    ATHELSTAN.    EDWARD,  ALFRED. 

(Confessor.) 


EDWAKD,  married  AGATHA.  EDMUND. 


I  II  I 

EDGAR,  MARGARET,  CHRISTINA. 

(Atheling.)  married  MALCOLM  of  Scotland. 

II 
MATILDA, 

married  HENRY  I.  of  England. 


NORMAN  LINE. 

HOLLO,  the  Sea-King. 

II 
WILLIAM 

|| 
RICHARD  I. 


RICHARD  II.  EMMA, 

married  ETHELRED  II 


RICHARD  III.  ROBERT, 

(the  Devil.) 

WILLIAM  (Conqueror), 
married  MATILDA  of  Flanders. 


ROBERT.          RICHARD.  WILLIAM,         HENRY  I.,  ADELA. 

(Rufus.)    married  MATILDA 
of  Scotland. 


48 


OPENING  OF  THE  CONQUEROR  S^REIGX. 


EARLY  NORMAN  KINGS. 

From  1066  A.D.  to  1154  A.D.— 88  years.— 4  Kings. 

A.D. 

WLLLIAM  I.  (The  Conqueror), began  to  reign  1066. 

WILLIAM  n.  (Eufus),  Son 1087. 

HENRY  I.  (Beauclerc),  Brother, 1100. 

STEPHEN  (Count  of  Blois),  Nephew, 1135  to  1154. 

Leading  Feature  :  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  FEUDAL  SYSTEM. 


CHAPTER  I. 

WILLIAM  I.  THE  CONQUEROR. 
Born  1027  A.D.— Began  to  Reign  1066  A.D.— Died  1087  A.D. 


Edgar  elected  King. 
William's  coronation. 
He  secures  his  con- 
quest. 


Visits  Normandy. 
Revolt  in  west  and  north. 
Treatment  of  Saxons. 
Troubles  oflatter  life. 


Domesday-Book,  curfew, 

forest-laws. 

Death.  [qualities. 

Character  and    personal 


THE  Conqueror  was  the  illegitimate  son  of  Robert,  fifth 
Duke  of  Normandy.  His  \vife  was  Matilda,  daughter  of 
Baldwin  V.,  Earl  of  Flanders. 

After  the  battle  of  Hastings  he  pushed  on  to  Dover,  which 
surrendered.  Here  he  stayed  eight  days,  until  reinforced 
from  Normandy;  and  then  he  marched  towards  London. 
There  the  Witan  had  appointed  Edgar  Atheling  King  ;  his 
chief  ministers  being  Stigand,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
and  two  Saxon  Earls,  Edwin  and  Morcar.  William  fixed  his 
camp  at  Berkhampstead,  to  cut  off  communication  with  the 
north.  But  disunion  crept  in  among  the  adherents  of  the 
Saxon.  Stigand  was  among  the  first  to  desert,  and  Edgar's 
hopes  of  a  throne  faded  fast.  Soon  a  message  reached 
William,  offering  the  crown  ;  which  he  accepted  amid  the 
applause  of  the  Normans.  A- 

He  was  crowned  at  Westminster  on  Christaas-day ;  but 
not  without  tumult.  Aldred,  Archbishop  of  York,  during 
the  ceremony  asked  the  Saxons  if  they  received  William  as 
their  King.  They  assent  ed*'ith  shouts.  At  once,  as  if  on 


REVOLTS  OF  THE  ENGLISH.  49 

a  given  signal,  the  Normans  round  the  Abbey,  setting  fire 
to  the  houses,  began  to  plunder.  All  rushed  from  the  church. 
William  and  the  prelates  stood  alone  by  the  altar.  In  haste 
the  oath  was  taken  -and  the  ceremony  ended.  This  event 
iinbittered  the  feeling  of  the  Saxons  toward  their  con- 
querors. ^^ 

William  began  his  reign  well.  He  retained  the  Saxon  laws, 
granted  a  new  charter  to  the  citizens  of  London,  and  received 
Edgar  among  his  nearest  friends.  But  this  did  not  last  long. 
He  felt  that  the  sword  must  guard  what  the  sword  had  won  ; 
and,  to  retain  the  Norman  lords  in  his  service,  he  rewarded 
them  with  the  lands  of  the  conquered  race.  The  widows 
and  heiresses  of  those  rich  nobles  who  had  fallen  on  the 
field  of  Senlac  were  married  to  Normans.  The  churches  of 
Normandy  were  decorated  with  the  spoils  of  England  ;  and 
among  other  precious  gifts  from  William  to  the  Pope  was 
the  golden  banner  of  Harold.  He  built  a  fortress,  where 
the  Tower  of  London  now  stands ;  and  strengthened  his 
position  in  Winchester — then  the  capital — by  erecting  a 
similar  stronghold.  /\ 

Having  thus  spent  six  months,  he  passed  over  to  Nor- 
mandy, carrying  in  his  train  the  flower  of  England's  nobil- 
ity. His  friend  Fitzosbern  and  his  half-brother  Odo  were 
appointed  Regents ;  and  they  ruled  with  a  rod  of  iron.  The 
Saxons  rose  ;  and,  when  the  Regents  strove  to  trample  out 
the  flame  of  insurrection,  it  broke  forth  with  greater  vio- 
lence than  ever.  After  eight  months  William  returned ;  and, 
though  the  spirit  of  revolt  seemed  to  die  in  his  terrible 
presence,  it  still  lingered  in  the  west  and  north.  The  fall 
of  Exeter  reduced  the  west  to  peace  ;  and  Edwin  and  Mor- 
car,  who  had  raised  the  standard  of  rebellion  in  the  north, 
were  surprised  and  forced  to  yield  :  York  opened  its  gates, 
and  even  Malcolm  of  Scotland  for  a  time  owned  the  supre- 
macy of  the  Norman. 

Twice  the  sons  of  Harold,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  Ire- 
land, landed  in  England,  once  near  Bristol,  and  once  near 
Plymouth  ;  but  they  were  driven  to  their  ships  with  great 
loss.  4^ 

Again  the  English  of  the  north  rose,  massacred  a  body  of 
Norman  horse  at  Durham,  and  laid  siege  to  York.  They 

(32)  4. 


50  WILLIAM'S  VENGEANCE. 

were  joined  by  Edgar,  who,  having  set  out  with  his  mother 
and  sisters  for  Hungary,  was  driven  northward  by  a  storm, 
and  had  been  for  some  time  the  guest  of  Malcolm  at  Dun- 
fermline.    But  William  obliged  them  to  raise  the  siege ;  and, 
having  plundered  the  city,  returned  to  the  south.     A  Danish 
squadron  arrived  with  timely  help,  and  York  was  re-cap- 
tured by  the  English.    The  King  again  marched  northward, 
the  English  rising  everywhere  as  he  passed.    Turning  upon 
these,  he  defeated  them,  and  then  carried  the  north- 
1069     em  capital  at  the  sword's  point.    Here  he  kept  his 
A.D.       Christinas  court,  having  sent  to  Winchester  for  his 
crown.    With  fire  and  sword  he  now  traversed 
York  and  Durham,  taking  a  revenge  so  terrible,  that  from' 
the  Ouse  to  the  Tyue  there  stretched  for  almost  a  century 
a  vast  wilderness,  studded  with  blackened  ruins,  its  soil 
unbroken  by  the  plough.    On  his  southward  march  he  left  be- 
hind him  many  strong  castles,  garrisoned  by  Norman  soldiers.  - 
No  dignity,  no  power,  very  little  laud  were  now  permitted 
to  remain  with  the  Saxons.    Even  the  monasteries,  which 
were  the  banks  of  that  time,  afforded  no  safety  from  the 
royal  officers,  who  without  remorse  rifled  the  sacred  trea- 
suries.   The  Saxon  prelates,  too,  were  obliged  to  resign  their 
cathedrals  to  Norman  strangers.    Of  the  latter,  the  most 
distinguished  was  Lanfranc,  appointed  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury in  the  room  of  Stigand.    Many  of  the  Saxon  land- 
holders, when  driven  from  their  estates,  fled  into  the  woods, 
and  kept  up  an  incursive  warfare.    Hereward  the  Saxon 
was  the  most  noted.    He  built  a  wooden  fort  in  the  Isle  of 
Ely,  where,  surrounded  by  marshes,  he  long  bade  defiance  to 
William.    Malcolm  of  Scotland,  who  had  married 
1072     Margaret,  sister  of  Edgar  Atheling,  now  felt  himself 
A.D.       forced  to  be  on  a  friendly  footing  with  the  Con- 
queror, though  he  refused  to  deliver  up  the  Saxon 
refugees  who  had  fled  to  the  north. 

William's  latter  days  were  imbittered  by  many  woes.  A 
plot  to  seize  the  kingdom  was  formed  by  some  Normans,  dis^ 
satisfied  with  their  rewards.  They  were  defeated,  and  every 
prisoner  lost  his  right  foot.  His  half-brother  Odo,  too 
incurred  his  anger  by  aiming  at  the  Popedom,  and  was 
imprisoned  in  Normandy  during  the  Bang's  life.  But  his 


HIS  CHIEF  ACTS.  51 

chief  troubles  arose  from  his  own  children.     Robert,  the 
eldest,  suruamed  Curt-hose  from  his  short  legs,  was  uomiual 
Duke  of  Normandy.      His  brothers,  William  and  Henry, 
jealous  of  his  power,  insulted  him  by  throwing  a  pitcher  of 
water  from  a  balcony  on  him  in  the  street  of  the  small 
French  town  L'Aigle.     He  rushed  with  drawn  sword  to  take 
vengeance  on  them ;  but,  on  his  father's  interference,  he 
withdrew,  and  left  the  town  that  evening.     For  five  years 
he  wandered  in  neighbouring  countries,  secretly  supported 
by  his  mother,  Matilda.    At  length  he  fixed  his 
quarters  in  the  Castle  of  Gerberoi,  which  William     1077 
besieged,  and  before  which  the  father  and  son  met       A.D. 
unwittiuglyin  single  combat,  when  Robert  wounded 
his  father  in  the  hand. 

William's  chief  acts  were  the  compilation  of  '  Domesday 
Book,'  the  institution  of  the  curfew-bell,  and  the 
enactment  of  the  forest-laws.  The  first  was  a  re-  1080 
gister  of  English  land,  which  occupied  six  years  in  to 
completion,  and  which  still  remains  in  two  vellum  1086 
manuscripts,  one  folio,  the  other  quarto,  recording  A.D. 
the  size  of  each  estate,  its  division  into  arable, 
pasture,  meadow,  and  woodland,  the  name  of  the  owner, 
and  other  details.  The  curfew-bell  (from  couvre  feu, 
'cover  fire')  was  rung  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening, 
as  a  signal  for  putting  out  all  fires  and  caudles ;  and, 
though  long  looked  on  as  a  tyrannical  measure,  may  have 
been  wisely  intended  to  preserve  the  wooden  houses  from 
being  burned.  The  forest-laws — the  origin  of  our  game- 
laws — inflicted  upon  the  man  who  killed  a  deer,  a  wild 
boar,  or  other  beast  of  chase,  the  terrible  punishment 
of  having  his  eyes  torn  out.  The  land  between  Win- 
chester and  the  sea  was  converted  into  an  immense  hunting- 
park  by  the  King,  who  burned  cottages  and  churches  to 
clear  the  ground  for  his  plantation.  This  still  remains, 
under  the  name  of  the  New  Forest.  Justices  of  the  Peace, 
the  Courts  of  Chancery,  Exchequer,  and  Common  Pleas  had 
origin  in  this  reign.  The  Cinque  Ports — Dover,  Hastings, 
Romney,  Hythe,  and  Sandwich — were  now  fortified.  To 
these  have  since  been  added  Winchelsea  and  Rye.  The  Chan- 
nel Islands  were  first  annexed  to  England  at  the  Conquest. 


52 


THE  CONQUEROR  S  DEATH. 


The  revival  of  the  Dane-geld,  forfeitures,  royal  rents,  and 
tolls  could  not  satisfy  the  King's  avarice,  although  they 
raised  his  revenue  to  more  than  .£1000  a-day.  His  reign 
was  to  the  Saxons  one  scene  of  misery  ;  beginning  in  blood- 
shed and  spoliation,  it  ended  in  famine  and  pestilence, 
caused  by  the  rains  and  storms  of  1086. 

The  French  King  sneered  at  William's  corpulence  when 
old ;  and  from  this  trifling  cause  a  war  began.  The  Eng- 
lish King,  besieging  Mante,  rode  out  to  view  the  burning 
town ;  and  the  plunging  of  his  horse,  which  trod  on  some  hot 
ashes,  bruised  him  severely  against  the  high  pommel  of  his 
saddle.  The  bruise  inflamed ;  and,  after  six  weeks,  the 
Conqueror  died  near  Rouen.  His  corpse,  deserted  by  all 
his  minions,  who  fled  with  the  plunder  of  the  palace,  lay  for 
three  hours  naked  on  the  ground,  and  owed  its  burial  to  the 
charity  of  a  French  knight,  who  conveyed  it  to  Caen. 

The  character  and  appearance  of  the  Conqueror  are 
sketched  in  the  Saxon  Cronicle.  Stern  and  ambitious ; 
avaricious  in  his  latter  days,  and  brooking  no  interference 
with  his  will ;  of  short  stature  and  corpulent ;  of  a  fierce 
countenance,  and  devoted  to  the  sport  of  hunting  :  he  owed 
the  terror  of  his  name  both  to  the  force  of  his  passions  and 
to  his  immense  bodily  strength ;  which,  we  are  told,  was  so 
great  that  he  could  bend  on  horseback  a  bow  which  no 
other  could  draw  on  foot. 

CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


SCOTLAND.  A.D. 

MALCOLM  III. 

FRANCE. 
PHILIP  I. 

SPAIN. 

SANCHO  H.,  died, 1073 

ALPHONSO  VI. 


EMPEROR. 
HENRY  IV. 


POPES. 

ALEXANDER  II.,  died 1073 

GREGORY  VII.,  died 1085 

VICTOR  III.,  died 1087 


ACCESSION  OF  RUFUS.  53 


CHAPTER  II. 

WILLIAM  II. — RUFUS. 
Born  1057  A.D.— Began  to  reign  1087  A.D.— Died  1100  A.D. 


William  seizes  the  crown. 

Odo's  plot. 

Designs  upon  Normandy. 


Scotland  and  Wales. 
Revolt  of  Mowbray. 
William's  extortion. 


Normandy  pledged  by 
Death  of  Uufus.  [Robert. 
Character  and  works. 


WILLIAM,  surnamed  Rufus  from  his  red  complexion,  was 
third  son  of  the  Conqueror.  Robert  was,  in  accordance  with 
his  father's  will,  acknowledged  Duke  of  Normandy;  but,  while 
he  was  enjoying  the  new  dignity  of  his  coronet  at  Rouen, 
his  more  active  and  ambitious  brother  had  crossed  to  Eng- 
land, and,  within  three  weeks  after  the  Conqueror's  death, 
had  secured  the  crown,  chiefly  by  the  influence  of  Lanfranc. 

A  deep-laid  plot  to  set  Robert  on  the  throne,  of  which 
the  leading  spirit  was  Odo,  Bishop  of  Bayeux,  and  Earl  of 
Kent,  shook  the  newly  founded  dominion  of  William.  But 
the  English,  conciliated  by  some  temporary  concessions,  and 
still  remembering  the  cruel  regency  of  Odo,  supported  Rufus; 
and  at  their  head,  the  King,  storming  the  Castle  of  Roches- 
ter, drove  into  exile  the  rebellious  prelate,  who  sailed  for 
Normandy,  followed  by  the  deep  curses  of  the  Saxons. 

The  duchy  of  Normandy,  feebly  ruled  by  the  indolent 
though  brave  Robert,  had  great  attractions  for  Rufus ;  who, 
by  the  skilful  use  of  the  treasures  hoarded  by  his  father, 
soon  made  himself  master  of  all  the  fortresses  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Seine,  and  prepared  to  follow  up  his 
fraud  by  force.    But  the  Norman  barons  and  the     1091 
French  King  reconciled  the  brothers,  who  agreed       A.D. 
that  the  survivor  should  hold  the  united  dominions. 

No  longer  occupied  with  Norman  affairs,  William  led  an 
army  against  Malcolm  of  Scotland.  Peace  was  made  be- 
tween the  two  countries ;  but  next  year  Malcolm,  enraged 
at  the  settlement  of  an  English  colony  at  Carlisle,  which  he 
considered  a  Scottish  town,  invaded  Northumberland.  Here 
he  died  before  Alnwick  Castle,  some  historians  say  pierced 
in  the  eye  by  Roger  de  Mowbray,  who  was  handing  him  the 
keys  of  the  castle  on  the  point  of  a  lance,  and  who  after- 


54  THE  FIRST  CRUSADE. 

wards  bore  the  name  Pierce-eye,  or  Percy.    Wales,  too,  was 

traversed  by  Rufus,  but  with  little  success;  and  he  was 

forced  to  content  himself  with  the  old  plan  of  erecting  a 

chain  of  forts  round  the  mountain-land. 

Robert  Mowbray,  the  strongest  of  the  Norman  barons, 

rebelled,  and  within  Bamborough  Castle  defied  the 

1095  attack  of  William.    Being  decoyed,  however,  from 
A.D.       this  stronghold,  he  was  made  prisoner,  and  was 

brought  before  the  castle  walls,  where  Matilda,  his 
wife,  still  held  out.  She  refused  to  yield  until  she  saw  an 
executioner  preparing  to  tear  out  her  husband's  eyes;  then,  to 
save  him,  she  gave  up  the  keys.  For  thirty  years  he  lingered 
in  the  dungeons  of  Windsor  Castle. 

The  extravagance  of  Rufus  knew  no  bounds.  The  chief 
instrument  of  his  extortion  was  Ralph,  surnamed  Flambard, 
or  the  Torch,  a  dissolute  Romish  priest.  Among  other 
means  of  raising  money,  this  minister  devised  the  plan  of 
keeping  abbeys  and  bishoprics  vacant,  that  the  King  might 
receive  their  revenues ;  and  of  demanding,  from  those  who 
received  appointments,  large  sums  as  the  price  of  the 
benefices.  One  of  the  chief  sufferers  by  this  system  was 
Anselm,  successor  of  Lanfranc.  He  had  been  forced  by  the 
King  to  accept  the  office,  and  yet  the  persecutions  he  en- 
dured from  William  and  Ralph  obliged  him  to  leave  England. 

William  had  agreed  to  repay  Robert  for  the  lost  castles ; 

but  the  promise  was  never  kept,  for  falsehood  was  a  part 

of  William's  character ;  and  again  the  sword  was 

1096  drawn  by  the  brothers.    Just  then  came  an  offer 
A.D.       from  Robert  to  transfer  the  government  of  Nor- 
mandy and  Maine  to  the  English  King  for  five  years, 

on  receipt  of  10,000  merks  (the  merk  was  13s.  4d.)  The  wars 
of  the  Cross  had  begun.  The  appeal  of  Pope  Urban  II.  and 
the  fierce  war-cry  of  Peter  the  Hermit  had  stirred  all  Europe 
from  Sicily  to  Norway,  and  the  knights  of  the  first  Crusade 
were  on  the  march  to  rescue  from  the  infidels  the  sepulchre 
of  our  Saviour.  Robert  burned  to  join  their  ranks,  and 
hence  his  offer.  William  at  once  agreed  to  the  terms ;  and 
the  merks,  wrung  from  the  hapless  English,  carried  Robert 
and  his  vassals  to  Palestine.  Edgar  Atheling,  too,  followed 
the  red-cross  banner  of  France. 


THE  DEATH  OF  RUFUS. 


55 


Rufus  died  by  violence.    He  was  at  Malwood,  a  hunting- 
lodge  in  the  New  Forest,  on  the  fatal  day.    Dis- 
turbed by  feverish  dreams  during  the  previous     1100 
night,  he  had  given  up  the  idea  of  hunting ;  but  the       A.D. 
wine  he  drank  at  dinner — then  a  forenoon  meal — 
scattered  his  fears,  and  he  rode  into  the  forest.    His. train 
gradually  left  him  in  the  heat  of  the  chase,  and  at  sunset 
they  found  him  lying  dead,  a  broken  shaft  sticking  in  his 
breast.    A  cart  bore  the  corpse  to  Winchester,  where  it  was 
buried  within  the  cathedral,  but  with  no  religious  service. 
Whose  hand  sped  the  shaft  none  can  tell.    The  common 
story  fastens  the  guilt  on  Walter  Tyrrel.     Some  say  that 
Tyrrel's  arrow,  aimed  at  a  stag,  glanced  from  a  tree  and 
pierced  the  King's  heart ;  while  a  dark  whisper  of  the  time 
pointed  to  his  brother  Henry  as  the  murderer. 

Rapacious,  prodigal,  debauched,  and  cruel,  the  character 
of  Rufus  bears  no  redeeming  feature.  In  person  he  was 
short  and  corpulent,  with  flaxen  hair  and  red  face ;  and  he 
stammered  in  his  speech.  A  wall  round  the  Tower,  a  bridge 
over  the  Thames,  and  the  Hall  of  Westminster  were  the 
chief  public  works  of  a  King  who  did  little  else  for  hia 
people. 

CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


SCOTLAND. 

AD. 

MALCOLM  III.,  died 1093 

DONALD  BAIN,  deposed 1094 

DUNCAN,  died 1095 

DONALD  BAIN,  died 1097 

EDGAR. 


FRANCE. 


PHILIP  I. 


SPAIN. 

A.D. 

ALPHONSO  VI. 

EMPEROR. 
HENRY  IV. 

POPES. 

URBAN  II.,  died 1099 

PASCHAL  II. 


66 


CONQUEST  OF  NORMANDY. 


CHAPTER  III. 

HENRY  I. — BEATTCLERC. 
Born  1070  A.E.— Began  to  reign  1100  A.D.— Died  1135  A.D. 


Henry  seizes  the  crown. 
His  early  acts  and  first 

marriage. 
He  gains  Normandy. 


Disputes  with  the  Church. 
Prince  William  drowned. 
The  Queens. 
Maud. 


Henry's  death  and  char- 
acter. 

Improvements. 
Learning  and  literature. 


HENRY,  youngest  son  of  the  Conqueror,  immediately  on 
his  brother's  death,  rode  to  Winchester  and  seized  the  royal 
treasures.  These  being  secured,  he  hastened  to  Westminster, 
and  was  there  crowned  on  the  following  Sunday  by  Maurice, 
Bishop  of  London.  Robert,  whose  the  crown  was  by  right, 
still  lingered  in  Italy  on  his  homeward  journey.  The  early 
acts  of  Henry,  like  those  of  most  usurpers,  were  intended  to 
please  the  people.  He  published  a  charter  of  liberties,  pro- 
mising to  abolish  the  Curfew  and  the  Dane-geld,  to  restore 
the  laws  of  the  Confessor,  and  to  redress  the  grievances 
under  which  the  nation  had  groaned  since  the  Conquest. 
His  marriage  with  Matilda,  daughter  of  Malcolm,  the 
Scottish  King,  and  niece  of  Edgar  Atheling,  united  the  Nor- 
man and  Saxon  royal  lines,  and  thus  began  that  blending  of 
the  races  from  which  arose  the  true  English  nation. 

Flambard,  the  minister  of  Rufus,  had  been  imprisoned  in 
the  Tower  by  the  new  King,  to  please  the  English ;  but,  a 
friend  having  conveyed  to  him  a  rope  hidden  in  a  jar  of 
wine,  he  escaped  by  a  window,  and  reached  Normandy. 
Robert  had  just  arrived  with  his  Italian  wife,  and  was  easily 
induced  to  invade  England.  He  was  marching  on  Win- 
chester, when  Henry  overtook  him.  The  princes  met  in 
conference  between  the  armies,  and  a  few  minutes  decided 
the  treaty.  Robert  agreed  to  give  up  his  claim  on  England 
in  return  for  a  yearly  pension  of  3000  merks.  This  allow- 
ance, however,  he  was  afterwards  forced  to  resign  as  ransom 
to  Henry,  in  whose  power  he  had  unsuspiciously  placed 
himself.  The  disputes  between  the  brothers  grew  worse 
daily,  and  ended  in  open  war.  The  first  campaign  decided 
nothing;  in  the  second  Robert  lost  his  coronet  and 
1106  his  freedom  at  the  battle  of  Tenchebrai.  He  was 
A.D.  brought  to  England,  and,  after  thirty  years  in 


PRINCE  WILLIAM  DEOWKED.  57 

prison,  died  at  Cardiff  Castle,  a  year  before  his  brother. 
Some  writers  say  that  his  eyes  were  burned  out ;  and  in- 
deed the  character  of  Henry  seems  to  justify  the  charge. 
The  war  lingered  for  many  years,  during  which  the  claims 
of  William,  Robert's  son,  were  supported  by  Louis  of 
France;  but  Henry  triumphed  at  the  battle  of  Brenville, 
and  his  son  received  the  dukedom. 

During  these  wars  Henry  had  been  involved  in  a  dispute 
with  the  Church.  The  contested  points  were  Henry's  claims 
that  the  clergy  should  do  homage  for  their  lands,  and  that 
he  should  be  permitted  to  use  the  right  of  his  predecessors, 
who  were  accustomed  in  great  state  to  invest  new  abbots 
and  prelates  with  the  ring  and  crosier  of  their  office.  Anselm, 
who  sided  with  the  Pope,  was  a  second  time  banished ;  but 
in  the  end  Henry  gave  up  his  claims, — a  concession  which, 
after  all,  did  not  affect  the  substance  of  his  power. 

The  King  and  his  son,  William,  now  aged  eighteen,  crossed 
to  Normandy,  to  receive  the  homage  of -the  barons ; 
but  on  the  voyage  back  the  prince  was  drowned.  1120 
When  about  to  embark  with  his  father,  a  sailor,  A.D. 
named  Fitzstephen,  whose  father  had  steered  the 
Conqueror's  ship  to  England,  offered  to  the  prince  the  use 
of '  The  White  Ship,'  manned  by  fifty  skilful  rowers.  The 
other  vessels  left  the  shore  early  in  the  day;  but  ths  White 
Ship  delayed  till  sunset,  the  crew  drinking  and  feasting  on 
deck.  They  set  out  by  moonlight,  and  were  rowing  vigor- 
ously along  to  overtake  the  King's  ship,  when  the  vessel 
struck  on  a  rock  in  the  Race  of  Alderney  and  went  to  pieces. 
William  might  have  been  saved,  for  he  had  secured  a  boat ; 
but,  melted  by  a  sister's  shrieks,  he  returned,  and  the  boat 
sank  beneath  the  crowds  that  leapt  from  the  ship's  side. 
None  lived  to  tell  the  sad  story  but  a  poor  butcher  of  Rouen, 
who  floated  ashore  on  a  broken  mast.  The  news  was  kept 
from  Henry  for  some  days,  when  a  page,  flinging  himself 
in  tears  at  the  monarch's  feet,  told  all.  It  is  said  that 
Henry  never  smiled  again.  This  event  revived  the  hopes 
of  Robert's  son,  who  had  meanwhile  received  the  earldom 
of  Flanders ;  but  his  death  of  a  wound,  inflicted  at  the  gates 
of  Alost,  left  Henry  without  a  rival  for  the  Norman  coronet. 

More  than  two    years   before  Prince  William's  death, 


£8  THE  TLANTAGENET  MARRIAGE. 

Henry  lost  his  wife  Matilda.  They  had  been  estranged  for 
twelve  years,  which  the  Queen  had  spent  in  devotion  and 
quiet  benevolence,  music  and  poetry  forming  her  chief 
amusements.  The  first  stone  bridge  in  England  was  built 
over  the  Lea  by  her  orders.  She  left  two  children ;  William, 
who  was  drowned  ;  and  Maud,  who  married  Henry  V., 
Emperor  of  Germany,  and  was  left  a  widow  after  six  months. 
Henry's  second  wife  was  a  French  princess,  Adelais,  daugh- 
ter of  the  Duke  of  Louvain.  She  had  no  children. 

Thus  left  without  a  son  to  inherit  his  throne,  Henry  ex- 
acted from  the  prelates  and  nobles  an  oath  to  support 
Maud's  claim.  At  the  same  time,  to  strengthen  his  con- 
nections in  France,  he  caused  her  to  marry  Geoffrey  Planta- 
genet,  Count  of  Anjou,  a  boy  of  sixteen, — an  alliance  which 
pleased  neither  English  nor  Normans.  The  marriage  was 
not  a  happy  one,  and  the  broils  between  Maud  and  her  hus- 
band disturbed  the  latter  years  of  Henry's  reign. 

The  King  died  at  St.  Denis  in  Normandy,  after  seven  days' 
illness,  brought  on  by  eating  to  excess  of  lampreys. 

He  was,  like  Rufus,  cruel,  faithless,  and  debauched ;  but 
was  more  accomplished  and  refined.  He  gained  his  surname, 
Beauclerc  or  '  Fine  Scholar,'  by  translating  'JEsop's  Fables.' 
Several  attempts  on  his  life  made  him  suspicious.  He 
frequently  changed  his  bed-room,  and  kept  sword  and  shield 
near  his  pillow.  His  great  aim  was  to  extend  his  power  on 
the  Continent;  for  he  despised  his  English  subjects,  and 
looked  on  them  as  fit  only  to  supply  money  for  his  schemes 
of  pleasure  and  ambition. 

Henry  was  the  first  English  King  who  delivered  a  formal 
speech  from  the  throne.  During  his  reign  silver  half-pence 
and  farthings,  which  had  previously  been  formed  by  clipping 
the  penny  into  halves  and  quarters,  were  made  round ;  the 
coinage,  which  had  been  debased,  was  renewed,  and  severe 
laws  were  made  against  false  coiners ;  rents  were  paid  in 
money  instead  of  in  kind ;  a  standard  of  weights  and  mea- 
sures was  established,  the  ell  being  fixed  at  the  length  of  the 
King's  arm ;  and  the  woollen  manufacture  was  introduced  by 
some  Flemings,  who  settled  first  on  the  Tweed,  and  after- 
wards at  Haverfordwest  in  Pembroke,  and  Worsted  in 
Norfolk 


THE  NORMAN  ROMANCE. 


59 


Himself  a  scholar,  Beauclerc  encouraged  learning.  English 
students  might  be  found  in  Spain  studying  among  the  Moors 
medicine  and  mathematics ;  others  remaining  at  home  drew 
the  truths  of  science  from  the  pages  of  Latin  writers.  A 
curious  account  is  given  of  the  teaching  at  Cam- 
bridge at  this  time.  At  first  the  students  met  1110 
in  a  large  barn,  but  in  the  second  year  each  A.D. 
teacher  had  a  separate  room.  Very  early  in  the 
morning  one  master  taught  the  rules  of  grammar ;  at  six,  a 
second  lectured  on  the  logic  of  Aristotle ;  at  nine,  Cicero 
and  Quintilian  were  construed  and  expounded ;  and  before 
twelve,  a  theological  class  received  an  explanation  of 
difficult  passages  in  the  Scriptures.  Romances — so  called 
from  being  written  in  a  corrupted  form  of  the  ancient  Roman 
tongue — now  took  the  place  of  the  Saxon  poems.  They  de- 
scribed the  adventures  of  some  great  warrior ; — Alexander, 
Arthur,  and  Charlemagne  were  the  favourites.  These 
were  dressed  up  as  feudal  knights,  and  made  the  heroes  of 
wild  adventures, — slaying  dragons  and  giants,  storming  en- 
chanted castles,  setting  free  beautiful  ladies,  and  doing  other 
wondrous  deeds. 

CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


SCOTLAND. 

A.D. 

EDGAR,  $ied ......1106 

ALEXANDER  I.,  died 1124 

DAVID  I. 

FRANCE. 

PHILIP  I.,  died 1108 

LOUIS  VI. 

SPAIN. 

ALPHONSO  VI.,  died 1109 

ALIHONSO  VII.,  died. 1133 

ALPHONSO  Vni. 


EMPERORS. 

A.D. 

HENRY  IV.,  died 1106 

HENRY  V.,  died 1125 

LOTHAIRE  II. 


POPES. 

PASCHAL  II.,  died. 1118 

GELASIUS  II.,  died 1119 

CALIXTUS  II.,  died 1124 

HONORIUS  LL,  died 1130 

INNOCENT  II. 


60  THE  BATTLE  OF  THE  STANDARD. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

STEPHEN,  EARL  OF  BLOIS. 
Born  1105  A.D.— Began  to  reign  1135  A.D.— Died  1154  AD. 


Stephen  made  King. 
Battle  of  the  Standard. 


War  between  Maud    and 
Stephen. 


Death  and  character  of 
Stephen. 


Henry  acknowledged  heir. 

STEPHEN,  third  son  of  Adela,  the  Conqueror's  daughter, 
who  had  married  the  Earl  of  Blois,  claimed  the  vacant 
throne  in  opposition  to  Maud.  He  was  first  prince  of  the 
blood  royal,  and  had  in  his  favour  the  feeling  of  feudal  times, 
that  it  was  disgraceful  for  men  to  submit  to  a  woman's  rule. 
His  brother  Henry,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  gained  for  him 
the  leading  clergy,  and  he  was  joyfully  received  by  the  citi- 
zens of  the  capital  and  of  London.  The  embalmed  body  of 
Henry  was  escorted  to  Reading  Abbey  by  Stephen,  who 
helped  to  bear  the  coffin.  After  the  burial,  at  a  meeting  of 
Prelates  and  Barons  held  in  Oxford,  the  Earl,  already  crowned 
King,  swore  to  abolish  the  Dane-geld,  to  preserve  the  rights 
of  the  clergy,  and  to  allow  the  barons  the  privilege  of  hunt- 
ing in  their  own  forests,  and  of  building  new  castles  on  their 
estates.  These  concessions  gained  a  strong  party  for  Stephen  ; 
but  the  immediate  result  of  the  last  was,  that  there  arose 
throughout  England  one  hundred  and  twenty-six  new  castles, 
which,  with  those  built  before,  long  continued  to  be  the 
strongholds  of  lawless  robber  nobles,  who  lived  by  plunder, 
and  often  headed  their  vassals  against  the  King  himself. 
David  of  Scotland  was  the  first  to  draw  the  sword  for 

Maud.     Thrice  in  one  year  he  ravaged  with  pitiless 

1138     cruelty  Northumberland,  which  he  claimed  as  his 

A.D.      own.    In  his  third  invasion  he  reached  Yorkshire ; 

but  was  there  met  at  Northallerton  by  the  northern 
Barons  and  their  vassals,  who  had  been  roused  to  action  by 

the  aged  Thurstan,  Archbishop  of  York.  There 
Aug.  22.  was  fought  the  battle  of  the  Standard.  Above  the 

English  forces  rose  the  mast  of  a  ship,  adorned  with 
the  ancient  banners  of  three  Saxon  saints,  and  surmounted 
by  a  cross  and  a  silver  box  containing  the  sacramental  wafer ; 
the  whole  being  bound  to  a  rude  car.  Hand  in  hand  the 


CIVIL  WAR.  61 

English  chiefs  swore  to  conquer  or  die,  then  knelt  in  prayer, 
and  rose  to  battle.  The  Scots  rushed  to  the  onset  with 
shouts,  and  bore  back  the  English  van.  The  flanks,  too, 
yielded ;  but  round  the  Standard  the  English  spears  formed 
an  unbroken  front.  For  two  hours  the  Scottish  swordsmen 
strove,  amid  unceasing  showers  of  Saxon  arrows,  to  hew 
their  way  to  victory  ;  but  they  spent  their  strength  in  vain, 
and  the  dragon-flag  of  Scotland  was  hurried  from  the  field, 
blood-stained,  torn,  and  drooping,  like  the  flying  relics  of 
that  gallant  army  which  had  marched  at  sunrise  beneath  its 
brilliant  folds.  More  than  12,000  Scots  lay  dead.  David 
collected  his  scattered  forces  at  Carlisle,  where  he  was  joined 
on  the  third  day  by  his  son  Henry,  who  had  escaped  into 
the  woods  by  following  the  pursuit  as  an  English  knight. 
The  energies  of  the  Scottish  King  were  not  yet  exhausted ; 
but  early  in  the  next  year  peace  was  made.  All  Northum- 
berland, except  Bamborough  and  Newcastle,  was  conferred 
on  Prince  Henry  of  Scotland ;  and  five  Scottish  nobles  were 
given  as  hostages  to  Stephen. 

Maud  soon  landed  on  the  southern  coast  with  140  knights. 
At  first  she  occupied  Arundel  Castle  in  Sussex; 
but,  with  a  generosity  more  chivalrous  than  politic,     1139 
Stephen  permitted  her  to  reach  Bristol,  the  chief      A.D. 
stronghold  of  her  half-brother,  Robert,  Earl  of  Glou-    Sept.  30. 
cester.    Civil  war  began.    The  Barons,  who  lived 
like  independent  Kings  within  their  strong  castles,  watched 
its  progress  without  joining  much  in  its  operations ;  the 
people  were  mercilessly  robbed,  imprisoned,  and  tortured  by 
them ;  trade  and  tillage  were  neglected ;  and  a  man  might 
have  ridden  for  a  whole  clay  in  some  districts  without  seeing 
a  cultivated  field  or  an  inhabited  dwelling.    Maud's 
cause  was  at  first  successful.    At  the  battle  of  Lin-     1141 
coin,  Stephen,  whose  sword  and  battle-axe  had  been       A.D. 
shivered  in  his  grasp,  was  brought  to  the  ground 
by  a  stone,  and  made  prisoner.    Heavily  fettered,  he  was 
cast  into  the  dungeons  of  Bristol  Castle ;   while  his  wife, 
Matilda  of  Boulogne,  withdrew  to  Kent.     Maud  was  now 
acknowledged  Queen  by  the  clergy ;  but  her  scornful  arro- 
gance soon  estranged  her  warmest  supporters.     The  men  of 
Kent,  rising  in  Stephen's  cause,  entered  London ;  and  Maud, 


62  THE  TKEATY  OF  WINCHESTER. 

alarmed  at  the  pealing  of  bells  and  the  shouts  of  the  citizens, 
fled  on  horseback  to  Oxford.  The  failure  of  an  attack  on 
Winchester,  in  which  her  brother  Robert  was  taken  prisoner, 
ruined  her  cause ;  and  Stephen,  exchanged  for  the  Earl  of 
Gloucester,  sat  once  more  on  the  throne.  Maud 
1142  still  held  Oxford,  and  was  there  besieged  by  the 
A.D.  King.  She  sustained  the  siege  far  into  the  winter, 
in  hopes  that  Stephen  would  yield  to  the  severity 
of  the  weather ;  but  famine  forced  her  to  leave  the  castle. 
With  three  knights  clad  in  white,  in  order  to  escape  the 
eye  of  Stephen's  sentinels,  she  fled  over  the  snow,  crossed 
the  Thames  on  the  ice,  and  reached  Wallingford.  She  re- 
mained for  four  years  longer  in  England,  holding  Gloucester 
as  the  centre  of  her  sway,  which  was  acknowledged  in  the 
western  half  of  the  kingdom.  Then,  having  lost  by  death 
her  chief  supporters,  Milo  of  Hereford  and  Robert  of  Glou- 
cester, she  retired  to  Normandy. 

Her  son  Henry  had  been  meanwhile  growing  up.    He  had 
been  knighted  at  Carlisle  by  his  uncle  David ;  had  succeeded, 
on  his  father's  death,  to  Normandy  and  Anjou;  and  had 
gained  Aquitaine  by  his  marriage  with  Eleanor  of  Ppitou, 
the  divorced  wife  of  the  French  King.    Thus  power- 
1152     ful  in  France,  he  invaded  England,  to  wrest  from 
A.D.      Stephen  the  crown  of  his  grandfather ;  but  the  sud- 
den death  of  Stephen's  eldest  son,  Eustace,  hindered 
the  war,  and  a  treaty  was  made  at  Winchester,  by  which 
Henry  was  acknowledged  heir  to  the  English  throne,  while 
William,  surviving  son  of  Stephen,  inherited  the 
1154     earldom  of  Boulogne  and  the  private  domains  of 
A.D.       his  father.     Stephen  died  in  less  than  a  year  after- 
wards at  Dover,  and  was  buried  in  the  tomb  of 
his  wife  and  son  at  Faversham  Abbey  in  Kent. 

He  seems  to  have  been  a  man  of  courage,  promptness,  and 
perseverance;  generous  to  friends,  forbearing  to  enemies, 
and  affable  to  all.  But  the  civil  wars,  which  filled  his  reign, 
prevent  us  from  judging  of  his  character  as  a  King.  His 
figure  was  tall,  muscular,  and  commanding. 


SOVEREIGNS. 


63 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


SCOTLAND. 


DAVID  I.,  died 

MALCOLM  IV. 

FRANCE. 

LOUIS  VI.,  died 

LOUIS  VII 

SPAIN. 
ALPHONSO  VIII. 


A.I). 

.1153 


.1137 


EMPERORS. 

LOTHAIEE  II.,  died... 

CONRAD  LU.,  died 

FREDERIC  I. 

POPES. 
INNOCENT  II.,  died .. 

CELESTIN  II.,  died 

LUCIUS  IL,  died 

EUGENIUS  ILL,  died 
ANASTASIUS  IV. 


A.D. 

.1138 
.1152 


,.1143 
.1144 
.1145 
.1153 


64  MALCOLM  CANMORE. 

CHAPTER  V. 

SCOTLAND  DURING  THE  NORMAN  PERIOD. 
From  1056  A.D.  to  1153  A.D.— 97  years— 6  Kings. 

A.D. 

MALCOLM  HI.  (son  of  Duncan) began  to  rule  1056 

DONALD  BAIN  (brother) 1093 

DUNCAN  (son  of  Malcolm  in.) 1094 

DONALD  BAIN  again  usurps 1095 

EDGAR  (son  of  Malcolm  III.) 1097 

ALEXANDER  I.  (brother) 1106 

DAVID  I.  (youngest  brother) 1124-1153 

Influence  of  Saxon  Margaret     1    Claims  of  the  English  Prelates. 
Contest  fur  the  Throne.  |    War  with  England. 

MALCOLM  III.  was  surnamed  Canmore,  or  '  Bighead.'  Two 
years  after  the  Normans  conquered  England,  he  married 
the  Saxon  Margaret,  sister  of  Edgar  Atheling.  The  Queen, 
Margaret,  did  much  to  encourage  religion  and  industry 
among  the  Scots ;  and,  through  her  influence,  Malcolm 
assumed  more  state  than  any  of  his  predecessors.  Gold  and 
silver  plate  were  to  be  seen  on  the  royal  table. 

At  this  time  the  Scottish  Kings  claimed  Cumberland  and 
Northumberland.  Malcolm  perished  in  attempting  to  assert 
this  right.  He  was  slain  in  1093,  while  besieging  Alnwick 
Castle. 

Four  years  were  occupied  in  a  contest  for  the  crown  be- 
tween Donald  Bain,  a  brother,  and  Duncan,  an  illegitimate 
son  of  Malcolm  Canmore.  Donald  first  seized  the  throne, 
but  was  soon  expelled  by  Duncan.  In  eighteen  months 
Duncan  was  murdered,  and  Donald  again  became  King ;  but 
in  1097  the  old  usurper  was  dethroned  by  an  army  from 
England. 

Edgar,  son  of  Malcolm  Canmore,  succeeded,  and  reigned 
peacefully  for  nine  years. 

His  brother,  Alexander  I.,  then  came  to  the  throne.  The 
chief  event  of  this  reign  was  a  contest  between  the  King  and 
the  English  prelates,  who  claimed  the  riyht  of  consecrating 


SAXONS  IN  SCOTLAND.  65 

tlie  Bishop  of  St.  Andrews.  The  King  firmly  maintained  the 
independence  of  the  Scottish  clergy.  He  died  in  1124. 

l)avid  I.,  the  youngest  of  Malcolm  Canmore's  sons,  suc- 
ceeded. It  was  he  who  fought  the  battle  of  the  Standard 
in  defence  of  Maud  Plantagenet;  but  this  was  his  only 
war.  He  was  a  pious  and  peaceful  prince,  and  during 
his  reign  the  Scottish  nation  advanced  much  in  agricul- 
ture, commerce,  and  manufactures.  He  was  found  dead 
in  bed,  with  hands  clasped  as  if  in  prayer.  This  occurred 
in  1153. 

Thus,  while  the  early  Norman  Kings  held  the  English 
throne,  Saxons  sat  upon  the  throne  of  Scotland.  The  Scot- 
tish court  was  the  grand  refuge  of  Saxon  nobles  who  dis- 
dained to  bow  to  the  Norman  yoke ;  and  from  it  came  the 
Saxon  princess,  daughter  of  Malcolm  Canmore,  whose  mar- 
riage with  Henry  I.  of  England  united  the  rival  races. 


(32) 


THE  FEUDAL  SYSTEM. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

SOCIAL  CONDITION  OF  THE  NORMANS. 


Feudal  System. 

Chivalry. 

The  joust  or  tournament. 

Norman  castles. 


Manner  of  living. 

Dress. 

Coins. 

Language. 


THE  Normans  brought  with  them  into  England  the  Feudal 
System,  which  continued  to  hold  great  power  over  English 
society,  until  after  the  last  Norman  King  fell  on  Bosworth 
field.  It  is  true  there  were  some  traces  of  a  similar  plan 
among  the  Saxons;  but  the  system  was  fully  developed 
on  the  Continent,  and  chiefly  among  the  Normans.  It  de- 
rived its  name  from  feod,  or  feud,  a  piece  of  laud ;  and  its 
leading  feature  was,  that  all  land  was  under  military  tenure ; 
an  expression  which  means  that  a  tenant,  instead  of  paying 
his  whole  rent  in  corn,  or  cattle,  or  money,  gave  only  a  small 
portion  of  these,  and  for  the  rest  was  obliged  to  fight  under 
his  lord's  banner  without  any  pay,  when  called  to  arms. 
The  King  owned  all  land ;  he  allotted  large  districts  to  the 
nobles ;  they  subdivided  these  among  the  gentry  (the  Saxon 
thanes,  called  by  the  Normans  franklins);  these  again  sub- 
let their  land  to  their  vassals, — in  every  case  the  higher  re- 
quiring from  the  lower  service  in  war.  When  the  King 
needed  an  army,  he  summoned  his  barons ;  they  called  to 
arms  their  franklins ;  these,  their  vassals  and  retainers :  and 
thus  a  large  force  was  gathered  round  the  royal  standard. 
By  this  system  the  barons  had  great  power ;  and  under  the 
Norman  Kings  they  often  rebelled,  and  were  constantly  at 
war  with  each  other. 

Closely  interwoven  with  the  Feudal  System  was  chivalry 
or  knighthood.  As  a  knight,  the  King  was  on  a  level  with 
the  poorest  gentleman,  and  passed  through  the  same  train- 
ing,— serving  first  as  a  page,  and  then  as  an  esquire,  befora 
he  received  his  golden  spurs  and  took  the  vows  of  knight- 
hood. The  night  before  this  ceremony,  the  candidate  for 
knightly  honours  held  his  vigil- ;  when,  within  some  dark 
chapel  aisle,  amid  the  tombs  of  the  fallen  brave,  he  kept 


THE  TOURNAMENT.  67 

a  lonely  and  silent  watch  over  the  arms  he  was  about 
to  assume.  The  knight,  when  fully  equipped,  was  clad 
from  head  to  heel  in  armour,  formed  of  plates  rivetted 
firmly  together ;  below  this  he  wore  a  dress  of  soft  leather. 
On  his  helmet  was  a  crest ;  on  his  three-pointed  shield  a 
device, — the  original  of  our  coat-of-arms.  His  chief  weapon 
was  the  lance ;  but,  besides,  he  wore  a  two-handed  sword, 
and  a  poniard  called  '  the  dagger  of  mercy,'  used  to  kill  a 
fallen  foe ;  and  he  not  unfrequently  carried  a  battle-axe  or 
mace.  This  last — a  club  with  iron  head  studded  with  spikes 
—was  the  favourite  instrument  of  war  among  the  Norman 
clergy,  who  were  often  seen  on  tne  battle-field  with  a  black 
cassock  over  their  shining  armour ;  and  whose  priestly  vows, 
although  they  forbade  the  shedding  of  blood,  said  not  a  word 
about  the  dashing  out  of  brains.  The  Templars  were  a 
famous  order  of  military  monks,  founded  in  1118.  They 
wore  over  their  armour  a  long  scarlet  mantle,  with  an  eight- 
pointed  cross  of  white  sewed  on  the  right  shoulder.  Their 
robe  of  peace  was  white.  The  Crusaders  also  were  dis- 
tinguished by  crosses  of  various  colours.  The  English  wore 
white,  the  French  red,  the  Flemings  green,  the  Germans 
black,  and  the  Italians  yellow. 

The  chief  sport  of  chivalry  was  the  tournament  or  joust. 
It  was  held  within  an  enclosed  space  called  the  lists.  Ladies 
and  nobles  sat  round  in  raised  galleries,  while  the  lower 
orders  thronged  outside  the  barriers  to  witness  the  sport. 
At  each  end  of  the  lists  tents  were  pitched  for  the  rival 
knights.  Then  arose  the  clinking  of  hammers  as  the  rivets 
were  closed  by  the  armourers  or  smiths,  at  this  time  an  im- 
portant and  honoured  body  of  craftsmen.  With  flourish  of 
trumpets  the  heralds  proclaimed  the  titles  of  the  knights, 
as  they  rode  into  the  lists  on  their  pawing  chargers ;  and  the 
cry, '  Largesse,  largesse!'  with  which  the  proclamation  was 
followed,  drew  showers  of  gold  and  silver  coins  from  the 
galleries.  In  the  centre  of  the  lists  stood  the  challengers, 
awaiting  their  adversaries.  These,  riding  up,  touched  with 
their  lances  the  shields  of  those  with  whom  they  chose  to 
contend.  If  the  shield  was  touched  with  the  sharp  end  of 
the  lance,  the  combat  vas  to  be  at  outrance, — that  is,  with 
eharp  weapons  as  in  battle ;  while  touching  with  lance  re- 


68  NORMAN  CASTLES. 

versed  signified  the  more  peaceful  intention  of  using  blunted 
weapons  in  a  trial  of  skill.  At  sound  of  trumpet  the  com- 
batants dashed  at  full  gallop  from  opposite  ends  of  the  lists, 
and  met  in  the  centre  with  a  terrible  shock.  If  the  knights 
were  equally  matched,  the  lances  flew  into  splinters,  and  the 
horaes  were  thrown  back  on  their  haunches;  but  if  one 
struck  with  stronger  and  truer  aim,  whether  the  helmet  or 
the  shield  of  his  rival,  the  unlucky  knight  was  hurled  from 
the  saddle  to  the  ground,  stunned,  bleeding,  and  bruised  by 
his  heavy  armour.  This  'gentle  and  joyous  sport,'  as  the 
Norman  minstrels  called  it,  generally  lasted  two  or  three 
days.  The  victor  in  the  tilting  of  the  first  day,  besides  win- 
ning the  horses  and  armour  of  those  he  vanquished,  had  the 
privilege  of  naming  some  lady,  who,  as  Queen  of  Love  and 
Beauty,  presided  over  the  remaining  sports.  The  second 
day  was  often  devoted  to  a  mSlec,  in  which  the  knights  fought 
in  bands,  till  a  signal  to  stop  was  given  by  the  King  or  chief 
noble  present  casting  down  his  baton.  The  conqueror  in  the 
mSlee  knelt,  with  all  the  stains  of  the  conflict  on  him,  to  re- 
ceive a  crown  of  honour  from  the  hands  of  the  Queen  of 
Love  and  Beauty.  After  the  tilting,  the  lower  classes  held 
sports,  the  favourite  being  archery,  bull-baiting,  and  playing 
at  quarter-staff.  The  last  was  a  kind  of  cudgel-playing ;  the 
staff  was  a  pole  about  six  feet  long,  which  the  combatants 
grasped  in  the  middle,  striking,  parrying,  and  thrusting, 
with  both  ends.  Very  similar  to  the  tournament  was  the 
trial  by  combat ;  which,  like  the  ordeal  of  the  Saxons,  was 
the  Norman  appeal  to  the  justice  of  Heaven. 

The  castles  of  the  Normans  were  built  for  strength  and 
safety  in  turbulent  days ;  and  their  grey  ruins,  still  rising  in 
solid  grandeur  here  and  there  through  the  land,  teach  us 
how  it  was  that  the  feudal  Barons  were  able  so  often  and  so 
successfully  to  bid  defiance  to  the  King.  Their  distinctive 
feature  is  the  rounded  arch,  as  opposed  to  the  pointed  arch 
and  lancet-shaped  window  of  the  later  Gothic  style.  En- 
circled by  the  parapet  and  turrets  of  a  wall  about  twelve 
feet  high,  stood  the  keep.  This  was  a  square  tower  of  five 
stories,  with  walls  ten  feet  thick.  The  lowest  story  con- 
tained dungeons,  the  second  was  filled  with  stores,  the  third 
held  the  garrison,  while  the  upper  two  were  occupied  by  the 


ORIGIN  OF  FEUDAL  TOWNS.  69 

Baron  and  his  family.  The  entrance  to  the  keep  was  in  the 
third  Btory,  and  was  reached  by  a  winding  stair  in  the 
wall.  In  the  middle  of  this  stair  was  a  strong  gate ;  at  the 
top  was  a  drawbridge ;  while  before  the  door,  a  portcullis, 
dropping  from  above  with  iron  teeth,  effectually  barred  the 
entrance  against  all  foes.  Round  the  whole  castle  ran  a  moat, 
or  deep  ditch  filled  with  water ;  over  which  was  thrown  a 
drawbridge,  defended  at  its  outer  edge  by  a  tower,  called 
the  barbican.  Close  to  the  castle  the  shops  and  houses  of 
those  employed  by  the  Baron  and  his  vassals  clustered 
together.  Smiths,  carpenters,  workers  in  leather,  bakers, 
butchers,  tailors,  and  numerous  other  craftsmen  lived  there, 
having  built  their  huts  side  by  side  for  the  safety  that  lies 
in  numbers ;  and  thus  the  feudal  castle  was  often  the  nucleus 
of  a  feudal  town. 

In  their  manner  of  life  the  Normans  were  more  temperate 
and  delicate  than  the  Saxons.  They  only  had  two  regular 
meals ;  dinner,  taken  by  the  higher  classes  at  nine  in  the  morn- 
ing ;  and  supper,  about  four  or  five  in  the  afternoon.  But  a 
meal  was  often  taken  in  private  before  going  to  rest.  The 
Normans  introduced  the  general  use  of  the  chief  flesh 
meats  found  on  our  tables; — a  change  which  is  curiously 
illustrated  in  our  language,  where  we  find  the  words  denot- 
ing the  living  animal,  ox,  sheep,  calf, pig,  to  be  Saxon  ;  while 
the  words  applied  to  the  flesh  used  as  food,  beef,  mutton, 
veal,  pork,  are  Norman  or  French  in  their  origin.  The  ban- 
quets of  this  period  were  served  with  much  state  by  attend- 
ants called  sewers,  who  were  under  the  direction  of  higher 
domestics  carrying  white  rods  of  office.  The  table  was 
covered  with  varieties  of  meat,  game,  and  pastry ;  and  with 
cakes  called  by  different  names,  such  as  wastle-cakes  and 
simnel-bread.  The  higher  Normans  drank  foreign  wines,  and 
closed  their  revelry  with  a  draught  called  the  grace-cup.  The 
lower  classes  cheered  their  hearts  with  home-brewed  ale. 
A  fixed  etiquette  was  now  observed  at  table,  and  much  ridi- 
cule fell  on  those  who  neglected  its  rules.  Thus  we  read  of 
a  Saxon  who  was  laughed  at  by  the  Normans,  because  he 
dried  his  hands  on  a  napkin,  instead  of  waving  them  in  the 
air  until  the  moisture  had  evaporated.  The  sleeping  rooms 
of  the  great  contained  rude  wooden  beds  with  coarse  cover- 


70  VARIOUS  NOKMAN  COSTUMES. 

lets ;  but  the  mass  of  the  people  were  obliged  to  content 
themselves  with  straw  and  sheepskins. 

In  dress,  as  in  food,  the  Normans  introduced  many  novel- 
ties. The  gallant  of  this  time,  closely  shaven,  with  long 
hair  curling  on  the  shoulders,  wore  a  loose  doublet  reaching 
half-way  down  the  leg,  girt  with  a  gold-embroidered  belt. 
Over  this  was  a  short  cloak,  richly  furred  and  laced  with 
gold.  The  shoes  were  the  strangest  article  of  dress.  They 
had  very  long  toes,  pointed  and  twisted  like  the  horns  of  a 
ram;  and  the  fashion  grew  to  so  absurd  a  length  that  the 
toes  were  fastened  by  chains  of  gold  or  silver  to  the  knees. 
A  bonnet  of  velvet,  and  long  hoes  fastened  to  the  doublet  by 
very  many  strings  called  points,  completed  the  costume. 
Many  curious  characters,  illustrative  of  the  social  history  of 
the  time,  might  have  been  seen  among  the  Normans : — the 
minstrel,  with  his  harp  slung  on  his  shoulder,  a  plate  of  sil- 
ver on  his  arm,  and  a  chain  round  his  neck  bearing  the 
wrest  or  tuning  key;  the  fool  or  jester,  with  his  cap  and 
bells,  his  dress  of  motley,  and  his  stockings,  one  red  and  one 
yellow ;  the  palmer,  or  pilgrim  from  the  Holy  Land,  his  hat 
bordered  with  cockle  or  scallop  shells,  sandals  on  his  bare 
feet,  carrying  a  staff  shod  with  iron  with  a  palm-branch  on 
the  top ;  the  Saxon  serf,  clad  in  untanned  hide,  with  sandals 
of  boar-skin  and  leathern  bandage  rolled  half-way  up  the 
leg,  wearing  round  his  neck  a  collar  of  brass,  engraved  with 
his  master's  name ;  and  the  Jew,  with  yellow  cap  high  and 
square,  whose  nation,  reaching  England  during  the  Con- 
queror's reign,  though  abhorred,  scouted,  and  plundered  by 
all,  continued  to  drive  their  trade  in  money-lending  until 
the  days  of  the  first  Edward.  The  Norman  ladies  wore  a 
kirtle  or  under-gown  of  silk,  over  which  hung  a  loose  wide- 
sleeved  robe  reaching  the  ground.  The  clergy,  whose  pro- 
fessional mark  of  distinction  was  a  heavy  gold  signet  ring, 
often  vied  with  the  gallants  of  the  day  in  the  splendour  and 
fashion  of  their  dress. 

The  Saxon  coinage  was  little  changed.  Some  new  foreign 
coins  came  into  use,  of  which  the  chief  were  the  merk,  worth 
13s.  4d. ;  and  the  zechin  or  sequin,  an  Italian  coin,  worth 
about  9s.  5d.,  brought  into  use  by  the  Crusades. 

The  Norman  tongue — rich  in  words  relating  to  war, 


INTRODUCTION  OF  SURNAMES.  71 

chivalry,  law,  and  the  sports  of  the  field — being  the  lan- 
guage of  the  court,  speedily  became  that  of  the  church,  the 
halls  of  justice,  and  the  schools,  where,  we  are  told,  the  boys 
construed  their  Latin  lesson  into  French.  There  arose  also 
at  this  time  a  mixed  tongue,  lingua  franca,  in  which  the 
Normans  addressed  their  Saxon  servants  and  tenants.  The 
language  of  the  Saxons,  like  the  race  that  spoke  it,  made 
little  progress  during  these  days  of  bondage ;  and,  from  its 
intermixture  with  the  French  tongue,  gets  the  name  Semi- 
Saxon,  until  the  reign  of  John.  Ever  since  the  Conquest, 
a  struggle  for  predominance  had  been  going  on  between  the 
Saxon  and  the  Norman  languages.  About  the  time  of 
Magna  Charta  a  reaction  began,  which  ended  in  the  triumph 
of  the  former  tongue.  Three-fifths  of  our  modern  English 
may  be  traced  to  the  Anglo-Saxon. 

Surnames  were  brought  into  general  use  by  the  Normans. 
They  were  derived  from  various  sources,  of  which  the  most 
fruitful  were  personal  qualities,  as  Armstrong,  Whitehead, 
Swift ;  and  occupations  or  trades,  as  Smith,  Falconer,  Tay- 
lor, Miller.  Many  were  formed  from  Christian  names  by 
adding  the  Saxon  son,  as  Wilson ;  the  Celtic  Mac  or 
0,  as  Macdonald,  O'Connell ;  or  the  Norman  Fitz,  as  Fitz- 
gerald. 


LEADING  AUTHORS  UNDER  THE  EARLY 
NORMAN  KINGS. 

THE  SAXON  CHKONICLE This  work  was  compiled  from  the 

registers  kept  in  the  monas- 
teries—passing events  from  Al- 
fred's time  to  the  year  1154  are 
noticed. 

INGULF, 1030  to  1109— Abbot  of  Croyland 

— chronicler. 

GEOFFREY  OF  MONMOUTH, Died    1130— wrote    Chronicles    in 

Latin. 

WILLIAM  OF  MALMESBURY....1067  to  1143— wrote  Latin  Chro- 
nicles. 

HENRY  OF  HUNTINGDON, Died  1168-chronicler. 


72 


NORMAN   DATES. 


LEADING  DATES — EARLY  NORMAN  KINGS. 


GENERAL  EVENTS. 
A.D. 

Court  held  at  York,  1069.  Wm.  I. 

Malcolm  m.  pays 
homage, 1072.     — 

Domesday-book  com- 
piled,  1080-1086.     — 

Mowbray  rebels,. ...1095.  Wm.  II. 

First  Crusade, 1096.     — 

P.  William  drowned,1120.  Hen.  I. 

Maud  lands, 1139.  Steph. 

P.  Henry  lands, 1152.     — 


BATTLES/SIEGES. 
A.D. 

Siege  of  Gerberoi,...1077.  Wm.  L 
Battle  of  Tenche- 

brai, 1106.  Hen.  I 

—  of  Brenville, 1119.     — 

—  of  the  Standard,1138.  Stepli. 

—  of  Lincoln, 1141. 

Siege  of  Oxford, 1142.     — 


GENEALOGICAL  TREE 

CONNECTING  THE  EARLY  NORMAN  KINGS  WITH  THE  TLANTAGENETS 


WILLIAM  (the  Conqueror). 


ROBERT.        RICHARD.        WILLIAM  II. 

|         (Killed  by  a  stag.)         (No  heir.) 
WILLIAM. 
(Killed  at  Alost) 


I!  I 

HKNKY  I.     ADELA, 
married 
Earl  of  Blois. 


WILLIAM. 
(Drowned.) 


MAUD,  married 
GEOFFREY  PLANTAGENET. 


STEPHEN. 


HENRY  II.  EUSTACE.  WILLIAM 

(First  of  the  Royal  Plantagcnets.) 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  PLANTAGENETS.  73 


PLANTAGENET  LINE. 

1154  A.D.  to  1485  A.D.— 331  years.-14  Kings. 

Leading  Feature:  THE  FEUDAL  SYSTEM  LN  ITS  PKIME 
AND  ITS  DECAY. 


PLANTAGENETS  PROPER. 


A.D. 


HENEY  n.  began  to  rule,.. .1154 

RICHARD  I.  (son) 1189 

JOHN  (brother), 1199 

HENRY  in.  (son) 1216 


A.D. 


EDWARD  I.  (son), 1272 

EDWARD  II.  (son), 1307 

EDWARD  in.  (son), 1327 

RICHARD  II.  (grandsoii),....1377 


CHAPTER  I. 

HENRY  II. — CURTMANTLE. 

Born  1133  A.D.— Began  to  reign  1154  A.D.— Died  1189  A.D. 


The  name  Plantagenet. 
Henry's  power  and  early 
Becket's  rise.         [policy. 
His  magnificence. 
His  quarrel  with  Henry. 


His  escape  and  murder. 
State  of  Ireland. 
Story  of  Derinot. 
Conquest  of  Ireland. 
Henry's  penance. 


Capture  of  the  Scottish 
King. 

Henry's  death  and  char- 
acter. 

Changes  in  his  reign. 


THE  heads  of  the  Plantagenet  line  were  Geoffrey  of  Anjou 
and  Maud,  daughter  of  Henry  I.  of  England.    The  name  is 
derived  from  Planla  Genista,  the  Latin  term  for  the  shrub 
we  call  broom ;  which,  as  an  emblem  of  humility,  was  worn 
by  the  first  Earl  of  Anjou  when  a  pilgrim  to  the  Holy  Land. 
From  this  his  successors  took  their  crest  and  their  surname. 
Young  Henry  had  a  brilliant  prospect  before  him.    In 
France  he  held  some  of  the  fairest  provinces,  all  the  western 
coasts  owning  his  sway.    With  his  Queen,  Eleanor, 
he  received  the  crown  of  England  at  Westminster.       Dec. 
During  several  years  he  was  engaged  in  redressing     1 1 54 
the  evils  which  had  sprung  from  the  turbulence  of       A.D. 
Stephen's  reign.    He  issued  new  coins ;  drove  from 
England  the  foreign  hirelings,  who  had  swarmed  into  the 


74  THOMAS  A  BECKET. 

land  during  the  civil  war;  and — hardest  task  of  all — set 
himself  to  destroy  the  castles  of  the  robber-barons. 

The  story  of  Thomas  a  Becket  fills  more  than  one  half  of 
the  reign.  Tradition  tells  us  that  Gilbert  Becket  was  im- 
prisoned in  Palestine ;  that  he  was  set  free  by  a  Saracen  girl 
who  loved  him;  and  that  she,  feeling  wretched  after  his 
escape,  followed  him  to  England.  She  knew  only  two  English 
words,  London  and  Gilbert:  the  first  gained  for  her  a  pas- 
sage in  an  English-bound  ship ;  and  by  crying  the  second  in 
the  streets  of  London,  she  at  length  found  her  lover.  They 
were  married,  and  Thomas  &  Becket  was  their  son.  He 
was  educated  for  the  Church,  and  was  soon  made  Arch- 
deacon of  Canterbury,  a  post  then  worth  £100  a-year.  By 
the  advice  of  the  aged  Theobald,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
Henry  appointed  him  Chancellor,  and  tutor  to  his  son,  and 
he  speedily  became  chief  favourite. 

He  outshone  the  King  by  his  magnificence,  had  in  his 
train  thousands  of  knights,  and  lived  in  the  height  of  the 
luxury  which  the  times  afforded.  His  table  was  free  to  all : 
the  uninvited  guests  were  often  so  many  that  there  were  not 
seats  for  all,  and  numbers  sat  on  the  floor  upon  clean  straw 
or  rushes.  On  the  death  of  Theobald,  Becket  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  then,  as  it  is  now,  the  highest  dig- 
nity in  the  Church.  At  once  he  changed  his  conduct.  He 
resigned  his  chancellorship,  became  as  frugal  in  his  style 
of  living  as  he  had  been  dissolute  and  luxurious,  and 
exchanged  his  gay  train  of  knights  for  the  society  of  a  few 
monks. 

From  this  time  he  began  to  lose  the  favour  of  the  King. 
Dislike  deepened  into  hatred ;  hatred  burst  into  open  quar- 
reL  The  rights  of  the  clergy  formed  the  immediate  cause  of 
contention.  Becket  was  an  Englishman  by  birth,  and  the 
first  of  Saxon  race  who  had  obtained  the  primacy  under  the 
Normans.  He  therefore  enlisted  the  sympathy  of  all  his 
countrymen  in  his  struggle  against  the  royal  power.  Henry 
required  that  priests  accused  of  crime  should  be  tried  by  the 
royal  judges.  Becket  opposed  him,  maintaining  the  right 
of  priests  to  answer  for  their  conduct  only  to  the 
•*••*•"*  courts  of  the  Church.  A  council  held  at  Claren- 

A'D'        don  in  Wilts  decided  in  Henry's  favour.    Becket 


BECKET'S  MURDER.  75 

yielded  at  first;  but  the  struggle  was  resumed,  and  he  fled 
to  France  to  escape  ruin.  After  six  years  he  was  recon- 
ciled to  Henry,  by  Pope  Alexander  III.  and  Louis  of 
France.  Returning  to  England,  he  found  the  domains  of  his 
see  forfeited.  Henry  seemed  unwilling  to  restore  them,  and 
this  renewed  the  quarrel.  Becket  then  excommunicated  all 
who  held  lands  belonging  to  the  see  of  Canterbury.  The 
King,  who  was  in  Normandy  when  the  news  reached  him, 
happened  to  say,  'Is  there  none  of  the  cowards  eating  my 
bread  who  will  free  me  from  this  turbulent  priest?'  Four 
knights,  who  heard  him,  took  an  oath  to  slay  Becket ;  and, 
travelling  to  England,  burst  into  the  Cathedral  at 
Canterbury,  where  they  cruelly  murdered  the  pre-  1170 
late,  scattering  his  brains  on  the  steps  of  the  altar.  A.D. 
The  scene  of  the  murder,  and  the  saintly  reputation 
of  the  victim,  deepened  the  horror  with  which  the  people 
looked  upon  this  crime. 

The  great  event  of  this  reign  was  the  annexation  of  Ire- 
land. The  island  was  then  divided  into  six  provinces, — 
Leinster,  Desmond  or  South  Munster,  Thomond  or  North 
Munster,  Connaught,  Ulster,  and  Meath ;  the  last  being 
specially  attached  to  the  dignity  of  Ard-riagh,  or  supreme 
monarch,  which  was  then  claimed  by  the  O'Connors,  Kings 
of  Connaught.  The  ports  were  in  the  hands  of  Ostmen,  or 
Eastmen,  descended  from  the  Danish  pirates ;  and  were  very 
prosperous,  the  commerce  of  Dublin  rivalling  that  of  Lon- 
don. But  the  mass  of  the  people  fed  cattle.  Their  clothing 
was  spun  from  raw  wool.  Their  houses  were  built  of  wood, 
and  wicker-work.  They  had  forgotten  the  art  by  which 
their  ancestors  raised  those  strange  round  towers  that  still 
puzzle  the  antiquarian.  Like  the  Welsh,  they  excelled  in 
the  music  of  the  harp. 

A  feud  arose  between  Dermot,  King  of  Leinster,  and 
O'Ruarc,  Prince  of  Breffni  or  Leitrim.  Dermot  had  car- 
ried off  O'Ruarc's  wife ;  but  she  had  been  recovered  by  the 
aid  of  O'Connor,  the  Ard-riagh.  War  ensued,  and  Dermot 
was  driven  from  the  island.  From  Henry  he  obtained  leave 
to  enlist  soldiers  in  England.  Richard  le  Clare,  Earl  of 
Pembroke,  surnamed  Strongbow ;  Robert  Fitzstephen ;  and 
Maurice  Fitzgerald,  accepted  his  tei'ms. 


76  CONQUEST  OF  IRELAND. 

Fitzstephen  landed  at  Bannow  Bay  with  140  knights,  and 
300  archers,  and  Wexford  fell  before  him.  Fitzgerald  fol- 
lowed. Then  came  Strongbow  with  1 200  men.  Waterford 
and  Dublin  were  carried  by  storm,  and  no  efforts  of  the  Irish 
could  dislodge  the  invaders  from  the  fortresses  with  which 
they  rapidly  secured  their  conquests.  Henry  now 
1172  crossed  by  the  usual  route,  from  Milford  Haven  to 
A.D.  Waterford  ;  and  at  Dublin  received  the  homage  of 
the  chi  ef tains.  The  princes  of  Ulster  alone  disdained 
submission.  On  his  return  to  England  Henry  appointed 
Prince  John,  a  boy  of  twelve,  to  the  lordship  of  the  island. 
The  foolish  boy  and  his  Norman  train  mocked  the  Irish  chief- 
tains, as  they  came  to  pay  homage,  and  insulted  them  by 
plucki  ng  their  beards.  Such  treatment  estranged  the  natives, 
and  their  revolts  became  fiercer  and  more  frequent.  These 
events  are  called  the  conquest  of  Ireland,  but  its  final  sub- 
dual was  of  much  later  date. 

Four  years  after  Becket's  murder,  Henry  did  penance  at 
his  tomb.  Walking  barefoot  through  the  city,  he  threw 
himself  on  the  pavement  before  the  shrine,  and  was  there 
scourged  with  knotted  cords. 

Immediately  afterwards  he  received  news  of  the  capture 
of  William,  King  of  Scotland,  who  had  been  surprised  in  a 
mist  near  Alnwick  Castle  by  Glanville.  This  Henry  exult- 
ingly  ascribed  to  the  mercy  of  reconciled  Heaven,  deeming 
it,  according  to  the  notions  of  his  Church,  the  direct  fruit  of 
his  penance.  William  was  not  released  until  he  acknow- 
ledged his  kingdom  a  fief,  and  himself  a  vassal  of  the  Eng- 
lish crown, — a  forced  submission  which  it  is  important  to 
remember,  for  on  it  Edward  I.  founded  his  claims  to  the 
lordship  of  Scotland. 

Henry's  sons,  urged  on  by  their  mother  and  the  French 
King,  often  defied  his  power ;  and  the  shock  of  finding  his 
favourite  son,  John,  mentioned  in  a  list  of  rebels,  whom  he 
was  asked  to  pardon,  threw  him  into  a  fever,  of  which  he 
died  at  Chinon.  The  church  of  Fontevraud  received  his 
remains,  over  which  his  son  Richard  wept  bitter  but  useless 
tears  of  remorse.  Of  his  five  sons — William,  Henry,  Geof- 
frey, Richard,  and  John — only  the  last  two  survived  him. 
One  of  his  daughters,  Maud,  married  Henry,  Duke  of  Saxony, 


STATE  OF  COMMERCE. 


77 


and  thus  became  the  ancestress  of  the  noble  family  now 
holding  the  English  throne. 

In  character  Henry  was  the  type  of  his  race.  His  pride 
was  great  Equally  great  was  his  ambition,  but  tempered  by 
caution.  His  passion  has  been  called  the  fury  of  a  savage 
beast.  His  faithlessness  was  concealed  by  his  winning 
tongue  and  pleasant  manners.  In  person  he  resembled  his 
ancestor,  the  Conqueror. 

During  this  reign  commerce  was  much  extended.  The 
Crusades  had  introduced  the  merchandise  of  the  East,  and 
gold,  spices,  gems,  and  rich  cloths  adorned  the  stalls  of 
London.  The  Continent  received  from  England  flesh,  her- 
rings and  oysters,  lead  and  tin,  skins  and  cloths.  Glass  was 
first  used  for  the  windows  of  private  houses  1180  A.D.  Six 
circuits  of  justice  were  fixed,  and  three  judges  appointed  to 
each.  London  now  became  the  capital,  the  civil  wars  of 
Stephen's  reign  having  laid  Winchester  almost  in  ruins. 

CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


SCOTLAND. 

A.D. 

MALCOLM  IV., died  1166 

WILLIAM. 


.1180 


FRANCE. 

LOUIS    VII., 

PHILIP  AUGUSTUS. 


SPAIN. 

ALPHONSO  VIII., 1157 

SANCHOIII. 1158 

ALPHONSO  IX. 


EMPEROR. 

A.D. 

FREDERIC  I. 

POPES. 

ANASTASIUS  IV., died  1154 

ADRIAN  IV.  (the  only  Eng- 
lish Pope;  true  name,  Ni- 
cholas Breakspear), 1159 

ALEXANDER  in., 1181 

LUCIUS  in 1185 

URBAN  III., 1187 

GREGORY  VIII., 1187 

CLEMENT  HI. 


78  MASSACRE  OF  THE  JEWS. 

CHAPTER  II. 

RICHARD  I.—  CffiTJR  DE  LION,   OR  THE  LION-HEARTED. 
Born  1157  A.D.— Began  to  reign,  1189  A.D.— Died,  1199  A.D. 


Money  raised  for  a  Cru- 
sade. 
Sufferings  of  the  Jews. 


The  Crusade. 
Richard  in  prison. 
His  return  to  England. 


Hig  death. 
Character. 
Effects  of  the  Crusades. 


CROSSING  without  delay  to  England,  Richard  received  his 
father's  crown  at  Westminster.  But  to  rule  England  was 
not  his  ambition.  He  burned  to  win  glory  on  the  plains  of 
Palestine,  and  his  earliest  measures  were  undertaken  to  raise 
money  for  a  Crusade.  To  this  he  devoted  the  hoards  of  his 
father ;  for  this  purpose  he  sold  the  honours  and  offices  in 
his  gift ;  and  gave  up  for  10,000  merks  the  homage  wrested 
by  his  father  from  the  Scottish  King. 

The  Jews  now  suffered  terrible  woes.  They  were  the  bank- 
ers and  usurers  of  the  age,  and  their  money-chests  were  an  irre- 
sistible temptation.  From  France  their  nation  had  been  driven 
with  the  scourge  and  the  axe ;  and,  dreading  like  treatment 
in  England,  they  approached  the  Abbey  on  Richard's  cor- 
onation-day with  splendid  offerings.  Their  presence  roused 
the  mob,  and  the  cry  spread  that  the  King  had  proclaimed 
a  massacre.  Every  Jewish  dwelling  was  soon  in  a  blaze, 
and  the  streets  were  slippery  with  Jewish  blood.  But  York 
Castle  was  the  scene  of  a  darker  tragedy.  Five  hundred 
Jews  had  there  taken  refuge  with  their  wives  and  children, 
and  were  besieged  by  the  citizens.  They  offered  money,  but 
in  vain ;  and,  to  baulk  those  who  thirsted  for  their  blood, 
they  hurled  their  treasures  into  the  flames,  slew  their  dear 
ones,  and  then  stabbed  one  another.  A  few  cried  for  mercy, 
and  opened  the  gates ;  but  the  rabble  rushing  in  put  them  to 
the  sword.  Lynn,  Norwich,  Stamford,  Edmondsbury,  Lin- 
coln also  echoed  the  dying  groans  of  God's  ancient  people. 
The  butchers  received  slight  punishment ;  while  Richard, 
although  no  doubt  sharing  the  plunder,  declared  by  procla- 
mation that  he  took  the  Jews  under  his  protection. 

Richard  of  England  and  Philip  Augustus  of  France  then 
mustered  their  soldiers  on  tbe  plains  of  Vezelai  in  Bur- 


THE  THIRD  CRUSADE.  79 

gundy.  It  was  the  third  Crusade.  The  united 
armies  numbered  100,000  men.  At  Lyons  the 
Kings  parted,  to  meet  at  Messina  in  Sicily.  Dur-  A  D 
ing  the  winter  they  passed  in  Sicily  Richard  forced 
the  King,  Tancred,  to  restore  40,000  ounces  of  gold— the 
dowry  of  his  sister  Joan.  Here,  too,  many  petty  jealousies 
arose  between  Richard  and  Philip.  Another  delay  took 
place  at  Cyprus,  where  Richard  was  married  to  Berengaria 
of  Navarre.  He  stayed  to  conquer  the  island ;  and,  having 
captured  the  King,  Isaac,  cast  him  into  prison,  loaded  with 
fetters  of  silver.  Nearly  twelve  months  had  passed  before 
the  English  King  reached  Acre,  then  the  centre  of  the  war. 
The  graves  of  200,000  soldiers,  slain  before  the  walls,  at- 
tested the  fury  of  the  strife.  Saladin,  the  infidel  Soldan, 
watched  every  movement  of  the  besieging  force  from  the 
mountains  that  encircled  the  city.  Philip  had  been  for 
some  time  in  the  camp  before  the  walls,  but  the  presence 
of  the  Lion-heart  alone  could  strike  terror  into  the  defend- 
ers. Very  soon  after  Richard's  arrival,  the  gates  were 
thrown  open.  The  jealousy,  which  began  in  Sicily  and  had 
since  been  increasing,  now  caused  Philip,  on  pretence  of  ill- 
health,  to  return  to  France.  Before  his  departure  he  swore 
not  to  invade  the  dominions  of  Richard.  From  Acre  Rich- 
ard led  the  Crusaders  to  Jaffa,  inflicting  upon  Saladin,  who 
strove  to  impede  the  march,  a  -severe  defeat.  At  last  the 
walls  of  the  still  fair  Jerusalem  rose  before  the  soldiers  of 
the  Cross ;  but  their  ranks  were  so  thinned  by  war,  hunger, 
and  disease,  and  their  energies  so  weakened  by  disunion 
and  national  jealousy,  that  Richard,  even  with  the  prize,  for 
which  he  had  neglected  his  duty  as  a  King,  glittering  before 
him,  was  forced  to  turn  away.  The  Crusade  was 
over,  and  the  monarch  of  England  soon  took  leave  i^qo 
of  the  sacred  shore,  with  outstretched  arms  com-  .  n 
mending  it  to  the  mercy  of  Heaven. 

Wrecked  upon  the  northern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Venice, 
Richard  resolved  to  cross  the  Continent  in  the  dress  of  a 
pilgrim,  under  the  name  of  Hugh  the  merchant.  He 
reached  Vienna  in  safety :  but  there  the  imprudence  of  hia 
page,  who,  going  into  the  town  to  buy  provisions,  wore 
gloves— then  a  mark  of  the  highest  rank— betrayed  him  into 


80  THE  DEATH  OF  RICHARD. 

the  hands  of  Leopold,  Duke  of  Austria,  whom  he  had  beaten 
with  his  own  hands  in  the  town  of  Acre.  At  first  he  was 
confined  in  the  Castle  of  Tyernsteign,  but  the  Emperor 
Henry  VI.,  who  purchased  the  chained  Lion  for  ,£60,000, 
flung  him  into  a  castle  in  the  Tyrol.  There  is  a  legend  that 
a  French  minstrel,  named  Blondel,  discovered  the  place  of 
Richard's  captivity.  Wandering  through  the  land,  he  hap- 
pened near  a  grated  window  to  strike  his  harp  to  an  air  of 
Richard's  own  composing.  The  strain  was  answered  from 
within,  and  he  knew  it  was  the  King  of  England  who  sang. 
After  much  debate,  a  ransom  was  fixed ;  100,000  merks 
were  wrung  from  the  English  people ;  and  Richard 
1 1 94  was  free. 

A.D.  As  yet  the  King  had  spent  only  four  months  in 
England.  He  now  spent  little  more  than  two. 
When  he  recovered  his  freedom,  he  found  his  crown  of 
England  and  his  French  coronets  equally  in  danger.  Hia 
brother  John,  having  driven  into  exile  the  Regent,  William 
of  Longchamp,  aimed  at  the  one :  Philip  of  France  desired 
the  others ;  and  this,  perhaps,  was  the  true  cause  of  his  deser- 
tion at  Acre.  John's  party  melted  away  before  his  brother's 
presence,  and  he  humbly  sought  for  pardon;  which  was 
granted  at  the  intercession  of  his  mother. 

The  rest  of  Richard's  reign  was  occupied  by  wars  in 
France,  carried  on  at  the  expense  of  his  English  subjects. 
In  two  years  he  drew  from  this  country  £1,100.000.  In 
France  he  received  his  death-wound  in  a  mean  quarrel.  A 
treasure  had  been  found  on  the  estate  of  his  vassal,  Vi- 
domar.  Richard  received  part,  but  demanded  all.  Being 
refused,  he  besieged  the  Castle  of  Chaluz,  from  the  walls  of 
which  an  arrow  struck  him  in  the  shoulder.  The  head  was 
extracted  by  an  unskilful  surgeon,  and  mortification  set  in. 
The  castle  being  taken,  the  archer,  Gourdon,  was  brought  a 
captive  to  the  monarch's  dying  bed ;  but  Richard  pardoned 
him.  In  spite  of  this,  the  unhappy  youth  was  flayed  alive 
by  Richard's  general.  The  dead  King  was  buried  at  the  feet 
of  his  father  in  Fontevraud :  his  heart  was  bequeathed  to 
the  citizens  of  Rouen. 

The  daring  valour  and  muscular  strength  of  this  prince  ; 
his  bright  blue  eyes  and  curling  chestuut  hair;  his  skill  iu 


EFFECTS  OF  THE  CRUSADES.  81 

music,  and  his  accomplishments  in  the  poetry  of  the  Trou- 
badours, have  made  him  a  favourite  hero  of  historians  and 
novelists.  He  was,  indeed,  the  very  model  of  a  feudal  knight ; 
but  the  King  of  England,  who  spent  six  months  among  his 
people  during  a  reign  of  ten  years,  and  whose  brightest  vic- 
tories brought  poverty  and  hunger  to  English  homes,  cannot 
but  be  deemed  unworthy  of  the  name. 

The  famous  Robin  Hood  lived  now.  Heavy  taxes  stir- 
red up  a  riot  in  London,  headed  by  Fitzosbert,  or  Long- 
beard,  who  was  hanged.  The  three  lions  still  seen  in  the 
royal  shield  were  adopted  by  Richard.  The  social  effects  of 
the  Crusades  began  to  be  felt.  They  excited  a  somewhat 
kindlier  feeling  among  the  nations  leagued  in  a  common 
cause ;  they  opened  up  the  East  to  commerce,  and  poured  its 
riches  into  England  ;  they  drained  the  country  of  those 
restless  spirits,  whose  broils  convulsed  society  unceasingly ; 
lastly,  and  of  most  importance,  by  weakening  the  power  of 
the  nobles,  whose  estates  began  to  pass  into  the  hands  of 
the  wealthy  commoners,  they  elevated  the  standing  of  the 
middle  classes,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  those  changes  by 
which  was  afterwards  established  our  House  of  Commons. 

CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 

SCOTLAND.  EMPERORS.  A.D. 

WILLIAM.  FREDERIC  I died  1190 

HENRY  VI 1197 

PHILIP. 

FRANCE. 

PHILIP  AUGUSTUS. 


SPAIN. 


POPES. 

CLEMENT  III 1191 

CELESTIN  III 1198 


ALPHONSO  IX  !    INNOCENT  III. 


82  THE  INTERDICT. 

CHAPTER  III. 

JOHN— SANSTERKE,  OR  LACKLAND. 
Bora  1166  A.D.-Began  to  reign  1199  A.D.— Died  1216  A.D. 


John  not  the  heir. 
Loss   of    French   pro- 
vinces. 

Quarrel  with  the  Pope. 
I'liilip  in  Flanders. 


Magna  Charta. 
Broken  oaths. 
Death. 
Character. 
Notes. 


RICHARD,  who  left  no  heir,  bequeathed  his  throne  to  his 
brother  John,  Duke  of  Mortaigue.  A  council  held  at  North- 
ampton confirmed  the  choice,  and  John  was  crowned  at 
Westminster.  He  was  not  the  lineal  heir,  for  his  elder 
brother,  Geoffrey,  had  left  a  son, — Arthur,  Duke  of  Bre- 
tagne,  now  aged  twelve  years.  This  boy's  claim  was  sup- 
ported by  the  French  King ;  but  at  the  Castle  of  Mirabeau, 
in  Poitou,  he  fell  into  the  hands  of  John,  who  cast  him  into 
the  dungeons  of  Rouen.  Here  all  trace  of  him  was  lost.  There 
were  some  who  said  that  John  slew  him  with  his  own  hand. 
Arthur's  sister,  Eleanor,  called  the  Maid  of  Bretagne,  another 
rival,  was  imprisoned  within  Bristol  Castle  till  her  death. 

John,  having  divorced  Joanna,  married  Isabella  of  An- 
gouleme,  the  affianced  wife  of  the  Earl  of  Marche ;  and  thi.s 
seduction,  coupled  with  the  murder  of  Arthur,  roused  against 
him  enemies,  who  soon  stripped  him  of  Normandy,  Anjou, 
and  Maine. 

The  see  of  Canterbury  having  fallen  vacant,  the  monks 
nominated  John  de  Gray,  Bishop  of  Norwich ;  the  Pope,  In- 
nocent III.,  elected  Stephen  Langton.  The  monks  yielded 
to  the  Pope ;  but  John,  defying  the  Pontiff,  drove  them  from 
their  abbeys  and  seized  their  treasures,  because  they  had 
deserted  his  minister  and  favourite,  De  Gray.  This  conduct 
drew  upon  the  country  the  terrors  of  an  interdict.  For  six 
years  there  was  no  worship  in  the  land;  the  churches 
1208  were  closed ;  their  silent  bells  rusted  in  the  steeples ; 

A-IX       the  dead  were  cast  without  prayer  into  unhallowed 

1  01  A.     §raves)  the  statues  of  the  saints  were  shrouded  in 

black.    The  people  groaned  under  the  curse;  but 

the  King,  unmoved,  visited  Scotland.  Ireland,  and 


MAGNA  CHARTA.  83 

Wales,  exacting  homage  and  imposing  tribute.  The  Pope 
at  last  called  upon  Philip  of  France  to  dethrone  the  im- 
pious monarch ;  and  then  John  yielded.  Sensible  that  of 
the  60,000  warriors  who  marched  under  his  banner  he  could 
trust  not  one,  he  took  an  oath  of  fealty  to  the  Pope,  agreeing 
to  pay  to  the  Roman  coffers  1000  merks  as  yearly  rent  for 
his  kingdoms  of  England  and  Ireland. 

Philip,  who  was  at  Boulogne,  ready  to  invade  England, 
proposed  to  cross  the  Strait  notwithstanding  John's  sub- 
mission to  the  Pope.    Ferrand,  Earl  of  Flanders,  objected; 
and  the  enraged  monarch  ravaged  Flanders  to  the  walls  of 
Ghent.    His  fleet,  however,  was  scattered  by  William  Long- 
sword,  Earl  of  Salisbury,  who  commanded  the  navy  of  Eng- 
land.   John,  in  the  flush  of  this  success,  sailed  to 
Poitou  ;  but  his  hopes  of  victory  were  blasted     1214 
by  the  defeat  of  his  allies,  the  Emperor  Otho  and       A.D. 
Ferrand,  at  Bouvines.    He  then  sought  and  ob- 
tained a  truce  for  five  years. 

A  number  of  men  from  Anjou  and  Poitou,  who  had  been 
allied  with  King  John,  sought  an  asylum  in  England. 
Adroit  and  insinuating,  and  better  fitted  to  please  a  King 
than  the  Normans  settled  in  the  country,  they  were  received 
with  favour  at  the  Court,  and  speedily  supplanted  the  old 
aristocracy  in  the  good  graces  of  the  King.  He  distributed 
among  them  all  the  offices  and  fiefs  at  his  disposal ;  and, 
under  various  pretexts,  deprived  several  rich  Normans  of 
their  posts  in  favour  of  these  new  comers.  He  married 
them  to  the  rich  heiresses  under  his  wardship,  according  to 
the  feudal  law,  and  made  them  guardians  of  rich  orphans 
under  age.  The  new  courtiers,  by  their  exactions,  soon  ren- 
dered themselves  as  odious  to  the  Saxon  citizens  as  they 
were  to  the  nobles  of  Norman  origin ;  and  thus  the  two  races 
of  men  who  inhabited  England  were,  for  the  first  time, 
brought  together  by  a  common  feeling.  Here  we  may  date 
the  birth  of  a  new  national  spirit,  common  to  all  born  on 
English  soil. 

The  Barons  of  England,  roused  by  the  dishonour  and  loss 
which  the  tyrant  had  heaped  upon  their  noblest  families, 
swore  to  suffer  no  longer.  When  John  heard  their  demands, 
he  cried, '  As  well  may  they  ask  my  crown !'  But  he  had 


84  DEATH  OF  JOHN. 

to  deal  with  stern  and  resolute  men  ;  and  though  he  shifted 

and  delayed  while  he  could,  yet  the  loss  of  London,  which 

the  Barons  seized  one  Sunday  when  the  people 

June  15,    were  in  the  churches,  forced  him  to  compliance. 

1215  At  Runnymead,  between  Staines  and  Windsor,  he 
A.D.       signed  Magna  Charta,  a  document  still  preserved 

in  the  British  Museum.  The  most  important  pro- 
vision of  this  Charter  was,  that  no  '  freeman  should  be 
arrested,  imprisoned,  outlawed,  or  dispossessed  of  land,  ex- 
cept by  the  lawful  judgment  of  his  peers.'  Besides,  it 
confirmed  the  ancient  charters  of  London  and  other  cities, 
and  granted  to  foreign  merchants  leave  to  reside  in  England 
or  depart  from  it  without  exaction.  Thus  does  God's  mercy 
turn  evil  into  good.  To  a  reign  among  the  blackest  in  OUT 
annals  we  can  trace  much  of  the  peace  which  cherishes  our 
freedom  and  brightens  our  homes. 

John  was  bound  by  solemn  oaths  to  keep  the  Charter ; 
but  oaths  were  nothing  to  him.  He  was  all  courtesy  and 
kindness  at  Runnymead ;  but,  when  the  Barons  had  departed, 
he  raved  like  a  madman,  and  cursed  the  day  he  was  born. 
The  first  tidings  the  Barons  heard  were,  that  the  tyrant, 
having  raised  an  army  of  mercenaries,  was  laying  waste  the 
land.  The  sky  was  red  with  the  blaze  of  burning  towns  and 
corn-fields :  the  people  fled  to  the  forests  and  hills.  In  de- 
spair, the  Barons  called  Louis  of  France,  who  had  married 
the  niece  of  John,  to  take  the  crown ;  and  then  was  England 
in  peril.  On  the  one  hand  were  the  horrors  of  a  second  con- 
quest and  a  new  French  dynasty ;  on  the  other,  the  fury  of 
a  savage,  who,  if  successful,  would  stop  at  no  revenge,  how- 
ever terrible.  The  hand  of  God  interposed.  Louis  had 
landed  at  Sandwich,  and  John  was  marching  to  meet  him  ; 
but  on  the  shores  of  the  Wash  he  saw  his  money,  his  jewels, 
and  the  records  of  the  kingdom,  swept  away  by 
Oct.  19,  the  rising  tide;  and  his  agitation  brought  on  a 

1216  fever.    Some  writers  say  that  he  died  by  poison  ; 
A-D-       others,  that  a  surfeit  of  peaches  and  new  ale  laid 

him  on  his  death-bed.  He  died  at  Newark  Castle, 
and  was  buried  at  Worcester. 

Of  John  we  know  nothing  good.     He  was  a  mean  coward, 
a  shameless  liar,  the  most  profligate  in  a  profligate  age,  the 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


85 


most  faithless  of  a  faithless  race.  In  person  he  was  tall, 
though  corpulent ;  and  his  face  was  a  true  picture  of  his  de- 
graded mind. 

By  his  last  wife,  Isabella,  he  left  three  sons — Henry,  Rich- 
ard, and  Edmund ;  and  three  daughters — Joan,  Eleanor,  and 
Isabella. 

During  this  reign  London  Bridge  was  finished ;  letters  of 
credit  were  first  used  in  England;  and  the  custom  of  an- 
nually electing  a  Lord  Mayor  and  two  Sheriffs  of  London 
was  begun,  Henry  Fitzalwyn  being  the  first  Lord  Mayor.  • 
The  fisheries  were  now  very  profitable, — the  salmon  of  the 
Dee,  and  the  herrings  of  the  Sandwich  shore  being  espe- 
cially prized. 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


SCOTLAND.  A.I> 

WILLIAM died  1214 

ALEXANDER  II. 

FRANCE. 
PHILIP  AUGUSTUS. 


HENRY  I. 


SPAIN. 


EMPERORS.  A.D. 

PHILIP died  1308 

OTHO  IV. 


POPES. 

INNOCENT  HI 1216 

HONORIUS  in. 


86  DEFEAT  OF  LOUIS. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

HENRY  III. — WINCHESTER. 
Born  1207  A.D.— Began  to  reign  1216  A.D.— Died  1272  A.D. 


Henry  crowned. 
Defeat  of  Louis. 
De  Burgh  and  De  Roches. 
Fall  of  De  Burgh. 
War  with  France. 


Scotland  and  Wales.  Battle  of  Evesliam. 


Discontent  of  the  Barons. 
The  Mad  Parliament 
Battle  of  Lewes,     [tuted. 
House  of  Commons  insti- 


Henry  dies. 
His  character. 
Notes. 


Louis  held  London  and  the  southern  counties ;  but  the 
Barons,  whose  feeling  had  changed  on  the  death  of  John, 
rallied  round  young  Henry,  who  was  at  once  crowned  at 
Gloucester  with  a  plain  golden  circlet,  for  the  crown  had 
been  lost  in  the  waves  of  the  Wash.  All  true  Englishmen 
were  at  the  same  time  commanded  to  wear  round  the  head 
for  a  month  a  white  fillet,  in  honour  of  the  coronation.  The 
King  being  only  ten  years  old,  the  Earl  of  Pembroke  was  ap- 
pointed Regent.  The  first  act  of  the  new  reign  was  to  con- 
firm the  Great  Charter,  its  sixty-one  chapters  having  been 
reduced  to  forty-two. 

Louis  did  not  leave  the  island  without  a  straggle  for  the 

crown,  which  had  been  almost  in  his  grasp ;  but  he 

May  19,    was  forced  to  abandon  the  enterprise  by  a  complete 

1217     defeat  sustained  at  Lincoln.    At  the  same  time  his 

A.D.       fleet  was  destroyed  at  Calais  by  Hubert  de  Burgh, 

who,  causing  powdered  quicklime  to  be  flung  into 

the  air,  so  that  the  wind  bore  it  into  the  eyes  of  the  French, 

took  advantage  of  the  disorder  to  cut  their  rigging. 

Pembroke  having  died  in  the  third  year  of  his  regency, 

the  power  was  divided  between  Hubert  de  Burgh  and  Peter 

de  Roches,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  a  Poictevin.    They  did 

not  agree,  and  Pandulph,  the  legate,  had  much  trouble  in 

preventing  an  open  quarrel   However,  when  Henry 

1223    was  declared  of  age  at  seventeen,  De  Burgh  be- 

A.D.       came  chief  favourite  ;  and  De  Roches,  feeling  his 

cause  grew  weak,  took  the  pilgrim's  staff  for  the 

Holy  Land. 

At  a  great   council,  one-fifteenth  of  all  movables  was 


FAVOURITES  OF  HENRY.  87 

granted  for  an  expedition  to  France,  on  condition  that  Henry 
should  ratify  the  Charter  for  the  third  time.  Sir 
Edward  Coke  tells  us  that  it  has  been  ratified  in  1225 
all  thirty-two  times.  The  expedition  failed  to  re-  A.D. 
cover  Poitou  and  Guienne,  which  Louis  had  seized ; 
and  Henry  incurred  the  charge  of  having  wasted  his  own 
time  and  the  people's  money  in  idle  revelry.  He  cast  the 
blame  on  De  Burgh,  who  speedily  fell  into  disgrace.  An 
account  of  money  received  during  his  time  of  office  was  de- 
manded :  he  could  not  give  it,  and  fled  to  the  altar  of  Boi- 
sars  Church  ;  whence  he  was  carried,  half  naked  a,nd  tied  on 
a  horse,  to  London.  The  King,  fearing  that  this  violation 
of  a  sanctuary  would  rouse  the  anger  of  the  priests,  sent  him 
back,  but  ordered  the  Sheriff  to  blockade  the  building.  A 
moat  was  dug,  palisades  were  raised  round  the  church, 
and  in  forty  days  hunger  forced  Hubert  \o  yield.  Trans- 
ferred from  prison  to  prison,  he  at  length  escaped  to  Wales, 
and  after  some  time  made  his  peace  with  the  King. 

Besides  the  expedition  already  noticed,  Henry,  at  the 
urgent  entreaty  of  his  mother,  who  had  married  her  old 
lover,  the  Count  of  Marche,  engaged  in  a  second 
war  with  Louis.    The  battles  of  Taillebourg  and     1242 
Saintes,  though  not  decisive,  inclined  the  balance       A.D. 
in  favour  of  the  French  King ;  and  truces,  often 
broken,  often  renewed,  led  to  a  peace,  by  which  Henry  re- 
ceived Limousin,  Perigord,  and  Querci,  as  an  equivalent  for 
Normandy,  Maine,  Aujou,  and  Poitou,  still  held  by  Louis. 

With  Scotland  the  sword  was  never  drawn  during  this 
long  reign,  although  there  were  many  disputes  about  the 
three  northern  English  counties.  Two  royal  alliances  united 
the  sister  kingdoms  :  Joan,  Henry's  eldest  sister,  was  mar- 
ried to  Alexander  II. ;  and,  at  a  later  date,  Margaret,  the 
daughter  of  Henry,  to  Alexander  III.  The  armies  of  the 
English  King  often  traversed  Wales ;  but  the  Welsh  princes 
still  held  their  mountain  thrones  unconquered. 

Henry's  fondness  for  the  Poictevins,  who  swarmed  around 
the  restored  De  Roches,  and  the  Provencals,  who  had  flocked 
into  England  when  their  countrywoman,  Eleanor,  became 
its  queen,  roused  the  spirit  of  the  nation.  The  Barons  re- 
volted under  Simon  de  Moutfort,  Earl  of  Leicester,  the  hus- 


88  INSTITUTION  OF  PARLIAMENT. 

band  of  Eleanor,  the  King's  sister.  His  desertion  of  his  royal 
brother-in-law,  together  with  the  departure  for  Germany  of 
Richard,  Henry's  younger  brother,  who  had  won  laurels  in 
the  fourth  Crusade,  and  had  just  been  created  King  of  the 
Romans,  shook  the  throne,  and  raised  the  hopes  of  those 
who  desired  its  overthrow. 
At  Westminster  the  Barons  came  to  the  council  in  full 

armour ;  and,  when  they  again  assembled  at  Oxford, 

1258    in  what  is  called  'the  Mad  Parliament,'  they  ap- 

A.D.       pointed  a  committee  of  twenty-four  to  reform  the 

state.  This  committee  enacted — 1.  That  four  knights 
should  come  to  Parliament  to  represent  the  freeholders  of 
every  county ;  2.  That  sheriffs  should  be  chosen  annually  by 
vote ;  3.  That  accounts  of  the  public  money  should  be  given 
every  year  ;  4.  That  Parliament  should  meet  three  times  a 
year — in  February,  June,  and  October.  But  reform  was  de- 
layed by  disunion  among  the  Barons  ;  and  the  King  of 
France,  being  chosen  umpire,  gave  decision  in  Henry's 
favour.  This  kindled  the  civil  war.  Leicester  held  Lon- 
don ;  and,  when  the  great  bell  of  St.  Paul's  rang  out,  the  citi- 
zens flocked  round  his  banner  with  riot,  the  pillage  of  foreign 

merchants,  and  the  murder  of  unhappy  Jews.  At 
May  14,  Lewes,  in  Sussex,  Henry  was  defeated  and  taken 

1264  prisoner.      Prince  Edward  gave  himself  up  next 
A.D.       day.    A  treaty,  called  '  the  Mise  of  Lewes,'  was 

made  for  the  liberation  of  the  King,  but  was  never 

fidfilled.    Henry  and  his  two  sons  remained  in  close  custody. 

Early  in  the  following  year  a  Parliament  was  called  by 

Leicester  ;  to  which  he  summoned,  along  with  the 

1265  prelates,  barons,  and  knights  of  the  shire,  represen- 
A.D.       tatives  from  cities  and  boroughs.      This  was  the 

first  outline  of  our  modern  Parliament,  the  first  two 
classes  corresponding  to  the  House  of  Lords,  the  last  two  to 
the  House  of  Commons. 

Prince   Edward,  having  escaped  from  his  guards,  met 

Leicester  at    Evesham  in  Worcestershire.      The 

1265    battle  raged  long  and  bloodily.    The  captive  King? 

A.D.       who  had  been  forced  into  the  field  by  Leicester, 

fell  slightly  wounded,  and  would  have  been  killed 

if  he  had  not  cried  out,  '  I  am  Henry  of  Winchester, 


BATTLE  OF  EVESUAM. 


89 


the  King.'  Edward  knew  his  voice,  and  rushed  to  his  aid. 
The  body  of  Leicester,  who  died  fighting  over  his  dead  son, 
was  mutilated  by  the  victors. 

The  crown  sat  firmly  now  on  the  monarch's  head,  and,  the 
civil  war  being  over,  the  martial  Edward  joined  the  Crusade 
of  St.  Louis.  During  his  son's  absence  Henry  died,  worn 
out  by  the  troubles  of  a  reign, — the  longest  in  our  annals 
except  that  of  George  III. 

In  character  weak  and  credulous,  Henry  has  been  blamed 
for  cowardice  and  indolence ;  but  his  lot  was  cast  in  stormy 
days,  when  it  would  have  needed  a  strong  hand  to  hold  the 
helm  of  the  state.  In  private  life  he  was  gentle  and  affec- 
tionate. He  was  of  middle  size,  and  a  droop  of  the  left  eye- 
lid gave  an  odd  expression  to  his  face. 

The  introduction  of  the  linen  manufacture  by  some  Flem- 
ings, the  use  of  leaden  water-pipes,  and  of  candles  instead  of 
wooden  torches,  were  among  the  improvements  of  this  reign. 
A  license  to  dig  coal,  a  mineral,  whose  abundance  in  Britain 
has  so  much  advanced  our  national  wealth,  was  now  first 
granted  to  the  people  of  Newcastle.  We  may  also  trace  to 
this  reign  our  gold  coinage.  Science  was  much  benefited  by 
the  researches  of  Roger  Bacon,  a  monk,  whose  magnifying 
glasses  and  magic  lanterns  gained  for  him  the  reputation  of 
a  wizard.  On  the  Continent,  Paulus,  a  "Venetian,  is  said  to 
have  invented  the  mariner's  compass,  the  needle  being  placed 
between  floating  straws. 

CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


SCOTLAND.  A.D. 

ALEXANDER  II., died  1249 

ALEXANDER  IH. 

FRANCE. 

PHILIP  AUGUSTUS, 1223 

LOUIS  VIII., 1226 

LOUIS  IX., 1270 

PHILIP  in. 

SPAIN. 

HENRY  I., 1217 

FREDERIC  m 1252 

ALPHONSO  X. 


EMPERORS.  A.D. 

OTHO  IV., died  1218 

FREDERIC  II., 1250 

INTERREGNUM,  22  years..  1272 

POPES. 

HONORIUS  ILL, 1227 

CELESTLNIV., 1241 

GREGORY  IX., 1241 

INNOCENT  IV., 1254 

ALEXANDER  IV., 1261 

URBAN  IV., 1264 

CLEMENT  IV., 1268 

GREGORY  X. 


90  CONQUEST  OF  WALES. 

CHAPTER  V. 

EDWARD  I. — LONGSHANKS. 
Born  1239  A.D.— Began  to  reign  1272  A.D.— Died  1307  A.D. 

Edward's  return.  French  war.  Character. 

Coronation.  Baliol  deposed.  Constitutional  changes. 

Conquest  of  Wales.  Death  of  Ed\vard.  Notes. 
Scottish  succession. 

WHILE  in  the  Holy  Land,  Edward  was  stabbed  with  a  poi- 
Boned  dagger,  by  an  infidel.  Tradition  ascribes  his  recovery 
to  the  affection  of  his  wife,  Eleanor  of  Castile,  who  sucked 
the  poison  from  the  wound.  His  crusading  exploits  were 
few  and  insignificant,  and  he  left  Palestine  after  a  stay  of 
eighteen  months.  In  Sicily  he  heard  of  his  father's  death, 
but  his  homeward  journey  was  delayed  by  a  disturbance  in 
Guienne.  Here  a  tournament,  between  Edward  and  the 
Count  of  Chalons,  ended  in  a  serious  affray,  in  which  the 
English  knights  were  victors.  Before  passing  into  England, 
Edward  arranged  with  the  Countess  of  Flanders  a  quarrel, 
which  had  long  interrupted  the  trade  in  English  wool, — a 
commodity  highly  prized  by  the  Flemish  cloth-merchants. 

The  King  and  Queen  were  crowned  at  Westminster  two 
years  after  Henry's  death.  Alexander  of  Scotland  was  pre- 
sent, and  received  £5  a-day  for  the  expenses  of  his  journey. 
The  great  aim  of  Edward's  ambition  was  to  conquer  Wales 
and  Scotland,  and  thus  unite  under  his  sway  the  whole 
island. 

Many  English  princes  had  tried  to  subdue  Wales,  but 
without  success.  Among  the  crags  and  forests  of  Snowdon 
and  Plynliinmon,  the  mountain  race  baffled  the  Norman 
spears  and  defied  pursuit.  Merlin  had  prophesied  that,  when 
money  was  made  round,  a  prince  of  Wales  should  be  crowned 
in  London.  The  time  had  come  ;  a  brave  prince  held 
Arthur's  throne ;  and  Welsh  hopes  were  high.  When 
Edward  demanded  homage,  Llewellyn  refused  with  disdain. 
But  it  was  the  pride  that  goes  before  a  fall.  For  five  years 
the  English  King  traversed  the  land  with  foreign  troops, 
skilled  in  mountain  warfare  ;  Llewellyn  held  out  bravely ; 


THE  SCOTTISH  SUCCESSION.  91 

but  his  death  while  defending  the  passage  of  the  -1900 
Wye,  sealed  the  doom  of  Welsh  independence. 
In  mockery  of  his  hopes,  his  head  was  sent  to  A>r>' 
London ;  where,  crowned  with  ivy,  it  was  fixed  upon  the 
Tower-gate.  His  brother  David  held  out  for  a  while  ;  but, 
being  delivered  up  by  his  own  countrymen,  he  was  hanged 
by  order  of  the  conqueror.  Edward  is  charged  with  a  mas- 
sacre of  the  Welsh  bards  at  Conway,  lest  their  songs  should 
preserve  the  spirit  of  ancient  freedom  among  the  people. 
Upon  this  story,  whether  it  is  true  or  false,  our  poet  Gray 
founded  his  celebrated  Ode.  The  title  '  Prince  of  Wales, 
borne  by  the  eldest  son  of  the  British  sovereign,  was  first 
given  to  the  young  Edward,  who  was  born  at  Caernarvon. 

The  death  of  Margaret, '  the  Maid  of  Norway,'  confused 
the  succession  to  the  Scottish  crown.    Thirteen  competitors 
appeared ;  but  the  claims  of  two,  John  Baliol  and  Robert 
Bruce,  were  superior.    These  were  descendants  of  David,  a 
younger  brother  of  William  the  Lion,  Baliol  being  the  grand- 
son of  the  eldest  daughter,  Bruce  the  son  of  the  second. 
Edward  claimed  a  right  to  interfere,  on  the  ground  that 
William  the  Lion,  when  the  captive  of  Henry  II.,  had  ac- 
knowledged himself  a  vassal  of  the  English  crown, 
and  that  Richard  I.  had  no  right  to  sell  the  deed    1292 
of  vassalage,  since  it  was  not  his  property,  but  that       A.D. 
of  all  English  sovereigns.  On  this  pretence  to  meddle 
with  the  affairs  of  Scotland,  Edward  appointed  Baliol  King. 

Soon  after  these  events,  a  naval  war  arose  between  France 
and  England.  It  sprang  from  a  quarrel  among  sailors  at 
Bayonne.  An  Englishman  having  slain  a  Norman,  the  Nor- 
mans seized  an  English  ship  and  dragged  out  of  it  a  passen- 
ger, whom  in  revenge  they  hanged  topmast  high.  The 
sailors  of  the  Cinque  Ports  joined  in  the  quarrel;  privateers 
swarmed  in  the  Channel  and  the  Bay  of  Biscay  ;  and  en- 
gagements, in  which  the  English  were  generally  victorious, 
frequently  occurred.  Edward,  as  Duke  of  Aquitaine,  was 
summoned  to  France ;  but  he  refused  to  appear,  and  pre- 
pared for  war.  His  supplies  were  derived  partly  from  the 
plunder  of  the  Jews,  and  partly  from  heavy  taxes.  He 
raised  the  wool  tax  from  half  a  merk  to  five  on  every  sack, 
and  twice  he  seized  and  sold  all  the  hides  and  wool  in  the 


92  DEATH  OF  EDWARD. 

stores  of  the  London  merchants.  The  fleet  lay  at  Ports- 
mouth, but  the  King,  when  ahout  to  embark,  was  forced  to 
turn  by  a  Welsh  rebellion  ;  and,  that  being  crushed,  a  Scot- 
tish revolt  claimed  his  presence. 

Baliol,  called  repeatedly  to  London  to  answer  for  his  con- 
duct, found  his  vassalage  so  irksome  that  he  rose  in  arms. 
But  his  feeble  resistance  was  soon  subdued  :  he  was  de- 
throned, and  was  after  some  time  allowed  to  retire  to  Nor- 
mandy. Edward  marched  through  Scotland  to  Elgin, 
exacting  homage ;  and,  on  his  departure,  left  the  Earl  of 
Surrey  guardian  of  the  land.  War  soon  broke  out  again  ; 
but  the  story  belongs  to  Scottish  history.  Its  heroes  were 
Wallace,  and  Brace  the  grandson  of  Baliol's  rival ; 

1306  and  it  resulted  in  the  independence  of  Scotland. 
A.D.       Three  years  before  this  event  Edward  recovered  by 

treaty  the  province  of  Guienne,  of  which  he  had 
been  cheated  by  the  French  King. 

The  news  that  Brace  had  been  crowned  at  Scone  roused 
the  old  warrior  of  England,  and  the  last  effort  of  his  life 

was  to  reach  Scotland.  He  lay  long  at  Carlisle 
July  7,  on  a  bed  of  sickness,  and  died  at  Burgh  on  Sands. 

1307  His  last  wish  was,  that  his  bones  should  be  carried 
A.D.       at  the  head  of  the  army  as  it  marched  onward. 

His  first  wife,  Eleanor  of  Castile,  who  died  in  1'290, 
left  four  sons,  of  whom  the  eldest  was  afterwards  Edward 
II. ;  his  second,  Margaret  of  France,  bore  him  a  daughter 
and  two  sons,  Edmund  and  Thomas. 

Edward  possessed  many  good  qualities.  He  was  a  brave 
soldier,  a  sagacious  and  successful  statesman.  But  cruelty, 
revenge,  and  excessive  ambition  seem  to  have  been  insepa- 
rable from  the  character  of  the  early  Plantagenets.  His 
person  was  tall  and  majestic. 

The  chief  constitutional  changes  of  this  reign  were, — 
1.  That  no  aid  or  tax  was  to  be  levied  by  the  Sovereign 
without  the  consent  of  Parliament ;  2.  That  the  Commons 
began  to  couple  with  their  grants  of  money  petitions  for 
the  redress  of  their  grievances, — a  practice  which  gradually 
changed  into  the  power  of  proposing  new  laws. 

The  Jews,  having  drunk  the  cup  of  suffering  to  its  bitterest 
dregs,  were  banished  from  the  kingdom  in  1290.  Gold- 


NOTES  OF  PROGRESS. 


93 


smiths  from  Lombardy,  who  came  to  take  their  place  as 
money-lenders  and  bankers,  gave  a  name  to  Lombard  Street, 
which  has  ever  since  been  the  favourite  resort  of  money- 
dealers.  Windmills  and  spectacles,  paper  from  the  East,  and 
looking-glasses  from  Venice,  were  now  introduced ;  while  the 
use  of  coal  was  forbidden,  from  the  public  annoyance  caused 
by  the  smoke.  The  regalia  of  Scotland  and  the  ancient 
coronation  chair  were  brought  to  England  by  Edward,  who 
at  the  same  time  destroyed  all  Scottish  records  which  might 
keep  alive  the  spirit  of  that  nation.  The  chair,  and  a  stone 
on  which,  the  legend  says,  Jacob  laid  his  head  at  Bethel, 
were  placed  in  the  Abbey  of  Westminster,  completed  by 
Edward  in  1285. 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


SCOTLAND. 

A.D. 

ALEXANDER  III., died  1286 

MARGARET,.... 1290 

Interregnum  ends, 1292 

BALIOL, 1296 

Interregnum  ends, 1306 

ROBERT  I. 


FRANCE. 

PHILIP  III., 1285 

PHILIP  IV. 


SPAIN. 

ALPHONSO  X., 1284 

SANCHO  IV., 1294 

FERDINAND  IV. 


EMPERORS. 

A.n. 

RODOLPH, died  1292 

ADOLPHUS, 1298 

ALBERT. 

POPES. 

GREGORY  X., 1276 

INNOCENT  V., 1276 

ADRIAN  V., 1276 

JOHN  XXL, 1277 

NICHOLAS  III., 1280 

MARTIN  IV., 1285 

HONORIUS  IV., 1287 

NICHOLAS  IV., 1292 

CELESTIN  V., 1294 

BONIFACE  VHL, 1303 

BENEDICT  XI., 1304 

CLEMENT  V. 


94 


BATTLE  OF  BANNOCKBURN. 


,       CHAPTER  VI. 

EDWARD  II. — CAERNARVON. 
Born  1284  A.D.— Began  to  reign  1307  A.D.— Died  1327  A.D. 


Rule  of  Gaveston. 
The  Ordainers. 
Bannockburn. 
Famine  and  plague. 
The  Spensers. 


Quarrel  of  the  King  and  Queen. 

Edward  dethroned. 

His  murder. 

His  character. 

Notes. 


THE  bones  of  Edward  I.  were  buried  at  Westminster.  The 
Scottish  war  was  abandoned.  So  much  for  the  wishes  of 
a  dead  King.  Piers  Gaveston,  a  Gascon,  the  vicious  com- 
panion of  young  Edward's  boyhood,  was  recalled  from  exile ; 
and  to  him  was  committed  the  regency  of  the  kingdom,  while 
Edward  sailed  to  Boulogne  to  marry  Isabella,  the  beautiful 
daughter  of  Philip,  King  of  France.  The  splendour  of 
Gaveston  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  Barons ;  the  nicknames 
which  he  showered  on  them  roused  their  anger.  Twice  the 
weak  King  banished  him;  twice  he  was  recalled  to  his 
honours ;  but  the  confederate  nobles,  headed  by  the  Earl  of 
Lancaster,  seized  him  at  Scarborough  Castle,  and  caused  his 

head  to  be  struck  off  at  Blacklow-hill,  near  War- 

1310     wick.     Before  the  death  of  the  favourite,  a  Parlia- 

A.D.       ment,  sitting  sword  in  hand,  appointed  a  council  of 

twenty-one  peers  to  manage  the  King's  household 
and  to  reform  the  Government.  These  peers  were  called 
Ordainers. 

Linlithgow,  Roxburgh,  Edinburgh,  and  Perth  had  been 
taken  by  Bruce,  when,  to  save  Stirling,  which  was  sorely 

beset,  Edward  marched  northward.    Bruce,  with 

June  24,    30,000  picked  men,  met  and  routed  the  chivalry 

1314     of  England  on  the  field  of  Bannockburn.  Five  years 

A.D.       after,  the  English   K^ing  besieged  Berwick,  'the 

key  of  Scotland;'  but  again  he  failed,  and  a  truce 
\vas  made.  About  the  same  time  Edward  Bruce,  brother  of 

the  Scottish  King,  landed  in  Ireland,  and  at  Car- 

1318     rickfergus  was  crowned  King.     He  held  Ulster  for 

A.D.       two  years,  when  his  death  in  battle   at  Fagher 

near  Dundalk  restored  the  English  ascendency. 


THE  DEATH  OF  EDWARD.  95 

The  years  1314  and  1315  were  darkened  by  the  miseries 
t>f  famine.  Even  the  royal  table  was  scantily  supplied  with 
bread.  The  poor  fed  on  roots,  horses,  and  dogs.  The  brew- 
eries were  stopped,  to  prevent  the  waste  of  grain.  Plague 
followed  the  famine.  The  nobles  dismissed  crowds  of  their 
retainers :  these  had  no  resource  but  robbery.  Ruin,  pillage, 
and  bloodshed  filled  the  land. 

*•  Edward's  new  favourites  were  the  Spensers,  son  and  father ; 
who,  acting  the  same  part  as  Gaveston,  met  a  similar  fate. 
It  would  be  useless  to  detail  the  story.  The  elder  was  gib- 
beted at  Bristol ;  the  younger  at  Hereford. 

The  execution  of  Lancaster,  who  was  beheaded  at  Ponte- 
fract,  had  already  shown  that  Gaveston's  death  rankled  ill  the 
King's  breast.  But  the  Lancastrian  party  still  survived,  and 
new  events  stirred  it  to  more  vigorous  life.  There  was  an  open 
quarrel  between  Edward  and  his  Queen.  She  fled  to  France  ; 
her  son  followed ;  Lord  Mortimer,  an  adherent  of  Lancaster, 
joined  them ;  and  it  was  not  long  until  the  Queen  landed  on 
the  Suffolk  coast  with  a  foreign  army.  The  King  escaped 
into  Wales ;  but  soon  surrendering,  it  was  declared 
in  Parliament  that  he  reigned  no  longer,  and  that  Jan.  18, 
his  son  held  the  sceptre  in  his  stead.  From  castle  1327 
to  castle  the  dethroned  monarch  was  removed,  until  A.D. 
within  the  walls  of  Berkeley  keep  he  died  by  vio- 
lence. Nothing  more  is  known  than  that  fearful  shrieks 
broke  the  stillness  of  one  awful  night,  and  on  the  next 
morning  the  citizens  of  Bristol  were  called  to  look  on  the 
distorted  face  of  him  who  had  once  been  King  of  England. 
The  corpse  was  privately  buried  at  Gloucester.  His  children 
were  Edward,  his  successor;  John,  who  died  young;  Jane, 
married  to  David  II.  of  Scotland ;  and  Eleanor. 

Edward  was  tickle  and  indolent.  His  days  were  spent  in 
hunting,  his  nights  in  revelry,  while  the  government  of  his 
kingdom  was  left  to  favourites.  His  figure  resembled  that 
of  his  warlike  father. 

During  this  reign  earthenware  came  into  use.  The  inte- 
rest of  money  was  45  per  cent.  Bills  of  exchange  were 
introduced,  and  the  first  commercial  treaty  was  made  be- 
tween England  and  Venice.  Other  events  were  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  Templars  and  the  foundation  of  Dublin  Uiiiver- 


9fl 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


sity.    It  was  in  1308  that  Tell  achieved  the  independence 
of  Switzerland. 

CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


SCOTLAND.  A.D. 

ROBERT  I. 

FRANCE. 

PHILIP  IV., died  1314 

LOUIS  X., 1316 

PHILIP  V., 1322 

CHARLES  IV. 

SPAIN. 

FERDINAND  IV., 1312 

ALPHONSO  XL 


EMPERORS.  A.D. 

ALBERT died  1308 

HENRY  VII 1313 

LOUIS  IV. 

POPES. 

CLEMENT  V., 1314 

JOHN  XXII. 


FALL  OF  MORTIMER.  97 

CHAPTER  VII. 

EDWARD  III. — WINDSOR. 
Born  1312  A.D.— Began  to  reign  1327  A.D.— Died  1377  A.D. 


Inyasion  of  the  Scots. 
Fall  of  Mortimer. 
Scottish  war. 
War  with  France. 
Battle  of  Cre9y. 


Nevil's  Cross. 
Calais. 
The  Plague. 
Battle  of  Poictiers. 
Captive  Kings. 


Death  of  the  Black  Prince 

and  the  King. 
Character. 

Constitutional  ehnnges. 
Notes. 


THE  young  Edward  aud  the  council  of  regency  were  but  the 
instruments  of  Isabella  and  Mortimer,  who  held  all  power. 

A  Scottish  army  invaded  the  northern  counties.  It  was 
difficult  to  follow  their  rapid  movements,  for  they  were  all 
cavalry,  carrying  no  food  except  a  bag  of  oatmeal  at  every 
saddle-bow.  Edward  offered  knighthood,  with  £100  a-year 
for  life,  to  him  who  should  discover  their  route.  Thomas 
Rokeby  won  the  prize,  and  led  the  English  King  to  the 
Wear,  on  the  opposite  bank  of  which  lay  the  foe.  But  no 
battle  followed.  In  the  dead  of  the  fifth  night  the  Scots 
retreated  towards  the  Border,  and  a  peace  was  soon  made, 
in  which  Edward,  by  the  advice  of  Mortimer,  acknowledged 
Scotland  to  be  a  distinct  and  independent  kingdom.  The 
treaty  was  cemented  by  the  marriage  of  Jane,  the  King's 
sister,  to  the  Scottish  Prince,  David. 

The  odium  of  this  peace ;  the  execution  of  the  Earl  of  Kent, 
uncle  of  the  King ;  and  the  growing  manhood  of  Edward, 
now  eighteen,  overthrew  the  power  of  Isabella  and  her 
favourite.  He  was  seized  in  Nottingham  Castle,  and  hanged 
upon  the  elrns  of  Tyburn :  she  dragged  out  the  remaining 
twenty-seven  years  of  her  life  in  her  mansion  of  Risings, 
where  the  King  paid  her  a  formal  visit  once  a-year. 

The  great  Bruce  was  dead,  and  his  son  David  was  yet  a 
child.  Edward  Baliol,  makiug  a  bold  push  for  the  throne, 
\vhich  his  craven-spirited  father  had  held  as  a  vassal  of  Eng- 
land, laid  siege  to  Berwick  The  Regent  .moved  to 
save  a  fortress  so  important,  and  was  met  at  Hali-  -t  ooq 
don-hill  by  the  English  King,  who  supported  Baliol.  *•»«"• 
There  was  fought  a  battle  so  disastrous  to  the  Scots, 

(32)  7 


98  BATTLE  OF  CRECY. 

that  Baliol  gained  the  crown,  and  the  eastern  lowland  coun- 
ties south  of  the  Forth  were  for  a  time  under  the  sway  of 
Eil  ward. 

To  unite  in  his  person  the  crowns  of  France  and  of  Eng- 
land was  the  greatest  effort  of  Edward's  policy.    The  three 
sons  of  Philip  IV.  had  died  heirless ;  and  Edward  of  Eng- 
land and  Philip  of  Valois  were  rivals  for  the  vacant  throne. 
Edward's  mother  was  a  daughter  of  Philip  IV. :  Philip  was 
the  nephew  of  that  monarch.    The  Salic  law,  which  enacted 
that  no  female  could  inherit  the  throne,  stood  in  Edward's 
way,  and  Philip  was  elected.    The  English  King  seized  all 
the  wool  and  tin  in  his  kingdom,  pawned  his  crown 
1338    and  his  jewels,  quartered  on  his  royal  shield  the 
A.D.      golden  lilies  of  France,  and  sailed  to  the  Continent 
to  assert  his  rights  on  the  battle-field.    Two  cam- 
1340    paigns  were  indecisive.    A  naval  victory  at  Sluys, 
A.D.      on  the  Flemish  coast,  was  gained  by  the  English ; 
but  they  were  beaten  back  from  the  walls  of  Tour- 
nay,  and  a  truce  for  a  year  was  made.    Again  the  war  was 
renewed ;  again  it  failed.    But  in  the  seventh  year  an  Eng- 
lish army  entered  Guienne.     Edward  landed  in  Normandy 
with  another,  and  bent  his  march  towards  Calais.     He 
passed  the  Seine  and  the  Somme  in  the  face  of  French  sol- 
diers ;  and  the  way  to  Calais  was  opened  by  the  victory  of 
Crecy. 

The  morning  of  the  battle  broke  with  storm  and  rain,  light- 
ning and  thunder, — a  fitting  prelude  for  a  day  of 
Aug.  26,    blood.  It  was  not  until  five  in  the  afternoon  that  the 
1 34  6     cavalry  of  Fraaee-imder  Count  Alenfon,  with  a  band 
A.D.       of  Genoese  cross-bow  men,  advanced  to  attack  the 
English  lines.  They  were  met  by  clouds  of  cloth-yard 
shafts  from  bows  of  English  yew,  and  their  ranks  wavered. 
Still  the  shower  poured  on ;  horses  and  men  rolled  on  the 
earth,  and  the  cavalry  retired  in  confusion.    The  men-at- 
arms  now  engaged ;  the  second  lines  advanced, — France  and 
England  were  locked  in  a  deadly  struggle.    Edward,  who 
watched  the  fight  from  a  windmill,  felt  so  sure  of  victory  that 
he  refused  to  send  aid  to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  a  lad  of  fifteen, 
who  was  sorely  pressed  in  the  front  of  the  battle.    '  No  ! ' 
said  he  ;  '  let  the  boy  win  his  spurs :  his  shall  be  the  glory 


CAPTURE  OF  CALAIS.  99 

of  the  day.'  In  vain  the  French  King  tried  to  pierce  the 
phalanx  of  archers  who  stood  between  him  and  his  routed 
horsemen;  his  bravest  knights  fell  fast  around  him;  the 
horse  he  rode  was  killed ; — there  was  no  hope  but  in  flight. 
Eleven  princes,  twelve  hundred  knights,  and  thirty  thousand 
common  soldiers  are  said  to  have  fallen  in  the  battle  and 
the  carnage  of  the  next  day.  John,  the  blind  King  of  Bohe- 
mia, was  among  the  slain.  He  was  led  into  the  battle  by  four 
attendant  knights,  whose  bridles  were  interlaced  with  his. 
His  crest  and  motto — three  ostrich  feathers  with  the  words 
Ich  dien,  'I  serve' — have  ever  since  been  borne  by  the 
Prince  of  Wales.  "We  are  told  that  cannon  of  a  rude  sort 
were  first  used  at  Cre§y. 

In  the  same  year,  but  two  months  later,  was  fought  the 
battle  of  Nevil's  Cross.    David  of  Scotland,  having 
regained  his  throne,  invaded  England  as  the  ally  of    Oct.  17. 
France ;  but  he  was  defeated  and  made  prisoner  by 
Philippa  of  Hainault,  a  Queen  worthy  of  her  warlike  hus- 
band. 

The  conqueror  at  Crecy  at  once  invested  Calais.  He 
raised  no  mounds,  directed  no  engines  against  the  city,  but 
for  twelve  months  he  ground  the  garrison  with  the  slow  tor- 
ture of  famine,  and  thus  forced  them  to  open  their  gates.  He 
placed  a  colony  of  his  own  subjects  in  the  city,  which,  for 
more  than  Jwo  centuries  afterwards,  was  a  flourishing  mart 
for  the  exports  of  England. 

But  the  strife  of  men  was  now  hushed  before  the  breath 
of  the  Destroying  Angel ;  for  a  terrible  sickness  called  the 
Black  Plague,  which  had  swept  over  Asia  and  the  south  of 
Europe,  broke  out  in  France  and  England.  The  London 
church-yards  were  soon  filled ;  throughout  the  country  the 
dead  cattle  lay  rotting  and  poisoning  the  air;  labour  and 
trade  stood  still ;  the  lower  classes  fell  by  hundreds  in  the 
day ;  the  rich  shut  themselves  in  their  solitary  castles ; — wail- 
ing and  desolation  filled  every  city.  Many  evils  followed 
the  pestilence.  Nearly  all  the  artisans  and  labourers  had 
perished,  for  plague  is  always  heaviest  on  the  poor;  those 
who  had  escaped  left  the  country.  The  crops  were  often 
allowed  to  moulder  away  for  want  of  money  to  pay 
the  exorbitant  wages  of  the  harvestmen,  and  the  price  of 


100  THE  TREATY  OF  BRETIGXY. 

food  rose  fourfold.  A  common  feeling  ascribed  this  disaster 
to  the  long  toe-points  and  curled  beards  of  the  men,  and  to 
the  masculine  dress  assumed  by  the  belles  of  the  day ;  and 
laws  to  curb  extravagance  in  dress  were  enacted.  A  set  of 
enthusiasts,  too,  called  Flagellants,  came  from  Hungary,  and 
passed  through  the  country,  lashing  themselves  till  the  blood 
ran  down  their  shoulders,  that  the  plague  might  be  stayed. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  plagues,  which  from  time 
to  time  visited  England,  were  rendered  more  virulent  and 
lasting  by  the  want  of  cleanliness  in  the  houses,  the  streets, 
and  the  persons  of  the  people.  Good  ventilation,  proper 
sewerage,  wholesome  food,  and  the  abundant  use  of  water, 
have  banished  from  our  shores  the  terrible  plague,  which 
still  lurks  in  some  close  and  filthy  cities  of  the  East,  and 
have  much  lessened  the  violence  of  those  epidemic  diseases 
with  which  God  is  pleased  still  to  smite  the  nation. 

Philip  of  France  had  died,  and  his  son  John  ruled.  The 
war  was  renewed  in  1355,  chiefly  under  the  conduct  of  the 
Prince  of  Wales,  called  the  Black  Prince  from  the  colour  of 
his  armour.  The  first  campaign  was  occupied  in  wasting 
the  provinces  round  Bordeaux ;  the  second  was  signalized  by 
the  battle  of  Poictiers.  The  Prince  had  pierced  too  far  into 
the  centre  of  France,  and  on  his  return  found  an  army,  seven 
times  as  large  as  his  own,  between  him  and  Bor- 
Sept.  18,  deaux.  A  brave  fight  was  his  only  resource.  For- 
1356  tunately  for  him  the  battle-ground  was  among 
A.D.  vineyards,  which  impeded  the  French  cavalry.  As 
at  Crecy,  the  English  archers  won  the  day.  Pro- 
tected by  the  hedges,  they  poured  upon  the  French  ranks 
shafts  which  no  armour  could  resist.  The  first  and  second 
divisions  of  the  French  fell  back ;  the  King  on  foot  led  on 
the  third,  but  was  beaten  to  the  ground  and  made  prisoner 
with  his  young  son.  Father  and  son  were  led  to  England  by 
the  triumphant  Edward. 

There  were  thus  two  royal  captives  in  England, — David  of 
Scotland,  ransomed  in  1357,  the  eleventh  year  of  his  impri- 
sonment; and  John  of  France.     The  latter  was 
1360     freed  by  the  treaty  of  Bretigny,  called  '  The  great 
A.D.       peace,'  by  which  Edward  renounced  all  claim  to 
the  French  crown,  retaining,  instead  of  his  ancestral 


RISE  OF  THE  BRITISH  NATION.  101 

dominions,  Poitou,  Guienne,  and  the  town  of  Calais.  Three 
millions  of  golden  crowns  were  to  be  paid  as  the  ransom  of 
John;  but,  failing  to  raise  this  sum,  he  returned  to  his  cap- 
tivity, and  died  at  the  Savoy,  a  palace  on  the  Strand,  then  a 
fashionable  country  suburb  of  London. 

The  Black  Prince  ruled  in  Guienne,  but  an  expedition 
into  Spain,  in  support  of  Pedro  the  Cruel,  loaded  him  with 
debt  and  shattered  his  health.  He  was  soon  obliged  to  visit 
England,  where  he  wasted  and  died.  He  had  married  his 
cousin  Joan  of  Kent,  and  left  a  son  named  Richard.  From 
the  time  that  he  left  the  French  shores,  the  English  cause 
grew  weak.  One  by  one  the  provinces  won  at  Cre9y  and 
Poictiers  fell  from  the  now  enfeebled  grasp  of  Edward,  until, 
of  his  once  mighty  French  possessions,  Calais,  Bordeaux,  and 
Bayonne  alone  were  his.  His  latter  days  were  sad.  The 
murmurs  of  an  unruly  Parliament  and  the  death  of  his  son 
weighed  heavily  on  his  soul :  his  once  proud  mind  was  de- 
graded beneath  the  rule  of  Alice  Ferrers,  a  woman  of  wit 
and  beauty,  but  of  bad  reputation.  The  tree  still  stood,  but 
its  blossoms  and  its  leaves  had  fallen.  He  died,  a  year  after 
his  son,  at  Shene,  near  Richmond,  and  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey.  His  family  was  large,  but  only  four  of  his 
children  survived  him.  The  Black  Prince,  Lionel  of  Clar- 
ence, John  of  Lancaster — born  at  Ghent,  and  Edmund  of 
York  were  his  most  distinguished  sons. 

The  character  of  Edward  was  good.  He  was  brave,  wise, 
and  merciful ;  and  we  can  pardon  him  if  his  ambition  to  wear 
the  French  crown  carried  him  too  far.  Ifoder  his  rule  the 
hatred  which  had  long  severed  Saxon,  Norman,  and  Briton, 
began  to  disappear ;  and  from  the  blended  races  rose  the  true 
British  nation.  Norman  knight,  Saxon  bowman,  and  Welsh 
lancer  fought  side  by  side  at  Cre?y  and  Poictiers,  where  a 
common  danger  and  a  common  glory  united  them.  Then, 
too,  the  use  of  Norman-French  in  the  courts  of  law,  in 
the  schools,  and  in  the  proceedings  of  Parliament,  began  to 
die  out,  and  the  simple  manly  English  tongue  to  take  its 
place. 

In  this  reign  the  Lords  and  the  Commons  were  distinctly 
denned,  and  began  to  sit  in  separate  chambers.  The  Com- 
mons occupied  St.  Stephen's  Chapel,  were  presided  over  by 


102 


FEUDAL  PURVEYANCE. 


a  Speaker,  and  held  the  power  of  granting  supplies ;  in  re- 
turn for  which  they  gained  from  the  King  many  beneficial 
laws.  A  check  was  given  to  the  great  evil  of  purveyance,  by 
which  the  King's  officers  seized  corn,  cattle,  forage,  horses, 
carriages,  and  all  necessaries  for  him  and  his  train,  as  he 
journeyed.  Edward  III.  extended  this  system  to  the  seizure 
of  the  lower  orders  for  soldiers  and  sailors,  and  of  merchant 
vessels  for  use  in  war.  This  was  the  origin  of  the  press- 
gang  of  later  days. 

The  abolition  of  first-fruits,  a  tax  by  which  the  Popes  re- 
ceived the  first  year's  income  from  all  clergy  obtaining  new 
appointments,  shook  the  Papal  power  in  England.  To  this 
reign  are  ascribed  the  institution  of  the  Order  of  the  Garter, 
and  the  revival  in  England  of  the  title  '  Duke,'  the  Black 
Priuce  being  styled  Duke  of  Cornwall.  The  invention  of 
gunpowder  by  Schwartz,  a  monk  of  Cologne,  and  the  use 
of  fire-arms  and  cannon,  produced  a  great  change  in  the  art 
of  war. 

CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


SCOTLAND.  A.D. 

ROBERT  I., died  1329 

DAVID  II., 1370 

ROBERT  II. 

FRANCE. 

CHARLES  IV., 1328 

PHILIP  VI., 1350 

JOHN, „ 1364 

CHARLES  V. 

SPAIN. 

ALPHONSO  XI., 1350 

PEDRO, 1368 

HENRY  H. 


EMPERORS.  A.D. 

LOUIS  IV., died  1347 

CHARLES  IV. 

POPES. 

JOHN  XXIL, 1324 

BENEDICT  XII., 1342 

CLEMENT  VI., 1352 

INNOCENT  VI., 1362 

URBAN  V., 1370 

GREGORY  XI. 


TILER  S  REBELLION. 


103 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

RICHARD  II. — BORDEAUX. 
Born  1367  A.D.— Began  to  reign  1377  A.D.— Dethroned  1399  A.D. 


Richard  crowned. 
Tiler's  rebellion. 
Scottish  war. 
The  Wonderful  Parliament. 


The  rise  of  Lollardism. 
Fall  and  death  of  Richard. 
Character. 
Notes. 


RICHARD,  son  of  the  Black  Prince,  was  crowned  in  his 
eleventh  year.  In  honour  of  the  event,  London  was  gay 
with  banners  and  arches :  the  merchants  of  Cheapside  erected 
in  the  market-place  a  fountain  running  wine.  During  the 
King's  minority,  the  power  was  vested  in  twelve  councillors, 
his  uncles  being  excluded. 

The  first  memorable  event  of  the  reign  was  a  rising,  ex- 
cited by  a  poll-tax  of  one  shilling  on  every  person  above 
fifteen.  It  burst  forth  in  Essex  and  Kent ;  but  spread  west- 
ward to  Winchester,  and  northward  to  Scarborough.  The 
leaders  were  Wat  Tiler,  and  Jack  Straw,  a  priest.  In  this 
insurrection  we  discover  traces  of  the  old  hostility  of  the 
two  races, — the  Saxons  and  the  Normans, — though  the  old 
English  cry, '  Down  with  the  Normans !'  no  longer  resounds 
in  history.  Instead  of  it,  the  enmity  of  the  two  races  appears 
in  the  form  of  a  struggle  between  the  rich  and  the  poor, — 
the  motto  of  the  English  peasants  being 

1  When  Adam  delved  and  Eve  span, 
Who  was  then  a  gentleman  ? ' 

Swarming  in  immense  numbers  to  London,  they  sacked  the 
private  dwellings,  burned  the  prisons,  and  slew  many  of  the 
honest  Flemish  clothiers.  Richard  met  them  at  Mile-end, 
and  granted  their  demands,  which  were,— 1.  That  slavery 
should  be  abolished ;  2.  That  the  rent  of  land  should  be 
fourpence  an  acre ;  3.  That  all  might  have  liberty  to  buy  and 
sell  in  fairs  or  markets ;  4.  That  all  past  offences  should  be 
pardoned.  The  charter  was  no  sooner  sealed  than  the  riots 
began  again,  and  several  murders  were  committed.  Next 
day  the  King  held  a  conference  in  Smithfield  with  Tiler,  who 


104  ORIGIN  OF  LOLLARDISM. 

was  followed  by  20,000  men.  The  rebel  leader,  happening 
to  lay  his  hand  on  his  dagger,  was  stabbed  in  the  throat  by 
Walworth,  the  Lord  Mayer,  and  as  he  lay  on  the  ground  was 
killed  by  one  of  the  King's  esquires.  Richard,  regardless  of 
the  frowns  and  bended  bows  of  the  rebels,  galloped  up  to 
them,  crying,  '  Tiler  was  a  traitor :  I  myself  will  be  your 
leader !'  This  boldness  had  a  great  effect  on  the  crowd  : 
their  numbers  melted  away,  and  the  rebellion  was  over. 
But  the  promise  of  pardon  was  recalled,  and  fifteen  hundred 
perished  on  the  gibbet. 
France  and  Scotland  in  alliance  attempted  an  invasion  of 

England,  but  met  with  little  success.     Richard,  in 

1385     return,  penetrated  the  latter  kingdom  as  far  as 

A.D.       Aberdeen,  reducing  to  ashes  Edinburgh,  Duuferm- 

line,  Perth,  and  Dundee.  But  in  1388  the  battle 
of  Otterbourne,  between  the  Douglases  and  the  Percies, 
ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  English.  This  battle,  better 
known  as  Chevy  Chase,  is  celebrated  in  old  English  ballads. 
Richard,  young  and  inexperienced,  trusted  much  to 
favourite  ministers.  But  the  jealousy  of  his  uncles  often 
interfered  with  the  government ;  and  ultimately  one  of  them, 

the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  was  elected  head  of  the 

1388     council.    The  Parliament,  called  both  '  wonderful' 

A.D.      and    '  merciless,'  put  two  of  the   favourites    to 

death,  and  confiscated  the  property  of  the  rest. 
Richard,  watching  his  opportunity,  at  twenty-two  shook 
himself  free  from  the  trammels  of  guardianship,  and  for 
some  years  ruled  with  justice  and  mercy  ;  but  he  had  not 
the  iron  will  necessary  to  cope  with  the  fierce  and  turbulent 
spirits  that  surrounded  his  throne. 

The  death  of  Anne  of  Bohemia  in  1394  led  to  the  King's 
second  marriage  with  Isabella  of  France,  then  only  eight 
years  old.  But  an  event  much  more  important  was  the  rise 
of  the  Lollards.  They  were  the  followers  of  John  Wycliffe, 
who,  in  the  latter  years  of  Edward  TIL,  began  to  attack  the 
corruptions  of  the  Romish  Church.  He  translated  the 
Bible  into  English,  and  by  his  works  sowed  the  first  seeds 
of  the  Reformation  in  this  land.  Protected  by  John  of 
Ghent,  he  died  in  peace ;  but  the  wrath  of  Rome  was  begin- 
ning to  burn  against  his  disciples.  The  name  Lollards 


DETHRONEMENT  OF  RICHAKD.  105 

(from  old  German  lollen  or  lullen,  'to  sing')  arose  from  their 
practice  of  singing  hymns. 

The  removal  of  Gloucester,  who  was  murdered  mysteri- 
ously in  the  prison  of  Calais  ;  the  repeal  of  all  acts  passed 
by  the  'wonderful  Parliament ;'  and  the  grant  of  a  life  tax 
on  wool  made  Richard  in  his  last  year  an  absolute  King. 
But  his  fall  was  at  hand.  A  quarrel  arising  between  the 
Duke  of  Norfolk  and  the  Duke  of  Hereford,  son  of  John  of 
Ghent,  the  King  banished  both,  Norfolk  for  life,  Hereford 
for  ten  years.  Norfolk  never  returned,  but  Hereford  came, 
as  he  said,  to  demand  the  estates  of  his  dead  father,  which 
Kichard  had  seized.  He  landed  at  Eavenspur  in  Yorkshire 
with  only  twenty  followers ;  but,  when  he  reached  London, 
60,000  men  marched  under  his  banner.  Richard,  who  was  in 
Ireland,  was  delayed  for  three  weeks  by  bad  weather ;  and, 
when  he  arrived  at  Milford-haven,  he  found  that  the  crown 
had  fallen  from  his  head.  At  Flint  he  became  the  prisoner 
of  Hereford,  and  was  led  with  mock  respect  to  Lon- 
don. The  two  Houses  met  in  Westminster  Hall,  Sept.  30, 
where  stood  the  empty  throne  covered  with  cloth  1399 
of  gold.  Solemnly  Richard  was  deposed,  and  the  A.D. 
same  shouts  which  greeted  his  downfall  hailed 
Hereford  as  King  Henry  IV.  of  England.  Before  the  second 
month  of  1400,  the  dethroned  King  had  died  in  the  dun- 
geons of  Pontefract,  either  by  starvation  or  by  the  axe 
of  an  assassin.  A  legend  of  Scottish  history  says  that 
Richard  fled  to  Scotland,  lived  long  on  the  royal  bounty, 
and  died  at  Stirling.  He  left  no  heir. 

The  second  Richard  and  the  second  Edward  were  much 
alike  in  their  character,  their  policy,  and  their  mysterious 
fate.  Richard's  ruling  passion  was  the  love  of  display.  His 
dress  was  stiff  with  gold  and  gems  ;  his  attendants  num- 
bered ten  thousand.  His  last  two  years  betrayed  a  spirit  of 
reckless  revenge  and  a  thirst  for  absolute  power,  which  cost 
him  his  life.  He  was  handsome,  but  feminine.  His  manner 
was  abrupt ;  his  speech  impeded. 

In  this  reign  bills  of  exchange  were  first  used  ;  the  Order 
of  the  Bath  was  instituted  ;  and  Windsor  Castle  was  com- 
pleted, the  workmen  being  obliged,  by  the  odious  system  of 
purveyance,  to  give  their  services  for  nothing.  Peers  were 


106 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


now  first  created  by  letters  patent ;  and,  for  the  first  time,  at 
the  King's  coronation  a  knight  cast  down  his  glove,  daring 
any  one  to  dispute  the  monarch's  claim.  This  chivalrous 
ceremony,  which  then  had  meaning,  still  lingers,  and  is  duly 
performed  by  the  royal  champion. 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


SCOTLAND.  A.D. 

ROBERT  II., died  1390 

ROBERT  in. 

FRANCE. 

CHARLES  V., 1380 

CHARLES  VI. 

SPAIN. 

HENRY  II., 1379 

JOHN  I., 1390 

HENRY  in. 


EMPERORS.  A.D. 

CHARLES  IV., died  1378 

WINCESLAS. 


POPES. 

GREGORY  XI., 

URBAN  VI., 

BONIFACE  IX. 


.1378 
.1389 


WILLIAM  THE  LION.  107 


CHAPTER  IX. 

SCOTLAND  AND  IRELAND  DURING  THE  FIRST  SEVEN 
PLANTAGENET  REIGNS. 

From  1153  to  1370.— 217  years.— 8  Scottish  Sovereigns 

A.D. 

MALCOLM  IV.  (grandson  of  David  I.),  began  to  rule  1153 

WILLIAM  I.  (brother), 1165 

ALEXANDER  II.  (son), 1214 

ALEXANDER  IH.  (son), 1249 

MARGARET  (grand-daughter), 1286 

JOHN  BALIOL  (descendant  of  David  I.), 1292 

SIR  WILLIAM  WALLACE  (Guardian). 

ROBERT  BRUCE  (descendant  of  David  I.), 1306 

DAVID  H.  (son), 1329  to  1370 


Cession  of  northern  counties. 
William  the  Lion. 
Disputed  succession. 
William  Wallace. 
His  betrayal  and  death. 


Bannockburn. 
Nevil's  Cross. 
Confusion  in  Ireland. 
Edward  Bruce. 
The  Anglo-Irish. 


MALCOLM  IV.,  grandson  of  David  I.,  succeeded.  His  father 
was  that  Prince  Henry  who  so  narrowly  escaped  from  the 
field  of  Northallerton.  This  King  was  called  "  the  Maiden," 
either  from  his  girlish  features  or  his  timid  nature.  Influ- 
enced by  Henry  II.,  he  yielded  to  England  all  right  over 
Northumberland  and  Cumberland.  He  died  at  Jedburgh, 
1165  A.D. 

William  I.,  Malcolm's  brother,  then  ascended  the  throne. 
He  received  the  name  of  Lion,  perhaps  because  he  was  the 
first  to  assume  the  lion  rampant  on  the  royal  shield  of  Scot- 
land. While  attempting  to  recover  the  lost  territories  of 
Northumberland  and  Cumberland,  he  was  made  prisoner 
at  Alnwick  by  English  troops.  To  obtain  his  freedom,  he 
took  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  Henry  II.,  and  agreed  to  hold 
Scotland  as  a  fief  of  the  English  crown.  This  claim  to  the 
lordship  of  Scotland  was  sold  for  10,000  merks  by  Richard 
Coeur  de  Lion.  William  I.  died  in  1214,  having  reigned 
forty-nine  years.  His  was  the  longest  reign  in  Scottish 
history. 

Alexander  II.,  son  of  William,  was  the  next  King.    He 


108  THE  ALFRED  OF  SCOTLAND. 

was  chiefly  occupied  in  quelling  insurrections  among  the 
Danes  of  Caithness,  the  Highland  Celts,  and  the  wild  Scots 
of  Galloway. 

Alexander  III.  succeeded  his  father.  He  was  then  a  child 
of  eight ;  and  at  that  tender  age  was  married  at  York  to 
Margaret,  daughter  of  Henry  III.  of  England.  The  leading 
event  of  his  reign  was  his  successful  resistance  of  a  great 
Norwegian  invasion.  The  Norsemen,  under  Haco  their 
King,  conquered  Bute  and  Arran,  and  landed  on  the  shore 
at  Largs ;  but,  a  great  storm  having  shattered  their  fleet, 
they  were  driven  by  the  Scots  into  the  sea.  Haco  reached 
the  Orkneys  only  to  die  of  grief.  By  this  victory  the  Western 
Isles  were  united  to  the  Scottish  crown.  Some  time  after, 
Margaret,  daughter  of  Alexander,  was  married  to  Eric,  King 
of  Norway.  Alexander  III.  was  the  Alfred  of  Scotland.  By 
limiting  the  number  of  their  retainers,  he  repressed  the  power 
of  his  nobles  ;  and,  to  secure  the  pure  administration  of  jus- 
tice, he  divided  his  kingdom  into  four  districts,  through 
which  he  passed  every  year.  In  the  prime  of  life,  while  rid- 
ing along  the  shore  on  a  dark  night,  he  fell  over  a  rock  near 
Kinghorn,  and  was  taken  up  dead.  This  happened  in  1286. 

The  succession  now  rested  in  Margaret — daughter  of  Eric, 
King  of  Norway,  and  the  Scottish  Princess,  Margaret. 
Edward  I.,  who  had  lately  revived  the  claim  of  his  ancestor 
Henry  II.  to  the  lordship  of  Scotland,  proposed  a  marriage 
between  his  son,  afterwards  Edward  II.,  and  the  Maiden  of 
Norway,  as  young  Margaret  was  called ;  but,  in  1290,  she 
died  at  Orkney,  on  her  way  to  Scotland,  aged  only  eight. 

Then  began  that  struggle  for  the  crown  which  laid  Scot- 
land for  many  years  under  the  English  yoke.  Robert  Bruce 
and  John  Baliol  were  the  rivals,  and  both  traced  descent 
from  William  the  Lion.  Bruce  was  the  son  of  Isabella, 
second  daughter  of  David,  Earl  of  Huntingdon,  brother  to 
William  the  Lion.  Baliol  was  grandson  of  Margaret,  eldest 
daughter  of  the  same  noble.  Edward  I.  decided  in  favour  of 
Baliol,  who  was  placed  on  the  throne  as  a  vassal  of  England. 
But  so  many  indignities  were  heaped  on  the  vassal  King  by 
his  lord  paramount,  that  the  timid  man  was  goaded  to  revolt. 
Edward  wished  for  nothing  more.  He  dethroned  Baliol  and 
ravaged  Scotland  from  south  to  north.  The  Earl  of  Surrey 


WALLACE  AND  BEUCE.  109 

was  appointed  Guardian ;  Hugh  de  Cressingham,  Treasurer; 
and  William  Ormesby,  Justiciary  of  the  kingless  land. 

But  a  deliverer  was  at  hand.  For  eight  years  (1297  to 
1305)  Sir  William  Wallace  nobly  maintained  the  cause  of 
Scotland.  He  was  the  second  son  of  Sir  Malcolm  Wallace 
of  Ellerslie,  near  Paisley.  Having  slain  a  young _  English- 
man, who  insulted  him  at  Dundee,  this  giant  in  size  and 
courage  betook  himself  to  the  woods.  Here  a  band  of 
his  countrymen  gathered  round  him,  and  he  began,  with 
great  success,  to  storm  the  castles  held  by  English  garrisons. 
Surrey  and  Cressingham  moved  with  a  large  force  to  crush 
the  daring  Scot  Wallace  took  post  near  Stirling,  where  a 
narrow  wooden  bridge  spanned  the  Forth.  His  troops  lined 
the  north  bank  of  the  river ;  but  the  rising  grounds  concealed 
their  full  number.  When  Surrey  saw  the  bridge  he  halted ; 
but  at  length,  overcome  by  the  jeers  of  Wallace  and  the 
reproaches  of  Cressingham,  he  gave  the  order  to 
cross.  When  half  the  English  army  had  crossed  the  1297 
bridge,  Wallace  charged  their  scattered  ranks,  and  A.D. 
a  complete  victory  rewarded  his  generalship.  In  a 
few  months  not  a  Scottish  fortress  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
English. 

Edward,  hurrying  from  Flanders,  raised  a  force  exceeding 
100,000*  men,  and  marched  to  Scotland.     He  found  the 
southern  counties  all  laid  waste,  and  was  about  to  lead  his 
starving  forces  back  over  the  Border,  when,  by  the  treachery 
of  two  Scottish  lords,  he  heard  that  Wallace  lay  in     - 
Falkirk  Wood.     Here  the  armies  met,  and  the     1298 
English  archers  won  the  day.    For  some  years       A.D. 
longer  Wallace  held  out  among  the  mountains  of 
his  native  land;  but  in  1305,  basely  betrayed  by  a  false  friend, 
Sir  John  Menteith,  he  was  sent  in  irons  to  London,  where 
he  was  hanged,  beheaded,  and  quartered. 

And  now  arose  the  second  bright  star  in  Scotland's  his- 
tory. Eobert  Bruce,  Earl  of  Carrick,  and  grandson  of  that 
Bruce  who  had  contended  with  Baliol,  claimed  the  crown. 
His  rival  was  the  Red  Comyn  of  Badenoch.  They  met  and 
quarrelled  in  the  chapel  of  the  Minorite  Friars,  at  Dumfries, 
where  Bruce  stabbed  Comyn.  This  crime  injured  the  cause 
of  Bruce;  but  after  some  time  he  was  crowned  at  Scone 


110  BATTLE  OF  BANNOCKBTJRN. 

(1306).  The  death  of  Edward  I.  saved  Scotland's  freedom. 
The  war  lingered  for  seven  years,  without  any  decisive  suc- 
cess,— Bruce  still  holding  the  crown. 

But  Edward  II.  resolved  to  crush  the  Scottish  monarchy 
at  a  blow.  With  100,000  men  he  crossed  the  Border.  Bruce 
could  muster  only  30,000  troops.  The  armies  met  at  Ban- 
nockburn,  near  Stirling.  On  the  evening  before  the  great 
day,  Bruce,  mounted  on  a  small  pony,  and  armed  only  with 
a  battle-axe,  slew  an  English  knight,  Henry  de  Bohun,  who 
attacked  him  in  front  of  the  lines.  Before  the  battle  began, 
the  Scots  knelt  to  pray.  On  thundered  the  English 
June  24,  cavalry,  sure  of  victory ;  but  they  soon  retreated  in 
1314  wild  dismay,  for  the  ground  was  full  of  pits,  armed 
A.i>.  with  sharp  stakes  and  covered  with  sods.  Then 
poured  in  a  close  and  deadly  flight  of  arrows  from 
50,000  English  bows.  No  instant  was  to  be  lost,  for  the  Scots 
were  falling  fast.  Bruce,  with  his  light  cavalry,  drove  the 
archers  back ;  and,  with  a  rapid  charge  of  the  men  of  Argyle 
and  the  Isles,  shook  the  English  ranks.  Just  then,  a  body  of 
20,000  men  rushed  down  from  the  hill  close  by.  To  the  fear- 
ful eyes  of  the  English,  this  was  a  new  Scottish  army ;  but  it 
was  only  a  band  of  camp-followers,  eager  to  seize  the  plunder 
of  the  vanquished  host.  The  English  were  in  headlong  rout, 
and  the  victory  of  Bruce  was  decisive.  On  that  oTay  Ban- 
nockburn  became  one  of  Scotland's  proudest  names. 

Two  more  feeble  attempts  of  Edward  II.  to  regain  his  foot- 
ing in  Scotland, — two  more  invasions  of  England  by  the  Scots, 
— and  we  find  the  independence  of  Scotland  and  the  rights  of 
her  King  acknowledged  by  an  English  Parliament,  held  at 
York  in  1328.  One  year  later,  King  Robert  Bruce  died, 
leaving  a  solemn  charge  with  Lord  Douglas  to  bury  his  heart 
in  Jerusalem.  Douglas,  faithful  to  his  promise,  sailed  for 
the  Holy  Land ;  but  on  the  Spanish  plains  he  died  in  battle 
with  the  Moors.  When  he  saw  that  death  was  certain,  he 
flung  the  silver  casket,  enclosing  the  heart  of  Bruce,  far  into 
the  Moorish  ranks,  and  cried, '  Forward,  gallant  heart,  as 
thou  wert  wont ;  Douglas  will  follow  thee  or  die  !'  He  was 
found  dead,  with  the  casket  clasped  to  his  breast.  The 
heart  of  Bruce  was  carried  back  to  Scotland,  and  buried  in 
Melrose  Abbey. 


STATE  OF  IRELAND.  Ill 

David  II.  was  only  six  years  old  when  his  father  died.  His 
minority  was  spent  chiefly  in  France.  Randolph  and  Murray 
held  the  regency  in  succession.  The  leading  event  of  the 
minority  was  an  attempt  of  the  English  King  to  seat 
Edward  Baliol  on  the  Scottish  throne.  This  injury  long 
rankled  in  the  heart  of  David  ;  and,  when  Edward  was  in 
France  in  1346,  he  led  an  army  into  England.  But  he  was 
defeated  at  Nevil's  Cross,  near  Durham,  and  made  prisoner. 
He  obtained  his  freedom  after  a  captivity  of  eleven  years. 
But  Scotland  had  little  reason  to  rejoice  at  his  release,  for 
he  was  the  unworthy  son  of  a  great  sire.  His  vicious  in- 
dulgences, and  his  quarrels  with  all  around  his  throne, 
rilled  up  the  measure  of  a  reign  unmarked  by  any  good 
event. 

IRELAND. 

The  Danish  invasions  left  traces  upon  Ireland  which  were 
felt  for  centuries.  The  land,  so  famous  for  beauty  and  fer- 
tility that  it  has  been  called  the  Emerald  Isle,  was  reduced 
to  a  state  of  confusion  resembling  the  condition  of  England 
under  the  Saxon  Heptarchy.  Descendants  of  the  Danes, 
who  had  settled  on  the  coasts,  received  the  name  of  Ostmen, 
or  Eastmen.  These  gradually  blended  with  the  general 
population.  Above  the  host  of  petty  chiefs  six  Kings  seem 
to  have  been  distinguished.  They  ruled  over  Ulster,  Lein- 
ster,  Connaught,  North  Munster,  South  Munster,  and  Meath. 
Occasionally  there  was  a  slight  union,  but  war  was  the 
general  rule.  Such  was  Ireland  in  1172,  when  its  conquest 
was  begun. 

The  government  of  Ireland  under  the  Plantagenets  was 
marked  with  cruelty  and  spoliation  of  the  worst  kind.  Re- 
bellions were  frequent.  The  south-eastern  part  of  the 
island,  where  the  English  settlers  lived,  was  called  the 
English  Pale.  The  Barons  within  this  Pale  held  the  first 
Irish  Parliament  in  1295. 

A  striking  episode  in  Irish  history  is  the  attempt  of  Ed- 
ward Bruce  to  make  himself  King  of  the  island.  Aided  by 
his  brother  Robert,  he  crossed  to  Ulster  with  6000  men. 
He  was  crowned  at  Carrickfergus,  and  held  the  northern 


112  THE  ANGLO-IRISH  PARTY. 

province  for  two  years.    But  in  1318  he  was  killed  in  battle 
with  the  English  at  Fagher,  near  Dundalk. 

The  English  in  Ireland  split  int'o  two  hostile  factions 
about  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  The  descendants  of  the 
first  invaders  looked  with  contempt  on  the  colonists  of  a 
later  date.  Many  of  the  former  had  intermingled  with  the 
native  Celts,  adopting  their  dress,  language,  and  laws. 
The  feeling  in  England  was  so  strong  against  these  Anglo- 
Irish,  that  imprisonment  and  heavy  fines  were  denounced 
by  law  against  any  Englishman  who  wore  an  Irish  dress,  or 
even  learned  the  Irish  language,  while  it  was  declared  high 
treason  to  submit  to  the  Brehon  laws  of  Ireland. 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  PEOPLE.  113 


CHAPTER  X. 

SOCIAL  CONDITION  OF  THE  PEOPLE  UNDER  THE 
PLANTAGENETS  PROPER. 


Houses  and  furniture. 
Merchants,  soldiers,  labourers. 
Dress. 


Sports. 

Education. 

Language. 


THE  Feudal  System  was  in  its  prime  -when  Coeur  de  Lion 
reigned :  its  decay  may  be  dated  from  the  time  that  the 
Commons  first  sat  in  Parliament :  the  Wars  of  the  Roses 
laid  its  crumbling  frame-work  in  ruins. 

Gradually  the  higher  classes  became  more  refined.  The 
use  of  spices  in  cookery  gave  new  relish  to  their  food :  glass 
windows,  earthen  vessels,  coal  fires,  and  candle- light,  added 
to  the  comfort  of  their  homes.  The  use  of  tiles  instead  of 
thatch  improved  their  dwellings.  The  style  of  architecture 
belonging  to  this  period  has  been  called  the  decorated 
Gothic.  Pointed  arches  and  profuse  ornament  are  the  dis- 
tinctive features  of  the  style.  But  furniture  was  still  scanty. 
A  decent  farm-house  could  boast  of  little  more  than  one  or 
two  beds,  a  few  seats,  a  set  of  fire-irons,  a  brass  pot,  with  a 
dish  and  a  cup  of  the  same  metal. 

The  leading  merchants  dealt  in  wool.  Even  the  Kings 
did  not  disdain  to  trade  in  fleeces.  The  Conqueror  at  Crefy, 
one  of  the  bravest  and  best  of  them,  was  called,  in  derision, 
by  his  French  rival, '  The  royal  wool-merchant.'  The  army 
was  composed  of  four  classes  :  1.  The  men-at-arms,  com- 
prising knights,  esquires,  and  their  followers.  These  were 
heavy  cavalry.  2.  The  hoblers,  who  were  light  cavalry, 
mounted  on  inferior  horses,  and  were  chiefly  engaged  in  the 
Scottish  wars.  3.  The  archers,  whose  skill  gained  some  of 
the  greatest  victories  of  the  period.  Their  bows  were  of 
two  kinds, — long-bows  to  discharge  shafts,  and  cross-bows 
for  bolts  or  quarrels.  4.  The  footmen,  armed  with  spears, 
and  wearing  skull-caps,  quilted  coats,  and  iron  gloves.  Some 
idea  of  the  value  of  money  in  these  days  may  be  gathered 
from  the  rate  of  wages.  Haymakers  got  a  penny  a-day ;  la- 

(32)  3 


114  DRESS  AND  SPORTS. 

bourers,  threehalfpence ;  carpenters,  twopence ;  and  masons, 
threepence.  None  were  allowed  to  work  out  of  their  own 
neighbourhood,  except  the  men  of  Staffordshire,  Derbyshire, 
Lancashire,  and  those  from  the  marches  of  Scotland  and 
Wales,  who  helped  to  reap  the  English  harvest.  Agricul- 
ture was  a  favourite  employment  of  the  clergy :  we  read  of 
even  Becket  and  his  monks  tossing  hay,  and  binding  sheaves 
in  the  fields.  Many  of  the  improvements  of  the  time  in  gar- 
dening were  owing  to  the  monks. 

The  dress  of  Edward  of  Windsor's  court  may  be  taken 
as  a  specimen  of  the  fashion  prevailing  during  the  period. 
The  exquisites  wore  a  coat,  half  blue,  half  white,  with  deep 
sleeves ;  trousers  reaching  scarcely  to  the  knee ;  stockings  of 
different  colours ;  and  shoes  with  toes  so  long  that  they 
were  fastened  by  golden  chains  to  the  girdle.  Their  beards 
were  long  and  curled  ;  their  hair  was  tied  in  a  tail  behind  ; 
while  a  close  hood  of  silk,  embroidered  with  strange  figures 
of  animals  and  buttoned  under  the  chin,  enclosed  the  head. 
The  most  striking  part  of  the  ladies'  dress  at  this  time  was 
a  towering  head-dress  like  a  mitre,  some  two  feet  high,  from 
which  floated  a  whole  rainbow  of  gay  ribbons.  Their  trains 
were  long  ;  their  tunics  of  many  colours.  They  wore  two 
daggers  in  a  golden  belt,  and  rode  to  the  tournament  and  the 
forest  on  steeds  of  fiery  spirit.  Anne  of  Bohemia,  the  Queen 
of  Richard  II.,  introduced  the  use  of  the  side-saddle. 

The  tournament  was  still  the  first  of  sports  :  but  there 
were  also  tilting  at  the  ring,  when  knights  strove  at  full 
horse-speed  to  carry  off  on  the  point  of  a  levelled  lance  a 
suspended  ring  ;  and  tilting  at  a  wooden  figure,  called  a 
Quintain,  which,  swinging  on  a  pivot,  bore  with  out- 
stretched arm  a  wooden  sword.  He  who  struck  fairly  in 
the  centre  was  untouched ;  but  if  the  lance  struck  too  much 
on  one  side,  the  awkward  tilter  caught  a  sound  blow  from 
the  wooden  sword  as  he  rode  past  the  whirling  image. 
Horse-racing  and  bull-baiting  were  sports  in  which  high 
and  low  took  equal  interest :  but  the  great  pastime  of  the 
lower  classes  was  archery,  which  they  were  bound  by  royal 
proclamation  to  practise  on  Sundays  and  holidays  after 
Divine  service  ;  upon  which  occasions  other  sports,  such  as 
quoits,  cock-fighting,  foot-ball,  hand-ball,  were  forbidden. 


CHANGES  OF  THE  LANGUAGE.  115 

In  an  age  when  'might  was  the  only  right,'  and  the 
qualities  most  prized  were  personal  strength  and  skill  in 
arms,  it  is  not  strange  that  education,  according  to  our 
notions  of  it,  was  neglected.  War  and  woodcraft  were  all 
the  great  cared  to  know.  They  neither  read  nor  wrote ;  or, 
if  they  did  read,  it  was,  as  has  been  humorously  said,  by 
spelling  all  the  small  words  and  skipping  all  the  large  ones. 
The  clergy  alone  were  learned;  but  their  knowledge  was 
confined  within  a  narrow  circle.  Theology  was  their  favour- 
ite study ;  but  glimmerings  of  other  sciences  began  to  appear 
in  the  cloisters.  They  represented  all  the  peaceful  profes- 
sions. They  were  the  lawyers,  the  physicians,  and  the 
teachers  of  the  day.  Every  monastery  had  its  scriptorium, 
or  writing-room,  where  manuscripts,  of  which  every  page 
was  bordered  with  a  beautiful  design  in  gold  and  bright 
colours,  were  copied  by  the  patient  monks.  The  books  thus 
produced  were  very  costly,  as  much  as  £40  being  paid  for  a 
copy  of  the  Bible. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  tongue,  modified  by  the  changes  of  the 
Conquest,  became  Semi-Saxon,  a  form  which  lasted  till  the 
time  of  Henry  III.  From  Henry  III.  to  Edward  III.  was 
the  Period  of  Old  English.  The  great  law  which  governs 
all  such  transitions  of  an  old  form  of  speech  into  a  newer 
one,  is, — '  As  the  language  advances,  its  grammatical  termi- 
nations drop  off,  and  their  place  is  supplied  by  auxiliary 
words.'  As  the  language  grows  with  the  nation,  with  the 
nation  also  it  gradually  changes.  Their  history  is  insepa- 
rable. It  was  not  until  the  time  of  Edward  III.  that  England 
began  to  recover  from  the  shock  of  the  Norman  Conquest. 
Then  the  English  mind  awoke  from  the  lethargy  of  bondage, 
and  our  literature  had  its  birth.  English  prose  and  English 
poetry  alike  sprang  to  life.  Inspired  by  Italian  song,  Geof- 
frey Chaucer  wrote  his  '  Canterbury  Tales ;'  about  the  same 
time  appeared  the  works  of  John  Wycliffe,  who,  as  Chaucer 
is  called  the  father  of  English  verse,  may  justly  be  styled 
the  father  of  English  prose.  These  writers  inaugurated  the 
Period  of  Middle  English,  which  lasted  till  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth  began. 


116 


AUTHORS  OF  THE  PERIOD. 


LEADING  AUTHORS  OF  THE  PERIOD — (1154-1399). 

SEMI-SAXON. 

LAYAMON, A  priest  of  Areley  Regis  in  Worcester- 
shire— wrote  a  rhyming  Chronicle 
of  Britain  about  1200. 

OLD  ENGLISH. 

ROBERT  OF  GLOUCESTER,. ..(1230-1285)-wrote  a  rhyming  History 

of  England. 

ROBERT  MANNING, Of  Brunne  or  Bourne— chronicler. 

BASTON, A  Carmelite  monk — poet — brought  by 

Edward  II.  to  Scotland  to  celebrate 
his  victories — taken  by  the  Scots, 
and  made  to  sing  the  victory  of  Ban- 
nockburn. 

MIDDLE  ENGLISH. 

JOHN  GOWER, (1320-1402)— wrote  moral  poetry. 

GEOFFREY  CHAUCER (1328-1400)— first  great  English  poet 

— lived  at  the  courts  of  Edward  III. 
and  Richard  II. — chief  work,  '  The 
Canterbury  Tales.' 

JOHN  MANDEVILLE, (1301-1372)— wrote  Travels  in  the  East 

ia  English,  French,  and  Latin. 

JOHN  WYCLIFFE, Died  1384— a  native  of  Yorkshire- 
Professor  of  Divinity,  Baliol  Col- 
lege, Oxford — translator  of  Bible — 
earliest  English  Reformer. 

JOHN  BARBOUR, Archdeacon  of  Aberdeen— wrote  about 

1371  a  rhyming  Chronicle  of  Robert 
Bruce. 


LEADING  DATES  OF  THE  PERIOD — (1154-1399). 


GENERAL  EVENTS. 
A.D. 

Becket  murdered,. ..1170.. .Hen.  II. 

Interdict, 1208-1 214...  John. 

Baliol  King  of  Scot- 
land,  1292.. .Ed.  I. 

Robert    Bruce 
crowned, 1306...    — 


CONSTITUTIONAL  CHANGES. 

A.D. 

Council  of  Claren- 
don,  1164.. .Hen.  II. 

Magna  Charta, 1215..  John. 

Mad  Parliament,.. 1258.. .Hen.  III. 

House  of  Commons 
founded, 1265...  — 

Ordainers, 1310... Ed.  II. 

Wonderful  Parlia- 
ment,  1388...Rich.  IL 


PLANTAGENET  DATES. 


117 


WAKS,  BATTLES,  TREATIES. 
A.D. 

Third  Crusade  1190-92...Rich.  I. 
Battle  of  Bouvhies  1214...  John. 

—  Lincoln 1217...Hen.  in. 

—  Lewes 1264...      — 

—  Evesham 1265...      — 

-  Bannockburnl314...Ed.  II. 

-  Halidon-hill..l333...Ed.  III. 
French  war  begins  1338...      — 
Battle  of  Cregy 1346... 

—  Nevil's  Cross  —  ...      — 

—  Poictiers 1356...      — 

Treaty  of  Bretigny  1360...      — 
Tiler's  rebellion... .1381. ..Rich.  II. 
Battle  of  Otter- 
bourne 1388...      — 


CHANGES  OF  DOMINION. 
A.D. 

Ireland  conquered  1172...Hen.  II. 
Wales  conquered...!282...Ed.  I. 

Calais  taken 1347...Ed.  III. 

Poitou    and   Gui- 

enne  acquired 1360...     — 

These     provinces 

lost 1375...     — 


118 


GENEALOGICAL  TKKE. 


^                                      Q) 

-* 

.°              'i?       E5          *o      ,.,'                i—  ; 

0  «5 

Stfl-d  ^-3         - 

o         —  3g(§"     ^'S^                o 

a         g<*3    «SS           ^^ 

•^      i  S-Ssr—  o"**5 

a 

P          !      o.2  _2  o       «  J<T!- 

o 

^  J8 

« 

*   i  9  if  3  i^i 

M 

l-l 

H 

2        '     o      ^         p^     o 

t*-, 
O 

2 

^3 

3 

pq 

1 

^ 

0) 

a 

0 

0 
>H 

1 

^ 

V^ 

0 

O 

—  «M 

O 

H 

§ 

w 

0 

5 

t* 

& 

h 

A 

M 

0 

S}                                       T3 

1       2 

Q                           » 

WO             M 

„  S3     .1         .1  8     .1  §     'H      ; 

«' 

3 

•< 

M    a         ^ 

H 

II      a=      ^      a^      »«: 

r-B 

£   «       J" 

H     H          PH 
^     fr           "g 

<j  a      -H 
5  H       S 

ss    r- 

Bo>        ^S        cs'^        ^  •<       PP* 

13  ca 

V    ~3 

fa 

a 

^ 

i^   tf          r 

3      H                 1-H 

S    ft.        £ 

'       & 

11 

_'§ 
< 

-  O       • 

S     §            fi 

W    »<         n 
°   g        £ 

s    s 

w 

o 

c>                                            <u                 r 
§       t)   M        •§'                   .I-S* 

•     .S  n      a              'C'S 

B    Eg   s 

DWARD  IV. 
IZABETH  W 

[i 

a 
^ 

•< 
H 

S3 

^   s|   2       ~«5          '  w« 

—  3~2g-J          §^ 
o     a.  g    w          <JT; 

g 

2 

ft. 

^    gg     g"            w 

g 

H 

a 

EH 

J*l 

-a 

- 

u 

C3 

H^ 

3 

g 

W 

EH 

U 

"rtT*                                                                   ^ 

fl 

«                                2 

» 

•-1                              k2 

8 

OH                                         S^' 

"o                                         ~?% 

3     ^                     "^.9 

~~"     *                        ~U 

—  O  •<                                                Q.S 

OH          H                                    £;  Q 

•«)       o                              to 

^     £                       * 

o      PH                              a 

W                                    ^ 

THE  HOUSE  OF  LANCASTER.  119 


HOUSE  OF  LANCASTER. 

A.D. 

HENRY  IV.  (son  of  John  of  Ghent), 1399 

HENKY  V.  (son), 1413 

HENRY  VI.  (son), 1422-1161. 


CHAPTER  I. 

HENRY  IV.— BOLINGBROKE. 
Born  1367  A.D.— Began  to  reign  1399  A.D.— Died  1413  A.D. 


Henry  succeeds. 
Scottish  war. 
Plots. 

Glendower. 
The  Percies. 
France. 


The  Prince  of  Wales. 

Death  of  Henry. 

Character. 

Power  of  the  Commons. 

Notes. 


THE  representative  of  the  House  of  Lancaster  now  sat  on 
the  throne.  He  detained  in  close  custody  the  young  Ed- 
mund, Earl  of  March,  who,  being  descended  from  an  elder 
branch  of  the  royal  Plantagenets,  was,  according  to  our  law 
of  inheritance,  King  by  right.  It  was  not,  however,  until  a 
later  period  that  the  law  of  primogeniture  became  the  lead- 
ing principle  of  succession  to  the  English  throne. 

A  successful  Scottish  war  was  the  first  great  undertaking 
of  the  new  King.    The  old  hostility  of  the  Border 
Lords,  Douglas  and  Percy,  flamed  out  anew.     On     1402 
Nesbit  Moor  and  at  Homildon  Hill  the  Scots       A.D. 
suffered  severe  defeats. 

Several  insurrections  shook  the  power  of  Henry.  There 
was  a  common  report  that  Richard  was  living  and  in  Scot- 
land. The  Earl  of  March,  too,  lived ;  and  the  King's  title 
was  defective.  Upon  grounds  like  these,  plots  were  built  up; 
but  none  succeeded. 

Throughout  the  entire  reign  a  Welshman  named  Owen 
Glendower  maintained  his  independence  among  the  hills. 
He  had  been  educated  in  the  law-schools  of  London,  and 
had  served  as  an  esquire  at  the  court  of  Richard  II. ;  but 


120  THE  PERCIE3. 

on  his  return  to  Wales,  where  his  superior  learning  gained 
for  him  the  reputation  of  a  wizard,  a  part  of  his  estate  was 
seized  by  Lord  Grey  of  Ruthyn,  a  near  friend  of  the  King ; 
and  his  anger  drove  him  to  revolt. 

But  Henry's  greatest  enemies  were  the  Percies,  father  and 
son.  The  father  was  Earl  of  Northumberland;  the  son,  from 
his  dashing  and  fiery  spirit,  was  named  Hotspur.  It  is  un- 
certain why  they  drew  the  sword  against  the  monarch  whom 
they  had  helped  to  place  on  the  throne.  Perhaps  the  cause 
may  be  found  in  Henry's  refusal  to  ransom  from  the  Welsh 
Sir  Edmund  Mortimer,  a  kinsman  of  Hotspur.  Glendower 
and  the  Scots  joined  the  Percies.  The  King  met 
1403  them  at  Shrewsbury.  The  battle  was  long  and 
A.D.  bloody,  but  was  decided  in  favour  of  Henry  by  the 
death  of  Hotspur.  Northumberland,  who  had  been 
detained  from  the  field  by  illness,  submitted  at  once,  and 
was  pardoned;  but,  revolting  again,  he  led  a  wandering 
life  for  many  years  in  Scotland  and  Wales,  and  was  at  last 
slain  near  Tadcaster  in  Yorkshire. 

With  France  a  dispute  arose  about  the  jewels  and  the 
dowry  of  the  widowed  Isabella;  which,  according  to  agree- 
ment, should  have  been  returned  on  her  husband's  death. 
The  English  King  met  the  demand  by  a  counter-claim  for 
the  ransom  of  John,  who  was  captured  at  Poictiers.  For 
some  time  there  was  no  open  declaration  of  war ;  but  the 
French  nobles  were  allowed  to  hurl  insulting  challenges  at 
Henry,  and  even  to  ravage  his  coasts  in  their  privateers. 
Two  events,  however,  gave  Henry  the  ascendency  in  Scot- 
land and  in  France.  James,  the  eldest  surviving  son  of  the 
Scottish  King,  when  on  his  way  to  the  schools  of  France, 
was  driven  by  a  storm  on  the  English  coast,  and  captured, 
and  was  imprisoned  at  Pevensey.  The  murder  of  the  Duke 
of  Orleans  kindled  in  France  a  civil  war  between  the  ad- 
herents of  the  houses  of  Orleans  and  Burgundy,  called  re- 
spectively the  Armagnacs  and  Bourguignons.  Henry,  becom- 
ing in  turn  the  ally  of  each,  regained  the  sovereignty  of 
Aquitaine,  Poitou,  and  Angouleme. 

Henry's  declining  years  were  vexed  by  the  vicious  con- 
duct of  his  eldest  son ;  who,  however,  sometimes  showed 
gleams  of  a  better  nature.  Once,  when  Chief-Justice  Gas- 


THE  PRINCE  OF  WALES.  121 

coigne  had  sentenced  to  imprisonment  a  riotous  companion 
of  the  Prince,  the  royal  youth  drew  his  sword  on  the  judge ; 
who,  nothing  daunted,  sent  him  too  to  the  King's  Bench ; 
thus  vindicating  the  power  of  the  laws  even  over  the  royal 
line.  The  Prince  submitted  with  a  good  grace,  and  bore  no 
malice  against  Gascoigne,  whom  he  afterwards  treated  with 
much  kindness.  Again:  hearing  that  some  unguarded  words 
had  excited  a  suspicion  that  he  aimed  at  the  crown,  he  en- 
tered his  father's  closet,  and,  casting  himself  at  the  royal 
feet,  held  out  a  dagger,  demanding  death  rather  than  dis- 
grace. 

Fits  of  epilepsy  wore  out  the  strength  of  Henry  at  a  com- 
paratively early  age.  The  last  seized  him  at  Westminster, 
and  he  was  buried  at  Canterbury.  He  was  married  twice : 
first  to  Mary  Bohun,  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Hereford; 
then  to  Jane  of  Navarre.  Jane  had  no  children ;  Mary's 
were  Henry — afterwards  King,  Thomas  Duke  of  Clarence, 
John  Duke  of  Bedford,  Humphrey  Duke  of  Gloucester, 
Blanche,  and  Philippa. 

Henry  IV.  was  daring,  watchful,  active.  He  well  under- 
stood the  temper  of  the  nation  and  the  Parliament.  Some 
idea  of  his  difficult  position  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact, 
that  in  the  first  Parliament  of  his  reign  forty  gauntlets  of 
defiance  were  cast  on  the  floor,  while  'liar'  and  'traitor' 
were  common  words  of  debate.  He  was  of  middle  size,  and 
in  his  last  years  his  face  was  disfigured  by  an  eruption,  which 
the  superstition  of  the  time  ascribed  to  the  judgment  of 
Heaven  for  the  execution  of  Scroop,  Archbishop  of  York, 
an  adherent  of  the  rebel  Percies. 

Step  by  step  the  Commons  extended  their  power.  They 
confirmed  the  privilege  by  which  they  and  their  servants 
were  free  from  arrest  or  imprisonment.  They  secured  the 
right  of  presenting  their  petitions  by  word  of  mouth,  instead 
of  writing  them.  The  addresses  from  the  Speaker's  chair 
took  a  bolder  tone.  They  established  their  claim  to  vote 
supplies  of  money,  to  determine  the  particular  object  of  the 
sums  voted,  and  to  inquire  into  the  expenditure. 

During  this  reign  occurred  the  first  execution  for  religious 
opinions.  The  victim  was  the  Rev.  William  Sautre,  Chap- 
lain of  St.  Oswith's  in  London.  Holding  with  unshaken 


122 


WILLIAM  SAUTRE. 


faith  the  opinions  of  Wycliffe,  he  was  accused  of  heresy,  and 
burned  in  public,  A.D.  1401. 

The  earliest  mention  of  cannon  in  England  occurs  in  the 
narrative  of  the  siege  of  Berwick  by  Henry  in  1405;  in  which 
we  are  told  that  a  shot  from  a  great  gun  shattered  one  of 
the  towers  so  much  that  the  gates  were  thrown  open  by  the 
alarmed  garrison. 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


SCOTLAND.  A.D. 

EGBERT  HI., died  1405 

JAMES  I. 


FRANCE. 
CHAELES  VI. 


SPAIN. 


HENEY  III. 


EMPERORS.  A.D. 

WINCESLATJS, died  1400 

EOBEET, 1410 

SIGISMUND. 

POPES. 

BONIFACE  IX., 1404 

INNOCENT  VII., 1406 

GREGORY  XII., 1409 

ALEXANDEE   V., 1410 

JOHN  xxni. 


THE  LOLLARDS.  123 

CHAPTER  II. 

HENRY  V.—  MONMOUTH. 
Born  1388  A.D.— Began  to  reign  1413  A.D.— Died  1422  A.D. 


Henry  reforms. 
Sir  John  Oldcastle. 
A  French  war. 
Battle  of  Aginconrt. 
Henry  Regent  of  France. 


Glorious  position. 
Death. 
Character. 
The  Commons. 
Notes. 


THE  riotous  Prince  Hal  was  suddenly  transformed  into  the 
brave  and  spirited  King  Henry  V.  His  earliest  act  was  to 
discard  his  old  companions,  and  to  call  around  him  the 
wisest  of  the  land,  conspicuous  among  whom  was  Sir  William 
Gascoigne.  He  set  free  the  Earl  of  March.  He  restored 
the  Percy  estates  to  the  exiled  son  of  Hotspur. 

Early  in  his  reign  the  sect  of  the  Lollards,  by  their 
efforts  for  religious  reform,  drew  upon  themselves  the 
royal  anger.  Chief  among  them  was  Sir  John  Oldcastle, 
or  the  Lord  of  Cobham.  He  had  been  one  of  the  Prince's 
former  intimates,  and  some  have  considered  him  the  ori- 
ginal of  Shakspere's  Falstaff ;  but  repenting  of  his  follies, 
he  amended  his  life,  and  made  his  castle  of  Cowling 
the  central  mission-station  of  Lollardism.  Hence  he  was 
borne  to  the  dungeons  of  the  Tower  by  the  soldiers  of 
Henry ;  who,  seeking  to  please  the  clergy,  proclaimed  the 
heresy,  as  it  was  called,  a  crime  of  the  blackest  dye.  Escap- 
ing, he  called  his  followers  together  in  St.  Giles'  Fields ;  but 
the  vigilance  of  the  King,  who  burst  upon  their  meeting  at 
the  dead  of  night,  scattered  the  Lollards.  The  leader  fled, 
but  many  of  those  who  were  taken  were  doomed  to  death ; 
and,  three  years  afterwards,  Oldcastle,  who  had  left  his  hid- 
ing-place to  join  the  invading  Scots,  was  burned  as  a  felon 
and  a  heretic. 

The  title  'King  of  France'  Avas  claimed  until  lately  by 
our  monarchs;  but  Henry  of  Monmouth  was  the  only 
English  sovereign  who  really  deserved  the  name.  Taking 
advantage  of  the  civil  war  which  still  convulsed  France,  he 
revived  the  claim  of  Edward  III.,  and  demanded  that  the 


124  BATTLE  OF  AGINCOURT. 

treaty  of  Bretigny  should  be  fulfilled.  For  answer  there 
came  a  load  of  tennis-balls, — a  gentle  hint  from  the  Dauphin 
that  the  English  King  was  fitter  for  such  sports  than  for 
war.  Stung  by  the  insult,  Henry  prepared  for  battle.  The 
Duke  of  Bedford  was  appointed  Regent;  the  royal  jewels 
were  pawned;  loans  were  exacted;  and  the  Barons  were  called 
to  arms.  But  delay  arose  from  the  discovery  of  a  plot  in 
favour  of  the  Earl  of  March.  The  King's  nearest  friends, 
Lord  Scroop,  who  shared  his  bed,  and  his  cousin  Richard  of 
Cambridge,  suffered  death  for  the  treason. 

A  fleet  now  bore  Henry  with  30,000  soldiers  from  South- 
ampton to  the  mouth  of  the  Seine.  He  took  Harfleur,  a 
strong  fortress  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  in  five  weeks; 
and  then,  with  an  army  reduced  to  one-half  its  former  num- 
ber by  wounds  and  sickness,  he  formed  the  daring  resolve  of 
reaching  Calais  by  the  same  route  as  that  by  which  the 
troops  of  Edward  III.  had  marched  to  victory.  He  found 
the  bridges  of  the  Somme  broken  down,  and  the  fords  de- 
fended by  lines  of  sharp  stakes ;  but,  after  a  delay  of  some 
days,  an  unguarded  point  was  discovered  high  up  the  stream. 
Crossing  rapidly,  he  moved  straight  upon  Calais,  while  the 
Constable  of  France  awaited  his  approach  before  the  village 
of  Agincourt.  It  was  a  dark  and  rainy  night,  when  the 
wearied  English  saw  before  them  the  red  light  of  the  French 
watch-fires. 

One  hundred  thousand  French  lay  there.    The  odds  were 

seven  to  one.     But  Crecy  was  not  far  distant, 

Oct.  25,     and  the  memory  of  former  glory  stirred  in  every 

1415     English  heart.      The  invincible  archers  led  the 

A.D.       way  in  the  early  morning.     With  a  cheer  they 

rushed  on,  bearing  with  their  usual  weapons  long 

sharp  stakes.    These  they  fixed  obliquely  before  them,  so 

that  a  wall  of  wooden  pikes  met  the  French  charge ;  and, 

thus  protected,  they  poured  in  their  close  and  deadly  arrows. 

Then  slinging  their  bows  behind  them,  they  burst  with  the 

men-at-arms  upon  the  breaking  ranks ;   and  the  first,  the 

second,  and  the  third  divisions  gave  way  in  succession. 

Henry  fought  in  the  thickest  of  the  battle;  and,  though  mace 

and  sabre  were  levelled  at  his  life  more  than  once,  he  escaped 

unhurt.    The  confusion  caused  by  the  tactics  of  the  English 


TREATY  OF  TROYES.  125 

King,  who  had  secretly  sent  a  body  of  troops  to  set  fire 
to  the  houses  of  Agincourt  in  the  French  rear,  completed 
the  rout.  The  Constable,  the  flower  of  the  French  nobility, 
and  eight  thousand  knights  and  esquires,  fell  on  this  fatal 
day :  the  victors  lost  only  sixteen  hundred  men.  Without 
following  up  this  terrible  blow,  Henry  crossed  to  Dover. 
No  welcome  seemed  too  warm  for  him.  The  people  rushed 
into  the  sea  to  meet  his  ship;  his  journey  to  London  was 
through  shouting  crowds  and  beneath  waving  banners.  The 
Parliament,  unasked,  voted  him  large  sums,  and  granted  to 
him  for  life  a  tax  on  wool  and  leather. 

The  war  was  renewed  in  1417.    Slowly  but  surely  the 
King  of  England  extended  his  conquests,  until  the 
fall  of  Rouen,  after  a  siege  of  six  months',  laid  Nor-     1419 
mandy  at  his  feet.    His  path  to  the  French  throne       A.D. 
was  opened  by  an  unforeseen  occurrence.     The 
Duke  of  Burgundy  was  foully  murdered ;  and  his  faction, 
thirsting  for  revenge,  threw  their  whole  weight  on  Henry's 
side.    He  was  thus  enabled  to  dictate  terms  of 
peace  to  the  French  monarch,  and  the  treaty  of     1420 
Troyes  was  framed.    Its  leading  conditions  were       A.D. 
three : — 1.  That  Henry  should  receive  in  marriage 
the  French  princess  Catherine  ;  2.  That  he  should  be  Regent 
during  the  life  of  the  imbecile  Charles ;  3.  That  he  should 
succeed  to  the  French  throne  on  the  death  of  that  prince. 

A  short  visit  to  England  with  his  bride  was  suddenly 
clouded  by  sad  news,  which  recalled  him  to  France.  The 
Dauphin,  re-enforced  by  a  large  body  of  Scots,  routed  the 
English  troops  at  Beauje,  and  slew  the  Duke  of  Clarence, 
Henry's  brother.  In  hopes  that  the  Scots  would  not  fight 
against  their  own  King,  the  English  sovereign  led  into  battle 
the  captive  James.  The  hope  was  vain ;  but,  ever  invincible, 
Henry  drove  his  foe  into  Bourges,  and  paralyzed  all  hostile 
efforts  by  the  capture  of  Meaux,  a  stronghold  near  Paris. 

He  had  now  climbed  the  highest  steeps  of  his  ambition. 
He  was  master  of  Northern  France  to  the  banks  of  the 
Loire ;  no  leaf  had  fallen  from  the  laurels  won  at  Agincourt 
and  Rouen ;  a  son  had  been  lately  born  to  inherit  his  hon- 
ours and  his  name ;  when  Paris  was  gay  at  Whitsuntide, 
the  splendour  of  the  Louvre,  where  the  Regent  held  his. 


12G 


LAVISH  EXPENDITURE. 


court,  far  outshone  the  petty  pomp  of  the  real  King.  But 
in  the  very  noon  of  his  glory  he  died.  His  disease  has  been 
variously  named ;  one  thing  is  sure,  that  the  debaucheries 
of  his  early  life  sowed  the  seeds  of  his  early  death.  In 
gorgeous  state  his  remains  were  borne  to  England,  and  were 
there  laid  in  the  vaults  of  Westminster.  He  left  one  son, 
afterwards  Henry  VI.  His  widow,  Catherine,  married  Owen 
Tudor,  a  gentleman  of  Wales ;  and  thus  was  founded  the 
line  of  royal  Tudors. 

Henry  was  a  warrior  and  a  statesman.  His  arrogance 
often  wounded,  but  his  even  justice  atoned  with  his  people 
for  many  faults.  He  was  the  darling  of  the  soldiers  whom 
he  led  so  often  to  victory.  In  figure  he  was  tall  and  slight. 

The  Commons  gained  during  this  reign  an  important 
point, — that  no  law  should  have  force  unless  it  had  received 
their  assent.  At  no  time  were  supplies  of  money  more 
freely  given ;  for  the  King  had  so  dazzled  his  people  by 
the  lustre  of  his  victories  that  they  never  denied  his  requests. 
Taxes  were  granted  for  life,  and  on  the  security  of  these 
he  was  allowed  to  raise  heavy  loans.  The  yearly  revenue 
was  nearly  £56,000,  but  the  expenditure  often  passed  that 
sum.  Calais  alone  is  said  to  have  cost  close  upon  £20,000 
a-year.  The  foundation  of  the  British  navy  may  be  ascribed 
to  this  reign ;  for  Henry  caused  a  ship  of  considerable  size 
to  be  built  for  him  at  Bayonne.  The  fleets  already  spoken 
of  were  either  merchant  vessels  or  ships  hired  from  foreign 
states.  Richard  Whittington,  a  merchant  of  London,  was 
during  this  reign  three  times  Lord  Mayor.  He  made  a 
great  fortune  by  the  voyages  of  a  ship  called  the  Cat, — a 
name  which  has  given  rise  to  the  well-known  nursery  talc. 

CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


SCOTLAND. 

A  D. 

JAMES  I. 

FRANCE. 
CHARLES  VI. 

SPAIN'. 

HENRY  III., died  1406 

JOHN  II. 


EMPEROR. 


SIGISMUND. 


POPES. 

JOHN  XXIIL, died  1415 

MARTIN  V. 


WAR  IN  FRANCE.  127 

CHAPTER  III. 

HENRY  VI.— WINDSOR. 
Born  1421  A.D.— Began  to  reign  1422  A.D.— Dethroned  1461  A.D. 


The  Regency. 
Bedford  in  France. 
Siege  of  Orleans. 
Joan  of  Arc. 
Lossof  French  dominions. 

Richard  of  York. 
Death  of  Suffolk. 
Cade's  rebellion. 
Wars  of  the  Roses  begin. 
The  compromise. 

Margaret  in  the  field. 
Henry  deposed. 
Power  of  Parliament. 
The  revenue. 
Notes. 

THE  successor  to  the  throne  was  an  infant  nine  months  old. 
A  council  of  twenty  managed  the  affairs  of  the  kingdom. 
The  Duke  of  Bedford  was  made  Regent  of  France,  while 
Humphrey  of  Gloucester  bore  the  title,  "  Protector  of  the 
Realm  of  England." 

After  the  death  of  the  French  King,  which  followed  close 
upon  that  of  Henry  V.,  the  Dauphin  assumed  the  title, 
Charles  VII.  The  Loire  now  separated  the  English  pro- 
vinces from  the  French.  Bedford  nobly  maintained  the  hon- 
our of  England  in  the  battles  of  Crevant  (1423),  and  Ver- 
neuil  (1424).  But  Gloucester  having  married  Jacqueline  of 
Bavaria,  claimed  a  large  part  of  the  Netherlands  as  her  in- 
heritance. The  Duke  of  Brabant,  also  claiming  to  be  the 
husband  of  this  princess,  opposed  the  demand  of  Glouces- 
ter, and  was  supported  by  his  cousin,  the  great  Duke  of 
Burgundy,  who  thus  became  estranged  from  the  English 
alliance.  At  home,  too,  Gloucester  quarrelled  with  Beaufort, 
Bishop  of  Winchester,  a  haughty  and  powerful  prelate.  So 
Bedford's  hands  grew  weak. 

In  1428  it  was  resolved  in  council,  contrary,  we  are  told, 
to  the  will  of  the  Regent,  that  the  English  army  should 
cross  the  Loire,  and  ravage  the  provinces  which  owned  the 
sway  of  Charles.  As  a  preparatory  step,  Orleans  was  be- 
sieged. While  the  English  troops  lay  before  the  walls,  a 
skirmish  took  place  which  has  received  a  strange  name, — 
'The  battle  of  herrings.'  At  Roverai  an  English  knight 
beat  back  a  body  of  French  cavalry,  who  attacked  him  as 
he  was  escorting  a  train  of  provision-cars  to  the  camp  of  the 
besiegers.  Salted  herrings  formed  a  large  part  of  the  stores, 


128  JOAN  OF  AKC. 

and  hence  arose  the  name.    This  success,  and  the  energy 
with  which  the  English  carried  on  the  siege,  dispirited  the 
French,  who  now  looked  upon  Orleans  as  lost. 
But  suddenly  there  came  a  change.    Joan  of  Arc,  the  ser- 
vant in  a  village  inn,  sought  the. presence  of  the 
1429     French  King,  and  there  proclaimed  that  she  had  a 
A.D.       mission  from  Heaven  to  drive  the  English  from 
Orleans  and  to  lead  Charles  to  Rheims.    Either 
believing  her  story  or  desirous  to  work  upon  the  superstition 
of  his  soldiers,  the  monarch  paid  her  every  honour.     Clad  in 
armour,  she  rode  on  a  gray  steed  to  the  rescue  of  Orleans. 
She  entered  the  city ;  stormed  the  fortress  before  the  gate ; 
and  drove  the  English  from  before  the  walls ;  thus  winning 
her  name, — '  The  Maid  of  Orleans.'    In  two  months  more 
Charles  was  crowned  at  Rheims,  and  her  mission  was  ful- 
filled.   But  soon  began  a  reaction.    In  a  sortie  from  the 
city  of  Compeigne,  she  was  pulled  from  her  horse  by  an 
archer,  and  made  prisoner.     She  was  sold  to  the 
1431     English  Regent;  and,  after  twelvemonths'  irapri- 
A.D.       sonment,  was  burned  as  a  witch  in  the  market- 
place of  Rouen. 

The  young  Henry  was  now  crowned  at  Westminster  and 
at  Paris, — a  step  considered  necessary  after  the  coronation  of 
Charles  at  Rheims.  But  the  crowning  at  Paris  was  an 
empty  form.  A  congress  was  held  at  Arras  in  1435,  at 
which  the  clergy  strove  in  vain  to  bring  about  peace.  Then 
two  great  blows  shook  the  English  power  in  France :  The 
great  Bedford  died;  and  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  made  peace 
and  alliance  with  France.  The  loss  of  Paris  speedily  fol- 
lowed ;  and  in  1444  the  English  were  glad  to  make  a  truce 
for  two  vears.  In  the  following  year  Henry  married  the 
beautiful  and  high-spirited  Margaret,  daughter  of  RenS, 
Duke  of  Anjou  and  Maine.  These  provinces  were  now,  by 
a  reversal  of  the  ordinary  custom,  restored  to  the  father  of 
the  bride.  They  were  called  the  keys  of  Normandy,  and 
deep  murmurs  resounded  through  England  when  they  were 
severed  from  the  crown.  French  troops  poured  across  the 
Loire  ;  and  soon  Rouen  and  all  Normandy  submitted.  From 
the  north  of  France,  Charles  turned  to  the  south.  Gate 
after  gate  of  the  Gascon  cities  opened  to  his  triumphant 


CADE'S  REBELLION.  129 

march,  until,  in  1451,  the  banner  of  England  waved  nowhere, 
from  the  Straits  of  Dover  to  the  Pyrenees,  except  on  the 
citadel  of  Calais.  Thus  ended  the  dream  of  an  English  em- 
pire in  France. 

Early  in  this  reign  (1423)  James  of  Scotland  was  released, 
and  returned  to  his  own  country.  He  brought  with  him  to 
Scotland,  to  share  his  throne,  an  English  wife,  Jane  Beau- 
fort, daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Somerset. 

The  great  pillars  of  the  House  of  Lancaster  were  the  Duke 
of  Gloucester,  and  his  uncle,  Cardinal  Beaufort.  Though 
rivals  for  political  fame,  they  united  in  upholding  the  throne 
of  Henry ;  who,  as  he  grew  to  manhood,  gave  every  day 
clearer  signs  of  a  weak  intellect.  But  they  died  within  six 
weeks  of  each  other ;  and  then  visions  of  a  throne  began  to 
rise  before  the  mind  of  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  sprung  by 
his  mother  from  the  second  son,  by  his  father  from  the 
youngest  son,  of  Edward  III. 

The  removal  of  a  faithful  minister  from  Henry's  councils 
gave  new  colour  to  the  hopes  of  York.  The  loss  of  the  French 
provinces  had  excited  great  discontent  throughout  England ; 
and  the  Duke  of  Suffolk,  by  whose  advice  Anjou  and  Maine 
had  been  restored  to  Rend,  was  marked  as  an  object  of  spe- 
cial hatred.  He  was  impeached,  was  banished,  and  had  left 
the  English  shores  with  the  hope  of  being  allowed  to  land  at 
Calais.  But  a  fleet  of  war-ships  bore  down  upon  his  frail 
craft,  and  he  was  summoned  on  board  '  the  Nicholas  of  the 
Tower;'  where  the  captain  received  him  with  the  words, 
'Welcome,  traitor!'  Two  days  after,  a  boat  reached  the 
side,  carrying  a  headsman,  a  block,  and  a  rusty  sword ;  and 
on  this  strange  scaffold  Suffolk  died. 

This  was  a  heavy  blow  to  Henry.  The  rumour  of  prepa- 
rations for  a  terrible  revenge  reached  the  men  of  Kent,  who 
had  furnished  the  ships  to  seize  Suffolk.  They  were  the 
descendants  of  those  who  had  followed  Tiler  to  Smithfield. 
They  rose  in  arms  under  Jack  Cade,  who  took  the  name  of 
Mortimer  a  cousin  of  York.  The  King's  troops  were  defeated 
at  Sevenoaks,  and  their  leader  was  slain.  Cade,  arraying 
himself  in  the  armour  of  the  fallen  knight,  marched  to  Lon- 
don ;  upon  which  Henry  withdrew  to  Kenil  worth.  Unresisted 

(32)  9 


130  THE  WARS  OF  THE  ROSES. 

the  rebels  entered  the  city,  Cade  cutting  the  ropes  of  the 
drawbridge  with  his  sword  as  he  passed.  For  two  days  they 
held  the  city,  but  on  the  third  the  pillage  of  some  houses 
roused  the  Londoners,  who  seized  the  bridge  and  held  it 
gallantly  for  six  hours,  when  a  short  truce  was  made.  The 
Bishop  of  Winchester  took  advantage  of  this  interval  to  offer 
a  free  pardon  to  all  who  should  return  to  their  homes  at 
once ;  and  Cade  was  left  with  scarcely  a  follower.  A  second 
time  he  tried  to  raise  a  force,  but  failed ;  and  fleeing,  he  was 
discovered  in  a  garden,  near  Lewes  in  Sussex,  by  Iden,  an 
esquire,  who  slew  him,  and  received  1000  merks  as  the  price 
of  his  head.  There  is  a  strong  probability  that  York  was 
at  the  bottom  of  this  plot ;  and  that,  if  successful,  the  rebels 
would  have  placed  him  on  the  throne. 

A  cloud,  at  first  no  bigger  than  a  man's  hand,  had  long 
been  darkening  round  the  throne  of  the  Lancasters.  It  now 
burst  in  civil  war.  The  Duke  of  York  had  matured  his 
plans,  and  the  time  was  ripe  for  action.  It  was  true,  a  son 
had  been  born  to  Henry  amid  general  rejoicings;  but  the 
anger  of  the  people  had  been  excited  by  the  bestowal  of  the 
King's  favour  on  Somerset,  whom  they  blamed  for  the  loss 
jf  Xormandy,  and  by  the  miserable  failure  of  an  attempt  to 
recover  Guienne.  At  this  critical  point  the  King  was  seized 
with  a  fit  of  insanity,  and  the  reins  of  government  were 
thrown  into  the  hands  of  York  with  the  title  of  Protector. 
This,  however,  did  not  last  long ;  for  the  recovery  of  Henry 
deprived  York  of  his  office.  But  the  Duke  having 
1455  tasted  the  sweets  of  power,  took  up  arms.  The 
A.D.  famous  Wars  of  the  Roses  began.  They  were  so 
called  from  the  badges  of  the  rival  armies:  the 
ensign  of  the  House  of  York  was  a  white,  that  of  the  House 
of  Lancaster  a  red  rose.  The  chief  supporters  of  York  were 
the  Earl  of  Salisbury,  and  his  son  the  Earl  of  Warwick. 

During  the  remaining  years  of  Henry's  reign,  six  battles 
were  fought.  The  question  of  right  to  the  throne  was  not 
confined  to  the  armies  in  the  field,  but  was  fiercely  discussed 
at  every  fireside  in  the  kingdom ;  and  all  England  was 
divided  into  two  great  parties.  At  St.  Albans  in  1455  the 
Lancastrians  were  defeated,  and  the  King  was  made  prisoner. 
He  was,  however,  soon  released,  and  a  pretended  reconcilia- 


EDWARD  PROCLAIMED  KING.  131 

tion  followed.  But,  the  war  being  renewed,  the  Yorkists 
were  again  victorious,  at  Bloreheath  in  Staffordshire  (1459). 
Henry  was  a  second  time  made  captive,  at  Northampton,  by 
the  Yorkists  under  Warwick  (1460).  Now,  for  the  first 
time,  York  publicly  laid  claim  to  the  throne,  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  eldest  surviving  branch  of  the  royal  family. 
The  question  was  debated  in  Parliament,  and  an  arrange- 
ment was  made  that  Henry  should  reign  during  his 
life,  and  that  the  crown  should  then  pass  to  York  and  his 
heirs. 

This  roused  a  mother's  heart.  Margaret  of  Anjou,  burn- 
ing with  anger  that  her  son  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales, 
should  be  thus  shut  out  from  the  throne,  called  the  Lancas- 
trian lords  to  her  side;  and  routed  the  Yorkists  at  Wakefield 
Green  in  Yorkshire ;  where,  for  the  first  time,  the  Eed  Rose 
triumphed  (1460).  Here  the  Duke  of  York  was  slain  ;  and, 
according  to  the  barbarous  fashion  of  the  time,  his  head, 
adorned  with  a  paper  crown,  was  fixed  upon  the  walls  of 
York.  This  loss,  instead  of  dispiriting,  roused  the  Yorkists 
to  madness.  Edward,  Earl  of  March,  the  son  of  the  fallen 
Duke,  succeeded  to  the  title  and  the  claims  of  his  father. 
He  was  a  brave  and  handsome  youth  of  nineteen,  and  the 
hearts  of  the  people  leaned  to  him.  At  Mortimer's  Cross 
he  swept  the  royalist  troops  before  him  (1461).  A  few  days 
later,  Margaret,  defeating  Warwick  in  the  second  battle  of 
St.  Albans  (1461),  released  the  King  from  confinement.  But 
when  Edward  marched  to  London,  he  was  received  by  the 
citizens  with  shouts  of  joy.  A  great  council  hav- 
ing declared  that  Henry  had  forfeited  the  throne  March  4, 
when  he  joined  the  army  of  the  Queen,  the  young  1461 
Duke  was  at  once  proclaimed  King,  with  the  title  A.D. 
of  Edward  IV. 

Henry  of  Windsor  was  weak  in  body  and  in  mind.  His 
long  minority  formed  in  him  the  habit  of  trusting  much  to 
his  councillors ;  and  their  faults  were  often  visited  upon  him. 
But  in  his  private  character  he  was  meek  and  inoffensive, 
more  ready  to  forgive  than  to  punish,  and  easily  led,  for  the 
sake  of  peace,  to  betray  his  own  interest. 

The  House  of  Lords  still  formed  the  governing  body,  and 
by  their  advice  the  King  was  ruled  in  all  great  transactions. 


132 


ORIGIN  OF  PRINTING. 


They  appointed  Regents ;  and  it  was  by  their  vote  that  Henry 
was  dethroned. 

The  Commons  gave  assent,  not  advice.  They  granted 
the  supplies,  however ;  and  in  this  lay  their  real  strength. 
They  were  not  very  regular  in  their  attendance  on  the  Par- 
liaments ;  and  it  seems  that  the  pay  they  received  from  those 
whom  they  represented,  and  the  freedom  from  arrest  or 
punishment  which  their  office  conferred,  were  the  strongest 
motives  to  the  discharge  of  their  public  duty.  In  this  reign 
the  franchise,  or  right  of  voting,  was  limited  to  those  owning 
a  freehold  worth,  at  the  least,  forty  shillings  a-year. 

The  revenue  of  the  crown  had  lately  very  much  decreased. 
Henry  IV.  drew  from  France  a  great  part  of  his  income. 
Henry  VI.  found  his  French  dominions  narrowed  to  a  single 
town,  and  his  direct  income  fallen  so  low  as  £5000  a-year. 
Owing  to  the  immense  expense  of  the  French  wars,  and 
other  causes,  the  debts  of  Henry  were  far  above  £300,000. 

In  this  reign  Eton  College,  and  King's  College,  Cambridge, 
were  founded  (1440);  and  the  establishment  of  Glasgow 
University  followed  in  1454.  Halley's  comet  was  first  ob- 
served in  1456,  and  the  manufacture  of  glass  in  England  was 
begun  in  1457 ; — two  facts  which  show  that  Science  and  Art 
were  progressing,  though  slowly,  amid  the  storms  of  civil 
war.  On  the  Continent  might  be  seen  the  gradual  develop- 
ment of  an  art  destined  to  possess  an  influence  such  as  no 
art  had  ever  yet  possessed.  In  1442  Faust  printed  from 
wooden  blocks.  In  1444  Guttenberg  cut  types  from  metal. 
In  1450  the  roller  press  was  invented.  In  1452  the  types  of 
Schoeffer,  cast  in  hollow  moulds,  came  into  use. 

CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


SCOTLAND.  A.D. 

JAMES  I died  1437 

JAMES  H., 1460 

JAMES  HI. 

FRANCE. 

CHARLES  VI., 1422 

CHARLES  VTI. 

SPAIN. 

JOHN  II., 1454 

HENRY  IV. 


EMPERORS.  A.D. 

SIGISMUND, died  1437 

ALBERT  H., 1439 

FREDERIC  IV. 

POPES. 

MARTIN  V., 1431 

EUGENIUS  IV., 1447 

NICHOLAS  V., 1455 

CALIXTTJS  m 1458 

PIUS  II. 


THE  KING-MAKER,  133 


HOUSE  OF  YORK. 

A  D. 

EDWARD  IV.  (son  of  Eicliard  of  York),. ...began  to  role  1461. 

EDWAED  V.  (son) 1483. 

RICHARD  HI.  (uncle), 1483-1485. 


CHAPTER  I. 

EDWARD  IV. 
Born  1443  A.D.— Began  to  reign  1461  A.D.— Died  1483  A.D. 


Wars  of  the  Roses  con- 
tinued. 

Edward's  quarrel  with 
Warwick. 

Exile  of  Warwick. 


Edward  flees. 
Battle  of  Barnet. 
War  with  France. 
Treaty  of  Pecquigny. 
The  King's  revenue. 


Death  of  Clarence. 
Death  of  Edward. 
Character. 

Notes. 


THE  Wars  of  the  Roses  were  not  yet  ended.  The  north 
remained  faithful  to  Henry;  London  and  the  south  had 
declared  for  Edward.  But  a  victory,  won  at  Towton  in 
Yorkshire,  amid  falling  snow  (1461),  established  the  king- 
dom of  Edward.  Margaret  bailed  to  France  in  hope  of  aid. 
Again  the  shattered  ranks  of  the  Lancastrians  were  arrayed ; 
but  at  Hedgeley  Moor  and  Hexham  (1464)  they  were  again 
broken.  Henry  fled  from  the  field  of  Hexham  to  the  wilds 
of  Lancashire,  where  for  more  than  a  year  he  eluded  pur- 
suit ;  but,  taken  at  last,  he  was  thrown  into  the  Tower  of 
London. 

In  1464  Edward  married  privately  the  Lady  Elizabeth 
Grey,  daughter  of  a  knight  named  Woodville.  When  she 
was  crowned  as  Queen,  her  brothers  and  sisters  received  in 
marriage  the  richest  and  noblest  wards  of  the  court.  This 
incensed  the  nobles,  especially  the  haughty  Nevils,  of  which 
family  the  Earl  of  Warwick  was  head.  Warwick,  known  in 
history  as  the  'King-maker,'  was  minister-in-chief,  and 
governor  of  Calais,  then  the  richest  office  in  the  King's  gift, 
and  could  not  tamely  brook  the  loss  of  his  influence  with 
Edward.  The  breach,  growing  daily  wider,  ended  in  an  open 
quarrel,  Warwick,  aided  by  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  brother 


134  BATTLE  OF  BARNET. 

of  the  King,  raised  an  insurrection  among  the  men  of  York 
and  Lincoln.  But  the  Earl  and  the  Duke  were  forced  to  flee 
to  the  court  of  Louis  XL,  where  they  met  Margaret  of  Anjou. 
Warwick  and  Margaret  had  now  a  common  cause,  and  they 
united  to  dethrone  Edward.  The  union  was  cemented  by 
the  marriage  of  Prince  Edward,  Margaret's  son,  to  Anne, 
daughter  of  Warwick. 

After  an  absence  of  five  months,  the  King-maker  landed 
without  resistance  in  the  south  of  England.  The  hopes  of 
the  Lancastrians  revived,  when  6000  men  cast  the  white 
roses  from  their  bonnets  and  cried, '  God  bless  King  Harry ! ' 
Edward  fled  to  Holland,  and  Henry  was  brought  from  his 
cell  to  wear  the  crown  once  more. 

The  Duke  of  Burgundy  was  married  to  a  sister  of  Edward ; 
and  from  him  the  exiled  Prince  received  men,  money,  and 
ships,  and  landed  in  a  few  months  at  Ravenspur  in  York- 
shire. When  Edward  reached  Nottingham,  60,000  men  wore 
the  white  rose.  His  brother  Clarence,  long  an  adherent  of 
Warwick,  rejoined  the  Yorkist  ranks,  and  the  army  was 
soon  within  the  walls  of  London.  The  decisive  battle  was 
fought  on  Easter  Sunday,  1471,  at  Barnet,  where  every  petal 
of  the  Red  Rose  was  scattered  from  the  stem.  Warwick,  his 
brother  Montague,  every  leader  of  the  Lancastrians  died  on 
the  bloody  field.  On  that  very  day  Margaret  and  her  son 
landed  at  Plymouth.  Three  weeks  later,  their  army  was 
cut  to  pieces,  and  they  were  made  prisoners  at  Tewkesbury 
in  Gloucestershire.  They  were  brought  before  the  victor, 
and  the  queenly  heart  of  Margaret,  which  had  borne  her 
bravely  through  so  many  perils  and  disasters,  now  sank  be- 
neath the  heaviest  blow  of  all,  when  she  saw  the  face  of  her 
darling  son  bruised  by  the  iron  glove  of  Edward,  and  his 
young  life-blood  streaming  on  the  daggers  of  Clarence  and 
Gloucester.  Ransomed  by  Louis  of  France,  she  survived 
that  fatal  day  eleven  years.  Henry  died  by  violence  in 
the  Tower  on  the  day  of  Edward's  triumphal  entry  into 
London. 

A  fierce  dispute  arose  between  the  brothers  of  the  King. 
Clarence,  as  the  husband  of  Warwick's  eldest  daughter, 
claimed  the  estates  of  the  King-maker  ;  Gloucester,  who  now 
Bought  out  Anne,  another  daughter,  the  widow  of  the  mur- 


TREATY  OF  PECQUIGNY.  135 

dercd  Prince  Edward,  and  married  her,  demanded  a  share. 
With  difficulty  both  were  satisfied,  a  division  being  made, 
by  which  the  aged  Countess  was  left  penniless. 

Edward  then  formed  the  project  of  a  French  war,  reviv- 
ing the  old  claim  to  the  French  crown.  He  had  strong 
motives  to  such  a  war.  He  was  kinsman  by  marriage 
to  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  a  deadly  foe  of  France.  He 
wished  to  employ  in  foreign  war  those  who  might  be  inclined 
to  plot  against  his  government,  or  to  stir  up  the  embers 
of  the  civil  strife.  In  addition  to  the  supplies  voted  by 
Parliament,  he  invented  a  new  and  most  elastic  method  of 
raising  money.  Calling  rich  subjects  before  him,  he  de- 
manded presents  of  money,  which  they  dared  not  refuse. 
These  sums  he  called  benevolences.  After  much  delay  he 
invaded  France,  but  found  his  allies  unable  to  give  him  any 
aid.  In  the  midst  of  his  uncertainty,  there  came  a 
welcome  message  from  Louis  proposing  peace  and  1475 
alliance.  At  Pecquigny  a  bridge  was  thrown  across  A.JX 
the  Somme.  Midway  the  monarchs  met,  and, 
shaking  hands  through  a  wooden  grating,  swore  to  observe 
the  terms  of  the  treaty.  The  chief  conditions  were: — 
1.  That  Louis  should  pay  75,000  crowns  at  once,  and  an 
annuity  of  50,000  to  Edward  during  his  life ;  2.  That  a  truce 
and  free  trade  should  exist  between  the  countries  for  seven 
years  ;  3.  That  the  Dauphin  should  marry  Elizabeth, 
Edward's  eldest  daughter.  French  gold,  lavishly  scattered 
among  the  English  courtiers,  bought  this  treaty  of  Pecquigny, 
and  many  nobles  were  not  ashamed  openly  to  avow  them- 
selves the  pensioners  of  Louis. 

The  people  of  England  murmured  loudly  at  the  disgraceful 
end  of  a  war  for  which  they  had  been  heavily  taxed,  and  a 
slight  breath  would  have  kindled  an  insurrection.  Edward 
had  the  sense  to  see  this,  and  his  future  policy  was  directed 
to  the  support  of  his  throne  without  drawing  from  the  purses 
of  his  people.  By  levying  the  customs  more  rigorously,  by 
extorting  tenths  from  the  clergy,  by  taking  back  lately  be- 
stowed grants,  by  exacting  all  feudal  fines,  and  by  trading 
in  his  own  name  to  the  Mediterranean  ports,  he  was  able, 
not  only  to  meet  all  expenses,  but  to  grow  rich  amid  a  toler- 
ably contented  people. 


136  THE  DEATH  OF  EDWARD. 

The  death  of  the  Duke  of  Clarence  left  a  dark  stain  on  the 
memory  of  Edward.  The  brothers  had  been  long  estranged, 
chiefly  because  Edward  prevented  the  marriage  of  Clarence 
with  Mary,  the  rich  heiress  of  Burgundy ;  and  when  Thomas 
Burdett,  a  friend  of  the  Duke,  was  executed  on  a  charge  of 
practising  '  the  black  art,'  Clarence  loudly  blamed  the  King. 
In  revenge,  Edward  summoned  him  before  the  House  of 
Lords.  He  received  sentence,  and  in  ten  days  he  died  within 
the  Tower.  A  common  report  said  that  he  was  drowned  in 
a  butt  of  Malmsey,  a  wine  of  which  he  was  fond. 

It  was  a  strange  feature  of  Edward's  foreign  policy  that 
he  endeavoured  to  make  marriages  for  his  children  from  the 
day  of  their  birth ;  but  none  of  his  schemes  succeeded.  His 
favourite  project,  the  marriage  agreed  upon  at  Pecquigny, 
was  frustrated  shortly  before  his  death  by  the  marriage  of 
the  Dauphin  to  Margaret  of  Burgundy.  Some  days  later,  a 
slight  illness  working  on  his  frame,  which  was  worn  out  by 
debauchery,  suddenly  assumed  a  fatal  character.  He  died 
in  his  forty-first  year,  and  was  buried  at  Windsor.  His 
children  were  Edward,  now  aged  twelve ;  Richard,  Duke  of 
York;  and  five  daughters,  of  whom  the  eldest,  Elizabeth, 
was  afterwards  married  to  Henry  VII. 

The  love  of  vicious  pleasures  was  the  chief  quality  of 
Edward's  character.  His  lustful  passions  brought  shame  on 
many  an  honest  household.  Gorgeous  dresses,  rich  meats, 
costly  wines  were  among  his  highest  enjoyments.  He  waded 
to  a  throne  in  blood,  and  he  maintained  it  by  a  spy  system, 
so  perfect  that  nothing  could  happen  around  his  court  or  in 
the  most  distant  county  without  his  knowledge.  He  was 
handsome  and  accomplished;  but  his  sensual  indulgences 
rendered  him,  in  his  later  life,  bloated  and  unwieldy. 

The  petitions  of  the  Parliament  were  now  framed  into 
what  we  still  call '  Acts  of  Parliament,' — a  plan  intended  to 
prevent  the  King  from  making  any  change  in  the  law,  before 
he  gave  his  assent  to  its  passing. 

The  reign  of  Edward  IV.  is  distinguished  by  the  intro- 
duction of  Printing  into  England.  William  Caxton,  who 
learned  the  art  in  Holland,  translated  a  French  work,  called 
'  The  Recuyell  of  the  Histories  of  Troye,'  and  printed  it  at 
Ghent  in  1471.  This  was  the  first  specimen  of  printing  iu 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


137 


the  English  language.  In  1473  he  set  up  a  press  at  West- 
minster, and  in  1474  issued  from  it  the  first  book  printed  on 
English  ground, — '  The  Game  and  Playe  of  Chesse.'  Scot- 
land received  this  boon  in  1508,  Ireland  in  1551.  Posts 
were  now  first  used  in  England  on  the  road  from  London 
to  Scotland.  Horsemen  were  placed  twenty  miles  apart,  and 
the  despatches  were  thus  passed  on  at  the  rate  of  one  hun- 
dred miles  a  day. 

CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


SCOTLAND. 
JAMES  m. 

FRANCE. 

CHARLES  VU died  1461 

LOUIS  XI. 

SPAIN. 

HENRY  IV., 1474 

FERDINAND  and  ISABELLA. 


EMPEROR. 

A.D. 
FREDERIC  III. 

POPES. 

PIUS  IL, died  1464 

PAUL  II., 1471 

SIXTUS  IV. 


138  SCHEMES  OF  GLOUCESTER 

CHAPTER  IT. 

EDWARD  V. 

Born  1471  A.D.— Began  to  reign  April  9.— Dethroned  June  25,  148& 

Edward  and  his  brother. 
Hastings  and  Rivers. 
Richard  of  Gloucester  King. 

EDWARD  V.,  the  eldest  son  of  the  late  King,  reigned  only 
eleven  weeks.  During  that  time  Richard  Duke  of  Glouces- 
ter, who  assumed  the  title  of  Protector,  and  pretended  the 
purest  loyalty  towards  his  royal  nephew,  was  engaged  in 
clearing  his  own  way  to  the  throne.  The  boy-King  was 
seized  at  Stony  Stratford  near  Northampton,  led  with  the 
mockery  of  public  honours  to  London,  and  cast  into  the 
Tower.  The  Queen-mother  was  forced  to  part  also  with  her 
second  son,  who  was  committed  to  the  same  prison ;  and 
there  the  two  boys,  busied  with  their  sports,  lived  all  uncon- 
scious of  the  dark  web  which  was  slowly  infolding  them. 

Gloucester's  next  step  was  to  remove  those  nobles  who 
were  faithful  to  the  cause  of  the  young  Edward.  Lord  Has- 
tings, arrested  in  the  council-room  on  a  charge  of  sorcery, 
was  at  once  beheaded  on  a  block  of  wood  in  the  chapel-yard 
of  the  Tower.  On  the  same  day  Lord  Rivers,  maternal  uncle 
of  the  King,  and  the  patron  of  Caxton,  was  executed  with 
three  others  at  Pontefract  Castle,  into  which  he  had  been 
thrown  when  Edward  was  made  captive.  "When  this  was 
done,  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  a  prince  of  royal  blood,  met 
the  citizens  of  London  at  Guildhall,  and  in  an  earnest 
speech  declared  Richard  of  Gloucester  the  true  heir  to  the 
throne.  The  citizens  kept  silence,  but  a  few  hirelings  cried 
out '  Long  live  King  Richard ;'  and  on  the  next  day  Bucking- 
ham, in  the  name  of  the  English  people,  presented  a  peti- 
tion entreating  Gloucester  to  wear  the  crown.  With  feigned 
reluctance  the  Protector  consented,  and  Edward's  reign  was 
at  an  end. 


THE  MURDER  OF  THE  PRINCES.  139 

CHAPTER  III. 

RICHARD  III. — CROOKBACK. 
Born  1452  A.D.— Began  to  reign  1483  A.D.— Died  1485  A.D. 


Richard's  progress. 

Slory  of  the  young  Princes. 

Henry  of  Richmond. 


Buckingham  in  rebellion. 

Bosworth-field. 

Character. 


A  FORTHIGHT  later,  at  Westminster  Richard  was  crowned 
with  his  wife  Anne,  the  daughter  of  the  King-maker.  By  rais- 
ing the  rank  of  many  nobles,  and  by  lavish  distribution  of 
the  dead  King's  hoards,  he  gathered  round  his  throne  a  band 
of  adherents.  Then  making  a  progress  through  the  country, 
for  the  purpose,  as  he  said,  of  securing  the  peace  of  England 
and  the  pure  administration  of  justice,  he  was  crowned 
again  at  York. 

But  before  he  reached  York  a  terrible  crime  is  said  to 
have  been  committed.  Sir  Thomas  More  tells  us  that  James 
Tyrrel,  Richard's  master  of  the  horse,  was  sent  from  War- 
wick to  London  with  a  royal  letter  charging  Brackenbury, 
the  governor  of  the  Tower,  to  give  up  the  keys  of  the  fortress 
for  twenty-four  hours.  The  dethroned  Edward  and  his 
brother  were  confined  there ;  and  in  the  dead  of  night 
Forrest  and  Dighton,  hired  assassins,  smothered  the  sleeping 
boys  with  the  bed-clothes,  showed  the  corpses  to  Tyrrel,  and 
then  buried  them  at  the  foot  of  the  staircase.  This  story 
rests  on  the  confession  of  the  murderers.  It  is  right  to  say, 
however,  that  strong,  though  not  conclusive,  arguments  have 
been  advanced  to  clear  the  memory  of  Richard  from  this  foul 
blot,  and  the  story  must  ever  remain  a  disputed  point  in 
English  history. 

A  strong  party  against  Richard  had  always  existed,  and 
now  that  the  sons  of  Edward  IV.  had  disappeared,  they 
proposed  a  union  of  the  Houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  by  a 
marriage  between  Henry,  Earl  of  Richmond,  and  Elizabeth 
of  York.  Henry  was  the  great-grandson  of  John  of  Ghent 
through  his  mother,  Margaret  Beaufort ;  Elizabeth  was  the 
eldest  daughter  of  Edward  IV. 


140  THE  BATTLE  OF  BOSWORTH. 

Dangers  grew  thick  around  the  usurper.  Buckingham, 
changed  at  once  into  a  deadly  foe,  declared  in  favour  of 
Henry.  A  rising  took  place  (October  18,  1483).  But  a 
storm  beat  back  the  Earl  of  Richmond  from  the  shores  of 
Devon  as  he  was  about  to  land.  Buckingham,  who  had 
drawn  sword  at  Brecknock,  was  hindered  by  a  flood  in 
the  Severn  from  joining  his  confederates,  and  his  army  of 
Welshmen  melted  away.  Fleeing  in  disguise  to  the  house 
of  a  retainer  named  Bannister,  he  was  betrayed— some  say 
by  his  host — and  was  beheaded  in  the  market-place  of  Salis- 
bury. 

The  marriage  of  Henry  and  Elizabeth  was  dreaded  by  the 
King,  and  he  sought  to  unite  the  Princess  to  his  own  son ; 
but  the  scheme  was  thwarted  by  the  sudden  death  of  the 
destined  bridegroom.  He  had  then  some  idea  of  marrying  his 
niece  himself ;  and  incurred  the  suspicion  of  having  poisoned 
his  wife,  Anne,  for  this  purpose.  But  RatclifFe  and  Catesby, 
his  chief  councillors,  dissuaded  him  from  the  unnatural 
union,  and  there  was  no  resource  left  him  but  to  await  the 
result  of  that  struggle  which  was  fast  approaching.  He  did 
so  with  a  troubled  heart.  His  gold  had  long  been  spent, 
and  now  that  his  power  seemed  tottering,  the  fidelity  of  his 
adherents  began  to  fail.  Lord  Stanley,  whose  estates  were 
the  richest  in  Lancashire  and  Cheshire,  was  the  object  of 
his  greatest  suspicion.  His  nights  were  sleepless,  and  we 
are  told  that  he  often  started  from  his  bed  with  wild  cries 
of  horror.  Soon  came  the  news  that  Henry  with  3000 
troops  was  at  the  mouth  of  the  Seine.  Richard  took  his 
station  at  Nottingham,  as  the  centre  of  the  kingdom.  Horse- 
men were  in  the  saddle  on  all  the  chief  roads,  to  bring  the 
earliest  tidings  of  his  rival's  approach.  On  the  first  of 
August  Henry  landed  at  Milford-Haven  :  in  a  fortnight 

the  armies  met  at  Bosworth,  Richard's  weakened 

1485     by  repeated  desertions.  There  was  fought  a  battle, 

A.D.       — the  last  between  the  rival  Roses, — in  which 

Richard,  who  had  cut  down  the  standard-bearer 
of  the  Lancasters,  was  slain  in  the  act  of  aiming  a  deadly 
blow  at  Richmond.  The  crown,  which  he  had  worn  on 
the  battle-field,  was  found  in  a  hawthorn-bush  close  by, 
and  was  placed  by  Lord  Stanley  on  the  victor's  head.  Ths 


CHARACTER  OF  RICHARD  III.  141 

body  of  Richard,  carried  to  Leicester  on  a  horse,  was  there 
buried  in  the  church  of  the  Greyfriars. 

The  character  of  the  last  of  the  Plantagenets  has  been 
painted  by  historian  and  by  dramatist  in  the  darkest  colours. 
He  is  represented  as  a  man  cruel  and  treacherous,  lured  on 
by  the  demon  of  unbridled  ambition  to  commit  crimes  most 
terrible  and  unnatural.  Though  he  cannot  have  been  a  good 
man,  yet  it  is  due  to  his  character  to  remember  that  the 
picture  of  Richard  III.  familiar  to  our  minds  was  drawn 
under  the  Tudor  sovereigns ;  and  that,  on  this  account,  some 
allowance  should  be  made  for  the  rancour  of  a  hostile  feel- 
ing. He  was  of  meagre  and  stunted  body,  with  a  withered 
arm  and  a  deformity  of  the  shoulders,  from  which  he  took 
his  name  of  Crook-back. 

CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


SCOTLAND. 
JAMES  III. 

FRANCE. 
LOUIS  XI  ...................  died  1483 

CHARLES 


SPAIN. 
FERDINAND  and  ISABELLA. 


EMPEROR. 


FREDERIC  III. 


A.D. 


POPES. 

SIXTUS  IV., died  1484 

INNOCENT  VIII. 


M2  EXTINCTION  OF  VILLENAGE. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

SOCIAL  CONDITION  OF  THE  PEOPLE  UNDER  THE  HOUSES  OF 
YORK.  AND  LANCASTER. 


Civil  War. 
Villenage  abolished. 
Government 


Houses  and  meals. 
Miracle  and  naoial  plays. 
Books. 


DURING  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  social  improvement  stood 
BtilL  Men  whose  lives  were  uncertain  cared  little  for  edu- 
cation. Present  safety  was  their  great  object;  and  the  use 
of  arms  was  therefore  of  chief  importance.  The  high  and 
the  low  suffered  alike.  Whole  families  of  the  great  were 
swept  away,  massive  castles  were  thrown  down,  and  villages 
were  by  hundreds  laid  in  ashes. 

The  great  social  feature  of  the  period  was  the  extinction 
of  Villenage,  or  Slavery.  From  the  earliest  Saxon  times  this 
evil  had  prevailed  in  England.  The  Norman  Conquest  had 
changed  the  masters  without  freeing  the  slaves.  But  about 
the  reign  of  Henry  II.  the  good  work  began.  During  three 
centuries  it  went  on  slowly,  yet  surely, — so  slowly,  indeed, 
that  it  was  remarked  by  scarcely  any  writers  of  the  time. 
When  it  was  a  disgrace  to  be  called  an  Englishman, 
Nicholas  Breakspear,  an  Englishman,  was  made  Pope. 
About  the  same  time  Thomas  &  Becket,  an  Englishman, 
dared  to  oppose  the  Norman  King  of  England  Among  the 
priests  of  Rome  there  were  soon  found  many  who  had  sym- 
pathy for  the  enslaved  race ;  and  it  became  a  custom,  when 
a  slaveholder  was  dying,  to  persuade  him,  by  all  the  autho- 
rity of  the  Church,  to  set  free  his  slaves.  The  civil  war,  by 
breaking  the  power  of  the  ruling  race,  aided  this  great  move- 
ment, and  the  opening  of  the  Tudor  Period  saw  Villenage 
abolished  in  England  for  ever. 

The  government  of  the  country  was  then,  as  it  is  now,  a 
limited  monarchy.  It  was  of  a  class  which  sprang  up  in 
Europe  during  the  middle  ages ;  and  of  this  class  the  English 
Constitution  was  the  best  example.  The  office  of  King  had 
become  strictly  hereditary.  He  possessed  the  chief  power 
and  was  feudal  lord  of  the  whole  soil.  But  three  great  priu- 


MIRACLE  AND  MOEAL  PLAYS.  143 

ciples,  existing  from  the  earliest  times,  limited  his  power : 
1.  He  could  make  no  law  without  the  consent  of  Parlia- 
ment. 2.  He  could  lay  on  the  people  no  tax  without  the 
same  consent.  3.  He  must  govern  by  the  laws ;  and  if  he 
broke  them,  his  agents  and  advisers  were  responsible. 

Instead  of  the  Norman  castles  already  described,  the 
nobles  now  began  to  build  large  manor-houses  of  wood,  deco- 
rated with  carving  and  painting.  Their  rooms  were  hung 
with  tapestry.  In  towns,  the  upper  stones  jutted  out  over 
the  lower,  so  that  in  narrow  streets  the  fronts  of  opposite 
houses  were  only  a  few  feet  apart.  This  style  may  still  be 
noticed  in  old  towns  like  Chester.  The  people  had  not  yet 
learned  the  value  of  clear  light  and  fresh  air  to  both  mind 
and  body.  The  higher  classes  took  four  meals  in  the  day. 
They  rose  about  five ;  took  breakfast  at  seven ;  dined  at  ten ; 
supped  at  four;  and  at  nine  had  the  'livery' — a  slight  re- 
past of  cakes  and  spiced  wine — served  in  their  bed-chambers. 
The  working  classes  dined  at  noon.  This  is  nearly  the  same 
hour  as  at  present ;  for,  while  the  leisure  of  the  great  permits 
them  to  change  the  hours  of  their  meals,  the  labouring 
classes  are  compelled  by  their  daily  toil  to  keep  the  same 
hours  in  all  ages. 

Dramatic  performances  now  took  a  regular  shape.  They 
were  acted  first  in  the  churches,  chiefly  by  the  clergy,  and 
were  then  called  Miracle  Plays,  or  Mysteries.  Although 
intended  to  teach  the  lower  classes  the  history  of  the  Bible, 
they  seem  to  have  been  very  profane.  In  the  reign  of 
Henry  IV.  a  miracle  play,  performed  in  Smithfield,  lasted 
for  eight  days.  It  began  with  the  creation,  and  took  in 
almost  all  the  sacred  history.  About  the  time  of  Henry  VI. 
Moral  Plays  came  into  fashion.  These  were  a  great  im- 
provement on  the  Miracles:  the  actors  were  laymen,  and 
scriptural  characters  were  not  assumed.  They  have  been 
called  Allegories,  since  the  performers  personated  Mercy, 
Justice,  Truth,  and  such  qualities.  Then  followed,  in  the 
Tudor  Period,  the  introduction  of  actual  characters  from 
history  and  social  life. 

In  all  modern  history,  no  event  has  had  wider  or  more 
lasting  consequences  than  the  invention  of  Printing.  It 
formed  a  mighty  instrument  in  spreading  the  Reformation, 


144  EARLIEST  PRINTED  BOOKS. 

It  was  a  true  sa}ring, '  Let  the  Pope  abolish  printing,  or  print- 
ing will  abolish  him.'  A  complete  change  took  place  in  book- 
making.  The  black-letter  manuscript  gave  place  to  the 
printed  volume.  The  latter,  however,  had  as  yet  no  title- 
page,  no  capital  letters,  and  no  points  except  the  colon  and 
the  period.  The  words  were  spelled  without  attention  to 
anything  but  their  sounds.  Hence  every  writer  had  his  own 
style  of  spelling,  and  very  often  there  were  two  or  three 
different  forms  of  the  same  word  in  a  single  page.  The  lan- 
guage of  the  period  was  Middle  English, — slightly  different 
from  that  used  in  Chaucer's  '  Canterbury  Tales.' 

LEADING  AUTHORS  OF  THE  PERIOD— (1399-1485.) 
MIDDLE  ENGLISH. 

JAMES  I., King  of  Scotland— a  prisoner  in  England 

for  nineteen  years — studied  Chaucer — 
wrote  poems — only  remaining  work, 
'  The  King's  Quhair,'  or  Book. 

JOHN  LYDGATE, (Flourished  about  1420)-a  monk  and  poet 

— kept  a  school  of  poetry — chief  works, 
'History  of  Thebes,'  and  'Siege  of 
Troy.' 

WALSINGHAM, A  monk— wrote  Chronicles  (about  1440). 

SIR  JOHN  FORTESCUE,... (Flourished  about  1450)— Chief  Justice- 
chief  work,  on  the  English  Constitution. 

WILLIAM  CAXTON, (1410-1491)— first  English  printer- 
wrote  or  translated  about  sixty  works. 

LEADING  DATES  OF  THE  PERIOD — (1399-1485.) 
GENERAL  EVENTS. 

A.D. 

Martyrdom  of 
Sautre, 1401...Hen.  IV. 

James  I.  of  Scot- 
laud  released, ...1423... Hen.  VI. 

JoanofArcburnedl431...    — 

First  book  printed 
in  England, 1474...Ed.  IV. 

CHANGE  OF  DOMINION. 

All  French  posses- 
sions except  Ca- 
lais lost, 1451...Hen.  VI. 


WARS,  BATTLES,  TREATIES. 


A.D. 


Bat.  Nesbit  Moor,  1402...Hen.  IV. 

—  HomildonHill,1402... 

—  Shrewsbury,.. .1408...      — 

—  Agincourt, 1415.. .Hen.  V. 

Siege  of  Rouen,. . .  .1419. . .      — 
Treaty  of  Troyes,  1420. . .      — 
Bat.  Crevant, 1423.. .Hen.  VI 

—  Verneuil, 1424.-      — 

Cade's  rebellion,...1450—      — 
Treaty    of    Pec- 

quigny, 1475.. .Ed.  IV. 


DATES  OF  THE  PERIOD. 


145 


HENRY  VI 


WARS  OF  THE  ROSES. 

Prom  1455  A.D.  to  1485.— 30  years.— Twelve  battles. 

A.D.  VICTOR. 

f  First  battle,  St.  Albans, 1455 York. 

Bloreheath, 1459 - 

J  Northampton, 1460......    - 

Wakefield, 1460 Lancaster. 

Mortimer's  Cross, 1461 York. 

ISecond  Battle,  St.  Albans,....  1461 Lancaster. 

fTowton, 1461 York. 

I  Hedgeley  Moor, 1464 - 

EDWARD  IV -I  Hexham, 1464 - 

Barnet, 1471 - 

Tewkesbnry, 1471 — 

RICHARD  III....  ^Bosworth, 1485 Lancaster. 


GENEALOGICAL  TREE 

CONNECTING  THE  PLANTAQENETS  WITH  THE  TUDOR  LINE. 


EDWARD  III. 


JOHN,  Duke  of  Lancaster  (third  son),  had 
by  CATHERINE  SWTNFORD, 


JOHN  BEAUFORT, 
Earl  of  Somerset. 


CATHERINE,  widow 
of  HENRY  V.,  married  OWEN  TUDOR. 


MARGARET  BEAUFORT  married  EDMUND,  Earl  of  Richmond. 

HENRY,  Earl  of  Richmond, 
afterwards  HENRY  VII. 


(32) 


10 


146 


OPENING  OF  THE  TUDOIi  PERIOD. 


TUDOR    PERIOD. 

From  1485  A.D.  to  1603  A.D.— 118  years.— 5  Sovereigns. 

JLD. 

HENEY  VIL,  began  to  reign  1485 

HENRY  VHI.  (son), 1509 

EDWAED  VI.  (son), 1547 

MAEY  (half-sister), 1553 

ELIZABETH  (half-sister), 1558  to  1603 

Leading  Features :— THE  EISE  OF  PROTESTANTISM, 
THE  EEYIVAL  OF  LITEEATUEE, 
THE  EXTENSION  OF  COMMEECE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

HENRY  VII. 
Born  1455  A.D.— Began  to  reign  1485  A.D.— Died  1509  A.D. 


The  rivals  of  Henry. 
Early  disturbances. 
Lambert  Simnel. 
Kise  of  the  Star-Cham- 
ber. 


War  in  France. 
Perkin  Warbeck. 
Lands  in  Cornwall. 
Surrender  and  death. 
Marriage  projects. 


Henry's  extortion. 
Death  and  character. 
Power    of    the     noble 

lessened. 
Discovery  of  America. 


TRUE  English  history  begins  with  the  reign  of  Henry  VII. 
As  storm  clears  the  air,  so  had  the  civil  war  swept  from 
the  land  the  relics  of  the  decaying  Feudal  System,  and  a 
new  and  better  order  of  things  arose.  Knowledge,  long 
pent  within  the  monasteries,  now  began  to  be  diffused  in 
printed  books  among  the  homes  of  the  people.  Men  began 
to  read  and  think  for  themselves,  instead  of  taking  their 
opinions  from  the  priests  of  Rome.  We  have  hitherto  seen 
French  Kings  triumphing  with  English  armies  on  French 
soil.  We  have  seen  the  nobles  of  England  little  better  than 
robbers,  the  peasantry  of  England  little  better  than  slaves. 
We  shall  now  see  British  Sovereigns  on  the  throne,  the 
slaves  set  free,  and  a  middle  class  uf  farmers  and  mer- 


UNION  OF  THE  ROSES.  147 

chants  arise.  During  the  Tudor  Period  we  shall  see  the 
commerce,  the  literature,  and  the  Protestantism  of  England 
in  their  splendid  dawn;  still  later,  we  shall  see  the  Con- 
stitution of  Britain,  which  had  been  growing  for  centuries, 
receive  the  key-stone  of  its  topmost  arch;  and,  passing 
to  the  time  of  the  illustrious  dynasty  now  wielding  the 
sceptre,  we  shall  behold  the  nation,  enriched  with  all  the 
elements  of  national  health  and  life,  reposing  in  peace  and 
freedom  beneath  the  shadow  of  that  august  temple. 

Henry  was  not  without  rivals.  There  was  living  at  She- 
riff-huttou  in  Yorkshire  a  boy  of  fifteen,  Edward,  Earl  of 
Warwick,  son  of  the  Duke  of  Clarence.  John  de  la  Pole, 
Earl  of  Lincoln,  the  son  of  Elizabeth,  eldest  sister  of  Ed- 
ward IV.,  had  been  appointed  heir  by  Richard  III.  War- 
wick was  at  once,  by  Henry's  order,  transferred  to  the  Tower 
of  London.  Lincoln,  having  paid  homage  to  the  new  King, 
remained  at  liberty. 

The  King's  public  entry  into  London  ami  his  coronation 
were  delayed  from  August  22d  until  October  30th,  by  a 
plague,  called,  from  its  strongest  symptom,  '  The  sweating 
sickness.'  When  these  ceremonies  were  over,  he  called  a 
Parliament  to  confirm  his  title.  He  claimed  the  throne  by 
right  of  inheritance  and  of  conquest;  but  to  secure  his  seat, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  lull  for  ever  the  hostility  of  the 
rival  Roses,  he  married  Elizabeth  of  York,  the  daughter  of 
Edward  IV.  He  obtained,  besides,  from  Pope  Innocent 
VIII.,  a  bull  threatening  with  excommunication  all  who 
should  'disturb  him  or  his  heirs  in  the  possession  of  the 
throne.  His  chief  confidence  was  given  to  John  Morton 
and  Richard  Fox,  two  priests  who  had  been  faithful  to  him 
in  his  exile.  He  made  Morton  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
and  Fox  Bishop  of  Winchester. 

Notwithstanding  these  precautions,  his  throne  was,  during 
the  first  fifteen  years  of  his  reign,  a  seat  of  much  danger. 
Plot  after  plot  rose  to  disturb  his  tranquillity.  He  was  at 
Lincoln,  on  a  progress  through  the  north,  when  news  reached 
him  of  a  rising  in  Yorkshire  under  Lord  Lovel,  and  near 
Worcester  under  the  Staffords.  But  it  was  soon  suppressed. 
The  elder  Stafford  was  hanged,  and  Lord  Lovel  escaped  to 
the  court  of  Margaret,  Duchess-dowager  of  Burgundy.  She 


148  LAMBEKT  SlilKEL. 

was  the  sister  of  Edward  IV.,  and  her  court  appears  more 
than  once  in  this  reign  as  the  asylum  of  pretenders  to  the 
English  throne.  The  royal  progress  was  soon  resumed.  In 
York  the  King  spent  three  weeks  conferring  honours  and 
reforming  abuses.  Thence  he  passed  to  Bristol,  escorted 
through  each  county  by  the  nobles  and  the  sheriffs.  In 
Bristol  he  did  much  good  by  encouraging  the  citizens  to 
build  ships  and  to  renew  their  trade,  which  had  greatly 
fallen  off  during  the  civil  war. 

This  reign  was  the  age  of  imposture.  It  has  been  already 
stated  that  an  heir  to  the  throne  was  imprisoned  in  the 
Tower  in  the  person  of  the  young  Earl  of  Warwick. 
Strange  to  say,  although  this  was  well  known  to  all,  there 

appeared    in    Dublin    an    Oxford   priest    named 

I486     Simon  with  a  boy  whom  he  called  Edward  Earl  of 

A.D.       Warwick,  but  who  was  really  a  baker's  son,  by 

name  Lambert  Simnel.  Richard,  Duke  of  York, 
had  governed  Ireland  under  Henry  VI. ;  the  Duke  of 
Clarence  had  also  been  Lieutenant ;  and  the  white  rose  was 
the  favourite  in  that  island.  The  Earl  of  Kildare,  a  keen 
Yorkist,  was  now  Lord-Deputy ;  and  by  him  the  boy  was 
received  with  all  honours,  as  a  prince  of  Yorkist  blood. 
The  Butlers,  four  bishops,  and  the  city  of  Waterford  re- 
mained faithful  to  Henry ;  the  rest  of  the  island  followed 
Kildare ;  and  the  pretender  was  proclaimed  King  with  the 
title  of  Edward  VI.  Henry,  in  alarm,  called  the  peers  and 
prelates  round  him ;  and  by  their  advice  granted  a  general 
pardon  to  his  opponents  of  former  days,  led  the  real  War- 
wick in  view  of  the  citizens  from  the  Tower  to  St.  Paul's 
and  thence  to  the  Palace  of  Shene ; — and,  what  cannot  well 
be  explained,  arrested  the  Queen-dowager,  Elizabeth,  and 
imprisoned  her  in  the  Convent  of  Bermondsey. 

A  new  source  of  alarm  was  the  desertion  of  the  Earl  of 
Lincoln,  who  had,  ever  since  the  death  of  Richard,  appeared 
devoted  to  Henry's  cause.  He  fled  to  his  aunt,  the  Duchess 
of  Burgundy,  and  soon  with  2000  troops  joined  Simnel  at 
Dublin.  The  impostor  was  now  crowned,  and  a  Parliament 
was  called  in  his  name.  While  Henry  was  at  Kenilworth, 
the  residence  of  his  Queen,  he  heard  that  Lincoln  and  Sim- 
uel  had  landed  near  Furness  in  Lancashire,  and  were  march- 


BATTLE  OF  STOKE.  149 

ing  to  surprise  him.  In  haste  the  royalists  mustered  and 
moved  towards  Newark;  but  so  bad  were  the  paths  and 
roadways  that  the  King's  army  lost  their  way  between  Not- 
tingham and  Newark.  The  rebels  came  upon  them  at 
Stoke,  and  attacked  the  royal  vanguard.  With  firm  bravery 
Henry's  soldiers  met  the  onset  and  repulsed  it.  His  heavy 
cavalry  poured  in  and  completed  the  rout  of  the  invaders. 
Lincoln  died  on  the  field.  Lovel,  who  had  joined  the  enter- 
prise, was  never  heard  of  from  that  day.  Simon  and  Simnel 
surrendered.  The  former  died  in  prison;  the  latter  was 
employed  in  the  royal  kitchen  as  a  scullion,  but  was  after- 
wards raised  to  the  post  of  falconer. 

The  Queen,  of  whose  better  title  Henry  seemed  to  be  jea- 
lous, and  who  had  hitherto  been  kept  in  the  back-ground, 
was  now  crowned  with  great  pomp.  This  may  be  looked 
upon  as  the  work  of  the  people ;  for  they  felt  and  spoke  so 
strongly  on  the  subject  that  the  King  dared  not  refuse  the 
honours  of  royalty  to  his  wife.  About  the  same  time  a 
court,  known  as  the  Star-Chamber  from  the  decorations  of  the 
room  in  which  it  sat,  received  the  authority  of  Parliament. 
It  consisted  of  the  chancellor,  the  treasurer,  the  keeper  of 
the  privy  seal,  one  bishop,  one  temporal  peer,  and  the  chief 
judges.  The  principal  work  it  had  now  to  do  was  the  aboli- 
tion of  '  maintenance,' — a  system  by  which  the  nobles  re- 
tained around  them  a  band  of  lawless  men  wearing  their 
livery  and  bound  by  oath  to  fight  in  their  quarrels. 

The  ruling  principle  of  Henry's  foreign  policy  was  to  main- 
tain peace,  and  only  once  was  he  led  into  a  foreign  war.  Of 
all  the  great  fiefs  of  France,  Bretagne  alone  remained  free ; 
the  rest  had  been  gradually  attached  to  the  crown.  Duke 
Francis  of  Bretagne  now  died,  leaving  his  coronet  to  his 
daughter  Anne,  a  girl  of  twelve.  The  French  King  claimed 
the  dukedom.  Henry,  who  had  spent  a  great  part  of  his 
exile  in  Bretagne,  was  forced  to  send  an  army  to  aid  the  de- 
fenceless princess ;  but  his  help  was  burdened  with  the 
condition  that  she  should  give  up  two  forts  as  security  for 
the  money  spent  in  her  cause,  and  that  she  should  not  marry 
without  his  consent.  The  raising  of  taxes  to  equip  this  army 
excited  a  revolt  in  the  north  of  England.  But  the  Earl  of 
Surrey  soon  dispersed  the  insurgents  ;  and  John  &  Chambre, 


150  PJERKJN  WARBECK. 

one  leader, suffered  death  at  York ;  while  Sir  John  Egremont, 
the  other,  fled  to  the  Duchess  of  Burgundy.  Anne  of 
Bretagne  was  betrothed  to  Maximilian,  King  of  the  Romans, 
with  the  consent  of  Henry.  Charles  of  France,  however, 
forced  the  princess  into  a  marriage  with  him,  and  the  King 
of  England  resolved  on  a  French  war.  This  was  pleasing  to 
the  English  people.  Henry  had  long  been  talking  of  war, 
and  had  often  received  supplies  and  extorted  benevolences 
for  a  purpose  never  yet  fulfilled.  Still  he  invented  causes  of 
delay,  and  it  was  not  until  October  1492  that  he  landed  in 
France  and  laid  siege  to  Boulogne.  But  the  French  King 
knew  that  the  love  of  money  was  Henry's  master-passion, 
and  by  promising  to  pay  a  laige  sum  he  secured  a  treaty. 
The  voice  of  England  wasloud  in  murmurs ;  for  many  knights 
and  nobles  had  almost  ruined  themselves,  by  borrowing 
money  and  selling  their  estates,  that  they  might  take  a  part 
in  the  expected  conquest  of  France. 

The  great  impostor  had  just  appeared.  This  was  Perkin 
Warbeck,  a  native  of  Tournay,  who  called  himself  Richard 
Plantagenet,  Duke  of  York  and  second  son  of  Edward  IV. 
Though  there  is  strong  evidence  that  the  prince  thus  perso- 
nated was  murdered  in  the  Tower,  yet  the  affair  is  wrapped 
in  mystery  so  dark  that  many  in  "Warbeck's  day  believed  his 
story,  and  ingenious  arguments  have  been  advanced  in  his 
favour  by  modern  writers.  Appearing  first  in  Ireland,  he 
was  soon  invited  to  Paris ;  but,  when  peace  was  made  with 
Henry,  he  was  forced  to  leave  that  court.  Margaret  of  Bur- 
gundy, the  untiring  friend  of  Henry's  fues,  received  him  as 
her  nephew,  gave  him  a  body-guard  and  all  honours  of  a 
prince,  and  named  him  the  "  White  Rose  of  England."  A 
Yorkist  plot  was  at  once  set  on  foot.  Sir  Robert  Clifford 
was  the  agent  in  Burgundy,  and  he  had  several  meetings 
with  Warbeck,  whom  he  declared,  in  his  letters  to  England, 
to  be  without  doubt  the  Duke  of  York.  But  Henry  was  on 
the  watch.  His  well-paid  spies  were  everywhere.  Clifford 
turned  traitor,  and  within  the  same  hour  the  chiefs  of  the 
plot  in  England  were  seized.  Their  letters  to  Flanders  were 
produced  as  evidence  against  them,  and  Simon  Mouutford, 
Robert  Ratcliff,  William  Daubeney,  and  Lord  Fitzwalter 
were  executed.  Sir  William  Stanley,  too,  who  had  saved 


HIS  MARRIAGE.  151 

the  Kiiig's  life  at  Bos  worth,  and  whose  brother,  Lord  Stanley, 
had  crowned  Henry  on  the  field,  being  charged  with  a  share 
in  the  plot,  confessed  his  guilt  and  was  beheaded.  As 
Stanley  was  one  of  the  richest  men  in  England,  his  execution 
added  much  to  Henry's  wealth. 

The  spirit  of  Warbeck's  faction  grew  faint  under  these 
losses.  The  pretender,  therefore,  resolved  on  action.  Three 
years  after  his  first  appearance,  he  approached  Deal  with  a 
few  followers,  and  sent  a  small  body  ashore  to  stir  up  the 
people  in  his  favour.  But  the  gentlemen  and  yeomen  of 
Kent  beat  back  the  invaders,  and  took  150  prisoners.  War- 
beck  returned  to  Flanders.  In  auger  at  the  shelter  afforded 
to  Warbcck  in  Flanders,  Henry  had  removed  the  English 
cloth-market  from  Antwerp  to  Calais,  had  banished  from 
England  the  merchants  of  Flanders,  and  had  ordered  his 
own  subjects  to  leave  the  Low  Countries.  This  put  a  stop 
for  a  time  to  the  traffic  between  the  English  and  the  Flem- 
ings; but,  the  latter  growing  restless  under  their  losses,  a 
new  treaty  of  commerce  was  made,  and  Warbeck  again  lost 
an  asylum. 

He  sailed  thence  to  Cork ;  but  the  English  rule  was  too 
firmly  founded  there  to  leave  any  hope  of  a  revolt.  This 
was  chiefly  owing  to  Poynings'  Law,  called  after  Sir  Edward 
Poynings,  by  which  it  was  enacted  that  all  former  English 
laws  should  have  force  in  Ireland,  and  that  no  bill  should 
be  brought  into  the  Irish  Parliament  until  it  had  received 
the  assent  of  the  English  Houses.  Perkin  then  passed  to* 
James  IV.  of  Scotland,  by  whom  he  was  royally  entertained. 
There  was  then  a  close  alliance  between  the  courts  of  France 
and  Scotland,  and  as  Pcrkiu  had  been  recommended  to  James 
by  the  French  King,  he  was  made  welcome.  The  fine  figure, 
agreeable  manners,  and  romantic  story  of  the  young  man, 
won  the  heart  of  the  Scottish  King.  The  adventurer  won 
at  the  same  time  another  and  more  faithful  heart.  An 
affection  sprang  up  between  him  and  a  lady  of  royal  blood, 
Catherine  Gordon,  the  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Huntly.  The 
marriage  took  place  with  the  full  consent  of  the  King.  But 
James  did  more.  He  coined  his  plate  to  raise  an 
army,  and  crossed  the  Border  with  Warbeck  in  the  1496 
dt-pth  of  winter.  The  English  people,  however,  hud  A.D. 


152  FALL  OF  WAEBECK. 

learned  from  dearly  bought  experience  the  value  of  peace, 
and  none  joined  the  invaders.  The  pillage  of  the  Scots 
rather  excited  their  anger.  This,  and  the  tidings  that  an 
army  was  on  the  march  to  attack  him,  caused  the  Scottish 
King  to  return  to  his  own  land. 

The  taxes  levied  by  Henry  to  repel  this  invasion  excited 
discontent  in  Cornwall.  The  Cornish  men,  complaining  that 
they  were  burdened  with  taxes,  not  for  their  own  good,  but 
to  benefit  the  northern  counties,  took  arms  under  Flam- 
mock  an  attorney,  and  Joseph  a  farrier.  They  were  joined 
by  Lord  Audley  at  "Wells,  and  marched  through  Salisbury 
and  Winchester  to  Blackheath,  from  which  they  could  see 
the  roofs  of  London.  Henry  led  the  army  raised  to  oppose 
the  Scots  against  the  rebels,  who,  being  armed  only  -with 
axes,  bows,  and  scythes,  could  not  long  withstand  his  attack. 
Their  leaders  were  captured  and  executed. 

The  failure  of  a  second  expedition  into  England,  during 
which  James  besieged  Norham  Castle  without  success,  in- 
duced that  monarch  to  think  of  peace.  The  mediator  was 
the  ambassador  from  Spain, — a  country  which  was  during 
the  Tudor  Period  a  leading  power  in  Europe.  A  treaty 
was  concluded  which  made  it  impossible  for  Perkin  to  re- 
main in  Scotland.  With  his  wife  and  a  very  few  followers 
he  crossed  to  Ireland,  and  lurked  for  some  time  in  the  wilds 
of  that  island.  But  the  rebellious  spirit  still  alive  in  Corn- 
wall encouraged  him  to  invade  England  once  more.  He 
'landed  at  Whitsand  Bay  on  the  Cornish  shore,  and  unfurled 
his  standard  as  Richard  IV.  at  Bodmin.  He  headed  6000 
men  before  he  reached  Exeter.  This  city  he  besieged ;  but 
the  want  of  artillery  and  the  resolution  of  the  citizens,  who 
kept  the  rebels  at  bay  by  kindling  a  great  fire  in  the  gate- 
way while  they  intrenched  their  position,  caused  him  to 
retreat  without  success.  His  next  move  was  on  Taunton. 
The  royal  army  was  near,— a  battle  seemed  certain;  but  his 
heart  failed  him.  Secretly  he  left  the  men  whom  he  had 
drawn  from  their  homes,  and  fled  to  the  sanctuary  of  Beau- 
lieu  in  Hampshire.  The  rebels  submitted ;  a  few  were 
hanged ;  the  rest  were  sent  home.  Warbeck's  wife  fell  into 
the  King's  hands,  and  was  appointed  to  an  honourable  post 
as  attendant  on  the  Queen.  She  was  called  in  the  English 


EXECUTION  OF  WARWICK.  153 

court  the  White  Rose, — a  name  once  borne  by  her  husband. 
Being  induced  to  throw  himself  on  the  King's  mercy,  he 
was  brought  amid  gazing  crowds  to  London,  and  there  exa- 
mined. A  full  confession  of  the  imposture  was  made,  and 
was  published,  that  the  people  might  be  satisfied.  Perkin 
was  then  placed  in  close  custody ;  but  in  six  months  he  con- 
trived to  escape,  was  retaken,  and  condemned  to  sit  in  the 
stocks  for  two  days.  There  he  was  obliged  to  read  aloud 
the  published  confession  of  his  true  parentage  and  his  pre- 
tensions. He  was  then  committed  to  the  Tower,  where  lay 
the  unfortunate  Earl  of  Warwick.  The  prisoners  became 
friends,  and  formed  a  plan  of  escape ;  but  they  were  detected 
and  executed.  Warbeck  died  on  the  gallows  at  Tyburn, 
confessing  his  fraud  and  asking  pardon  of  the  King.  The 
unhappy  Warwick,  whose  whole  life  had  been  spent  in 
prison,  and  whose  only  crime  was  being  the  last  male  heir 
of  the  Plantagenet  line,  suffered  on  a  pretended  charge  of 
exciting  insurrection.  Ralph  Wilford,  a  shoemaker's  son, 
had  lately  come  forward  in  Kent  claiming  to  be  the  Earl 
of  Warwick.  A  priest  named  Patrick  first  announced 
the  secret  in  a  sermon.  Wilford  died  by  the  law;  Pat- 
rick died  in  prison.  Upon  this  attempt  Henry  founded 
the  charge  on  which  Warwick  was  condemned.  The  exe- 
cution of  this  prince  is  the  greatest  stain  on  Henry's 
character. 

The  King  was  now  settled  on  the  throne.  Henceforward 
he  devoted  his  attention  to  the  advancement  of  his  foreign 
influence  by  marriages,  and  to  the  amassing  of  money.  The 
old  enmity  between  England  and  Scotland,  which  was  fiercest 
in  the  Border  counties,  was  set  at  rest  by  a  marriage  be- 
tween the  Scottish  King,  James  IV.,  and  Margaret,  Henry's 
eldest  daughter.  This  marriage  must  be  carefully  remem- 
bered, for  it  was  the  source  of  the  union  of  the  English  and 
Scottish  crowns  in  1603.  Further  to  increase  his  influence, 
Henry  married  his  eldest  son,  Arthur  (so  called  from  the 
ancient  British  prince),  to  Catherine  of  Arragon,  daughter 
of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  The  bridegroom,  a  gentle  and 
learned  prince,  lived  only  six  months  after  the  union ;  and 
his  brother  Henry,  afterwards  King,  was  by  a  Papal  bull 
permitted  to  marry  the  young  widow.  The  Queen  died  iu 


154  DEATH  OF  HENRY  VII. 

1503,  and  the  King  set  himself  to  secure  a  rich  second  wife ; 
but  all  his  schemes  were  unavailing. 

Eichard  III.  had  bequeathed  the  crown  to  the  house  of 
Suffolk.  Edmund,  a  brother  of  John  de  la  Pole  who  was 
killed  at  Stoke,  claimed  the  estates  of  the  fallen  Earl. 
Henry  refused,  and  Edmund  fled  to  his  aunt,  the  Duchess  of 
Burgundy.  Henry,  in  alarm,  seized  several  members  of  the 
family ;  but  Suffolk,  left  La  poverty  by  his  aunt's  death,  was 
delivered  up  by  the  Archduke  Philip,  and  imprisoned  in  the 
Tower. 

Through  all  these  events  infamous  extortion  was  going 
on.  Eichard  Empson  and  Edmund  Dudley  were  the  chief 
agents  of  Henry's  rapacity.  They  were  both  lawyers,  and 
Dudley  was  chosen  Speaker  of  the  Commons.  A  single  oc- 
currence will  show  the  nature  of  these  extortions.  Henry 
visited  a  favourite  general,  the  Earl  of  Oxford.  When  leav- 
ing the  mansion,  the  King  passed  through  two  lines  of  fine- 
looking  men,  splendidly  equipped.  'My  lord,'  said  he  to 
the  Earl,  'these  are  of  course  your  servants?'  The  Earl 
smiled  and  said,  '  No,  your  majesty,  I  am  too  poor  for  that ; 
these  are  my  retainers,  assembled  to  do  you  honour.'  The 
King  started  and  said,  '  I  thank  you,  my  lord,  for  your  good 
cheer ;  but  I  cannot  have  my  laws  broken  in  my  sight.'  He 
referred  to  a  law  abolishing  'maintenance';  and  Oxford 
was  fined  £10,000  for  his  anxiety  to  do  honour  to  royalty  ! 

Henry  died  in  the  spring  of  1509.  His  health  gave  way 
under  repeated  attacks  of  gout,  and  consumption  at  length 
set  in.  In  his  dying  hours  he  ordered  that  those  whom  he 
had  injured  should  be  recompensed.  He  was  married  once. 
His  eldest  son,  Arthur,  died  before  him ;  his  second  son  was 
Henry  VIII. ;  his  daughters  married  monarchs,  Margaret 
being  the  wife  of  James  of  Scotland,  and  Mary  the  wife  of 
Louis  XII.  of  France.  The  last  named  princess,  when  left 
a  widow,  married  Brandon,  Duke  of  Suffolk. 

Lord  Macaulay  has  given  three  points  as  the  general  cha- 
racter of  the  Tudors :  They  were  more  arbitrary  than  the 
Plantagenets ;  they  well  knew  the  temper  of  the  nation  they 
governed;  and  they  all  had  courage  and  a  strong  will. 
Henry  VII.  was,  besides,  a  man  suspicious  and  reserved. 
His  great  vice  was  avarice  ;  but  during  his  reign  many  use- 


DISCOVERY  OF  AMERICA.  15,5 

ful  laws  were  passed,  peace  was  preserved,  and  the  founda- 
tion of  our  great  commerce  was  laid. 

Of  the  laws  passed  by  Henry,  the  most  important  was  one 
allowing  the  nobles  to  sell  their  estates,  regardless  of  the  en- 
tail. This  term  '  entail'  means  the  fixing  of  the  estate  to  some 
particular  line  of  heirs,  none  of  whom  has  the  power  to  sell 
or  to  bequeath  it.  Henry's  object  in  passing  this  law  was  to 
lessen  the  power  of  the  nobles,  whom  he  feared.  But  it  also 
exalted  the  commons ;  for  those  who  had  made  money  bought 
the  estates  which  the  nobles,  loaded  with  debt,  were  only  too 
glad  to  sell.  Many  noble  houses  had  been  destroyed  during 
the  civil  war.  In  1451  fifty-three  temporal  lords  answered 
the  call  of  Henry  VI.;  in  1485  only  twenty-nine  assembled, 
and  many  of  these  were  newly  created.  A  new  aristocracy, 
composed  of  the  leading  commoners,  thus  sprang  up. 

By  Henry's  order  the  Great  Harry,  a  war-ship  of  two 
decks,  was  built.  It  cost  £14,000,  and  was  of  one  thousand 
tons  burden.  But  what  gives  to  this  reign  its  deepest  in- 
terest is  that  during  it  the  New  World  was  discovered.  On 
the  12th  of  October  1492  Columbus  discovered  the  Bahama 
Islands.  At  first,  baffled  in  Spain,  he  had  sent  his  brother 
Bartholomew  to  England,  to  seek  ships  from  Heury.  Bar- 
tholomew, who  brought  with  him  maps,  then  first  seen  in 
our  island,  was  on  his  way  back  to  invite  Christopher  to 
the  English  court,  when  he  was  seized  by  pirates.  Mean- 
while Christopher  had  obtained  Spanish  ships  and  had  be- 
gun his  perilous  voyage.  However,  the  credit  of  discover- 
ing the  mainland  of  America  is  due  to  English  enterprise. 
Sebastian  Cabot,  a  Venetian,  sent  by  Henry  from  Bristol, 
touched  at  Labrador  in  1497,  and  sailed  southward  to 
Florida.  In  the  same  year  Vasco  di  Gama,  a  native  of 
Portugal,  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  thus  opening  a 
watery  path  to  India.  Compared  with  these,  all  other  events 
of  European  history  during  this  reign  shrink  to  insignifi- 
cance. And  ever  since,  while  rich  and  useful  products  of 
distant  lands  have  been  borne  on  every  tide  into  our  har- 
bours, from  the  British  Islands  as  a  centre  there  have  been 
flowing  towards  the  rising  and  the  setting  sun  our  arts,  our 
sciences,  our  literature  and  language;  and,  best  of  all,  the  faith 
in  Jesus,  which  we  prize  as  the  chief  blessing  of  our  nation. 


156 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


SCOTLAND. 

JAMES  III died  1488 

JAMES  IV. 


FRANCE. 

CHARLES  VIII 

LOUIS  XII. 


.1498 


SPAIN. 


ISABELLA, 
FERDINAND 


.1504 


EMPERORS. 

FREDERIC  IV died  1493 

MAXIMILIAN  I. 


POPES. 

INNOCENT  VIII 1492 

ALEXANDER  VI 1503 

PIUS  III. 


WAR  WITH  FRANCE. 


157 


CHAPTER  II. 

HENRY  VIII. 
Born  1491  A.D.— Began  to  reign  1509  A.D.— Died  1547  A.D. 


Early  conduct. 
French  war. 
Battle  of  spurs. 
Cardinal  Wolsey. 
Foreign  policy. 
Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold. 
The  Reformation  in  Ger- 
many. 
Defender  of  the  Faith. 


Want  of  money. 
French  Alliance. 
The  divorce. 
Wolsey's  fall. 
Cranmer  and  Cromwell. 
Papal  power  overthrown. 
Suppression    of    monas- 
Union  of  Wales,    [ter-ies. 
Anne  Boleyn. 


Bible  translated. 
Pilgrimage  of  Grace. 
The  Bloody  Statute. 
Fall  of  Cromwell 
Catherine  Howard. 
Catherine  Parr. 
The  last  Tlctim. 
Death. 
Character. 


HENRY  VIII.  became  King  when  eighteen.  A  Lancastrian 
by  his  father,  a  Yorkist  by  his  mother,  he  united  in  himself 
the  claims  of  the  rival  houses.  The  nation,  ground  by  the 
avarice  of  the  late  King,  gladly  welcomed  to  the  throne  a 
prince  seemingly  gallant  and  generous.  One  of  his  earliest 
acts  was  the  execution  of  Dudley  and  Empson;  and  the 
people,  thus  appeased,  settled  into  a  tranquillity  unknown 
during  five  reigns.  As  often  happens,  the  miser  father  had 
a  spendthrift  son.  Encouraged  by  the  Earl  of  Surrey,  now 
chief  minister,  the  young  King  plunged  into  a  whirl  of  costly 
pleasures.  Tournaments,  dances,  pageants,  revels  followed 
in  quick  succession ;  and  if  Henry  stole  a  quiet  hour  now 
and  then,  it  was  given  to  music  and  literature.  In  the  first 
year  of  his  reign  he  married  Catherine  of  Arragon,  the 
widow  of  his  brother  Arthur. 

The  Kings  of  France  had  long  been  desirous  of  subduing 
Italy,  and  Louis  XII.  now  seemed  likely  to  achieve  the  con- 
quest. The  Pope,  Julius  II.,  formed  a  league  with  Ferdi- 
nand of  Spain  and  the  Venetians  to  oppose  the  French  armies; 
and,  by  sending  to  Henry  a  rose  perfumed  with  musk  and 
anointed  with  oil,  invited  his  aid.  The  vanity  of  the  young 
Englishman  was  pleased.  He  joined  the  league.  His  first 
Parliament  readily  granted  supplies.  An  English  army  was 
sent  into  Spain  to  invade  France  on  the  south.  But  Ferdi- 
nand having  used  the  troops  in  his  private  schemes  against 
Navarre,  their  leader  in  disgust  brought  them  back  to  Eng- 
land without  attempting  the  invasion  of  Guienne.  Indi- 


158  CAEDIXAL  WOLSEY. 

rectly,  however,  this  first  campaign  fell  heavily  upon  Louis. 
His  troops  being  drawn  from  Italy  to  France,  his  splendid 
conquests  in  the  plain  of  Lombardy  yielded,  all  but  a  few 
garrisons,  to  the  Swiss  pikemen  of  the  Pope. 

The  Parliament  of  1513  having  granted  a  poll-tox  and 
other  supplies,  Henry  sailed  with  his  troops  to  Calais.  He 
was  there  joined  by  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  who  came  to 
serve  under  the  English  flag.  Terouenne,  a  town  of  Picardy, 

was  invested.     The    garrison  held  out  for  two 

Aug.  18,    months ;  during  which  Henry  gained  the  battle  of 

1513     Guinegaste,  known  as  the  'battle  of  spurs,'  from 

A.D.       the  rapid  flight  of  the  French  cavalry.    Tournay 

was  then  taken,  and  Henry  returned  in  triumph 
to  England.  Meanwhile  James  IV.,  prompted  by  the  strong 
alliance  then  existing  between  France  and  Scotland,  had  in- 
vaded England ;  but  on  Flodden  field,  near  the  Till,  his 
army  was  routed,  and  himself  and  many  of  his  nobles  were 
slain,  by  the  English  under  Lord  Surrey. 

Thomas,  Cardinal  "Wolsey,  was  a  prominent  figure  during 
the  first  twenty-one  years  of  this  reign.  Born  at  Ipswich  in 
1471,  he  was  only  fourteen  when  he  graduated  at  Oxford. 
The  Boy  Bachelor,  as  he  was  called,  soon  received  from  the 
Marquis  of  Dorset,  whose  sons  had  been  his  pupils,  the 
rectory  of  Limiugton  in  Somersetshire.  His  next  step  was 
the  chaplaincy  of  Calais,  where  he  was  noticed  by  Fox, 
Bishop  of  Winchester,  and  by  that  prelate  recommended  to 
Henry  VII.  The  deanery  of  Lincoln  and  the  post  of  King's 
almoner  rewarded  him  for  his  zeal  in  the  royal  service ;  and 
under  the  gay  young  Henry  VIII.,  who  was  pleased  to  find 
that  a  priest  so  able  to  conduct  the  business  of  the  state 
scrupled  not  to  drink  and  dance  and  sing  in  the  wild  court- 
revels,  he  rose  to  be  Archbishop  of  York  and  Chancellor  of 
England.  The  splendour  of  the  prelate  now  rivalled  that  of 
the  King.  His  train  numbered  eight  hundred ;  his  silken 
robes  sparkled  with  gold ;  he  permitted  his  Cardinal's  hat 
to  be  laid  nowhere  in  the  royal  chapel  but  on  the  high  altar; 
and,  when  in  1518  he  was  created  Papal  Legate,  he  caused 
the  first  nobles  of  England  to  serve  him  on  feast-days  with 
towel  and  water.  By  this  glitter  and  pride  he  pleased  the 
people,  from  whose  ranks  he  had  risen.  His  fostering  care) 


THE  GREAT  POWERS  OF  EUROPE.  159 

of  learning  and  literature  gained  for  him  the  applause  of 
the  wise. 

Francis  I.  now  sat  upon  the  French  throne.  He  had  in- 
herited the  desire  of  conquering  Italy,  and  he  therefore 
sought  to  live  at  peace  with  England.  To  secure  this,  he 
courted  the  favour  of  Wolsey  by  presents  and  flattery ;  and 
obtained,  as  the  first-fruits  of  his  intriguing,  the  restoration 
of  Tournay.  In  1519  Maximilian  died,  and  Charles  V.  was 
chosen  Emperor.  Charles,  Francis,  and  Henry  were  then 
the  leading  powers  of  Europe ;  and  the  foreign  policy  of  each 
was  closely  interwoven  with  that  of  the  others.  Charles 
ruled  Spain,  Austria,  Naples,  and  the  Netherlands.  His, 
too,  was  the  New  World  with  its  mines  of  gold  and  silver. 
Francis,  holding  a  compact  and  prosperous  kingdom  almost 
in  the  centre  of  the  Emperor's  scattered  dominions,  was  a 
formidable  rival.  Henry,  close  at  hand  yet  securely  guarded 
by  the  waves  of  the  Channel  and  the  North  Sea,  could  in  a 
week  pour  his  troops  upon  the  shores  of  either  realm.  The 
English  King  was,  therefore,  courted  by  both  Charles  and 
Francis.  He  was  invited  by  Francis  to  a  meeting  near 
Calais.  He  was  visited  in  England  by  Charles.  To  be 
Pope  was  Wolsey's  highest  ambition ;  and  Charles,  by  pro- 
mising to  use  all  his  influence  in  favour  of  that  desire,  won 
the  friendship  of  the  Cardinal. 

Henry  at  once  crossed  to  Calais,  and  met  Francis  between 
Guisnes  and  Ardres.     The  interview  has   been 
called,  from  the  splendour  of  the  monarchs  and  their    May  30, 
retinues, '  The  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold.'    Three     1520 
weeks  were  spent  in  empty  visits  of  state,  tourna-      A.D. 
inents,  and  feasts ;  but  nothing  of  importance  was 
done.    At  Gravelincs,  a  town  on  the  shore  a  little  north 
from  Calais,  Henry  and  Charles   met   immediately  after- 
wards ;  and  any  feeling  in  favour  of  Francis  which  may  have 
grown  up  in  Henry's  mind  was  completely  swept  away. 

The  execution  of  Edward  Stafford,  Duke  of  Buckingham, 
took  place  upon  Henry's  return  to  England.  Misled  by 
sistrology  and  the  pride  of  his  royal  blood,  he  had  let  fall 
unguarded  words  hinting  that,  if  the  King  should  die  with- 
out children,  he  would  seek  the  throne.  With  him  died  the 
office  of  Constable  of  England. 


160  THE  REFORMATION. 

The  Reformation — the  greatest  series  of  events  in  modern 
history — was  now  in  progress.    The  magnificent  temple  of 
St.  Peter  had  for  many  years  been  rising  on  the  banks  of 
the  Tiber.    To  raise  funds  for  the  building,  Leo  X.  had  sent 
out  monks  to  sell  indulgences.    These  were  pardons  from 
the  Pope  of  even  the  grossest  sins.   They  were  first  invented 
by  Urban  II.,  in  the  days  of  the  Crusades.    The  misguided 
people  thought  that  the  money  paid  for  these  pieces  of 
paper  or  parchment  would  buy  for  them  the  righteousness 
of  saints,  and  would  free  their  souls  from  purgatory.    But 
God  inspired  Martin  Luther,  an  Augustine  monk  of  Saxony, 
to  oppose  the  impious  falsehood.    In  his  ninety-five 
1517     propositions  fixed  on  the  door  of  the  church  in 
A.D.       Wittenberg  he  defended  the  great  truth  of  justifica- 
tion by  faith  in  Christ  alone.     In  the  palace-hall  of 
Leipsic,  before  the  great  and  the  wise  of  Northern 
June,      Germany,  he  maintained  the  authority  of  the  JBible 

1519  as  the  only  rule  of  religious  faith,  and  claimed  for 
A.D.       every  man  the  right  to  read  and  interpret  the 

sacred  book  for  himself.    At  the  gate  of  Witten- 
berg Castle  he  severed  the  last  tie  which  bound 
Dec.  10,    him  to  the  Church  of  Borne,  by  casting  into  a 

1520  bonfire  the  Papal  bull  denouncing  against  him 
A.D.       the  once  terrible  doom  of  excommunication.    The 

news  of  these  things  was  heard  joyfully  in  Eng- 
land by  many  who  remembered  with  reverence  the  doctrines 
of  John  Wycliflfe.  But  Henry  was  as  yet  a  strict  Papist. 
He  wrote  a  book  in  Latin  defending  the  seven  sacraments 

of  the  Romish  Church,  and  sent  a  copy  of  it  to  the 

1521  Pope.    Leo,  glad  to  receive  aid  so  illustrious,  con- 
A.D.       ferred  on  him  the  title  Defender  of  the  Faith.   Our 

sovereigns  still  bear  the  title,  which  has  now  a 
deeper  and  truer  meaning :  the  letters  F.  D.,  for  Fidel  De- 
fensor,  may  be  seen  on  all  our  coins.  Luther  replied  to 
Henry  forcibly  and  fearlessly.  The  eyes  of  Europe  turned 
on  the  controversy.  The  good  work  prospered,  and  every 
day  added  to  the  ranks  of  the  Reformers. 

In  the  war  which  arose  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I. 
Henry  at  first  sided  with  the  Emperor.  Twice  English 
troops  invaded  France,  but  without  success,  although  on  the 


THE  DIVORCE  CASE.  161 

second  occasion  the  army  reached  a  town  eleven  leagues 
from  Paris.  Want  of  money  was  one  cause  of  these  failures. 
The  immense  hoards  of  the  late  King  were  long  since  ex- 
hausted ;  and,  to  fill  his  empty  treasury,  Henry  was  forced 
in  1523  to  call  a  Parliament.  There  had  been  no  meeting 
of  the  Houses  for  seven  years,  and  so  little  did  their  conduct 
now  please  the  King,  that  for  seven  years  more  they  were 
not  once  called  together.  The  benevolence  was  during 
these  years  the  most  fruitful  source  of  Henry's  income. 
When  the  Commons  assembled,  Wolsey  entered  the  hall  to 
demand  £800,000  for  the  King.  He  was  seconded  by  the 
Speaker,  Sir  Thomas  More ;  but  the  House  would  grant  only 
half  the  sum;  and,  when  the  haughty  priest  still  pressed 
his  claim  with  arguments,  he  was  told  that  members  of 
the  Commons  alone  were  allowed  to  debate  on  questions 
there. 

But  the  foreign  policy  of  Henry,  or  rather  of  Wolsey,  soon 
changed.  Two  Popes  had  died, — Leo  X.  in  1521,  and  Adrian 
in  1523, — and  twice  Wolsey  was  defeated  in  the  dearest  wish 
of  his  ambitious  heart.  The  double  disappointment  rapidly 
cooled  his  friendship  for  the  Emperor,  for  whose  promised 
aid  and  influence  he  had  long  been  working.  Francis,  too, 
was  now  an  object  of  pity.  At  the  battle  of  Pa  via  (February 
25,  1525)  he  had  lost,  as  he  said  himself,  all  but  honour,  and 
was  now  the  prisoner  of  Charles.  He  was  not  released  for 
more  than  a  year,  when  by  the  treaty  of  Madrid  he  agreed 
to  give  the  fair  province  of  Burgundy  to  the  Emperor  as  his 
ransom, — a  promise,  however,  never  kept.  Two  years  later, 
when  Rome  was  sacked  by  the  Emperor's  troops,  under 
Bourbon  a  French  refugee,  and  the  Pope  was  cast  into 
prison,  Henry  and  Francis  united  in  a  firm  league  to  release 
the  unhappy  Pontiff,  and  to  carry  war  into  the  Emperor's 
dominions. 

After  nearly  twenty  years  of  married  life  the  King  pre- 
tended to  have  doubts  about  the  legality  of  his  marriage 
with  Queen  Catherine,  who  had  been  previously  his  brother's 
wife.  She  was  a  beautiful  and  virtuous  woman.  The  truth 
seems  to  be  that  Henry  was  tired  of  her,  and  had  taken  a 
violent  fancy  for  one  of  her  maids  of  honour,  Anne  Boleyn, 
grand-daughter  of  the  first  Duke  of  Norfolk.  A  divorce 
(«)  n 


162  FALL  OF  WOLSEY. 

then  became  the  great  object  of  Henry's  life.  There  were 
many  difficulties  in  the  way.  Catherine  was  the  aunt  of 
Charles  V. ;  she  was,  besides,  a  zealous  Romanist,  and  in 
high  favour  with  the  Pope.  But  a  divorce  Henry  would 
have ;  and  so  he  told  Wolsey,  who  knelt  for  four  hours  at  his 
feet,  seeking  vainly  to  change  his  purpose. 

Wolsey  did  not  know  what  to  do.  The  Pope,  awed  by 
the  Emperor,  dared  not  grant  the  demand  of  Henry ;  and 
Wolsey  dared  not  oppose  the  Pope.  To  his  own  ruin  the 
Cardinal  acted  a  double  part.  Openly  he  seemed  to  urge  on 

the  divorce ;  secretly  he  delayed  it  in  obedience  to 

May  31,    the  Pope.    At  length  a  court  was  opened  in  Lon- 

1529     don  to  try  the  case.    Wolsey  and  Campeggio  an 

A.D.       Italian  Cardinal  sat  as  judges.    On  the  first  day  a 

touching  scene  took  place.  When  the  Queen's 
name  was  called,  instead  of  answering  she  flung  herself  with 
tears  at  her  husband's  feet,  pleading  for  mercy  as  a  stranger 
in  England  and  his  faithful  wife  of  twenty  years.  Then, 
refusing  to  submit  to  the  court,  she  left  the  hall.  Unmoved, 
Henry  pressed  his  suit.  But  no  decision  was  made ;  and, 
after  the  court  had  sat  for  almost  two  months,  an  order  from 
the  Pope  transferred  it  to  Rome.  This  delay  roused  Henry's 
anger  against  Wolsey.  The  great  seal,  the  badge  of  the 
Chancellor's  office,  was  taken  from  him  and  given  to  Sir 
Thomas  More.  His  palace — York  Place,  afterwards  White- 
hall— was  seized  with  all  its  rich  plate  and  furniture.  Com- 
pelled to  retire  to  Yorkshire,  he  survived  his  disgrace  about 
a  year.  Then,  being  arrested  by  the  Earl  of  Northumberland 
for  high  treason,  he  was  on  his  way  to  a  scaffold  in  London, 
when  dysentery  seized  him,  and  he  died  at  Leicester  Abbey. 
His  last  words  are  full  of  solemn  warning, — '  Had  I  but 
served  God  as  diligently  as  I  have  served  the  King,  he 
would  not  have  given  me  over  in  my  grey  hairs.  •  But  this 
is  my  just  reward.' 

Henry's  mind  was  gradually  turning,  from  political,  not 
religious  causes,  to  look  favourably  on  the  Reformers,  who 
had  assumed  the  name  of  Protestants  at  the  Diet  of  Spires. 
Thomas  Cranmer  and  Thomas  Cromwell  were  now  his  chief 
advisers.  Cranmer,  a  Fellow  of  Cambridge,  had,  some  time 
before  Wolsey's  death,  suggested  that  the  divorce  case  should 


FINAL  BREACH  AVITH  ROME.  163 

be  referred  to  the  universities.  The  King,  hearing  of  this, 
exclaimed,  in  his  rough  style,  that  Craumer  had  got  the 
right  sow  by  the  ear,  and  acted  on  the  hint.  The  case  was 
laid  before  all  the  universities  in  Europe,  and  a  decision 
was  given  in  Henry's  favour.  This  made  the  fortune  of 
Craniner.  Cromwell,  too,  gained  the  royal  favour  by  a 
single  suggestion.  His  was  a  chequered  life.  A  factory 
clerk  at  Antwerp,  a  soldier  in  the  sack  of  Eome,  again  a 
clerk  at  Venice,  then  a  lawyer  in  England,  he  became  at 
last  Wolsey's  solicitor.  By  his  advice  the  King  resolved  to 
deny  the  supremacy  of  the  Pope,  and  to  make  himself  head 
of  the  English  Church. 

And  now  the  chain,  which  had  so  long  bound  England 
to  Rome,  was  breaking  link  by  link.  The  Parliament  of 
1531  owned  Henry  as  head  of  the  Church.  The  Parliament 
of  1532  forbade  the  payment  of  first-fruits,  by  which  the 
Pope  had  received  the  first  year's  income  of  vacant  bishop- 
rics. The  Parliament  of  1533  forbade  appeals  to  Rome.  In 
tho  same  year  Anne  Boleyn  was  declared  Queen.  Catherine, 
formally  divorced,  retired  from  the  court,  and  died  three 
years  afterwards  in  Huntingdonshire,  leaving  a  daughter, 
Mary.  When  these  things  were  heard  at  Rome,  the  Pope 
laid  Henry  under  a  terrible  curse,  unless  Queen  Catherine 
was  restored ;  but  no  curses  could  bend  the  stubborn  King 
of  England. 

The  dispute,  when  the  divorce  was  thus  settled,  centred  in 
the  question,  '  Who  was  to  be  head  of  the  Church  in  Eng- 
land,— the  King  or  the  Pope?'  The  point  was  decided  by 
the  Parliament  of  1534  conferring  the  title  with  its  privileges 
on  Henry.  About  the  same  time  appeared  the  Holy  Maid 
of  Kent,  a  half-witted  girl,  subject  to  hysterical  fits,  who 
raved  against  the  new  doctrines,  and  denounced  woe  on  the 
King  for  his  treatment  of  Queen  Catherine.  Her  true  name 
was  Elizabeth  Barton,  and  she  was  only  a  tool  in  the  hands 
of  some  artful  monks,  many  of  whom  suffered  with  her  for 
the  imposture.  More  distinguished  victims  of  Henry's  wrath 
were  John  Fisher,  Bishop  of  Rochester;  and  Sir  Thomas 
More,  famed  as  the  author  of '  Utopia.'  They  were 
beheaded  in  1535  on  a  charge  of  denying  the  King's  1535 
supremacy  in  the  Church.  This  was  the  final  breach  A.D. 


164  MONASTERIES  DESTROYED. 

with  Rome.  Henceforth  the  Church  of  England  had  a 
separate  existence.  Paul  III.,  now  Pope,  hurled  the  thun- 
ders of  excommunication  at  Henry ;  but  the  English  King 
cared  not. 

The  suppression  of  monasteries  was  then  resolved  on  by 
the  King ;  and  Cromwell,  to  whom  was  given  complete  con- 
trol of  the  Church  with  the  title  of  Vicar-General,  proceeded 
to  the  work.  There  were  good  grounds  for  this  step,  for  the 
monks  generally  led  most  dissolute  lives,  and  many  of  the 
monasteries  were  dens  of  the  vilest  sin.  But  Henry's 
motive  was  not  hatred  of  evil ;  he  rather  desired  to  deal  a 
terrible  blow  at  the  Papal  power,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
fill  his  coffers  with  the  riches  of  the  monks.  His 
1536  obedient  Parliament,  now  in  its  sixth  session,  passed 

A.D.  a  bill  to  suppress  those  monasteries  which  possessed 
revenues  below  £200  a-year.  Three  years  later, 
the  greater  monasteries  were  destroyed.  In  all,  3219  reli- 
gious houses  were  laid  in  ruins,  and  the  King  was  enriched 
with  their  yearly  income  of  £161,000.  Six  new  bishoprics 
•were  then  established. 

The  worst  evils  of  the  Feudal  System  still  lingered  in  Wales. 

The  marchers  or  great  lords,  claiming  independent  rule  in 

their  own  districts,  were  at  constant  war  with  one  another: 

pillage  and  murder  occurred  every  day.    But  now 

1536     these  lords  were  deprived  of  separate  jurisdiction, 

A.D.       and  the  English  laws  were  everywhere  enforced. 
Henceforth  Wales  sent  twenty-four  members  to 
the  English  Parliament.    This  was  the  real  union  of  Wales 
with  England. 

The  6th  day  of  January  1536  saw  Catherine  of  Arragon 
die.  On  the  19th  of  May  in  the  same  year,  her  rival,  Anne 
Boleyn,  was  beheaded.  While  the  divorce  remained  unset- 
tled, Henry's  passion  for  her  had  been  violent;  when  his 
wish  was  gained,  he  grew  careless,  then  cold.  A  new  face, 
that  of  the  lovely  Jane  Seymour,  caught  his  changeful  fancy. 
Anne's  enemies  plied  him  with  evil  stories ;  of  her  friends, 
Cranmer  alone  dared  to  raise  his  voice  in  her  favour.  She 
was  tried  on  a  charge  of  unfaithfulness  to  her  royal  husband, 
and  condemned  to  die.  She  met  her  doom  calmly,  and  on 
the  scaffold  prayed  for  the  King.  She  left  a  daughter,  after- 


TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  BIBLE.  165 

wards  Queen  Elizabeth.    On  the  next  day  Jane  Seymour 
became  Queen. 

During  this  reign  the  Bible  took  its  fitting  place  as  the 
Bole  standard  of  Christian  faith.  A  century  and  a  half  had 
passed  since  John  Wycliffe  translated  the  Scriptures  into 
English ;  but  the  version  used  in  England  during  the  ear- 
lier years  of  Henry's  reign  was  that  of  William  Tyndale,  a 
young  scholar  of  Oxford,  who  published  the  New  Testament 
in  1526,  and  the  Old  Testament  four  years  later.  In  1535 
he  suffered  death  by  fire  in  Flanders.  In  the  same  year 
Miles  Coverdale  of  Cambridge  published  the  whole  Bible  in 
the  English  tongue.  These  were  translations  from  the  Latin 
version  called  the  Vulgate.  By  a  royal  order  a  copy  of 
Coverdale's  translation  was  chained  to  a  pillar  or  desk  in 
every  parish  church,  so  that  all  who  chose  might  read.  In 
1539  appeared  a  translation  called  the  Great  Bible,  prepared 
under  the  superintendence  of  Cranmer,  who  was  now  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  The  people  received  these  gifts  of 
God  with  joy ;  families  clubbed  their  savings  to  buy  a  copy 
of  the  sacred  volume,  still  a  costly  purchase ;  and  those  who 
could  read  were  often  seen  surrounded  by  a  crowd  of  listen- 
ers, earnestly  hearkening  to  the  words  which  tell  of  life 
eternal. 

The  abolition  of  the  monasteries  caused  much  discontent, 
especially  in  the  northern  counties.  North  of  the  Trent 
40,000  men  rose  in  arms  under  a  gentleman  named  Aske. 
Their  avowed  object  being  to  restore  the  Romish  Church, 
they  called  their  insurrection  the  Pilgrimage  of  Grace. 
Priests  marched  before  them  ;  while  their  banners  bore  the 
crucifix  and  the  chalice.  They  held  York  and  Hull  for  a 
while ;  but  the  promise  of  a  general  pardon,  and  the  heavy 
rains  of  winter  induced  them  to  return  to  their  homes.  A 
renewal  of  the  revolt  early  in  the  next  spring  came  to  no- 
thing. Aske  and  other  leaders  were  executed. 

The  birth  of  a  son,  baptized  Edward,  added  to     Oct.  12, 
Henry's  triumph ;  and  even  the  death  of  his  Queen,     1537 
Jane  Seymour,  which  occurred  a  few  days  after  the      A.D. 
prince  was  born,  was  almost  disregarded  in  his 
great  joy. 

Though  the  King  had  broken  with  Rome,  he  was  no  friend 


166  THE  BLOODY  STATUTE. 

to  Luther.  He  retained  many  of  the  old  doctrines,  especially 
transubstantiation,  by  which  the  Romish  priests  taught  that 
partakers  of  the  Lord's  Supper  ate,  not  bread  and  wine,  but 
the  real  flesh  and  blood  of  Jesus.  Standing  thus  half  way 
between  the  two  Churches,  he  strove  to  bend  the  consciences 
of  both  Protestants  and  Romanists  to  his  own  views,  and 
many  of  both  parties  were  burned  for  denying  what 

1539  he  taught.    His  opinions  were  embodied  in  the  Six 
A.D.       Articles,  of  which  the  first  and  chief  was,  that  all 

should  on  pain  of  death  believe  in  transubstantia- 
tion. From  the  persecution  which  followed  these  enact- 
ments, they  were  called  the  Bloody  Statute.  About  the 
same  time  it  was  decided  by  Parliament,  that  all  the  procla- 
mations of  Henry  should  have  the  force  of  regular  laws. 
This  was  a  measure  utterly  opposed  to  the  spirit  of  the  Eng- 
lish Constitution.  In  effect  it  made  Henry  a  monarch  as 
absolute  as  was  ever  a  Czar  of  Russia  or  a  Shah  of  Persia. 

Henry's  fourth  wife  was  Anne  of  Cleves,  the  daughter  of 
a  Protestant  prince.  Cromwell,  desirous  of  strengthening 
the  Protestant  cause  in  England,  had  proposed  the  union. 
A  picture  of  the  princess  was  shown  to  Henry:  he  was 
pleased  with  her  face,  and  she  was  invited  to  England.  But, 
when  he  came  to  see  her,  he  called  her  a  great  Flanders 
mare.  She  had  neither  beauty  nor  grace,  and  could  speak 
uo  language  except  her  own.  After  some  delay  the  mar- 
riage took  place;  but  the  King  never  forgave  Cromwell. 
Three  designs  filled  his  mind :  revenge  on  the  Vicegerent,  a 
divorce  from  Anne,  and  the  elevation  of  a  new  Queen,  Ca- 
therine Howard,  a  Papist,  and  niece  to  the  Duke  of  Norfolk. 
In  little  more  than  six  months  he  had  gained  all 
July  28,  these  ends.  Cromwell,  accused  of  heresy  and  trea- 

1 540  son,  was  brought  to  the  block    Anne,  much  to  her 
A.D.       own  content,  was  separated  from  her  husband,  and 

lived  in  England  upon  a  pension  of  £3000  a-year 
until  her  death.  Catherine  Howard  was  raised  to  the  throne 
amid  the  rejoicings  of  the  Papists,  who  hailed  her  elevation 
as  an  omen  of  good.  The  last  three  Queens  had  favoured 
the  Reformation. 

For  about  a  year  and  a  half  the  charms  of  Catherine 
Howard  delighted  the  King.    Then  some  events  of  her  ear- 


THE  EAKL  OF  SURREY.  167 

lier  life  began  to  be  whispered  abroad ;  and  of  these  Cranmer 
sent  a  written  statement  to  Henry,  who  refused  at  first  to 
believe  them.  But  when  she  herself  confessed,  what  many 
witnesses  swore,  that  she  had  been  unchaste  before  her  mar- 
riage, the  fierce  jealousy  of  Henry  blazed  forth.  Nothing 
but  blood  could  quench  his  rage,  and  she  was  beheaded  on 
Tower-hill.  With  her  died  an  accomplice  of  her  guilt,  Lady 
Rochford,  who  had  been  chief  witness  against  Anne  Boleyn. 

In  his  religious  changes,  too,  the  King  displayed  that  fickle 
nature  so  evident  in  his  marriages.  Not  satisfied  with  the 
Six  Articles,  he  published  in  succession  two  books,  each 
giving  a  different  creed  to  the  nation.  The  royal  permission 
to  read  the  Bible,  formerly  given  to  all,  was  now  confined  to 
gentlemen  and  merchants. 

Wars  with  Scotland  and  France  occupied  his  latter  years ; 
the  details  are  not  of  much  importance.  His  sixth  wife  was 
Catherine  Parr,  widow  of  Lord  Latimer.  She  survived  her 
husband,  although  her  head  was  once  in  great  danger.  The 
King's  temper,  naturally  fierce,  was  maddened  by  his  in- 
creasing corpulence,  and  an  ulcer  which  had  broken  out  in 
his  leg.  One  day,  while  talking  of  certain  religious  doc- 
trines, she  opposed  his  ideas.  In  high  wrath  he  ordered  an 
impeachment  to  be  drawn  up  against  her.  But  a  friend 
happening  to  see  the  paper,  told  her  ;  and,  when  next  she 
saw  the  King,  she  spoke  so  humbly  of  the  foolishness  of  her 
sex,  and  appeared  so  thankful  for  what  he  had  taught  her, 
that  when  the  Chancellor  came  to  arrest  her,  Henry  bade 
him  begone. 

The  last  who  suffered  from  this  tyrant's  wrath  was  Tho- 
mas Howard,  Earl  of  Surrey,  famed  as  the  purifier  of  English 
poetry,  and  the  writer  of  our  earliest  blank  verse.  He  was 
a  cousin  of  Catherine  Howard,  and  was  beheaded  on  suspi- 
cion of  aiming  at  the  crown.  The  fact  of  his  quartering  on 
his  shield  the  arms  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  long  borne  by 
his  ancestors,  was  the  chief  circumstance  advanced  in  sup- 
port of  this  charge.  His  father,  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  who 
had  been  seized  at  the  same  time,  lay  in  prison  awaiting  the 
same  fate,  when  the  news  came  that  Henry  was  dead. 

For  some  days  it  was  well  known  in  the  Court  that  the 
King  was  dying,  but  all  feared  to  tell  him  so.  At  length 


168 


DEATH  OF  HENRY  VIII. 


Sir  Antony  Denny  ventured  to  warn  him  of  the  coming 
change.  He  desired  to  see  Cranmer,  but  was  speechless 
when  the  Archbishop  arrived.  When  asked  by  Cranmer  to 
give  some  sign  of  his  faith  in  Christ,  he  squeezed  the  pre- 
late's hand,  and  died.  He  was  married  six  times,  and  left 
three  children.  His  will,  made  nearly  a  month  before  he 
died,  bequeathed  the  throne  to  Edward,  then  to  Mary,  and 
then  to  Elizabeth.  This  arrangement  was  actually  followed. 
Henry's  vanity  was  great.  He  was  vain  of  his  learning, 
and,  in  earlier  days,  of  his  appearance.  But  his  greatest 
crimes  may  be  traced  to  his  fickleness  and  his  self-will.  Few 
English  monarchs  were  more  absolute.  At  eighteen  he  was 
a  gay  and  handsome  prince,  skilled  in  music  and  ready  with 
his  pen :  at  six-and-fifty  he  was  an  unwieldy  mass  of  cor- 
rupted flesh  and  evil  passions.  But  God  turns  evil  into 
good.  During  this  reign  was  laid  the  foundation  of  British 
Protestantism. 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


SCOTLAND. 

A.T). 

JAMES  IV., died  1513 

JAMES  V., 1542 

MAEY. 


FRANCE. 

LOUIS  XII., 1515 

FRANCIS  I. 


SPAIN 

FERDINAND., 1516 

CHARLES  I. 


TURKEY. 

A.D. 

SELIM  I., died  1520 

SOLYMAN  n. 

EMPERORS. 

MAXIMILIAN  1 1519 

CHARLES  V. 

POPES. 

JULIUS  H 1513 

LEOX., 1522 

ADRIAN  VI., 1523 

CLEMENT  VH., 1534 

PAUL  HI. 


BATTLE  OF  PINKIE.  169 


CHAPTER  III. 

EDWARD  VI. 
Born  1537  A.D.— Began  to  reign  1547  A.D.— Died  1553  A.D. 


The  Regency. 
War  with  Scotland 
Church  of  England  esta- 
blished. 


Plots  against  Somerset. 
Insurrections. 
Fall  of  Somerset. 
Reform. 


Death  of  Somerset. 
Succession  altered. 
Death  of  Edward. 


THE  will  of  Henry  VIII.  directed  that  Edward,  now  only  in 
his  tenth  year,  should  come  of  age  at  eighteen.  In  the 
meantime  a  council  of  twenty-eight  nobles  and  clergy  were 
to  manage  the  affairs  of  the  kingdom.  This  council,  how- 
ever, feeling  the  want  of  a  leader,  chose  as  Protector  the  Earl 
of  Hertford,  brother  of  Jane  Seymour,  and  therefore  uncle 
of  the  King.  Many  new  peers  were  created ;  many  were 
advanced  to  higher  rank.  Among  the  latter,  the  Protector 
received  the  title  of  Duke  of  Somerset.  Archbishop  Cran- 
mer  was  a  leading  member  of  the  Council  of  Regency. 

It  was  also  enjoined  by  Henry's  will,  that  a  marriage 
should  take  place,  if  possible,  between  Edward  and  young 
Mary  of  Scotland.  But  Scottish  feeling  was  strong  against 
the  match ;  and,  to  force  the  nation  into  a  consent,  Somerset 
led  an  army  of  18,000  over  the  Borders.  The  Regent  Arran 
met  him  at  Pinkie  near  Musselburgh,  but  was  defeated 
(Sept.  10,  1547).  News  of  plots  against  his  power  soon  re- 
called the  Protector  to  London,  and  the  campaign  ended 
without  advantage  to  the  English,  while  the  attempt  to 
extort  consent  displeased  even  those  Scotchmen  who  had 
been  in  favour  of  the  union.  As  the  Earl  of  Huntly  said, 
'He  disliked  not  the  match,  but  he  hated  the  manner  of 
wooing.'  The  young  Queen  of  Scotland  was  sent  for  greater 
safety  to  France. 

The  completion  of  the  English  Reformation  was  the  great 
event  of  this  reign.  The  Protector  was  a  Protestant,  and  he 
took  care  that  all  who  had  access  to  the  young  King  should 
be  of  the  Reformed  faith.  Under  this  fostering  influence 
the  Church  of  England  began  to  assume  her  present  form, — a 


170  TEE  CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND. 

work  in  which  Archbishop  Cranmer  took  the  largest  share 
He  was  ably  seconded  by  Ridley,  Bishop  of  London,  and 
Latimer,  Bishop  of  Worcester.  Freer  circulation  was  given 
to  the  Bible.  To  secure  purity  of  doctrine,  twelve  Homilies 
or  Sermons  were  published.  The  statiies  and  pictures  of  the 
Romish  churches  were  destroyed.  The  Latin  mass,  never 
understood  by  the  people  and  seldom  by  the  priests,  was 
abolished,  and  replaced  by  the  beautiful  Liturgy,  still  read 
in  the  Established  Church  of  England.  And,  lastly,  the 
faith  of  English  Protestants  was  summed  up  in  Forty-two 
Articles. 

It  has  been  already  said  that  Somerset  hastened  from 
Scotland  in  alarm.  There  was  a  plot  against  his  power. 
His  own  brother,  Admiral  Lord  Seymour,  who  had  married 
the  widow  of  Henry  VIII.,  was  his  most  dangerous  foe. 
Though  this  conspiracy  was  checked  by  the  execution  of 
Seymour  on  Tower-hill,  yet  opposition  far  more  fatal  to  the 
Protector  was  rising.  Dudley,  Earl  of  Warwick,  was  the 
son  of  that  Dudley  who  had  ministered  to  the  avarice  of 
Henry  VII.  Created  Viscount  Lisle  by  the  late  King,  lie 
was  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Regency,  in  which  his  rest- 
less ambition  made  him  a  leading  man.  Now,  as  the  head 
of  a  rival  faction,  he  began  to  measure  his  strength  with 
Somerset. 

Much  more  important  than  the  struggles  of  two  ambitious 
men  was  the  condition  of  the  people  at  this  time.  Monas- 
teries, with  all  their  evils,  had  served  some  useful  ends. 
The  poor  man  and  the  traveller  found  there  a  shelter  for 
the  night.  The  domains  attached  were  let  out  at  moderate 
rents  to  small  farmers,  who  found  the  monks  not  only  indul- 
gent landlords,  but  ready  purchasers  of  the  farm  produce. 
Discontent  and  rebellion  had  therefore  followed  the  suppres- 
sion of  these  houses ;  and  the  embers  of  bad  feeling  were 
still  alive.  The  working  classes  had,  besides,  new  grievances. 
A  great  demand  for  wool  had  turned  a  large  part  of  England 
into  sheep-walks,  and  there  was  little  field  labour  to  be  done. 
Wages  were  low,  and  were  paid  in  the  base  coin  issued  by 
Henry  VIII.  to  supply  his  own  needs.  The  price  of  food 
rose  high.  The  flames  burst  out  in  many  shires  of  England. 
Exeter  was  besieged  by  10,000  men.  Ket,  a  tanner,  sat 


FALL  OP  SOMERSET.  171 

below  an  oak-tree,  giving  law  to  the  gentlemen  of  Norfolk. 
In  all  cases  the  rebels  were  soon  put  down.  Ket  was  hanged 
at  Norwich,  after  his  followers  had  been  scattered  by  the 
Earl  of  Warwick. 

While  Warwick  was  thus  employed,  troops  sent  from 
France  to  aid  the  Scottish  Regent  had  driven  the  English 
garrisons  from  the  castles  of  Broughty  and  Haddington. 
The  Protector  was  then  glad  to  make  peace ;  for  his  position 
was  daily  growing  more  perilous.  After  the  battle  of  Pinkie, 
assuming  royal  pomp,  he  had  disdained  to  ask  advice  from 
the  councillors.  Many  blamed  him  for  the  execution  of  his 
brother.  Romanists  cried  out  against  the  man  who  had 
pulled  down  churches,  and  the  houses  of  bishops,  that  he 
might  build  his  palace  in  the  Strand.  Warwick  artfully 
used  these  circumstances  to  strengthen  his  own  faction.  The 
feeling  against  Somerset  grew  so  strong  that  he  was  forced 
to  resign  his  Protectorship,  and  was  indicted  for  usurpation 
of  the  King's  power.  On  his  knees  before  the  Council  he 
made  full  confession  of  all  the  charges.  He  was  then,  by  a  vote 
of  the  Parliament,  stripped  of  all  power  and  condemned  to 
pay  a  heavy  fine.  By  the  mercy  of  the  King,  however,  he 
escaped  the  fine,  and  soon  regained  his  freedom. 

The  Council,  bent  on  purifying  the  Church  of  England, 
demanded  that  all  should  sign  the  Articles  of  Reform.  They 
began  with  Gardiner ;  and  on  his  refusal  deprived  him  of 
his  office  and  committed  him  to  prison.  Three  other  bishops 
were  at  the  same  time  forbidden  to  preach.  But  in  the 
Princess  Mary  they  found  a  stubborn  Romanist,  whom  they 
could  not  move.  Her  they  let  alone,  lest  they  might  pro- 
voke a  war  with  the  Emperor  Charles,  her  cousin. 

Warwick's  ambition  was  now  gratified  with  the  title,  Duke 
of  Northumberland.     His  rival  Somerset,  though  fallen,  was 
still  popular.    The  time  was  now  ripe  to  crush  that  rival  for 
ever.    Arrested  on  a  charge  of  raising  rebellion  in  the  north, 
and  of  plotting  to  murder  Northumberland  and 
others,  the  unhappy  ex- Protector  was  tried  before    Jan.  22, 
the  Marquis  of  Winchester,  as  High  Steward,  and  a     1552 
jury  of  twenty-seven  peers.    Convicted  of  felony,  he      A.D. 
was  beheaded  on  Tower-hill.  The  people,  forgetting 
all  his  failings  in  the  sad  hour  of  his  death,  dipped  their 


172 


DEATH  OF  EDWARD  VI. 


kerchiefs  in  his  streaming  blood,  and  laid  these  up  among 
their  household  treasures. 

Northumberland  now  ruled  England  ;  and,  as  the  King's 
health  had  been  for  some  time  failing,  visions  of  securing  the 
crown  for  his  own  family  filled  his  ambitious  mind.  He  per- 
suaded Edward  that  the  Princesses,  Mary  and  Elizabeth,  could 
not  wear  the  crown,  since  they  had  been  declared  illegitimate 
by  an  Act  of  Parliament ;  that  the  Queen  of  Scots  was  also 
excluded  as  a  stranger,  betrothed  to  the  Dauphin  of  France; 
that  the  succession  belonged  to  the  Marchioness  of  Dorset, 
daughter  of  Mary  Tudor,  who  was  once  Queen  of  France, 
and  afterwards  Duchess  of  Suffolk  ;  and  that  the  next  heir 
was  therefore  Lady  Jane  Grey,  the  daughter  of  the  Mar- 
chioness. He  had  previously  married  his  fourth  son,  Lord 
Guildford  Dudley,  to  the  Lady  Jane.  The  King's  affection 
for  the  Protestant  faith  inclined  him  to  this  settlement  of 
the  crown  ;  and,  although  some  of  the  Council  hesitated, 
the  Duke  prevailed,  and  letters  patent  were  issued,  trans- 
ferring the  crown  to  the  youngest  branch  of  the  Tudor  line. 

Scarcely  was  this  done  when  the  King  grew  very  ill.  The 
worst  symptoms  of  consumption  appeared.  Northumberland, 
constantly  by  his  bedside,  placed  him  under  the  care  of  a 
woman  professing  great  skill  Her  medicines  made  him  much 
worse,  and  on  this  rests  the  suspicion  that  his  death  was  has- 
tened by  poison.  He  died  at  Greenwich,  aged  sixteen  years. 
He  was  a  gentle  boy,  of  very  studious  habits,  and  of  most 
promising  disposition.  A  diary  from  his  own  pen,  giving 
an  account  of  his  reign,  is  preserved  in  the  British  Museum. 

CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


SCOTLAND. 


WARY 


FRANCE. 

FRANCIS  I died  1547 

HENRY  II. 

SPAIN. 
CHARLES  I. 


TURKEY. 
SOLYMAN  I. 

EMPEROR. 
CHARLES  V. 

POPES. 

PAUL  in died  1550 

JULIUS  III. 


LADY  JANE  GREY.  173 

* 

CHAPTER  IV. 

MARY  I. 
Born  1516  A.D.— Began  to  reign  1553  A.D.— Died  1558  A.D 


JaneGreyyieldsto  Mary. 
Romish  worship  revived. 
The  Spanish  marriage. 
Insurrection. 


Execution  of  Jane  Grey. 
Protestants  persecuted. 
Rogers.  Ridley,  La'timer. 
Cranmer. 


Loss  of  Calais. 
Mary's  death. 
Character. 


WHEN  Edward  died,  Lady  Jane  Grey  was  at  once  proclaimed 
Queen  by  order  of  Northumberland.  She  was  only  sixteen, 
accomplished,  beautiful,  and  good.  Studying  Greek  and 
Latin  with  the  late  King,  she  had  learned,  like  him,  to 
love  retirement.  The  dangers  of  a  throne  alarmed  her 
gentle  heart,  and  it  was  very  unwillingly  that  she  yielded 
to  the  wishes  of  her  father-in-law.  But  she  was  not  to 
be  Queen.  The  feeling  of  the  nation  leaned  towards  Mary, 
the  daughter  of  Catherine  of  Arragon,  who,  writing  from 
Suffolk,  summoned  around  her  the  leading  nobles  and 
gentlemen.  Her  force  increased  daily,  while  Northumber- 
land could  muster  only  6000  men,  and  even  these  were  leav- 
ing him  fast.  The  councillors  and  the  citizens  of  London 
declared  for  Mary,  and  she  was  proclaimed  everywhere, — the 
first  Queen  regnant  of  England.  Northumberland,  Suffolk, 
Guildford  Dudley,  and  Jane  Grey  were  arrested.  North- 
umberland was  executed  at  once  ;  the  others  were  spared  a 
little  longer. 

The  feeling  that  she  had  the  best  claim  was  the  chief 
motive  of  Mary's  supporters.  She  was  now  in  her  thirty- 
Beventh  year,  of  a  temper  soured  by  her  mother's  and  her 
own  disgrace,  and  blindly  attached  to  the  Romish  worship. 
Her  great  object  was  the  restoration  of  that  worship  in  Eng- 
land in  all  its  former  pomp  and  power.  One  of  her  earliest  acts, 
therefore,  released  from  prison  Romish  nobles  and  prelates. 
Gardiner  and  Bonner  were  restored  to  their  sees.  The  Duke 
of  Norfolk  received  his  freedom.  And,  in  direct  violation  of 
her  promise  to  the  men  of  Suffolk,  the  religious  laws  of  Ed- 
ward VI.  were  repealed :  Cranmer,  Ridley,  Latimer,  and 
other  Protestants  were  sent  to  prison.  All  England  looked 


174  THE  SPANISH  MARRIAGE. 

with  alarm  on  these  things  ;  but  the  worst  was  yet  to  come. 

Another  step  towards  her  great  end  was  the 

July,       Spanish  match.     In  July  1554  she  became  the  wife 

1554  of  Philip,  son  of  the  Emperor  Charles,  and  heir  of 
A.D.      the  Spanish  crown,  which  he  received  during  the 

next  year.  This  alliance  with  the  greatest  Romish 
power  in  Europe  gratified  at  the  same  time  Mary's  ambition 
and  her  affections  ;  for  she  was  attached  to  Philip.  But  he 
soon  grew  tired  of  a  wife,  jealous,  ill-tempered,  and  eleven 
years  older  than  himself;  and,  since  he  was  no  favourite 
with  the  English,  whom  he  treated  with  cold  Spanish  cere- 
mony, he  left  this  island  in  less  than  a  year.  Except  for  a 
few  days  in  1557  he  never  saw  his  wife  again. 

The  whole  body  of  the  English  people  disliked  this  mar- 
riage. It  was  said  that  England  would  soon  be  a  province 
of  Spain,  and  that  the  terrible  Inquisition  would  soon  be  at 
work  in  London.  Rebellion  appeared  in  Devonshire  and 
Kent.  The  former  was  easily  suppressed ;  but  the  men  of 
Kent  had  seized  Southwark  and  Westminster  before  they 
were  dispersed.  Their  leader,  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt,  was  taken 
at  Temple-bar,  and  executed.  Four  hundred  of  his  followers 
also  suffered  death.  The  Duke  of  Suffolk  was  concerned  in 
this  rising,  and  his  guilt  was  thought  a  good  excuse  for  the 
execution  of  his  daughter,  Lady  Jane  Grey,  and  her  hus- 
band. They  were  beheaded  within  the  Tower  walls.  Dudley 
suffered  first ;  and  as  Jane  was  on  her  way  to  the  block  she 
passed  his  bleeding  body.  She  died  calmly,  persevering  to 
the  end  in  the  true  faith.  Shortly  before  her  death  she  sent 
a  Greek  Bible  to  her  sister,  as  a  last  love-gift.  Her  father, 
Suffolk,  soon  met  the  same  fate. 

Then  began  that  terrible  persecution  of  Protestants  which 
has  given  to  the  first  Queen  regnant  of  England  the 

1555  name  of  Bloody  Mary.    Cardinal  Pole,  the  Papal 
A.D.       Legate,  an  Englishman  of  royal  blood,  recommended 

toleration ;  but  Gardiner  and  Bonner  cried  out 
for  the  stake  and  the  fagot,  and  the  Queen  was  of  their 
mind.  During  three  years,  288  men,  women,  and  children 
were  burned  for  their  Protestantism,  while  thousands  suf- 
fered in  a  less  degree.  The  chief  scene  of  these  tragedies  was 
Smitlifield  in  London.  There  many  of  '  the  noble  army  of 


THE  FIRES  OF  SMITHFIELD.  175 

martyrs,'  strong  in  the  remembrance  of  -what  their  Saviour 
had  borne,  died  amid  the  flames  of  blazing  fagots.  More 
than  a  thousand  ministers  were  driven  from  their  pulpits ; 
and  as  many  of  them  as  escaped  fled  to  the  Continent  to 
escape  the  fury  of  the  tempest.  They  lived  chiefly  at  Frank- 
fort and  Geneva.  Among  them  were  John  Knox,  the  Re- 
former of  Scotland  ;  Fox,  who  wrote  the  Book  of  Martyrs  ; 
and  Coverdale,  the  translator  of  the  English  Bible.  Associated 
during  their  exile  with  some  of  the  great  spirits  of  the  Con- 
tinental Reformation,  they  received  truer  and  purer  ideas  of 
the  Protestant  faith  and  worship.  Returning  to  these  shores, 
they  founded  the  sect  called  Puritans,  which  was  destined  to 
do  so  much  in  perilous  days  for  England  and  civilization. 
This  has  been  the  history  of  Christian  martyrdom  in  all  ages. 
Fierce  storms  scatter  the  seeds  of  the  plant  far  and  wide  ; 
and,  for  one,  a  hundred  grow  up  in  new  strength  and  beauty. 

John  Rogers,  Prebendary  of  St.  Paul's,  was  the  first  vic- 
tim of  this  persecution.  Hooper,  Bishop  of  Gloucester,  was 
in  torture  for  three  quarters  of  an  hour  :  one  of  his  hands 
dropped  off,  the  other  still  beat  his  breast,  and  he  prayed 
till  his  tongue  swelled  so  that  he  could  not  speak.  Ridley, 
Bishop  of  London,  and  Latimer,  once  Bishop  of  Worcester, 
suffered  together  at  Oxford.  '  Be  of  good  cheer,  brother,' 
cried  Latimer,  as  they  bound  his  aged  limbs  to  the  stake  ; 
'  we  shall  this  day  kindle  such  a  torch  in  England,  as,  I  trust 
in  God,  shall  never  be  extinguished.'  He  saw  with  the  eye 
of  faith  :  the  torch  is  now  a  brilliant  sun,  blessing  with  its 
rays  many  a  once  dark  land.  Bags  of  gunpowder  laid  round 
the  martyrs  killed  Latimer  by  their  explosion,  but  Ridley's 
death  was  very  slow. 

Early  in  1556  Cranmer  was  led  to  the  stake.  Broken 
down  by  long  imprisonment,  and  sorely  tempted  by  promises 
of  life  and  honour,  he  had  agreed  to  sign  a  denial  of  the  Protes- 
tant faith.  But  a  calmer  hour  brought  repentance ;  and  the 
strength  of  God  returning  to  his  soul  enabled  him  to  die 
without  fear.  Of  his  own  accord  he  held  out  his  right  hand 
in  the  kindling  flames  until  it  was  a  blackened  cinder,  while 
lie  cried  more  than  once, '  That  unworthy  hand !'  When  the 
fire  seized  his  body,  his  calm  face  bore  no  signs  of  pain.  His 
heart  was  found  among  the  ashes,  unconsumed. 


176  LOSS  OF  CALAIS. 

Though  Mary  was  deeply  grieved  at  the  coldness  of  her 
husband,  now  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  she  joined  him  in  his  war 
with  France.  An  English  army,  sent  into  the  Netherlands, 
Helped  to  seize  the  French  fortress  of  St.  Quentin.  But  this 
trifling  success  was  followed  by  a  heavy  loss.  Suddenly  in 
mid- winter  the  Duke  of  Guise  appeared  before  Calais.  The 
town,  which  lay  in  the  midst  of  marshes,  was  weakly  garri- 
soned, since  it  was  the  custom  of  tie  English  Government, 
for  the  sake  of  economy,  to  withdraw  most  of  the  troops 
late  in  autumn.  Assaulted  by  land  and  sea,  this 
1558  key  of  France,  held  by  the  English  since  the  time 
A.D.  of  Edward  III.,  was  lost  in  eight  days. 

Mary's  health  was  failing  fast.  Dropsy  preyed 
upon  her  body.  Her  mind,  too,  was  much  disturbed.  So 
deeply  did  she  feel  her  loss  in  France,  that  she  said  the 
word  '  Calais '  would  be  found  after  death  written  on  her 
heart.  Her  husband  neglected  her.  She  knew  that  her  sub- 
jects disliked  her.  She  had  no  children ;  and  her  half-sister 
Elizabeth,  whom  she  hated  as  a  Protestant  and  the  daughter 
of  Anne  Boleyn,  would  wear  the  crown  next.  All  causes 
working  together  produced  a  lingering  fever  of  which  she  died. 

Sorrow  is  sent  for  our  good ;  but  Mary's  heart  was  hard- 
ened and  her  disposition  soured  by  the  troubles  of  her  early 
life.  Her  strongest  passion  was  hatred  of  the  Protestant 
faith.  Instead,  however,  of  branding  her  with  the  name  of 
Bloody  Mary,  we  should  rather  pity  the  Queen,  who  in  her 
fierce  religious  zeal  forgot  the  mercy  natural  to  woman,  and 
who  saw,  before  she  died,  every  aim  and  hope  of  her  life 
baffled  and  broken. 

CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


SCOTLAND. 


MARY. 


TURKEY. 


SOLYMAN  I. 


PR  A  TJPR  EMPEROR. 

HENRY  H 

POPES. 

SPAIN.  JULIUS  m., 1555 

CHARLES  I., resigned  1556     MARCELLUS  HI., 1555 

PHILIP  II.  PAUL  IV. 


PROTESTANTISM   RESTORED.  177 

CHAPTER  V. 

ELIZABETH. 
%  Born  1533  A.D.  -Began  to  reign  1558  A.D.— Died  1603  A.D. 


Protestantism  restored. 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots. 
The  Puritans. 
The  Duke  of  Norfolk. 
Babington's  Plot. 
Trial  of  Mary  Stuart 

Her  execution. 
Early  navigators. 
The  Armada. 
Its  defeat 
Statesmen  of  the  reign. 
Karl  of  Essex. 

Death  of  Elizabeth. 
Her  character. 
Chief  authors. 
The  newspaper. 
Continental  events. 

JOY-BELLS  pealed  and  bonfires  blazed  when  Elizabeth,  the 
daughter  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Anne  Boleyn,  was  proclaimed 
Queen.  During  her  sister's  reign  she  had  lived  chiefly  at 
Hatfield  House,  nominally  free,  but  really  a  prisoner.  As 
Queen,  one  of  her  first  measures  was  the  restoration  of  Pro- 
testantism. This  good  work  was  completed  in  1562,  when 
the  Forty-two  Articles  of  Cranmer  were  reduced  to  Thirty- 
nine,  and  the  Church  of -England  was  thus  established  in 
her  present  form.  The  statesman  by  whose  advice  Eliza- 
beth was  guided  in  this  change  and  all  the  leading  transac- 
tions of  her  reign,  was  William  Cecil,  afterwards  Lord  Bur- 
leigh. 

Scotland,  France,  Spain,  and  the  Netherlands  were  the 
countries  with  which  the  foreign  policy  of  Elizabeth  was 
chiefly  concerned.  The  marriage  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots 
with  the  Dauphin,  afterwards  Francis  II.  of  France,  united 
the  first  two  lands  more  closely  than  ever.  Not  content 
with  her  double  crown,  Mary  claimed  that  of  England,  on 
the  ground  that  Elizabeth  had  been  declared  illegitimate 
and  that  she  was  next  heir,  being  descended  from  Margaret, 
eldest  daughter  of  Henry  VII.  This  claim  Elizabeth  never 
forgave  ;  and  when  Mary,  who  left  France  a  widow  of  nine- 
teen, fled  across  the  Border  after  seven  stormy  years  in 
Scotland,  the  English  Queen  cast  into  prison  the  rival,  who 
came  imploring  pity.  Soon  after  the  departure  of  Mary 
from  France  there  began  a  civil  war,  which,  like  most  of 
the  great  European  wars  for  a  century  after  the  Reformation, 
was  a  struggle  between  Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics 
<«>  12 


178  •  THE  PURITANS. 

The  English  Queen  sided  with  the  Protestants ;  and  in  1562 
the  Prince  of  Conde,  leader  of  the  Huguenots,  as  the  French 
Protestants  were  called,  put  Havre  into  her  hands.  But  the 
fortress  was  lost  to  England  in  less  than  a  year. 

Those  Protestants  who  had  fled  to  the  Continent  from  the 
flames  of  Smithfield  now  returned.  For  a  time  they  re- 
united themselves  with  the  Church  of  England  ;  but  being 

pressed  to  acknowledge  the  authority  of  Elizabeth 

1566     as  Supreme  Head  of  the  Church,  they  separated 

A.T>.       from  that  body  in  a  few  years.   From  their  desire  to 

establish  a  purer  form  of  worship,  they  received  the 
name  of  Puritans.  They  objected  to  the  surplice  ;  to  the 
sign  of  the  cross  in  baptism ;  to  the  use  of  the  Liturgy ; 
to  the  adornment  of  churches  with  pictures,  statues,  or 
stained  windows ;  and  to  the  government  of  the  Church 
by  bishops.  The  Act  of  Supremacy  and  the  Act  of  Con- 
formity, which  were  passed  soon  after  Elizabeth  came  to 
the  throne,  were  the  chief  causes  of  the  Puritan  seces- 
sion. The  one  required  all  clergymen  and  those  holding 
offices  under  Government  to  take  an  oath,  ascribing  to  Eliza- 
beth all  power  both  in  the  Church  and  State  of  England, 
and  denying  the  right  of  any  foreign  power  to  meddle  with 
English  affairs.  This  law  was  levelled  directly  at  the  Pope, 
who  still  claimed  jurisdiction  in  England.  The  other  for- 
bade under  heavy  penalties  all  worship  except  in  the  estab- 
lished form.  Many  P^omanists  suffered  death  by  these 
laws ;  and  the  Puritans,  who  also  refused  to  be  bound  by 
them,  were  fined  and  imprisoned  in  great  numbers  during 
the  rest  of  this  reign.  Hence  the  Puritans  are  often  called 
Nonconformists. 

For  more  than  eighteen  years  Mary  Stuart  pined  in  an 
English  prison.  In  1568  she  fled  into  England.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  the  first  nobleman  in  Eng- 
land, a  strict  Eomanist,  and  a  man  of  the  best  character, 
offered  her  his  hand  in  marriage.  It  was  a  dangerous  step, 
provoking  the  anger  of  Elizabeth.  He  was  at  once  com- 
mitted to  the  Tower,  but  released  upon  promise  that  he 
would  give  up  his  design  of  marrying  Mary.  However,  two 
years  later,  the  Duke,  tempted  to  renew  his  plots  for  the 
release  of  the  Scottish  Queen,  entered  into  a  secret  corre- 


TRIAL  OF  MARY  STUART.  173 

spondence  with  the  Court  of  Spain.    A  servant,  whom  he 
intrusted  with  a  bag  of  gold  and  a  letter  for  Mary's  friends 
in  Scotland,  carried  both  to  Lord  Burleigh.    Trea- 
sonable papers  were  found  under  the  mats  and  tiles     1572 
of  Norfolk's  house.    He  was  arrested,  tried,  and       A.D. 
executed. 

All  attempts,  by  plot  or  by  treaty,  to  deliver  Mary  from 
her  prison  failed.  The  hearts  of  all  the  Romanists  in  England 
were  in  her  favour,  and  this  made  Elizabeth  dread  her  escape 
exceedingly.  A  plot  to  assassinate  the  Queen  and  place 
Mary  on  the  throne  brought  matters  to  a  crisis.  The  chief 
conspirator  was  Babington,  a  gentleman  of  Derbyshire. 
Letters  were  conveyed  to  the  Scottish  Queen  through  a 
chink  in  the  wall  of  her  prison  by  a  brewer  who  brought 
ale  to  the  household.  These,  with  her  replies,  fell  by  treach- 
ery into  the  hands  of  Walsingham,  Secretary  of  State.  Four- 
teen conspirators  were  arrested  and  executed;  and  it  was 
resolved  to  try  Mary  for  her  share  in  the  plot. 

In  Fotheringay  Castle,  Northamptonshire,  the  trial  took 
place,  before  thirty-six  royal  commissioners.  At  first  Mary 
refused  to  be  tried,  but  afterwards  consented,  lest  her  refusal 
might  seem  to  show  conscious  guilt.  The  chief  charge 
against  her  was  that  she  had  approved  of  the  plot  to  assas- 
sinate Elizabeth.  The  chief  evidence  against  her  was  that 
of  her  two  secretaries,  who  had  been  seized  by  Elizabeth's 
order,  and  who  swore  that  Mary  had  received  from  Babington 
the  letters  produced  on  the  trial ;  and  that  the  answers,  also 
produced,  had  been  written  by  themselves  at  her  command. 
In  her  defence  she  denied  the  charge,  declaring  that  she 
was  innocent  of  everything  but  a  natural  desire  to  regain  her 
freedom.  She  had  no  advocate  to  plead  for  her.  Alone  but 
fearless,  she  stood  before  her  accusers,  her  famous  beauty 
dimmed  by  long  imprisonment.  Clearly  and  readily  she 
replied  to  every  question,  and  demanded  to  be  confronted 
with  the  witnesses.  This  was  refused,  and  soon  after  she 
was  doomed  to  die. 

The  warrant  for  her  execution  was  delayed  by  the  reluc- 
tance— pretended  or  real — of  Elizabeth.  Meanwhile  Henry 
III.  of  France  pleaded  hard  for  the  condemned  Queen. 
James  VI.  of  Scotland,  too,  made  a  feeble  effort  to  save  hia 


180  NAVAL  ENTERPRISE. 

mother.  At  last,  however,  Elizabeth  signed  the  warrant, 
and  sent  her  Secretary,  Davison,  with  it  to  the  Chancellor 
that  it  might  receive  the  great  seal.  Recalling  this  order 
next  day,  she  found  that  she  was  too  late.  The  seal  was 
affixed,  and  the  warrant  was  soon  on  the  way  to  Fotheringay. 
There,  in  one  of  the  castle  halls  in  the  grey  light 

1587  of  a  February  morning  Mary  Stuart,  aged  forty- 
A.D.       five,  was  beheaded.    Whatever  may  have  been  her 

faults  and  follies,  she  received  a  tenfold  punish- 
ment in  the  slow  torture  of  her  nineteen  years'  captivity, 
and  her  violent  death  is  a  foul  stain  on  the  memory  of  the 
great  Elizabeth. 

The  naval  glory  of  England  dawned  in  this  reign ;  and  a 
brilliant  dawn  it  was.  Spain,  Holland,  and  Portugal  had 
led  the  way  into  unknown  seas,  and  England  was  not  back- 
ward in  following  the  example.  Sir  John  Hawkins  traced 
the  coast  of  Guinea.  Martin  Frobisher  braved  the  ice- 
bergs of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Sir  Francis  Drake,  doubling 
Cape  Horn,  crossed  the  broad  Pacific  to  the  shores  of  India, 
and  sailed  home  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ;  thus  win- 
ning the  renown  of  being  the  first  English  commander  who 
sailed  round  the  world.  Sir  "Walter  Raleigh  colonized  the 
American  coast,  and  with  a  courtier's  tact  called  the  settle- 
ment Virginia.  Amid  the  blessings  thus  conferred  upon 
men  evils  unhappily  grew  up.  These  early  navigators  did 
not  hesitate  to  commit  piracy  when  a  Spanish  treasure-ship 
fell  in  their  way.  Then,  too,  began  the  African  slave-trade. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  event  of  Elizabeth's  reign  was  the 
defeat  of  the  Invincible  Armada.  Ever  since  that 

1588  achievement  England  has  been  '  Queen  of  the  Seas.' 
A.D.       The  Armada  was  a  great  fleet  sent  by  Philip  II.  of 

Spain  to  conquer  England.  Philip's  grand  object 
•was  the  destruction  of  Protestantism ;  but,  besides,  he  was 
smarting  under  the  loss  of  many  treasure-ships  ;  and  it  is 
said  that  his  vanity  was  wounded  by  Elizabeth's  refusal  to 
marry  him.  One  hundred  and  thirty  large  ships  left  Lisbon, 
having  on  board  besides  their  crews  nearly  20,000  soldiers 
and  2630  cannons  of  brass.  At  the  same  time  the  Duke  of 
Parma,  an  old  and  skilful  military  officer,  moved  to  the 
coast  of  Flanders  near  Dunkirk,  ready  with  40,000  men  to 


DEFEAT  OF  THE  ARMADA.  181 

Bcconcl  the  invasion.  The  admiral  of  the  Armada  was  the 
Duke  of  Medina  Sidonia,  who  was  elected  to  that  post  upon 
the  sudden  death  of  the  first  appointed  leader,  Santa  Croce. 
The  royal  navy  of  England  then  consisted  of  only  thirty-six 
sail,  and  these  of  small  size.  But  nobles,  merchants,  citi- 
zens, came  with  their  money  to  the  Queen,  and  equipped 
vessels  at  their  own  expense.  A  fleet  of  140  ships  soon  rode 
on  the  English  waters ;  and,  though  the  vessels  were  small, 
the  best  seamen  and  the  bravest  hearts  in  England  were  on 
board.  Lord  Howard  of  Effingham  was  the  admiral;  and 
under  him  served  Drake,  Hawkins,  and  Frobisher.  The 
English  army,  consisting  of  70,000  ill-trained  soldiers,  waa 
divided  into  three  parts :  one  guarded  the  southern  coast, 
another  was  stationed  at  Tilbury  to  defend  the  capital,  while 
the  third  was  reserved  to  oppose  the  landing. 

Storms  delayed  the  Armada,  but  at  length  the  English 
admiral  stationed  at  Plymouth  saw  them  on  the  horizon, 
stretching  in  a  crescent  form  seven  miles  broad.  At  once 
Effingham  sailed  out  to  meet  them,  and,  keeping  at  a  dis- 
tance, lest  the  Spaniards  might  board  his  vessels,  poured  in 
his  shot  with  great  effect.  The  Spaniards  replied  with 
heavy  guns;  but  from  the  height  of  their  decks  their 
shot  passed  clear  over  the  English  ships.  Slowly  the  Ar- 
mada bore  up  the  Channel  towards  Calais,  the  English 
fleet  following.  Off  Calais  they  anchored,  waiting  for  the 
Duke  of  Parma ;  but  eight  fire-ships,  sent  amongst  them  by 
the  English  admiral,  caused  them  to  cut  their  cables  in  alarm. 
Effingham  was  not  the  man  to  lose  the  golden  moment.  He 
fell  at  once  upon  the  disordered  fleet,  and  destroyed  twelve 
ships.  The  great  Armada  was  now  in  full  flight.  They 
could  not  return  by  the  Straits  of  Dover,  for  the  wind  was 
against  them,  and  the  English  ships  lay  in  the  adjacent  har- 
bours. The  only  way  to  Spain  lay  through  the  Pentlaud 
Frith,  and  the  storms  of  those  wild  seas  completed  the  ruin. 
The  Orkneys,  the  Hebrides,  the  coasts  of  Mayo  and  Kerry, 
were  strewn  with  the  wrecks  of  the  ill-fated  vessels.  Fifty- 
three  shattered  hulks  reached  Spain. 

During  forty  years  of  her  reign  Elizabeth  was  guided  by 
the  advice  of  Lord  Burleigh,  a  wise  and  cool-tempered  states- 
man. He  rose  to  be  Lord  Treasurer,  and  by  his  policy  greatly 


182  THE  EARL  OF  ESSEX. 

increased  the  revenue  of  the  kingdom.  He  died  in  1598. 
Sir  Francis  Walsingham,  too,  as  Secretary  of  State,  enjoyed 
much  of  Elizabeth's  favour.  The  chief  favourite  of  her 
middle  life  was  the  Earl  of  Leicester,  in  whose  breast  her 
evident  fondness  kindled  the  ambitious  hope  that  she  meant 
to  marry  him.  This  ambition  and  its  evil  effects  form  the 
groundwork  of  Scott's  tale  of  '  Kenilworth,'  of  which  castle 
Leicester  was  lord. 

But  the  favourite  of  her  old  age  deserves  a  longer  notice. 
This  was  the  rash  and  daring  Earl  of  Essex.  In  1589  he 
joined  an  expedition  which  vainly  attempted  to  seat  An- 
tonio on  the  throne  of  Portugal  Again  in  1597  he  led  the 
English  soldiers  to  the  capture  of  Cadiz.  The  Queen  was 
very  fond  of  him,  and  forgave  him  much.  Once,  disputing 
with  her  about  the  choice  of  a  governor  for  Ireland,  he  turned 
his  back  upon  her  with  scorn.  She  promptly  gave  him  a 
box  on  the  ear ;  and  then,  forgetting  that  she  was  a  woman 
and  a  Queen,  he  laid  his  hand  on  his  sword,  and  declared 
that  he  would  not  have  taken  such  usage  even  from  her 
father.  In  spite  of  this  he  was  appointed  to  command 
the  English  forces  in  Ireland,  where  Hugh  O'Neill,  Earl  of 
Tyrone,  was  in  rebellion.  Not  succeeding,  he  returned  to 
England  without  the  Queen's  leave,  was  disgraced,  and  im- 
prisoned. But  the  fondness  of  Elizabeth  soon  gave  him 
liberty  again ;  and  then  with  the  Earl  of  Southampton  he 
strove  to  raise  the  Londoners  in  revolt.  For  this  he  was 
tried  and  condemned  to  death.  He  might  still  have  been 
pardoned,  if  a  ring  given  to  him  by  the  Queen  in  some 

moment  of  tenderness,  to  be  sent  to  her  when  any 

1601     danger  hung  over  him,  had  reached  her  hand.    It 

A.D.       never  came,  and  he  was  beheaded  in  the  Tower, 

aged  thirty-four. 

Some  two  years  later,  the  Queen  was  entreated  to  visit 
the  Countess  of  Nottingham,  who  was  dying.  This  lady 
confessed  that  Essex  had  intrusted  the  ring  to  her  to 
be  carried  to  Elizabeth ;  but  that  she,  influenced  by  her 
husband,  a  bitter  enemy  of  the  Earl,  had  not  delivered  it. 
Rage  and  grief  seized  the  Queen ;  and  it  is  said  that  she 
shook  the  dying  Countess  in  her  bed.  Never  happy  since 
the  death  of  Essex,  she  sank  under  this  blow.  Ten  days 


CHARACTER  OF  ELIZABETH.  183 

and  nights  she  lay  on  cushions  on  the  floor,  taking  neither 
food  nor  medicine ;  and  then,  falling  into  a  heavy  sleep,  she 
died.  She  was  in  her  seventieth  year. 

Firm,  resolute,  watchful,  and  self- controlled,  Elizabeth  as 
a  Queen  has  had  few  equals  among  the  sovereigns  of  Eng- 
land. She  was  extravagant  in  nothing  but  dress,  and  she 
thus  was  able  to  pay  off  heavy  debts  left  owing  by  her  pre- 
decessors. Her  temper  was  violent,  and  she  desired  to  be 
absolute  Queen ;  but  she  knew  her  people,  and  if  she 
found  that  she  had  asked  too  much,  she  prudently  with- 
drew her  demand.  Her  conduct  when  the  Parliament  of 
1601  opposed  the  monopolies,  which  for  forty  years  she  had 
been  granting,  serves  to  show  her  wisdom.  She  had  granted 
these  unjust  patents  by  scores.  Such  things  as  iron,  oil, 
coal,  starch,  leather,  and  glass,  could  be  had  only  from  the 
privileged  dealers,  who  charged  immense  prices.  When  the 
Queen  saw  the  temper  of  the  people,  '  she  declined  the  con- 
test, put  herself  at  the  head  of  the  reforming  party,  thanked 
the  Commons  in  touching  and  dignified  language  for  their 
tender  care  of  the  general  weal,  and  brought  back  to  herself 
the  hearts  of  the  people.'  Vanity  was  her  great  fault ;  and 
the  picture  drawn  by  historians  of  '  Good  Queen  Bess,'  as 
she  has  been  called,  coquetting  in  her  old  age  with  Raleigh 
and  Essex,  and  believing  all  their  tender  speeches,  makes 
her  rather  ridiculous  in  our  eyes. 

The  reign  of  Elizabeth  is  one  of  the  brightest  periods  of 
our  literature.  Then  Edmund  Spenser  wrote  the  'Faerie 
Queen'  among  the  woods  of  Kilcolman;  then  flourished 
Philip  Sydney,  author  of  a  prose  romance  called  '  Arcadia ;' 
then  were  written  the  plays  of  William  Shakspere ;  then 
the  early  studies  of  Francis  Bacon  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  modern  philosophy. 

The  English  newspaper  dates  from  this  reign.  The  Ve- 
netians, at  war  with  the  Turks  in  1536,  had  printed  a  sheet 
called  '  Gazetta,'  from  the  small  coin  for  which  it  was  sold. 
A  similar  sheet  was  published  in  England  while  the  Armada 
was  off  our  shores  in  July  1588.  It  was  called  the  '  English 
Mercurie,'  and  is  still  preserved  in  the  British  Museum. 

The  rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic  under  William  of  Nas- 
sau, Prince  of  Orange,  and  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew 


184 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  MANUFACTURES. 


in  France  (1572),  were  important  continental  events  during 
Elizabeth's  reign.  Both  were  connected  with  the  Reforma- 
tion, The  alliance  of  Elizabeth  contributed  much  to  the 
triumph  of  William.  The  massacres  in  France  and  the 
cruelties  of  Alva  in  the  Netherlands  drove  hundreds  of 
work-people  to  settle  in  Britain.  Those  from  France  were 
skilled  in  silk- weaving ;  those  from  Flanders  were  chiefly 
dyers  and  dressers  of  woollen  cloth ;  and  a  marked  improve- 
ment in  these  two  branches  of  our  manufactures  may  thus 
be  traced  to  the  persecution  of  the  Protestants. 

CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


SCOTLAND.  A.TX 

MAEY, M...,...detlironed  1567 

JAMES  VI. 

FRANCE. 

HENEY  II., died  1559 

FRANCIS  II., 1560 

CHARLES  IX., 1574 

HENEY  HI., 1589 

HENEY  IV. 

SPAIN. 

PHILIP  H., 1598 

PHILIP  HI. 

TURKEY. 

SOLYMAN  I., 1566 

SELIM  II., 1574 

AMUEATH  III., 1595 

MOHAMMED  in. 


EMPERORS.  A.D. 

PEEDINAND  I., died  1564 

MAXIMILIAN  II., 1576 

EODOLPH  H. 


POPES. 

PAULIV., 1559 

PIUSIV., 1566 

PIUSV., 1572 

GEEGOEY  XIIL, 1585 

SIXTHS  V., 1590 

GEEGOEYXIV., 1590 

GEEGOEYXV 1591 

INNOCENT  IX., 1593 

CLEMENT  VHI. 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  STUARTS.  185 

CHAPTER  VI. 

STUART  SOVEREIGNS  OF  SCOTLAND. 
From  1370  A.D.  to  1603  A.D.— 233  years.— 9  Sovereigns. 

A.D. 

ROBERT  n.  (grandson  of  Robert  Bruce), 1370 

ROBERT  in.  (son), 1390 

JAMES  I.  (second  son), 1406 

JAMES  II.  (only  son),... 1437 

JAMES  HI.  (son), 1460 

JAMES  IV.  (son), I486 

JAMES  V.  (son), ~ 1513 

MARY  (daughter), 1542 

JAMES  VI.  and  I.  of  England  (son), 1567 

Union  of  the  crowns  of  England  and  Scotland, 1603 


Battle  of  Chevy-Chase. 
Highland  combat  at  Perth. 
Battle  of  Harlaw. 
Good  laws  of  James  I. 
Battle  of  Sauchie  Burn. 
Battle  of  Flodden. 


Patrick  Hamilton. 
George  Wishart. 
Preaching  of  Knox. 
Mary  dethroned. 
Gowrie  conspiracy. 


FROM  the  marriage  of  Marjory  Bruce,  daughter  of  the  great 
Robert,  with  Walter  the  Steward  of  Scotland,  sprang  the 
line  of  Stuart  monarchs.    Their  son,  Robert  II.,  was  the 
first  of  the  famous  but  unhappy  race.    During  his 
reign  was  fought  the  battle  of  Chevy-Chase  between     1388 
the  Percies  and  the  Douglases.    The  scene  of  the      A.D. 
battle  was  Otterbourne,  a  village  of  Redesdale  near 
Newcastle.    The  victory  of  the  Scots  was  dearly  bought  by 
the  death  of  Earl  Douglas.    Robert-IT.  died  in  1390. 

His  son  John  then  assumed  the  sceptre  under  the  name 
of  Robert  III. ;  for  Baliol  had  been  called  John,  and  the 
name  was  ominous  of  evil.  He  was  a  gentle  prince,  and  of 
delicate  health,  having  been  lamed  in  his  youth  by  the  kick 
of  a  horse.  His  brother  Albany,  therefore,  managed  the 
affairs  of  state.  Robert's  eldest  son,  David  of  Rothesay,  a 
wild  and  headstrong  prince,  defied  the  power  of  Albany ; 
but  the  Regent  was  more  than  a  match  for  the  reckless  boy, 
who  was  imprisoned  in  Falkland  Castle,  and  there  starved 


186  WISDOM  OF  JAMES  I. 

to  death.  A  well-known  event  of  this  reign  was  the  combat 
on  the  North  Inch  of  Perth  between  the  clans  Kay  and 
Chattan.  Thirty  were  selected  on  each  side  ;  but  at  the 
hour  appointed  one  of  the  clan  Chattan  was  missing.  Henry 
Gow,  a  smith  of  Perth,  offered  to  fill  the  vacant  place  for 
half  a  merk.  When  the  fight  was  over,  all  the  sixty  save 
one  lay  dead  or  wounded.  The  Lowlands  were  thus  re- 
lieved from  some  of  their  deadliest  Highland  foes.  These 
events  are  embodied  in  Scott's  tale, '  The  Fair  Maid  of  Perth.' 
To  save  his  surviving  son  James  from  the  schemes  of  Al- 
bany, Robert  sent  him  to  France ;  but  the  vessel  was  board- 
ed by  the  sailors  of  Henry  IV.,  and  James,  a  boy  of  four- 
teen, was  lodged  in  the  Tower  of  London.  This  loss  killed 
the  gentle  Robert,  who  died  at  Rothesay,  1406  A.D. 

James  remained  in  England  for  nineteen  years,  during 
thirteen  of  which  Albany  was  Regent.  The  chief  events 
were  the  martyrdom  of  John  Resby  at  Perth,  in  1407,  for 
Lollardism  ;  and  the  battle  of  Harlaw  in  1411,  which  de- 
cided the  superiority  of  the  Scottish  Kings  over  the  Lords 
of  the  Isles.  Albany  died  in  1419,  leaving  the  Regency  to 
his  son  Murdoch,  under  whose  weak  rule  nobles  and  people 
fell  into  the  wildest  disorder.  In  this  condition  James  I.  found 
his  subjects  when  in  1424  he  returned  to  his  country.  His 
captivity  had  been  of  great  use  to  him.  He  had  studied  the 
English  laws  and  constitution,  and  had  acquired  great  excel- 
lence in  poetry  and  music.  The  worst  evil  he  had  now  to 
grapple  with  was  the  utter  contempt  of  law,  which  pervaded 
all  classes.  But  he  resolutely  set  himself  to  his  toilsome  work. 
Many  of  the  best  English  laws  relating  to  wages,  weights 
and  measures,  and  police,  were  enacted  in  his  Parliaments, 
drawn  up  in  the  spoken  language  of  the  land.  Regular 
taxes  were  levied ;  and  large  estates,  foolishly  given  away 
during  the  late  reigns,  were  reclaimed.  This  was  the  most 
dangerous  part  of  his  task ;  and  to  enforce  obedience  he  was 
compelled  to  put  many  nobles  to  death.  But  the  day  of  his 
usefulness  was  soon  over.  A  band  of  conspirators  broke  into 
the  Monastery  of  the  Blackfriars  at  Perth,  where  he  was 
keeping  the  Christmas  of  1437,  and  murdered  him  in  a  vault 
below  the  flooring  of  his  chamber,  into  which  he  had  leaped 
'  for  safety. 


FAVOURITES  OF  JAMES  III.  187 

James  II.  was  only  six  years  old  when  his  father  died 
During  his  minority  three  factions  convulsed  the  land.  From 
one  to  the  other  the  boy-King  was  passed  by  the  changes  in 
the  strife ;  but  at  length  the  house  of  Douglas  became 
ascendant,  and  at  one  time  threatened  to  overturn  the  throne 
of  the  Stuarts.  To  break  the  power  of  his  dreaded  foe, 
James  stooped  to  murder.  He  invited  the  Earl  to  dine 
with  him  at  Stirling  ;  and,  when  the  meal  was  over,  while 
they  were  conversing  in  an  inner  room,  he  slew  his  guest 
with  his  own  hand.  From  this  crime  sprang  a  war  with 
England,  during  which  James  was  killed  by  the  bursting  of 
a  cannon  at  the  siege  of  Koxburgh  Castle.  Cannon  were 
quite  new  to  the  Scots,  and  were  then  made  of  iron  bars 
bound  together  with  hoops. 

Once  more  Scotland  was  plunged  into  the  horrors  of  a 
minority,  for  James  III.  "was  now  only  eight  years  of  age.  The 
Boyds  and  the  Hamiltons  disturbed  the  peace  of  the  land 
by  their  constant  feuds.  When  James  grew  up,  he  displayed 
a  feeble  and  indolent  character,  and  that  worst  vice  of  a  sove- 
reign,— a  desire  to  abandon  all  cares  of  government  to  un- 
worthy favourites.  The  nobles  saw  with  anger  an  architect, 
a  dancing-master,  and  a  tailor,  enjoying  the  confidence  of 
their  King.  At  length  they  seized  Robert  Cochrane,  whom 
they  scornfully  called  the '  mason,'  and  hanged  him  with  five 
others  on  the  bridge  of  Lauder.  They  soon  broke  out  in 
revolt,  headed  by  the  King's  eldest  son,  Prince  James,  and 
encouraged  by  Henry  VII.  of  England.  A  battle  was  fought 
at  Sauchie  Burn  in  Stirlingshire,  where  James  was  worsted. 
While  galloping  from  the  field,  he  was  thrown  from  his  horse 
and,  while  he  lay  helpless  in  a  cottage  close  by,  he  was  stabbed 
to  the  heart  by  a  straggler  from  the  battle-field. 

James  IV.  now  held  the  throne.  The  leading  events  of 
his  history  are, — his  protection  of  Perkin  Warbeck ;  his 
marriage  in  1503  with  Margaret,  eldest  daughter  of  Henry 
VII. ;  and  the  battle  of  Flodden  in  1513. 

The  immediate  cause  of  the  war  which  ended  in  the  battle 
of  Flodden  was  an  attack  by  the  English  upon  the  ships  of 
Andrew  Barton,  a  Scottish  merchant.  Barton  was  killed, 
and  his  ship,  the  Lion,  carried  as  a  prize  into  the  Thames. 
The  Earl  of  Surrey  headed  the  English  troops.  The  armies 


188  BATTLE  OF  FLODDEN. 

came  face  to  face  on  the  banks  of  the  Till,  a  tributary  of  the 
Tweed.  James  was  strongly  posted  on  Flodden  Hill,  a  spur 
of  the  Cheviot  range.  It  was  the  9th  of  September  1513. 
The  grand  mistake  committed  by  James  was  allowing  the 
English  to  cross  the  Till  unharmed,  when  with  his  artillery 
he  might  have  torn  their  battalions  to  fragments  as  they 
were  crowding  over  the  narrow  bridge.  The  error  was  never 
retrieved.  From  four  in  the  afternoon  till  the  night  fell  the 
battle  raged ;  but  the  Scots  were  totally  defeated.  James 
and  thirteen  of  his  Earls  lay  dead  among  heaps  of  the  hum- 
bler slain. 

A  long  minority  again  convulsed  unhappy  Scotland. 
Struggles  for  the  Regency  among  the  leading  nobles  filled  up 
fifteen  stormy  years.  Again  the  Douglases  became  keepers 
of  the  King  ;  but  in  1528  young  James  stole  from  Falkland 
Palace,  where  he  was  closely  watched,  and,  fleeing  to  Stir- 
ling Castle,  took  the  government  into  his  own  hands. 

An  event  of  deeper  interest  marks  the  year  1528.  The 
first  of  those  noble  men  whose  names  may  be  read  on  the 
Martyrs'  Monument  of  St.  Andrews — Patrick  Hamilton, 
Henry  Forrest,  George  Wishart,  and  Walter  Mill — then  suf- 
fered death  by  fire  in  defence  of  the  Protestant  faith.  The 
leaven  of  the  Reformation  was  working  fast,  and  vainly 
James  strove  to  destroy  its  rising  power.  In  order  to  cement 
his  alliance  with  the  Romanists  of  France,  he  chose  Mary  of 
Guise  to  be  his  second  wife. 

A  quarrel  with  England  closed  the  reign  of  James  V. 
Henry  VIII.  strove  to  persuade  the  Scottish  King  to  assist 
him  in  his  schemes  against  Popery,  but  met  with  a  refusal. 
Henry  declared  war.  James  was  at  Fala  Moor  when  his 
nobles  turned  against  him,  and  refused  to  fight.  Ten  thou- 
sand Scots  were  led  to  the  Esk  by  Oliver  Sinclair  ;  but  they 
fled  before  three  hundred  English  horsemen.  James  reached 
Falkland,  and  lay  down  to  die  of  vexation.  A  low  fever 
wasted  him  away,  and  he  drew  his  last  breath  only  a  few 
days  after  his  daughter— the  celebrated  Mary  Queen  of 
Scots — was  born. 

The  most  prominent  men  in  Scotland  at  this  time  were 
Cardinal  Beaton,  the  relentless  persecutor  of  the  Protestants  ; 
and  the  Earl  of  Arran,  who  proved  a  renegade  from  the  Pro- 


JOHN  KNOX.  189 

testant  faith.  Both  sought  the  Regency  ;  Arran  gained  it. 
But  their  enmity  was  laid  aside,  while  they  united  in  the 
hopeless  attempt  to  restore  the  power  of  the  Romish  Church 
in  Scotland.  George  Wishart,  the  last  victim  of  Beaton's 
bigotry,  suffered  at  St.  Andrews  in  March  1546.  Within  a 
few  yards  of  the  spot  where  the  ashes  of  the  martyr  had  lain 
black,  Beaton  was  slain  two  months  later  by  James  Mel- 
ville, who  with  Norman  Leslie  and  others  forced  their  way 
through  the  Castle  into  the  Cardinal's  chamber. 

Henry  VIII.  desired  a  marriage  between  his  son  Edward 
and  the  young  Mary ;  but  the  Scottish  nation  withstood  his 
wish.  Even  their  defeat  at  Pinkie  after  his  death  failed  to 
force  them  into  the  alliance. 

The  girl-Queen,  sent  for  safety  to  her  mother's  land,  mar- 
ried there  the  Dauphin  Francis,  afterwards  King  of  France ; 
but  his  early  death  compelled  her  to  return  to  Scotland  in 
1561.  She  had  been  educated  as  a  Romanist,  in  the  gay 
and  frivolous  court  of  France.  Her  Scottish  subjects  had 
begun  to  look  with  horror  upon  tastes  and  habits  which  she 
thought  harmless  and  pleasant.  The  master-spirit  of  the 
nation  was  John  Knox,  the  pupil  of  Wishart  and  the  com- 
panion of  Calvin. 

Born  in  1505,  and  educated  as  a  Romish  priest,  Knox  was 
thirty-eight  when  he  was  converted  to  Protestantism.  At 
St.  Andrews  he  preached  his  first  Protestant  sermon.  Seized 
by  the  Regent  and  sent  to  France,  he  was  condemned  to  the 
galleys  for  life ;  but  God  had  decreed  otherwise.  After 
nineteen  months  his  chains  were  loosed,  at  the  request  of 
Edward  VI.,  in  whose  court  he  lived  for  some  time.  The 
persecution  of  Protestants  under  Mary  I.  of  England  drove 
him  once  more  to  the  Continent.  Through  years  of  exile 
and  bondage  he  cherished  the  hope  of  again  preaching 
the  pure  Gospel  at  St.  Andrews,  long  the  fortress  of  the 
Romish  faith  in  Scotland.  His  hope  was  realized.  On  the 
10th  of  June  1559  from  the  cathedral  pulpit  of  that  ancient 
city  he  poured  forth  his  fiery  eloquence  against  the  Romish 
idolatry.  The  power  of  the  Gospel  struck  through  the  land 
like  an  electric  shock.  Throughout  all  Fife,  and  soon  through- 
out all  Scotland,  images  were  broken,  altars  were  shivered, 
mass-books  were  torn,  priestly  vestments  were  rent  into 


190  MARY  QUEEN  OF  SCOTS. 

shreds.  He  afterwards  boldly  denounced  the  celebration  of 
mass  in  the  chapel-royal  of  Holyrood. 

The  gulf  between  Mary  and  her  people  grew  wider.  Her 
private  life  was  open  to  suspicion.  By  her  marriage  with 
Lord  Darnley  she  lost  favour  with  her  natural  brother,  the 
Earl  of  Moray,  once  Prior  of  St.  Andrews,  and  now  leader 
of  the  Protestant  party.  Then  followed  her  fondness  for 
David  Rizzio,  a  musician  ;  which  excited  the  jealousy  of 
Darnley,  and  thus  led  to  the  murder  of  the  Italian  in  Holy- 
rood.  Her  son,  afterwards  King  James  VI.,  was  born  in 
1566.  In  the  following  February  her  husband,  Darnley, 
was  murdered  in  the  Kirk  of  Field ;  the  house — a  lonely 
building  standing  where  the  College  of  Edinburgh  now  rises 
— being  blown  up  at  midnight.  Bothwell  was  strongly  sus- 
pected of  the  crime ;  and  yet,  two  months  later,  Mary  mar- 
ried him.  Whether  the  Queen  was  guilty  or  not  of  the 
crimes  laid  to  her  charge — and  that  can  now  be  known  only 
to  the  great  Searcher  of  hearts— these  events  estranged  from 
her  the  affections  of  her  people.  The  nobles  took  up  arms. 
Having  surrendered  at  Carberry  Hill,  Mary  was 
1567  dethroned,  and  imprisoned  in  the  Castle  of  Loch- 

A.D.  leven.  Bothwell  fled  to  Orkney,  thence  to  Den- 
mark ;  where,  ten  years  later,  he  died  mad  and  in 
prison. 

Moray  became  Regent  for  the  infant  James.  Mary,  escap- 
ing from  her  prison  by  the  aid  of  Willie  Douglas,  put  her- 
self at  the  head  of  the  Romish  nobles,  and  at  Langside 
near  Glasgow  made  a  desperate  and  final  struggle  for  her 
crown.  In  vain.  As  a  last  resource  she  fled  to  England, 
and  threw  herself  on  the  compassion  of  Elizabeth,  in  whose 
reign  the  rest  of  her  sad  story  may  be  read. 

For  three  years  Moray,  known  as  the  Good  Regent,  held 
pfiwer.  He  was  shot  by  Hamilton  of  Bothwellhaugh,  from 
a  window  in  the  main  street  of  Linlithgow  (January  23, 
1570).  The  Earls  of  Lennox,  Mar,  and  Morton,  were  then 
Regents  in  succession.  In  the  latter  part  of  1572  John 
Knox  died.  James  VI.,  educated  by  the  celebrated  George 
Buchanan,  grew  up  a  man  of  learning,  but  a  pedant.  He 
married  Anne,  daughter  of  the  Danish  King.  He  strove 
vainly  to  overthrow  Presbyteriauism  and  to  establish  Pre- 


POYNINGB'  LAW.  191 

lacy  in  Scotland.  The  strange  Gowrie  conspiracy  was  the 
most  striking  event  of  the  reigii.  While  hunting  at  Falk- 
land, the  King  was  induced  to  visit  Gowrie  House  by  a 
false  story,  that  a  man  carrying  a  pot  of  foreign  gold  had 
been  arrested  near  Perth.  He  was  well  received  and  enter- 
tained by  Earl  Gowrie ;  but  after  dinner,  in  a  small  room, 
he  was  seized  by  the  Earl's  brother,  Alexander  Ruthven, 
who  strove  to  tie  his  hands.  James  struggled  and  cried  for 
help.  Three  of  his  attendants  burst  in.  Ruthven  was  slain ; 
and  the  Earl,  who  upon  hearing  the  noise  rushed  in  sword 
in  hand,  met  the  same  fate.-  The  whole  story  is  wrapped  in 
mystery. 

The  death  of  Elizabeth  in  1603  made  James  the  unques- 
tioned King  of  the  whole  island.  Sir  Robert  Carey  rode  to 
Edinburgh  with  the  news.  The  Queen  died  at  Richmond 
on  Thursday  morning  at  three  o'clock,  and  he  reached  Holy- 
rood  on  Saturday  evening. 

IRELAND  FROM   1370  A.D.   TO   1603  A.D. 

Poynings'  law.  I        Tyrone's  rebellion. 

Sir  John  Perrot.  Romanism  in  Ireland. 

Richard  II.  visited  Ireland  twice  to  quell  the  rebellious 
natives ;  but,  worn  out  by  constant  feuds,  they  yielded  at 
once.  Through  all  these  dark  years  few  merchant  ships 
were  to  be  seen  in  the  fine  harbours  of  the  Irish  coast. 
Hides  and  fish  were  almost  the  only  exports. 

The  nobles  of  Ireland  sided  chiefly  with  the  House  of 
York  in  the  wars  of  the  Roses.  Hence  the  two  impostors, 
who  endeavoured  to  dethrone  Henry  VII. ,  chose  Ireland  as 
a  fitting  stage  for  their  first  appearance.  The  Tudors  had 
but  little  hold  over  these  unruly  Barons,  until  in  1495  Poy- 
nings' law  was  passed.  This  law,  which  derived  its  name 
from  the  Lord-Deputy  who  then  governed  the  island,  gave 
the  English  sovereign  complete  control  over  the  Parliament 
of  Ireland.  It  enacted,  1.  That  no  Irish  Parliament  could 
be  held  without  the  consent  of  the  English  sovereign ; 
2.  That  no  law  should  be  brought  forward  in  Ireland  unless 
it  had  been  previously  submitted  to  him ;  3.  That  all  Eng- 
lish laws  lately  passed  should  be  of  force  in  Ireland. 


192  TYRONE'S  REBELLION  IN  IRELAND. 

The  feuds  of  the  Fitzgeralds  and  the  Butlers  distracted 
the  land  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  by  whom  in  1541 
Ireland  was  raised  from  a  lordship  to  a  kingdom,  many  of 
the  chiefs  being  honoured  with  the  title  of  Earl. 

Under  Elizabeth  the  Protestant  religion  was  established 
in  Ireland.  The  spirit  of  the  natives  was  intensely  Popish, 
and  strong  resistance  was  made ;  but  she  bent  the  Parliament 
to  her  will.  Sir  John  Perrot,  made  Deputy  in  1584,  proposed 
to  develop  the  resources  of  the  island  by  making  roads  and 
building  bridges.  This  true  and  wise  policy  was  then  re- 
jected; but  years  afterwards  the  hint  was  turned  to  good 
account 

In  1595,  the  thirty-seventh  year  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  the 
last  grand  struggle  began.  Hugh  O'Neill,  Earl  of  Tyrone, 
rose  in  revolt.  Under  the  cloak  of  friendship  towards  Eng- 
land he  had  long  been  maturing  his  plans.  In  1599  he  won 
a  great  battle,  which  laid  Munster  at  his  feet.  He  looked 
for  help  to  Spain,  the  leading  Romish  power  in  Europe.  The 
Earl  of  Essex  took  the  field  against  him  without  success. 
The  glory  of  overthrowing  the  great  rebel,  and  thus  com- 
pleting the  conquest  of  Ireland,  was  reserved  for  Lord 
Mountjoy.  A  band  of  Spaniards  landed  at  Kinsale  to  aid 
Tyrone,  but  were  hemmed  in  by  the  active  Deputy.  O'Neill, 
marching  to  the  rescue,  was  met  and  routed,  upon  which 
his  foreign  allies  thought  best  to  surrender.  The  rebellion 
of  Tyrone  ended  thus  in  1602,  having  lasted  for  seven 
years. 

Irish  history  in  these  days,  and  indeed  up  to  the  opening 
of  the  present  century,  presents  a  sad  picture.  To  the  hatred 
between  Celts  and  Saxons  there  was  added  the  discord  be- 
tween Romanists  and  Protestants.  Ireland  has  been,  ever 
since  the  Reformation,  one  of  the  chief  strongholds  of  Ro- 
manism ;  and  the  backward  condition  of  the  southern  and 
western  districts  is  owing,  without  doubt,  to  the  ignor- 
ance in  which  that  system  loves  to  keep  the  masses  of  the 
people. 


DWELLINGS  OF  THE  PEOPLE.  193 

CHAPTER  VII. 

SOCIAL  CONDITION  OF  THE  PEOPLE  UNDER  THE  TUDORS. 


State  of  the  nation. 
Houses  and  furniture. 
Style  of  living. 
Dre»s. 
Out-door  sports. 


In-door  amusements. 
Christmas  and  May-day. 
Witchcraft,  Astrology,  Alchymy. 
Commerce. 

Learning. 


BEFORE  the  English  Reformation  crime  was  fearfully  com- 
mon. In  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  about  two  thousand 
persons  were  hanged  every  year  for  robbery  alone.  In  the 
days  of  Elizabeth  the  number  was  reduced  to  three  or  four 
hundred  a  year.  This  remarkable  change  was,  without 
doubt,  owing  to  the  diffusion  of  God's  Word  among  all 
classes.  In  the  fifth  year  of  Elizabeth  the  first  law  to 
relieve  the  poor  was  passed.  The  population  was  then 
under  five  millions ;  and  the  Queen's  revenue  cannot  have 
exceeded  £500,000  a  year.  The  highest  legal  interest  was 
10  per  cent.  Most  of  the  silver  coins  now  current  were  in 
use,  crowns,  half-crowns,  and  sixpences  having  been  issued 
by  Edward  VI. 

The  Tudor  style  of  architecture  was  also  called  Florid, 
from  the  profusion  of  ornament  on  the  buildings.  Henry 
the  Seventh's  Chapel  at  Westminster  is  a  good  example  of 
the  style.  Brick  and  stone  were  beginning  to  be  used  in  the 
houses  of  the  great,  and  glass  windows  became  common. 
The  poor  lived  in  hovels  made  of  wattles  plastered  over  with 
clay.  The  fire  was  in  the  middle  of  the  floor,  and  the  smoke 
escaped  through  a  hole  in  the  blackened  roof.  This  was  the 
case  in  all  houses  until  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  when  chim- 
neys began  to  be  built.  Erasmus,  a  Professor  of  Greek  in 
Oxford  under  Henry  VEIL,  gives  no  pleasant  description  of 
the  floors  of  the  poorer  houses.  He  says :  '  The  floors  are 
commonly  of  clay  strewed  with  rushes ;  under  which  lies 
unmolested  an  ancient  collection  of  beer,  grease,  fragments, 
bones,  spittal,  and  everything  that  is  nasty.'  To  these  un- 
cleanly habits  were  owing  the  terrible  plagues  that  fell  upon 
the  people.  In  Elizabeth's  time,  however,  houses  were  built 
chiefly  of  oak.  Then,  too,  many  changes  were  made  in  fur- 

(32)  13 


194  ARTICLES  OF  FOOD. 

niture.  Bedding  was  much  improved.  In  early  Tudor 
reigns  a  straw  pallet,  a  coarse  sheet  and  rug,  and  a  log  of 
wood  for  a  bolster,  were  commonly  used.  The  man  who  ky 
on  a  pillow  of  chaff  was  thought  luxurious.  Servants  lay 
on  bare  straw.  Before  Elizabeth  reigned,  all  dishes  and 
spoons  were  wooden,  or,  as  they  were  called, '  treene.'  But, 
then,  pewter  platters  and  silver  or  tin  spoons  came  into  use 
among  farmers  and  those  of  the  same  class.  The  pewter 
dishes  were  at  first  flat,  but  were  afterwards  made  deeper 
and  more  like  basins.  About  the  year  1580  coaches  were 
introduced :  before  that  time  ladies  rode  on  a  pillion  behind 
their  chief  servants,  whom  they  held  by  the  belt. 

Hops  were  now  first  grown  in  England.  Cabbages, 
cherries,  gooseberries,  plums,  apricots,  and  grapes  might 
be  now  seen  in  English  gardens.  Wheaten  bread  was 
eaten  more  generally,  rye  and  barley  being  the  food  only 
of  the  poor.  Potatoes  were  brought  by  Sir  Francis 
Drake  from  Santa  Fe  in  America,  and  were  first  planted 
in  Lancashire.  They  were  introduced  into  Ireland  by 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  Raleigh  also  brought  tobacco  from 
the  West  Indian  island  Tobago,  and  taught  the  English 
its  use.  Beef  and  mutton  sold  in  the  time  of  Henry 
VIII.  for  a  halfpenny  per  pound ;  veal  and  pork  for 
three  farthings.  But  fresh  meat  was  not  eaten  even  by 
gentlemen,  except  from  Midsummer  to  Michaelmas.  The 
families  of  the  nobles  and  gentry  still  dined  in  the  great 
hall  with  all  the  servants.  Halfway  down  the  table 
stood  a  large  salt-cellar  of  silver  or  pewter.  Above  this 
sat  the  master,  his  family,  and  guests;  below  it  were 
retainers  and  servants  of  all  degrees.  The  nobles  kept  up 
princely  style.  The  Earl  of  Leicester,  who  owned  Kenil- 
worth  Castle,  kept  there  arms  for  10,000  men.  There  in 
1576  he  entertained  Elizabeth  for  seventeen  days  with  the 
most  splendid  feasts  and  shows.  Lord  Burleigh,  though  a 
self-made  noble,  had  a  train  of  twenty  gentlemen,  each  worth 
.£1000  a  year,  besides  numerous  under-servants. 

The  country  folk  wore  a  doublet  of  russet-brown  leather. 
But  the  court  fashions  were,  like  those  of  our  own  day, 
always  changing.  The  courtiers  of  Henry  VIII.  stuffed 
their  clothes  as  the  King  grew  fat,  in  order  that  their  figures 


TUDOR  COSTUMES.  195 

might  resemble  his.  Queen  Catherine  Howard  introduced 
pins  from  -France ;  and,  as  these  were  expensive  at  first,  a 
separate  sum  for  this  luxury  was  granted  to  the  ladies  by 
their  husbands.  Hence  the  expression, '  pin-money.'  The 
farthingale  was  introduced  from  Spain  in  Mary's  reign.  It 
was  a  large  hooped  petticoat.  Rufls  of  plaited  linen  were 
worn  by  both  sexes  on  the  neck  and  wrists.  These  were  at 
first  held  out  by  pieces  of  wood  or  ivory;  but  in  Elizabeth's 
time  they  were  stiffened  with  yellow  starch.  Cloth  hose 
were  worn  by  all,  until  in  the  third  year  of  her  reign  Eliza- 
beth received  a  pair  of  black  silk  stockings.  After  this  she 
wore  no  other  kind.  Three  thousand  dresses  were  found  in 
the  wardrobe  of  this  Queen  after  her  death !  In  the  travels 
of  Hentzner,  a  German,  Elizabeth  is  thus  described :  '  Next 
came  the  Queen,  in  the  sixty-fifth  year  of  her  age, — very 
majestic ;  her  face  oblong,  fair,  but  wrinkled.  She  had  in  her 
ears  two  pearls  with  drops ;  she  wore  false  hair,  and  that 
red ;  and  upon  her  head  she  had  a  small  crown.  She  was 
dressed  in  white  silk,  bordered  with  pearls  the  size  of  beans ; 
and  over  it  a  mantle  of  black  silk,  shot  with  silver  thread. 
Her  train  was  very  long,  and  the  end  of  it  borne  by  a  mar- 
chioness.' The  gentlemen  wore  their  hair  either  short  and 
curled,  or  set  up  on  end.  Their  beards  were  long  and  pointed. 
The  costume  of  the  yeomen  of  the  Queen's  guard,  commonly 
called  'beef-eaters'  (a  corruption  of  buffetiers),  gives  a  very 
good  idea  of  the  dress  worn  by  men  in  the  Tudor  Period. 
The  growth  of  flax  and  hemp,  and  the  invention  of  cotton 
thread,  supplied  materials  for  stocking-weaving  and  the 
making  of  sail-cloth.  Rugs,  frieze,  and  baize  began  to  be 
manufactured  largely,  and  were  much  improved  by  the  skill 
of  the  cloth-dressers  who  fled  from  the  persecutions  of  the 
Continent. 

The  tournament  had  now  degenerated  into  a  mere  sport, 
for  the  strength  of  armies  consisted  no  longer  in  steel-clad 
knights.  The  boat-joust,  or  tilting  on  the  water,  was  prac- 
tised in  summer  on  the  Thames  and  other  rivers.  Boards 
were  placed  across  the  boats,  on  which  stood  men  armed 
with  wooden  spears  and  shields ;  and  each,  as  the  boats  were 
rowed  swiftly  against  one  another,  strove  to  knock  his  op- 
ponent overboard.  Hunting,  especially  the  stag-hunt,  has 


196  OUT-DOOR  AND  IN-DOOR  SPORTS. 

been  at  all  times  one  of  our  national  sports.  During  this 
period  the  ladies  often  joined  the  chase,  and  shot  at  the 
game  with  arrows.  Elizabeth,  even  in  her  old  age,  enjoyed 
the  sport,  sometimes  every  second  day.  Hawking,  though 
still  practised,  was  now  beginning  to  decline,  for  the  gun 
was  coming  into  use.  There  were  horse-races  for  prizes ;  but 
the  modern  system  of  gambling  bets  was  unknown.  Bear- 
baiting  and  bull-baiting  were  favourite  sports  of  the  highest 
in  the  land.  Queen  Mary,  visiting  her  sister  at  Hatfield 
House,  was  entertained  with  a  grand  bear-baiting.  Eliza- 
beth, receiving  the  Danish  ambassador  at  Greenwich,  treated 
him  to  a  similar  sight.  The  animal  was  fastened  in  the 
middle  of  an  open  space,  and  worried  by  great  English  bull- 
dogs ;  and,  as  the  dogs  were  killed  or  disabled,  fresh  ones 
were  supplied.  The  cruel  sport  of  whipping  a  blinded  bear 
often  followed.  Even  the  ladies  enjoyed  these  sports  exceed- 
ingly ;  and  we  cannot,  therefore,  wonder  that  the  language  of 
the  period  was  very  indelicate  and  coarse.  To  make  the 
matter  worse,  the  Sabbath  afternoon  was,  until  the  last 
years  of  Elizabeth,  the  favourite  time  for  these  amusements. 
The  principal  country  sports  were  archery,  foot-races,  and 
various  games  of  ball.  Among  the  last  were  tennis,  club- 
ball  (the  origin  of  cricket),  and  pall-mall,  in  which  a  boxwood 
ball  was  struck  with  a  mallet  through  an  iron  arch. 

Within  doors  the  chief  game  was  shovel-board.  It  was 
played  on  a  smooth  table  with  flat  metal  weights.  A  line 
was  drawn  across  the  table  four  inches  from  the  edge,  and 
the  skill  of  the  play  consisted  in  shoving  the  weights  so  as 
to  cross  this  line  without  falling  over  the  edge  of  the  table. 
Other  games  were  backgammon,  then  called  tables;  dice, 
ruinous  in  every  age ;  chess,  supposed  to  have  come  from 
Asia,  and  to  have  been  known  in  this  land  one  hundred 
years  before  the  Conquest ;  and  cards,  invented  to  relieve 
the  mind  of  Charles  VI.,  a  mad  King  of  France.  Dancing 
and  music  filled  up  many  hours ;  but  the  dance  always  ceased 
with  night-fall, — a  custom  very  different  from  that  now  pre- 
vailing. Although  the  minstrels  and  joculators  (jugglers)  of 
the  Norman  days  were  despised  in  the  Tudor  Period,  music 
was  much  cultivated  in  private  life.  The  fashionable  instru- 
ments of  music  were  the  cittern  or  lute,  a  kind  of  guitar ; 


CHRISTMAS  AND  MAY-DAY  REVELS.  197 

and  the  virginals,  a  keyed  instrument  of  one  string,  the  ori- 
ginal of  the  harpsichord  and  the  modern  piano. 

Christmas  was  the  great  season  of  sports.  There  was 
then  a  general  license,  and  all  sorts  of  wild  tricks  were 
played.  From  the  Sovereign  to  the  beggar  all  England 
went  a-mumming  in  strange  dresses  and  masks.  Those  who 
could  not  get  masks  rubbed  soot  on  their  faces.  In  every 
parish  a  Lord  of  Misrule  was  chosen,  who,  with  a  troop  of 
idle  fellows  in  green  and  yellow  dresses  covered  with  ribbons, 
went  about  shouting  and  playing  drums,  sometimes  even 
into  the  churches  during  Divine  service.  These  mummera 
wore  masks  representing  the  heads  of  goats,  stags,  and  bulls, 
and  often  dressed  themselves  in  skins  to  resemble  savages. 
Mummeries  on  a  magnificent  scale  were  got  up  at  the  court 
of  Henry  VIII.  May-day  was  another  festive  season  in  old 
England.  Green  branches  were  pulled  immediately  after 
midnight ;  a  Lord  and  Lady  of  May  were  chosen ;  and  dances 
were  kept  up  round  a  May-pole  crowned  with  flowers.  Con- 
nected with  these  sports  was  the  Morris-dance, — supposed  to 
have  been  derived  from  the  Moors  of  Spain.  The  principal 
dancer,  or  foreman  of  the  Morris,  was  richly  dressed ;  and 
all  had  bells  attached  to  their  skirts,  arms,  and  knees. 
Some  assumed  characters,  such  as  Robin  Hood  and  Maid 
Marian ;  and  a  hobby-horse  was  always  in  the  band.  This 
was  a  light  wooden  frame,  representing  the  head  and  body 
of  a  horse,  with  trappings  that  reached  the  ground  and  con- 
cealed a  man  inside,  who  pranced  about  in  imitation  of  a 
horse. 

Three  forms  of  superstition  influenced  the  minds  of  the 
people  to  a  great  degree  during  this  period.  These  were 
Witchcraft,  Astrology,  and  Alchymy.  According  to  the  igno- 
rant, all  discoveries  in  science,  all  inventions  in  art  were  the 
work  of  the  evil  one.  Hence  Roger  Bacon  in  England  and 
Faust  in  Germany  were  believed  to  have  sold  themselves  to 
Satan.  But  poor  feeble  old  women  were  the  most  frequent 
victims  of  the  absurd  belief  in  Witchcraft ;  and  they  perished 
by  hundreds.  The  older  and  weaker  and  more  withered 
the  object  of  suspicion,  the  stronger  was  the  belief  that  she 
was  a  witch.  All  mischief  was  ascribed  to  them.  If  a  child 
took  sick  and  died,  some  witch  had  done  it :  if  a  storm  arose, 


198  WITCHCRAFT,  ASTROLOGY,  ALCHYMY. 

the  trembling  peasants  thought  they  heard  the  screaming  of 
the  witches,  who  were  riding  on  broomsticks  through  the 
midnight  skies.  This  belief  kept  its  hold  of  the  popular 
mind  up  to  the  present  century,  and  is  not  even  yet  extinct 
in  some  remote  country  districts.  The  astrologers,  whose 
art  was  more  than  four  thousand  years  old,  pretended  that 
they  could  foretell  events  by  the  stars.  They  were  consulted 
by  even  the  highest  and  wisest ;  and  were,  therefore,  hon- 
oured and  rich.  Many  of  our  common  words,  such  as  '  con- 
sider,' '  disaster,' '  ill-starred,'  had,  as  their  derivation  shows, 
at  first  a  purely  astrological  meaning.  Kindred  with  Astro- 
logy was  Alchymy,  an  art  which  had  for  its  object  the  dis- 
covery of  the  philosophers  stone  and  the  elixir  of  life.  The 
former  was  an  imaginary  substance  which  could  change  all 
baser  metals  into  gold ;  the  latter,  a  liquid  which  would  con- 
fer on  the  person  drinking  it  everlasting  life  and  beauty.  In 
this  vain  pursuit  the  time,  the  health,  and  the  fortune  of 
thousands  were  wasted,  without  profit  to  them.  But  not 
without  profit  to  us.  From  Witchcraft  came  that  know- 
ledge of  drags  and  plants  so  useful  in  medicine  and  the  arts ; 
while  from  the  falsehoods  of  Astrology  and  Alchymy  sprang 
the  truths  of  Astronomy  and  Chemistry, — sciences  whose 
noblest  use  is  to  bear  witness  to  the  infinite  wisdom  and 
power  of  Him  who  made  the  heavens  and  the  earth. 

Navigation,  geography,  and  commerce  advanced  together 
with  rapid  strides.  Henry  VII.  laid  the  foundation  of  our 
navy,  and,  therefore,  of  our  world- wide  commerce.  English 
ships  were  soon  ploughing  every  sea  In  Mary's  reign  the 
way  to  Archangel  was  discovered,  and  our  Russian  trade 
began.  It  was,  however,  in  the  days  of  Elizabeth  that  com- 
merce received  its  mightiest  impulse.  Wool,  lead,  and  tin 
had  long  been  exported  to  the  Continent,  but  in  vessels 
from  the  Hanse  Towns.  Elizabeth  built  large  vessels  for 
this  trade,  and  encouraged  the  English  merchants  to  im- 
prove their  ships.  By  granting  a  charter  to  the  East  India 
Company  in  1600,  she  laid  the  foundation  of  our  Indian 
Empire. 

A  remarkable  feature  of  the  period  was  the  revival  of 
learning,  especially  the  study  of  classics.  This  was  owing 
chiefly  to  the  Reformation ;  for  the  true  interpretation  of  the 


LEARNING  AND  LITERATURE.  199 

Bible  depends  upon  a  knowledge  of  Greek,  Hebrew,  and 
Latin;  and  with  the  spread  of  the  Bible  was  diffused  a 
desire  to  know  these  languages.  They  have  ever  since  held 
a  leading  place  in  school  and  college  education.  Erasmus,  a 
Dutchman,  was  Professor  of  Greek  at  Oxford  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VITL,  and  did  much  for  the  advancement  of  classical 
study.  Henry  VIII.,  Edward  VI.,  Jane  Grey,  and  Mary 
were  all  good  classical  scholars;  and  Elizabeth,  even  after 
she  became  Queen,  read,  as  her  tutor  old  Roger  Ascham 
said,  '  more  Greek  in  a  day  than  a  clergyman  read  of  Latin 
in  a  week,'  Westminster  School  was  founded  by  Edward 
VI.,  who,  besides,  endowed  many  hospitals  and  grammar 
schools.  In  the  same  reign  Rugby  School  was  founded  by 
Sheriffe.  During  the  reigns  of  the  first  four  Tudors,  the 
language  spoken  and  written  in  England  was  Middle  Eijg- 
lish.  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  arose  the  New  or  Modern 
English,  which  has  continued  in  use  ever  since.  Previous 
to  the  regular  tragedies  and  comedies  of  Marlowe  and  Shak- 
spere,  there  appeared  short  plays,  called  interludes.  The 
most  successful  writer  of  these  was  John  Heywood,  who 
lived  at  the  court  of  Henry  VIII.  To  ridicule  and  censure 
the  Romish  clergy  seems  to  have  been  his  chief  object. 

LEADING  AUTHORS  OF  THE  TUDOR  PERIOD. 
MIDDLE  ENGLISH. 

SIE  THOMAS  MORE, (1480-1535)— prose  writer— Lord  Chan- 
cellor—chief  works,  '  Utopia,'  a  fan- 
ciful scheme  of  perfect  government, 
written  first  in  Latin ;  and  the  '  His- 
tory of  Edward  V.  and  Richard  III.' 
— beheaded  by  Henry  VIII. 

SIR  THOMAS  WYATT, (1 503-1 541  )-a  lyric  poet. 

THOMAS  HOWARD, Earl  of  Surrey— (1516-1547)— poet- 
refiner  of  English  verse — introduced 
the  sonnet  from  Italy — wrote  tht> 
earliest  English  blank-verse  in  some 
translations  from  Virgil — beheaded 
by  Henry  VIII. 

WILLIAM  TYNDALE, Scholar  of  Oxford— translated  the  Bible 

— burned  near  Antwerp  in  1536. 

MILES  COVERDALE, (1499-1580)-of  Cambridge— translated 

the  whole  Bible  into  English. 


200  LEADING  AUTHORS. 

WILLIAM  DUNBAR,... Poet-a  Scottish  clergyman-flourished 

about  1500  at  the  Scottish  court — 
•wrote  allegorical  poems — chief,  '  The 
Dance,'  and  'The  Union  of  the 
Thistle  with  the  Rose.' 

GAVIN  DOUGLAS, Poet— Bishop  of  Dunkeld— flourished 

about  1500— wrote  'Palace  of  Honor' 
— first  translator  of  Virgil's  'JJneid' 
into  English  verse. 


IfEW  OR  MODERN  ENOLISH. 

SIR  PHILIP  SYDNEY, (1554-1586)— wrote  a  prose  romance 

called  'Arcadia;'  also  verses — killed 
at  the  battle  of  Zutphen  in  the 
Netherlands. 

EDMUND  SPENSER (1553-1598)-second  great  English  poet 

—secretary  to  the  Lord- Lieutenant 
of  Ireland— lived  at  Kilcolman,  county 
of  Cork — chief  work,  '  The  Faerie 
Queen,'  an  allegorical  poem,  written 
in  a  stanza  of  nine  lines,  called  '  the 
Spenserian.' 

CHRISTOPHER  MARLOWE,  (1562-1593)— wrote  eight  plays— chief 
were  'Faustus'  and  'The  Jew  of 
Malta.' 

WILLIAM  SHAKSPERE, (1564-1616)— the  prince  of  dramatists 

— born  and  died  at  Stratford-on- 
Avon — lived  chiefly  in  London — 
wrote  thirty-five  plays  between  1591 
and  1614 — wrote  also  sonnets  and 
tales. 

SLR  WALTER  RALEIGH, (1552-1618)— wrote  verses  in  earlier 

years— prose  works  on  politics— spent 
more  than  twelve  years  in  prison  in 
the  Tower — occupied  himself  in  writ- 
ing a  '  History  of  the  World,'  which 
comes  down  to  about  70  B.C. 

FRANCIS  BACON, (1561-1626)-Lord  Chancellor  and  Vis- 
count St.  Albans— a  great  philosopher 
— wrote  ten  volumes — chief  work, 
'  The  Instauration  of  the  Sciences,'  a 
union  of  two  books,  namely, '  The  Pro- 
ficience  and  Advancement  of  Learning' 
(1605),  and  the  '  Novum  Organum ' 
(1620). 


DATES  OF  THE  PERIOD. 


201 


About  1600  three  great  painters  flourished  in  Italy, — Leonardo  da 
Vinci,  Raphael,  and  Titian.  Albert  Durer  lived  about  the  same  time 
at  Nuremberg.  There  were  no  English  artists  of  note.  Most  of  the 
portraits  of  the  Tudors  are  from  the  pencil  of  Hans  Holbein,  a  German 
artist. 

LEADING  DATES  OF  THE  TUDOR  PERIOD. 
GENERAL  EVENTS. 

A.D. 

Discovery  of  West  Indies  (Columbus) 1492...Henry  VII. 

Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold, 1520...Henry  VIH. 

Wales  represented  in  the  English  Parliament, 1536...        — 

Mary  I.  married  Philip  of  Spain, 1554...Mary  I. 

Mary  Stuart  executed, 1587. ..Elizabeth. 

Charter  granted  to  East  India  Company 1600...        — 

DOMINION  ACQUIRED  AND  LOST. 

Discovery  of  American  mainland  by  Cabot, 1497...Henry  VII. 

Loss  of  Calais, 1558...Mary  I. 

Havre  taken  and  lost, 15G2 -63... Elizabeth. 

WARS,  BATTLES,  ETC. 

Battle  of  Stoke, 1487... Henry  Vn. 

—  Spurs, 1513..Jaenry  VIII. 

—  Flodden, 1513...        — 

—  Pinkie, 1547...Edward  VI. 

Armada  defeated 1588... Elizabeth. 

THE  REFORMATION. 

(-  Luther  publishes  the  95  Pro- 
positions,   15l7...Henry  VHI. 

The  Disputation  at  Leipsic,...1519...         — 

^  Burns  the  Pope's  Bull, 1520...         — 

f  Henry  Vm.  made  Defender 

of  the  Faith, 1521...        — 

Final  Breach  between  Eng- 
land and  Rome, 1535...         — 

Coverdale's  Bible  published,  1535...         — 

Cranmer's  Bible  (The  Great 
Bible), 1539...        — 

The  Bloody  Statute, 1539...        — 

Three  years'  persecution  of 
Protestants, begins  1555...Mary  L 

Church  of  England  fully  estab- 
lished,  1562...Elizabeth. 

The  Puritans  separate  from 
the  Established  Church,  ...1566...        — 


EN  GERMANY,... 


IN  ENGLAND, 


202 


GENEALOGY  OF  THE  TUDOKS. 


GENEALOGICAL  TREE 
CONNECTING  THE  TUDOKS  AND  THE  STUARTS. 


HENRY  VII. 


ARTHUR, 
(died  1502.) 


HENRY  YIII.          MARGARET,         MARY,  married — 
married  JAMES  IV.    1.  Lours  XII., 
of  Scotland.          2.  CH.  BRANDOH, 
D.  of  Suffolk. 


EDWARD  VI.     MARY.    ELIZABETH.    JAMES  V.     MARCH 


.  OP  bo 


RSET. 


MARY  QUEEN  OF  SCOTS.    LADY  JANE  GREY. 

JAMES  VI.  of  Scotland, 
and  I.  of  England. 


ENGLISH  AND  SCOTTISH  CEOWKS  UNITED.  203 

STUART    PERIOD. 

From  1603  A.D.  to  1714  A.D.— 111  years.— 6  Sovereigns. 

A.D. 

JAMES  I.  (son  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots), 1603 

CHARLES  I.  (son), 1625 

COMMONWEALTH,  during  which  Cromwell  ruled  )  began  1649 

as  Protector  for  five  years, )  ended  1660 

CHAKLES  II.  (son  of  Charles  I.), 1660 

JAMES  II.  (brother), 1685 

WILLIAM  III.  (nephew),  )  1689 

MAEY  II.  (daughter),       \  '" 

Death  of  MARY,  WILLIAM  left  sole  Kuler, 1694 

ANNE  (daughter  of  James  LL), 1702-1714 

Leading  Features :— THE    KINGS    STRIVING   FOB   ABSOLUTE 

POWER. 

THE  PARLIAMENT  RESISTING. 
FINAL  TRIUMPH  OF  THE  PARLIAMENT. 


CHAPTER  I. 

JAMES  I. 
Born  1566  A.D.— Began  to  reign  1603  A.D.— Died  1625  A.D. 


Descent  of  James. 
Three  religions  parties. 
Bible  translated. 
The  Gunpowder  Plot. 
Scotland  and  Ireland. 


Favourites  of  James. 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 
Contest  with  the  Parlia- 
ment. 
The  Spanish  match. 


The  Thirty  Years'  War. 

Death. 

Character 

Notes. 


JAMES  VI.  of  Scotland  ascended  the  English  throne  as  tho 
descendant  of  Margaret,  eldest  daughter  of  Henry  VII. 
To  please  his  new  subjects,  he  created  in  six  weeks  more 
than  two  hundred  knights. 

The  English  nation  was  then  divided  into  three  great 
parties,  the  Episcopalians,  the  Romanists,  and  the  Puritans ; 
and  all  three  were  nursing  the  hope  of  special  favour  from 
James.  The  Episcopalians  trusted  to  his  previous  fondness 


204  THE  GUNPOWDER  PLOT. 

for  their  church-government.  The  Romanists  thought  that 
the  son  of  Mary  Stuart  could  not  but  cherish  the  creed  of 
his  mother.  The  Puritans  clung  to  the  hope  that  a  King 
educated  among  Presbyterians  would  not  dislike  Puritanism. 
It  soon  appeared  that  James  was  resolved  to  establish  Epis- 
copacy throughout  all  Great  Britain,  as  the  united  king- 
doms of  England  and  Scotland  now  began  to  be  called. 

The  King's  liking  for  the  Episcopal  form  of  worship  ap- 
peared most  strongly  at  a  conference  held  in  1604,  at  Hampton 
Court,  between  the  leading  men  of  the  two  great  Protestant 
parties.  James,  vain  of  his  theological  learning,  joined  in 
the  discussion,  and  met  all  the  reasonings  of  the  Puritan 
ministers  with  his  favourite  expression, — No  bishop,  no  king. 
The  translation  of  the  Bible,  which  we  now  use,  was  almost 
the  only  good  fruit  of  this  conference.  Forty-seven  minis- 
ters were  engaged  in  the  work  for  three  years  (1607  to  1610). 
It  was  printed  in  the  Roman  character,nearlyallthe  previous 
copies  having  been  in  the  type  which  is  called  Old  English, 
though  Caxton  brought  it  from  Germany.  The  address  of 
the  translators  to  King  James  I.  may  be  read  at  the  begin- 
ning of  all  our  Bibles. 

The  discontent  of  the  Romanists,  when  they  found  that 
James  had  no  intention  of  overthrowing  the  Protestant 
religion  in  England,  took  a  terrible  shape.  They  resolved 
to  blow  up  the  King,  Lords,  and  Commons,  by  gunpowder. 
Robert  Catesby  and  Everard  Digby  were  the  chief  conspi- 
rators. For  eighteen  months  the  preparations  went  on ;  and, 
although  many  were  in  the  secret,  no  breath  of  it  seems  to 
have  got  abroad.  A  cellar  beneath  the  House  of  Lords  was 
hired  ;  thirty-six  barrels  of  gunpowder  were  placed  there  ; 
coals  and  sticks  were  strewed  over  these ;  and  the  doors 
were  then  thrown  boldly  open.  Still  no  detection.  Only  a 
few  days  before  the  appointed  time,  Lord  Monteagle  received 
an  anonymous  letter  warning  him  not  to  attend  the  opening 
of  Parliament.  The  mysterious  words  were, — '  The  Parlia- 
ment shall  receive  a  terrible  blow,  and  shall  not  see  from 
whose  hand  it  comes.'  The  letter  was  laid  before  the  Council, 
and  the  King  was  the  first  to  guess  that  gunpowder  was  meant. 
On  searching  the  vaults  a  Spanish  officer,  Guy  Fawkes,  was 
found  preparing  the  matches  for  the  following  morning. 


SIR  WALTER  RALEIGH.  205 

The  rest  of  the  conspirators  fled  into  the  country,  where 
most  of  them  were  cut  to  pieces  while  fighting  desperately. 
The  5th  of  November  1605  was  the  day  fixed  for  the  dread- 
ful crime.  Penal  laws  of  the  severest  kind  were  the  result 
of  this  plot.  No  Roman  Catholic  was  permitted  to  live  in 
London  ;  none  could  be  a  lawyer  or  a  doctor.  They  were 
outlawed ;  ut  any  time  their  houses  might  with  impunity  be 
broken  into  and  their  furniture  destroyed. 

The  great  object  of  James  in  his  government  of  Scotland 
was  the  establishment  of  Episcopacy.  In  this  he  was  strenu- 
ously opposed  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  and  met  with  little  success.  In  Ireland  he  did 
good.  Taking  almost  all  Ulster  from  the  rebellious  chiefs, 
he  parcelled  it  out  among  settlers  from  Great  Britain,  and 
those  of  the  native  race  who  were  willing  to  submit  to  his 
rule.  The  prosperity  of  the  north  of  Ireland  may  be  traced 
to  these  Plantations,  as  they  were  called.  Ulster  has  been 
ever  since  the  centre  and  stronghold  of  Irish  Protestantism. 

James  trusted  much  to  favourites.  The  principal  objects 
of  his  attachment  were  Robert  Carr,  afterwards  Earl  of 
Somerset ;  and  George  Villiers,  the  well-known  Duke  of 
Buckingham.  Carr  was  a  Scotchman,  handsome  but  vici- 
ous. He  was  concerned  in  a  murder,  and  the  odium  against 
him  grew  so  strong  that  James  was  forced  to  dismiss  him 
from  the  court.  Villiers  was  equally  dissolute  in  his  life, 
but  had  more  prudence.  To  these  even  such  men  as  Bacon, 
the  Lord  Chancellor,  were  known  to  cringe  in  hope  of  royal 
favour. 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh  had  been  committed  to  the  Tower  in 
the  first  year  of  this  reign,  for  taking  share  in  a  plot  to  place 
on  the  throne  Lady  Arabella  Stuart,  a  cousin  of  the  King. 
There  he  spent  more  than  twelve  years,  occupying  the  long 
days  of  captivity  in  writing  a  '  History  of  the  World.'  The 
work,  which  is  still  much  admired,  he  brought  up  almost  to 
the  Christian  Era.  Growing  weary  of  confinement,  he 
offered,  as  the  price  of  his  freedom,  to  disclose  a  gold  mine 
of  which  he  knew  in  South  America.  James  set  him  free, 
and  gave  him  charge  of  fourteen  vessels  for  the  expedition ; 
but,  when  he  reached  the  South  American  coast,  he  found 
the  Spaniards  prepared  to  oppose  his  tending.  Some  skir- 


206  CONTEST  WITH  THE  PARLIAMENT. 

mishes  took  place,  and  the  Spanish  town  of  St. 
1618     Thomas  was  burned.    On  Raleigh's  return  James 
A.D.      to  please  the  Court  of  Spain,  caused  him  to  be  be- 
headed on  the  old  charge  of  conspiracy. 

During  this  reign  began  that  contest  with  the  Parliament 
which  forms  the  leading  feature  of  the  period,  and  which 
ended  in  the  dethronement  of  the  ancient  Stuart  line. 
The  Stuarts  were  all  haunted  by  an  insane  desire  for  abso- 
lute power.  Their  flatterers  fed  the  mischievous  feeling ;  the 
clergy  especially  began  now  to  proclaim  that  the  King,  by 
Divine  right  to  the  throne,  was  above  all  laws.  A  book  was 
published  by  Dr.  Cowell  full  of  arguments  for  this  strange 
doctrine.  But  the  Parliament  took  a  high  tone,  insisting  on 
the  suppression  of  the  book ;  and  a  royal  proclamation  was 
accordingly  issued  against  it.  The  great  abuses  complained 
of  by  the  Commons  were  the  old  evil, '  purveyance,'  and  the 
sale  of  monopolies,  by  which  the  trade  of  the  entire  country 
was  placed  in  the  hands  of  about  two  hundred  persons.  The 
check  exercised  by  the  Commons  over  the  King  lay  in  their 
power  of  giving  or  withholding  supplies  of  money.  But, 
when  they  applied  this  check,  he  strove  to  invent  new  ways 
of  filling  his  purse.  The  fines  of  the  Star  Chamber  became 
heavier  and  more  frequent ;  titles  of  nobility  were  openly 
sold ;  and  the  new  title  of  Baronet  was  created,  of  which  the 
price  was  £1000. 

Perhaps  the  sorest  subject  of  contention  was  the  match, 
arranged  by  Buckingham,  between  Charles,  Prince  of  Wales, 
and  the  Princess  of  Spain.  The  object  of  James  was  by  this 
marriage  to  secure  the  influence  of  Spain  in  bringing  to  a 
close  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  The  voice  of  the  English 
Parliament  and  people  was  loud  against  the  union.  Three 
remonstrances  were  sent  from  the  Commons  to  the  King, 
and  in  each  the  language  grew  stronger.  The  last,  in  which 
they  claimed  freedom  of  speech  as  a  birthright  of  which  no 
King  could  deprive  them,  was  entered  on  the  Journals  of 
the  House.  James  in  a  rage  ordered  the  book  to  be  brought, 
and  with  his  own  hand  removed  the  entry.  He  then  dis- 
solved the  Parliament ;  which  was  his  favourite  plan  of  meet- 
ing their  demands. 

The  match,  so  hateful  to  the  nation,  was  never  completed 


THE  THIRTY  YEARS*  WAR.  207 

Charles  and  Buckingham  undertook  a  journey  in  disguise, 
in  order  that  the  Prince  might  see  his  bride  elect.  But  a 
quarrel  between  Buckingham  and  the  Spanish  minister, 
Olivarez,  broke  off  the  match.  Charles,  pretending  that  his 
father  had  recalled  him,  left  Madrid  abruptly,  and  was  soon 
afterwards  engaged  in  marriage  to  Henrietta  Maria  of  France. 
The  result  of  these  changes  was  a  war  with  Spain. 

The  great  Thirty  Years'  War,  which  lasted  from  1618  to 
1648,  was  now  convulsing  the  Continent.  Its  immediate 
cause  was  a  contention  for  the  crown  of  Bohemia  between 
Frederic,  Elector  Palatine  of  the  Rhine,  and  Ferdinand  of 
Austria.  The  leading  Protestant  powers  sided  with  the 
Elector ;  the  Romish,  with  the  Emperor.  James,  whose 
daughter  Elizabeth  was  married  to  the  Elector  Frederic, 
sent  a  few  troops  to  help  his  son-in-law ;  but  his  heart  was 
not  in  the  work,  and  the  expedition  failed. 

In  1625  James  died  of  ague  and  gout,  aged  fifty-nine.  His 
eldest  son,  Henry,  had  died  at  nineteen ;  his  second,  Charles, 
succeeded  him ;  his  daughter  Elizabeth  and  her  German 
husband  were  the  heads  of  the  princely  house  of  Brunswick, 
now  holding  the  British  throne. 

The  pedantry,  obstinacy,  and  favouritism  of  James  have 
been  already  noticed.  His  character  was  full  of  contrasts. 
Hunting,  cock-fighting,  and  wine  parties  occupied  much  of 
his  leisure ;  but  he  found  time  to  write  a  few  books,  which 
gained  him  some  distinction  as  an  author.  His  appearance 
was  awkward,  chiefly  from  the  weakness  of  his  knees ;  his 
dress  was  careless,  even  slovenly. 

In  1614  Napier  of  Merchiston  invented  the  use  of  loga- 
rithms. The  thermometer  and  the  microscope  came  into  use. 
Early  in  the  next  reign,  in  1628,  Harvey  discovered  the 
circulation  of  the  blood. 


208 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


died  1610 


PRANCE. 
HENRY  IV 
LOUIS  XIII. 


SPAIN. 
PHILIP  III.,  ........................  1621 

PHILIP  IV. 

SWEDEN. 
CHARLES  IX.,  .....................  1611 

GUSTAVUS  ADOLPHUS. 

TURKEY. 
MOHAMMED  III.,  ...............  1604 

ACHMET  I.,  .......................  1617 

MUSTAPHA  I.,  ....................  1618 

OTHMANII.,  .......  ,'.  ..............  1622 

MUSTAPHA  II  ....................  1683 

AMURATH  IV. 


EMPERORS.  A.D. 

RODOLPH  H., died  1613 

MATTHIAS, 1619 

FERDINAND  H. 


POPES. 

CLEMENT  VIH, 1605 

LEO  XI., 1623 

URBAN  VHI. 


HENRIETTA  OF  FRANCE. 


209 


CHAPTER  II. 

CHARLES  I. 
Born  1600  A.D.— Began  to  reign  1625  A.D.— Beheaded  1649  A.D. 


First      Parliament     of 
Charles. 
The  siege  of  Rochelle. 
The  Petition  of  Rights. 
Strafford  and  Laud. 
The  three  Courts. 
Ship-money. 
Puritan  Emigration. 

The  National  Covenant. 
The  Long  Parliament. 
Irish  rebellion. 
The  two  parties. 
The  Civil  War. 
Campaign  of  1643. 
Oliver  Cromwell. 
Campaign  of  1644. 

Self-denying  Ordinance. 
Cromwell's  army. 
The  King  a  prisoner. 
Pride's  Purge. 
Trial  of  the  King. 
His  execution. 
Character. 
Notes. 

CHARLES,  the  second  son  of  James  L,  became  King  in  his 
twenty-fifth  year.  He  married  Henrietta  Maria,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Henry  IV.  of  France.  The  expensive*  Spanish  war, 
begun  in  the  last  reign,  still  continued.  To  meet  its  cost, 
Charles  asked  his  first  Parliament  for  a  supply ;  but  the 
majority  of  the  Commons  were  Puritans,  and,  looking  with 
a  jealous  eye  on  the  Romish  Queen,  they  granted  only 
.£140,000  with  tonnage  and  poundage  for  one  year.  En- 
raged at  this  want  of  confidence,  and  especially  at  some 
charges  brought  against  Buckingham,  the  King  dissolved 
their  sitting  in  three  weeks.  He  then  levied  taxes  by  his 
own  authority,  revived  the  old  abuse  of  benevolences,  and 
began  to  quarter  his  soldiers  in  private  houses.  His  chief 
advisers  were  his  Queen  and  Buckingham.  Henrietta,  as  a 
Romanist,  hated  the  Puritans  ;  and  she  had  inherited  from 
her  father  a  strong  attachment  to  absolute  power.  She 
never  ceased,  through  all  her  husband's  life,  to  urge  him  on 
in  that  dangerous  path  towards  which  his  own  temper  in- 
clined him  far  too  strongly. 

The  second  Parliament,  meeting  in  1626,  prepared  to 
impeach  Buckingham  ;  but  they  had  not  passed  a  single 
Act  when  a  dissolution  checked  their  plans.  The  same 
illegal  taxation  followed.  Many  who  resisted  were  im- 
prisoned. 

To  add  to  the  difficulties  of  Charles,  a  war  with  France 
began.  Buckingham  was  again  the  cause.  He  quarrelled 

(32)  14 


210  THE  PETITION  OF  RIGHTS. 

with  Cardinal  Richelieu,  the  great  minister  of  France,  who 
forbade  the  Duke  ever  again  to  enter  French  dominions. 
One  of  the  grand  objects  of  the  Cardinal's  government  was 
the  suppression  of  the  Huguenots ;  and  he  was  then  engaged 
in  besieging  their  stronghold,  La  Rochelle  on  the  Bay  of 
Biscay.  Foiled  in  his  attempts  to  take  the  city  on  the  land 
side,  he  built  a  mole  half  a  mile  long  across  the  mouth  of 
the  harbour.  Twice  the  English  tried  to  relieve  the  be- 
sieged. Buckingham  led  the  first  expedition,  but  returned, 
having  lost  almost  half  his  men.  While  at  Portsmouth, 
preparing  to  sail  with  a  second,  he  was  stabbed  to  the  heart 
by  Lieutenant  Feltqn,  who  had  been  dismissed  from  the  ser- 
vice. Earl  Lindesay  led  the  fleet  to  Rochelle ;  but  no  efforts 
could  pierce  the  mole,  and  the  city  surrendered  to  Richelieu 
in  1628. 

In  the  same  year  Charles  called  his  third  Parliament. 
Before  granting  any  money,  the  Commons  drew  up 
1G28  a  law — the  famous  Petition  of  Rights — requiring 
A.D.  the  King  to  levy  no  taxes  without  consent  of  Par- 
liament, to  detain  no  one  in  prison  without  trial, 
and  to  billet  no  soldiers  in  private  houses.  An  assent  was 
wrung  from  the  reluctant  Charles ;  and  the  Commons,  re- 
joicing in  this  second  great  charter  of  English  liberty,  gave 
him  five  subsidies, — equal  to  nearly  £400,000.  But  in  three 
weeks  it  was  seen  that  the  King  regarded  not  the  solemn 
promise  he  had  made. 

The  Commons  murmured;  but  the  King  heeded  them 
not.  They  set  about  preparing  a  remonstrance;  he  came 
to  interfere.  They  locked  themselves  in ;  he  got  a  black- 
smith to  break  open  the  doors ;  but  he  found  that  the  House 
had  adjourned.  Nine  members  were  sent  to  prison,  where 
one— Sir  John  Eliot — soon  died.  The  Parliament  was  at 
once  dissolved  by  the  angry  King.  Sensible  that  his  do- 
mestic policy  would  need  all  his  energies,  he  then  made 
peace  with  Spain  and  France. 

For  eleven  years  (1629  to  1640)  no  Parliament  was  called, 
— a  case  without  parallel  in  our  history.  The  Earl  of  Straf- 
ford  and  Archbishop  Laud  were  the  principal  ministers  of 
Charles  during  these  years.  Thomas  Wentworth,  after- 
wards Earl  of  Strafford,  had  been  a  leading  man  among 


SHIP-MONEY.  211 

those  who  forced  the  King  to  ratify  the  Petition  of  Eights ; 
but  the  hope  of  being  to  Charles  what  Richelieu  was  to  the 
French  monarch,  led  him  to  seek  the  royal  favour.  He  laid 
a  deep  scheme  to  undermine  the  power  of  the  Commons, 
and  to  secure  for  Charles  absolute  power.  This  plan  he 
called,  in  his  private  letters, '  Thorough,' — a  name  well  ex- 
pressing its  nature.  A  standing  army  was  to  be  raised,  and 
before  it  all  other  power  in  the  State  was  to  be  swept  away. 
Appointed  Viceroy  of  Ireland  in  1633,  he  tried  the  first  ex- 
periment in  that  island ;  and  for  seven  years  he  had  both 
native  Irish  and  English  colonists  crouching  in  terror  under 
his  iron  rule.  William  Laud,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
directed  the  affairs  of  the  Church.  Almost  a  Papist  in  his 
opinions,  he  hated  with  no  common  bitterness  the  religious 
services  of  the  Puritans. 

And  now  the  nation  groaned  under  the  tyranny  of  three 
lawless  tribunals,  directed  chiefly  by  these  two  ministers.  In 
the  Star  Chamber  men  were  sentenced  to  fine,  imprison- 
ment, and  even  mutilation,  for  resisting  the  policy  of  the 
King.  The  terrors  of  the  High  Commission  Court  were 
launched  against  all  who  dared  to  differ  in  religious  opinions 
from  Laud.  Besides  these,  a  Council,  directed  by  Went- 
worth  and  endowed  with  absolute  control  over  the  northern 
counties,  sat  at  York. 

Of  all  the  illegal  taxes  levied  by  Charles,  ship-money  was 
the  most  notorious.  In  old  times  the  maritime  counties 
and  towns  had  been  often  called  on  by  the  King  to  equip 
vessels  for  the  defence  of  the  shore.  Finch  the  Chief-Jus- 
tice, and  Noy  the  Attorney-General,  proposed  in  1634  to 
revive  the  tax,  which  dated  so  far  back  as  the  Danish  inva- 
sion. It  was  a  small  thing,  but  the  spirit  of  the  English 
nation  revolted  against  the  injustice.  It  was  a  war-tax 
levied  during  profound  peace;  it  was  laid  upon  inland 
counties,  as  had  never  before  been  done ;  the  money  was  to 
be  applied,  not  to  the  equipment  of  a  fleet,  but  to  the  sup- 
port of  a  standing  army ;  lastly,  it  was  collected  by  autho- 
rity of  the  King  alone.  For  three  jrears  there  was  no  open 
resistance.  Then  John  Hampden,  a  gentleman  of  Bucking- 
hamshire, refused  to  pay  the  tax  of  twenty  shillings  im- 
posed on  his  estate.  The  case  was  tried  in  the  Court  of 


212  EMIGRATION  OF  PURITANS. 

1  «  017  Exchequer;  and  a  majority  of  the  judges,  who  could 
then  be  dismissed  at  any  time  by  the  King,  gave 
their  decision  against  Hampden. 

Through  all  these  years  a  great  emigration  of  the  Puri- 
tans had  been  draining  England  of  her  best  blood.  Hunted 
even  into  their  closets  by  the  spies  of  Laud,  dragged  cause- 
lessly before  the  High  Commission,  robbed,  tortured, 
maimed — what  wonder  is  it  that,  much  as  they  loved  Eng- 
land, they  chose  rather  a  home  in  the  wild  woods  of  Ame- 
rica, where  there  was  none  to  forbid  the  evening  psalm,  or 
the  prayer  poured  from  the  full  heart  ?  Hampden,  Pym, 
Cromwell  himself,  were  on  board,  bound  for  the  colony  of 
New  England,  when  a  Government  order  came  to  stop  the 
sailing  of  the  ship. 

Charles  followed  the  policy  of  his  father  towards  Scotland. 
During  his  visit  to  that  country  in  1633  he  appointed  thir- 
teen bishops.  Four  years  later  he  commanded  a  semi-popish 
form  of  prayer  to  be  read  in  the  churches  of  Edinburgh ; 
but,  when  the  Dean  rose  in  old  St.  Giles'  to  read  this  new 
Liturgy,  Jenny  Geddes  flung  a  stool  at  his  head,  and  a  great 
riot  arose  in  the  church,  from  which  the  Bishop  and  the 
Dean  fled  in  fear.  An  order  came  from  Charles  to  enforce 
the  reception  of  the  new  Prayers  by  the  aid  of  soldiers  if 
necessary.  But  the  spirit  of  the  Scots  was  roused.  Within 
two  months — March  and  February  of  1638 — nineteen-twen- 
tieths  of  the  nation  signed  a  parchment  called  the  National 
Covenant,  by  which  they  bound  themselves  to  oppose  the 
revival  in  Scotland  of  Popish  errors,  and  to  unite  for  the  de- 
fence of  their  laws,  their  freedom,  and  their  King.  A  Gene- 
ral Assembly,  held  soon  afterwards  at  Glasgow,  excommuni- 
cated the  bishops  and  abolished  Prelacy  in  Scotland.  Thus 
in  thirty  days  the  work  of  thirty  years  was  undone,  and  the 
Church  of  Scotland  was  established  more  firmly  than  before 
on  the  basis  of  Presbyterianism. 

Charles  would  gladly  have  crushed  this  bold  opposition, 
but  his  want  of  money  entangled  him  in  new  difficulties 
every  day.  He  was  forced  in  1640  to  call  his  fourth  Parlia- 
ment ;  but,  being  met  with  the  same  demands  as  before,  he 
soon  dissolved  it.  He  then  tried  a  Council  of  Lords  alone ; 
but  they  knew  the  Constitution  too  well  to  act  apart  from  the 


CAVALIERS  AND  ROCNDHEADS.  213 

Commons.    Meanwhile,  a  Scottish  army  under  Leslie  had 
passed  the  Border  and  seized  Newcastle. 

The  fifth  and  last  Parliament  of  this  reign,  known      Nov., 
as  the  Long  Parliament,  now  began  to  sit.    It  ex-     1640 
istcd  for  more  than  nineteen  years.   Its  first  session       A.D. 
was  marked  by  the  impeachment  of  Strafford  and 
the  imprisonment  of  Laud.     Pym  led  the  impeachment, 
and  the  charge  was  treason  against  the  liberty  of  the  people. 
A  bill  of  attainder  was  brought  into  the  Commons,  passed 
through  the  Lords,  and  waited  only  the  signature  of  the 
King.    Charles  hesitated  long ;  but  a  letter  from  the  con- 
demned Earl,  desiring  to  be  left  to  his  fate,  decided  the  mat- 
ter.   The  warrant  was  signed,  and  Strafford  suffered  death 
(May  1641).    Laud,  detained  in  prison  for  four  years,  was 
then  executed. 

The  effects  of '  Thorough '  upon  Ireland  have  been  already 
noticed.  The  reaction  now  began.  A  Eomish  conspiracy 
spread  its  deadly  roots  everywhere  through  the  nation.  A 
day  was  fixed  for  the  capture  of  Dublin  Castle;  but  the  de- 
sign was  detected.  The  O'Neills  of  Ulster  were  in  arms 
next  day.  But  the  darkest  event  of  1641  was  a  fearful  mas- 
sacre of  Protestants  by  the  Romanists.  Forty  thousand  are 
said  to  have  perished  in  the  slaughter. 

About  this  time  appeared  the  two  great  political  parties 
which  still  divide  the  nation,  assuming  the  government  by 
turns.  The  nobles,  the  gentlemen,  and  the  clergy  were  in 
favour  of  the  King.  On  the  other  side  were  a  few  of  the 
peers,  and  the  great  mass  of  farmers,  merchants,  and  shop- 
keepers. The  King's  party  received  the  name  '  Cavaliers,' 
from  their  gallant  bearing  and  skill  in  horsemanship :  the 
Opposition  were  called  Roundheads,  from  the  Puritan 
fashion  of  wearing  closely  cropped  hair.  Although  the 
names  afterwards  changed  into  Tory  and  Whig,  and  these, 
still  later,  into  Conservative  and  Liberal,  the  principles  of 
the  two  parties  have  since  remained  the  same.  Order  is  the 
watchword  of  the  one;  Progress,  that  of  the  other.  The  one, 
inspired  by  Memory,  seeks  to  maintain  unchanged  the  old 
institutions,  which  have  made  the  country  prosperous :  Hope 
leads  the  other  to  strive,  by  well-weighed  changes,  that 
prosperity  shall  become  still  more  prosperous. 


214  OPENING  OF  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

On  the  22d  of  November  1641,  after  a  keen  contest,— the 
first  pitched  battle  between  these  two  parties, — it  was  re- 
solved in  the  Commons,  by  a  majority  of  eleven,  to  draw  up 
a  Eemonstrance,  complaining  of  the  King's  previous  govern- 
ment. Seeing  the  stern  temper  of  the  House,  he  made  fair 
promises ;  but  his  acts  soon  belied  his  words.  Early  in  1642 
he  ordered  five  of  his  most  daring  opponents  in  the  Commons 
to  be  arrested  for  high  treason.  Their  names  were  Pym, 
Hampden,  Hazelrig,  Hollis,  and  Strode.  The  Commons  re- 
fused to  give  them  up ;  he  went  next  day  with  soldiers  to 
seize  them ;  but  they  escaped  before  he  entered  the  House. 
During  all  that  night  the  streets  of  London  were  filled  with 
armed  citizens.  There  was  great  excitement  against  the 
King,  for  he  had  insulted  the  nation.  He  left  the  capital 
and  went  to  York.  The  Queen  fled  to  Holland. 

For  some  months  messages  passed  between  the  King  and 
the  Parliament ;  but  there  was  no  desire  to  yield  on  either 
side.  At  last  the  Commons  demanded  that  the  King  should 
give  up  the  command  of  the  army,  one  of  the  most  ancient 
rights  of  the  crown.  He  refused.  The  Civil  War  began.  In 
April  1642  the  gates  of  Hull  were  shut  against  the  King, 
who  had  demanded  admission.  On  the  25th  of  August  1642 
the  royal  standard  was  unfurled  at  Nottingham,  and  ten 
thousand  men  gathered  round  it. 

The  soldiers  of  the  King  were  gentlemen,  well  mounted, 
and  skilled  in  the  use  of  arms ;  but  he  was  badly  supplied 
with  artillery  and  ammunition,  and  depended  for  money 
nearly  altogether  upon  the  loyalty  of  his  Cavaliers.  The 
Parliamentary  ranks  were  filled  with  ploughboys  and  trades- 
men, as  yet  raw  and  untrained ;  but  the  possession  of  Lon- 
don and  the  Thames,  along  with  the  power  of  levying  taxes, 
gave  the  Commons  decided  advantage  in  a  continued  war. 
The  King  in  person  commanded  the  Cavaliers :  the  Earl  of 
Essex  was  chosen  to  lead  the  Roundheads.  Prince  Rupert, 

the  nephew  of  Charles,  led  the  Royalist  cavalry. 
Oct.  23,        The  opening  battle  was  fought  at  Edge  Hill  in 
1642     Warwickshire;  but  it  decided  nothing.     During 

A.D.       the  winter  Charles  established  his  head-quarters  at 

Oxford,  whose  ancient  university  has  been  at  all 

times  distinguished  for  loyalty.    The  campaign  of  1643  was 


OLIVER  CROMWELL.  215 

marked  by  three  events.    Bristol,  then  the  second  city  in 
the  kingdom,  was  taken  by  the  Royalists.    In  the  flush  of 
this  success  Charles  then  laid  siege  to  Gloucester ;  but,  just 
when  success  seemed  sure,  Essex,  moving  .rapidly 
from  London  with  all  the  train-bands,  raised  the      Sept., 
siege,  and    some  days  later  defeated    the  royal     1643 
army  in  the  first  battle  of  Newbury.    The  siege  of      A.D. 
Gloucester  was  the  turning  point  of  the  strife: 
thenceforward  the  cause  of  the  Parliament  grew  strong,  al- 
though the  loss  of  Hampden,  who  fell  early  in  the  war 
while    skirmishing  with    Rupert's    cavalry,  was  at   first 
severely  felt. 

But  a  greater  soldier  and  statesman  than  Hampden  was 
already  on  the  scene.  At  Edge  Hill  a  captain  of  horse 
named  Oliver  Cromwell  had  fought  in  the  army  of  the  Par- 
liament. He  was  then  above  forty  years  of  age,  and  had  long 
lived  a  peaceful  country  life  in  his  native  shire  of  Hunting- 
don. Among  the  members  of  the  Long  Parliament  he  was 
known  chiefly  by  his  slovenly  dress  of  Puritan  cut  and 
colour,  and  his  strange,  rough,  rambling  speeches.  He  saw 
the  secret  of  the  Bang's  early  success,  and  resolved  that  ihk 
clownish  soldiers  of  the  Parliament  should  soon  be  more 
than  a  match  for  the  royal  Cavaliers.  He  began  with  hia 
own  regiment ;  for  he  was  now  Colonel  Cromwell  Filling 
its  ranks  with  sober  and  God-fearing  men,  he  placed  them 
beneath  a  system  of  drill  and  discipline  so  strict  that  they 
soon  became  celebrated  as  the  Ironsides  of  Colonel  Crom- 
well. 

Under  the  terms  of  a  Solemn  League  and  Covenant,  made 
between  the  Parliaments  of  England  and  Scotland,  21,000 
Scottish  troops  crossed  the  Border  in  the  beginning  of  1644. 
Charles  drew  some  trifling  aid  from  Ireland.    In  the  south 
under  Essex  the  soldiers  of  the  Parliament  suffered 
many  defeats ;  but  in  the  north,  on  Marston  Moor,     July  2, 
the  Roundheads,  aided  by  the  Scots,  gained  a  bril-     1644 
liant  victory.    On  that  day  Cromwell  and  his  Iron-       A.D. 
sides  swept  all  before  them.  Rupert  and  his  cavalry, 
victors  in  many  a  dashing  charge,  could  not  withstand  the 
terrible  onset  of  these  Puritan  dragoons.     The  immediate 
result  of  the  victory  was  the  capture  of  York  and  Newcastle 


216  BATTLE  OF  KASEBY. 

by  the  troops  of  the  Parliament.  A  second  battle  of  New- 
bury,  fought  towards  the  close  of  the  campaign,  ended  in  the 
defeat  of  Charles. 

An  offshoot  from  the  Puritan  party  had  been  for  some 
time  taking  shape  and  gathering  strength  in  the  nation. 
These  were  the  Independents,  of  whom  Cromwell  was  the 
chief.  In  religion  they  held  that  every  Christian  congrega- 
tion formed  an  independent  church  of  itself,  and  owed 
obedience  to  no  synods  or  assemblies.  In  politics  they 
desired  to  see  monarchy  overthrown  and  a  republic  erected. 
They  were  called  in  their  own  day  Root-and-branch  men. 
By  their  means  an  Act,  called  the  Self-denying  Ordinance, 
was  passed  in  April  1645 :  it  forbade  all  members  of  Parlia- 
ment to  hold  command  in  the  army.  So  Essex  and  Man- 
chester were  removed ;  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax  was  appointed 
Commander-in-chief;  while  Cromwell,  though  a  member  of 
Parliament,  was  soon  called,  with  the  rank  of  Lieutenant- 
General,  to  lead  the  Cavalry,  and  became  in  reality,  though 
not  in  name,  the  General  of  the  entire  army. 

And  then  was  organized  that  strange  army,  by  means  of 
which  Oliver  achieved  all  his  glories.  There  were,  no  doubt, 
many  hypocrites  in  the  ranks;  but  a  spirit  of  sincere  religion 
pervaded  every  regiment.  Officers  and  men  met  regularly 
in  the  tents  or  the  barrack-rooms  to  pray.  They  neither 
gambled,  drank,  nor  swore.  They  often  sang  hymns  as  they 
moved  to  battle.  And  when,  in  later  days,  they  fought  the 
battles  of  England  on  the  Continent,  the  finest  troops  in 
Europe  were  scattered  in  flight  before  their  terrible  charge. 
The  decisive  battle  of  the  Civil  War  was  fought  at 
June  14,  Naseby  in  Northamptonshire,  where  the  Royalist 
1645  army  was  utterly  routed.  The  victories  of  Mon- 

A.D.      trose,  who  gained  six  successive  battles  in  Scotland, 
and  appeared  to  be  complete  master  of  that  king- 
dom, gave  the  King  some  hopes  of  maintaining  his  cause 
there;  but  these  hopes  soon  faded.  The  unfortunate  Charles 
fled  to  Oxford,  and  thence  to  the  Scottish  army  at  Newark. 

The  Parliament  was  thus  triumphant.  But  it  was  no 
longer  a  united  body.  During  the  war  it  had  slowly  re- 
solved itself  into  two  factions ;  the  one  Presbyterian,  desir- 


CHARLES  I.  A  CAPTIVE.  217 

ous  only  of  limiting  the  power  of  the  King ;  the  other  Inde- 
pendent, bent  upon  the  destruction  of  the  throne.  Charles, 
in  the  faint  hope  of  regaining  his  position  by  the  aid  of  the 
Presbyterians,  had  flung  himself  on  the  mercy  of  the  Scot- 
tish army  at  Newark.  Receiving  him  loyally,  they  offered 
to  support  him,  if  he  would  sign  the  Solemn  League.  But 
this  he  refused  to  do ;  and  after  some  time  returned,  by  his 
own  desire,  to  his  English  subjects.  When  the  Scots  stipu- 
lated for  his  safety  and  freedom,  the  English  Parliament  ex- 
pressed great  indignation,  that  they  should  be  even  suspected 
of  evil  designs  on  their  King.  It  is  due,  therefore,  to  these 
Scottish  Presbyterians  to  say,  that  when  they  gave  up  King 
Charles,  they  had  not  the  faintest  suspicion  of  the  dark  crime 
soon  to  be  perpetrated  in  Whitehall  yard. 

Rapidly  the  plot  thickened.  Cornet  Joyce,  with  a  band 
of  horse,  acting  under  secret  orders  from  Cromwell,  seized  the 
King  at  Holmby  House.  The  royal  prisoner,  passed  from 
castle  to  castle,  found  means  at  last  to  escape,  and  reached 
the  Isle  of  Wight,  in  hopes  of  crossing  to  the  Continent ; 
but,  being  forced  to  take  refuge  in  Carisbrook  Castle,  he  was 
there  guarded  more  jealously  than  ever.  The  Scots,  alarmed 
at  the  fast  growing  power  of  the  Independents,  passed  the 
Border  under  the  Duke  of  Hamilton.  About  the  same  time 
the  Royalists  of  Essex  and  Kent  began  to  stir.  Leaving 
these  to  Fairfax,  Cromwell  pressed  northwards  by  rapid 
marches,  routed  Hamilton  in  Lancashire,  and  soon  estab- 
lished at  Edinburgh  a  government  hostile  to  Charles. 

During  his  absence  threatening  murmurs  rose  from  the 
Presbyterians,  who  still  formed  the  majority  in  the  Parlia- 
ment. These  murmurs  Cromwell,  on  his  return  to  London, 
met  boldly  and  decisively.  Colonel  Pride,  on  the  morning 
of  the  6th  of  December  1648,  encircling  the  House  with  his 
troopers,  prevented  the  entrance  of  about  two  hundred  Pres- 
byterian members.  The  remainder, — some  forty  Indepen- 
dents,— voted  hearty  thanks  to  Cromwell  for  his  great 
services.  And  then  the  death  of  the  King  was  resolved  on. 
There  are  many  who  charge  the  blood  of  Charles  on  Crom- 
well's memory;  but  it  may  well  be  doubted  whether  he 
could  have  hindered  the  crime.  It  is  more  charitable  to 
believe,  as  does  our  greatest  historian  of  England,  that  '  on 


218  EXECUTION  OF  THE  KINO. 

this  occasion  he  sacrificed  his  own  judgment  and  his  own 
inclinations  to  the  wishes  of  the  army.  For  the  power 
which  he  had  called  into  existence  was  a  power  which  even 
he  could  not  always  control ;  and,  that  he  might  ordinarily 
command,  it  was  necessary  that  he  should  sometimes  obey.' 
A  tribunal,  self-created  and  self-styled  the  High 
Jan.  20,  Court  of  Justice,  met  in  Westminster  Hall  for  the 
1649  trial  of  the  King.  The  Peers  had  refused  to  take 
A.D.  any  part  in  the  proceedings.  The  members  of  the 
court,  of  whom  about  seventy  sat  in  judgment, 
were  taken  chiefly  from  the  army  and  the  semblance  of  a 
Parliament  then  existing.  A  lawyer  named  Bradshaw  was 
the  president:  Coke  acted  as  the  solicitor  for  the  nation. 
The  King,  brought  from  St.  James's  Palace,  was  placed 
within  the  bar,  and  there  charged  with  tyranny,  especially 
in  waging  war  against  his  people.  Never  did  Charles 
appear  to  more  advantage  than  at  this  mockery  of  a  trial. 
Summoning  up  all  that  kingly  dignity  of  which  he  possessed 
no  small  share,  he  refused  to  be  tried  by  a  tribunal  created 
in  defiance  of  the  laws.  Where  were  the  Peers,  who  alone, 
by  an  ancient  maxim  of  the  Constitution,  could  sit  in  judg- 
ment on  a  Peer?  But  all  defence  was  useless,  for  the 
judges  had  already  decided  the  matter  among  themselves. 
The  case  was  spun  out  for  seven  days,  and  then  sentence  of 
death  was  pronounced. 

Three  days  later,  on  the  30th  of  January  1649,  in  front  of 
the  Banqueting  Hall  of  Whitehall  Palace,  Charles  Stuart 
was  beheaded.  Soldiers,  horse  and  foot,  surrounded  the 
black  scaffold,  on  which  stood  two  masked  headsmen  beside 
the  block.  The  silent  people  stood  in  thousands  far  off. 
The  King  was  attended  by  Bishop  Juxon.  He  died  a  Pro- 
testant of  the  English  Church,  declaring  that  the  guilt  of 
the  Civil  War  did  not  rest  with  him,  for  the  Parliament  had 
been  the  first  to  take  up  arms ;  but  confessing,  at  the  same 
time,  that  he  was  now  suffering  a  just  punishment  for  the 
death  of  Strafford.  One  blow  of  the  axe,  and  all  was  over. 
A  deep  groan  burst  from  the  assembled  multitude,  as  the 
executioner  raised  the  dripping  head  and  cried, '  This  is  the 
head  of  a  traitor !'  Since  the  Conquest  five  Kings  had  fallen 
.by  assassination ;  three  had  died  of  injuries  received  in  bat- 


HIS  CHARACTER. 


219 


tie  ; — once  only  did  a  King  of  England  perish  on  the  scaffold, 
and  this  page  tells  the  dark  and  bloody  tale. 

Charles  had  three  sons  and  three  daughters.  The  sons 
were  Charles,  Prince  of  Wales,  afterwards  Charles  II. ;  James, 
Duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II. ;  and  Henry,  Duke  of 
Gloucester :  the  daughters  were  Mary,  married  to  the  Prince 
of  Orange,  and  thus  mother  of  William  III. ;  Elizabeth,  who 
died  in  Carisbrook,  aged  fifteen,  a  short  time  after  her  father's 
execution ;  and  Henrietta,  married  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans. 

The  public  life  and  private  life  of  Charles  I.  present  a 
strange  contrast.  In  politics  his  leading  motives  were  an 
attachment  to  Episcopacy,  and  that  thirst  for  absolute  power 
which  he  inherited  from  his  father,  and  which  he  bequeathed 
in  even  greater  intensity  to  his  second  son.  Double-dealing 
was  his  most  fatal  vice.  But  in  the  domestic  relations  of 
life  he  displayed  many  admirable  qualities.  A  love  for  his 
wife  and  children,  and  a  refined  taste  in  works  of  art,  espe- 
cially paintings,  adorned  his  character.  We  know  him  best 
from  his  portraits  by  Vandyke.  A  dark-complexioned  man, 
with  mild  and  mournful  eyes,  lofty  brow,  long  curling  hair, 
moustache,  and  pointed  beard, — this  is  Vandyke's  head  of 
the  hapless  monarch. 

The  tax  on  landed  property,  and  the  excise — a  duty  levied 
on  certain  articles  of  home  manufacture — were  first  imposed 
by  the  Parliament,  to  meet  the  expense  of  the  Civil  War.  The 
Dutch  painters  Rubens  and  Vandyke  enjoyed  the  patronage 
of  Charles.  Among  the  improvements  of  the  reign  may  be 
noted  the  invention  of  the  barometer,  the  first  use  of  coffee 
in  England,  and  the  first  rude  outline  of  the  General  Post. 

CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 

FRANCE.  A.D. 

LOUIS  XIIL, died  1643 

LOUIS  XIV. 


SPAIN. 
PHILIP  IV. 

TURKEY. 

AMURATH  IV., 1640 

IBEAHIM. 


SWEDEN.  A.D. 

GUST.  ADOLPHUS, died  1633 

CHEISTINA. 

EMPERORS. 

FERDINAND  H. 1637 

FERDINAND  in. 

POPES. 

URBAN  VHL, 1644 

INNOCENT  X. 


220  CROMWELL  IN  IRELAND. 

CHAPTER  III. 

THE     COMMONWEALTH. 
1649  A.D.  to  1660  A.D. 

OLIVER   CROMWELL. 
Born  1599  A.D.-Created  Lord  Protector,  1653  A.D.-Died  1658  A.D. 


Revolution. 
Levellers. 
Conquest  of  Ireland. 
Battle  of  Dunbar. 
Battle  of  Worcester. 
The  Dutch  War. 

Expulsion   of  the  Long 
Parliament. 
Barebones'  Parliament 
Cromwell  Protector. 
His  foreign  policy. 
His  second  Parliament 

Last  days  and  death. 
Character. 
Richard  Cromwell. 
General  Honk. 
Charles   called  from 
exile. 

ENGLAND,  now  a  Commonwealth,  continued  so  for  more 
than  eleven  years.  A  fragment  of  the  Long  Parliament  still 
sat.  Royalty  and  the  House  of  Lords  were  formally  abo- 
lished. The  government  was  vested  in  a  Council  of  forty- 
one  members.  Of  this  Council  Bradshaw  was  President; 
John  Milton  was  Foreign  Secretary ;  Cromwell  and  Fairfax 
directed  the  army ;  Sir  Harry  Vane  controlled  the  navy. 
But  Cromwell  and  his  soldiers  really  ruled  the  nation.  The 
Duke  of  Hamilton  and  two  other  Royalists  shared  the  fate 
of  their  Prince. 

Three  great  difficulties  then  met  Cromwell.  A  part  of  the 
army,  calling  themselves  Levellers,  having  tasted  noble 
blood,  rose  in  dangerous  mutiny,  clamouring  for  more.  The 
vigour  and  decision  of  Oliver  soon  quelled  these  restless 
spirits. 

The  subjugation  of  Ireland  was  his  next  task.  Since  the 
massacre  of  1641  all  had  been  confusion  there.  The  Marquis 
of  Onnond,  leader  of  the  Irish  Royalists,  now  held  nearly  all 
the  fortresses  in  the  island.  Dublin,  Deny,  and  Belfast 
were  the  only  strongholds  of  the  Parliament.  Cromwell, 
having  received  his  commission  as  Lord  Lieutenant,  landed 
near  Dublin  with  9000  men.  It  was  a  small  force,  but  the 
soldiers  knew  not  what  it  was  to  yield.  In  six  months 
Oliver  completely  broke  the  power  of  the  Royalist  party  in 
Ireland.  The  sack  of  Drogheda  was  the  chief  operation  of 
the  war.  Garrisons  were  put  to  the  sword,  whole  cities  were 


BATTLE  OF  DUNBAR.  221 

left  unpeopled.  Everywhere  the  Romanists  fled  before  their 
terrible  foe.  So  great  was  the  terror  of  his  name,  that  even 
at  this  day  '  The  curse  of  Cromwell  on  you'  is  used  in  the 
south  of  Ireland  as  an  imprecation  of  deadly  hatred.  When 
Cromwell  left  for  London,  Ireton  and  Ludlow  remained  to 
guard  the  conquered  island. 

On  his  arrival  in  London  Oliver  received  public  thanks  for 
his  great  services,  and  was  created  Lord  General  of  the 
armies  of  the  Commonwealth.  The  Scottish  nation,  loudly 
condemning  the  execution  of  Charles  I.,  had,  immediately 
upon  receiving  the  fatal  news,  proclaimed  his  son  King.  They 
had  taken  up  arms,  they  said,  not  to  overturn  a  throne,  but 
to  maintain  the  Presbyterian  worship,  so  dear  to  their  fathers. 
They  now  invited  young  Charles  to  Scotland.  At  first  he 
refused  their  aid,  disliking  the  idea  of  turning  Presbyterian, 
and  sent  the  Marquis  of  Montrose  from  Holland  to  attempt 
a  rising  independently  of  the  Covenanters.  That  nobleman 
was  defeated,  captured,  and  executed.  There  was  then  no 
resource  for  Charles  but  to  place  himself  in  the  hands  of  the 
Scottish  Presbyterians.  He  agreed  to  sign  the  Covenant, 
and  landed  at  the  mouth  of  the  Spey  (June  23,  1650).  A 
joyous  welcome  met  him  at  Edinburgh.  Oliver,  as  was  his 
custom,  lost  not  a  day.  But,  when  he  reached  the  Border, 
he  found  the  whole  district  from  Tweed  to  Forth  laid  waste. 
The  Scots  under  Leslie,  a  watchful  and  prudent  leader,  lay 
intrenched  near  Edinburgh.  The  Ironsides  were  met  by 
famine,  a  new  and  terrible  adversary.  As  Oliver  changed 
his  position,  he  was  followed  by  the  cautious  Leslie,  whose 
tactics  were  to  avoid  a  battle  and  let  hunger  do  its  work. 
At  length  the  Lord  General  was  so  hemmed  in  upon  the 
shore  near  Dunbar,  that  he  had  no  choice  left  but  a  dis- 
graceful surrender  or  a  hopeless  attack  on  the  strong  and 
well-posted  Scottish  army.  Already  he  had  resolved  to 
send  away  his  baggage  by  sea,  and  to  cut  his  way  through 
the  Scottish  host  at  the  head  of  his  horsemen,  when,  to  his 
great  surprise  and  joy,  he  saw  the  enemy  leaving 
the  hills  and  advancing  to  offer  battle  on  the  plain.  Sept.  3, 
This  movement  was  made  by  the  rash  advice  of  the  1650 
clergy  in  the  Scottish  camp,  and  was  sorely  against  A.D. 
the  will  of  Leslie.  The  Scots  were  totally  routed, 


222  EXPULSION  OF  THE  LONO  PARLIAMENT. 

and  thousands  fell  in  the  battle  and  the  flight.    Edinburgh 
and  Glasgow  yielded  without  delay  to  the  conqueror. 

During  the  following  winter  King  Charles  was  crowned 
at  Scone  on  New-Year's-Day,  when  he  signed  the  Solemn 
League  and  Covenant,  and  thus  agreed  to  maintain  un- 
broken the  Presbyterianism  of  Scotland.  Leslie  and  his 
Covenanters  were  at  Stirling,  still  formidable.  Cromwell 
moved  to  besiege  Perth,  in  order  to  cut  off  from  them  all 
Highland  supplies.  Suddenly,  with  Charles  at  their  head, 

the  Scots  marched  into  England.    They  had  reached 

Sept.  3,     Worcester  when  Cromwell    overtook   them.     A 

1651    battle  followed,  which  Cromwell  was  accustomed 

A.D.      to  call  his  '  crowning  mercy.'    The  army  of  Charles 

was  scattered.  Among  the  midland  counties  he 
wandered  in  disguise  .for  more  than  a  month ;  at  one  time 
the  guest  of  humble  foresters ;  at  another  lying  hid  for  a 
long  September  day  among  the  branches  of  a  spreading  oak- 
tree,  through  whose  leafy  screen  he  saw  the  red-coats  of 
Oliver  searching  for  him  everywhere  in  vain.  Through 
many  dangers  he  at  last  reached  Shoreham  in  Sussex,  where 
he  found  a  coal-boat,  and  was  landed  safely  at  Fecamp  in 
France.  Scotland,  thus  united  to  the  Commonwealth,  was 
placed  under  the  charge  of  General  Monk. 

A  naval  war  with  Holland  then  began.  It  was  for  the 
empire  of  the  sea.  The  Dutch  admirals  were  Van  Tromp 
and  De  Ruyter :  to  them  was  opposed  the  English  Blake. 
Early  in  1652  Blake  defeated  Van  Tromp  off  Portland, 
and  destroyed  eleven  ships.  The  Dutch  then  sought  peace  ; 
but  the  Parliament,  dreading  the  ambitious  schemes  of 
Oliver,  refused  to  terminate  the  war;  for  it  was  only  by 
keeping  up  the  victorious  navy  that  they  could  hope  to  hold 
the  army  in  check.  But  Oliver  resolved  on  a  decided  step. 
He  urged  his  officers  to  present  a  petition  for  pay  still  due 
to  them.  The  Parliament  angrily  declared  that  such  peti- 
tions should  henceforward  be  considered  treasonable,  and  be- 
gan to  prepare  a  Bill  to  that  effect.  Cromwell  marched 
down  to  the  House  with  300  musketeers,  left  these  outside, 
and  entering,  took  his  seat.  The  debate  went  on ;  he  soon 
rose  to  speak.  He  charged  the  Parliament  with  oppression 
and  profanity ;  and,  when  some  members  rose  to  reply,  he 


CROMWELL  MADE  PROTECTOR.  223 

strode  up  and  down  with  his  hat  on,  hurling  reproaches  at 
them.    '  Get  you  gone,'  cried  he, '  and  give  way  to  honester 
men !'    He  stamped  on  the  floor ;  the  musketeers  poured  in. 
'Take  away  that  bauble!'  said  he,  pointing  to  the 
mace  which  lay  on  the  table.    Resistance  was  use-  April  20, 
less.    The  hall  was  speedily  cleared,  and  Oliver,  as    1653 
he  left,  locked  the  door,  and  carried  off  the  key.      A.D. 
This  was  the  first  expulsion  of  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment. 

An  assembly  of  about  140  members,  selected  from  the 
warmest  supporters  of  Oliver,  then  met  instead  of  a  Parlia- 
ment. It  was  called  Barebones'  Parliament,  after  a  leather- 
seller  who  took  a  forward  part  in  its  proceedings.  But  this 
mockery  was  soon  dissolved  amid  the  jeers  of  the  whole 
nation.  All  power  then  centred  in  Cromwell. 

Elected  Lord  Protector  by  his  officers,  he  was  presented 
in  Westminster  Hall  with  a  sword  and  a  Bible.  He  sat 
upon  a  throne,  robed  in  royal  purple.  He  was  declared 
head  of  the  army  and  navy.  A  legal  Parliament  was  called 
in  his  name.  Freedom  of  religion  was  proclaimed.  His 
object  seems  to  have  been  to  rule  the  empire  in  the  old  con- 
stitutional way,  through  his  Parliament ;  but  his  first  House 
of  Commons  quarrelled  with  him  on  the  subject  of  supplies, 
and  was  dissolved  in  anger  before  a  single  Act  was  passed. 
Eighteen  months  elapsed  before  he  called  his  second  Parlia- 
ment. 

The  Dutch  war  continued  until  April  1654,  when  a  peace 
favourable  to  England  was  concluded.  One  condition  of 
the  treaty  was,  that  the  young  King  Charles  should  be 
driven  from  the  Dutch  dominions.  This  triumph  was  only 
a  part  of  that  foreign  policy  which  made  the  name  of  Oliver 
so  famous.  The  glory  of  England,  which  had  grown  dim 
during  the  two  preceding  reigns,  now  shone  with  a  lustre 
brighter  than  ever.  The  Barbary  pirates,  long  the  pest  of 
the  Mediterranean,  vanished  before  the  English  cruisers. 
Spain,  humbled  by  land  and  sea,  yielded  up  in  1655  the 
rich  island  of  Jamaica.  The  Protestants  of  Languedoc  and 
the  Alps  lived  under  the  shadow  of  Oliver's  favour  in  peace 
and  safety  long  unknown  to  them.  Mazarin,  the  crafty 
minister  of  France,  sought  his  friendship ;  and  Dunkirk,  a 


224  '  DEATH  OF  OLIVER  CBOMWELL. 

Flemish  fortress  taken  from  the  Spaniards  by  Marshal 
Turenne,  was  surrendered  by  France  to  England. 

At  home  Oliver  met  many  troubles.  He  was  obeyed  only 
through  the  fear  with  which  his  unconquered  army  was 
everywhere  regarded.  In  the  flush  of  his  foreign  victories 
he  ventured  to  call  a  second  House  of  Commons.  He  at- 
tempted at  the  same  time  to  frame  a  new  House  of  Lords ; 
but  this  was  his  greatest  political  failure.  The  peers  of 
England  despised  him  as  an  upstart ;  and  he  was  therefore 
compelled  to  fill  the  benches  of  his  Upper  House  with  men 
of  no  birth — '  lucky  draymen  and  shoemakers,'  who  had 
left  their  craft  to  follow  his  banner,  and  had  fought  their 
way  up  from  the  ranks.  His  second  House  of  Commons — 
opened  in  September  1656 — proposed  that  he  should  take 
the  title  of  King ;  but  Oliver,  knowing  that  he  dared  not  do 
this,  rested  content  with  acquiring  the  right  to  name  his 
successor.  This,  in  effect,  made  his  office  hereditary ;  for, 
of  course,  he  named  his  son.  But  when  he  required  this 
House  to  acknowledge  his  newly-created  peers,  he  was  met 
with  a  distinct  refusal  He  then  dissolved  his  second  Par- 
liament, and  during  his  remaining  days  he  ruled  alone. 

These  last  days  were  dark  and  cloudy.  One  plot  rose 
after  another  to  mar  his  peace.  A  book  called  '  Killing  no 
Murder,'  in  which  the  author,  Colonel  Titus,  boldly  advised 
his  assassination,  filled  him  with  ceaseless  fears.  He  car- 
ried pistols,  and  wore  a  shirt  of  mail  under  his  clothes. 
His  strength  began  to  waste;  the  death  of  a  favourite 
daughter  fell  heavily  on  his  heart ;  and  he  died  of  ague  on 
the  3d  of  September  1658,  the  anniversary  of  Dunbar  and 
Worcester,  and  the  day  which  he  had  always  considered 
the  brightest  in  the  year.  His  wife  was  Elizabeth  Bouchier, 
daughter  of  an  Essex  gentleman.  His  children  were  Rich- 
ard, Henry,  and  four  daughters. 

Great  decision  and  energy  marked  the  character  of  Oliver 
Cromwell.  The  secret  of  his  success  lay  in  his  splendid 
military  talents,  which,  dormant  for  forty  years,  were  stirred 
to  life  by  the  troubles  of  the  Civil  War.  He  was  less  suc- 
cessful in  ruling  the  English  nation  than  in  drilling  his  great 
army.  He  disliked  all  show  and  ceremony.  In  private  life 
he  was  fond  of  playing  rough  practical  jokes  on  his  friends. 


RICHARD  CROMWELL.  225 

He  was  a  man  of  coarse  and  heavy  figure,  about  the  middle 
size.  His  eyes  were  grey  and  keen  ;  his  nose  was  too  large 
for  his  face,  and  of  a  deep  red.  His  look  was  harsh  and  for- 
bidding ;  his  manner,  to  the  last,  blunt  and  clownish.  But 
within  this  rugged  frame  there  burned  a  great,  and, — let  us 
believe, — a  truly  religious  soul. 

His  son  Richard,  a  gentle,  modest  man,  quietly  succeeded 
to  the  station  of  Protector.  But  the  soldiers,  missing  their 
great  chief,  grew  mutinous,  and  Richard  resigned  in  five 
months.  Retiring  to  his  farms  at  Cheshunt,  he  lived  the 
peaceful  life  of  a  country  gentleman  until  1712. 

The  few  Independent  members  of  the  Long  Parliament, 
whom  Oliver  had  expelled,  were  restored  by  the  officers  of 
the  army.  But  disagreement  soon  arose,  and  a  second  ex- 
pulsion by  military  force  cleared  the  Parliament  Hall.  It 
was  a  critical  hour  for  England.  A  day  seemed  to  be  coming 
like  that  in  ancient  Rome,  when  soldiers  set  up  the  Empire 
for  auction,  and  knocked  it  down  to  the  highest  bidder. 
Cavaliers  and  Presbyterians  forgot  their  enmity  in  their 
fear. 

Disunion  in  the  army  saved  the  country.  General  Monk, 
a  cautious  and  reserved  man,  marched  from  Scotland  to 
London  with  7000  troops.  The  nation  waited  with  trem- 
bling anxiety  to  know  his  resolve,  and  great  was  their  joy 
when  he  declared  for  a  free  Parliament.  The  Presbyterian 
members,  who  had  been  expelled  by  Colonel  Pride,  returned 
to  their  seats  in  the  Long  Parliament,  and  that  famous  body 
finally  dissolved  itself. 

A  new  Parliament,  composed  chiefly  of  Cavaliers  and 
Presbyterians,  was  then  summoned.  It  was  rather  a  Conven- 
tion than  a  Parliament,  since  it  had  not  been  convoked  by 
the  King.  It  was  clearly  seen  that  the  hearts  of  both  Par- 
liament and  people  were  leaning  towards  their  exiled  Sove- 
reign ;  and  when  Monk,  one  day,  announced  In  the  Parlia- 
ment that  a  messenger  from  Charles  was  waiting  for  admis- 
sion, the  news  was  received  with  joyful  shouts.  A  warm 
invitation  was  at  once  despatched  to  the  King,  who  gladly 
returned  to  his  native  land. 

Among  many  sects  which  at  this  time  sprang  from  the 
Puritan  body,  the  Quakers  deserve  notice.  Their  founder 

(327  1 5 


226 


THE  QUAKERS. 


was  George  For  of  Drayton  in  Leicestershire,  by  trade  a 
shoemaker,  but  occupied  chiefly  in  teaching  the  Scriptures. 
He  was  more  than  once  put  in  the  stocks  and  imprisoned 
for  preaching.  The  Quakers,  now  known  as  the  Society  of 
Friends,  are  remarkable  for  their  simple  manners  and  indus- 
trious lives.  They  differ  from  other  Protestants  in  dress, 
some  slight  forms  of  speech,  and  their  mode  of  public  wor- 
ship. 

CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


FRANCE. 
LOUIS  XIV. 


SPAIN. 


PHILIP  IV. 


SWEDEN. 

CHRISTINA., died  1654 

CHARLES  X., 1660 


TURKEY. 

A.D. 

IBRAHIM., died  1655 

MOHAMMED  IV. 

EMPERORS. 

FERDINAND  HI., 1658 

LEOPOLD  I. 

POPES. 

INNOCENT  X., 1655 

ALEXANDER  VII. 


THE  RESTORATION. 


£27 


CHAPTER  IV. 

CHARLES  II. 

Born  1630  A.D.— Began  to  reign  1649  A.D.— Restored  to  the  Throne 
1660  A.D.— Died  1685  A.D. 


The  Restoration. 
Early  measures. 
Act  of  Uniformity. 
Standing  army. 
Dutch  war. 
The  Plague. 
The  Fire  of  London. 
General  licentiousness. 
Ireland. 


Persecution   of   Scottish 

Presbyterians. 
Triple  Alliance. 
Treaty  of  Dover. 
The  Cabal 

Closing  of  the  Exchequer. 
The  Popish  Plot 
Statesmen  of  the  reign. 
Habeas  Corpus  Act 


Exclusion  Bill. 
Whig  and  Tory. 
Drumclog. 
Bothwell  Bridge. 
Hye-house  Plot. 
Death. 
Character. 
Notea. 


EARLY  in  May  1660  Charles  II.  was  proclaimed  King  at  the 
gate  of  Westminster  Hall.  Within  the  same  month 
he  landed  at  Dover,  and  made  his  public  entry  into    May  29, 
London  on  his  birth-day.    Never  had  there  been     1660 
such  joy  in  England.    Flowers  strewed  the  road;      A.D. 
bells  rang  merrily;  and  old  Cavaliers,  who  had  fought 
at  Edge-hill  and  Naseby,  wept  for  very  gladness.    On  Black- 
heath  stood  Oliver's  army,  sad  and  angry,  but  conscious  that 
they  were  no  longer  united.    No  tumult  marred  the  joy  of 
the  Restoration,  as  the  great  event  was  called. 

Edward  Hyde,  afterwards  Earl  of  Clarendon,  returned 
with  the  King  from  exile.  He  was  made  Lord  Chancellor, 
and  soon  became  closely  connected  with  the  royal  family  by 
the  marriage  of  his  daughter,  Anne  Hyde,  with  James, 
Duke  of  York. 

Among  the  early  acts  of  Charles  were  the  abolition  of  the 
last  relic  of  the  Feudal  System, — the  tenure  of  lands  by 
knight  service,  with  all  its  abuses  of  fines  and  wardship, — 
and  the  disbanding  of  Cromwell's  soldiers,  all  of  whom 
quietly  settled  down  to  their  former  occupations.  The 
Episcopal  Church  was  restored  in  England.  Few  of  the 
men  who  had  been  concerned  in  the  regicide  of  Charles  I. 
suffered  death.  The  Marquis  of  Argyle,  a  leader  of  the 
Scottish  Presbyterians,  was  executed,  although  he  had  placed 
the  crown  on  the  King's  head  at  Scone.  The  bodies  of 


228  ACT  OF  UNIFORMITY. 

Cromwell,  Ireton  his  son-in-law,  and  Bradshaw  were  taken 
from  their  graves  and  hanged  on  gibbets.  A  general  pardon 
was  granted  to  all  who  had  favoured  Oliver's  government. 
Monk  was  rewarded  with  the  title  of  Duke  of  Albemarle. 

Eeligious  affairs  were  in  great  confusion.  The  Triers, 
who  had  been  appointed  by  Oliver  to  grant  license  for 
preaching,  had  filled  the  parish  pulpits  with  Independent 
and  Presbyterian  ministers.  Charles  and  Clarendon  were 
bent  upon  allowing  no  form  of  worship  but  Episcopacy. 
The  Presbyterians  were  greatly  alarmed.  They  had  the 
handwriting  of  the  King  to  prove  his  promise  that  the 
Covenant  should  be  respected.  But  soon  faded  all  hope  of 
favour  from  him,  with  whom  it  was  a  common  saying,  that 
Presbyterianism  was  no  religion  for  a  gentleman.  An  Act 
of  Uniformity  was  passed,  requiring  that  all  ministers  should 
be  ordained  by  Bishops,  and  should  use  the  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer.  Two  thousand  ministers  refused  to  obey,  and 
were  turned  out  of  their  livings.  It  was  resolved  in  Parlia- 
ment that  the  Covenant  should  be  publicly  burned  by  the 
hangman.  Heavy  punishments  were  inflicted  on  all  Dissen- 
ters. About  the  same  time  the  Corporation  Act  enjoined 
all  magistrates  and  officers  of  corporations  to  take  an  oath, 
that  resistance  against  the  King  was  unlawful  under  any 
circumstances. 

So  great  had  been  the  joy  of  the  Restoration,  that  no  care 
was  taken  to  prevent  Charles  from  seizing  absolute  power. 
His  first  Parliament  granted  him,  for  life,  taxes  amounting 
to  £1,200,000;  and  a  part  of  this  money  he  devoted  to  the 
support  of  some  regiments,  then  called  Gentlemen  of  the 
Guard,  but  now  termed  Life  Guards.  These  formed  the 
nucleus  of  a  standing  army,  ever  since  maintained. 

The  extravagant  habits  and  dissolute  life  of  the  King  kept 
him  in  constant  want  of  money ;  and  to  fill  his  purse  he  did 
many  mean  things.  Marrying  for  money  was  one  of  these. 
The  wife  he  chose  was  a  Romanist,  Catherine  of  Portugal : 
and  with  her  he  received  a  dowry  of  half  a  million  besides 
two  fortresses,  Tangier  in  Morocco,  and  Bombay  in  Hindos- 
tan.  Dunkirk,  acquired  by  the  great  Oliver,  he  sold  to  the 
French  King  for  a  trifling  sum.  He  also  plunged  into  a  war 
with  Holland,  for  which  no  other  cause  can  be  assigned  than 


THE  GKEAT  PLAGUE.  229 

that  he  wished  to  have  command  of  the  supplies  voted  for 
the  purpose. 

This  Dutch  war  opened  well,  but  closed  ignobly.    During 
the  first  year  a  great  naval  victory  was  gained  off 
the  Suffolk  coast,  near  Lowestoft,  by  an  English     1665 
fleet  under  the  Duke  of  York    But  the  money       A.D. 
voted  by  Parliament  for  the  war  was  squandered 
by  the  King  in  his  wicked  pleasures,  and  ships  leaky  and 
badly  rigged  were  sent  out  to  contend  with  the  splendid 
fleets  of  Holland.    Then  came  upon  England  a  humiliation 
such  as  she  had  never  before, — has  never  since  en- 
dured.    "The  roar  of  foreign  guns  was  heard  for    June  10, 
the  first  and  last  time  by  the  citizens  of  London,"     1667 
when  a  Dutch  fleet  destroyed  Sheerness,  burned      A.D. 
the  ships  lying  off  Chatham,  and  sailed  up  the 
Thames  as  far  as  Tilbury  Fort.    Happily  for  London  the 
Dutch  admiral,  retiring  with  the  ebb-tide,  rested  content 
with  having  thus  insulted  the  great  Mistress  of  the  Sea. 

The  summer  of  1665  was  a  deadly  season  in  London.  The 
Plague  fell  upon  the  city.  The  rich  fled  in  terror  to  their 
country-houses  ;  but  many  were  stricken  down  even  there. 
The  poor  perished  in  thousands.  Grass  grew  in  London 
streets.  The  silence  of  death  reigned  everywhere,  broken 
only  by  the  rumbling  wheels  of  the  dead-cart  as  it  went  its 
rounds.  The  plague-stricken  dwellings  were  shut  up  and 
marked  with  a  cross;  the  words  'Lord  have  mercy  on  us' 
might  often  be  read  there  too.  Into  these  none  would  ven- 
ture except  a  few  faithful  ministers  and  physicians,  who 
moved  and  breathed  amid  the  tainted  air,  as  if  they  bore  a 
charmed  life.  Plague  in  a  city  drives  the  irreligious  into 
deeper  sin.  Fearful  scenes  of  riot  and  drunkenness  are  too 
commonly  the  results  of  this  near  approach  of  death,  and 
London  was  no  exception  to  the  terrible  rule.  More  than 
one  hundred  thousand  perished.  Britain  has  never  since 
been  visited  by  so  heavy  a  scourge. 

In  the  following  year  the  Great  Fire  of  London  broke  out, 
on  the  night  of  Sunday  the  2nd  of  September.  Though 
then  said  to  have  been  the  work  of  malicious  Romanists,  it 
is  now  generally  believed  to  have  been  quite  accidental.  It 
began  in  the  east  end  of  the  city.  The  wind  was  high,  and 


230  GENERAL  LICENTIOUSNESS. 

the  flames  spread  fast  among  the  old  wooden  houses.  The 
city  from  the  Tower  to  the  Temple  was  burning  for  a  whole 
week ;  and  the  red  glare  in  the  sky  is  said  to  have  been  seen 
from  the  Cheviot  Hills.  Eighty-nine  churches,  and  more 
than  thirteen  thousand  houses  lay  in  ashes.  Old  St.  Paul's 
was  burned ;  but  on  the  ruins  the  distinguished  Wren  reared 
that  magnificent  dome,  which  rises  high  above  the  smoky 
roofs  of  London.  This  great  conflagration,  like  all  calamities, 
was  but  a  blessing  in  disguise.  It  purified  the  city  from  the 
plague,  still  lurking  in  narrow  lanes  and  filthy  rooms ;  and 
many  spots,  dark  and  close  for  centuries,  were  once  more 
blessed  with  the  sweet  light  and  air  of  heaven.  New  houses 
and  wider  streets  sprang  up ;  and,  as  a  natural  result,  the 
public  health  rapidly  improved.  The  Monument, — a  tall 
pillar  in  the  City  of  London, — still  exists  to  commemorate 
the  Great  Fire. 

Under  the  austere  Puritan  rule  of  Cromwell  sculpture  and 
painting  had  been  almost  banished  from  the  land,  as  savour- 
ing of  idolatry.  Then,  too,  all  public  amusements,  especially 
theatrical  performances  and  the  cruel  sport  of  bear-baiting, 
were  forbidden;  and  even  the  innocent  sports  round  the 
May  pole  and  by  the  Christmas  fire  were  sternly  put  down. 
The  nation,  released  at  the  Restoration  from  such  restric- 
tions, plunged  wildly  into  the  opposite,  extreme.  The  King 
lived  a  life  of  indolence  and  profligacy,  and  spent  most  of  his 
time  in  the  society  of  beautiful  and  witty,  but  very  worthless 
women,  whose  influence  affected  the  politics  of  the  day  to 
no  small  extent.  Licentiousness  spread  everywhere.  Mem- 
bers of  Parliament  sold  their  votes,  as  a  matter  of  course. 
The  plays  written  then,  in  which  for  the  first  time  female 
performers  took  the  female  parts,  are  unfit  to  be  read,  so  dis- 
gusting are  the  thoughts  and  the  language.  The  power  of 
even  the  Church  was  but  feebly  exerted  to  stem  this  torrent 
of  wickedness. 

In  Ireland  the  Saxon  and  the  Celt  were  still  at  war,  and 
the  subject  of  the  strife  was  now  the  division  of  lands. 
Under  Henry  Cromwell,  brother  of  the  Protector,  who  had 
ruled  the  island  as  Lord  Lieutenant,  Puritan  colonists  had 
held  the  lots  portioned  out  to  them  by  the  victorious  Oliver. 
Charles  resolved  to  restore  to  the  Romanists  part  of  th« 


THE  SCOTTISH  COVENANTERS.  231 

territory  taken  from  them,  and  an  Act  of  Settlement  was 
passed ;  but  this  did  not  mend  matters,  for  some  thousands 
received  little  or  no  compensation,  and  left  for  France  and 
Spain,  crying  loudly  against  the  injustice  of  Charles. 

These  were  dark  days  for  Scotland.  The  King  and  the 
Earl  of  Clarendon,  as  before  mentioned,  had  resolved  to  up- 
root Presbyterianism  and  firmly  to  establish  Episcopacy  in 
that  land.  They  found  an  able  and  unscrupulous  instrument 
in  James  Sharp,  minister  of  Crail ;  who,  being  sent  to  Lon- 
don by  the  Presbyterians  to  look  after  their  interests,  turned 
traitor,  and  was  rewarded  for  his  apostasy  by  being  made 
Archbishop  of  St.  Andrews.  Nine  other  Scottish  Presby- 
terians were  seduced  by  similar  temptations,  and  received 
the  mitre.  The  Earl  of  Lauderdale,  once  a  Presbyterian 
like  Sharp,  and  filled  with  all  the  bitterness  of  a  renegade, 
was  made  Chief  Commissioner.  Fines,  laid  upon  those  who 
refused  to  attend  the  Episcopal  worship,  were  levied  by  mili- 
tary force,  and  soldiers  were  quartered  on  the  unhappy 
people  until  the  uttermost  farthing  was  paid.  A  rising  took 
place  among  the  peasantry  of  Kirkcudbright,  and 
about  a  thousand  men  marched  to  Edinburgh ;  but  Nov. 
they  were  defeated  by  General  Dalziel  at  Bullion  1666 
Green  near  the  Pentland  Hills.  Many  executions  A.D. 
followed,  and  torture  became  frightfully  common. 
One  of  the  most  terrible  instruments  was  the  infamous 
'boot.'  This,  which  was  made  of  four  pieces  of  board 
hooped  with  iron,  was  placed  upon  the  leg  of  the  victim, 
and  wedges  were  driven  with  a  heavy  mallet  between  the 
flesh  and  the  wood,  until  the  whole  limb,  flesh  and  bone, 
was  a  crushed  and  bloody  mass.  Meetings  for  worship  in 
the  open  air,  called  conventicles,  to  which  the  worshippers 
came,  not  with  their  Bibles  alone,  but  with  sword  and  pistol 
also,  were  the  consolation  of  the  brave  people,  whose  reli- 
gious feelings  grew  deeper  and  purer,  the  fiercer  blew  the 
hurricane  of  persecution. 

The  ambition  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  which  convulsed 
Europe  so  long,  now  began  to  be  attracted  by  the  Nether- 
lands, to  which  he  professed  some  shadow  of  a  claim  through 
his  wife.  To  preserve  the  balance  of  power,  England, 
Sweden,  and  Holland  formed  the  Triple  Alliance  against  the 


232  THE  TP.EATY  OF  DOVER. 

French  monarch.  In  the  desire  to  preserve  this  balance,— 
that  is,  to  prevent  any  potentate  from  acquiring  by  conquest 
an  ascendency  which  would  be  dangerous  to  other  states, — we 
find  the  cause  of  many  wars  of  which  we  have  yet  to  speak. 
The  Triple  Alliance  pleased  the  English  people  mightily,  and 
Charles  became,  for  once,  a  great  favourite.  But  little  did 
the  nation  dream  how  basely  they  had  been  tricked,  and 
what  foul  stains  were  deepening  upon  kingly  honour.  While 
Charles  openly  professed  hostility  to  Louis,  he  was  secretly 
in  the  pay  of  that  monarch,  receiving  a  pension  of  £200,000 
a  year.  The  negotiations  between  the  Courts  of  England 
and  France  were  conducted  by  a  handsome  Frenchwoman, 
called  by  the  English  Madame  Carwell,  who  soon  won  the 
favour  of  Charles,  and  was  made  Duchess  of  Ports- 
May  mouth.  At  Dover  was  signed  a  secret  treaty,  of 
1670  which  the  principal  terms  were,  that  Charles 
A.D.  should  openly  declare  himself  a  Romanist,  that  he 
should  fight  for  Louis  against  the  Dutch  Republic, 
and  that  he  should  support  the  claims  of  that  monarch  upon 
Spain.  Louis  on  his  part  promised  plenty  of  money,  and 
an  army  to  quell  the  English  if  they  dared  to  rebel.  The 
Earl  of  Clarendon,  who  remonstrated  earnestly  against  the 
shameless  bargain,  lost  favour  on  that  account,  and  retired 
to  the  Continent. 

Five  men,  called  the  Cabal,  because  the  initials  of  their 
names  form  that  word,  then  became  the  chief  advisers  of  the 
King.  They  were  Clifford,  Arlington,  Buckingham,  Ashley, 
and  Lauderdale.  So  pernicious  was  their  advice,  and  so 
strong  the  hatred  of  them  entertained  by  the  people,  that 
the  word  Cabal  has  ever  since  been  used  to  denote  a  clique 
of  political  schemers. 

The  Dutch  war  being  renewed  in  1672,  an  English  fleet 
put  to  sea,  while  Louis  crossed  the  Rhine  and  ravaged  the 
United  Provinces.  But  the  Dutch,  acting  under  the  orders 
of  their  heroic  leader,  William  of  Orange,  broke  down  their 
dikes :  the  foaming  water  rushed  over  the  land,  and  the 
French  soldiers  had  to  flee  for  their  lives.  Hostilities  con- 
tinued until  a  treaty  was  made  at  Nimeguen  in  1678. 

One  of  the  most  disgraceful  acts  of  Charles  was  the  closing 
of  the  Exchequer,  or  Treasury.  About  £1,300,000  had,  been 


THE  POPISH  PLOT.  233 

advanced  to  the  King  by  the  London  goldsmiths,  and  other 
wealthy  merchants,  at  8  or  10  per  cent,  of  interest ;  and 
for  this  sum  they  had  the  security  of  the  public  funds.  One 
day  they  received  a  cool  message  from  the  King,  that  their 
money  was  not  to  be  repaid,  and  that  they  must  content 
themselves  with  the  interest.  A  general  panic  ensued. 
Merchants,  unable  to  meet  their  engagements,  were  forced 
to  stop  payment.  Trade  was  for  the  time  paralyzed.  But  all 
mattered  nothing  to  the  dishonest  monarch,  who  rejoiced 
in  possessing  new  means  of  gratifying  his  guilty  desires. 

Ever  since  the  Fire  of  London  the  public  feeling  against 
the  Komanists  had  been  growing  stronger.    The  Duke  of 
York  had  openly  professed  his  belief  of  the  Romish  doctrines, 
and  there  was  a  general  suspicion  abroad  that  the  King,  too, 
was  at  heart  devoted  to  his  mother's  creed.    A  sign 
of  the  times  was  the  Test  Act,  by  which  all  persons     1673 
who  held  public  appointments  were  compelled  to       A.D. 
take  an  oath  against  transubstantiation.    This  law 
excluded  all  Komanists  from  office,  and  the  Duke  of  York 
was  removed  from  the  command  of  the  fiee£. 

Then  Titus  Gates,  a  clergyman  disgraced  for  vicious 
habits,  came  forward  with  the  story  of  a  Popish  Plot  to  as- 
sassinate the  King  and  to  massacre  all  Protestants.  Other 
false  witnesses,  for  so  they  proved,  confirmed  his  tale. 
Papers  found  in  the  rooms  of  Edward  Coleman,  a  noted 
Romanist  and  secretary  to  the  Duchess  of  York,  seemed  to 
afford  additional  evidence  of  a  plot.  The  dead  body  of  Sir 
Edmoudsbury  Godfrey,  the  Justice  of  Peace  before  whom 
Oates  had  sworn  to  the  conspiracy,  was  found  in  a  field  near 
London,  pierced  with  his  own  sword.  All  England  went 
mad  with  fear.  London  was  in  a  state  of  siege.  It  was  an 
English  Reign  of  Terror,  and  the  blood  of  Romanists  was 
shed  like  water.  Titus  Oates  was  rewarded  with  a  pension 
of  .£1200  a  year,  and  rooms  were  assigned  to  him  in  White- 
hall. Encouraged  by  his  success,  new  perjurers,  such  as 
Bedloe  and  Dangerfield,  poured  from  the  gambling-houses 
and  drinking-dens  of  London.  Execution  followed  execution. 
The  noblest  of  the  slain  Romanists  was  William  Howard, 
Viscount  Stafford,  whose  grey  hairs  could  not  save  him  from 
an  unmerited  death. 


234  HABEAS  CORPUS  ACT. 

After  the  dissolution  of  the  Cabal,  the  Earl  of  Danby  be- 
came  Prime  Minister ;  but  the  discovery  of  a  letter,  in  which 
he  craved  money  from  the  French  King,  hastened  his  down- 
fall. Sir  William  Temple,  a  man  of  much  talent,  then 
became  the  confidant  of  Charles.  His  favourite  scheme  was 
the  appointment  of  a  Council  of  Thirty  to  stand  between 
the  King  and  the  Parliament.  But  the  plan  did  not  work 
well.  Of  those  associated  with  Temple  in  the  direction  of 
affairs,  the  most  distinguished  was  Viscount  Halifax  Be- 
longing to  neither  extreme  of  the  two  great  political  parties, 
but  standing  midway  between  them  in  his  opinions,  he  was 
what  the  politicians  of  that  day  had  begun  to  call  a  Trimmer, 
and  he  thought  that  the  name  was  no  disgrace. 

The  day  upon  which  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  received  the 
assent  of  the  King,  and  thus  became  a  law  of  the 
May  26,  land,  is  memorable  in  the  history  of  Britain  ;  for 
1679  this  Act  is  second  in  importance  only  to  Magna 
A.D.  Charta.  It  secures  the  liberty  of  the  subject. 
Former  sovereigns  had,  without  restraint,  left 
their  enemies  to  pine  and  waste  for  long  years  in  damp, 
unwholesome  prisons.  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  had  lain 
for  nineteen  years  in  English  dungeons,  when,  crippled 
by  rheumatism  and  bowed  by  premature  old  age,  she  was 
led  tc  the  scaffold.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  lay  for  more  than 
twelve  years,  and  Archbishop  Laud  for  four  in  a  solitary 
cell.  But,  by  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act,  no  sovereign  could 
dare  to  keep  even  the  meanest  subject  in  prison  beyond  a 
certain  time  without  bringing  him  to  a  fair  trial.  This  re- 
markable Act  was  passed  in  the  first  session  of  Charles' 
second  House  cf  Commons.  His  first  Parliament,  which 
had  sat  for  eighteen  years,  was  dissolved  in  1679.  At  the 
time  that  Habeas  Corpus  was  passed,  the  Press  of  England 
received  liberty  for  a  short  period. 

So  strongly  did  the  tide  of  public  feeling  run  against  the 
Duke  of  York,  who,  since  Charles  had  no  legitimate  chil- 
dren, was  the  heir  to  the  throne,  that  a  Bill  to  exclude  him 
from  the  succession  was  brought  into  Parliament.  It  was 
most  angrily  contested  between  the  Whigs  and  the  Tories, 
but  passed  the  House  of  Commons  by  a  majority  of  seventj- 
nine  votes.  In  the  House  of  Lords,  however,  chiefly  b> 


WHIG  AND  TORY.  235 

means  of  the  splendid  speeches  of  Halifax,  the  Bill  was 
thrown  out ;  and  Charles  and  his  brother  York  once  more 
breathed  freely. 

During  these  fierce  debates  the  contemptuous  nicknames, 
Whig  and  Tory,  which  have  since  lost  their  derisive  mean- 
ing, were  for  the  first  time  bandied  between  the  rival  parties. 
The  Whigs  represented  the  Roundheads;  the  Tories,  the 
Cavaliers  of  the  last  reign.  Tory  or  Toree,  meaning  '  Give 
me,'  was  a  name  applied  to  the  robbers  who  infested  the 
woods  and  bogs  of  Ireland.  The  name  Whig,  meaning,  pro- 
bably, '  whey,  or  sour  milk,'  was  first  given  in  contempt  by 
dissolute  Cavaliers  to  the  sober  and  grave-faced  Presbyterians 
of  Scotland. 

The  persecutions  of  the  Covenanters  still  stained  Scotland 
with  blood.  Lauderdale,  now  a  Duke,  presided  at  the 
Council-table.  A  Highland  host,  numbering  8000  men, 
were  quartered  on  the  Lowland  farmers,  and  permitted,  even 
encouraged,  to  plunder  and  oppress  without  mercy.  No 
man  could  leave  Scotland  without  special  permission  from 
the  Council.  These  and  worse  grievances  were  for  a  long 
time  meekly  borne,  but  at  length  the  suffering  people  were 
goaded  to  madness.  One  of  the  first  signs  of  the  frenzy  was 
the  murder  of  Archbishop  Sharp  on  Magus  Moor,  near  St. 
Andrews.  A  party  of  twelve,  among  whom  was  Balfour  of 
Burleigh,  while  waiting  on  the  moor  for  another  and  meaner 
foe,  saw  the  coach  of  Sharp  approaching.  Taking 
a  sudden  and  desperate  resolve,  they  dragged  him  May  3, 
from  his  seat  and  slew  him  before  his  daughter's  1679 
eyes.  A  rising  at  once  ensued,  and  at  Drumclog,  A.D. 
near  Loudon  Hill,  Graham  of  Claverhouse  and  his 
dragoons— long  the  terror  of  conventicles — were  scattered  in 
flight  before  the  stern  Covenanters.  Four  thousand  men 
were  soon  in  arms  under  a  man  named  Hamilton,  and  took 
post  at  Bothwell  Bridge,  to  defend  the  passage  of  the  Clyde. 
The  Duke  of  Monmouth,  an  illegitimate  son  of  Charles  II. 
by  a  Welsh  girl  named  Lucy  Walters,  was  sent  hastily  from 
London,  and  advanced  to  the  attack.  But  there  was  dis- 
union on  religious  and  political  questions  in  the  Covenanting 
army ;  and  the  gallant  handful  that  held  the  bridge,  being 
left  without  support,  were  soon  swept  away.  Three  hundred 


236  THE  EYE-HOUSE  PLOT. 

Covenanters  died  on  the  field ;  twelve  hundred  surrendered. 
Of  these  some  were  executed,  others  drafted  off  to  Barba- 
does.  The  persecution  grew  fiercer  than  ever.  For  no  other 
crime  than  desiring  to  worship  God  as  their  fathers  had 
done,  men  were  shot  down  in  the  fields,  and  hunted  like 
wild  beasts  over  the  moors  and  mountains.  Their  loyalty, 
to  which  they  had  clung  in  the  darkest  hour,  now  began  to 
give  way.  A  sect  called  Cameronians  boldly  threw  off 
their  allegiance,  denounced  Charles  as  a  bloody  tyrant, 
and  solemnly  pronounced  against  him  and  his  ministers  a 
sentence  of  excommunication.  Lauderdale  gave  place  to  a 
bitterer  persecutor,  James,  Duke  of  York,  who  often  amused 
his  leisure  hours  by  witnessing  the  infliction  of  the  boot  and 
the  thumb-screw.  Many  yielded  an  eutward  obedience, 
driven  by  their  timid  souls  to  take  refuge  in  a  lie ;  others 
fled  to  the  American  Colonies.  In  these  sufferings  the 
Puritans  of  England  had  no  small  share. 

The  last  remarkable  event  of  the  reign  was  a  Whig  con- 
spiracy, commonly  known  as  the  Rye-house  Plot.  Young 
Monmouth,  beloved  by  the  people  for  his  handsome  face  and 
frank  manners,  was  looked  upon  by  many  as  the  lawful  son  of 
Charles  and  the  true  heir  to  the  throne.  Stories  were  afloat 
of  a  marriage  between  Charles  and  Lucy  Walters,  and  of  a 
black  box  which  held  the  marriage  contract.  A  conspiracy 
to  secure  the  crown  for  Monmouth  was  set  on  foot.  Lord 
William  Russell  and  Algernon  Sidney  took  a  leading  share  in 
the  plot,  which  spread  its  roots  far  and  wide.  A  set  of 
middle-class  men  formed,  as  it  seems,  without  the  knowledge 
of  Monmouth  or  Russell,  a  design  to  murder  the  King  on  his 
return  from  Newmarket  races.  Their  plan  was  to  overturn 
a  cart  near  the  Rye  House,  a  roadside  farm,  and  then  to 
shoot  the  King  during  the  stoppage  of  the  coach.  Thus  there 
was  a  plot  within  a  plot.  All  was  soon  discovered,  and  the 
vengeance  of  the  King  was  let  loose.  Monmouth  fled  to  the 
Continent,  Russell  and  Sidney  died  on  the  scaffold,  and 
many  of  lower  degree  were  hanged.  During  the  remainder 
of  his  reign  Charles  ruled  as  an  absolute  monarch, 

He  died  after  an  illness  of  less  than  a  week,  having  first 
declared  himself  a  Romanist,  and  having  received  the  last 
rites  of  the  Romish  Church  from  a  priest  named  Huddlestone, 


CHARACTER  OF  CHARLES  II. 


237 


who  was  brought  secretly  to  his  bedside.  Apoplexy,  epilepsy, 
and  even  poison  were  assigned  as  the  causes  of  his  death. 
He  left  no  lawful  children. 

Perhaps  the  only  good  point  about  Charles  the  Second  was 
the  gay  and  buoyant  disposition  which  carried  him  through 
so  many  reverses,  and  gained  for  him  the  name  of  '  The 
Merry  Monarch.'  He  was  a  mean-spirited,  treacherous, 
dissolute  man,  who,  thoroughly  vicious  himself,  scoffed  at 
the  idea  of  virtue  or  honour  in  others.  Much  of  his  time 
was  passed  in  worthless  company.  He  was  an  active  tennis- 
player,  an  untiring  walker,  and  often  amused  himself  with 
chemical  experiments. 

The  Royal  Society,  founded  in  1660,  did  much  for  the 
advancement  of  science.  From  the  tumults  and  impostures 
of  the  reign  sprang  two  words — ever  since  in  common  use — 
Mob  and  Sham.  A  penny  post  was  set  up  in  London  in 
spite  of  great  opposition  by  a  citizen  named  William  Dock- 
wray.  Newspapers,  influenced  by  the  rivalry  of  Whigs  and 
Tories,  began  to  acquire  political  importance.  '  The  London 
Gazette'  and  '  The  Observator,'  edited  by  Roger  Lestrange, 
were  the  organs  of  the  Government. 

CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


FRANCE. 
LOUIS  XIV. 


SPAIN. 

PHILIP  TV., died  1665 

CHARLES  II. 


SWEDEN. 
CHARLES  XI. 


TURKEY.  A.D. 

MOHAMMED  IV. 

EMPEROR. 
LEOPOLD  I. 

POPES. 

ALEXANDER  VII., died  1607 

CLEMENT  IX., 1670 

CLEMENT  X., 1676 

INNOCENT  XI. 


238  ARGYLE'S  REBELLION. 

CHAPTER  V. 

JAMES  II. 

Born  1633  A.D.— Began  to  reign  1685  A.D.— Dethroned  1688  A.D. 
Died  1701  A.D. 


Confidence  of  the  nation. 

Argyle. 

llonmonth. 

Battle  of  Sedgeraoor. 

Kirlf.e  and  Jeffrey*. 

Romish  Policy  of  James. 


Oxford  and  Cambridge 
Declarations    of    Indul- 
gence. 

Trial  of  the  Bishops. 
Lillibulero. 
William  of  Orange. 


His  landing. 

Flight  of  James. 

The  Convention. 

The  Declaration  of  Rights. 

Nature  of  the  Revolution. 

Character  of  James. 


A  QUARTER  of  an  hour  after  his  brother's  death,  the  Duko 

of  York  took  his  seat  at  the  Council  as  King  James  II. 

There  he  declared  his  resolve  to  govern  according  to  the 

laws,  and  to  uphold  the  Church  of  England,— a  promise 

which  he  repeated  in  his  speech  from  the  throne  when  he 

met  his  Parliament.    He  was  a  zealous  Romanist,  and  men 

might  well  have  grown  pale,  when  they  remembered  the  last 

Romish  sovereign  of  England.    But  the  confidence  of  the 

nation  seemed  unshaken,  and  loyal  addresses  poured 

April  23,  in  from  every  side.    The  King  attended  a  public 

1685     celebration  of  the  Romish  mass,  and  was  soon  after 

A.D.       crowned  in  right  royal  style.    The  Commons  voted 

him  a  revenue  of  .£1,900,000,  and  already  he  was 

in  the  pay  of  Louis. 

Holland  was  the  refuge- of  the  conspirators  who  had  fled 
from  England  on  the  detection  of  the  Rye-house  plot.  Mon- 
mouth  and  Argyle  were  there  with  many  of  less  note ;  and  a 
meeting  took  place  at  Amsterdam,  at  which  it  was  resolved 
that  Argyle  should  descend  on  Scotland,  and  that  Mon- 
mouth  should  about  the  same  time  attempt  the  invasion  of 
England. 

Argyle — known  to  his  clansmen  as  MacCallum  More — 
landed  on  Cantire,  and  sent  forth  the  fiery  cross  to  summon 
the  Campbells  to  arms.  Scarcely  two  thousand  claymores 
mustered  at  the  call  With  these  he  moved  towards  Glas- 
gow ;  but  in  Dumbartonshire  his  little  army  was  scattered, 
and,  while  attempting  to  escape  in  disguise,  he  was  made 


BATTLE  OF  SEDGEMOOK.  239 

prisoner.  Some  days  later  he  suffered  death  at  Edinburgh 
with  Christian  patience,  and  his  head  was  left  to  moulder 
on  the  walls  of  the  Tolbooth  Prison. 

June  was  far  spent  when  Monmouth  with  three  ships 
.approached  the  coast  of  Dorsetshire,  and  landed  at  Lyme. 
Ploughmen  and  miners  flocked  in  hundreds  to  join  him ;  far- 
mers came  on  their  heavy  cart-horses  to  fill  the  ranks  of  his 
rude  cavalry ;  but  the  nobles  and  gentlemen  made  no  move- 
ment in  his  favour.  His  hopes  rose  when  he  reached  Taun- 
ton,  a  town  noted  for  its  woollen  manufacture.  There  he 
assumed  the  title  of  King ;  green  boughs,  worn  in  his  honour, 
were  in  every  hat ;  and  a  band  of  young  girls  publicly  pre- 
sented him  with  a  Bible  and  a  richly  embroidered  flag. 
Bent  upon  the  conquest  of  Bristol,  then  the  second  city  in 
the  kingdom,  he  marched  to  Bridgewater,  and  even  to  the 
walls  of  Bath.  But  the  train-ban/ls  were  gathering  fast,  and 
his  heart  was  failing  him.  He  fell  back.  The  royal  troops 
and  the  rebels  exchanged  shots  at  Philip's  Norton,  but  the 
battle  which  decided  the  fate  of  Monmouth  was  fought  on 
Sedgemoor,  within  three  miles  of  Bridgewater. 

There  lay  an  army  of  3000  men  under  Feversham,  a  weak 
and  indolent  general.  Monmouth,  hoping  to  surprise  the 
royal  troops  in  disorder,  advanced  from  Bridgewater  in  the 
dead  of  night.  The  moor — the  ancient  hiding-place  of  Al- 
fred— was  then  a  partly  drained  swamp,  crossed  by  trenches 
full  of  mud  and  water,  called  rhiues.  Two  of  these  rhines  Mon- 
mouth and  his  soldiers  had  passed  in  silence,  and  they  were 
almost  upon  the  foe,  when  he  found  a  deep,  black  ditch, 
the  Bussex  rhine,  of  which  his  guides  had  not  told  him, 
yawning  in  front  of  the  march.  Delay  and  confusion  fol- 
lowed, and  a  pistol  went  off  by  accident.  Instantly  the 
royal  drums  beat  to  arms ;  a  heavy  fire  of  musketry  opened 
on  the  rebels  from  the  opposite  side  of  the  rhine ;  the  royal 
cavalry  came  galloping  to  the  scene  of  action.  Monmouth, 
conscious  that  all  was  lost,  took  to  flight.  His 
foot  soldiers  fought  long  and  bravely,  until,  after  1  gft5 
much  delay,  the  guns  of  the  royal  artillery  began  A  D 
to  play  upon  their  ranks ;  and  then  they  broke  in 
disorder  and  fled,  leaving  a  thousand  slain.  Sedgemoor  was 
the  last  battle  fought  on  English  ground. 


240  THE  BLOODY  ASSIZE. 

Two  days  later,  Monmouth  was  found  near  the  New 
Forest,  lurking  in  a  ditch  with  his  pocket  half  full  of  raw 
pease.  While  on  his  way  to  London,  he  wrote  an  imploring 
letter  to  the  King ;  and,  when  admitted  to  the  royal  pre- 
sence, he  lay  upon  the  floor,  and  wet  the  feet  of  James  with 
his  tears.  All  was  useless :  he  was  doomed  to  immediate 
execution,  and  suffered  death  on  Tower-hill 

The  task  of  butchering  the  unhappy  rebels  was  intrusted 
at  first  to  Colonel  Percy  Kirke,  who  hanged  them  by  scores 
on  the  sign-post  of  the  White  Hart  Inn  at  Taunton.  But 
the  Colonel  was  outdone  in  ferocity  by  Chief-Justice  Jeffreys, 
whose  name  is  a  proverb  for  blasphemy  and  brutality.  This 
man  opened  at  Winchester  that  circuit  known  as  the  Bloody 
Assize.  The  first  case  for  treason  was  that  of  Alice  Lisle, 
the  widow  of  one  of  Cromwell's  lords.  She  was  tried  for 
affording  food  and  shelter  to  two  of  the  flying  rebels. 
Jeffreys  cursed  and  bullied  the  jury  into  returning  a  ver- 
dict of  '  guilty,'  and  sentenced  her  to  be  burned  alive. 
Through  the  intercession  of  noble  friends  her  sentence  was 
altered  to  beheading ;  and  she  died  with  calm  fortitude  in 
the  market-place  of  Winchester.  Through  the  whole  western 
circuit  Jeffreys  then  passed,  revelling  in  blood.  More  than 
three  hundred  perished  in  this  judicial  massacre,  and  crowds 
who  escaped  death  were  doomed  to  suffer  mutilation,  im- 
prisonment, or  exile. 

James,  exulting  in  his  triumph,  began  to  unfold  his  grand 
design.  This  design,  to  which  he  clung  with  obstinacy 
bordering  on  madness,  was  the  complete  restoration  of  the 
Romish  worship  in  Great  Britain.  In  defiance  of  the  Test 
Act,  he  gave  commissions  in  the  army  to  Romanists.  He 
released  all  Romanists  from  penalties,  by  means  of  the  dis- 
pensing power — a  privilege  which  enabled  him  to  pardon  all 
transgressions  of  the  law,  and  thus,  in  effect,  to  destroy  the 
power  of  the  law  altogether.  He  placed  the  whole  Church 
under  the  control  of  a  High  Commission  Court  of  seven 
members,  at  whose  head  sat  Jeffreys,  now  Lord  Chancellor. 
He  prepared  to  form  a  great  standing  army.  For  the  first 
time  since  the  reign  of  Mary,  a  Papal  Nuncio  was  enter- 
tained at  Whitehall  The  Jesuits  began  anew  their  dark 
and  terrible  plottings  in  London  ;  and  one  of  their  most 


ATTACK  ON  THE  UNIVERSITIES.  241 

active  men,  Father  Edward  Petre,  became  the  secret  and 
confidential  adviser  of  the  King.  Scotland  was  placed  under 
Drummond,  Earl  of  Perth,  who  had  completely  won  the 
heart  of  James  by  inventing  the  steel  thumb-screw,  an  in- 
strument of  the  most  exquisite  torture.  Tyrconnel,  a  fierce 
and  unscrupulous  Romanist — commonly  known  as  Lying 
Dick  Talbot — was  made  Lord-Deputy  of  Ireland.  Nothing 
showed  the  temper  of  James  more  clearly  than  the  dis- 
missal of  the  Hydes,  the  brothers  of  his  dead  wife.  Claren- 
don, the  elder,  ceased  to  be  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland ; 
and  Rochester,  the  younger,  was  forced  to  resign  the 
white  staff  he  had  borne  as  Lord-Treasurer  of  England, 
for  no  other  reason  than  that  they  were  both  stanch  Pro- 
testants. 

James  then  attacked  the  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge. A  royal  letter  commanded  the  Senate  of  Cambridge 
to  admit  Alban  Francis,  a  Benedictine  monk,  to  the  degree 
of  M.A.  The  University  refused;  for  no  Romanist  could 
take  the  oaths.  The  Vice-Chancellor  and  eight  others, 
among  whom  was  Isaac  Newton,  appeared  before  the  High 
Commission,  and  the  Vice-Chancellor  lost  his  office.  Upon 
Oxford  the  King  made  worse  inroads.  To  the  vacant  pre- 
sidency of  Magdalene  College  he  appointed  Antony  Farmer, 
a  Romanist.  The  Fellows  chose  instead  John  Hough.  In  a 
rage  the  King  went  down  himself  to  browbeat  the  Fellows ; 
but  they  stoutly  refused  to  obey  him.  A  special  commis- 
sion then  installed  Parker,  Bishop  of  Oxford— the  new  choice 
of  James — while  the  Fellows  were  not  only  driven  by  royal 
edict  from  the  University,  but  the  profession  of  the  Church 
was  shut  against  them.  A  Romish  Bishop  was  then  placed 
over  Magdalene  College,  and  twelve  Romish  Fellows  were 
appointed  in  one  day.  Two  years  later  James  felt  the  bitter 
truth  that  this  blow,  which,  as  he  fondly  thought,  struck  at 
the  root  of  English  Protestantism,  had  in  reality  been 
levelled  with  suicidal  madness  at  the  very  prop  and  pillar 
of  his  own  throne. 

In  April  1687  James  had  published — solely  on  his  own 
authority,  and  therefore  illegally — a  Declaration  of  Indul- 
gence, permitting  all  to  worship  in  their  own  way.  Though 
undoubtedly  made  for  Romanists,  it  gave  liberty  of  con- 

(32)  1  G 


242  TRIAL  OF  THE  BISHOPS. 

science  also  to  Nonconformists  or  Dissenters. 
^e  secon(^  an(^  more  important  Declaration  was 
now  proclaimed ;  and,  a  week  later,  it  was  followed 
by  an  Order  in  Council,  commanding  all  minis- 
ters to  read  it  from  their  pulpits  on  two  successive  Sun- 
days. This  order  the  London  clergy  disobeyed,  and  the 
Primate  Sancroft,  with  six  Bishops,  drew  up  a  petition 
against  the  Declaration.  James  was  furious.  The  seven 
Bishops  were  committed  to  the  Tower,  where  they  lay  for  a 
week  before  they  were  set  free  on  bail.  During  these  ex- 
citing events,  the  news  spread  that  a  son  was  born  to  James. 
But  few  believed  that  the  child  was  of  royal  blood.  The 
general  opinion  was,  that  by  the  connivance  of  Romanists  a 
child  had  been  smuggled  into  the  palace,  and  was  now 
passed  off  as  the  King's  son.  That  child  was  afterwards 
James  the  Pretender. 

The  Trial  of  the  Seven  Bishops — one  of  our  most  impor- 
tant State  trials — took  place  before  the  Court  of  King's 
Bench.  They  were  charged  with  having  published  a  false, 
malicious,  and  seditious  libel ;  and  the  most  talented  lawyers 
of  that  time  were  engaged  for  their  defence.  All  day  the 
trial  went  on.  With  much  difficulty  the  lawyers  for  the 
Crown  proved  that  the  Bishops  had  drawn  up  and  signed 
the  petition,  and  had  delivered  it  into  the  hands  of  the 
King.  It  remained  for  the  jury  to  decide  whether  or  not 
that  petition  was  a  libel.  The  four  Judges  were 
June  29.  divided  in  their  opinions,  two  against  two.  It  was 
dark  when  the  jury  retired :  they  were  locked  up 
all  night,  and  at  ten  next  morning  the  Court  met  to  hear 
their  verdict.  A  deep  silence  prevailed ;  but,  when  the  words 
'  Not  guilty'  left  the  foreman's  lips,  cheer  after  cheer  echoed 
through  the  hall.  The  crowd  outside  took  up  the  joyful  sound, 
and  all  London  was  soon  filled  with  shouts  and  tears  of  glad- 
ness. That  night  was  a  blaze  of  illumination.  Rows  of  seven 
candles,  with  a  taller  one  in  the  centre  for  the  Archbishop, 
lit  up  every  window ;  bonfires  were  in  every  street ;  and 
rockets  soared  by  hundreds  from  the  rejoicing  city. 

Furious  at  his  defeat,  James  resolved  to  crush  the  spirit 
of  the  nation  by  force  of  arms ;  and  by  the  advice  of  Barillon, 
the  French  minister,  he  brought  over  several  regiments  of 


WILLIAM  OF  ORANGE  LANDS.  243 

Irish  soldiers.  These,  as  Papists  and  Celts,  were  violently 
hated  by  the  lower  orders  of  the  English  nation.  A  doggrel 
ballad,  called  from  its  burden  Lillibulero,  in  which  two  Irish 
Romanists  congratulate  each  other  on  the  approaching  mas- 
sacre-of  Protestants  and  triumph  of  Popery,  set  the  whole 
nation,  and  especially  the  army,  in  a  flame  against  James 
and  his  Irish  troops.  It  was  sung  and  whistled  everywhere. 

On  the  very  day  of  the  Bishops'  acquittal,  a  letter,  signed 
by  some  of  the  leading  nobles  and  clergy  of  England,  was 
sent  to  William,  Prince  of  Orange  Nassau,  the  nephew  and 
son-in-law  of  James,  entreating  him  to  come  with  an  army 
and  aid  them  in  defending  their  freedom  and  their  faith. 
Common  wrongs  had  united  for  a  time  the  Whigs  and  the 
Tories.  William,  accepting  the  call,  began  to  make  great 
preparations  for  the  expedition ;  while  James,  still  holding 
blindly  on  in  his  fatal  course,  despised  the  warnings  and  the 
offered  aid  of  Louis  XIV.  Nor  did  he  awake  to  a  sense  of 
his  danger  till  he  heard  from  his  minister  at  the  Hague  that 
William,  having  received  the  sanction  of  the  States  General, 
had  published  a  Declaration,  assigning  reasons  for  the  inva- 
sion of  England.  James  had  no  time  to  lose.  In  a  few 
hours  he  yielded  almost  all  the  points  for  which  he  had  been 
contending  so  obstinately  during  three  years.  He  found 
that  he  possessed  a  fleet  of  30  sail,  an  army  of  40,000 
regular  troops.  But  all  was  in  vain.  The  hearts  of  his 
people  were  estranged  from  him,  and  their  eyes  looked  eagerly 
over  the  sea  for  the  sails  of  William's  squadron. 

Though  delayed  for  a  time  by  storms,  the  Prince  of  Orange 
landed  safely  and  unopposed  at  Torbay  in  Devon- 
shire.  Under  torrents  of  rain,  along  roads  deep  with     Nov.  5, 
mire,  he  advanced  slowly  with  his  force  of  15,000     1688 
men  through  Newton  Abbot,  and  in  four  days      A.D. 
reached  Exeter,  where  he  was  received  with  joy  as 
the  Champion  of  the  Protestant  Faith.    There,  on  the  follow- 
ing Sunday,  he  heard  his  friend  Burnet  preach  from  the 

.thedral  pulpit.  A  week  passed  without  anything  to  encour- 

;e  him ;  but  then  the  Earl  of  Abingdon  entered  his  camp, 
and  was  soon  followed  by  Colonel  Lord  Cornbury  and  other 
officers  of  James.  The  King  hastened  to  Salisbury,  resolved 
to  stake  his  kingdom  on  the  issue  of  a  great  battle.  But 


24-4  FLIGHT  OF  THE  KING. 

the  policy  of  William  was  to  avoid  bloodshed,  and  trust 
rather  to  time  and  that  English  temper  which  he  knew  to 
be  thoroughly  aroused  against  James.  A  few  trifling  skir- 
mishes took  place,  but  nothing  more.  The  Earl  of  Bath 
put  Plymouth  into  William's  hands.  In  rapid  succession 
Lord  Churchill,  afterwards  the  great  Duke  of  Marlborough ; 
Prince  George  of  Denmark,  married  to  the  King's  daughter 
Anne ;  and  even  Anne  herself  abandoned  the  falling  King. 
Every  day  brought  new  adherents  to  William,  while  every 
day  the  circle  round  James  grew  thinner. 

The  King  then  resolved  on  flight.  He  sent  his  wife  and 
son  to  France  ;  and,  when  he  knew  of  their  safety,  he  left 
his  palace  under  cover  of  darkness,  and  made  his  way  to 
Sheerness,  where  a  small  vessel,  then  called  a  hoy,  waited 
for  him.  While  crossing  the  Thames  he  threw  the  Great 
Seal  into  the  water,  in  the  childish  hope  that  he  would  thus 
confuse  all  the  plans  of  the  new  Government.  He  had 
scarcely  gone  on  board  when  some  Kentish  fishermen, 
attracted  by  the  hope  of  plunder,  seized  him  and  kept  him 
a  close  prisoner.  Soon  released  by  an  order  from  the  Lords, 
he  returned  to  the  capital  and  passed  thence  to 
Dec.  23,  Rochester.  A  second  attempt  to  escape  succeeded, 
1688  and  the  news  soon  came  that  James  had  arrived 

A.D.  safely  at  St.  Germains,  and  had  been  warmly  wel- 
comed by  Louis.  Meanwhile  William  passed  from 
Windsor  to  London,  where  every  citizen  wore  the  orange 
ribbon  in  his  honour. 

The  Prince  of  Orange  then  called  an  assembly,  known  as 
the  Convention.  It  differed  from  a  Parliament  in  nothing 
but  the  single  fact,  that  the  writs,  by  which  the  members 
were  summoned,  were  issued  by  one  not  yet  a  King.  But 
the  Prince  and  his  advisers,  careful  to  shape  all  their  mea- 
sures according  to  the  ancient  English  Constitution,  avoided 
the  name  Parliament,  and  called  their  assembly  a  Conven- 
tion. The  throne  was  then  declared  vacant,  and  great 
debates  ensued  on  the  settlement  of  affairs.  Some  proposed 
a  Regency;  others  that  Mary  should  be  Queen,  while 
William  held  the  title  of  King  for  her  life  only.  Both  plans 
were  pointedly  rejected  by  William,  who  declared  that  he 
would  go  back  to  Holland  rather  than  accept  a  position 


THE  REVOLUTION.  245 

inferior  to  his  wife.  A  document,  called  the  Declaration  of 
Rights,  was  then  drawn  up  and  passed.  By  it  William  and 
Mary  were  declared  King  and  Queen  of  England,  the  chief 
administration  resting  with  him.  The  crown  was  settled 
first  on  the  children  of  Mary ;  then  on  those  of  her  sister 
Anne ;  and,  these  failing,  upon  the  children  of  William  by 
any  other  wife.  The  son  of  James  II.  and  his  posterity 
were  thus  shut  out  entirely  from  the  succession.  Halifax 
took  the  lead  in  offering  the  crown ;  which  William,  promis- 
ing to  observe  all  the  laws  of  the  land,  accepted  for  his  wife 
and  himself. 

The  great  English  Revolution  was  now  complete.  Thus 
terminated  the  grand  struggle  between  Sovereign  and  Parlia- 
ment,— not  in  the  establishment  of  a  wild  democracy,  but 
in  the  adjustment  and  firm  foundation  of  the  three  great 
Estates  of  the  Realm, — the  King,  the  Lords,  and  the  Com- 
mons,— upon  whose  due  balance  and  mutual  check  the 
strength  of  our  Constitution  mainly  depends. 

James  spent  the  remaining  twelve  years  of  his  life  at  St. 
Germains  near  Paris,  a  pensioner  on  the  bounty  of  Louis. 
There  he  died  in  1701.  His  mad  zeal  for  Romanism, 
strengthened  and  sharpened  by  the  thirst  for  despotic 
power  common  to  all  the  Stuarts,  cost  him  a  throne.  His 
perversity  and  petty  spite,  his  childishness  and  meanness 
glare  out  from  every  page  of  his  history.  Even  the  diligence 
and  punctuality  in  the  despatch  of  business,  for  which  he 
was  remarkable,  cease  to  excite  our  admiration,  when  we 
remember  that  these  qualities,  good  in  themselves,  became 
in  his  case  instruments  of  the  worst  tyranny. 

Anne  Hyde  was  his  first  wife.  Her  daughters,  Mary  and 
Anne,  educated  as  Protestants,  both  held  the  throne.  After 
her  death  he  married  Mary  of  Modena,  whose  son,  James 
the  Pretender,  made  more  than  one  attempt  to  gain  the 
crown  of  England. 

Besides  confirming  that  great  principle  of  our  Constitu- 
tion which  declares  that  the  Sovereign  can  make  or  unmake 
no  law,  the  Revolution  released  Dissenters  from  persecution, 
and  caused  the  Judges,  previously  liable  to  be  dismissed  at 
the  pleasure  of  the  Sovereign,  to  receive  their  appointments 
for  life  or  good  conduct. 


246 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


FRANCE. 
LOUIS  XIV. 

SPAIN. 
CHAELES  II. 

SWEDEN. 
CHARLES  XI. 


TURKEY.  *->X 

MOHAMMED  IV died  1687 

SOLYMAN  H. 

EMPEROR. 
LEOPOLD  I. 

POPE. 
INNOCENT  XI. 


WAR  IN  SCOTLAND.  247 

CHAPTER  VI. 

WILLIAM  in.  AND  MARY  II. 

William.    Born  1650  A.D.— Elected  King  1688  A.D.— Died  1702  A.D. 
Mary.    Born  1661  A.D.— Elected  Queen  1688  A.D.— Died  1694  A.D. 

Fate  of  Jeffreys.  '  Massacre  of  Glencoe.  The  Darlen  colony. 

Revolt  111  Scotland.  Foreign  policy.  William's  death. 

Siege  of  Derry.  The  National  Debt  His  character. 

Battle  of  the  Boyne.  The  Act  of  Settlement.  Nctea. 

WILLIAM  and  MARY  were  crowned  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
where  the  chief  ministers  of  James  stood  around 
the  double  throne.     One  there  was  whose  crimes   April  11, 
were  too  black  for  pardon.    Jeffreys  lay  in  the     1689 
Tower,  to  which  he  had  been  borne  amid  the  roars      A.D. 
of  a  mob  thirsting  for  his  blood.     He  had  been 
found  begrimed  with  coal  dust,  and  in  the  dress  of  a  com- 
mon sailor,  lurking  in  a  Wapping  ale-house. 

Bloodlessly  had  the  great  change  been  accomplished  in 
England.  It  was  not  so  in  Scotland  and  Ireland. 

Although  the  Scottish  Convention,  boldly  declaring  that 
James  had  forfeited  the  crown,  had  proclaimed  William  and 
Mary,  yet  the  whole  nation  were  not  of  the  same  mind. 
The  Highland  clans,  fond  of  war,  and  perhaps  excited  by  a 
desire  to  uphold  the  ancient  Scottish  name  of  Stuart,  took 
up  arms  for  James,  under  Graham  of  Claverhouse,  now 
Viscount  Dundee.    At  the  same  time,  and  in  the  same 
cause,  the  Duke  of  Gordon  held  out  in  the  Castle  of  Edin- 
burgh.   But  the  insurrection  was  short-lived.    Edinburgh 
Castle  surrendered  in  a  few  months.    Dundee,  meeting 
General  Mackay  in  battle  at  the  Pass  of  Killi- 
crankie  in  Perthshire,  was  struck  down  by  a  bullet       July. 
just  as  his  clansmen  were  sweeping  all  before  them. 
When  their  leader  had  fallen,  the  Highland  army  soon 
melted  away. 

Of  greater  importance  were  the  events  in  Ireland;  for 
there  James  himself,  surrounded  by  the  Celtic  Irish,  who 
looked  upon  him  as  a  distinguished  martyr  in  the  cause  of 


248  WAR  IN  IRELAND. 

Romanism,  made  his  last  vain  struggle  for  the  crown  which 
had  fallen  from  his  head.  Louis  encouraged  the  expedition  ; 
and  Tyrconnel,  still  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  raised  a 
Romanist  army.  Lord  Mountjoy,  leader  of  the  Irish  Pro- 
testants, enticed  to  Paris  by  falsehood,  was  shut  up  in  the 
Bastile.  James  landed,  and  entered  Dublin  in  triumph. 

His  first  great  operation  was  the  siege  of  Londonderry 
the  stronghold  of  the  Ulster  Protestants.  The  citizens, 
nobly  encouraged  by  the  Rev.  George  Walker,  whose  monu- 
ment still  rises  from  the  walls,  endured  the  worst  miseries 
of  famine  for  many  months ;  but  at  last  a  ship  from  England 
broke  the  beams  laid  across  the  River  Foyle,  and  brought 
food  to  the  starving  garrison.  The  Romanist  army,  thus 
baffled,  retreated  without  delay. 

Marshal  Schomberg  then  arrived  with  16,000  troops;  and 

William,  soon  landing  at  Carrickfergus,  found  himself  at 

the  head  of  40,000  men.    Seventeen  days  later, 

Julyl,     a  great  battle  was  fought  on  the  banks  of  the 

1690  Boyne,  a  few  miles  above  Drogheda.    Schomberg,  a 
A.D.       veteran  soldier  and  an  intimate  friend  of  William, 

was  shot  as  he  was  crossing  the  water.  James, 
totally  routed,  fled  to  Waterford,  and  crossed  in  haste  to 
France.  But  the  war  was  prolonged  for  a  year  by  Tyrconnel 
and  St.  Ruth.  In  the  battle  of  Aughrim  St.  Ruth  was 
killed  by  a  cannon  ball.  The  siege  of  Limerick,  where  the 

fragments  of  James's  army  made  their  last  stand, 
July  12,  ended  in  a  capitulation.  On  Thomoiid  Bridge,  over 

1691  the  Shannon,  is  still  to  be  seen  the  stone  on  which 
A.D.       was  signed  the  treaty  that  made  William  unques- 
tioned King  of  Ireland.    One  million  of  acres  were 

confiscated  to  the  crown,  and  their  former  possessors  were 
driven  into  exile. 

The  great  stain  upon  the  administration  of  William  was 
the  massacre  of  Glencoe.  To  buy  over  the  Highland  chiefs, 
who  were  still  restless,  a  sum  of  £  16,000  was  sent  to  the 
Earl  of  Breadalbane,  and  at  the  same  time  a  royal  order 
decreed,  that  all  chieftains  of  clans  should  take  an  oath  of 
allegiance  to  William  before  the  last  day  of  the  year  1691. 
One  refused, — Macdonald  of  Glencoe,  a  personal  foe  of 
Breadalbane.  His  motive  seems  to  have  been,  not  so  much 


WILLIAM'S  FOREIGN  POLICY.  249 

enmity  to  William,  as  a  quarrel  with  Breadalbane  about  the 
division  of  the  money.  Repenting  of  his  obstinacy  in  tho 
last  days  of  December,  he  hastened  to  Fort  William,  but 
found  that  the  governor  had  no  authority  to  receive  his 
oath,  and  that  he  must  go  to  the  Sheriff  of  Argyle.  A  toil- 
some journey  over  snowy  hills  and  across  swollen  floods 
threw  him  a  day  or  two  late ;  but  he  was  permitted  to  take 
the  oath,  and  went  home  well  pleased,  and,  as  he  thought, 
safe.  In  a  few  weeks  Captain  Campbell  of  Glenlyon,  with 
a  troop  of  soldiers,  entered  Glencoe,  a  gloomy  vale  of  Argyle- 
shire,  in  which  lay  the  little  settlement  of  the  Macdonalda. 
They  were  met  with  a  Highland  welcome,  and  a  fortnight 
went  merrily  by.  The  unsuspecting  Macdonalds  left  nothing 
undone  to  please  and  entertain  their  guests.  Hunting  and 
feasting  filled  the  days  and  the  nights,  until,  when  the  time 
seemed  ripe,  the  soldiers  rose  suddenly  in  the  dead  of  one 
terrible  night  and  began  the  work  of  blood.  The  chief,  his 
wife,  and  thirty-six  besides  were  butchered ;  the  rest  fled 
half  naked  to  the  snowy  hills,  where  many  died.  The  earliest 
beams  of  the  rising  sun  fell  sadly  on  a  mass  of  smoking 
ruins,  black  with  fire  and  red  with  blood.  This  foul  deed 
can  be  traced  to  the  revenge  of  Breadalbane.  William  seems 
to  have  signed  the  order  without  understanding  the  circum- 
stances ;  but  this  does  not  redeem  his  memory  from  the 
shame,  for  carelessness  can  never  be  considered  a  palliation 
of  the  crimea  that  too  often  spring  from  it. 

To  humble  Louis  of  France  was  the  great  object  of  Wil- 
liam's foreign  policy.  Louis  was  the  most  powerful  Romanist 
Sovereign  in  Europe.    William  had  long  been  looked  upon 
as  the  great  Captain  of  the  Protestant  armies.    Louis, 
grasping  gladly  at  the  dethronement  of  James  as  a  cause  oi 
war,  prepared  for  a  mighty  invasion  of  England  ; 
but,  in  an  action  off  La  Hogue  with  the  ships  of    1692 
England  and  Holland,  his  fleet  was  so  shattered      A.D. 
that  his  plans  all  fell  to  theground.    Every  summer 
then  saw  William  on  the  Continent,  in  spite  of  his  delicate 
health,  engaged  in  hostilities  with  Louis,  whom,  though  he 
could  not  humble,  he  kept  in  constant  check, — a  matter  of 
the  utmost  importance  to  all  Europe.    The  Treaty  of  Rys- 
wick  in  1697  brought  the  war  to  a  close. 


250  ENCROACHMENTS  ON  THE  CROWN. 

Out  of  these  expensive  wars  sprang  the  National  Debt, 
which  has  since  swelled  to  a  sum  so  enormous.  The  Parlia- 
ment, knowing  that  the  chief  value  of  the  English  crown  in 
William's  eyes  was  the  increased  weight  it  gave  him  in  Con- 
tinental politics,  agreed  to  furnish  large  supplies  of  money 
for  his  wars  with  Louis,  on  condition  that  he  should  give  up 
to  them  the  chief  share  in  the  domestic  government.  Though 
at  first  reluctant,  he  soon  yielded  to  the  arrangement  with  a 
grace  and  temper  which  proved  his  good  sense.  The  influ- 
ence thus  acquired  by  the  Commons  has  never  since  been 
lost. 

Queen  Mary  died  of  small -pox  in  the  year  1694,  leaving 
William  sole  ruler.  During  his  eight  remaining  years  the 
Commons  took  three  remarkable  steps  in  their  encroach- 
ments on  the  power  of  the  Crown.  These  were  the  Trienniaf 
Bill,  the  arrangement  of  the  Civil  List,  and  the  Act  of  Set- 
tlement. The  Triennial  Bill  enacted  that  no  Parliament 
should  sit  longer  than  three  years, — an  arrangement  by  which 
the  influence  of  the  King  over  that  body  was  much  lessened. 
A  sum  of  ,£700,000  was  settled  on  the  King  to  meet  the  ex- 
penses of  the  Civil  List,  while  all  the  remaining  revenue  was 
left  in  the  hands  of  the  Commons  to  support  the  army  and 
navy,  and  defray  the  cost  of  government.  The 
1701  Act  of  Settlement — a  sequel  to  the  Declaration  of 
A.D.  Rights — provided  that  the  Judges  should  hold  office 
for  life  or  good  conduct,  at  fixed  salaries ;  that  the 
Sovereigns  of  Great  Britain  should  be  Protestants ;  that  they 
should  not  leave  their  dominions  without  the  consent  of 
Parliament ;  and  that  the  Princess  Sophia  of  Hanover  should 
be  considered  next  heir  to  the  throne. 

A  trading  company,  embodied  by  an  Act  of  the  Scottish 
Parliament,  founded  a  colony  in  1698  on  the  Isthmus  of 
Darien,  as  a  central  position  for  commerce  with  both  India 
and  America.  The  sum  of  ,£400,000,  subscribed  in  Scotland, 
which  was  then  a  poor  country,  was  embarked  in  the  ven- 
ture. The  merchants  of  London  and  Amsterdam  took  shares 
to  the  same  amount.  But  the  colony  was  ruined  and  the 
money  all  lost.  The  East  India  Company,  looking  on  the 
expedition  as  an  invasion  of  their  rights,  induced  the  King 
to  set  his  face  against  it.  The  settlers,  badly  supported  by 


DEATH  AND  CHARACTER  OF  WILLIAM  III.  251 

their  countrymen,  sank  into  want.  Disease  carried  them  off 
in  scores.  The  neighbouring  British  colonies,  either  through 
jealousy  or  acting  under  orders  from  home,  refused  to  lend 
any  assistance.  And  to  crown  all,  the  Spaniards,  claiming 
the  soil  on  which  their  town,  New  Edinburgh,  was  built, 
harassed  them  with  ceaseless  attacks.  Very  few  of  the  un- 
happy colonists  ever  saw  Scotland  again. 

William,  riding  from  Kensington  to  Hampton  Court,  fell 
from  his  horse  and  broke  his  collar-bone.     This 
was  in  itself  a  slight  injury,  but,  acting  on  a  frame     Mar.  8, 
naturally  feeble  and  worn  out  by  long-continued     1702 
asthma,  it  brought  on  a  fever,  of  which  he  died  at       A.D. 
Kensington.    He  left  no  children. 

William  of  Orange  was  a  man  prematurely  old.  Left 
early  an  orphan,  he  had  learned  in  a  hard  school  to  be 
self-reliant  and  reserved;  and  at  an  age  when  boys  are 
thinking  of  the  cricket-bat  and  the  fishing-rod  before  all 
things  else,  he  was  deeply  learned  in  politics  and  skilled  in 
the  discipline  of  armies.  For  literature  and  science  he  had 
little  love.  He  possessed  a  courage  that  was  calm  amid 
every  species  of  danger,  and  never  did  he  rejoice  so  much  as 
in  the  day  of  battle.  His  most  intimate — almost  his  only — 
friend  was  Bentinck,  a  Dutch  gentleman,  whom  he  created 
Earl  of  Portland.  His  frame  was  feeble,  his  cheek  was  pale 
and  thin  from  long-continued  disease;  but  to  his  latest  day  the 
flashing  of  his  eagle  eye  and  the  compression  of  his  firmly- 
cut  lips  told  at  once  that  bodily  anguish  had  never  tamed 
the  iron  soul  within. 

In  1695  the  Bank  of  England,  with  a  capital  of  .£1,200,000, 
was  founded  by  Patcrson,  a  Scotchman.  In  the  following 
year  an  English  merchant,  named  Holland,  set  up  the  Bank 
of  Scotland,  with  little  more  than  £100,000.  Paper  money 
then  came  into  use.  Chelsea  Hospital,  for  old  and  disabled 
soldiers,  was  founded  by  William  and  Mary,  who  also  nobly 
gave  up  their  palace  at  Greenwich  to  the  veterans  of  the 
navy.  It  was  during  this  reign  that  Peter  the  Great  of 
Russia  worked  as  a  ship-carpenter  in  the  dockyard  at  Dept- 
ford. 


252 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


FRANCE. 


LOUIS  XIV. 


SPAIN. 

CHARLES  IT., died  1700 

PHILIP  V. 


SWEDKN. 


CHAELES  XL,.. 
CHARLES  XIL 


.1697 


TURKEY. 

A.D. 

SOLYMAN  H died  1691 

ACHMETIL, 1695 

MUSTAPHA  HI. 

EMPERORS. 
LEOPOLD  I. 

"     POPES. 

INNOCENT  XI., 1689 

ALEXANDER  VLTI., 1691 

INNOCENT  XII., 1700 

CLEMENT  XI. 


CAPTURE  OF  GIBRALTAR.  253 

I 

CHAPTER  VII. 

ANNE. 
Born  1664  A.D.— Began  to  rule  1702  A.D.— Died  1714  A.D. 


The  Spanish  Succession. 
Capture  of  Gibraltar. 
Victories      of      Marlbo- 

rough. 
Whigs  and  Tories. 


The   Union  of  England    Fall  of  the  Whigs. 


and  Scotland. 
James  the  Pretender. 
Abigail  Hill. 
Trial  of  SacheverelL 


The  Treaty  of  Utrecht 
Anne's  death. 
Her  character. 
Notes. 


ON  the  death  of  William,  Anne,  the  second  daughter  of 
James  II.,  became  Queen.  Her  husband,  Prince  George  of 
Denmark,  sat  in  the  House  of  Lords  as  Duke  of  Cumber- 
land, but  took  no  further  share  in  the  government.  The 
policy  of  the  late  reign  was  followed.  The  Whigs  remained 
in  power,  and  the  French  war  was  continued. 

A  new  cause  of  war  had  arisen  in  a  dispute  about  the 
Spanish  Succession.  Louis  claimed  *the  crown  of  Spain  for 
his  grandson,  who  afterwards  ruled  as  Philip  V.  Britain 
supported  the  rival  claims  of  the  Archduke  Charles.  Ger- 
many and  Holland  united  with  Britain  in  the  Grand  Alli- 
ance against  the  ambitious  Louis,  and  Churchill — soon 
created  Duke  of  Maryborough — led  the  allied  armies.  The 
chief  theatres  of  the  war  were  Spain  and  the  Low  Countries, 
which  have  well  been  named  "  The  Battle-field  of  Modern 
Europe."  In  Spain  the  Earl  of  Peterborough  gained  some 
successes ;  but  the  most  important  achievement  of  the  war 
was  the  capture  of  Gibraltar  by  Admiral  Rooke 
and  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel.  Aided  by  a  body  of  July, 
Hessian  troops,  the  British,  landing  on  the  isthmus  1704 
which  joins  the  rock  to  the  mainland,  carried  the  A.D. 
works  by  storm  in  spite  of  a  heavy  fire. 

Marlborough  humbled  the  power  of  France  in  four  great 
battles.  At  Blenheim  in  Bavaria,  in  1704,  he  defeated 
Marshal  Tallard.  At  Ramilies  in  South  Brabant,  in  1706, 
he  overthrew  Villeroi.  At  Oudenarde  in  East  Flanders,  in 
1708,  the  French  lost  15,000  men,  and  more  than  one  hun- 
dred banners.  The  capture  of  Lisle  was  a  result  of  this 
victory.  And  at  Malplaquet,  on  the  north-eastern  frontier  of 


254  OCCASIONAL  CONFORMITY  BILL. 

France,  in  1709,  a  bloodier  victory  still  was  won  by  the  genius 
of  Marlborough.  It  was  not  until  1713  that  the  peace  of 
Utrecht  gave  rest  to  exhausted  Europe. 

Anne,  though  at  heart  a  Tory,  was  long  compelled  to  yield 
to  the  guidance  of  her  Whig  ministers.  Of  these  the  prin- 
cipal were  Godolphin,  the  Lord  High  Treasurer;  Marl- 
borough,  the  Captain-General  of  the  Forces  and  the  Master 
of  the  Ordnance;  and  Sunderland,  the  Secretary  of  State. 
The  strife  between  Whigs  and  Tories  raged  at  this  time 
more  fiercely  than  ever  around  two  great  questions, — the 
War  and  the  Church.  The  Whigs  cried  out  for  war ;  the 
Tories  sought  the  restoration  of  peace.  The  Whigs  were 
Low  Church ;  the  Tories,  noted  for  attachment  to  Episco- 
pacy, bore  the  name  of  the  High  Church  party.  A  measure, 
called  the  Occasional  Conformity  Bill,  was  brought  into 
Parliament  by  the  Tories.  It  was  levelled  against  those 
who  attended  places  of  worship  not  of  the  Established 
Church,  after  they  had  sworn  to  the  Test  Oath  and  had  re- 
ceived public  appointments.  These  Occasional  Conformists 
were  to  suffer  dismissal  and  heavy  fine.  The  Bill  passed  the 
Commons,  but  was  lost  in  the  Lords.  It  was,  nevertheless, 
a  remarkable  sign  of  the  growing  influence  of  the  Tory 
party. 

Such  was  the  state  of  politics  when  a  question  of  much 
greater  importance  arose, — the  necessity  of  a  union  between 
the  Parliaments  of  England  and  Scotland.  The  nations 
were  not  on  good  terms.  The  Scottish  Parliament,  still 
smarting  under  the  disasters  at  Darien,  had  passed  an  Act 
of  Security,  which  decreed  that  the  successor  to  the  throne 
of  Scotland,  on  the  Queen's  death,  should  not  be  the  person 
chosen  by  the  English  Parliament,  unless  the  commercial 
privileges  enjoyed  by  England  were  extended  to  Scotland 
also.  The  Scottish  nation  then  assumed  an  attitude  of  war. 
But  commissioners  were  appointed, — thirty  on  each  side; 
and  by  them  a  Treaty  of  Union  was  framed,  which,  although 
met  by  a  storm  of  opposition  from  the  people  of 
1707  Scotland,  passed  the  Scottish  Parliament  by  a  ma- 
A.D.  jority  of  one  hundred  and  ten  votes.  The  chief 
terms  of  the  Union  were : — 

1.  That  the  Electress  Sophia  of  Hanover,  and  her  heirs,  if 


UNION  OF  ENGLAND  AND  SCOTLAND.  265 

Protestants,  should  succeed  to  the  crown  of  the  United 
Kingdom. 

2.  That  Scotland  should  be  represented  in  the  Imperial 
Parliament,  sitting  in  London,  by  sixteen  elective  Peers  and 
forty-five  members  of  the  Commons. 

3.  That  all  British  ports  and  colonies  should  be  opened 
to  Scottish  traders. 

4.  That  while  the  laws  of  public  policy  should  be  the 
same  for  both  countries,  those  relating  to  property  and  pri- 
vate rights  should  be  preserved  unaltered,  except  for  the 
good  of  the  Scottish  people. 

5.  That  the  Court  of  Session  and  other  Scottish  tribunals 
should  remain  unchanged. 

6.  That  the  Church  of  Scotland  should  be  maintained, 
as  already  by  law  established. 

To  make  up  for  the  heavier  taxes  which  were  thus  laid 
upon  the  Scottish  people,  a  grant  of  £398,000  was  made  to 
improve  the  coinage. 

The  Union  has  done  incalculable  good  to  Scotland.  The 
strong  objections  urged  at  first  against  the  change  were  the 
loss  of  independence  and  the  increased  load  of  taxation; 
but  these  were  only  seeming  evils.  The  commerce,  the 
wealth,  and  the  greatness  of  Scotland  began  to  advance 
with  rapid  strides.  Glasgow  and  Dundee  sprang  into  great 
and  populous  cities ;  fishing  villages  became  thriving  sea- 
ports. Among  the  people  who,  with  much  difficulty,  man- 
aged to  pinch  and  scrape  together  £400,000  to  found  the 
Darien  colony,  we  can  now  point  out  many  a  merchant- 
prince  whose  single  fortune  far  exceeds  that  sum. 

Louis  XIV.,  taking  advantage  of  the  discontent  excited 
in  Scotland  by  the  Union,  despatched  a  fleet  from  Dunkirk 
to  set  James  the  Pretender  on  the  Scottish  throne.  But 
timely  notice  reached  England  ;  and  the  French  admiral, 
finding  the  Frith  of  Forth  guarded  by  a  squadron  under  Sir 
George  Byng,  returned  with  the  loss  of  one  ship. 

Meanwhile  Tory  influence  was  growing  strong  in  the 
Cabinet.  The  Whigs  had  retained  their  ascendency  over 
the  Queen  chiefly  by  the  aid  of  Sarah,  Duchess  of  Marl- 
borough,  who  was  on  terms  of  the  most  intimate  friendship 
with  her  Majesty.  Bufc  the  favourite  grew  insolent,  and  the 


256  TRIAL  OF  8ACHEVERELL. 

Queen  became  weary  of  a  companion  who  tried  to  have  the 
upper-hand  in  everything.  A  waiting-woman  named  Abi- 
gail Hill,  otherwise  known  as  Mrs.  Masham,  secretly  en- 
couraging their  quarrels,  at  last  insinuated  herself  into  the 
confidence  and  favour  of  Anne.  Hill  was  a  Tory,  and  one 
of  the  earliest  results  of  her  influence  was  the  introduction 
into  the  Cabinet  of  Robert  Harley  (Earl  of  Oxford)  and 
Henry  St.  John  (Lord  Bolingbroke),  the  leaders  of  the  Tory 
party. 

Just  then  occurred  events  which  stirred  all  England  into 
a  flame  in  favour  of  the  Tories.  Dr.  Henry  Sacheverell, 
rector  of  St.  Saviour's,  Southwark,  had  preached  two  ser- 
mons— one  (August  15)  at  Derby,  another  (November  5, 
1709)  at  St.  Paul's  before  the  Lord  Mayor  and  Aldermen  of 
London — in  which  he  denounced  the  Revolution  as  an  un- 
righteous change,  maintained  the  duty  of  fierce  persecution 
against  all  Dissenters,  and  called  on  the  people  to  defend 
their  Church,  which  was  in  imminent  danger.  The  Com- 
mons impeached  him  for  uttering  seditious  libels ;  and  the 
case  came  on  before  the  Lords.  The  trial  lasted 
Feb.  27,  three  weeks.  All  the  clergy  and  the  common 
1710  people  were  for  SacheverelL  The  Queen  attended 
A.D.  the  trial  privately,  to  give  him  encouragement. 
Bishop  Atterbury  wrote  his  defence.  Every  day, 
as  he  drove  to  and  from  the  court,  his  coach  was  followed  by 
cheering  mobs,  whose  feelings,  not  content  with  this  display, 
found  further  vent  in  the  destruction  of  Dissenting  houses 
of  worship,  and  in  riots  that  filled  the  streets  with  alarm. 
He  was  found  guilty,  and  forbidden  to  preach  for  three 
years.  The  sermons  were  burned  in  front  of  the  Royal  Ex- 
change. 

The  fall  of  the  Whig  ministry  was  an  immediate  result  of 
this  trial.  Godolphin  and  Sunderland,  with  their  less  im- 
portant colleagues,  were  dismissed.  Harley  and  St.  John 
came  into  office.  Marlborough,  though  retained  in  his  com- 
mand on  account  of  the  still  raging  war,  was  marked  for 
disgrace ;  and  no  sooner  did  the  Tory  ministers  see  their 
way  to  the  conclusion  of  peace  than  the  Duke,  accused  of 
receiving  bribes  from  a  Jew  who  supplied  the  army  with 
bread,  was  compelled  to  resign  his  high  office.  To  Blenheim 


THE  TREATY  OF  UTRECHT.  257 

Park,  the  nation's  gift  for  one  of  his  greatest  victories,  he 
retired,  leaving  on  the  pages  of  our  history  a  character 
marked  with  the  highest  military  genius,  but  sullied  by 
falsehood  and  base  avarice. 

The  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  already  mentioned,  was  the  work 
of  the  Tories.     The  principal  terms  which  con- 
cerned Great  Britain  were,  that  Louis  XIV.  should     1713 
recognise  the  Sovereigns  of  the  Brunswick  line ;       A.D. 
that  he  should  cease  to  aid  the  Pretender ;  that  he 
should  dismantle  the  batteries  of  Dunkirk ;  and  that  the 
British  should  retain  Gibraltar  and  Minorca,  Nova  Scotia, 
Newfoundland,  and  Hudson's  Bay.    Harley  and  St.  John  be- 
came Peers ;  but  their  union  was  at  an  end.    Henceforward 
they  were  rivals  and  foes.    Anne  favoured  Bolingbroke. 

The  question  of  Patronage,  or  who  should  have  the  ap- 
pointment of  ministers,  agitated  the  Church  of  Scotland ; 
and  several  secessions  took  place  about  the  end  of  this  reign. 

Then,  too,  the  Scottish  members  sitting  in  the  British 
Parliament  began  to  feel  all  the  petty  annoyances  at  first 
inseparable  from  a  change  of  the  kind.  Their  country,  their 
accent,  their  habits,  their  appearance,  were  thought  fair 
marks  for  the  sarcasm  of  English  orators ;  and  so  high  did 
their  discontent  rise,  that  the  question  of  dissolving  the 
Union  was  solemnly  debated  in  1713.  Happily  for  both 
countries,  the  measure  was  lost  in  the  Lords,  but  only  by  a 
narrow  majority. 

Anne  died  of  apoplexy  after  two  days'  illness.     Aug.  1, 
She  had  lost  her  husband  six  years  before.     Not     1714 
one  of  her  nineteen  children  was  then  living.    One       A.D. 
boy,  George,  reached  the  age  of  eleven  years.    The 
rest  all  died  in  infancy. 

She  was  a  woman  of  little  talent  and  less  learning ;  simple 
and  homely  in  all  her  tastes  and  habits.  The  expression  of 
her  face  was  heavy, — to  the  careless  eye  it  might  even  seem 
stupid ;  but  it  was  the  dull  look  of  one  upon  whom  sorrow 
had  laid  a  heavy  hand,  chilling  her  motherly  affections,  and 
withering,  one  by  one,  the  gentle  household  blossoms  of  her 
life. 

In  1703  the  Eddystone  lighthouse  was  swept  away  by  a 
storm,  when  Winstanley,  the  architect,  perished.  St.  Paul's 

(32)  17 


258 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


Cathedral  was  finished  in  1708.  It  cost  about  a  million, 
and  the  building  occupied  thirty-seven  years.  The  reign  of 
Anne  is  noted  as  a  brilliant  literary  period.  Adclison  and 
Swift  were  the  chief  prose  writers.  Pope  was  the  leading 
poet. 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


FRANCE. 
LOUIS  XIV. 

SPAIN. 
PHILIP  V. 

SWEDEN. 
CHAELES  XII. 

TURKEY. 

MUSTAPHA  m., died  1703 

ACHMET  LU. 


EMPERORS. 

A.B. 

LEOPOLD  I., died  1705 

JOSEPH  I., 1711 

CHAELES  VI. 


POPE. 
CLEMENT  XI. 


ANIMALS  AND  MINERALS.  259 


CHAPTEK  VIII. 


SOCIAL  CONDITION  OF  THE  PEOPLE  UNDER  THE  STUARTS. 


The  face  of  the  country. 
Animals. 
Mineral  wealth. 
Population. 
Provincial  towns. 


London. 

Country  gentlemen. 

The  clergy. 

The  yeomen. 

The  labouring  classes. 


Health  and  morals. 

Dress. 

Travelling. 

The  News-letter. 

State  of  learning. 


THOUGH  in  former  periods  the  face  of  Britain  changed 
much  as  years  rolled  by,  yet  the  change  since  the  Stuarts 
reigned  has  perhaps  been  the  most  marked  of  all.  Where 
there  are  now  to  be  seen  green  meadows  and  yellow  corn- 
fields ;  orchards,  white  with  spring  blossoms,  or  golden  with 
autumn  fruit ;  and  cosy  farm-houses  nestling  among  the 
sheltering  trees,  there  was  then  in  many  places  nothing  but 
forest,  furze,  or  marsh. 

Through  the  old  woods  wandered  deer  in  great  troops,  a 
few  wild  bulls,  and,  until  the  peasantry  killed  them  during 
the  Civil  War,  wild  boars,  long  preserved  for  royal  sport. 
Badgers,  wild  cats,  immense  eagles,  huge  bustards  were 
common  even  in  the  southern  and  eastern  lowlands  of  Eng- 
land. The  sheep  and  oxen  were  much  smaller  than  ours. 
The  British  horses,  now  famed  all  the  world  over,  then  sold 
for  fifty  shillings  each.  Spanish  jennets  for  the  saddle,  and 
grey  Flanders  mares  for  harness  were  the  breeds  most 
prized. 

Our  mines  were  still  poorly  worked.  Cornwall  yielded 
tin,  and  Wales  yielded  copper,  but  in  quantities  far  below 
the  present  supply.  Salt,  now  a  leading  export,  was  then 
so  badly  prepared  that  the  physicians  blamed  it  as  the  cause 
of  many  diseases  of  the  skin  and  lungs.  The  iron  manufac- 
ture was  checked  by  the  cry  which  was  raised  about  the 
waste  of  wood  in  the  furnaces.  The  smelters  had  not  yet 
learned  to  use  coal,  which  was  still  only  a  domestic  fuel, 
burned  in  the  districts  where  it  abounded,  and  in  London, 
whither  it  was  carried  by  sea. 

The  population  of  England  at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century  was  about  five  millions  and  a  half.  The  increase 


260  CHIEF  ENGLISH  TOWNS. 

of  people  in  the  northern  counties  far  exceeded  that  in  the 
south  of  the  island.  The  cause  of  this  may  be  found  in  the 
rapid  improvement  of  these  counties  which  followed  the 
union  of  the  Crowns  in  1603.  Previously,  the  north  had 
been  constantly  ravaged  by  the  Border  robbers,  called  Moss- 
troopers, from  whom  no  house  or  herd  was  safe.  Gradually 
these  freebooters  were  hunted  down  and  extirpated.  Blood- 
hounds were  kept  in  many  northern  parishes  to  track  them 
to  their  dens.  The  paths  of  the  country,  long  unknown, 
were  opened  up  ;  life  and  property  became  secure.  Coal- 
beds  were  discovered.  Manufacturing  towns  began  to  rise, 
and  were  soon  filled  with  a  thriving  population. 

After  the  capital,  Bristol  was  the  greatest  English  sea- 
port ;  and  Norwich,  the  chief  manufacturing  town  under  the 
Stuarts.  The  Bristol  citizens,  among  whom  the  sugar- 
refiners  took  the  lead,  were  far-fameH  for  wealth  and  hos- 
pitality. The  great  seats  of  manufacture  were  then  small 
and  badly-built  market  towns.  Manchester,  the  modern 
centre  of  the  cotton  trade,  contained  only  6000  inhabitants, 
and  could  boast  of  neither  a  printing-press  nor  a  hackney- 
coach.  Leeds,  the  great  woollen  mart,  had  a  population  of 
about  7000  persons.  Sheffield,  whose  forges  send  out  the 
best  cutlery  in  the  world,  held  barely  2000  inhabitants. 
Birmingham,  only  rising  into  notice,  was  proud  of  sending 
her  hard-ware  so  far  off  as  Ireland.  There  were  not  more 
than  200  seamen  belonging  to  the  port  of  Liverpool.  Bux- 
ton,  Bath,  and  Tunbridge  Wells  were  the  fashionable  water- 
ing-places of  the  time ;  but  the  lodgings  were  very  poor,  and 
the  food  sold  in  these  places  was  of  the  most  wretched 
description.  Brighton  and  Cheltenham  are  of  modern 
growth. 

London,  when  Charles  II.  died,  had  a  population  of  half 
a  million.  One  old  bridge  spanned  the  Thames  ;  and  the 
houses  were  all  built  with  the  upper  stories  projecting  over 
the  shops  below.  The  city  was  the  merchant's  home.  He 
did  not  then,  as  now,  leave  his  counting-house  after  business 
hours  for  a  gay  villa  in  the  suburbs.  No  numbers  marked 
the  houses ;  but,  instead  of  these,  the  streets  were  lined  with 
the  signs  of  shops — here  the  Saracen's  Head — there  the 
Golden  Key.  By  these  the  people  described  their  dwellings, 


LIFE  IN  TOWN  AND  COUNTRY.  261 

and  strangers  found  their  way.  The  streets,  not  lighted 
until  the  last  year  of  Charles  II.,  and  then  only  during  the 
winter,  were  infested  with  robbers,  and  teemed  with  other 
dangers.  It  was  the  height  of  fashion  among  dissipated 
young  men  to  parade  the  foot- way  at  night,  insulting  every 
woman  and  beating  every  man  they  met.  From  these  the 
feeble  tippling  watchmen  could  or  would  give  no  protection. 
The  coffee-houses,  first  set  up  in  Cromwell's  time,  were  the 
great  lounges,  where  the  news  and  scandal  of  the  day  were 
discussed.  In  one  might  be  seen  the  exquisites,  with  their 
flowing  wigs,  their  embroidered  coats,  their  fringed  gloves, 
and  scented  snuff.  To  another  crowded  literary  men  to  hear 
John  Dryden  talk  There  were  coffee-houses  for  every  class. 
Jews  flocked  together  to  one ;  Papists  filled  another ;  Puri- 
tans met  their  brethren  in  a  third ;  and  so  with  men  of  every 
rank  and  opinion. 

The  country  gentlemen,  now  a  polished  and  an  important 
class,  were,  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  rough  and  poorly 
educated.  Their  lands  yielded  rents  equal  to  about  one- 
fourth  of  those  now  paid.  Seldom  leaving  their  native 
county  even  for  London,  they  spent  their  days  in  field 
sports  or  in  attending  the  neighbouring  markets,  and  their 
evenings  in  drinking  strong  beer.  Claret  and  Canary  wines 
were  drunk  only  by  the  very  wealthy.  Drunkenness  was  a 
common  and  fashionable  vice,  and  continued  to  be  so  more 
or  less  until  the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  The  ladies 
of  the  family,  whose  accomplishments  seldom  rose  above  the 
baking  of  pastry  or  the  brewing  of  gooseberry  wine,  cooked 
the  meals  of  the  household.  In  the  evening  they  amused 
themselves  by  sewing  and  spinning.  The  graces  of  the  mo- 
dern tea-table  were  quite  unknown  to  the  country  folk, 
although  that  favourite  beverage,  brought  by  the  Dutch  to 
Europe,  was  introduced  into  England  by  Lords  Arlington 
and  Ossory  in  1666.  It  was  not  till  nearly  a  century  later 
that  the  middle  classes  of  London  and  Edinburgh  began  to 
use  tea  daily.  In  the  latter  city  in  the  reigns  of  the  Georges 
tea  was  taken  at  four  o'clock,  and  the  meal  was  thence 
called  '  four  hours.'  But  beneath  all  the  roughness  of  the 
rural  gentry  lay  qualities  which  have  highly  exalted  the 
British  character.  Reverence  for  hereditary  monarchy 


262  VARIOUS  CLASSES. 

and  strong  attachment  to  the  Protestant  faith  were  their 
leading  principles. 

The  country  clergy  stood  low  in  the  social  scale.  The 
Reformation  had  humbled  the  pomp  and  splendour  of  the 
Romish  priesthood ;  and  it  pleased  the  great  Head  of  the 
Church,  whose  earliest  ministers  were  poor  fishermen,  to 
carry  on  his  work  at  this  time  with  labourers  of  a  humble 
class.  In  most  mansions  there  was  a  chaplain,  or,  as  he  was 
often  called,  a  Levite,  who,  receiving  his  board  and  £10  a 
year,  was  no  better  than  an  upper  servant.  His  wife  was 
often  taken  from  the  kitchen  of  his  patron.  Even  if  he  got 
a  parish  he  lived  and  worked  like  a  peasant :  his  sons  were 
ploughmen  and  his  daughters  went  to  service.  It  must 
not  be  forgotten  that  the  London  clergy,  among  whom  were 
Sherlock,  Tillotson,  and  Stillingfleet,  formed  a  class  by  them- 
selves, and  well  upheld  the  character  of  their  Church  for 
zeal,  learning,  and  eloquence. 

The  yeomen  or  small  farmers,  whose  income  averaged 
£60  or  £70  a  year,  were  numerous  and  influential.  Their 
chief  characteristics  were  a  leaning  towards  Puritanism 
and  a  hatred  of  Popery.  From  this  class  chiefly  were  drawn 
the  Ironsides  of  Cromwell. 

Of  the  labouring  classes  we  know  little.  Four-fifths  of 
them  were  employed  in  agriculture.  In  Devon,  Suffolk, 
and  Essex,  the  highest  wages  were  paid,  averaging  five  shil- 
lings a  week  without  food.  Those  engaged  in  manufactures 
earned  about  six  shillings  weekly.  Children  were  employed 
in  factories  to  an  immense  extent,  and  were  thought  fit  for 
work,  even  by  the  benevolent,  at  six  years  of  age.  The 
chief  food  of  the  poor  was  rye,  barley,  or  oats.  Rude  ballads 
were  their  only  means  of  complaint,  and  in  these  they  poured 
forth  their  woes.  The  poor-rate  was  the  heaviest  tax,  for 
the  paupers  amounted  to  no  less  than  one-fifth  of  the  com- 
munity. 

Sanitary  reform  was  greatly  needed.  Even  in  the  streets 
of  the  capital  open  sewers  and  heaps  of  filth  poisoned  the 
air.  The  deaths  in  London  in  1685  were  more  than  one  in 
twenty-three ;  the  yearly  average  now  is  about  one  in  forty. 
People  of  coarse  and  brutal  natures  were  found  in  all  classes 
in  great  numbers.  Nor  is  this  wonderful  when  the  training 


DRESS  AND  TRAVELLING.  263 

of  every-day  life  is  considered.  Masters  beat  their  servants ; 
husbands  beat  their  wives,  daily.  Teachers  knew  no  way  of 
imparting  knowledge  but  by  the  lash.  The  mob  rejoiced  in 
fights  of  all  kinds,  and  shouted  with  glee  when  an  eye  was 
torn  out  or  a  finger  chopped  off  in  these  savage  encounters. 
Executions  were  favourite  public  spectacles.  The  prisons 
were  constantly  full,  and  proved  to  be  most  fruitful  nurseries 
of  dirt,  disease,  and  crime. 

To  describe  the  various  costumes  and  manners  of  the 
period  would  be  impossible  within  the  compass  of  a  para- 
graph. One  or  two  points  on  this  head  must  suffice  here. 
The  Cavalier  and  the  Roundhead  present  a  striking  contrast 
in  their  dress  and  habits.  Bright  colours,  profuse  ornament, 
and  graceful  style  marked  the  costume  of  the  Cavalier.  His 
richly-laced  cloak,  over  which  lay  an  embroidered  collar,  his 
broad-leafed  hat  of  beaver  with  its  tall  white  plume,  his 
silken  doublet  of  the  Vandyke  pattern,  his  flowing  love-locks, 
gilt  spurs,  and  slashed  boots,  made  up  a  figure  the  most 
picturesque  of  any  period  in  our  history.  The  Puritan 
Roundhead  wore  a  cloak  of  sad-coloured  brown  or  black,  a 
plain  collar  of  linen  laid  carelessly  down  on  the  plaited 
cloth,  and  a  hat  with  a  high  steeple-shaped  crown  over  his 
closely  dipt,  or  lank,  straight  hair.  His  baptismal  name 
was  cast  aside,  and  some  strange  religious  phrase  adopted  in 
its  stead.  His  language  was  full  of  Scripture  texts;  and 
these  he  delivered  through  his  nose  with  a  peculiar  and 
ridiculous  twang.  But,  for  all  these  solemn  freaks,  the 
Puritan  character  was  metal  of  the  true  ring  and  sterling 
value,  and  is  well  deserving  of  our  highest  respect.  Charles 
II.  introduced  the  peruke,  a  long  flowing  wig  which  covered 
even  the  shoulders.  It  continued  to  be  the  fashion  until 
after  the  close  of  the  period. 

The  roads  were  so  bad  that  travelling  was  very  difficult. 
In  bad  weather  there  was  generally  only  a  slight  ridge  in 
the  centre  of  the  road  between  two  channels  of  deep  mud. 
Instead  of  sloping  gradually,  the  roads  went  right  up  and 
down  the  hills.  The  stage-waggon  and  pack-horses  carried 
goods;  the  former  taking  passengers  also.  Rich  men  tra- 
velled in  their  own  coaches,  but  they  were  obliged  often  to 
have  six  horses  to  pull  them  through  the  mud.  In  1669  a 


264  NEWSPAPERS  AND  BOOKS. 

'Flying  Coach'  left  Oxford  at  six  in  the  morning,  and 
reached  London  at  seven  the  same  evening, — a  feat  then  con- 
sidered wonderful  and  dangerous.  From  Chester,  York, 
and  Exeter,  a  winter  journey  to  London  took  six  days.  We 
owe  the  immense  improvement  of  our  roads  since  those  days 
chiefly  to  the  Turnpikes.  The  inns  were  good  and  comfort- 
able,— as  indeed  they  would  need  to  be,  when  so  many  nights 
were  spent  on  the  road.  Highwaymen,  well  armed  and 
mounted  on  fine  horses,  infested  all  the  great  roads ;  and  it 
is  said  that  many  of  the  innkeepers  were  paid  by  them  to 
give  information  about  those  travellers  who  were  worth 
attacking.  The  post-bags  were  carried  on  horseback  at  the 
rate  of  five  miles  an  hour ;  but  in  many  country  places  letters 
were  delivered  only  once  a  week. 

There  was  nothing  at  all  equal  to  our  modern  newspaper. 
Small  single  leaves  were  published  twice  a  week  while  the 
Exclusion  Bill  was  discussed ;  but  the  only  paper  afterwards 
allowed  was  '  The  London  Gazette,'  a  two-paged  bi-weekly 
sheet  of  very  meagre  contents.  No  Parliamentary  debates, 
no  State  trials  were  permitted  to  be  reported.  An  important 
feature  of  social  life  during  this  age  was  '  The  News-letter.' 
This  was  an  epistle,  despatched  to  the  country  generally  once 
a  week,  giving  all  the  chat  of  the  coffee-houses  and  the  news 
of  the  capital.  Several  families  subscribed  to  pay  some 
Londoner,  who  gave  them  the  scraps  of  news  gathered  dur- 
ing his  lounges.  '  Our  own  correspondent '  is  the  modern 
representative  of  the  system. 

There  were  few  printing  presses  in  the  country  except  in 
London  and  at  the  Universities.  The  only  press  north  of 
the  Trent  was  at  -York.  Books  were  therefore  scarce  and 
dear,  and  very  few  were  to  be  found  in  the  best  country 
houses.  In  London  the  booksellers'  shops  were  thronged 
with  readers.  Female  education  was  at  a  very  low  point, 
and  the  most  accomplished  ladies  spelled  their  letters  very 
badly.  At  the  Universities  Greek  was  little  studied  ;  but 
Latin,  in  which  Governments  still  conducted  their  corre- 
spondence, was  for  this  reason  spoken  and  written  with 
elegance  and  ease.  But  French  was  rapidly  rising  to  be  the 
language  of  diplomacy.  Astronomy  was  ably  cultivated  by 
Halley  and  Flainsteed,  who  was  the  first  astronomer-royal. 


ADVANCEMENT  OF  SCIENCE.  265 

Natural  Philosophy  owed  its  birtlf  as  a  scieuce  to  Isaac 
Newton.  But  the  favourite  and  fashionable  study  of  the 
latter  Stuart  days  was  Chemistry.  Charles  II.  had  a 
laboratory  in  his  palace  of  Whitehall.  Even  the  ladies 
were  smitten  with  the  rage  for  science,  and  began  to  talk 
learnedly  of  magnets  and  microscopes.  It  was  soon  dis- 
covered that  Chemistry — so  long  a  worthless  pursuit — might 
be  turned  to  the  improvement  of  agriculture.  Experiments 
were  made  on  various  soils,  new  fruits  and  vegetables  were 
grown  in  the  gardens,  and  farmers  began  to  think  that  per- 
haps after  all  there  might  be  some  profit  in  the  study  of 
Bcience. 


LEADING  AUTHORS  OF  THE  STUART  PERIOD. 

FRANCIS  BEAUMONT,  ......  (1586-1615)  )     , 

JOHN  FLETCHEE,  .....  .  ......  (1576-1625J  (  ~Wr0te   pkyS   t<)gether' 

fifty-two  in  all  —  Fletcher  composed  the 
plays  ;  Beaumont  fitted  them  for  the 
public. 

BEN  JONSON,  ...................  (1574-1637)  -dramatic  poet—  at  first  a 

bricklayer  —  then  a  soldier  —  earliest 
play,  'Every  Man  in  his  Humour'  — 
made  Poet  Laureate  in  1619. 

PHILIP  MASSINGER,  .......  (1584-1640)—  dramatic  poet—  lived  chiefly 

in  London  —  poor  and  obscure  —  chief 
play,  'A  New  Way  to  Pay  Old  Debts.' 

-Lyric  poets  in  the  time  of  charles  L 


WILLIAM  DEUMMOND,....  (1585-1649)—  Scottish,  lyric  poet—  lived 
at  Hawthornden  —  wrote  sonnets  and 
madrigals. 

JEEEMY  TAYLOR,  ............  (1613-1667)  —  Bishop    of    Down    and 

Connor  —  wrote  on  theology  —  chief 
works,  '  Holy  Living'  and  '  Holy 
Dying.' 

JOHN   MILTON,  ................  (1608-1674)—  greatest  epic  poet  of  modern 

ages  —  Latin  Secretary  to  Cromwell- 
finest  work,  'Paradise  Lost,'  an  epic 
in  twelve  books,  on  the  Fall;  written 
in  blindness  and  poverty,  between  1660 
and  1667  —  other  works,  'Paradise  Re- 


266  LEADING  AUTHORS. 

gained/  a  shorter  epic  ;  '  Comus/  a 
masque;  'Lycidas/  'Samson  Agonis- 
tes/  '  L'Allegro '  and  '  II  Penseroso/ 
short  descriptive  poems ;  and  many 
fine  sonnets  —  wrote  also  prose,  in 
which  he  made  a  vain  attempt  to  in- 
troduce into  English  the  order  and 
idioms  of  Latin. 

EDWAED  HYDE, (1608-1674)— Earl  of  Clarendon— minis- 
ter of  Charles  I. — an  exile  during  the 
Commonwealth — Lord  Chancellor  from 
1660  to  1667— wrote  '  History  of  the 
Rebellion,'  i.e.,  of  the  Civil  War — not 
published  till  Anne's  reign. 

SAMUEL  BUTLEE, (1612-1680)— a  Worcestershire  farmer- 
chief  work,  '  Hudibras,'  a  mock-heroic 
poem,  in  short  couplets,  written  to 
caricature  the  Puritans,  and  published 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 

JOHN  BITNYAN, (1628-1688)— a    tinker    of    Bedford  — 

afterwards  a  soldier — then  a  Baptist 
preacher — imprisoned  for  preaching — 
chief  work,  '  The  Pilgrim's  Progress,' 
a  prose  allegory,  describing  the  life  and 
triumph  of  a  Christian  under  the  figure 
of  a  journey. 

EICHAED  BAXTEE, (1615-1691)— a  celebrated  Presbyterian 

minister — chief  works,  'The  Saint's 
Rest'  and  'A  Call  to  the  Unconverted, 
— wrote  in  all  126  volumes. 

JOHN  DEYDEN, (1631-1700)— one  of  the  greatest  names 

in  English  poetry— chief  works,  'Ab- 
salom and  Achitophel,'  a  political  satire; 
and  'Alexander's  Feast, 'an  ode — trans- 
lated Virgil's  Jineid  into  English  verse. 

JOHN  LOCKE, (1632-1704)— the  great  mental  philoso- 
pher of  the  period — educated  at  Ox- 
ford—  chief  work,  'An  Essay  on  the 
Human  Understanding,'  published  in 
1690. 

QILBEET  BUENET, (1643-1715)— a  Scotchman— rery  in- 
timate with  William  III.— created 
Bishop  of  Salisbury — chief  works, 
'  History  of  my  own  Times/  and  'His- 
tory of  the  Reformation  of  the  Church 
of  England." 


LEADING  ARTISTS.  2C7 


LEADING  ARTISTS. 

[NIGO  JONES, (1572-1652)— native  of  London— a  dis- 
tinguished architect  —  designed  the 
Banqueting-house  at  Whitehall. 

BUBENS, (1577-1640)— a  celebrated  painter  of  the 

Flemish  school — a  pupil  of  Titian — 
patronized  by  Charles  I.,  for  whom  he 
painted  the  Banqueting  -  house  of 
Whitehall. 

VANDYKE, (1599-1641)— a  Flemish  painter— pupil 

of  Rubens — lived  for  some  time  at  the 
court  of  Charles  I.,  whose  portrait  he 
painted. 

SIR  PETEE  LELY, (1617-1680)— a  painter  of  Westphalia- 
patronized  by  Charles  II. — the  leading 
portraits  of  the  court  beauties  are  from 
his  brush. 

SIE  CHEISTOPHEE  WEEN,  (1632-1723)  —  the  only  distinguished 
English  artist  in  the  latter  Stuart 
reigns — a  famous  architect— 'chief  de- 
sign, St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 

SIE GODFEEYKNELLEE,... (1648-1723)— a  German  portrait-painter 
— lived  at  the  courts  of  William  III., 
Anne,  and  George  I. 


LEADING  DATES  OP  THE  STUART  PERIOD. 
GENERAL  EVENTS. 

A.D. 

Gunpowder  Plot, 1605 James  I. 

Raleigh  beheaded, 1618 — 

Trial  of  Hampden, 1637 Charles  L 

Charles  I.  beheaded, 1649 — 

The  Plague, 1665 Charles  II. 

The  Great  Fire, 1666 — 

Trial  of  the  Bishops, 1688 James  LI. 

Landing  of  the  Prince  of  Orange, —  — 

Trial  of  Sacheverell, 1710 Anne. 

CONSTITUTIONAL  CHANGES. 

Union  of  English  and  Scottish  crowns, 1603 James  I. 

Petition  of  Eight, 1628 Charles  I. 

The  Long  Parliament  begins, 1640......       — 

Cromwell  expels  the  Long  Parliament, 1653 Commonwealth 


£68 


DATES  OF  STUART  PERIOD. 


The  Restoration, 1660 Charles  IL 

The  Test  Act, 1673 — 

The  Habeas  Corpus  Act, 1679 — 

The  Second  Declaration  of  Indulgence, 1688 James  II. 

The  Revolution, —  — 

The  Declaration  of  Rights, —  

The  Act  of  Settlement, 1701 William  III. 

The  Union  of  the  English  and  Scottish  Par- 
liaments,  1707 Anne. 

DOMINION  ACQUIRED. 

Jamaica  taken 1655 Commonwealth. 

Gibraltar  taken 1704 Anne. 

WARS,  BATTLES,  TREATIES. 


Thirty  Years'  War  begins, 

Battle  of  Edge-hill, 

First  Battle  of  Newbury, 

Battle  of  Marston  Moor, 

Second  Battle  of  Newbury, 

Battle  of  Naseby, 

—  Dunbar, 

—  Worcester, 

Secret  Treaty  of  Dover, 

Battle  of  Sedgemoor, 

—  Killicrankie, 

—  Boyne, 

—  la  Hogue, 

Treaty  of  Ryswick, 

Battle  of  Blenheim 

—  Ramilies, 

—  Ondenarde, 

—  Malplaquet, 

rreaty  of  Utrecht, 


,.1618 James  I. 

..1642 Charles  L 

..1643 — 

..1644....          — 


..1645 — 

..1650 Commonwealth 

..1651 — 

..1670 Charles  n. 

..1685 James  H. 

..1689 William  ILL 

..1690 — 

..1692 - 

..1697 — 

..1704 Anne, 

...1706 - 

...1708 - 

...1709 - 

...1713.....        — 


GENEALOGICAL  TREE. 


2(19 


Ep        o    cs  HH       h 
.      >»  g  " 

o  — ~~^  "  *** 

2  =^° 

3  x  £  ° 


O  .2 

$3. 


W 


270  HANOVER  UNITED  TO  THE  BRITISH  CROWN. 


GUELPH  LINE; 

OR, 

HOUSE    OF    BKUNSWICK. 

Opened  1714  A.D.— Has  already  lasted  144  years.— 6  Sovereigns. 

A.D. 

GEORGE  I.  (great-grandson  of  James  I.)r began  to  role  1714 

GEORGE  II.  (son), 1727 

GEORGE  in.  (grandson), 1760 

EEGENCY  of  the  Prince  of  Wales, 1811 

GEORGE  IV.  (son), 1820 

WILLIAM  IV.  (brother), 1830 

VICTORIA  (niece), 1837 

Leading  Feature  -.—THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  HOUSE  OF  COM- 
MONS GREATER  THAN  AT  ANY  FORMER  PERIOD. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GEORGE  I. 
Born  1660  A.D.- Began  to  reign  1714  A.D.— Died  1727  A.D. 


Hanover  united  to  Eng- 
land. 

Policy  of  George. 
Fall  of  the  Tories. 
The  Riot  Act 


'The  Fifteen.' 
The  Septennial  Act 
Sweden  and  Spain. 
The  South  Sea  Scheme. 
Golden  dreams. 


The  Crash. 
Robert  Walpole. 
Death  of  the  King. 
Character 
Notes. 


GEORGE  I.,  already  Elector  of  Hanover,  became  King  of  the 
British  Empire  at  the  age  of  fifty-four.  His  father  was 
Ernest  Augustus  of  Hanover;  his  mother  was  Sophia, 
daughter  of  Elizabeth,  Queen  of  Bohemia,  and  therefore 
grand-daughter  of  James  I.  Having  spent  all  his  previous 
life  in  Germany,  he  knew  but  little  of  England,  and  to  his 
last  day  could  neither  speak  nor  write  the  English  language 
well  His  wife  was  Sophia  of  Brunswick,  his  own  cousin, 
whom  he  treated  with  great  cruelty,  keeping  her  for  forty 
years  shut  up  in  a  castle  of  Hanover,  where  not  even  her 
own  children  were  allowed  to  see  her.  By  his  accession  the 
crowns  of  Britain  and  Hanover  were  united. 


FALL  OF  THE  TORIES.  271 

George  favoured  the  Whigs,  by  whom  he  had  been  called 
to  the  throne,  and  took  no  pains  to  conceal  his  dread  and 
dislike  of  the  Tories.  His  policy  is  easily  understood.  It 
was  guided  mainly  by  two  principles, — an  intense  fondness 
for  Hanover,  and  a  constant  fear  of  the  Pretender  and  his 
partisans.  These  were  now  called  Jacobites,  from  Jacobus, 
the  Latin  name  for  James. 

The  fall  of  the  Tory  ministry  was  immediate.  A  secret 
committee  of  the  Commons  sat  to  inquire  into  their  conduct 
with  regard  to  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht.  Of  that  committee 
the  chairman  was  Robert  "Walpole,  who,  born  in  1676  and 
educated  at  Cambridge,  had  in  1706  been  made  Secretary 
for  War,  and  was  now  Paymaster  of  the  Forces.  The  Tory 
leaders,  Oxford,  Bolingbroke,  and  Ormond,  against  all  of 
whom  there  were  strong  suspicions  of  a  secret  correspond- 
ence with  the  Pretender,  were  impeached  for  high  treason. 
Oxford  was  sent  to  the  Tower,  and  his  head  was  saved 
only  by  a  difference  between  the  Lords  and  the  Commons. 
Bolingbroke  and  Ormond  fled  to  the  Continent,  where  they 
joined  the  councils  of  the  Pretender. 

Great  riots  then  took  place,  for  the  feeling  of  the  entire 
nation  ran  strongly  in  favour  of  the  Tories.    The  coach 
which  conveyed  Oxford  to  the  Tower  was  surrounded  by 
roaring  mobs,  that  afterwards  in  Smithfield  burned  William 
III.  in  effigy.    Bishop  Atterbury  boldly  denounced  George 
as  a  usurper.    The  students  of  Oxford  wore  the  oak  leaf  on 
the  29th  of  May  in  honour  of  the  Stuart  Restoration.    The 
men  of  Staffordshire  assembled  in  tumultuous  crowds  to 
applaud  Jacobite  speeches.     Without  delay  the 
Government  took  strong  measures.    The  Riot  Act     1715 
was  passed,  which  enacted  that  any  mob  of  more       A.D. 
than  twelve  persons  refusing  to  disperse  in  a  given 
time,  should  be  scattered  by  military  force.    A  price  of 
£100,000  was  set  on  the  head  of  the  Pretender.    The  army 
and  navy  were  prepared  for  war. 

The  alarm  of  the  King  and  his  ministers  was  not  without 
foundation.  The  Pretender  was  in  France,  flushed  with 
high  hopes  of  success,  and  buoyed  up  by  promises  of  strong 
support  from  Louis  XIV.  But  the  death  of  that  great 
monarch  blasted  all  his  bright  prospects.  All  hope  of 


272  THE  REBELLION  OF  '  FIFTEEN.' 

French  aid  was  gone;  for  the  Regent,  Duke  of  Orleans, 
thought  more  of  repairing  tho  shattered  finances  of  France 
than  of  invading  England. 

Meanwhile  the  flame  of  rebellion  was  actually  kindled 
both  in  Scotland  and  in  England.     The  Earl  of 
1715     Mar  had  gathered  10,000  clansmen  around  him  at 
A.D.       Braemar,  and  held  all  the  Highlands;  while  the 
Duke  of  Argyle,  with  a  royal  army  strongly  posted 
at  Stirling,  watched  his  every  movement.    The  men  of 
Northumberland  had  been  called  to  arms  by  the  Earl  of 
Derwentwater,  and  Forster,  the  member  for  the  county; 
but  few  of  them  had  obeyed  the  summons.     They  were  aided 
by  1800  Highlanders,  a  reinforcement  from  Mar,  and  were 
joined  by  a  few  lords  of  the  Scottish  Border.    But  the 
royal  troops,  forcing  Forster  into  the  town  of  Pres- 
Nov.13.    ton  in  Lancashire,  there  compelled  him  to  sur- 
render.   On  the  same  day,  at  Sheriffmuir  in  the 
south  of  Perthshire,  Argyle  inflicted,  not  an  absolute  defeat, 
but  a  severe  check  upon  Mar,  who  after  the  engagement  re- 
treated hastily  to  Perth. 

The  Pretender,  who  was  called  on  the  Continent  the 
Chevalier  de  St.  George,  by  his  English  adherents  James 
III.,  and  by  his  Scottish  friends  James  VIII.,  resolving  to 
see  what  his  presence  in  the  native  land  of  the 
Dec.  22.  Stuarts  would  do,  landed  at  Peterhead ;  but  with  no 
money,  no  troops,  no  warlike  stores.  He  found 
his  party  broken  and  dispirited ;  and  his  arrival  without 
the  aid  from  France,  so  eagerly  looked  for,  cast  a  deeper 
gloom  over  the  Stuart  cause.  At  Perth  he  frivolously 
wasted  many  days  in  preparing  for  his  coronation,  while  the 
crown  was  yet  to  be  won.  Amid  his  dreams  of  a  splendour 
never  to  be  realized,  he  heard  that  Argyle  was  advancing, 
and  retreated  northward  towards  Montrose,  where  he  and 
Mar  embarked  for  France,  leaving  the  army  to  its  fate. 
The  Earl  of  Derwentwater,  Lord  Kenmuir,  and  twenty 
others  suffered  death  ;  the  estates  of  many  were  confiscated  ; 
and  more  than  a  thousand  were  banished  to  North  America, 
Thus  ended  '  The  Fifteen.' 

The  most  remarkable  constitutional  change  of  this  reign 
was  the  passing  of  the  Septennial   Act,   by  which  the 


THE  SEPTENNIAL  ACT.  273 

maximum  length  of  our  Parliaments  was  fixed  1  7-1  /» 
at  seven  years.  To  the  Whigs  we  owe  this  wise 
measure,  which  has  done  much  to  preserve  the 
peace  of  the  nation.  In  the  days  of  the  Triennial  Bill  the 
excitement  of  one  general  election  had  hardly  time  to  settle 
down  before  the  turmoil  of  another  began.  Party  spirit 
ran  into  wild  excess.  Although  the  collision  of  parties, 
when  kept  within  due  bounds,  is,  like  the  heaving  and 
sweeping  of  the  ocean,  a  wholesome  influence,  tending  to 
keep  the  nation's  life  fresh  and  vigorous,  and  to  prevent  the 
settlement  of  error  and  abuse,  yet  there  is  no  power  so 
destructive  when  let  loose  from  fit  control.  Hence  the 
necessity  and  use  of  such  laws  as  the  Septennial  Act. 

For  the  sake  of  Hanover,  George  embroiled  himself  with 
Sweden  and  with  Spain.  He  had  bought  from  the  King 
of  Denmark  the  duchies  of  Bremen  and  Verden,  which 
Charles  of  Sweden  claimed  as  his  own.  A  dispute  followed, 
and  war  seemed  certain,  when  the  death  of  the  great  Swede 
at  the  siege  of  Fredericshall  saved  Britain  from  invasion. 
The  Quadruple  Alliance  was  then  formed,  by  which  Ger- 
many, England,  France,  and  Holland  leagued  themselves 
against  Philip  of  Spain,  who  had  interfered  with  the  Italian 
interests  of  the  Emperor.  Admiral  Byng  destroyed 
the  Spanish  fleet  off  Cape  Passaro  in  Sicily ;  and  1718 
Alberoni,  the  Spanish  minister,  in  retaliation,  sent  A.D. 
an  expedition  to  invade  Scotland  in  favour  of  the 
Pretender.  But,  a  storm  having  shattered  the  fleet,  this 
miniature  Armada  failed  in  its  object.  Philip,  worsted  by 
land  and  sea,  sought  peace  from  the  four  Allies. 

In  the  same  year  the  Convocation  of  the  English  clergy, 
an  assembly  which,  like  a  Senate  of  Churchmen,  had  been 
used  to  make  ecclesiastical  laws,  and  even  to  grant  money 
to  the  King,  was  dissolved,  never  to  meet  again.  The 
political  influence  of  the  English  Church  is  now  confined 
chiefly  to  the  Archbishops  and  Bishops,  who  have  seats 
among  the  Lords. 

In  1719  the  Mississippi  Company,  a  scheme  by  which 

paper  money  was  to  fill  the  place  of  gold  and  silver,  set  on 

foot  in  Paris  by  Law,  a  Scotch  banker,  ruined  thousands 

by  its  utter  failure.      In  the  year  following  the  South 

W  18 


274  THE  SOUTH  SEA  BUBBLE. 

-  tin*  Sea  Scheme  set  all  Britain  crazy.  The  National 
AD  •Debt  then  amoimtecl  to  ^53,000,000.  The  Govern- 
ment were  obliged  to  pay  to  all  those  who  had  lent 
the  money,  or,  as  we  say,  had  invested  money  in  the  funds, 
interest  at  six  per  cent.,  which  came  to  .£3,180,000  in  the 
year.  This  was  a  heavy  burden  on  a  yearly  revenue  of 
about  £8,000,000  ;  and  to  remove  or  lessen  the  debt  became 
the  grand  problem,  which  occupied  the  financiers  of  the 
day.  The  Bank  of  England  and  the  South  Sea  Company 
both  proposed  plans  to  accomplish  this  object.  The  offers 
of  the  South  Sea  .Company,  of  which  Blunt  was  a  leading 
director,  were  accepted  by  the  Government.  The  Company 
proposed  to  buy  up  all  the  debts  of  the  nation,  and  to 
advance  to  the  Government  whatever  money  they  needed 
at  four  per  cent.  They  agreed,  besides,  to  pay  to  the  Govern- 
ment, as  a  bonus,  the  sum  of  £7,000,000.  This  plan  would 
reduce  the  interest  on  the  debt  by  one-third  every  year,  and 
would  also  give  to  the  Government  a  large  sum  of  ready 
money.  In  return  for  these  advantages  the  Company  re- 
ceived the  sole  right  of  trading  to  the  South  Seas. 

Stories  of  the  endless  treasure  to  be  drawn  from  golden 
islands  in  the  far-off  Pacific  found  eager  listeners  everywhere. 
Hundreds  rushed  to  the  offices  of  the  Company  to  exchange 
their  Government  stock  for  shares  in  the  scheme.  Rich  men 
and  poor  widows,  statesmen  and  errand-boys,  jostling  each 
other  in  the  race  for  gold,  paid  their  money  across  the 
counters,  and  received  from  the  clerks  pieces  of  paper,  which 
they  fondly  believed  would  secure  to  them  the  possession  of 
twenty-fold  riches.  The  Company  promised  a  dividend  of 
fifty  per  cent,  at  least,  and  the  shares  rose  rapidly.  The  ex- 
citement became  a  mania,  and  the  mania  became  a  frenzy. 
Men  paid  away  £1000  for  the  chance  of  the  profits  which 
£100  might  bring  from  the  South  Seas.  The  most  ridicu- 
lous joint-stock  companies  were  started  in  imitation  of  the 
great  scheme, — one  for  extracting  silver  from  lead,  another 
for  making  salt  water  fresh,  a  third  for  importing  asses  from 
Spain.  The  South  Sea  directors,  armed  with  an  Act  of 
Parliament,  crushed  these  rival  companies;  but  amid  the 
rmaller  crashes  their  own  gigantic  bubble  burst.  The  eyes 
of  the  nation  were  opened.  All  ran  to  sell  the  South  Sea 


DEATH  AND  CHARACTER  OE  GEORGE  1.  275 

Btock  :  none  would  buy.    The  offices  were  closed,  and  thou- 
sands became  ruined  bankrupts. 

Walpole,  who  had  all  along  cried  out  against  the  huge 
gambling  transaction,  now  came  forward  to  save  the  public 
credit.  His  plan  was  to  divide  the  losses,  and  thus  make 
the  pressure  on  the  nation  less.  Nine  millions  of  South  Sea 
stock  were  assigned  to  the  Bank  of  England,  nine  more  to 
the  East  India  Company,  while  the  Government  gave  up 
their  bonus  of  seven  millions.  But,  though  the  alarm  was 
lessened,  and  the  loss  somewhat  equalized,  penniless  crowds 
cried  for  vengeance  upon  the  rulers,  who  had  led  them  into 
the  snare.  Sunderland  the  Premier,  and  Aislabie  the  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer,  resigned  office.  Many  a  desolate 
home,  many  a  broken  heart,  many  a  suicide's  grave  remained 
to  mark  the  traces  of  the  broken  bubble. 

Robert  Walpole,  then  made  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer, 
continued  for  twenty  years  to  direct  the  Government.  His 
talent  lay  in  financial  politics  ;  and  England  owes  much  to 
his  measures  for  the  advancement  of  her  commerce  and 
manufactures. 

The  remaining  years  of  the  reign  were  marked  chiefly  by 
the  discovery  of  a  Jacobite  plot,  for  connection  with  which 
Atterbury,  Bishop  of  Rochester,  was  banished  for  life  ;  and 
by  the  opening  of  an  unimportant  war  with  Spain  and  th« 
Emperor,  who  had  founded  a  rival  East  India  Company  at 
Ostend. 

While  travelling  in  Hanover,  the  King  was  seized    June  11, 
near  Osnabruck  with  apoplexy,  and  died  next  day.     1727 
His   children  were  George,  his   successor ;    and       A.D. 
Sophia,  the  Queen  of  Prussia. 

George  I.  was  a  thorough  German  in  his  character  and 
habits, — heavy,  cautious,  and  reserved.  He  possessed  in  no 
small  degree  the  business  qualities  of  industry  and  punctu- 
ality ;  but  his  treatment  of  his  wife  cannot  be  defended,  and 
his  government  of  England  was  sullied  by  undue  partiality 
to  the  Whigs,  and  a  tendency  in  every  case  to  sacrifice 
British  interests  to  those  of  Hanover.  He  was  in  face  and 
figure  plain  and  solid-looking. 

The  most  note-worthy  points  of  progress  during  the  reign 
are  the  invention  of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer ;  the  intro- 


276 


NOTES  OF  PROGRESS. 


duction  of  silk-throwing  machines  by  Lombe,  who  brought 
the  plans  from  Italy ;  experiments  in  vaccination,  which 
were  tried  at  first  on  criminals  ;  and  the  earliest  casting  ol 
types  in  England. 

CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


FRANCE.  A.D. 

LOTTIS  XIV., died  1715 

LOUIS  XV. 

SPAIN. 

PHILIP  V 1724 

LOUIS, 1725 

PHILIP  VI. 

SWEDEN. 

CHARLES  XII 1718 

ULEICA  LEONORA. 

RUSSIA. 
PETER  (the  Great), 1725 


PRUSSIA.  A.H. 

FREDERIC died  1700 

FREDERIC  WILLIAM. 


TURKEY. 
ACHMET  III. 

EMPEROR. 
CHARLES  VI. 


POPES. 

CLEMENT  XI., 

INNOCENT  Xin.,... 
BENEDICT  XIH. 


,.1721 
.1724 


LEADING  AUTHORS  UNDER  GEORGE  I. 

JOSEPH  ADDISON, (1672-1719)— a  prose  writer  and  poet- 
famous  for  his  beautiful  papers  in  the 
'  Spectator' — chief  poems,  'Cato,'  atra- 
gedy,  and  '  A  Letter  from  Italy ' — was 
made  Secretary  of  State  under  Anne. 

SIR  ISAAC  NEWTON, (1642-1727)— native  of  Lincolnshire— Pro- 
fessor at  Cambridge — discovered  the 
Binomial  Theorem,  and  the  universal 
application  of  the  Law  of  Gravitation 
— chief  work,  his  '  Principia,'  a  Latin 
treatise  on  Natural  Philosophy — wrote 
also  on  Daniel  and  Revelation. 

SIR  RICHARD  STEELE,... (1676-1729)— an  Irishman,  who  in  1709 
started  the  '  Tatler,'  the  first  regular 
English  periodical — in  1711  began  the 
more  famous  'Spectator' — wrote  many 
plays  also. 


SIR  EGBERT  WALPOLE.  277 

CHAPTER  II. 

GEORGE  II. 
Born  1683  A.D.-Begaa  to  reign  1727  A.D.-Died  1760  A.D. 


Sir  Robert  Walpole. 
The  Excise  Bill. 
Porteous  Riots. 
Spanish  War. 
The  Methodists. 
Retirement  of  Walpole. 
Maria  Theresa. 

1  The  Forty-five.' 
Battle  of  Prestonpans. 
March  to  Derby. 
Battle  of  Culloden. 
Flight  of  Charles  Edward. 
His  last  days. 
William  Pitt. 

The  Seven  Years'  War. 
Conquest  of  Bengal. 
Fall  of  Quebec. 
Death  of  the  King. 
His  character. 
Notes. 

GEORGE  II.,  who,  as  Prince  of  Wales,  had  been,  like  his 
mother,  jealously  exiled  from  the  English  Court,  now  be- 
came King.  He  had  reached  the  ripe  age  of  forty-four,  and 
had  long  been  married  to  Caroline  of  Anspach,  a  woman  of 
sense  and  virtue.  The  Whigs,  or  Court  Party — as  they  were 
called  in  contrast  to  the  Tories  or  Country  Party — retained 
their  ascendency. 

Sir  Robert  Walpole  for  fifteen  years  of  the  reign  held  the 
office  of  Prime  Minister.  He  was  a  man  of  little  learning, 
rough  and  boisterous  in  his  manners  and  his  life ;  but  he 
held  his  great  power  with  a  passionate  grasp,  and  preserved 
it,  not  very  honestly,  indeed,  but  with  consummate  tact. 
Bribery  was  the  secret  of  his  long  reign  as  Premier.  To 
some  he  gave  titles  of  honour,  coronets,  ribbons,  or  stars ;  to 
others  places  of  profit  or  of  power ;  and  among  the  general 
mass  of  members  of  the  Commons  he  scattered  gold  without 
stint.  Thus  he  had  always  at  his  command  a  majority  of 
votes  in  the  Houses  of  Parliament. 

A  new  Charter  was  granted  to  the  East  India  Company 
in  1730,  for  which  they  paid  the  sum  of  .£200,000  into  the 
Royal  Exchequer.  The  most  noticeable  point,  however,  in 
Walpole's  career  was  the  Excise  Bill.  The  Customs  are 
duties  paid  upon  certain  foreign  productions,  when  landed 
on  our  shores.  The  Excise  is  a  tax  levied  on  articles  manu- 
factured at  home.  To  check  smuggling,  which  was  now  prac- 
tised openly  to  an  immense  extent,  Walpole  proposed  to 
bring  wine  and  tobacco  under  the  law  of  Excise.  -1700 
The  merchants  set  up  a  cry  of  ruin.  This  cry  was  * 
loudly  echoed  by  the  Opposition,  who  imagined 


278  THK  POKTEOUS  RIOTS. 

that  they  saw  in  the  measure  a  scheme  by  which  the 
Premier  meant  to  create  a  whole  army  of  excisemen,  whose 
votes,  always  ready  at  his  beck,  would  carry  the  day  in 
every  election.  When  the  cautious  minister  saw  the  vio- 
lence of  the  storm,  content  to  lose  his  point  rather  than  risk 
his  power,  he  withdrew  the  Bill  altogether.  The  Opposition, 
exulting  in  their  success,  strove  next  session  to  repeal  the 
Septennial  Act ;  but  the  attempt  failed. 

In  1736  all  Scotland  was  agitated  by  the  Porteous  Riots. 
The  mob  of  Edinburgh,  enraged  at  the  execution  of  a  smug- 
gler named  Wilson,  who  had  roused  their  admiration  by 
helping  his  fellow-prisoner  Robertson  to  escape,  pelted  the 
hangman  and  the  soldiers.  Captain  Porteous,  commander 
of  the  City  Guard,  fired  on  the  crowd,  and  several  were 
killed.  For  this  he  was  sentenced  to  death  ;  but  a  reprieve 
came  from  London,  and  the  rumour  spread  that  a  mail  or 
two  would  bring  him  a  full  pardon.  It  was  resolved  that  he 
should  not  escape.  On  the  night  of  the  17th  of  September 
the  jail  in  which  he  lay  was  broken  open  by  a  mob ;  he  waa 
brought  out,  and  hanged  on  a  dyer's  pole.  The  Government, 
enraged  at  this  violence,  brought  in  a  Bill  to  demolish  the 
walls  and  take  away  the  charter  of  Edinburgh.  So  spirited, 
however,  was  the  resistance  of  the  Scottish  members  that 
the  measure  was  abandoned,  though  not  until  it  had  excited 
among  all  classes  in  Scotland  a  feeling  of  deep  rancour  and 
hostility  towards  England. 

The  death  of  Queen  Caroline  in  1737  deprived  Walpole  of 
a  warm  friend  and  supporter.  The  disasters  of  the  Spanish 
War  in  1739  shook  his  power  past  retrieving.  Besides  the 
ill-will  of  the  King  and  the  hatred  of  Frederic,  Prince  of 
Wales,  he  had  to  contend  against  a  brilliant  phalanx  of 
literary  men,  amongst  whom  were  Thomson,  Johnson,  Swift, 
and  Pope.  A  section  of  discontented  Whigs,  too,  who  called 
themselves  Patriots,  threw  their  entire  weight  into  the  scale 
of  opposition. 

The  Spanish  War  was  caused  by  the  cruisers  of  Spain 

*  1700     claiming  and  using  the  right  to  search  all  British 

vessels,  suspected  of  smuggling  on  the  coasts  of 

Spanish  America.    Walpole  tried  negotiation,  but 

in  vain ;  and  war  was  proclaimed.    When  he  heard  the 


RISE  OP  THE  METHODISTS.  279 

London  joy-bells  ringing  for  the  declaration  of  the  war, 
he  was  heard  to  mutter,  '  They  may  ring  their  bells  now ; 
they  will  be  wringing  their  hands  before  long.'  The  town 
of  Portobello  on  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  was  taken ;  but  dis- 
asters soon  eclipsed  this  brief  success.  A  great  fleet  and 
army  under  Admiral  Vernou  and  Lord  Wentworth  failed 
in  an  attack  upon  Carthagena,  chiefly  through  the  disagree- 
ment of  the  leaders.  The  unhealthy  climate  swept  off  the 
British  in  hundreds;  and  there  naturally  arose  great  dis- 
content at  home.  Anson  was  sent  with  a  squadron  to  re- 
lieve Vernon;  but,  failing  in  his  object,  he  sailed  into  the 
South  Seas,  plundered  Paita,  a  port  of  Chili,  and,  after  three 
years'  cruising,  took  a  Spanish  treasure-ship  bound  for 
Manilla,  and  laden  with  £300,000.  On  his  return  to  Eng- 
land in  1744  with  a  solitary  ship,  the  people,  dazzled  by  the 
wealth  he  brought,  received  him  with  joy. 

The  Methodists — now  numerous  and  influential,  espe- 
cially in  England — separated  from  the  Established  Church 
about  this  time.  The  founder  of  the  body  was  John  Wesley. 
When  a  student  at  Oxford,  he  used  to  hold  meetings  for 
prayer  in  his  college-rooms ;  and,  carrying  into  the  world 
the  same  spirit  of  practical  piety,  he  soon  became  a  cele- 
brated preacher.  At  a  time  when  it  was  fashionable  to 
sneer  at  all  religion,  he  drew  to  his  chapel  the  most  brilliant 
audiences  in  the  laud.  He  was  aided  in  the  good  work  by 
Whitefield,  a  yet  more  distinguished  preacher,  whose  elec- 
tric eloquence  could  then  be  matched  by  none.  To  these 
two  men  our  country  owes  much,  for  they  led  the  van  in 
that  revival  of  religion,  of  which  in  the  present  day  we  are 
reaping  the  harvest. 

The  difficulties  of  Walpole  became  so  great,  that,  finding 
the  Opposition  in  the  majority  as  the  result  of  a 
general  election,  he  resigned  office,  and  retired  with     1742 
the  title  of  Earl  of  Orford  to  his  country  seat  of      A.D. 
Houghton.     He  was  succeeded  by  the  Earl  of 
Granville,  who  held  office  but  a  short  time.    The  Pelhams 
then  took  the  helm  of  the  State ;  which,  partly  by  aristo- 
cratic influence,  and  partly  by  dint  of  wholesale  bribery, 
they  contrived  to  hold  for  fifteen  years. 

During  their  administration  occurred  a  Continental  War 


S80  CONTINENTAL  WAR. 

(1741-1745).  Charles  VI.  of  Austria,  dying  in  1740,  left  a 
will  called  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  by  which  he  bequeathed 
all  his  dominions  to  his  daughter  Maria  Theresa.  Scarcely 
had  she  ascended  the  throne  when  the  Elector  of  Bavaria 
demanded  the  crown  of  Hungary,  Frederic  II.  of  Prussia 
seized  Silesia,  and  Louis  of  France  denied  her  right  to  any 
part  of  her  inheritance.  The  British  were  alarmed  at  this 
union  between  France  and  Prussia,  which  under  Frederic 
the  Great  was  fast  rising  to  be  one  of  the  leading  powers  in 
Europe ;  and  their  chivalry  was  roused  at  the  thought  of  a 
young  and  beautiful  Queen  surrounded  by  greedy  and  treach- 
erous foes,  even  while  she  still  wore  mourning  for  her  dead 
father.  The  States  of  Hungary  gathered  round  their  Queen, 
and  a  British  army  crossed  the  Channel  in  her  defence. 
George  II.,  leading  the  British  troops  in  person, — the  last 
occasion  upon  which  a  Sovereign  of  Britain  was 
1743  under  the  fire  of  an  enemy, — routed  a  French  army 
A.D.  near  the  village  of  Dettingen  on  the  Maine.  Two 
years  later,  at  Fontenoy  in  Belgium,  his  second 
son,  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  was  defeated  by  Marshal 
Saxe  in  almost  the  only  victory  won  by  the  armies  of  Louis 
XV.  In  the  end  the  cause  of  the  young  Queen  triumphed ; 
her  husband,  Francis  Stephen,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany, 
was  chosen  Emperor  in  1745 ;  and  in  the  same  year  the 
peace  of  Dresden  closed  the  war.  This  illustrious  lady, 
amongst  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Austrian  Sovereigns, 
held  her  throne  until  her  death  in  1780. 

The  exiled  Stuarts,  encouraged  by  France  and  Spain,  now 
made  a  bold  push  for  the  throne  of  Britain.    Charles  Edward 
Stuart,  the  young  Pretender,  the  '  bonnie  Prince 
July  25,    Charlie'  of  those  stirring  Jacobite  songs  which 
1745     sprang  from  the  burning  heart  of  a  revolted  nation, 
A.D.      landed  near  Moidart  on  the  coast  of  Inverness- 
shire.    He  came  with  only  seven  officers  to  conquer 
a  great  Empire,  but  at  five-and-twenty  hope  is  strong  in 
the  human  souL    Many  Highland  chieftains,  of  whom  tho 
most  distinguished  was  Cameron  of  Lochiel,  has- 
Aug.  19.    tened  to  his  side ;  and  his  standard  was  raised  at 
Glenfinnan.    At  the  head  of  700  wild  clansmen, 
whose  hearts  he  had  won  by  donning  the  kilt  and  tartans, 


BATTLE  OF  PKESTONPANS.  281 

he  commenced  a  southward  march.  Sir  John  Cope,  the 
royal  leader,  had  incautiously  moved  to  Inverness,  and  the 
road  was  open.  At  Perth  Charles  was  proclaimed  Regent 
for  his  father.  -Thence  he  passed  through  Linlithgow  to 
Edinburgh,  winning  all  hearts  by  his  bright  smiles  and 
charming  courtesy.  His  little  army  had  swelled  to  more 
than  1000  men.  The  capital  was  unguarded  except  by  the 
dragoons  of  Colonel  Gardiner.  The  magistrates, 
indeed,  were  loyal,  and  the  castle  held  out  for  the  Sept.  17, 
King,  but  the  citizens  gladly  opened  their  gates  to  1745 
the  young  Stuart,  who  took  up  his  abode  in  the  A.D. 
palace  of  Holyrood. 

Cope,  meanwhile,  taking  ship  at  Aberdeen,  had  landed 
with  his  troops  at  Dunbar,  and  was  marching  on  Edinburgh 
from  the  east.  Charles,  reinforced  by  1000  clansmen,  moved 
out  to  meet  him,  and  the  two  armies  came  face  to  face  at 
Prestonpaus.  They  lay  for  a  night  round  their 
watchfires.  Before  the  dawn  of  the  next  morning,  Sept.  21. 
Charles  and  his  clansmen,  suddenly  crossing  a 
marsh  that  lay  between,  made  a  dash  at  the  English  lines  in 
true  Highland  style,  first  discharging  their  pistols,  and  then 
rushing  on  with  the  claymore.  The  surprise  was  complete : 
the  royal  troops  were  cut  to  pieces.  Their  artillery,  stores, 
and  money-chest  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  victors.  Among 
the  slain  was  Colonel  Gardiner,  distinguished  for  the  piety 
of  his  latter  days. 

If  Charles  had  then  pressed  on  to  London,  the  throne  of 
the  Guelphs  might  have  fallen.  But  his  ranks  were  thin, 
and  six  weeks  passed  before  he  could  muster  6000  men. 
During  these  six  weeks  royal  troops  poured  in  from  Flanders, 
and  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  marshalled  an  army  to  defend 
the  throne.  The  young  Pretender  spared  no  pains  to  please 
the  Scottish  people.  Night  after  night  the  ball-rooms  of 
Holyrood  were  filled  with  brilliant  crowds.  All  the  ladies 
of  Edinburgh  were  in  love  with  the  handsome  youth,  whose 
graceful  words  and  kind  looks  made  many  a  fair  cheek  blush 
with  pleasure. 

Entering  England  by  the  western  Border,  he  took  Carlisle 
in  three  days.    But  neither  there  nor  in  Manchester 
did  the  English  Jacobites,  as  he  had  expected,      °v>     ' 
flock  around  his  banner.      On  the  4th  of  December  he 


282  DEFEAT  OF  CHARLES  EDWARD. ' 

reached  Derby;  but  further  he  did  not  go.    Bickerings  and 
.  open  quarrels  among  the  Highland  chiefs  had  ham- 
Dec.  6,      pered  every  movement  of  the  array ;  but  now  they 
1 74  5     united  in  forcing  the  Pretender  to  retreat.   He  yield- 

A.D.       ed,  sorely  against  his  will,  and  the  backward  march 
began. 

With  dejected  hearts  and  a  hopeless  leader  the  army 
reached  the  Highlands,  followed  by  the  Duke  of  Cumber- 
land. A  slight  success  at  Falkirk,  where  he  defeated  Gene- 
ral Hawley,  roused  the  drooping  heart  of  Charles  for  a  time ; 
but,  after  three  months  of  inaction  among  the 
April  16,  Grampians,  he  was  finally  routed  by  Cumberland 
1746  on  Culloden  Moor,  nine  miles  from  Inverness. 

A.D.  About  one  in  the  clay  the  royal  guns  opened  on  the 
rebel  ranks.  The  right  wing  of  the  Highlanders 
answered  with  a  gallant  charge,  but  were  met  by  a  storm  of 
grape  and  musket-shot  so  terrible  that  few  reached  the  line 
of  English  bayonets.  On  the  left  the  Macdonalds,  who  stood 
gloomily  nursing  their  anger  at  being  deprived  of  the  post 
of  honour  on  the  right,  were  broken  and  cut  down  by  scores. 
In  less  than  an  hour  the  battle  was  fought  and  won. 

Charles  fled  to  the  mountains.  A  reward  of  £30,000  was 
offered  for  his  head ;  but  none  was  tempted,  even  by  so  great 
a  sum,  to  betray  his  hiding-place.  For  five  mouths  he 
wandered  among  the  Grampians  and  the  Hebrides,  often 
suffering  from  want,  always  hunted  by  his  foes ;  but  followed 
even  in  his  misery  by  a  devoted  few,  among  whom  was  the 
fair  and  courageous  Flora  Macdonald.  And,  at  length, 
almost  at  the  very  spot  where,  fourteen  months  before,  fresh 
from  the  most  brilliant  Court  in  Europe,  he  had  leapt  on  to 
the  heathery  shore  with  the  elastic  step  of  hope,  he  crept 
into  a  hired  French  boat,  a  wretched  spectre,  pale  and 
haggard,  with  bloodshot  eyes  and  ragged  clothes. 
Sept.  29.  Though  chased  by  two  English  cruisers,  he  landed 
safely  at  Morlaix  in  Bretagne.  About  eighty  suf- 
fered death  for  their  devotion  to  his  cause,  among  whom 
were  the  Scottish  Lords  Kilmarnock  and  Balmerino.  The 
clansmen  were  forbidden  to  wear  the  Highland  dress,  the 
chieftains  were  stripped  of  nearly  all  their  ancient  power, 
and  the  appointment  of  the  sheriffs — long  a  hereditary  office 

— wa.s  rested  in  the  Crown. 


'  THE  GKEAT  COMMONEK.'  283 

Charles  Edward  spent  his  latter  days  at  Koine,  under  the 
title  of  Duke  of  Albany.  Though  the  Jacobites  long  con- 
tinued the  custom  of  passing  their  glasses  over  the  water- 
decanter,  as  they  drank  to  the  '  King  over  the  water,'  the 
Forty-five  was  the  last  effort  of  the  exiled  family  to  regain 
the  British  throne.  The  gallant  young  soldier,  of  whom  so 
much  has  been  said  and  sung,  sank  in  later  life  into  a  bro- 
ken-down drunkard.  He  died  of  apoplexy  in  1788:  and 
nineteen  years  later  died  his  brother  Henry,  Cardinal  of 
York,  the  last  male  heir  of  the  Stuart  line.  On  a  monument 
by  Canova,  in  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  may  still  be  read  three 
empty  titles,  not  found  in  the  roll  of  British  Kings — James 
III.,  Charles  III.,  Henry  IX.  Beneath  the  marble  the  bones 
of  Charles  Edward  and  his  brother  have  long  since  mould- 
ered into  dust. 

The  war,  still  lingering  on  the  Continent,  was  brought  to 
a  close  by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  by  which  the  rival 
nations  agreed  to  restore  their  conquests.    When 
the  army  was  disbanded,  a  great  number  of  dis-     1748 
charged  soldiers  emigrated  to  Nova  Scotia,  where       A.D. 
they  built  the  city  of  Halifax. 

During  these  events  William  Pitt,  'the  Great  Commoner,' 
had  been  fast  rising  to  the  head  of  affairs.  His  grandfather 
was  that  Governor  of  Madras  who  had  brought  from  India 
the  celebrated  Pitt  diamond,  still  sparkling  on  the  crown  of 
France.  William  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  for  a  short 
time  served  as  a  cornet  in  the  Life  Guards  Blue.  But, 
entering  the  House  of  Commons  in  1735  as  member  for  Old 
Sarum,  he  soon  became  so  troublesome  to  the  Ministry  that 
Walpole  dismissed  him  from  the  army.  Thenceforward  he 
devoted  himself  to  politics.  He  gained  the  favour  of  the 
Prince  of  Wales,  and  under  the  Pelhams  became  Paymaster 
of  the  Forces.  As  a  statesman,  he  was  distinguished  for  his 
hatred  of  bribery  and  his  honest  disbursement  of  the  public 
money.  He  was  a  complete  master  of  sarcasm ;  and  often 
in  a  few  scorching  words,  delivered  with  thundering  voice 
and  rapid  gesture  and  flashing  eye,  he  withered  up  the 
arguments  of  some  unhappy  member  who  had  ventured  to 
confront  him.  He  was  tormented  from  his  earliest  man- 
lood  by  the  gout,  and  some  of  his  finest  speeches  were 


284  CONQUEST  OF  BENGAL. 

delivered  as  he  leant  on  crutches  with  limbs  cased  in 
flannel. 

The  Seven  Years'  War  opened  under  the  administration 
of  the  Duke  of  Newcastle.    It  was  excited  by  the 
1756     ambition  of  Frederic  the  Great,  who  still  held  Sile- 
A.r>.       sia.    Maria  Theresa  obtained  the  aid  of  France, 
Russia,  and  Poland ;  while  Britain  formed  an  alli- 
ance with  Prussia.     Out  of  the  great  Seven  Years'  War 
grew  a  Colonial  War  between  Great  Britain  and  France. 
The  boundary  lines  of  their  colonies  were  the  subject  of  dis- 
pute.   India  and  America  were  the  theatres  of  the  strife. 

In  the  autumn  of  1756  Pitt  became  Secretary  of  State 
and  leader  of  the  Commons.  During  the  five  months  of  his 
ministry,  Admiral  Byng  was  tried  and  shot  for  failing  to 
retake  the  island  of  Minorca,  which  had  been  seized  by  the 
French.  Pitt  spoke  out  manfully  for  the  Admiral,  but  could 
not  save  him.  When  'the  Great  Commoner,'  who  was  no 
favourite  with  the  King,  was  dismissed,  so  great  a  cry  of 
indignation  arose  that  he  was  at  once  restored  to  office ; 
and  then  began  that  succession  of  victories  by  which  Bri- 
tain became  pre-eminent  in  both  hemispheres. 

On  the  peninsula  of  Hindostan  there  were  trading  colonies 
of  British,  French,  Dutch,  and  Portuguese.  Of  these  the 
British  settlements  were  the  chief.  Dupleix,  the  Governor 
of  Pondicherry,  the  central  station  of  the  French,  formed 
the  gigantic  scheme  of  conquering  all  India,  and  resolutely 
set  himself,  with  the  aid  of  the  native  princes,  to  uproot  the 
British  settlements.  Holding  Madras,  which  had  been 
lately  captured  by  the  French,  he  soon  overran  the  whole 
Carnatic.  But  the  tide  of  conquest  was  turned  by  Clive, 
who,  entering  the  Company's  service  at  first  as  a  clerk,  had 
joined  the  army  as  an  ensign  in  1746,  and  soon  distinguished 
himself  by  the  capture  of  Arcot.  By  the  seizure  of  Fort  St. 
David,  near  Madras,  he  obtained  the  complete  command  of 
the  Carnatic.  The  conquest  of  Bengal  was  his  most  remark- 
able achievement.  It  was  Surajah  Dowlah,  Viceroy  of  Ben- 
gal, who  shut  up  146  British  prisoners  for  a  whole  night  in 
the  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta, — a  den  twenty  feet  by  four- 
teen; from  which  only  23  came  out  alive  on  the  next 
morning.  This  cruelty  was  avenged  by  Clive,  who  utterly 


FALL  OF  QUEBEC.  285 

overthrew  the  Viceroy  in  the  great  battle  of  Plassey, 
and  thus  gained  for  Britain  the  large  and  fertile     1757 
province  of  Bengal,  watered  by  the  noble  Ganges      A.D. 
and  studded  with  a  thousand  wealthy  cities. 

In  North  America  the  French  held  Canada  while  the 
British  settlers  possessed  the  coast  of  that  territory  now 
called  the  United  States.    The  natural  boundary  between 
the  settlements  was  formed  by  the  St.  Lawrence  and  its 
Lakes.     But  the  French  insisted  on  building  a  chain  of 
forts  from  the  Lakes  to  the  Mississippi,  thus  to  shut  out 
the  British  from  the  fur-trade  with  Indian  tribes.     The  New 
England  colonists,  naturally  resenting  this  injustice,  made 
several  attacks  on  the  French  forts,  but  with  little  succesa 
However,  under  the  able  direction  of  Pitt,  a  re- 
markable change  took  place.    Fort  after  fort  fell,       Sept. 
or  was  abandoned,  until  the  capture  of  Quebec,     1759 
before  which  General  Wolfe  was  mortally  wounded,       A.D. 
left  the  British  masters  of  Canada. 

The  year  1759  was  also  distinguished  by  a  victory  over  the 
French  at  Minden  in  Germany ;  and  by  the  total  destruction 
of  the  Brest  fleet  by  Admiral  Hawke,  who  gained  a 
splendid  victory  amid  the  darkness  of  a  stormy  night  off 
the  rocky  shore  of  Bretagne. 

On  the  morning  of  the  25th  of  October  1760  George  II. 
died  suddenly  of  heart-disease.  He  had  in  all  eight  children. 
His  eldest  son,  Frederic,  Prince  of  Wales,  who  had  married 
in  1736  Augusta  of  Saxe-Gotha,  was  killed  in  1751,  at  the 
age  of  forty-four,  by  the  stroke  of  a  cricket-ball,  and  left  nine 
children.  George  III.  was  the  eldest  son  of  this  prince. 

The  second  George  was  very  like  his  father  in  his  temper 
and  his  attachments.  He  was  fond  of  the  Whiga ;  and, 
while  he  was  always  niggardly  towards  his  kingdom,  he 
spared  neither  British  blood  nor  British  gold  in  securing  and 
enlarging  his  Electorate  of  Hanover.  Science,  art,  and  litera- 
ture were  left  by  him  to  thrive  as  best  they  could ;  and  he 
was  more  than  once  heard  to  growl  in  his  German  accent, 
that  he  saw  no  good  in  'bainting  and  boetry.'  He  was  of 
a  fair  complexion,  and  ol  a  small  but  well-shaped  figure. 

A  remarkable  chango  of  this  reign  was  the  adoption  of  the 
Gregorian,  or  Now  St\le  of  reckoning  tirnc.  The  time-keep- 


286  CUSTOMS  OF  EARLY  BRUNSWICK  REIGNS. 

ing  of  the  nation  had  gone,  as  we  say  of  a  clock,  too  fast ; 
and,  to  set  it  right,  eleven  days  were  struck  out  of  the  year 
1752,  the  3d  of  September  being  reckoned  as  the  14th  of 
September.  Pope  Gregory  had  made  the  change  in  Italy  in 
1582.  Hence  in  our  almanacs  we  have  Hallow-eve  and  Old 
Hallow-eve,  Christmas-day  and  old  Christmas-day.  The 
Russians  still  reckon  time  by  the  Old  Style. 

In  1731  the '  Gentleman's  Magazine'  was  started  by  Edward 
Cave,  a  bookseller;  in  1753  the  British  Museum  was 
founded ;  and  in  1758  the  first  canal  was  made  in  England. 

From  the  days  of  Queen  Anne  until  after  the  accession  of 
George  III.,  the  gentlemen  wore  coats  of  silk  or  velvet  with 
broad  stiffened  skirts,  long  waistcoats  with  flaps  reaching 
over  the  leg  half  way  to  the  knee,  three-cornered  cocked 
hats,  knee-breeches,  and  high-heeled  shoes  with  buckles 
sometimes  sparkling  with  diamonds,  but  oftener  with  stones 
of  paste.  Both  sexes  wore  powder  in  their  hair.  The  most 
remarkable  part  of  the  ladies'  costume  was  the  hoop,  an 
article  of  dress  which  needs  no  description  in  our  day.  A 
curious  custom  was  that  of  spotting  the  face  over  with 
patches  of  black  plaster :  in  the '  Citizen  of  the  World,'  Gold- 
smith's Chinaman  speaks  of  sending  to  his  friend  a  map 
of  an  English  face,  patched  according  to  the  fashion.  The 
Sedan-chair  was  the  favourite  mode  of  conveyance,  and  link- 
boys  went  before  with  lighted  torches  to  show  the  way  along 
the  streets,  which  were  lighted  only  by  the  feeble  glimmer 
of  a  few  oil  lamps.  A  row  of  stakes,  fixed  far  from  one 
another,  formed  the  only  division  between  the  carriage-road 
and  the  foot-way  ;  and  in  winter  every  passing  coach 
splashed  the  black  liquid  mud  far  and  wide.  Every  gentle- 
man wore  a  sword,  and  duels  were  of  daily  occurrence. 
Gaming  was  the  great  vice  of  the  age.  Gentlemen  gambled 
in  their  clubs,  ladies  in  their  drawing-rooms  ;  and  it  was 
no  uncommon  thing  to  lose  or  win  £10,000  in  a  night  at 
cards  or  dice.  People  of  fashion  dined  at  three  or  four,  and 
their  evening  began  at  seven.  Besides  card-drums  and  balls, 
there  were  Assembly  Rooms  at  Ranelagh  and  Vauxhall, 
where  they  met  to  promenade  and  dance  minuets  to  the 
music  of  a  band. 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


287 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


FRANCE.  AI>- 

LOUIS  XV. 

SPAIN. 

PHILIP  VI died  1746 

FERDINAND  VI., 1759 

CHARLES  HI. 

SWEDEN. 

ULRICA  LEONORA, 1751 

ADOLPHUS  FREDERIC. 

RUSSIA. 

CATHERINE  I., -1727 

PETER  II., 1730 

IVAN  VI., 1741 

ELIZABETH. 


PRUSSIA.  •*•»• 

FREDERIC  WILLIAM,  I.  d.  1740 
FREDERIC  H.,  (the  Great). 

TURKEY. 

ACHMETni., 1730 

MOHAMMED  V., 1757 

ACHMET  IV. 

EMPERORS. 

CHARLES  VI., 1740 

CHARLES  VII., 1745 

FRANCIS  I.  and      ) 
MARIA  THERESA,  j 

POPES. 

BENEDICT  XIII., 1730 

CLEMENT  XII., 1740 

BENEDICT  XIV., 1758 

CLEMENT  XIII. 


LEADING  AUTHORS  UNDER  GEORGE  II. 


DANIEL  DEFOE,. 


ALEXANDER  POPE,. 


JONATHAN  SWIFT,. 


JAMES  THOMSON,. 


.(1661-1731)— originally  a  London  hosier 
— a  newspaper  writer — wrote  also 
prose  fiction — chief  work,  '  Robinson 
Crusoe,'  published  in  1719. 

.(1688-1744)— the  son  of  a  London  linen- 
draper — wrote  good  verses  at  twelve 
— chief  works,  '  The  Rape  of  the 
Lock, '  a  short  mock-heroic  poem ;  and 
a  translation  of  Homer  into  English 
verse — lived  chiefly  at  Twickenham 
on  the  Thames— deformed,  sickly,  and 
peevish. 

..(1667-1745)— Dean  of  St.  Patrick's, 
Dublin — an  eminent  political  writer 
— chief  work,  '  Gulliver's  Travels ' — 
wrote  verses  also — very  sarcastic- 
died  mad. 

..(1700-1748)— a  poet  of  Roxburghshire 
— chief  works,  '  The  Seasons,'  in 
blank  verse ;  and  the  '  Castle  of  In- 
dolence,' in  the  Spenserian  stanza- 
wrote  tragedies  also. 


288  LEADING  AUTHORS. 

JOSEPH  BUTLER, (1692-1752)  -born  in  Berkshire-Bishop 

of  Durham — chief  work,  'The  Ana- 
logy of  Religion,  to  Nature,'  still  a 
standard  work. 

AT/LAM  RAMSAY, (1686-1758)— a  native  of  Lanarkshire- 
chief  work,  '  The  Gentle  Shepherd,' 
a  pastoral  drama. 

LEADING  ARTIST. 

SIR  JAMES  THORNHILL,... (1676-1732)— born  at  Weymouth-the 
painter  of  the  Dome  of  St.  Paul's 
and  some  cartoons  in  Hampton 
Court — State-painter  to  Anne  and 
Ctoorge  I 


PROSECUTION  OF  WILKES. 


289 


CHAPTER  III. 

GEORGE  III. 
Born  1738  A.D.— Began  to  reign  1760  A.D.— Died  1820  A.D. 


The  Family  Compact. 
The  Peace  of  Paris. 
John  Wilkes. 
The  Stamp  Act. 
Other   Taxes    on  Ame- 
rica. 
Parliamentary  Reports. 

The  Congress. 
Bunker's-hill. 
Invasion  of  Canada. 
The  Fourth  of  July. 
Brandywine  River. 
Surrender  of  Burgoyne. 
Desertion  of  Arnold. 

Surrender  of  Cornwall! 
The  Thirteen  States. 
Siege  of  Gibraltar. 
Gordon  Kiots. 
Voyages  of  Cook. 
Trial  of  Hastings. 
Indian  Conquests. 

GEORGE  III.  ascended  a  glorious  throne.  Through  the 
energy  and  foresight  of  the  Great  Commoner  Britain  had 
become  the  first  nation  in  the  world. 

The  Sovereigns  of  France  and  Spain,  both  of  the  Bourbon 
line,  leagued  themselves  against  Britain  by  the  Family  Com- 
pact. Pitt  knew  of  this  secret  treaty,  and  urged  immediate 
war  with  Spain.  His  plans  being  over-ruled  on  the  ground 
of  an  exhausted  Treasury,  he  resigned  office  in  disgust,  re- 
ceiving as  rewards  of  his  public  service  a  pension  of  .£3000 
a  year,  and  the  title  of  Baroness  for  his  wife.  The  Earl  of 
Bute,  once  tutor  to  the  King,  became  Premier.  As  Pitt  had 
foretold,  Spain  declared  war.  But  Spain  lost  Havannah 
and  Manilla ;  France  was  stripped  of  her  finest  West  In- 
dian islands  ;  and  both  soon  sought  for  peace.  A 
treaty  was  signed  at  Paris,  and  in  the  same  year  1763 
the  Seven  Years'  War  was  closed  by  the  peace  of  A.D. 
Hubertsburg. 

Bute  soon  gave  place  to  the  Hon.  George  Grenville, 
whose  ministry  is  remarkable  for  the  prosecution  of  John 
Wilkes. 

Wilkes,  the  member  for  Aylesbury,  was  the  editor  of  a 
weekly  paper  called  '  The  North  Briton.'  In  No.  45  of  thia 
publication  he  charged  the  King  with  uttering  a  lie  in  a 
speech  from  the  throne.  Arrested  on  a  general  warrant,  he 
was  thrown  into  the  Tower.  But  there  was  great  difficulty 
about  his  trial.  The  Judges  declared  that  no  member  of 
Parliament  could  be  imprisoned  except  for  treason,  felony, 

(32) 


290  THE  STAMP  ACT. 

or  breach  of  the  peace,  and  that  general  warrants,  in  which 
no  name  was  given,  were  illegal.  Notwithstanding  this,  he 
was  found  guilty  of  libel,  and  was  outlawed 

Returning  from  France  in  1768,  he  was  elected  for  Mid- 
dlesex by  a  large  majority.  But  the  House  of  Commons 
refused  to  admit  him ;  and,  though  his  sentence  of  outlawry 
was  reversed,  he  was  sent  to  prison  for  two  years.  There 
were  great  riots  in  his  favour  :  pictures  and  busts  of  him 
were  sold  everywhere.  Four  times  did  the  men  of  Middlesex 
return  him  to  Parliament,  and  as  often  did  the  House  of 
Commons  reject  him,  accepting  in  his  stead  his  rival,  Colonel 
Luttrell.  But  in  the  end  he  triumphed,  was  allowed  to  take 
his  seat,  and  became  Lord  Mayor  of  London.  It  was  during 
these  stirring  times  that  the  famous  'Letters  of  Junius,' 
directed  chiefly  against  the  Duke  of  Grafton,  appeared  in 
the  newspapers. 

Meanwhile  events  had  occurred  which  led  to  the  great 

American  War.     Grenville,  desirous  to  meet  the 

1765     cost  of  the  last  war,  proposed  to  tax  certain  papers 

A.D.  and  .parchments  used  in  America  ;  and  the  Stamp 
Act  was  therefore  passed.  The  colonists,  most  of 
whom  were  descendants  of  those  old  Puritans  who  had 
beheaded  Charles  I.  and  reared  the  Commonwealth,  firmly 
replied,  that,  since  they  had  no  share  in  the  government  of 
the  Empire,  no  members  in  the  British  Parliament,  they 
would  pay  no  taxes  to  Britain  and  buy  no  stamped  paper. 

Grenville  at  once  resigned,  and,  under  the  brief  ministry 
of  the  Marquis  of  Rockingham,  the  Stamp  Act  was  repealed ; 
but  the  right  to  tax  the  Colonies  was  still  maintained.  The 
Duke  of  Grafton,  and  Pitt,  now  Earl  of  Chatham,  were  next 
called  to  office  ;  and,  in  spite  of  the  warnings  of  the  great 
statesman,  new  taxes — on  tea,  lead,  glass,  paper,  and  paint- 
ers' colours— were  laid  on  the  Colonies,  whose  discontent 
grew  hourly  greater.  In  1768  Chatham  gave  up  the  Privy 
Seal,  for  his  health  was  failing,  and  he  missed,  amid  the 
calm  monotony  of  the  Lords,  that  stirring  excitement  of 
debate  in  which  his  genius  gave  forth  its  finest 
1770  flashes.  Two  y<ws  later,  the  Duke  of  Grafton  gave 

A.D.       place  to  Lord  North,  a  Tory  Premier,  under  whom 
chiefly  the  American  War  was  conducted. 


OUTBREAK  OF  THE  AMERICAN  WAR.  291 

The  public  mind  was  now  stirred  by  a  strife  between  Par- 
liament and  the  London  printers,  about  the  right  to  publish 
the  debates  in  the  Houses.  Woodfall,  who  had  printed  the 
'  Letters  of  Junius,'  took  a  lead  in  demanding  the  right ;  and, 
by  the  support  of  the  magistrates,  the  printers  gained  their 
point.  The  practice  then  adopted  was,  not  to  report  in 
short-hand  as  at  present,  but  to  take  brief  notes,  and  then 
write  out  the  speeches  from  memory. 

Lord  North  still  sent  out  taxed  tea  to  America  ;  but  the 
resistance  of  the  States,  among  which  Massachusetts  was 
foremost,  yielded  not  a  jot.  Some  twenty  daring  spirits, 
dressed  and  painted  like  Indians,  boarded  the  ships  which 
lay  in  Boston  Harbour,  and  emptied  the  tea-chests  into  the 
sea.  The  British  Government  then  shut  up  the  port  of 
Boston,  and  removed  the  Custom-house  to  Salem.  Mean- 
while in  London  the  famous  Dr.  Franklin,  once  a  printer's 
boy,  strove  vainly  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation. 

All  the  States  except  Georgia,  meeting  in  a  Great  Con- 
gress at  Philadelphia,  sent  forward  an  address  to 
the  King,  in  which  they  asked  that  the  oppressive     1774 
taxes    should   be    removed.     The    petition    was       A.D. 
slighted ;  but  wise  men  shook  their  heads.    Cha- 
tham told  the  Lords  that  it  was  folly  to  force  the  taxes  in 
the  face  of  a  Continent  in  arms.    Edmund  Burke  bade  the 
Commons  beware  lest  they  severed  those  ties  of  similar 
privilege  and  kindred  blood,  which,  light  as  air,  though 
strong  as  iron,  bound  the  Colonies  to  the  mother-land.    The 
Ministers  were  deaf  to  these  eloquent  warnings,  and  blind 
to  the  gathering  storm.    British  soldiers  continued  to  occupy 
Boston. 

Then,  after  ten  years  of  wordy  strife,  actual  war  began. 
It  continued  during  eight  campaigns. 

The  first  outbreak  was  at  Lexington,  where  a  few  April  19, 
American  riflemen  attacked  a  detachment  of  Bri-    1775 
tish  soldiers,  who  were  marching  to  seize  some     A.D. 
warlike  stores.    Two  months  later,  the  armies  met 
in   battle  on   Bunker's-hill, — a    height    overlook-    June  17. 
ing  Boston  harbour.     It  was  a  drawn  battle  ;  but 
it  taught  the  British  troops  that  the  Colonists  were  not  to 
be  despised.    George  Washington  then  took  the  chief  com- 


202  SURRENDER  OF  BURGOYNE. 

mand  of  the  American  army,  whose  ranks  were  filled  with 
raw  militia-men  and  leather-clad  hunters ;  stout  and  brave, 
no  doubt,  and  capital  shots  with  the  rifle,  but  undrilled  and 
badly  equipped,  with  few  tents,  scanty  stores,  and  little 
money.  At  Boston,  as  head-quarters,  lay  the  British  army, 
under  General  Gage,  who  was  succeeded  in  October  by 
General  Howe.  The  second  remarkable  event  of  this  cam- 
paign was  the  fruitless  invasion  of  Canada  by  the  American 
leaders,  Montgomery  and  Arnold.  Montreal  fell  before 
General  Montgomery.  Colonel  Arnold,  marching  through 
the  wild  backwoods  of  Maine,  joined  him  before  Quebec. 
But  they  were  beaten  back  from  that  fortress,  and  Mont- 
gomery was  slain.  Meanwhile  17,000  Hessian  troops  had 
been  called  from  Germany  to  aid  the  British  arms.  The 
royal  forces  in  America  now  numbered  55,000  men. 
Early  in  the  second  campaign,  Howe  was  compelled,  by 
the  cannon  of  the  Americans,  to  evacuate  Boston 

1776  ancl  to  sail  for  Halifax;  and  then  was  issued,  by 
A.D.       the  Congress  at  Philadelphia,  that   famous  and 

eloquent  document  called '  The  Declaration  of  Inde- 
July  4.  pendence.'  But  the  British  were  well  compensated 

for  the  disasters  of  March  by  the  triumphs  of 

August,  when  General  Howe,  reinforced  by  his  brother, 

seized  Long  Island,  drove  Washington  from  New  York,  and 

planted  the  British  flag  on  its  batteries. 

At  the  opening  of  the  third  campaign,  aid  in  men  and 

money  came  from  France  to  the  Americans.    Of 

1777  the  French  officers,  the  most  distinguished  was  the 
A.D.       young  Marquis  de  La  Fayette.     A  victory  at  the 

Brandywine  River  and  the  capture  of  Philadelphia 
raised  hopes  in  Britain  that  the  subdual  of  the  Colonies 
was  not  far  distant.  But  a  great  humiliation  changed  all 
these  hopes  into  fears.  General  Burgoyne,  marching  from 
Canada,  was  so  hemmed  in  by  the  American  troops  at  Sara- 
toga, that  he  was  forced  to  surrender  with  all  his  brass 
rnnnon,  muskets,  and  military  stores.  Thenceforward, 
through  five  campaigns  America  had  decidedly  the  best  of 
the  war. 

During  the  winter  the  soldiers  of  Washington  were  shoe- 
less and  starving  in  Valley  Forge  near  Philadelphia ;  but, 


AMERICAN  INDEPENDENCE  ACKNOWLEDGED.  293 

inspired  by  the  noble  patience  of  their  leader,  they  bore 
bravely  on.    The  fourth  campaign  did  not  open  till     -1770 
June.    Howe  had  been  succeeded  meanwhile  by 
Sir  Henry  Clinton,  who  soon  abandoned  the  city  of       A-lx 
Philadelphia,  in  which  the  British  army  had  passed  the 
winter.     It  was  during  this  year  that  the  venerable  Cha- 
tham, while  thundering  in  spite  of  age  and  illness  against 
the  American  War,  fell  in  a  fit  on  the  floor  of  the  House  of 
Lords,  and  was  carried  to  a  bed  whence  he  never  rose. 

No  event  of  note  marked  the  fifth  campaign,  which  was 
conducted  chiefly  in  the  southern  States. 

In  the  sixth,  Sir  Henry  Clinton  took  Charleston.    Arnold, 
commander  of  a  fort  on  the  Hudson  River,  de- 
serted, and  became  a  General  in  the  British  ser-     1780 
vice.    Major  Andre,  who  had  arranged  the  affair,       A.D. 
being   seized    by    the    American    sentinels,    was 
hanged  as  a  spy  by  Washington,  in  spite  of  many  entreaties. 

During  the  seventh  campaign  occurred  a  second  great 
disaster  of  the  British  arms.    Lord  Cornwallis,  the 
conqueror  of  Gates  and  La  Fayette,  was,  by  the     1781 
skilful   movements    of  Washington,  shut  up  in       A.D. 
Yorktown  and  compelled  to  surrender  with  7000 
men.    This  was  the  decisive  blow;  and,  although  the  war 
lingered  through  another  campaign,  the  American  Colonies 
were  now  completely  severed  from  the  British  Empire.    The 
independence  of  the  Thirteen  United  States  was 
after  some  time  formally  acknowledged  by  treaty;     1783 
and   they  became  a  Republic,  governed  by  an       A.D. 
elected  President. 

During  the  latter  years  of  the  American  War  Britain  was 
engaged  in  a  strife  nearer  home,  which  taxed  her  strength 
to  the  utmost.  France,  Spain,  and  Holland  were  in  arms 
against  her.  Russia,  Sweden,  and  Denmark  had  formed  an 
Armed  Neutrality;  which  means,  in  plain  English,  that  they 
were  ready  to  pounce  upon  her  when  they  saw  an  opportu- 
nity fit  and  safe.  But,  even  against  such  fearful  odds,  she 
triumphed.  The  chief  event  of  the  war  was  the  unsuccess- 
ful siege  of  Gibraltar  for  three  years  by  the  French  and 
Spaniards,  (1779-1782.) 

In  1780  London  was  convulsed  by  the  Gordon  riots.    Two 


294  DISCOVERIES  OF  COOK. 

years  earlier  some  heavy  penal  laws  against  Romanists  had 
been  repealed.  In  June  1780  Lord  George  Gordon,  escorted 
by  an  immense  mob,  went  to  the  House  of  Commons  to  pre- 
Bent  a  petition  against  the  removal  of  these  laws.  The  peti- 
tion was  rejected,  and  a  riot  began.  Romanist  chapels  were 
burned.  Newgate  and  other  jails  were  stormed,  and  the 
prisoners  set  free.  For  a  week  the  mob  held  London  streets, 
nor  did  they  yield  to  the  sabres  and  bullets  of  the  soldiers 
until  more  than  400  had  been  killed.  Lord  George  was  sent 
to  the  Tower,  and  tried ;  but  he  was  acquitted.  It  is  said 
that  he  afterwards  became  a  Jew. 

While  civil  war,  as  it  may  be  called,  was  snapping  the 
ties  between  Britain  and  the  New  England  States,  the  dis- 
coveries of  Captain  James  Cook  were  adding  largely  to  the 
British  Empire  in  another  quarter  of  the  globe.  This  cele- 
brated sailor,  whom  we  may  well  call  the  founder  of  our 
great  Australian  Colonies,  was  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1728. 
Between  the  years  1767  and  1779  he  made  three  voyages 
round  the  world,  exploring  especially  the  South  Seas  and 
the  coast  of  Australia.  He  was  killed  in  1779  at  Owhyhee, 
by  the  spear  of  a  treacherous  native. 

In  1783  William  Pitt  the  younger,  son  of  the  Earl  of 
Chatham,  became,  at  the  age  of  twenty-three,  Chancellor  of 
the  Exchequer  and  Prime  Minister.  There  had  never  been 
so  young  a  Premier,  and  few  have  been  so  good.  He  had 
been  already  three  years  in  Parliament, 

Our  Indian  Empire  was  rapidly  enlarging.  The  capture 
of  Pondicherry  in  1761  had  ruined  the  French  cause  in 
Hindostan.  Warren  Hastings,  who  in  1750  had  left  Eng- 
land, at  the  age  of  seventeen,  as  a  clerk  in  the  Company's 
service,  was  in  1773  appointed  the  first  Governor-General  of 
India,  His  chief  victories  were  over  the  Mahrattas  of  Cen- 
tral India,  and  the  Mohammedan  Rajahs  of  Mysore— Hyder 
Ali  and  his  son  Tippoo  Saib.  But  the  plunder  of  Benares, 
a  sacred  Hindoo  city  on  the  Ganges,  and  the  spoliation  of 
the  Princesses  of  Oude,  that  he  might  have  money  to  carry 
on  these  vars,  are  dark  stains  on  his  administration,  and 
excited  so  much  indignation  in  England,  that  on  his  return 
he  was  impeached  before  the  Lords  for  cruelty  and  oppres- 
sion in  India. 


TRIAL  OF  HASTINGS.  295 

The  trial  took  place  iu  Westminster  Hall.    Edmund  Burke 
led  the  impeachment  in  a  speech,  that  has  seldom 
been    surpassed    for  stately  eloquence.      Charles    Feb.  13, 
James  Fox  and  Richard  Brinsley  Sheridan  followed     1788 
on  the  same  side.    The  culprit  was  defended  by       A.D. 
three  lawyers,  who  afterwards  worthily  wore  the 
ermine  of  the  Bench.    For  seven  years  the  trial  went  on 
at  intervals,  and  ended  in  the  acquittal  of  Hastings,  whom, 
however,  it  left  nearly  penniless.    His  last  days  were  spent 
at  Daylesford — an  old  family  seat — in  the  enjoyment  of  a 
pension  of  .£4000  from  the  East  India  Company. 

Lord  Cornwallis,  who  was  made  Governor-General  in 
1786,  stripped  Tippoo  of  half  his  dominions;  and  under  the 
Marquis  of  Wellesley  in  1799  Seringapatam  was  taken, 
Tippoo  Saib  slain,  and  the  throne  of  Hyder  Ali  finally  over- 
turned. Four  years  later,  the  Mahrattas,  who  had  seized 
Delhi,  were  routed  on  the  banks  of  the  Jumna  by  General 
Lake,  and  the  Great  Mogul  became  a  pensioner  of  the 
Company. 


296  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION. 

CHAPTER  TV. 

GEORGE  IIL — (CONTINUED.) 


The  French  Revolution. 
Kise  of  Napoleon  I. 
Mutiny  at  the  Nore. 
Irish  Rebellion. 
The  Nile. 
Union  of  Ireland 
Trafalgar. 

Peninsular  War. 
Corunna. 
Walclieren  Expedition. 
The  Regency. 
Napoleon  in  Russia. 
Vittoria. 
War  with  United  States. 

Escape  of  Napoleon. 
Plans  of  the  Alliea 
Waterloo. 
The  National  Debt. 
Algiers  Bombarded. 
Death  of  the  King. 
Notes. 

THE  French  Revolution,  which  began  in  1789  and  ended  in 
1795,  was  the  greatest  event  of  the  eighteenth  century.  It 
was  excited  chiefly  by  three  causes, — the  infidel  writings  of 
Voltaire  and  Rousseau,  the  oppression  of  the  lower  orders 
by  insolent  nobles,  and  the  want  of  money  consequent  on 
the  reckless  extravagance  of  the  French  Court.  During  its 
progress  the  ancient  Bourbon  monarchy  was  overturned;  the 
King  and  the  Queen— Louis  XVI.  sind  Marie  Antoinette- 
were  guillotined;  the  Christian  faith  was  trampled  under 
foot,  and  a  goddess  of  Reason  set  up  for  worship ;  and  all 
France  was  drenched  in  blood.  The  storm  spread  far  and 
wide  over  Continental  Europe,  and  beat  strongly,  though 
harmlessly,  against  our  island-shores. 

The  attack  of  the  French  mobs  upon  hereditary  monarchy 

alarmed  all  the  great  neighbouring  thrones,  and, 

1793     when  the  blood  of  Louis  stained  the  scaffold,  war 

A.D.       was  declared  against  the  new  French  Republic  by 

Britain,  Holland,  Spain,  Austria,  Prussia,  and  five 

smaller  states.     The  strife,  then  kindled,  continued  with 

little  interruption  for  twenty-two  years. 

It  was  soon  manifest  that  the  energies  of  France  had  been 
braced  rather  than  exhausted  by  the  hurricane  of  Revolu- 
tion. Toulon,  a  strong  fortress  of  the  Mediterranean  shore, 
having  surrendered  to  a  British  fleet,  was  retaken  by  the 
cannon  of  the  Republic,  directed  chiefly  by  a  little  Corsican 
officer  of  artillery  called  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  who  had 
been  much  distinguished  for  mathematics  in  the  military 
schools. 

Napoleon  became  conspicuous  in  France  from  the  day  on 


ST.  VINCENT  A.NU  CAMPERDOWN.  297 

tvhich  he  scattered  the  National  Guard  with  a  volley  of 
grape-shot  before  the  Palace  of  the  Tuileries,  ami  thus  saved 
the  French  Directory.  That  day  was  the  4th  of  October 
1795.  In  the  following  year  he  married  Josephine  Beau- 
harnois,  by  whose  influence  he  gained  the  command  of  the 
French  army  in  Italy ;  and  there,  in  a  single  campaign,  by  a 
scries  of  most  brilliant  victories,  he  broke  the  power  of 
Austria  and  her  Allies. 

lu  the  British  Parliament  Pitt  was  earnestly  urging  the 
prosecution  of  the  war  at  all  risks.  Fox,  his  great  oppo- 
nent, cried  eloquently  for  peace,  and  pointed  to  the  National 
Debt,  which  was  now  more  than  four  hundred  millions. 

In  1797  Spain  declared  war  against  Britain.  Holland 
had  already  deserted  her  alliance.  She  stood  alone  among 
the  Powers  of  Europe.  It  was  a  time  of  great  gloom  and  dis- 
tress; which  grew  deeper  when  the  Bank  of  England  stopped 
cash  payments,  and  a  dangerous  mutiny  broke  out  in  the 
royal  navy.  The  seamen  demanded  more  pay.  At  Spithead 
they  were  easily  pacified ;  but  at  the  Norc  the  mutineers 
seized  the  ships,  and  anchored  them  across  the  Thames,  in 
order  to  shut  up  the  mouth  of  the  river.  The  men  did  not 
return  to  their  duty  until  the  ringleaders  were  arrested  and 
hanged.  But  two  great  naval  victories  relieved  the  gloom 
of  the  year.  In  February  off  Cape  St.  Vincent  Admiral 
Jervis  and  Commodore  Nelson,  with  twenty-one  sail,  de- 
feated thirty-two  Spanish  ships  of  war.  In  October  the 
ships  of  Holland  were  scattered  by  Admiral  Duncan  off  the 
Dutch  village  of  Camperdown. 

The  following  year  was  noted  for  the  Irish  rebellion,  and 
Napoleon's  invasion  of  Egypt. 

In  no  part  of  Europe  did  the  evil  example  of  the  French 
Revolution  bear  more  bitter  fruit  than  in  Ireland.  In  1780 
the  Volunteers,  influenced  by  the  success  of  the  American 
Colonists,  banded  themselves  together  to  secure  the  reform  of 
Parliament,  and  the  emancipation  of  the  Irish  Romanists 
from  penal  laws.  They  were  disbanded  by  the  skilful  policy 
of  the  Government.  In  1791  at  Belfast  another  society, 
called  4  The  United  Irishmen,'  was  formed  under  the  same 
pretence,  but  with  the  real  purpose  of  separating  Ireland 
from  the  British  Empire.  A  s-ecret  correspondence  was  held 


298  NAPOLEON  IN  THE  EAST. 

with  France ;  -and,  when  all  seemed  ready,  a  day  was  fixed 
for  the  outbreak  of  rebellion.  But  the  Government,  receiv- 
ing timely  notice  of  the  plot,  seized  the  leaders,  among  whom 

was  Lord  Edward  Fitzgerald.     Then  an  aimless 

1798    and  unsuccessful  rising  took  place.    In  Antrim  and 

A.D.       Down  it  was  slightly  felt ;   but  it  raged  cruelly 

and  fiercely  for  about  two  months  in  Wicklow  and 
Wcxford.  In  the  battle  of  Vinegar-hill  near  Enniscorthy 
in  the  latter  county,  General  Lake  routed  the  great  mass  of 
the  rebel  army.  When  all  was  over,  900  French  troops, 
under  Humbert,  landed  at  Killala  Bay  in  Mayo,  and  marched 
inland.  In  less  than  a  month,  however,  they  were  forced  to 
surrender  at  Carrick-on-Shannon. 

Napoleon  spent  two  campaigns  in  Egypt  and  Syria,  en- 
gaged in  a  fruitless  attempt  to  open  a  path  to  the  conquest 
of  India.  Sailing  from  Toulon  with  a  great  fleet  and  army, 
he  took  Malta  on  his  way,  and  landed  at  Alexandria.  Then 
pressing  on  to  Cairo,  he  defeated  the  Mamelukes  of  Egypt 
in  the  battle  of  the  Pyramids.  But  he  had  been  followed 

by  Admiral  Nelson,  who  annihilated  his  fleet  as  it 

Ang.  l,     lay  in  the  Bay  of  Aboukir.    The  action  began  at 

1798     sun-set,  and  lasted  until  day-break.     Nelson  was 

A.D.      severely  wounded  in  the  head  by  a  splinter  of  iron. 

The  French  flag-ship,  Orient,  blew  up  during  the 
battle,  with  the  Admiral  and  his  crew  of  1000  men.  Never 
was  a  naval  victory  more  complete.  Of  thirteen  French 
men-of-war,  nine  were  taken  and  two  burned  ;  and  of  four 
frigates  two  escaped.  By  this  brilliant  victory  the  army  of 
Napoleon  was  imprisoned  amid  the  sands  of  Egypt.  But, 
never  inactive,  he  led  his  soldiers,  early  in  1799,  across  the 
desert  between  Egypt  and  Palestine,  took  the  town  of  Jaffa 
by  storm,  and  laid  siege  to  Acre.  Thence  he  was  repulsed 
by  British  and  Turkish  troops  under  Sir  Sidney  Smith. 
Alarming  news  from  France  caused  him  to  leave  his  soldiers 
in  Egypt,  and  hurry  to  his  adopted  country.  The  army, 
thus  abandoned,  lost  spirit,  and  was  finally  routed  in  1800 
by  Sir  Ralph  Abercromby,  who  received  a  mortal  wound 
during  the  action. 

The  rebellion  of  1798  showed  the  necessity  of  binding  Ire- 
land more  closely  to  the  Empire.  After  many  debates  and 


UNION  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND.  299 

much  opposition  in  Ireland,  the  Union  of  the  Jan.  1, 
Parliaments  was  accomplished;  from  which  al-  1801 
ready,  even  in  half  a  century,  Ireland  has  reaped  A.D. 
numberless  blessings.  Henceforward  the  people  of 
Ireland  were  represented  in  the  Imperial  Parliament  by 
thirty-two  Lords  and  one  hundred  Commoners ;  their  traders 
enjoyed  many  new  and  valuable  commercial  privileges ; 
while  the  taxes  were  far  less  heavy  than  those  paid  in  Great 
Britain.  For  some  time  after  the  Union  there  was  consi- 
derable discontent  in  Ireland ;  and  a  rising,  suppressed,  how- 
ever, in  a  single  night,  took  place  in  the  streets  of  Dublin  in 
1803.  The  talented  but  misguided  Robert  Emmet,  who  led 
this  attempt  at  insurrection,  suffered  death  for  the  crime. 
Pitt  thought  that  the  Union  would  be  more  complete  and 
lasting,  if  the  Romanists  were  emancipated  from  penal  laws. 
The  King  did  not  agree  with  him  on  this  point.  He  there- 
fore resigned,  and  was  succeeded  by  Henry  Addington. 

Russia,  under  the  Czar  Paul,  now  menaced  Britain.    The 
Armed  Neutrality  of  the  Northern  States  was  revived.    But 
Admiral  Nelson,  entering  the  Sound,  totally  destroyed  the 
Danish  fleet  at  Copenhagen  in  four  hours.    A  few  days 
earlier    the  Czar   Paul  was    murdered,  and  his 
son  Alexander  soon   made    peace  with    Britain.   Mar.  25, 
The  Powers  of  Europe  then  signed  the  Treaty  of     1802 
Amiens.    But  this  peace  was  a  mere  empty  form,      A.D. 
and  in  little  more  than  a  year  the  war  was  renewed. 

In  1804  Pitt  again  became  Prime  Minister.  Napoleon, 
elected  First  Consul  in  1802,  was  then  Emperor  of  the 
French.  Surrounding  his  throne  with  eighteen  Marshals, 
veterans  in  war  and  devoted  to  his  cause,  he  bent  his  great 
genius  to  the  conquest  of  Europe.  Never  was  the  balance 
of  power  so  seriously  threatened,  and  never  was  a  grasping 
despot  more  resolutely  met  or  more  utterly  overthrown. 

The  invasion  of  Britain  was  a  part  of  the  daring  scheme, 
and  a  flotilla  of  gun-boats  lay  at  Boulogne,  ready  to  pour  a 
French  army  on  the  shores  of  England ;  but  the  watchful- 
ness of  Nelson  and  the  terror  of  his  name  saved  our  island 
from  invasion.  The  army  of  the  French  Emperor  was  then 
turned  to  the  Danube,  on  the  banks  of  which  Austria  was 
marshalling  her  legions  to  oppose  his  grasping  ambition. 


300  DEATH  OF  LORD  KELSON. 

At  first  Spain  sided  with  Napoleon  ;  but  Lord  Nelson  in- 
flicted upon  the  combined  fleets  a  most  decisive  defeat  off 
Cape  Trafalgar,  capturing  nineteen  ships  out  of  thirty-three. 
During  the  action  Nelson  was  struck  by  a  rifle  bul- 
Oct.  21,  let  from  the  enemy's  rigging,  as  he  stood  on  the 
1805  quarter-deck  of  the  Victory,  and  died  before  the  day 
A.D.  was  past.  He  was  borne  to  his  last  resting-place 
in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  with  princely  honours  amid 
the  tears  of  a  mourning  nation. 

On  the  2d  of  December  1805  Napoleon  crushed  the  power 
of  Austria  in  the  great  battle  of  Austerlitz ;  on  the  14th 
of  October  1806  Prussia  was  humbled  in  one  day  on  the 
field  of  Jena.  All  Europe  then  lay  at  his  feet  except  Russia 
and  Britain — the  one  strong  in  her  snowy  steppes  and  her 
thick  forests  of  pine ;  the  other  safe  within  her  island  shores, 
and  securely  guarded  by  her  'wooden  walls.' 

In  1806  died  Pitt  and  Fox,  within  a  few  months  of  each 
other,  both  worked  to  death  by  the  toils  of  statesmanship. 
Pitt  was  only  forty-two ;  Fox  had  reached  the  age  of  fifty- 
eight. 

Napoleon  well  knew  that  in  commerce  chiefly  lay  the 
strength  of  the  British — '  that  nation  of  shopkeepers,'  as  he 
contemptuously  called  them.  From  Berlin  he  issued  De- 
crees, ordering  that  the  British  Islands  should  be  strictly 
blockaded,  and  that  all  the  ports  of  Europe  should  be  shut 
against  British  vessels.  The  British  Ministry,  in  return, 
decreed  that  no  neutral  power  should  trade  with  France  or 
her  allies.  The  fleet  of  Denmark,  a  neutral  state,  was  then 
seized  by  Britain, — an  act  that  can  hardly  be  defended. 

Already  Napoleon  had  begun  to  fill  the  thrones  of  Europe 
with  his  kinsmen.  His  brother  Louis  was  King  of  Holland ; 
hfe  brother-in-law,  Murat,  sat  on  the  throne  of  Naples.  He 
now  sought  to  make  his  brother  Joseph  King  of  Spain ;  and 
from  this  act  of  aggression  sprang  the  Peninsular  War,  which 
gave  the  first  decided  check  to  the  march  of  his  ambition. 

The  Spaniards  rose  in  arms,  and  called  upon  Britain  for 

help.    Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  already  distinguished  in  Indian 

wars,  was  sent  to  their   aid  with   10,000  men. 

loUo     Landing  at  Mondego  Bay  in  Portugal,  he  defeated 

Marshal  Junot  at  Vimiera,  on  the  21st  of  August. 


CORUNNA  AND  TALAVERA.  301 

But,  through  jealousy  at  home,  he  was  recalled.  His 
successor,  Sir  Hew  Dalrymple,  made  a  treaty  called  the 
Convention  of  Cintra,  by  which  the  French  were  allowed  to 
evacuate  Portugal  with  all  their  arms  and  warlike  stores. 
This  foolish  lenience  cost  Sir  Hew  his  command,  and  Sir 
John  Moore  took  his  place.  Deceived  by  promises  of  aid 
which  the  Spanish  Junta  could  not  fulfil,  Moore  led  his  army 
into  the  heart  of  Leon ;  but  there  he  received  the  alarming 
news  that,  notwithstanding  the  gallant  defence  of  Saragossa 
by  the  Spaniards,  Napoleon  was  master  of  Madrid.  There 
was  no  course  open  to  the  British  leader  but  a  retreat  to- 
wards the  shore  of  -Galicia.  The  sufferings  of  the  army 
during  that  backward  march  were  past  description.  It  was 
mid-winter,  food  was  scarcely  to  be  had,  and  Soult  pressed 
constantly  on  their  rear. 

When  the  British  army,  famished  and  rag-clad,  reached 
Corunna,  their  ships  had  not  yet  arrived,  and  Soult 
was  close  upon  them.    Facing  round,  they  moved    Jan.  16, 
to  meet  him,  and  won  a  brilliant  and  decided  vie-     1809 
tory.    Moore,  killed  by  a  cannon-ball  towards  the      A.D. 
close  of  the  action,  was  laid  in  a  soldier's  grave  on 
the  ramparts  of  Corunna.    Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  then  again 
took  the  command  of  the  army.    Invading  Spain,  he 
won  a  great  battle  at  Talavera  on  the  banks  of  the    July  28. 
Tagus.    For  this  victory  he  was  created  Viscount 
Wellington.    But  the  approaches  to  Madrid  being  covered 
by  three  French  armies,  under  Soult,  Ney,  and  Mortier,  he 
was  then  obliged  to  fall  back  upon  the  frontiers  of  Portugal. 
Austria  during  this  year  made  a  desperate  effort  to  retrieve 
the  glory  of  her  arms ;  but  on  the  field  of  Wagram  her 
power  was  again  shattered  by  Napoleon,  and  the  eagles  of 
France  were  borne  in  triumph  into  Vienna.    George  III. 
having  reached  the  fiftieth  year  of  his  reign,  the  rare  event 
was  celebrated  in  October  by  a  national  jubilee.    To  aid 
Austria  in  her  struggle  against  Napoleon,  the  ill-fated  Wal- 
cheren  expedition  was  sent  to  the  coast  of  the  Netherlands. 
One  hundred  thousand  men  were  placed  under  the  command 
of  the  Earl  of  Chatham,  elder  brother  of  Pitt.     The  great 
object  of  the  movement  was  to  seize  the  French  batteries  on 
the  Scheldt ;  but  in  the  marshy  island  of  Walcheren  disease 


302  VICTORIES  IN  THE  PENINSULA. 

swept  off  the  troops  in  thousands,  and  only  a  wreck  of  the 
splendid  force  returned  to  Britain  in  December. 
Portugal  was  the  scene  of  the  next  Peninsular  campaign. 
The  armies  of  France  were  concentrated  upon  that 

1810  country  for  the  purpose  of  driving  the  British  to 
A.D.       their  ships ;  but  in  the  battle  of  Busaco  Wellington 

repulsed  Massena  with  heavy  loss.  Then,  retreat- 
ing to  the  heights  of  Torres  Vedras,  some  distance  north  of 
Lisbon,  he  took  up  a  position  from  which  no  efforts  of  the 
French  Marshals  could  dislodge  him-.  The  war  in  Spain  was 
carried  on  chiefly  by  irregular  troops  called  Guerillas. 

It  was  during  this  year  that  Napoleon,  having  divorced 
Josephine,  married  Maria  Louisa  of  Austria.  An  important 
constitutional  question  was  discussed  in  the  British  Parlia- 
ment. The  King's  mind,  long  tottering,  gave  way ;  blind- 
ness, too,  fell  upon  him.  The  appointment  of  a  Kegent  be- 
came necessary,  and  in  December  it  was  resolved  that  the 
Prince  of  Wales  should  rule  as  Prince  Regent,  with  power 
little  less  than  royal.  On  the  5th  of  February  1811  the 

Regency  began. 

1811  Three  important  victories  marked  the  fourth 
A.D.       campaign  in  the  Peninsula.      Graham    defeated 

Marshal  Victor  at  Barossa.  Massena  was  routed 
by  the  British  at  Fuentes  d'  Onoro.  More  glorious  still  was 
the  victory  of  Albuera,  where  Soult,  marching  to  relieve  the 
frontier  fortress  of  Badajoz,  besieged  by  Beresford,  was  re- 
pulsed with  great  slaughter.  The  long  war  had  now  begun 
to  tell  heavily  on  the  commerce  of  Britain,  and  there  were 
many  bankruptcies.  In  the  East,  Batavia,  the  capital  of  the 
Dutch  colonies  in  Java,  surrendered  to  a  British  force. 
Holding  Portugal  as  a  base  of  operations,  on  which  he 

could  at  any  time  fall  back,  Wellington  invaded 

1812  Spain  for  the  third  time.     Cuidad  Rodrigo  and 
A.D.       Badajoz,  great  forts  which  guarded  the  western 

frontier  of  Spain,  soon  fell  before  him.  The  defeat 
July  22.  of  Marmont  at  Salamanca  opened  the  way  to 

Madrid,  into  which  the  victor  led  his  troops  on  the 
12th  of  August  amid  the  rejoicings  of  all  Spain.  But  the 
approach  of  two  French  armies,  marching  in  hot  haste  from 
the  south  and  the  east,  forced  him  to  retreat  upon  Portugal 


BATTLE  OF  VITTORIA.  3U3 

In  the  spring  of  this  year  the  British  Premier,  Mr.  Perceval, 
was  shot  in  the  lobby  of  the  House  of  Commons  by  a  mer- 
chant named  Bellingham,  whose  business  had  been  ruined 
by  the  war. 

Meanwhile  the  Empire  of  Napoleon  had  received  a  heavy 
blow  in  the  defeat  of  his  Russian  campaign.  With  an  army 
of  nearly  half  a  million  he  had  penetrated  the  vast  territory 
of  the  Czars  to  its  very  heart.  But  the  flames  of  Moscow 
drove  him  back ;  and  in  all  history  there  is  nothing  more 
appalling  than  the  story  of  his  retreat.  When  the  winter 
snow  melted,  the  bones  of  400,000  men  lay  white  from  Mos- 
cow to  the  Niemen. 

Step  by  step  the  French  eagles  were  driven  across  the 
Pyrenees.    The  decisive  battle  was  fought  at  Vit- 
toria  in  Biscay.    The  capture  of  St.  Sebastian  and   June  21, 
Pampeluna  speedily  followed;  and  the  victorious     1813 
Wellington,  crossing  the  Bidassoa  into  France,       A.D. 
scattered  the  remnant  of  Soult's  army  on  the  14th 
of  April  1814,  in  the  battle  of  Toulouse.    Ten  days  earlier, 
Napoleon,  routed  in  the  great  battle  of  Leipsic,  and  followed 
even  into  Paris  by  a  victorious  host  of  Russians,  Swedes, 
Germans,  Austrians,  and  Prussians,  had  abdicated  the  throne 
of  France.    The  Bourbons  returned  to  Paris  and  Madrid ;  on 
the  30th  of  May  1814  the  first  Peace  of  Paris  was  signed; 
while  the  fallen  Emperor  retired  to  the  island  of  Elba. 

During  these  mighty  changes  Britain  had  been  at  war 
with  the  United  States  of  America.  The  British  claimed 
the  right  of  searching  American  vessels  for  seamen  to  serve 
in  the  Pioyal  Navy ;  the  Americans  resisted ;  and  hence  the 
war  arose.  It  lasted  for  nearly  three  years  (1812-1814). 
The  Americans  made  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  Canada. 
British  soldiers  burned  the  public  buildings  of  Washington, 
but  were  repulsed  with  loss  from  New  Orleans.  Of  the 
many  naval  engagements  between  single  ships,  the  chief  was 
that  between  the  frigates  Shannon  and  Chesapeake,  in  which 
the  British  were  victorious.  The  Peace  of  Ghent,  signed  in 
December  1814,  put  an  end  to  the  war,  but  without  decid- 
ing the  original  ground  of  quarrel. 

For  his  great  success  in  the  Peninsula  Wellington  was 
made  a  Duke,  was  publicly  thanked  by  the  Houses  of  Parlia- 


304  NAPOLEON  LEAVES  ELBA. 

ment,  and  received  a  grant  of  £400,000.  Towards  the  close 
of  1814  a  Congress  met  at  Vienna  to  settle  the  affairs  of 
Europe,  which  were  all  confused  after  a  war  so  long  and 
costly. 

But  the  news  of  March  1815  brought  their  meetings  to  a 
sudden  close.  Napoleon  had  left  Elba,  had  landed  on  the 
1st  of  March  on  the  coast  of  Provence,  and  was  marching 
rapidly  on  Paris.  His  Marshals  hastened  to  his  side.  The 
French  soldiers,  disgusted  with  the  government  of  the  Bour- 
bons, flocked  in  thousands  round  his  banner.  And,  in  twenty 
days  after  his  landing,  he  once  more  held  the  capital  and  the 
throne  of  France. 

All  Europe  was  alarmed  and  enraged  at  his  daring  disre- 
gard of  treaties  and  oaths.  The  British  Parliament  voted 
£110,000,000  for  his  overthrow.  The  Duke  of  Wellington 
took  the  command  of  80,000  troops.  Blucher  marshalled 
110,000  Prussians  for  the  campaign.  Austria  and  Russia 
were  preparing  to  invade  France  on  the  eastern  frontier 
with  enormous  armies.  All  offers  of  negotiation  from 
Napoleon  were  unheeded,  and  his  only  hope  lay  in  instant 
action. 

Wellington's  plan  was  to  join  the  Prussian  army  in  Bel- 
gium, and  thence  to  march  on  Paris  from  the  north-east. 
Napoleon,  resolving  if  possible  to  prevent  this  union,  crossed 
the  French  frontier  on  the  15th  of  June.  The  British  lay 
then  at  Brussels :  the  Prussians  were  at  Ligny,  some  miles 
nearer  the  frontier.  Wellington  received  the  news  of  the 
French  advance  late  on  the  evening  of  the  15th,  in  the  ball- 
room of  the  Duchess  of  Richmond.  A  hurried  whisper 
passed  round  among  the  officers;  and  at  day-break  the 
British  regiments  began  to  pour  out  of  Brussels  towards 
Quatre  Bras,  an  important  point  sixteen  miles  off,  where 
two  roads  crossed.  There  they  were  attacked  on  the  16th 
by  Marshal  Ney,  who  strove  without  success  to  force  the 
position.  But  on  the  same  day  Napoleon  drove  the  Prussians 
from  Ligny,  and  sent  Grouchy  in  pursuit  with  35,000  men, 
to  cut  them  off  from  a  union  with  the  army  of  Wellington. 
This  defeat  of  the  Prussians  obliged  Wellington  to  fall  back 
on  the  village  of  Waterloo.  Even  there  Blucher  was  distant 
from  him  nearly  a  day's  march ;  and  Napoleon  exulted  in  the 


BATTLE  OF  WATERLOO.  30£ 

prospect  of  certain  victory,  for  he  had  got,  as  lie  thought, 
between  the  allied  armies,  and  all  that  now  remained  was  to 
defeat  them  in  turn. 

The  battle  of  Waterloo — called  by  the  French  St.  Jean — 
was  fought  on  a  Sunday.  All  night  before,  the  rain  had 
fallen  in  torrents ;  and  when  the  troops  rose  from  their  cheer- 
less bivouac  among  the  crushed  and  muddy  rye,  a  drizzling 
rain  still  fell.  The  armies  faced  each  other  upon 
two  gentle  slopes,  near  which  ran  the  high  road  June  18, 
to  Brussels.  The  army  of  Wellington  numbered  1815 
more  than  70,000, — that  of  Napoleon  about  80,000  A.D. 
men.  Between,  in  a  slight  hollow,  lay  the  farm- 
houses of  Hougomont  and  La  Have  Sainte,  round  which  the 
bloodiest  combats  of  the  day  took  place.  The  battle  began 
at  ten  o'clock.  Napoleon  knew  that  be  was  a  ruined  man 
unless  he  could  pierce  and  break  the  red  masses  that  lay 
between  him  and  Brussels.  He  kept  closely  to  one  plan  of 
action, — a  storm  of  shot  and  shell  upon  the  British  ranks, 
and  then  a  rapid  rush  of  lancers  and  steel-clad  cuirassiers. 
But  the  British  infantry,  formed  into  solid  squares,  met 
every  charge  like  the  rocks  that  encircle  their  native  shore. 
Again,  and  again,  and  again  the  baffled  cavalry  of  France 
recoiled  with  many  an  empty  saddle.  This  was  a  terrible 
game  to  play ;  and  well  might  Wellington,  when  he  looked 
on  the  squares,  growing  every  moment  smaller,  as  soldier 
after  soldier  stept  silently  into  the  place  of  his  fallen  com- 
rade, pray  that  either  night  or  Blucher  would  come.  It  was 
seven  o'clock  in  the  evening  before  the  distant  sound  of  the 
Prussian  cannon  was  heard.  Blucher  had  outmarched 
Grouchy,  and  was  hastening  to  Waterloo.  Napoleon  then 
made  the  grandest  effort  of  the  day.  The  Old  Guard  of 
France,  un  conquered  veterans  of  Austerlitz  and  Jena,  burst 
in  a  furious  onset  upon  the  shattered  ranks  of  Britain ;  but,  at 
one  magic  word,  the  British  squares  dissolved  into  '  thin  red 
lines,'  glittering  with  bayonets,  and,  with  a  cheer  that  rent 
the  smoke-cloud  hovering  above  the  field,  swept  on  to  meet 
the  foe.  The  French  columns  wavered, — broke, — fled ;  and 
Waterloo  was  won.  During  the  three  eventful  days  40,000 
French,  16,000  Prussians,  13.000  British  and  Germans  were 
killed.  We  are  told  that  Wellington  wept  as  lie  rode  over 


306  THE  NATIONAL  DECT. 

the  plain  by  moonlight.  But  who  can  tell  the  thoughts  of 
the  fallen  despot,  as  he  fled  from  the  field  where  his  mighty 
sword,  stained  with  the  blood  and  the  tears  of  millions,  lay 
shivered  into  atoms  1 

Paris,  where  he  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son, — Roche- 
fort,  whence  he  tried  to  escape  to  America, — the  Roads  of 
Aix,  where,  on  the  quarter-deck  of  the  Bellerophon,  he  cast 
himself  on  the  mercy  of  Britain, — the  lonely  rock  of  St. 
Helena,  where  for  six  years  he  dwelt  imprisoned  by  the 
Atlantic  waves,— these  are  the  last  scenes  in  the  history  of 
Napoleon  1.  He  died  on  the  3d  of  May  1821,  and  in  1840 
his  remains  were  removed  to  France. 

Thus  ended  a  war,  during  which  Britain  had  made  gigantic 
efforts.  The  National  Debt,  which  at  the  end  of  the  Seven 
Years'  War  was  ,£130,000,000,  and  at  the  end  of  the  Ame- 
rican War,  £238,000,000,  had  now  reached  the  incalculable 
sum  of  £860,000,000.  The  sudden  change  from  war  to  peace 
caused  great  distress.  Bread  was  still  dear,  while  wages 
sank  very  low.  The  wheat  crop  of  1817  failed;  and  riotous 
meetings  took  place,  which  were  not  suppressed  without 
much  trouble.  But  fast  as  our  debts  grew,  still  faster  grew 
the  wealth  of  our  cotton-mills,  where  steam-power  had  come 
to  the  aid  of  the  spinning-frame  and  the  power-loom. 

In  August  1816  Algiers,  a  nest  of  pirates,  was  attacked 
by  a  British  fleet  under  Lord  Exmouth.  After  a  bombard- 
ment of  six  hours  the  Dey  struck  his  flag,  and  agreed  to  set 
free  all  his  Christian  slaves  and  to  seize  no  more. 

The  death  of  the  Princess  Charlotte,  only  child  of  the 
Prince  Regent,  and  wife  of  Prince  Leopold,  cast  a 
1  fil  7  neav7  gloom  over  the  nation.  A  twelvemonth  later 
A  D  died  Queen  Charlotte ;  and  on  the  29th  of  Janu- 
ary 1820  George  III.  closed  his  long  reign  at  the 
age  of  eighty-two.  He  had  twelve  children,  of  whom  the 
four  eldest  were  the  Prince  Regent,  Frederic  Duke  of  York, 
William  Duke  of  Clarence,  and  Edward  Duke  of  Kent. 

George  III.  was  a  good  man  and  a  wise  King.  Unlike 
his  predecessors  of  the  same  name,  he  made  the  glory  and 
the  good  of  Britain  his  highest  objects.  In  his  old  age 
nothing  pleased  him  better  than  to  escape  from  the  noise 
and  smoke  of  London  to  his  quiet  farms ;  and  the  name 


NOTES  OF  PROGRESS. 


307 


'  Farmer  George,'  by  which  he  was  sometimes  called,  well 
describes  the  simple,  homely  old  man,  who  was  known  and 
loved  as  well  in  the  cottage  as  in  the  castle. 

In  1781  Robert  Raikes  of  Gloucester  opened  the  first  Sun- 
day-school ;  and  about  the  same  time  John  Howard  made 
his  tour  of  mercy  among  the  prisons  of  Europe.  In  1785 
the  'Times'  was  established,  under  the  name  of  the  'Daily 
Universal  Register,' — a  small  sheet  of  four  pages.  London 
streets  were  first  lighted  with  gas  in  1807.  In  the  same 
year  Fulton,  an  American,  launched  the  first  regular 
steam-boat  on  the  Hudson  ;  and  in  1812  Henry  Bell  of 
Helensburgh  started  on  the  Clyde  the  first  steam-vessel  in 
Europe. 

CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 

FRANCE.  A.D. 

LOUIS  XV., died  1774 

LOUIS  XVI.,  dethroned 1789 

REVOLUTION 1792 

REPUBLIC 1795 

DIRECTORY, 1799 

CONSULS, 1802 

NAPOLEON,    First    Consul 

until 1804 

NAPOLEON,  EMPEROR,....  1815 
LOUIS  XVIII. 


SPAIN. 

CHARLES  III., 1788 

CHARLES  IV., 1808 

FERDINAND      VII.,      de- 
throned     — 

JOSEPH  BONAPARTE,  de- 
throned  1814 

FERDINAND  VII. 


SWEDEN. 
ADOLPHUS  FREDERIC, ....  1771 

GUSTAVUS  III 1792 

GUSTAVUS  IV., 1809 

CHARLES  XIII., 1810 

CHARLES  JOHN  BERNA- 
DOTTE. 


RUSSIA.  A.D. 

ELIZABETH, died  1761 

PETER  III., 1762 

CATHERINE  II., 1796 

PAUL  I., 1801 

ALEXANDER. 

PRUSSIA. 

FREDERIC  II 1786 

FREDERIC  WILLIAM  II.,  1796 
FREDERIC  WILLIAM  III. 

TURKEY. 

ACHMET  IV., 1789 

SELIM  III., 1807 

MUSTAPHA  IV., 1808 

MOHAMMED  VI. 

EMPERORS. 

FRANCIS, 1765 

JOSEPH  II., 1790 

LEOPOLD  II., 1792 

FRANCIS  II.  (title  changed 
to  Emperor  of  Austria),...  1804 

POPES. 

CLEMENT  XIII., 1769 

CLEMENT  XIV., 1775 

PIUS  VI., 1800 

PIUS  VII. 


30M  LEADING  AUTHORS. 

LEADING  AUTHORS  UNDER  GEORGE  III. 

DAVID  HUME, (1711-1776)— a  Scotchman— libra- 
rian to  the  Edinburgh  Advocates 
— chief  work,  '  History  of  Eng- 
land'— held  the  strange  doctrine 
that  we  can  be  sure  of  nothing — 
wrote  a  '  Treatise  on  Human  Na- 
ture* and  Essays. 

SIR  WILLIAM  BLACKSTONE,...  (1723-1780) -an    eminent    lawyer 

and  Judge  of  King's  Bench— chief 
work,  '  Commentaries  on  the 
Laws  of  England." 

SAMUEL  JOHNSON, (1709-1784)— born  at  Lich  field- 
lived  generally  in  London — chief 
works,  '  The  Lives  of  the  Poets ;' 
'Rasselas,  an  Eastern  Tale;'  an 
'  English  Dictionary;'  and  a  poem 
called  '  London.' 

ADAM  SMITH, (1723-1790)— aScotchman— Profes- 
sor in  Glasgow  University — chief 
work,  '  The  Wealth  of  Nations,' 
by  which  was  founded  the  science 
of  Political  Economy. 

WILLIAM  ROBERTSON, (1 721-1793)-a  Scottish  clergyman- 

chief  works, '  History  of  Scotland 
under  Mary  and  James  VI.;' 
'  History  of  Charles  V. ;'  and  'His- 
tory of  America.' 

EDWARD  GIBBON, (1737-1794)— born  in  Surrey— chief 

work,  '  The  Decline  and  Fall  of 
the  Roman  Empire,'  in  six  vols., 
written  in  twelve  years. 

GEORGE  CAMPBELL, (1719-1796)— Principal  of  Marischal 

College,  Aberdeen — chief  work, 
'An  Essay  on  Miracles,'  a  tri- 
umphant reply  to  the  infidel 
Hume. 

ROBERT  BURNS, (1759-1796)— an  Ayrshire  farmer- 
famed  for  his  lyric  poems — author 
of  the  '  Cottar's  Saturday  Night' 
and  'Tarn  o'  Shanter.' 

EDMUND  BURKE, (1730-1797)— born    in    Dublin— a 

famous  orator — chief  works,  '  An 
Essay  on  the  Sublime  and  Beau- 
tiful,' and  '  Reflections  on  the 
French  Revolution.' 


LEADING  ARTISTS  AND  INVENTORS.  309 

WILLIAM  COWPER, (1731-1800)— educated  as  a  lawyer— 

a  Christian  and  moral  poet — some- 
times deranged— author  of  the 
'  Task ' — translated  Homer. 

HUGH  BLAIR, (1718-1800)— an  Edinburgh  preacher 

— chief  works,  '  Sermons,'  and 
'  Lectures  on  Belles  Lettres.' 

WILLIAM  PALEY, (1743-1805)-Archdeacon  of  Carlisle 

— chief  works, '  Natural  Theology" 
and  '  Evidences  of  Christianity." 

LEADING  ARTISTS. 

THOMAS  GAINSBOROUGH, (1727-1788)— born  in  Suffolk— a  fine 

painter  of  English  landscapes- 
lived  in  Ipswich,  Bath,  and 
London. 

SIR  JOSHUA  REYNOLDS ...(1723-1792)— born  in  Devonshire— 

the  first  President  of  the  Royal 
Academy — a  famous  portrait  and 
historical  painter— published  Dis- 
courses on  Painting — a  great  friend 
of  Dr.  Johnson. 

LEADING  INVENTORS,  ETC. 

JAMES  BRINDLEY, (1716-1772)-native  of  Tunsted,  Der- 
by shire— engineer  of  the  canal  made 
by  D  u  ke  of  Bridge  water  from  Wors- 
ley  to  Manchester,  and  h?nce  the 
founder  of  our  canal  navigation. 

SIR  RICHARD  ARKWRIGHT,...(1732-1792)— born  at  Preston,  Lan- 
cashire— originally  a  hair-dresser 
— invented  the  spinning-frame  by 
which  hand-labour  is  saved  in  the 
cotton-mills — hence  may  be  called 
the  founder  of  our  great  cotton 
manufacture. 

JOSIAH  WEDGEWOOD, (1731-1795)— the  great  improver  of 

our  porcelain  manufacture— the 
son  of  a  Staffordshire  potter — in- 
ventor of  the  '  Queen's  ware,'  made 
of  white  Dorsetshire  clay  mixed 
with  ground  flint. 

JAMES  WATT, (1736-1819)— native  of  Greenock— 

invented  the  double-acting  condens- 
ing steam-engine,  and  applied  it 
to  machinery — lived  first  in  Glas- 
gow, and  then  in.  Birmingham. 


310  QUEEN  CAROLINE. 

CHAPTER  V. 

GEORGE  IV. 
Born  1762  A.D.— Began  to  reign  1820  A.D.  -Died  1830  A.D. 


The  Cato  Street  Gang. 
Queen  Caroline. 
Visits  of  the  King. 
The  Buiinese  War. 


Money  Panic. 

Death  of  Canning. 

Xavarino. 

The  Emancipation  Bill. 


Death. 
Character. 

Nutci. 


THE  Prince  Regent,  who  had  already  ruled  for  nine  years, 
now  became  King  George  IV.  A  few  days  after  his  acces- 
sion, a  plot  to  murder  the  Ministers,  when  they  were 
assembled  at  an  official  dinner  given  by  Lord  Harrow  by, 
was  discovered  by  the  police.  The  leader  of  the  gang  was 
Thistlewood,  a  broken-down  profligate.  When  the  murder 
was  perpetrated,  the  prisons  were  to  be  broken  open,  Lon- 
don was  to  be  set  on  fire,  and  a  Revolution  accomplished. 
On  the  very  evening  fixed  for  the  crime,  the  police  came  sud- 
denly upon  them  in  a  hay-loft  in  Cato  Street  near  the  Edge- 
ware  Road.  A  desperate  scuffle  ensued;  a  policeman  was 
killed;  but  the  capture  was  made.  Thistlewood  and  four 
others  were  executed ;  the  rest  were  transported.  A  slight 
rising  about  the  same  time  at  Kilsyth  in  Stirlingshire  was 
soon  suppressed. 

Nothing  showed  George  IV.  in  a  worse  light  than  his 
treatment  of  his  wife,  Caroline  of  Brunswick,  to  whom  he 
was  married  in  1795.  They  had  never  agreed,  and  had  soon 
separated.  Indeed  his  life  was  such  that  no  wife  could  live 
happily  with  him.  During  the  Regency  she  had  lived  in 
Italy ;  but  when  she  heard  that  her  husband  was  King,  she 
hastened  to  England  to  claim  the  honours  due  to  a  Queen. 
On  the  6th  of  July  1820  a  '  Bill  of  pains  and  penalties'  was 
brought  into  the  House  of  Lords,  charging  her  with  unfaith- 
fulness to  the  King.  She  was  nobly  defended  by  Brougham 
and  Denman ;  and  on  the  10th  of  November  the  Bill  was 
abandoned,  to  the  great  joy  of  the  people,  who  were  all  on 
her  side.  In  the  following  year  she  came  to  the  door  of 
Westminster  Abbey  on  the  day  of  her  husband's  corona- 


THE  BURMESE  WAR.  311 

tion,  but  was  refused  admittance  by  the  soldiers 
on  guard.     Nineteen  days  later  she  died.     Even    July  19, 
round  her  coffin,  as  it  was  borne  from  London  to      1821 
Harwich,  there  was  deadly  strife  between  the  sol-       A.D. 
diers  and  the  people. 

In  the  same  mouth  as  his  wife  died,  the  King  visited  Ire- 
land, where  he  was  received  with  joy, — not,  however,  as  the 
man  George  Guelph,  but  .as  the  first  'British  King  who  had 
paid  a  visit  of  peace  to  the  island.  Next  month  he  went  to 
Hanover ;  and  in  the  August  of  the  following  year  he  stayed 
for  thirteen  days  in  Scotland.  There  he  received  the  news 
that  one  of  his  chief  ministers,  the  Marquis  of  Londonderiy, 
—better  known  as  Lord  Castlereagh — had  committed  suicide. 
The  Marquis  was  succeeded  as  Foreign  Secretary  by  Mr. 
George  Canning. 

In  February  1824  the  British  Government,  irritated  by 
outrages  on  their  colonies  beyond  the  Ganges,  declared  war 
against  Burmah.  In  the  first  campaign  Sir  Archibald  Camp- 
bell captured  the  town  of  Rangoon  and  the  forts  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Irrawaddy.  A  small  force  under  General  Morrison 
seized  the  province  of  Aracan  during  the  following  year. 
In  1826  a  treaty  was  made,  by  which  the  coasts  of  Tenas- 
scrim  and  the  district  of  Aracan  were  given  up  to  Britain. 

In  1824  a  great  rage  for  joint-stock  companies  seized  the 
nation.  Money  was  abundant,  and  men  invested  it,  on  the 
promise  of  high  interest,  in  schemes  of  the  wildest  descrip- 
tion. Loans  were  granted  to  half  the  States  on  the  face  of 
the  globe.  Paper  money  was  issued  by  the  banks  to  an  ex- 
tent far  beyond  what  was  prudent.  The  natural  result  was 
a  panic  or  commercial  crisis  in  1825,  when  50  banks  shut 
their  doors,  and  more  than  200  merchants  became  insolvent. 

In  the  spring  of  1827  the  Earl  of  Liverpool,  who  had  been 
Prime  Minister  for  the  last  fifteen  years,  received  a  stroke  of 
paralysis,  and  Canning  was  called  to  the  head  of  the  Govern- 
ment. But  this  gifted  and  eloquent  statesman,  sinking  under 
the  heavy  load  of  so  great  an  office,  died  in  the  August  of 
the  same  year.  He  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Goderich. 

Early  in  the  reign  of  George  IV.  the  Greeks  rose  in  revolt 
against  the  Turks,  who  had  been  grinding  them  in  abject 
slavery  for  more  than  three  centuries.  The  heroic  courage 


312  THE  EMANCIPATION  BILL. 

of  the  Suliotcs  and  other  Greek  mountaineers,  among  whom 
the  spirit  of  the  ancient  race  was  still  alive,  won  the  admira- 
tion and  sympathy  of  Europe.  Our  poet  Byron  devoted  his 
pen  and  his  fortune  to  the  cause  of  Greece,  and  spent  the 
wreck  of  his  short  life  in  her  service.  In  the  year  1827 
three  great  Powers  of  Europe — Russia,  France,  and  Britain 
— signed  a  treaty  in  London,  by  which  they  agreed  to  force 
Turkey  into  an  acknowledgment  of  Grecian  independence. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  year,  the  allied  fleet  tinder 

Oct.  20,     Admiral  Codrington,  sailing  into. the  harbour  of 

1827     Navarino  in  the  south-west  of  the  Morea,  destroyed 

A.D.       the  whole  navy  of  Turkey  in  a  few  hours.    Soon 

afterwards  the  Turkish  soldiers  were  withdrawn ; 
Greece  was  formed  into  an  independent  kingdom ;  and  Otho, 
a  Bavarian  prince,  was  placed  on  the  newly-erected  throne. 
The  most  remarkable  political  event  of  this  reign  was  the 
passing  of  the  Emancipation  Bill  under  the  ministry  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington,  who,  aided  by  Mr.  Robert  Peel  as  Home 
Secretary,  took  office  in  1828.  Penal  laws— necessary  at 
iL-st,  but  now  little  needed — had  been  pressing  heavily  on 
the  Romanists  of  Ireland  since  the  Revolution.  They  now 
assumed  a  threatening  attitude,  and  it  was  evident  that  a 
change  must  be  made  to  preserve  the  peace  of  the  Empire. 
In  1828  the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts  of  Charles  II.  were 
repealed.  But  they  demanded  more  than  this.  In  spite  of 
the  law  forbidding  Romanists  to  sit  in  Parliament,  they  re- 
turned Daniel  O'Conuell,  an  Irish  barrister  of  great  popular 

eloquence,  as  member  for  the  county  Clare ;  a.nd 

1829     so  well  did  he  fight  the  battle  of  his  Church,  that 

A.D.       a  Bill  was  passed  removing  all  penal  laws  against 

Romanists,  and  placing  them  on  the  same  political 
footing  as  the  Protestant  subjects  of  the.  Crown. 

On  the  26th  of  June  1830  the  King  died  at  the  age  of 
sixty-eight.  He  left  no  heir. 

The  flatterers  of  George  IV.  used  to  call  him  '  the  first 
gentleman  in  Europe.'  If  a  shapely  figure,  fine  taste  in 
dress,  and  manners  of  most  courtly  polish  alone  make 
up  a  gentleman,  he  had  a  good  claim  to  the  title ;  but  if, 
as  some  men  think,  a  true  gentleman  must  have  a  feeling 


SOVEREIGNS  AND  AUTHORS. 


313 


heart  and  lead  a  moral  life,  then  this  King  deserves  not  the 
name. 

During  this  reign  Captains  Parry  and  Eoss  explored  the 
Arctic  Seas  in  search  of  the  North-West  Passage.  In  1820 
the  use  of  broken  stones  in  road-making  was  introduced  by 
Mr.  Macadam.  In  1822  the  first  iron  steam-boat  was  seen 
on  the  Thames.  In  1824  Mechanics'  Institutions  were  estab- 
lished. In  1825  the  Enterprise,  under  Captain  Johnson, 
made  the  first  steam  voyage  to  India.  The  Atlantic  had 
already  been  crossed  by  steam  in  1819.  The  London  Uni- 
versity, chartered  in  1826,  was  opened  in  1828. 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


FRANCE.  A.D. 

LOUIS  XVIII., died  1825 

CHARLES  X. 

SPAIN. 

FERDINAND  VII., 1820 

Revolution. 


SWEDEN. 
CHAS.  JOHN  BERNADOTTE. 


RUSSIA. 

ALEXANDER, 

NICHOLAS. 


.1825 


PRUSSIA. 
FREDERIC  WILLIAM  III. 

TURKEY. 
MOHAMMED  VI. 


AUSTRIA. 


FRANCIS. 


POPES. 

PIUS  VII., died  1823 

LEO  XII. 


LEADING  AUTHORS  UNDER  GEORGE  IV. 


LORD  BYRON, 


DUOALD  STEWART,. 


THOMAS  BROWN, . 


.(1788-1824)— a  distinguished  poet- 
lived  a  debauched  life— many  of  his 
poema  immoral — chief  work  '  ChiMe 
Harold's  Pilgrimage,'  in  the  stanza 
of  Spenser— died  of  fever  at  Misso- 
longhi  in  Greece. 

.(1753-1828)— Professor  of  Moral  Phi- 
losophy in  Edinburgh — chief  works, 
'Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind,' 
and  '  Outlines  of  Moral  Philosophy.' 

.(1778-1820)— successor  of  Stewart— 
chief  work,  '  Class  Lectures,'  pub- 
lished after  his  death. 


314  LEADING  ARTISTS. 


LEADING  AETISTS. 

BENJAMIN  WEST, (1738-1820)-born  at  Springfield  iii 

America — a  distiuguishcd  historical 
painter  —  President  of  the  Royal 
Academy. 

JOHN  FLAXMAN, (1755-1826)— born  at  York— a  great 

sculptor— chief  works,  Illustrations 
of  Homer,  Dante,  and  JEschylus — 
Professor  of  Sculpture  to  the  Royal 
Academy. 

SIR  THOMAS  LAWRENCE,... (1769-1830)— born  in  Bristol— called 
the  English  Titian— celebrated  for 
his  portraits— succeeded  Reynolds  as 
State-painter  to  George  III. — elect- 
ed President  of  the  Royal  Academy, 
1820. 


LEADING  INVENTORS,  ETC. 

SIR  WILLIAM  HERSCHE1,... (1738-1822*— born  in  Hanover— at  fust 
a  musician — the  great  improver  of 
the  reflecting  telescope— discovered 
the  planet  Uranus  in  1781 — also 
volcanoes  in  the  moon,  and  many 
satellites — received  a  pension  of  £300 
—died  at  Slough. 

SIR  HUMPHREY  DAVY, (1778-1829)  — born  at  Pcnzance  in 

Cornwall— son  of  a  wood  carver- 
apprenticed  to  a  surgeon — the  in- 
ventor of  the  safety  lamp— made 
great  discoveries  in  chemistry  and 
electricity — wrote  '  Salruonia,"  and 
'  Consolations  in  Travel ' — died  at 
Geneva. 


FIRST  ENGLISH  RAILWAY.  315 


CHAPTER  VI. 

WILLIAM  IV. 
Born  1765  A.D.—  Began  to  reign  1830  A.D.—  Died  1837  A.D. 


French  Revolution. 
First  F.nglish  Railway. 
The  Cholera. 
The  Reform  Bill. 
Its  changes. 
Abolition  of  Slavery. 


The  Toor  Lawg. 
Change  of  Ministry. 
Municipal  Act. 
Foreign  Tolicy. 
Death  of  the  King. 
His  character. 


THE  Duke  of  Clarence,  brother  of  the  late  King,  now 
ascended  the  throne,  as  William  IV.  In  his  young  days  he 
had  seen  service  in  the  navy,  and  he  has  therefore  been 
called  the  '  Sailor  King.'  His  wife  was  Adelaide  of  Saxe 
Meiningen. 

Soon  after  his  accession  a  second  Revolution  occurred  in 
France,  when,  after  three  days'  righting  in  the  streets  of 
Paris,  Charles  X.  was  driven  from  the  throne,  and  Louis 
Philippe,  Duke  of  Orleans,  was  appointed  King  of  the 
French.  The  people  of  Belgium,  influenced  by  this  example, 
threw  off  the  yoke  of  Holland,  and  made  Prince  Leopold 
their  King.  There  was  at  the  same  time  much  discontent 
in  Britain,  and  a  loud  cry  arose  for  a  reform  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  The  Duke  of  Wellington,  who  was  opposed  to 
any  change  of  the  kind,  then  resigned  in  favour  of  a  Whig 
ministry,  of  which  the  chief  members  were  Earl  Grey  and 
Lord  John  Russell. 

During  this  year  the  first  of  those  railways,  which   Sept.  15, 
now  lie  like  a  net- work  of  iron  over  the  whole  face   1830 
of  the  Empire,  was  opened  between  Liverpool  and     A.D. 
Manchester. 

A  new  epidemic  disease,  called  Cholera,  which  was  noticed 
first  in  India,  travelling  westward,  broke  out  at  Sunderland 
in  the  October  of  1831.  Its  ravages  continued  for  more 
than  a  year,  sweeping  off  nearly  60,000  persons.  Since  then 
it  has  visited  Britain  twice ;  but,  by  active  sanitary  improve- 
ments in  sewerage  and  ventilation,  its  effects  have  been 
much  lessened. 

The  great  political  event  of  the  reign  was  the  passing  of 


316  THE  REFORM  BILL. 

the  Reform  Bill.  On  the  1st  of  March  1831  Lord  John 
Russell  proposed  the  measure  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
It  was  fiercely  opposed  in  both  Houses,  especially  in  the 
Lords;  but  the  mass  of  the  people  were  resolved  on  the 
change.  For  fifteen  months  the  struggle  went  on.  Great 
riots  took  place  in  Bristol,  Nottingham,  and  Derby.  At 
one  time,  -indeed,  the  Bill  seemed  in  peril  of  being  lost.  The 
opposition  in  the  Lords  grew  so  strong  that  Earl  Grey 
resigned,  and  the  Duke  of  Wellington  was  called  on  to  form 
a  Ministry.  But  this  he  failed  to  do ;  the  current  of  public 
feeling  turned  fiercely  against  him ;  and  the  conqueror  at 
Waterloo  was  obliged  to  fortify  his  house  against  a 
June  7,  London  mob.  Earl  Grey  was  then  restored,  and 

1832  the  Bill  soon  became  law.    The  Reform  Bills  of 
A.D.       Scotland  and  Ireland  received  the  royal  assent  on 

the  17th  of  July,  and  on  the  7th  of  August. 

Three  great  changes  were  thus  made:  1.  The  right  of 
sending  members  to  Parliament  was  taken  away  from  many 
places — called  pocket  or  rotten  boroughs— in  which  there  were 
very  few  voters,  and  sometimes  none  residing  in  the  borough. 
Of  this  class  the  most  notorious  example  was  Old  Sarum,  in 
which  there  was  not  a  single  house.  2.  Several  towns, 
which  had  sprung  within  the  last  century  into  first-class 
cities,  now  for  the  first  time  received  the  right  of  sending 
members  to  Parliament.  3.  The  franchise,  or  right  of  voting, 
was  extended  more  widely  among  the  middle  classes.  The 
right  of  voting  for  towns  was  given  to  the  owners,  or  the 
tenants  of  houses  worth  .£10  a  year  or  upwards.  For  county 
members  all  were  entitled  to  vote,  who  owned  land  worth 
.£10  a  year,  or  who  paid  a  yearly  rent  of  at  least  £50  for 
their  holdings. 

Ever  since  the  year  1787  a  movement  to  set  free  all  slaves 
in  the  British  Colonies  had  been  at  work  in  the  House  of 
Commons.  William  Wilberforce,  member  for  the  county  of 
York,  first  brought  forward  the  motion,  and  through  a  long 
life  he  clung  with  noble  perseverance  to  the  noble  work. 
From  time  to  "time  the  debates  were  renewed  amid  great 
opposition  from  slaveholders,  planters,  and  mer- 

1833  chants.     It  was  not  until  the  question  was  forty- 
A.D.       six  years   old   that  the  Bill  was  finally  passed 


A BOLITION  OF  SLAVERY.  317 

£20,000,000  were  granted  to  slave  owners  as  compensation : 
and  the  slaves  were  not  set  free  all  at  once,  but  were  bound 
to  serve  their  masters  as  apprentices  for  seven  years  longer. 
It  was  thought  better,  however,  to  shorten  the  time  of  ap- 
prenticeship by  two  years ;  and  in  1838  eight  hundred  thou- 
sand slaves  received  their  freedom.  Wilberforce  lived  only 
to  see  the  triumph  of  his  life's  work.  He  died  in  1833. 

In  1834  many  changes  were  made  in  the  Poor  Laws.  The 
rate  to  support  the  poor  had  bsen  lately  so  high  as  £7,000,000 
a  year :  and  a  great  part  of  the  sum  was  squandered  on  the 
support  of  strong  men  and  women,  who  were  too  idle  to 
work.  The  new  Bill  placed  the  local  boards  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  Government,  and  ordered  that  no  aid 
should  be  given  to  able-bodied  paupers,  unless  they  chose  to 
go  to  the  poor-houses,  and  work  for  their  living  there. 

While  this  measure  was  passing  through  the  Houses  Earl 
Grey  resigned,  having  disputed  with  his  colleagues  about  the 
Irish  Coercion  Bill.  He  was  followed  as  Premier  by  Viscount 
Melbourne,  with  whom  were  associated  Lord  John  Russell 
and  Lord  Palmerston.  Towards  the  close  of  the  year  these 
ministers  were  thrown  out  of  office,  and  Sir  Robert  Peel  was 
called  in  haste  from  Italy  to  form  a  new  Government.  But 
in  four  months  Melbourne  returned  to  the  head  of  affairs. 

In  1835  was  passed  the  Municipal  Act,  by  which  the  Town 
Councils  of  England  and  Wales  were  reformed.  To  the 
rate-payers  and  freemen  was  given  the  right  of  appointing 
the  councillors,  who  elected  the  magistrates  from  among 
themselves.  Similar  changes  were  made  in  Scotland  and 
Ireland. 

During  1835  and  1836  the  Spanish  Government  was 
allowed  to  enlist  British  soldiers  for  service  against  the 
Carlists.  This,  and  the  aid  given  to  the  revolted  BelgiaLS 
in  1832,  when  British  ships  blockaded  the  ports  of  Holland, 
are  almost  the  only  note-worthy  points  in  the  foreign  policy 
of  the  reign. 

The  King  died  on  the  20th  of  June  1837,  aged  seventy- 
two.  His  two  daughters  had  died  in  infancy,  one  of  them 
on  the  day  of  her  birth. 

The  warm  heart,  the  open  hand,  the  free  and  cordial  man- 
ner of  the  sailor-King  won  the  love  of  his  people.  He  pos- 


318 


SOVEREIGNS  AND  AUTHORS. 


sessed  neither  brilliant  genius  nor  excellent  wisdom,  but 
strong  sound  sense  guided  every  act  of  his  useful  reign. 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


FRANCE.  A.I>. 

CHARLES  X., dethroned  1830 

LOUIS  PHILIPPE. 

SPAIN. 

REVOLUTION, until  1833 

ISABELLA  II. 

SWEDEN. 
CHARLES  JOHN  BERNADOTTE 

RUSSIA. 
NICHOLAS. 


PRUSSIA.  A.I> 

FREDERIC  WILLIAM  HI 

TURKEY. 
MOHAMMED  VI. 

AUSTRIA. 

FRANCIS, died  1835 

FERDINAND  I. 

POPES. 

LEO  XII., 1831 

GREGORY  XVI. 


LEADING  AUTHORS  UNDER  WILLIAM  IV. 

SIR  WALTER  SCOTT,. ..(1771-1832)  — a  Scottish  barrister  — wrote 
ballads  and  poetical  tales — chief  poems, 
'The  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,'  '  Mar- 
niion,'  and  '  The  Lady  of  the  Lake' — 
more  famous  as  the  author  of  the  Waver- 
ley  Novels,  founded  chiefly  on  English  aud 
Scottish  history. 

ADAM  CLARKE, (1762-1832)  — an  Irishman  — a  Methodist 

minister — learned  in  Oriental  languages 
--chief  work,  'A  Commentary  on  the 
Bible.' 

SAMUEL  COLERIDGE,... (1772-1834)— born  in  Devonshire— educated 
at  Cambridge— one  of  the  Lake  poets — 
chief  works,  the  'Ancient  Mariner'  and 
'  Christabel,'  an  unfinished  poem. 

FELICIA  HEMANS, (1793-1835)— a  lady-writer  of  lyric  poems, 

full  of  the  tenderest  feeling  and  the  most 
beautiful  imagery.  Her  '  Songs  of  the 
Affections'  and  her  '  Records  of  Woman' 
are  among  her  chief  works. 


THE  CHARTISTS.  319 

CHAPTER  VII. 

VICTORIA. 
Born  May  24, 1819  A.D.— Began  to  reign  June  20, 1837  A.D. 


Hanover  Separated. 

The  Ameers  of  Sinde. 

Russian  War. 

Canadian  Rebellions. 

Sikh  War. 

Battle  of  Inkermnnn. 

The  Chartists. 

Corn  Laws  Repealed. 

Sebastopol  Taken. 

The  Qneen's  Marriage. 

Railway  Panic. 

Chiiia  and  Persia. 

Afghan  War. 

Irish  Uiots. 

Indian  Mutiny. 

Syrian  War. 

Papal  Aggression. 

Money  Crisis. 

Chinese  War. 

The  Great  Exhibition. 

The  India  Bill. 

lU'pral  Agitation. 

Caffre  Wai-. 

Atlantic  Cable. 

The  Disruption. 

Burmese  War. 

Notes. 

ALEXANDRINA  VICTORIA,  the  daughter  of  Edward  Duke  of 
Kent,  and  the  niece  of  the  late  King,  became  Queen  at  the 
age  of  eighteen.  She  was  crowned  at  Westminster  on  the 
i  of  June  1838.  Since  the  Salic  law  permits  no  woman 
to  wear  the  crown  of  Hanover,  by  the  accession  of  Victoria 
that  state  was  severed  from  the  British  dominions,  and 
Ernest,  Duke  of  Cumberland,  brother  of  William  IV.,  be- 
came its  King. 

A  rebellion,  headed  by  Papineau  and  Mackenzie,  disturbed 
the  Canadas  in  December  1837.  The  former  leader  was  de- 
feated in  a  few  days  at  St.  Eustace ;  the  latter  attacked 
Toronto,  but  was  repulsed  by  Head.  In  the  following  year, 
at  the  same  season,  when  the  fierce  frost  of  the  Canadian 
winter  had  set  in,  there  was  a  second  rising  in  Lower 
Canada ;  but  it  was  soon  suppressed  by  the  energy  of  Sir 
John  Colborne.  To  strengthen  the  Government  of  the 
colony,  an  Act  of  Parliament  was  passed  in  1840,  by  which 
the  two  Canadas  were  made  one  province. 

About  this  time  the  proceedings  of  a  set  of  men  who 
called  themselves  Chartists  began  to  attract  notice.  They 
took  their  name  from  the  People's  Charter,  a  document  in 
which  they  demanded  six  sweeping  changes  in  the  Constitu- 
tion : — 1.  Universal  Suffrage, — that  every  man  should  have 
a  vote.  2.  Vote  by  ballot.  3.  Annual  Parliaments.  4.  That 
Members  of  Parliament  should  be  paid.  .  5.  That  every  man, 
whether  owning  property  or  not,  should  be  eligible  for  a  seat 


320  THE  AFGHAN  WAR. 

in  Parliament.  6.  That  the  country  should  be  divided  into 
electoral  districts.  A  band  of  these  discontented  men, 
headed  by  John  Frost,  who  had  once  been  a  magistrate, 
made  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  Newport  in  Monmouthshire. 
For  this  treason  Frost  and  two  others  were  sentenced  to 
death ;  but  they  were  afterwards  reprieved  and  transported 
for  life. 

On  the  10th  of  February  1840  the  Queen  was  married  to 
Prince  Albert  of  Saxe  Coburg  and  Gotha.  The  Princess 
Royal — now  Princess  Frederic  William  of  Prussia — was  born 
on  the  21st  of  November  in  the  same  year;  and  on  the  9th 
of  November  1841  was  born  Albert  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales, 
the  heir  apparent  to  the  British  throne.  Soon  after  the 
royal  marriage  it  was  decreed  in  Parliament  that,  if  the 
Queen  shall  die  before  the  Prince  of  Wales  come  of  age, 
Prince  Albert  shall  rule  the  Empire  as  Regent. 

From  1839  to  1842  a  war  raged  in  Afghanistan.  The 
suspicion  that  Russia  might  have  evil  designs  upon  our 
Indian  Empire,  made  it  of  the  highest  importance  that  a 
Prince  friendly  to  Britain  should  sit  on  the  throne  of 
Afghanistan ;  for  that  state  lies  between  India  and  Persia, 
and  Persia  has  always  been  friendly  to  the  Czars.  Accord- 
ingly, early  in  1839  a  British  army,  under  Sir  John  Keane, 
entered  Afghanistan  to  replace  Shah  Shoojah  on  the  throne, 
which  had  been  usurped  by  Dost  Mohammed.  Within  a 
few  months  the  great  cities  of  Candahar,  Ghuznee,  and 
Kabool  were  taken.  But  the  victors  were  hemmed  in  at 
Kabool  by  a  host  of  wild  Afghans  under  Akbar  Khan,  the 
son  of  Dost  Mohammed.  Sir  William  Macnaghten  and 
many  officers,  being  invited  to  a  conference,  were  basely  mur- 
dered; and  the  remnant  of  the  army,  leaving  Kabool  to 
march  through  the  snow  to  Jelalabad,  a  distance  of  ninety 
miles,  were  slaughtered  on  the  road,  only  one  escaping  out 
of  many  hundreds.  Shah  Shoojah  soon  fell  by  an  assassin's 
hand.  But  General  Pollock,  having  fought  his  way  nobly 
through  the  Khyber  Pass,  joined  Sir  Robert  Sale 
Sept.  15,  and  General  Nott,  and  then  marched  on  Kabool, 
1842  on  which  the  British  flag  was  planted  once 
,A.D.  more  amid  the  peals  of  martial  music.  The  for- 
tifications of  the  city  were  soon  destroyed,  and 


HONG  KONG  ACQUIRED.  321 

the  British  then  withdrew  from  Afghanistan.    In  1865  Dost 
Mohammed  made  a  friendly  alliance  with  Britain. 

At  the  same  time  there  was  war  in  the  Levant.  The 
Pacha  of  Egypt,  Mehemet  Ali,  and  his  son  Ibrahim,  had 
long  been  troublesome  to  the  Turkish  Sultan,  and  in  1837 
the  latter  defeated  the  Ottoman  troops  at  Nezib  on  the 
Euphrates.  The  Sultan  sought  aid  from  Britain  and  other 
states ;  which  was  readily  granted,  because  the  war  had  more 
than  once  shut  the  Dardanelles  and  stopped  the  Black  Sea 
trade.  A  British  fleet,  under  Admiral  Stopford  and  Com- 
modore Napier,  having  previously  destroyed  Beyrout  on  the 
Syrian  coast,  appeared  before  the  ancient  walls  of 
Acre.  In  three  hours  that  stronghold,  the  key  of  Nov.  3, 
all  Syria,  which  had  baffled  even  the  mighty  Napo-  1840 
leon,  yielded  to  British  cannon.  Napier  then  sailed  A.D. 
to  Alexandria ;  but  the  Pacha  after  a  short  delay 
agreed  to  withdraw  his  troops  from  Syria.  By  a  treaty  with 
Turkey,  some  time  afterwards,  the  Pachalic  of  Egypt  waa 
granted  as  an  inheritance  to  his  family. 

A  dispute  arose  with  China  about  the  trade  in  opium,  a 
drug  which  the  Chinese  love  to  smoke  and  chew,  although 
hundreds  die  from  its  poisonous  effects.  The  Emperor, 
alarmed  at  the  growth  of  the  practice,  forbade  the  importa- 
tion of  opium ;  but  British  merchants,  who  made  great  pro- 
fits by  the  trade,  still  smuggled  it  into  the  country.  The 
mandarins  in  authority  seized  and  destroyed  many  cargoes 
of  the  forbidden  drug.  Captain  Elliot  the  Commissioner, 
and  other  British  subjects  were  imprisoned.  War  was  de- 
clared in  1840.  British  troops  soon  forced  Canton  to  sur- 
render ;  and  in  the  north  Sir  Henry  Pottinger,  having  cap- 
tured Amoy,  marched  to  the  very  walls  of  Nankin. 
There  a  peace  was  concluded,  by  which  the  island  Aug.  29, 
of  Hong  Kong  was  given  up  to  Britain;  and,  be-  1842 
sides  Canton,  the  four  ports  of  Amoy,  Foo-choo,  A.  D. 
Ningpo,  and  Shanghae  were  opened  to  foreign  trade. 

In  1843  riots  in  opposition  to  toll-bars  took  place  in 
Wales.  The  rioters  called  themselves '  Rebekah's  daughters', 
from  Gen.  xxiv.  60,  where  Rebekah's  relatives  pray  that  her 
seed  may  possess  the  gates  of  their  enemies ;  and,  to  support  their 
assumed  sex,  they  wore  women's  night-caps  and  bed  gowns. 

(3*)  21 


322  CONQUEST  OF  SINDE  AND  THE  PUNJAUB. 

During  the  riots,  which  lasted  until  the  close  of  the  year, 
every  turnpike  in  South  Wales  was  destroyed.  At  the  same 
time  the  agitation  in  Ireland  for  a  Repeal  of  the  Union 
reached  its  crisis.  The  collection  known  as  the  Repeal  Rent, 
which  was  made  at  the  doors  of  the  Romish  chapels  in  aid  of 
O'Connell,  amounted  in  1843  to  ,£48,000.  Monster  meetings 
were  held  at  Tara,  the  site  of  the  ancient  Irish  capital,  and 
other  places.  Clontarf,  the  scene  of  Brian  Boru's  victory 
over  the  Danes,  was  chosen  as  a  fitting  place  for  one  of 
these  ;  but  the  Lord-Lieutenant  sent  soldiers  to  occupy  the 
ground.  O'Connell  and  six  others  were  then  brought  to 
trial,  and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  two  years ;  but  they 
were  soon  released.  O'Connell  died  at  Genoa  on  the  15th 
of  May  1847,  aged  seventy-two. 

The  Disruption  in  the  Church  of  Scotland  occurred  in  1843. 
It  was  occasioned  by  certain  decisions  in  the  supreme  civil 
tribunals,  which  overturned  sentences  that  had  been  passed 
by  the  Ecclesiastical  Courts  of  the  Church  of  Scotland.  A 
large  party  in  the  Church,  considering  that  her  independence 
was  by  this  means  invaded,  and  her  efficiency  injured,  sepa- 
rated from  the  State,  and  formed  themselves  into  the  Free 
Church.  About  the  same  time  the  Church  of  England  was 
much  disturbed  by  the  movements  of  the  Puseyite  or  Trac- 
tarian  party,  who  thought  that  the  forms  of  worship  should 
be  brought  nearer  to  those  of  the  Romish  Church.  They 
derived  their  first  name  from  theirleader,  Dr.  Pusey  of  Oxford. 

During  the  Afghan  war  Sinde,  a  district  of  50,000  square 
miles  with  a  sea  coast  of  150  miles,  lying  round  the  mouths 
of  the  Indus,  was  occupied  by  British  troops.  The  Ameers 
or  rulers  of  Sinde  objected  to  this,  and  an  attack  was  made 
on  the  British  Residency  at  Hydrabad.  Major  Outrarn,  who 
had  only  100  men,  retreating  skilfully  after  a  gallant  defence, 
joined  the  main  army  under  Sir  Charles  Napier.  A  few  days 
later  the  British  won  the  battle  of  Meeanee,  and  a  second 
victory  near  Hydrabad  completed  the  conquest  of  Sinde. 

North-east  of  Sinde,  higher  up  the  Indus,  lies  the  great 
district  of  the  Punjaub,  watered  by  five  large  rivers,  and 
thence  deriving  its  name,  from  the  Persian  words  which  mean 
'  five  waters.'  The  country  was  then  held  by  the  warlike 
Sikhs,  who  had  seized  it  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century 
One  of  their  princes,  Rnnjeet  Singh,  had  been  a  firm  friend  to 


REPEAL  OF  THE  CORN  LAWS.  323 

the  British ;  but  his  death  in  1839  caused  a  bloody  strife  for 
the  throne,  during  which  an  unprovoked  attack  was  made 
on  a  British  force  stationed  at  Moodkee.  The  Sikhs  were  re- 
pulsed with  loss  ;  but  they  were  no  mean  foes, — they  had 
fine  horses,  and  their  gunners  were  drilled  by  European 
officers  of  artillery.  The  British  army,  under  Sir  Hugh 
Gough  and  Sir  Henry  Hardinge,  then  moved  upon  the  Sikh 
camp  at  Ferozeshah,  and  took  it  after  two  days'  hard  fight- 
ing. The  Sikhs  fled  across  the  Sutlej.  The  victories  of 
Aliwal  on  the  26th  of  January  1846,  and  Sobraon  a  fort- 
night later,  opened  the  path  of  the  British  soldiers  to  Lahore, 
the  capital  of  the  Punjaub,  where  a  treaty  was  signed.  But 
in  1849  the  war  broke  out  again.  The  Sikhs,  strongly  posted 
at  Chillianwalla  on  the  Jhelum,  were  attacked  by  Lord 
Gough  on  the  13th  of  January,  and  a  victory  was  won ;  but 
the  loss  of  the  British  was  so  severe  that  their  leader  was 
greatly  blamed  for  risking  the  engagement.  However,  on 
the  21st  of  February  at  Gujerat  Gough  utterly  routed  an 
immense  host  of  Sikhs,  and  thus  redeemed  his  fame.  The 
Punjaub  was  shortly  afterwards,  by  a  proclamation  of  the 
Governor-General,  annexed  to  our  Indian  Empire. 

The  most  important  political  event  of  Victoria's  reign  was 
the  Repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws.  In  1841  the  Anti-Corn-Law 
League  was  formed  in  Lancashire  in  support  of  Free-trade 
principles.  Its  leading  spirit  was  Richard  Cobden,  a  mill- 
owner  of  Manchester.  Sir  Robert  Peel,  who  became  Prime 
Minister  in  1841,  was  at  first  in  favour  of  high  duties  on 
foreign  corn,  but  in  1845  his  opinions  on  the  subject  changed. 
All  who  lived  by  agriculture,  the  landowners,  the  farmers, 
and  the  labouring  classes,  wished  to  keep  foreign  grain  out 
of  the  country,  in  the  mistaken  belief  that  it  was  their  in- 
terest, by  high  duties,  to  keep  up  the  price  of  corn  grown  at 
home.  This  long  depressed  the  commerce  of  the  country ; 
but  in  the  end  the  cause  of  Free-trade  triumphed, 
and  the  duty  on  wheat  from  abroad  was  reduced  June  26, 
to  Is.  a  quarter.  Two  days  afterwards  Sir  Robert  1846 
Peel  resigned,  and  Lord  John  Russell  became  A.D. 
Premier. 

In  1845  a  blight  fell  upon  the  potato  crop,  which  caused 
Bore  famine  and  fever  in  Ireland.    Generous  aid  was  sent  to 


324  TUMULTS  OF  1848. 

the  starving  peasants  from  Britain  and  America ;  but  between 
death  and  emigration  the  population  was  lessened  by  nearly 
two  millions. 

A  mania  for  making  railways  now  seized  the  nation. 
Hundreds  of  companies  were  started,  and  everybody  bought 
and  sold  railway  shares.  But  after  the  mania  came  its 
natural  result — the  panic,  when  the  opening  eyes  of  the 
people  discovered  that  half  the  proposed  lines  would  be 
utterly  useless.  Every  newspaper  was  then  full  of  dissolving 
companies,  profitless  shares,  and  bankrupt  speculators.  The 
pressure  of  the  crisis  was  felt  most  severely  in  October  1847. 
However,  this  gloomy  year  saw  the  first  practical  use  of  the 
electric  telegraph. 

In  February  1848  Louis  Philippe  was  driven  from  his 
throne,  and  a  Republic  established  by  the  third  French 
Revolution.  The  exiled  monarch  took  refuge  in  England, 
where  he  died  at  Claremont  in  1850.  Towards  the  close  of 
the  year  Louis  Napoleon,  son  of  the  ex-King  of  Holland  and 
nephew  of  the  great  Emperor,  became  President  of  the 
French  Republic ;  and,  in  four  years  afterwards,  Emperor  of 
the  French  with  the  title  of  Napoleon  III.  The  year  1848 
was  stormy  over  all  Europe.  There  were  tumults  in  Vienna, 
in  Berlin,  and  in  Rome.  There  were  Chartist  riots  in  Eng- 
land, and  a  great  meeting  assembled  on  the  10th  of  April  on 
Kennington  Common,  to  escort  Feargus  O'Connor  to  the  Par- 
liament with  a  petition  embodying  their  demands.  But  the 
streets  were  filled  with  200,000  sturdy  citizens,  sworn  in  as 
special  constables,  and  the  astonished  Chartists  slunk 
quietly  through  the  day's  programme. 

In  Ireland  the  more  violent  members  of  the  Repeal  Society, 
headed  by  William  Smith  O'Brien,  had  formed  themselves 
into  the  '  Young  Ireland  Party,'  and  were  bent  on  war. 
Rebellious  newspapers,  of  which  the  cleverest  and  most 
violent  was  the  '  United  Irishman '  edited  by  John  Mitchell, 
excited  the  people  to  arms.  Groups  of  workmen  were  to  be 
seen  every  day  at  ball-practice  on  the  sands  or  in  the  fields. 
But  all  ended  in  nothing.  A  feeble  rising  under  O'Brien  and 
others  took  place  in  Tipperary ;  but  it  was  suppressed  by  a 
few  policemen.  The  leaders  were  soon  taken ;  four  of  them 
were  condemned  to  death ;  but  the  sentence  was  afterwards 


THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION.  325 

changed  to  exile.    Since  then  they  have  been  released  one 
by  one,  or  allowed  to  escape. 

A  change  in  the  Navigation  Laws ;  a  visit  of  her  Majesty 
to  Ireland,  where  she  was  heartily  welcomed ;  and  the  death 
of  Adelaide,  the  Queen-dowager,  were  the  chief  domestic 
events  of  1849. 

On  the  29th  of  June  1850  Sir  Kobert  Peel  fell  from  his 
horse,  and  four  days  afterwards  he  died  from  the  effects  of 
the  accident.  He  was  in  his  sixty-third  year.  A  striking 
event  of  the  same  year  was  the  Papal  Aggression,  when  the 
Pope,  Pius  IX.,  strove,  by  creating  Cardinal  Wiseman  Arch- 
bishop of  Westminster,  to  re-establish  in  Britain  the  Romish 
hierarchy  abolished  by  Elizabeth.  The  attempt  was  met 
with  a  storm  of  opposition,  which  taught  Rome  how  slight 
a  hold  she  has  on  the  mass  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race. 

One  of  the  last  hours  of  Peel's  useful  life  was  spent  in 
discussing  the  plans  for  the  Great  Exhibition  of  the  Indus- 
try of  all  Nations.    To  Prince  Albert  is  due  the  credit  of 
starting  the  first  idea  of  this  great  enterprise.    It  was  indeed 
a  splendid  success.    A  palace  of  iron  and  glass — the  strong- 
est and  the  frailest  of  building  materials — designed  by  the 
genius  of  Sir  Joseph  Paxton,  was  raised  in  Hyde  Park, 
enclosing   many   acres  with    its  walls    and    overarching 
lofty  trees  with  its  crystal  roof.    There  were  gathered  arti- 
cles of  every  kind  from  every  land ;  and  for  five 
summer  months,  day  after  day,  wondering  thou-     May  1 
sands  thronged  the  courts  of  the  vast  building.    Its        to 
grand  results  were  two :  It  gave  a  great  impulse    Oct.  14, 
to  every  branch  of  our  manufactures  and  our  arts  ;     1851 
•while,  by  drawing  together  men  of  every  com-      A.D. 
plexion,  costume,  and  national  character,  who  met 
under  the  same  roof  for  the  same  peaceful  end,  it  could  not 
fail  to  cause  a  kindlier  feeling  among  the  nations  of  earth. 
Similar  Exhibitions  took  pla.ce  at  Dublin  in  1853,  and  at 
Paris  in  1855. 

In  February  1851  the  Russell  Ministry,  being  defeated, 
resigned ;  but  by  the  advice  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington 
they  were  restored  to  office.  A  war  with  the  Caffres,  our 
troublesome  neighbours  at  the  Cape,  broke  out  in  the 
same  year  ;  and  it  was  not  until  1853  that  they  were 


326  ANNEXATION  OF  PEGU. 

subdued.  The  Exhibition  year  was  further  remarkable  for 
the  discovery  of  gold  in  Australia,  by  which  great  streams 
of  emigrants  were  drawn  from  our  shores  to  the  '  diggings.' 

A  second  Burmese  war  broke  out  in  1852.  The  governor 
of  Rangoon  having  ill-treated  the  commanders  of  two  Bri- 
tish vessels,  Commodore  Lambert  was  sent  by  the  Indian 
Government  to  demand  compensation.  He  was  met  with  an 
insulting  refusal.  A  second  attempt  to  arrange  the  difficulty 
also  failed ;  and  a  British  army  then  entered  Burmah.  Mar- 
taban  on  the  shore,  Rangoon  on  the  eastern  branch  of  the 
Irrawaddy,  and  Pegu  on  the  river  of  the  same  name  were 
soon  captured.  A  determined  effort  of  the  Burmese  to  re- 
cover Pegu  was  bravely  met  by  Major  Hill  of  the  Madras 
Fusiliers.  Notwithstanding  these  severe  losses,  the  Court  of 
Ava  still  refused  to  treat  with  the  Indian  Government ;  and 
the  Province  of  Pegu  was  therefore  annexed  to  the  British 
dominions  by  proclamation. 

Early  in  1852  Lord  Derby  and  Mr.  Disraeli  succeeded 
Lord  John  Russell  in  the  direction  of  affairs ;  but  before  the 
close  of  the  year  they  gave  place  to  a  Cabinet,  of  which  the 
Earl  of  Aberdeen  as  Premier,  Lord  John  Russell  as  Foreign 
Secretary,  and  Lord  Palmerston  as  Home  Secretary,  were 
the  leading  members. 

On  the  14th  of  September  in  the  same  year  the  '  Iron 
Duke,'  or  the  '  Hero  of  a  hundred  fights,'  as  he  was  proudly 
called  by  his  grateful  countrymen,  died  at  Walmer  Castle, 
aged  eighty-three.  On  the  18th  of  November  his  coffin  was 
borne  with  warlike  honours  to  St.  Paul's,  where  lay  the  dust 
of  Nelson. 

There  had  been  no  great  European  war  since  Waterloo ; 
but  Russia  having  seized  the  Principalities  of  Moldavia  and 
Wallachia,  which  are  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  Turkish 
dominions  by  the  Danube,  the  balance  of  power  was  dis- 
turbed. France  and  Britain  formed  an  alliance  in  aid  of  the 
Sultan,  and  sent  their  fleets  into  the  Black  Sea.  The  Rus- 
sian ambassador  soon  left  London,  and  war  was  formally 
declared  on  the  28th  of  March  1854. 

The  first  operation  of  the  war  was  the  bombardment  of 
Odessa.  Then  followed  the  noble  defence  of  Silistria  by  the 
Turks,  who  drove  the  Russian  troops  across  the  Danube 


THE  CRIMEAN  WAR.  327 

Sir  Charles  Napier,  commanding  the  Baltic  fleet,  destroyed 
the  batteries  of  Bomarsund,  and  reconnoitred  the  great  for- 
tress of  Cronstadt,  which  guards  the  approach  to  the  Rus- 
sian capital. 

But  the  Crimea  was  the  great  theatre  of  war.    An  army 
of  56,000  men,  under  Marshal  St.  Arnaud  and  Lord  Raglan, 
landed  at  Eupatoria  on  the  14th  of  September.    As  they 
pressed  southward  along  the  shore,  they  found  50,000  Russians 
lining  the  steep  slopes  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Alma. 
In  three  hours  the  passage  of  the  river  was  forced,    Sept.  20, 
and  the  Russians  fell  back  on  their  great  stronghold.     1 8  54 
The  Allies  then  took  up  a  position  to  the  south  of      A.D. 
Sebastopol.     Behind  the  British,  some  ten  miles 
distant,  was  the  port  of  Balaklava,  where  lay  their  ships  and 
stores.    On  the  17th  of  October  the  city  was  attacked  by 
land  and  sea.    But  the  Russians  had  made  good  use  of  their 
time,  and  the  works,  strong  before,  were  now  almost  im- 
pregnable. 

A  Russian  attack  on  the  British  lines  at  Balaklava  was 
noblyrepulsed.    The  brilliant  though  useless  charge 
of  the  Light  Cavalry  Brigade  upon  the  Russian     Oct.  25. 
cannon  will  be  long  remembered.    Near  the  ruins 
of  Inkermann,  on  the  extreme  right  of  the  British  position, 
a  still  more  glorious  victory  was  won.    In  the  dusk  of  a 
November  morning  the  sentinels  saw  the  gray-coated  Rus- 
sians close  upon  them  in  overwhelming  numbers,  bent  upon 
forcing  the  lines.     Hastily  a  few  troops  ran  to  the 
front ;  volley  after  volley  awoke  the  camp ;  officers     Nov.  5. 
and  men  fought  shoulder  to  shoulder ;  French  aid 
arrived ;  and,  before  the  short  day  had  closed,  the  Russians 
were  in  full  retreat,  leaving  on  the  field  one-fourth  of  their 
number. 

During  the  winter  the  troops  suffered  greatly  from  want 
of  food  and  shelter,  although  ships  laden  with  abundant 
stores  lay  thick  in  Balaklava  harbour.  A  motion,  brought 
forward  by  Mr.  Roebuck,  taxing  the  Ministry  with  mis- 
management of  the  war,  was  passed  in  the  Commons  by  a 
majority  of  157  votes.  The  Earl  of  Aberdeen  then  resigned, 
and  Lord  Palmerston  became  Premier.  More  active  mea- 
sures were  at  once  taken.  A  railway  soon  ran  from  Balak- 


328  FALL  OF  SEBASTOPOL. 

lava  to  the  camp ;  and  then  was  seen  the  strange  spectacle 
of  a  locomotive  puffing  to  the  field  of  war  with  biscuit,  beef, 
and  rum,  or  with  a  deadly  load  of  shot  and  shell.  There 
were  other  novel  features  in  this  Russian  war,  unknown  to 
the  heroes  of  Vittoria  and  Waterloo.  An  electric  wire  passed 
from  the  Crimea,  under  the  Black  Sea,  to  the  shore  near 
Varna,  and  thence  to  London,  where  every  turn  in  the 
great  struggle  was  known  an  hour  or  two  after  its  occur- 
rence. The  leading  newspapers,  too,  had  reporters  in  the 
camp.  Of  these  the  most  distinguished  was  Dr.  William 
Russell,  the  special  correspondent  of  the  '  Times,'  whose 
'Letters  on  the  War'  have  made  him  famous. 

On  the  2d  of  March  1855  the  Czar  Nicholas  died ;  but  the 
war  still  went  on  under  his  son  Alexander.  An  expedition 
to  Kertch  and  the  Sea  of  Azov,  in  May  1855,  destroyed 
many  Russian  ships  and  towns.  Sardinia  having  joined  the 
Anglo-French  alliance,  her  troops,  in  conjunction  with  the 

French,  won  a  brilliant  victory  on  the  banks  of  the 

Aug.  16,    Tchernaya.    Twice  during  the  war  the  French  and 

1855     British  leaders  were  changed.    St.  Arnaud,  dying 

A.D.      after  the  victory  of  Alma,  was  followed  by  Can- 

robert,  who  in  May  1855  gave  place  to  the  victorious 
Pelissier.  In  the  following  month  Lord  Raglan  died  of 
cholera ;  General  Simpson  then  took  the  command ;  but  he 
was  soon  displaced  by  Sir  William  Codrington. 

The  Russian  earthworks,  to  which  their  engineers  had 
learned  to  trust  rather  than  to  granite  walls,  were  forced  at 

last.  The  French,  already  masters  of  the  Mame- 
Sept.  8.  Ion,  took  the  Malakoff  Tower  with  a  brilliant  dash. 

At  the  same  time  a  British  forlorn-hope  seized  the 
Redan ;  but  Russian  guns,  sweeping  it  from  every  side, 
forced  them  to  retreat  with  heavy  loss.  During  the  next 
night  Gortschakoff  led  the  Russian  garrison  across  the  har- 
bour to  the  northern  part  of  the  city ;  which,  however,  they 
held  but  a  short  time.  Before  their  flight  they  sank  their 
ships,  which  still  lie  rotting  in  the  water.  All  the  batteries 
and  great  dockyards  were  blown  up  by  the  Allies ;  and  the 
grand  fortress  of  Southern  Russia  is  now  a  heap  of  ruins. 

During  the  summer  of  1855  Admiral  Dundas,  who  had 
superseded  Sir  Charles  Napier  in  the  command  of  the  Bnl- 


THE  INDIAN  MUTINY.  329 

tic  fleet,  inflicted  a  severe  blow  upon  Russia  by  the  bom- 
bardment of  Sveaborg. 

The  Russian  war  raged  also  in  Circassia,  where  the  dis- 
tinguished Schamyl  fought  against  the  troops  of  the  Czar. 
Kars  was  the  central  point  of  attack,  and  was  nobly  de- 
fended by  General  Williams,  until  a  want  of  reinforcements 
compelled  him  to  surrender. 

Crippled  both  in  the  Baltic  and  the  Black  Seas,  Russia 
at  last  sought  for  peace ;  and  the  final  treaty  was  signed  at 
Paris  in  March  1856. 

Late  in  1856  a  war  with  China  began.  It  arose  from  an 
outrage  offered  by  the  Chinese  to  a  vessel  sailing  under  the 
British  flag.  The  most  remarkable  event  of  the  war  was  the 
seizure  of  Canton  by  the  French  and  British  troops.  The 
latest  despatches  from  the  East  announce  that  a  treaty  has 
been  made,  throwing  all  China  open  to  the  missionaries  and 
merchants  of  Europe.  About  the  same  time  British  forces 
entered  Persia— an  old  ally  of  Russia — while  a  British  fleet 
sailed  up  the  Persian  Gulf.  Herat  and  Bushire  were  soon 
taken,  and  the  Court  of  Teheran  then  sued  for  peace.  * 

However,  the  topic  of  greatest  interest,  since  the  Russian 
war,  has  been  the  Mutiny  of  the  Sepoys,  which  still  con- 
vulses Bengal,  although  the  gallant  Colin  Campbell — now 
Baron  Clyde  of  Clydesdale — has  done  very  much  to  check 
its  violence.  Its  outbreak  at  Meerut  in  the  spring  of  1857, 
the  story  of  the  greased  cartridges,  the  hideous  massacre  at 
Cawnpore,  the  siege  of  Delhi,  the  relief  of  Lucknow,  the 
death  of  the  heroic  Havelock,  and  the  fall  of  Bareilly  are 
still  fresh  in  every  memory ;  and  bitter  tears  are  still  drop- 
ping in  Britain  for  those  whose  graves  are  far  away. 

The  close  of  1857  was  a  gloomy  time  in  the  commercial 
world.  Mad  speculations  having  plunged  the  traders  of 
America  into  difficulties,  the  effect  was  severely  felt  in 
Europe.  Many  long-established  houses  of  business  failed. 
Those  that  were  working  without  capital,  on  accommoda- 
tion bills,  speedily  fell ;  and  in  the  crash  more  than  one  of 
our  banks  came  down,  ruined  by  those  to  whom  they  had 
advanced  money  with  reckless  imprudence.  It  was  the  old 
story  of  1720  and  1797,  of  1825  and  1847,  told  over  again— 
men,  rich  on  paper,  dreaming  that  they  are  rich  in  gold. 


330  EVENTS  OF  LATE  YEARS. 

Early  in  1858  Lord  Palmerslon's  Cabinet  gave  place  to  a  Conservative 
Ministry,  of  which  the  Earl  of  Derby  was  Premier,  and  Mr.  Disraeli 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer.  The  chief  political  events  of  their  admin- 
istration were  the  passing  of  two  Bills, — one  for  the  better  government 
of  India,  and  the  other  for  the  admission  of  Jews  into  Parliament.  By 
the  former,  the  East  India  Company  ceased  to  have  a  political  exist- 
ence on  the  1st  of  September  1858,  and  the  government  of  India  became 
vested  in  a  Council  of  Fifteen,  presided  over  by  a  Secretary  of  State. 
By  the  latter,  Baron  Rothschild  took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Commons 
as  member  for  the  City  of  London. 

Upon  the  resignation  of  Lord  Derby  in  June  1859,  Lord  Palmerston 
was  called  to  office,  with  Mr.  Gladstone  as  his  Chancellor  of  Exchequer. 
Among  the  first  works  of  the  new  Cabinet  were  the  enrolment  of  the 
Volunteers,  and  the  concluding  of  an  important  commercial  treaty  with 
France.  Chinese  treachery  led  to  a  renewal  of  war  in  that  distant  land. 
Storming  the  forts  at  the  mouth  of  the  Peiho,  and  beating  the  Celes- 
tials in  two  battles,  an  Anglo-French  army  scaled  the  walls  of  Pekin 
(October  13,  1860),  and  dictated  peace  in  the  palace  of  the  banished 
Emperor.  Within  the  same  month  the  treaty  of  Tien-tsin  was  ratified, 
— Lord  Elgin  representing  Great  Britain.  Many  of  our  countrymen 
took  a  share  in  that  brilliant  campaign  of  Garibaldi,  which  opened  on 
the  shore  of  Marsala  in  Sicily  (May  11, 1860),  and  closed  at  Naples  by 
the  proclamation  of  Victor  Emanuel  as  king  of  new-born  Italy.  Gaeta, 
where  the  fallen  Bourbon  made  his  last  stand,  held  out  formany  mouths. 

The  census,  taken  in  March  1861,  shewed  the  population  of  the 
British  Isles  to  be  29,334,788.  The  most  notable  events  of  that  year 
beyond  the  circle  of  our  Empire  were  the  opening  at  Charleston  of  the 
American  civil  war  and  the  death  of  Count  Cavour. 

Two  heavy  blows  then  fell  upon  our  beloved  Queen.  March  saw  her 
weeping  for  a  mother  dead  :  December  saw  her  a  widow.  Leaving  a 
blank  in  the  royal  home  that  can  never  be  filled  again,  Albert,  Prince- 
Consort,  died  at  Windsor  of  typhoid  fever,  December  14,  1861.  Long 
shall  British  Art  and  Science  miss  his  fostering  hand  and  kindly 
counsel !  Four  sons  and  five  daughters,  fair  blossoms  of  nearly  twenty- 
two  years  of  happy  married  life,  remain  to  console  the  royal  lady, 
whose  crown  has  now  become  "a  lonely  splendour."  Her  eldest 
daughter  went,  four  years  ago,  to  grace  the  Prussian  Court  as  the  wife 
of  Prince  Frederick  William,  heir-apparent  to  that  great  monarchy. 

Chiefly  by  the  exertions  of  Mr.  Rowland  Hill,  the  Penny  Post  was 
made  general  throughout  the  United  Kingdom  in  1840 ;  since  which 
six  times  as  many  letters  have  passed  through  the  post  every  year. 
The  Thames  Tunnel  was  completed  and  opened  in  1843.  Lord  Rosse 
finished  his  great  telescope  in  1844.  Many  new  planets  have  been 
since  discovered;  amongst  them  Astrea  in  1845,  Neptune  in  1846, 
and  Victoria  in  1850.  In  1849  the  Queen's  Colleges  in  Ireland  were 
opened  at  Belfast,  Cork,  and  Galway.  The  Britannia  Tubular  Bridge 


NOTES  OF  PROGRESS. 


331 


was  stretched  across  the  Menai  Strait  in  1850.  The  Submarine  Tele- 
graph from  Dover  to  Calais  in  1851,  and  that  from  England  to  Ireland 
in  1852,  mark  the  steps  which  led  to  the  great  but  as  yet  unsuc- 
cessful Atlantic  Cable  of  1858.  In  1853  the  North- West  Passage  was 
discovered  by  Captain  M'Clure.  In  1858  the  Leviathan,  or  Great 
Eastern, — the  largest  ship  ever  built, — was  launched  on  the  Thames, 
from  Mr.  Scott  Russell's  ship-yard.  The  yacht  Fox  (Captain  M'Clin- 
tock),  returning  in  1859  from  the  Arctic  Seas,  brought  back  the  sad 
news  of  the  death  of  Sir  John  Franklin  and  his  gallant  band  of  ex- 
plorers, who  sailed  from  Greenwich  in  1845  in  the  Erebus  and  Terror. 


CONTEMPORARY  SOVEREIGNS. 


FRANCE. 

X.D. 

LOUIS  PHILIPPE.detnron'd  1848 

REPUBLIC,  ceased 1852 

NAPOLEON  III. 

SPAIN. 
ISABELLA  II. 


SWEDEN. 

CHS.  JOHN  BEENADOTTE,  1844 
OSCAR  I. 


RUSSIA. 

NICHOLAS, 

ALEXANDER  II. 


.1855 


PRUSSIA. 

FRED.  WILLIAM  III.,  died  1840 
FRED.  WILLIAM  IV. 

TURKEY. 

MOHAMMED  VI 1839 

ABDUL  MEDJID. 


AUSTRIA. 

FERDINAND  I., 1848 

FRANCIS  JOSEPH  I. 

POPES. 

GREGORY  XVI., 1847 

PIUS  IX. 


LEADING  AUTHORS  UNDER  VICTORIA. 


ROBERT  SOUTHEY, 


THOMAS  CAMPBELL,. 


(1774-1843)— native  of  Bristol— chief 
poems,  'Joan  of  Arc'  and  'Tha- 
laba' — lived  near  Keswickin  Cum- 
berland, hence  one  of  the  Lake 
School  —  made  Poet-laureate  in 
1813 — wrote  also  a  fine  '  Life  of 
Nelson,'  and  several  Histories. 

.(1777-1844) — born  and  educated  in 
Glasgow — author  of  '  Pleasures  of 
Hope' — more  admired  for  his 
•warlike  ballads,  such  as  'The  Bat- 
tle of  the  Baltic'  and  'Ye  Mariners 
of  England.' 


332  LEADING  AUTHORS. 

WILLIAM  WORDSWORTH, (1770-1850)— born  at  Cockermouth— 

one  of  the  Lake  Poets— chief  works, 
'  The  Excursion '  and  the  '  White 
Doe  of  Rylstone'  — Poefc-laureate 
after  Southej.  Many  of  his  poems 
describe  common  events  iu  every- 
day words. 

THOMAS  MOORB (1780-1851)— an  Irish  lyric  poet- 
author  of  '  Lalla  Rookh '  a  set  of 
Eastern  Tales  ;  and  of  the  '  Irish 
Melodies' — lived  chiefly  in  London 
— wrote  also  prose  works. 

JOHN  LINGARD, (1769-1851)- a  Romish  priest-wrote 

a  History  of  England  up  to  the 
Revolution  —  accurate  in  general 
though  leaning  towards  Rome. 

SAMUEL  ROGERS, (1762-1855)  —  a  London  banker- 
chief  poems,  the  '  Pleasures  of 
Memory,'  and  '  Italy.' 

LORD  MACATJLAY, (1800-1859)— the  finest  historian  of 

the  day — chief  work,  '  History  of 
England,'  of  which  four  vols.  are 
published,  givingthe  reign  of  James 
II.  and  part  of  William  III.,  with 
a  sketch  of  earlier  history — dis- 
tinguished also  as  the  author  of 
'  The  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome.' 


SIR  ARCHIBALD  ALISON, A  Scottish  lawyer— author  of  a  His- 
tory of  the  French  Revolution,  and 
a  '  History  of  Europe '  in  Napo- 
leon's time. 

SIR  DAVID  EREWSTER, Editor  of  the  'Edinburgh  Encyclo- 
paedia ; '  begun  1808,  ended  1830- 
wrote  '  Letters  on  Natural  Magic ' 
and  a  '  Life  of  Newton ' — famous 
for  his  discoveries  in  Optics. 

SIR  E.  BULWER  LTTTON, A  statesman,  novelist,  and  dramatist 

— author  of  'Rienzi,'and  '  Last  of 
the  Barons,'  &c.;  and  of  the  well- 
known  play, '  The  Lady  of  Lyons.' 

THOMAS  CARLYLE, An  eccentric  but  talented  writer- 
chief  works,  '  Sartor  Resartus' and  a 
'  History  of  the  French  Revolution. 

CHARLES  DICKENS, A  distinguished    novelist— assumed 


LEADING  ARTISTS  AND  INVENTORS.  333 

name  Boz — author  of  '  The  Pick- 
wick Papers/ '  Old  Curiosity  Shop/ 
'  David  Copperfield/  &c. 

SHERIDAN  KNOWLES, Best  dramatist  of  our  day— chief 

works,  'Virginius/  'William  Tell/ 
the  '  Hunchback. ' 

ALFRED  TENNYSON, The  present  Poet-laureate— author  of 

'  The  Princess,'  '  In  Memoriam/ 
'Maud/  &c. 

WILLIAM  M.  THACKERAY,...  A  distinguished  novelist  and  lecturer 

— assumed  name,  'Michael  Angelo 
Titmarsh  '  —  author  of  'Vanity 
Fair/  '  Pendennis/  '  The  New- 
comes/  '  Lectures  on  the  Four 
Georges/  &c. 

LEADING  ARTISTS. 

SIR  DAVID  WILKIE, (1785-1841)  —  born  in  Fifeshire  — 

famed  for  his  paintings  of  Scottish 
peasant  life  —  chief  works,  his 
'Blind  Fiddler/  '  Village  Festival/ 
and  '  John  Knox  preaching  before 
Queen  Mary.' 

SIB  FRANCIS  CHANTREY, (1782-1848)— native  of  Derbyshire 

— a  distinguished  sculptor — finest 
work,  '  Alonument  of  Two  Sisters 
in  Lichfield  Cathedral/ 

JOSEPH  M.  W.  TURNER, (1775-1851)— one  of  the  best  land- 
scape painters  of  the  English  School 
— painted  also  several  historical 
pictures — died  under  an  assumed 
name  in  ah  mnble  lodging  in  London. 

LEADING  INVENTORS,  ETC. 

SIR  ISAMBARD  BRUNEL (1769-1849)— a  distinguished  engineer 

— greatest  work,  '  The  Thames 
Tunnel;'  begun  1826,  finished  1843. 

GEORGE  STEPHENSON, (1781-1848)— born  at  Wylam,  North- 
umberland —  the  great  Railway 
Engineer — inventor  of  the  Loco- 
motive Engine — died  at  Tapton, 
aged  67.  His  son  Robert  is  dis- 
tinguished as  the  engineer  of  the 
Tubular  Bridge  over  the  Menai 
Strait. 

SIR  JOSEPH  PAXTON, Still  living— once  gardener  to  the 

Duke  of  Devonshire — designer  of 
the  Crystal  Palace  of  1851. 


334  THE  ESTATES  OF  THE  REALM. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  BRITISH  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 


The  Three  Estates. 
The  Sovereign. 
The  Lords. 
The  Commons. 
The  Cabinet. 


Making  of  the  Laws. 
Their  Administration. 
Various  Courts. 
Revenue. 
Expenditure. 


THE  Three  Estates  of  the  British  realm  are  the  Sovereign, 
the  Lords,  and  the  Commons.  Thus  the  Constitution  is  not 
a  pure  monarchy,  a  pure  aristocracy,  or  a  pure  democracy, 
but  a  compound  of  all  three  ;  and  in  this  chiefly  lies  its 
strength. 

The  office  of  Sovereign  is  hereditary ;  and  no  lingering 
remnant  of  barbarism,  called  a  Salic  Law,  excludes  a  woman 
from  the  British  throne.  The  chief  branches  of  the  royal 
prerogative  are  :  The  Sovereign  alone  can  make  war  or 
peace  ;  he  alone  can  pardon  those  who  break  the  laws ;  he 
alone  can  prorogue,  dissolve,  or  call  a  Parliament ;  he  can 
prevent  a  law  from  passing  by  refusing  to  sign  it, — but  this 
our  Sovereigns  seldom  or  never  do ;  no  money  can  be  coined 
but  by  his  command  ;  all  ranks  of  nobility  are  created  by 
him.  But,  while  he  can  do  all  this,  he  is  bound,  as  much  as 
any  of  his  subjects,  to  keep  the  laws. 

Two  kinds  of  Lords  sit  in  the  Upper  House, — Lords  spi- 
ritual and  Lords  temporal.  There  are  thirty  Lords  spirit- 
ual, twenty-six  prelates  of  the  Church  of  England  and  four 
Irish  prelates — one  Archbishop  and  three  Bishops — who  hold 
their  seats  for  a  year,  and  then  yield  to  the  next  four  in 
order.  The  number  of  Lords  temporal  is  unsettled,  and  can 
be  increased  by  the  Sovereign.  They  are  of  five  ranks — 
Dukes,  Marquises,  Earls,  Viscounts,  and  Barons.  Sixteen 
Scottish  and  twenty-eight  Irish  nobles,  elected  by  their 
brother  Peers,  sit  in  the  House  of  Lords,  which  is  on  the 
whole  an  hereditary  body,  and  is  the  highest  law-court  in 
the  Empire. 

There  are  six  hundred  and  fifty-four  members  in  the  House 
of  Commons.  England  and  Wales  are  represented  by  four 


THE  CABINET  MINISTERS.  335 

hundred  and  ninety-six;  Scotland  by  fifty-three;  and  Ire- 
land by  one  hundred  and  five.  Members  are  returned  by 
counties,  cities,  and  boroughs,  and  some  of  the  Universities. 
The  chief  power  of  the  Commons  has  been  already  noticed 
more  than  once.  They  command  all  the  supplies,  and  can 
thus  effectually  control  the  Sovereign.  No  Parliament  can 
sit  longer  than  seven  years ;  and  a  new  one  must  be  called 
within  six  months  after  the  accession  of  a  new  Sovereign. 

The  Sovereign  rules  through  his  Ministers,  the  chief  of 
whom  form  the  Cabinet.  The  Cabinet  is  now  composed  of, — 

The  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  or  the  Premier ; 

The  Lord  Chancellor ; 

The  Lord  Privy  Seal ; 

The  President  of  the  Council ; 

The  Home  Secretary ; 

The  Foreign  Secretary ; 

The  Colonial  Secretary; 

The  Indian  Secretary ; 

The  War  Secretary ; 

The  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer ; 

The  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty ; 

The  President  of  the  Board  of  Trade ; 

The  President  of  the  Poor  Law  Board ; 

The  Postmaster  General ; 

The  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster ; 

The  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland. 

When  these  are  defeated  on  any  important  Bill,  they 
generally  resign.  Then  the  usual  course  is  for  the  Sove- 
reign to  send  for  the  leader  of  Opposition,  and  intrust  him 
with  the  formation  of  a  new  Government.  The  Cabinet 
Ministers  form,  as  it  were,  a  Committee  of  the  Privy 
Council,  which  is  a  large  body  of  advisers,  selected  from  the 
most  prominent  men  in  the  kingdom. 

New  laws  may  be  proposed  in  either  House  of  Parliament. 
Proposing  a  law  is  called  bringing  in  a  Bill.  Every  Bill 
must  be  read  and  passed  by  a  majority  of  votes  three  times 
in  each  House  before  it  can  be  laid  before  the  Sovereign  for 
signature.  Not  until  it  has  gone  through  these  seven  stages 


336 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  JUSTICE. 


does  the  Bill  become  an  Act  of  Parliament  and  a  law  of  the 
land.  Money-bills  must  originate  in  the  Commons.  The 
Lords  may  reject,  but  cannot  alter  them. 

The  administration  of  British  law  is  founded  on  three 
great  principles — the  Jury,  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act,  and  the 
independence  of  the  Judges.  In  England  and  Ireland  a 
Grand  Jury  sit  to  judge  whether  the  case  is  fit  to  go  to 
trial ;  then  a  second  Jury  of  twelve  decide  upon  the  case, 
and  must  be  unanimous  in  their  verdict  of  Guilty  or  Not 
Guilty.  In  Scotland  there  is  no  Grand  Jury — a  Jury  of 
fifteen  try  the  case,  and  return  a  verdict  of  Guilty,  Not 
Guilty,  or  Not  Proven,  by  a  majority  of  votes. 

There  are  various  Courts  in  which  the  Statute-law,  the 
Common-law,  and  the  law  of  Equity  are  administered. 
Statute-law  is  that  embodied  in  Acts  of  Parliament.  Com- 
mon-law is  the  law  of  old  custom,  and  depends  on  the  de- 
cision of  former  cases.  The  law  of  Equity  applies  to  those 
cases  in  which  the  Sovereign  interferes,  through  the  Lord 
Chancellor,  to  prevent  injustice  arising  from  the  Common- 
law.  The  principal  English  and  Irish  Courts  are  those  of 
Chancery,  Queen's  Bench,  Common  Pleas,  and  Exchequer. 
In  Scotland  the  Court  of  Session  and  the  High  Court  of 
Justiciary  are  the  chief  tribunals.  In  the  country  justice  is 
administered  at  Assizes,  held  generally  twice  a  year  by  those 
Judges  who  go  on  circuit. 

The  revenue  and  expenditure  for  the  year  ending  March 
31st  1858  are  subjoined: — 

GROSS  REVENUE, , .£66,881,513 

GROSS  EXPENDITURE, £70,378,859 


Revenue. 

Customs, £23,109,104 

Excise, 17,825,000 

Stamps, 7,415,719 

Taxes, 3,152,033 

Property-tax, 11,586,114 

Post-Office 2,920,000 

Land, 276,654 

Other  sources, 596,889 


Expenditure. 
Interest  on  National 

Debt, £28,627,103 

Army, 12,915,156 

Navy, 10,590,000 

Other  items, 18,246,600 


LEADING  DATES.  337 

LEADING  DATES  OF  THE  BBUNSWICK  PERIOD. 
GENERAL  EVENTS. 

A.O. 

The  South  Sea  Bubble, 1720 George  I. 

Walpole  resigns, 1742 George  II. 

New  Style  of  reckoning  time, 1752 

Arrest  of  John  Wilkes, 1763 George  HI. 

Trial  of  Warren  Hastings  begins, 1788 

First  English  Eailway  opened, 1830 William  IV. 

Slavery  Abolished  in  British  Colonies, 1833 

The  O'Connell  State  Trials, 1844 Victoria. 

The  Eailway  Panic, 1847 

The  Great  Exhibition  in  Hyde  Park, 1851 

Death  of  Wellington, 1852 

The  Atlantic  Cable  laid  and  failed, 1858 

CONSTITUTIONAL  CHANGES. 

Blot  Act, 1715 George  I. 

Septennial  Act, 1716  — 

The  American  Stamp  Act 1765 George  III. 

Union  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 1801  — 

Catholic  Emancipation  Bill, 1829 George  IV. 

The  Reform  Bill  passed, 1832 William  IV 

The  Corn  Laws  repealed, 1846 Victoria. 

The  India  Bill, 1858 

DOMINION  ACQUIRED  OR  LOST. 

Conquest  of  Bengal,. 1757 George  II. 

Canada,. 1759 

American  Independence  acknowledged, 1783 George  TTT. 

Hong-Kong  acquired, 1842 Victoria. 

Slnde  annexed, 1843 

The  Punjaub  taken, 1849 

WARS,  BATTLES,  TREATIES,  ETC. 

James  the  Pretender  in  Scotland,. 1715 George  I. 

Battle  of  Dettingen, 1743 George  LI. 

Fontenoy, 1745 

Charles  Edward  lands  in  Scotland, — 

Battle  of  Culloden, 174(5 

Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748 

Seven  Years'  War  begins, 1756 

(32)  22 


338  LEADING  DATES. 

A.D. 

First  Peace  of  Paris, 1763 George  in. 

American  War  begins, 1775  — 

Battle  of  Bunker's  Hill, — 

—  Brandywine  River, 1777 

Siege  of  Gibraltar, 1779-1783 

Great  French  Revolution, 1789-1795 

Battle  of  the  Nile, 1798 

Irish  Rebellion...... —  — 

Treaty  of  Amiens, 1802  — 

Battle  of  Trafalgar, 1805 

Peninsular  War  begins, 1806 

War  with  United  States, 1812-1814 

Battle  of  Vittoria, 1813 

—  Waterloo, 1815 

Second  Peace  of  Paris, — 

Algiers  bombarded, 1816 

Battle  of  Navarino, 1827 George  IV. 

—  Aliwal, 1846 Victoria. 

—  Sobraon, — 

—  Chillianwalla, 1849 

—  Gujerat, — 

Russian  War  begins, 1854 

Battle  of  Alma, — 

—  Balaklava, — 

—  Inkermann, — 

Sebastopol  taken, 1855 

Peace  concluded  at  Paris,.. 1856 

The  Indian  Mutiny  begins, 1857 


GENEALOGICAL  TEEE. 


339 


kS                  5 

M 
^5 

")           —  S 

^       .      S 

m 

fa  'g    §0              5 

a  °  70          p 

2                                                 *3   "^    X!                  *^ 

3 

S 

o 

| 

•^      o 

i 

.a 

o 

M 

02 

*>    *<                     7§ 

•^      fl      > 

K 

=3     S     0 

P 

JSWICK. 

leen  of  Prussia, 
EDERIO  the  Great 

•O 

1 

B 

1 

6 

IM 

o 
<u 

fifs|     s 

—  f  •  •§  H  « 
•  3%          i 

§0   ho           0 

W=S 
»"S            j: 

m 

-s 

_s 

o 

cTo)                  <) 

PH 

^PH 

3 

S  M              S 

W 
% 

%         ~ 
P            H 
O            0 

"            1 

1 

I 
SOPHIA 

mother  of 

j           §    1 

-5        -a 
1        ? 
^      _| 

o 

Q                             u 

3 
ft 

>                             „-     . 
1-1                                H    W 

ELEANOR. 

d 

2                                0    g 

0 

H 

S 

o                  t* 

•-J                              0> 

tS.           m 

3                 «  •< 
^                  -^  S 

B 

- 

^ 

hH                                                HH 

t»                                H.  M 

A 

O 

— 

<M 

O  PC) 

^N 

o 

p 

B 

0 

1  S 

o 

.2  ^ 

^ 

H 

a 

f^  ^"n 

g  'S  fe  °^ 

~| 

S 

=fl 

-ills 

P5    a>    53  r^ 

t 

ft 

£             g 

0^^'S 

"A 
§  °  ^ 
=  «  2  "8 

H 

L_g_ 

°i^ 

SI  s 

^  p4  s 

"S3 

5 

w  ^  S 

CM 

ta    °  -^J 

5  o>  « 

<J    H 

fe     g    'S                              in" 

O 

P  ~~"                  ^       '  —  g    3 

1SS  i>  " 

„                           fl    OQ  •"• 

CT  <}     $    ^ 

BRITISH  COLONIES  AND  DEPENDENCIES. 


EUKOPEAN. 


GIBRALTAR — A  rocky  promon- 
tory in  the  south  of  Spain.  Its  extre- 
mity is  called  Europa  Point  It  is  the 
ancient  Calpe.  The  rock  is  3  miles 
long  and  1500  feet  high.  The  name  is 
derived  from  Gibel  a  mountain,  and 
Tarik  a  Moorish  leader,  who  landed 
there  in  712  to  conquer  Spain.  It  was 
often  taken  and  retaken  by  Moors  and 
Spaniards.  The  British,  under  Sir 
George  Rooke,  aided  by  the  Prince  of 
Hesse  Darmstadt,  took  it  from  Spain 
July  24,  1704.  It  was  ceded  to  Britain 
by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  The  French 
and  Spaniards  besieged  it  unsuccess- 
fully from  June  1779  till  February  1783. 
Rodney  brought  relief  during  the  siege, 
but  Lord  Howe  saved  the  Rock  for 
England.  It  is  very  valuable  as  a 
naval  and  military  station,  being  the 
1  Key  of  the  Mediterranean.' 

HELIGOLAND— An  islet  a  mile 
by  ^  of  a  mile)  26  miles  north-west 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe.  The 
name  means  'Holy  Land,'  for  the 
Saxons  worshipped  the  goddess  of 
Earth  there.  The  natives  are  Frisian. 
It  was  chiefly  held  by  the  Dukes  of 
Sleswick  until  1714;  then  taken  by 
Denmark;  occupied  by  Britain  Sep- 
tember 1807 ;  formally  ceded  by  treaty 
in  1814.  In  war  times,  of  the  greatest 
value  to  Britain  to  secure  the  German 
rivers— now  prized  for  its  lighthouse, 
its  pilots,  and  its  safe  anchorage. 

MALTA— Anciently  Melita-the 
»cene  of  Paul's  shipwreck.  It  is  about 
60  mile*  south  of  Sicily.  Capital,  La 


Valetta.  Given  by  Charles  V.  to  the 
Knights  of  St  John  in  1530 ;  often  at- 
tacked  by  the  Turks ;  taken  by  Bona- 
parte in  1798 ;  retaken  by  British  and 
Maltese  in  1800 ;  then  delivered  up  to 
Britain  by  the  Maltese.  It  is  the 
central  station  of  the  Mediterranean 
fleet.  Gozo  (5  miles  to  north-west) 
is  a  fertile  island,  but  with  few  inha- 
bitants. 

IONIAN  ISLANDS— Seven  Is- 
lands to  the  west  of  Greece.  Cephalonia 
the  largest  The  modern  Greeks  call 
them  Frank  Islands.  When  the  Eastern 
Empire  fell  in  1453,  taken  under  cara 
of  Venice.  Seized  by  France  in  1797 ; 
then  in  1800  under  Russia ;  placed  by 
treaty  of  1815  under  Britain,  who  ap- 
points a  Lord  High  Commissioner. 
Zante  produces  small  grapes,  called 
currants. 

THE  CHANNEL  or  NORMAN 
ISLES— A  group  in  St  Michael's  Bay, 
off  Normandy.  Jersey  the  largest 
Belonging  to  Britain  since  the  Con- 
quest: often  attacked  by  the  French. 
Valued  for  cheap  living  and  healthy 
climate. 

MAN  or  MONA— An  island  in 
the  Irish  Sea.  Taken  by  Alexander 
III.  of  Scotland  from  the  Norwegians 
in  1270;  surrendered  to  Edward  I.  in 
1289;  became  the  property  of  the 
Dukes  of  Athol  in  1735  by  inheritance ; 
finally  purchased  by  Britain  in  1825. 
Ruled  by  officials  who  are  aided  by  the 
House  of  Keys,  consisting  of  24  chief 
commoners. 


COLONIES  AND  DEPENDENCIES. 


341 


ASIATIC. 


ADEN— A  town  In  south-west  of 
Arabia.  Taken  by  the  British  in  1838. 
Steamers  between  Bombay  and  Suez 
stop  there  for  coals,  .fee.  Fine  coffee 
produced. 

BURMESE  COLONIES-Ara- 
Can,  a  district  on  the  north-east  of  Bay 
ofBengaland  south  of  Chittagong;  con- 
quered by  the  British  in  1826.  At  the 
same  time  was  taken  Tenasserim, 
close  to  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  south 
of  the  Irrawaddy.  At  the  month  of  this 
river  we  own  Pegu,  taken  in  1853 :  it 
produces  rice  and  teak-wood. 

CEYLON-An  oval  island  (270 
miles  by  145)  lying  south-east  of  Hin- 
dostan.  It  has  always  been  a  Crown 
Colony.  It  was  occupied  by  Portu- 
guese in  the  16th  century;  then  by 
Dutch,  from  whom  we  took  It  about 
1796.  Native  kingdom  of  Kandy  fell 
in  1815.  It  produces  coffee,  sugar, 
rice,  pepper,  teak,  cinnamon,  and 
gems,  especially  pearls. 

INDIA— The  Peninsula  of  Hindo- 
Btan,  containing  three  Presidencies,  — 
Bengal, Madras,  and  Bombay.  The 
chief  events  in  the  history  of  British 
India  are,— Charter  granted  by  Eliza- 
beth in  1600— Settlement  at  Madras 
1648— Bombay  acquired  by  marriage 
of  Charles  II.  to  Catherine  of  Portugal 

—  Fort-William,  Calcutta,  erected  1G99 

—  Surajah  Dowlah    of   Bengal    takes 
Calcutta  in  1 756— Clive  recovers  Cal- 
cutta, and  wins  battle  of  Plassey,  1757 
—Warren  Hasting!  made  Governor- 
General  in  1773— His  wars  with  Hyder 
AH  and  Tippoo  Saib  of  Mysore— Fall 
of  Seringapatam  and  death  of  Tippoo 
In  1799— Overthrow  of  the  Mahrattas 
at  Assaye  by  Major-General  Wellesley, 
afterwards  Duke  of  Wellington,  Sep- 
tember 23,  1803— Afghan  War  (1839- 
1842)— Sinde  annexed  1843— The  Pun- 
janb  conquered  1849 — Late  annexation 
of  Onde— Indian  Mutiny  1857— East 
India  Company  ceases  to  rule  the  Indian 
Empire  September  1,  1853.    India  is 
rich  in  all  tropical  produce;  its  owners 


command  the  trade  of  the  Eastern 
Seas ;  and  its  possession  gives  Britain 
great  weight  among  the  nations  of 
the  earth. 

HONG-KONG— A  small  island  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Canton  River.  It  is 
75  miles  from  Canton.  Ceded  by  the 
Chinese  in  1842.  Occupied  chiefly 
by  British  traders  in  tea,  silk,  and 
opium. 

MALACCA— A  settlement  (40 
miles  by  25)  on  the  Straits  of  Malacca, 
nearthe  southern  point  of  Malaya.  Held 
by  Portuguese  and  then  by  the  Dutch; 
finally  transferred  to  Britain  in  1824 
in  exchange  for  possessions  in  Su- 
matra. 

PENANG  or  PRINCE  OP 
WALES'  ISLAND  — An  island  off 
west  coast  of  Malaya.  It  was  purchased 
for  an  annuity  of  6000  Spanish  dollars 
from  the  King  of  Quedah  about  1785.  A 
strip  of  land  opposite,  on  the  Malay 
shore,  was  bought  in  1802,  and  is  called 

Province  Wellesley.  Penang  is  the 
seat  of  Government  for  Malacca  and 
Singapore. 

SINGAPORE— An  island  (26  miles 
by  13)  at  the  south  of  the  Malay  Pen- 
insula. It  was  bought  from  the  Sultan 
of  Johore  in  1819.  It  produces  sugar, 
cotton,  coffee,  nutmegs,  and  pepper; 
is  a  great  commercial  depfit;  and  is 
used  as  a  penal  settlement  for  India. 
It  and  the  last  two  colonies  form  the 
'Eastern  Settlements.' 

SARAWAK— A  district  on  the 
banks  of  the  Sarawak  in  north-west  of 
Borneo— granted  to  Sir  James  Brooke 
in  1840  by  the  Sultan  of  Borneo— with- 
drawn in  1846,  but  retaken  by  British 
guns.  Not  now  countenanced  by  the 
British  Government;  and  yet  very 
valuable,  producing  antimony  ore, 
diamonds,  gold,  iron,  and  all  tropic 
plants;  and  commanding  the  trade  of 
the  Chinese  Sea.  Labuan,  an  island 
(12  miles  by  6)  at  the  mouth  of  Borneo 
River,  taken  possession  of  ID  1847.  it 
yields  much  fine  coal 


342 


COLONIES  AND  DEPENDENCIES. 


AUSTRALIAN. 


AUSTRALIA— The  largest  island 
in  the  world.  Its  discovery  is  claimed 
by  France,  England,  Holland,  and 
Spain.  Called  New  Holland  by  Dutch 
settlers.  Its  coast  was  traced  by  the 
British  navigators.  Cook,  Furneaux, 
Bligh,  Bass,  and  Flinders.  At  Botany 
Bay,  discovered  by  Cook  in  1770,  and 
so  called  from  its  beautiful  flowers,  a 
penal  colony  was  formed  by  Britain  in 
1788.  The  settlement  was  called  New 
South  Wales ;  and  its  capital,  Sydney, 
was  built  on  Port  Jackson.  In  1829 
West  Australia  was  colonized— 
capital,  Perth:  in  1834  South  Au- 
stralia—capital, Adelaide:  In  1838 
North  Australia— capital,  Victoria. 
The  south-east  corner  is  occupied 
by  the  colony  of  Victoria,  whose 
capital,  Melbourne,  on  Port  Philip, 
was  founded  in  1837.  In  1851  gold 
was  discovered,  and  a  great  rush  of 
emigration  took  place.  Chief  produc- 
tions are  wool,  gold,  tallow,  and  train 
oil 

VAN  DIEMEFS  LAND-An 
Island  nearly  the  size  of  Ireland,  south 


of  Australia.  Discovered  by  Tas- 
man,  a  Dutch  sailor,  in  1642— called 
by  him  Van  Diemen's  Land  in  honour 
of  the  Governor  of  Batavia — now  called 
Tasmania  from  the  discoverer.  Found 
in  1798  to  be  an  island  by  Bass,  who 
gave  his  name  to  the  Straits.  Regu- 
larly occupied  by  the  British  in  1803 
as  a  penal  colony;  declared  indepen- 
dent of  New  South  Wales  in  1825,  and 
placed  under  a  Lieutenant-Governor 
and  Council.  Capital,  HobartTown  on 
the  Derwent  Productions  similar  to 
those  of  Australia.  Norfolk  Island, 
far  to  the  east  of  Australia,  is  under 
the  Government  of  Tasmania,  and  used 
to  be  only  a  penal  colony.  It  is  now 
occupied  by  the  Pitcairn  Islanders. 

NEW  'ZEALAND-TWO  large 

islands,  New  Ulster  and  New  JInnster; 
and  a  small  one,  New  Leinster,  to  the 
south-east  of  Australia.  Capital,  Auck- 
land in  New  Ulster.  Colonized  in  the 
present  century  by  the  New  Zealand 
Company:  recognised  as  a  British 
Colony  in  1841.  Enjoys  a  very  tem- 
perate climate 


AFRICAN. 


ASCENSION— A  small  volcanic 
island  half  way  between  Brazil  and 
Guinea,  Turtles  taken  there  in  abun- 
dance. Very  useful  as  an  outlying 
picket  of  our  Empire. 

THE  CAPE— The  southern  extrem- 
ity of  Africa.  Orange  River  the  north- 
ern boundary.  Discovered  by  Bartholo- 
mew Diaz  in  1487,  but  he  could  not  land 
—named  Capeof  Good  Hope  by  John  II. 
of  Portugal,  in  hope  of  better  fortune 
next  voyage.  Doubled  by  Vasco  di 
Gama  in  1497— colonized  by  the  Dutch 
in  1650,  and  held  by  them  for  150  years. 
Taken  from  the  Dutch  by  the.British 
in  1795,  but  restored  at  the  Treaty  of 
Amiens— recaptured  from  the  Dutch, 
w!:o  were  then  allied  with  France,  in 
January  1806,  by  Sir  David  Baird  and 


Sir  Home  Popham.  Port  Natal  (so 
called  from  the  coast  being  discovered 
on  Christmas-day)  Is  outside  the  bounds 
of  Cape  Colony,  and  was  established  in 
1824.  The  Cape  is  the  maritime  key 
to  India  and  the  East  Produces  wheat 
and  wine:  beautiful  flowers,  especially 
heaths. 

GAMBIA  and  GOLD  COAST- 
Settlements  dating  from  the  16th  cen- 
tury. The  former  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Gambia:  the  latter  in  Guinea.  Chief 
productions,  gold-dust  and  rice. 

MAURITIUS  —  An  island  500 
miles  east  of  Madagascar.  Capital, 
Port  Louis.  Discovered  by  the  Portu- 
guese in  1507,  and  by  them  called 
Cerne.  Abandoned.  Taken  by  the 
Dutch  in  15'JS,  and  called  Mauiuius  in 


COLONIES  AND  DEPENDENCIES. 


343 


honour  of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  Again 
abandoned.  Colonized  by  the  French 
in  1721 ;  they  called  it  Isle  of  France. 
Taken  from  France  by  British  ships  in 
1810.  A  naval  station :  exports  sugar, 
cotton,  ebony,  indigo. 

SIERRA  LEONE-The  basin  of 
the  Rokelle,  on  western  coast  of  Africa. 
Means  'Mountains  of  the  Lion.'  A 
settlement  in  1787.  So  unhealthy  that 
it  is  called  '  The  white  man's  grave.' 

ST.  HELENA  —  A  rocky  island 
(10  miles  by  7)  in  the  South  Atlantic. 


Discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1502; 
occupied  by  the  Dutch  till  1651;  then 
taken  by  the  British.  Famous  as  tha 
prison  of  Napoleon  from  1815  till  1821: 
his  grave  till  1840.  A  station  for  India- 
men. 

Two  groups  of  islets  north  of  Mada- 
gascar—the Seychelles  and  the  Ami- 
rantelslands:  were  takenfrom  Franca 
in  1794.  They  have  a  fine  climate, 
safe  harbours,  and  produce  spices. 
Rodriguez  and  the  Chagos  group 
also  belong  to  Britain. 


NORTH  AMERICAN. 


CANADA— Washed  by  the  St 
Lawrence  and  Its  Lakes.  Discovered 
by  Cabot  in  1497.  Colonized  by  the 
French  under  Jacques  Cartier,  who 
galled  up  the  St  Lawrence  in  1535. 
Canada  is  an  Indian  word  meaning  '  a 
collection  of  huts.1  Taken  by  the  Bri- 
tish in  1759,  when  the  victor,  Wolfe, 
fell  on  the  plains  of  Abraham  near 
Quebec.  Two  insurrections  in  1837-38. 
The  two  provinces,  Upper  and  Lower 
Canada,  were  united  in  1840.  The 
capital  is  unsettled.  The  Queen  has 
recommended  Ottawa,  but  the  Canadi- 
ans object.  Under  a  Governor-Gene- 
ral, a  Council  of  forty-five  elected  by 
the  Crown,  and  an  Assembly  of  130 
elected  by  the  Colonists.  Chief  produc- 
tions are  timber,  fish,  and  furs. 

CAPE  BRETON-An  island  off 
Nova  Scotia.  Discovered  by  Cabot. 
Loulsburg  taken  by  the  New  England 
Colonists  in  1745,  and  exchanged  for 
Madras  in  1749.  The  island  was  cap- 
tured from  the  French  in  1758  and 
Loulsburg  was  dismantled. 

HONDURAS— On  eastern  side  of 
Yucatan,  with  a  coast  line  of  270  miles ; 
capital,  Belize.  Discovered  by  Colum- 
bus In  1502.  Hondura  means  in  Span- 
ish '  depth,'  from  deep  water  near  the 
shore.  Claimed  by  Britain  and  Spain. 
Ceded  to  Britain  in  1763.  Since  then 
attacked  more  than  once.  Produces 
mahogany  and  logwood. 

HUDSON'S  BAY- Colonized  by 
the  Hudson  Bay's  Company,  who  trade 
in  furs. 


NEW    BRUNSWICK-On 

mainland  south  of  St.  Lawrence.  Dis- 
covered by  Cabot.  Ceded  by  France 
in  1713.  Under  a  Lieutenant-Gover- 
nor. 

NEWFOUNDLAND  —  An  Is- 
land (420  miles  by  300)  at  the  mouth 
of  the  St  Lawrence.  Supposed  to 
have  been  discovered  by  an  Icelander 
in  1001.  Visited  by  Cabot  1497.  Valu- 
able for  its  cod-fisheries.  Under  a 
Lieutenant-Governor. 

NOVA  SCOTIA  — A  peninsula 
south  of  St  Lawrence.  Discovered  by 
Cabot  Colonized  as  a  penal  settle- 
ment by  the  French  in  1598.  They 
called  it  Acadia.  Also  by  Sir  William 
Alexander  in  1623.  He  called  It  Nova 
Scotia.  Ceded  to  Britain  by  treaty  of 
Utrecht 

PRINCE  EDWARD'S  IS- 
LAND—Off  New  Brunswick,  (140 
miles  by  34.)  Discovered  by  Cabot. 
Taken  by  fall  of  Loulsbnrg  in  1758. 
Important  as  a  fishing  and  trading 
station. 

VANCOUVER'S  ISLAND  and 
BRITISH  COLUMBIA-West  on 
the  Pacific  shore.  The  coast  was 
traced  for  the  first  time  in  1778,  by 
Captain  Cook;  afterwards  more  fully 
in  1788,  by  Lieutenant  John  Meares; 
and  in  1793  by  George  Vancouver. 
The  district  has  been  made  suddenly 
famous  in  1858  by  the  discovery  of 
gold  on  Fraser  River.  A  Bill  has 
just  passed  for  the  formation  of  a 
colon  yi 


344 


COLONIES  AND  DEPENDENCIES. 


SOUTH  AMERICAN. 


BEITISH  GUIANA-In  north- 
east of  Sonth  America.  Colonized  by 
the  Dutch  in  1613.  Seized  by  French 
in  1783.  Taken  from  the  Dutch  in 
1803.  Insurrection  of  slaves  1823. 
Settlements  on  the  rivers  Berbice,  De- 
merara,  and  Essequibo,  united  1831. 
Tropical  produce. 


FALKLAND  ISLANDS— Rocky 

islands  300  miles  east  of  Patagonia. 
Discovered  by  Hawkins  in  1594.  Taken 
possession  of  for  George  III.  by  Byron 
in  1765.  Claimed  by  Spain,  but  after- 
wards ceded  to  Britain.  Chief  value, 
their  fine  harbours;  especially  in  East 
Falkland. 


WEST  INDIAN. 


JAMAICA,  or  Xaytnaca  (Indian 
for  plenty  of  wood  and  water) — Dis- 
covered by  Columbus  in  1494.  Taken 
from  Spain  by  General  Venables  and 
Admiral  Penn  in  1655.  Staple  com- 
modities, sugar  and  rum :  produces 
tropic  plants ;  fine  cabinet  woods. 

TBINTDAD  (Spanish  for  Tri- 
nity)—At  mouth  of  Orinoco.  Disco- 
vered by  Columbus  in  1498.  Colon- 
ized by  Spaniards  in  15S8.  Attacked 
by  Raleigh  1595.  Taken  in  1797. 
Contains  mud  volcanoes  and  a  lake  of 
pitch.  Tropic  produce. 

Our  other  West  Indian  Islands  are  To- 
bago, taken  from  the  French  in  1798: 


Grenada  and  St.  Vincent,  taken 
from  the  same  in  1762:  Barbadoes, 
colonized  by  Sir  William  Courteen  in 
1625 :  St.  Lucia  taken  from  France  in 
1803,  and  Dominica  in  1783:  Mont- 
serrat  colonized  with  Antiguainl63  2, 
and  St.  Kitts  in  1623,  and  Nevis  in 
1628:  Anguilla  colonized  in  1650,  and 
the  Virgin  Islands  in  1666.  The  Ba- 
hamas— one  of  which.San  Salvador,  was 
the  first  American  land  seen  by  Colum- 
bus— were  occupied  by  the  British  in 
1629,  and  the  Bermudas  in  1611. 
These  last  lie  ont  in  the  Atlantic.  They 
are  healthy  and  picturesque,  and  pro- 
duce fine  arrow-root 


NELSONS'    SCHOOL    SERIES. 


THE  "STEP  BY  STEP"  SERIES. 

1.  Step  by  Step  J  or,  The  Child's  First  Lesson-Book.     ISmo, 

PARTS  I.  and  II.     Price  2d.  each. 

2.  Sequel  to  "  Step  by  Step."    ismo.   Price  4d. 

3.  Third  Reading-Book,    ismo,  cloth.   Price  6d. 

All  who  have  experienced  the  drudgery  of  teaching  children  to  read  will 
at  once  perceive  the  superiority  of  these  books  over  all  others  hitherto  pub- 
lished. By  the  system  adopted,  the  task  becomes  a  pleasant  one  to  both 
pupil  and  teacher. — See  more  fully  Preface  to  "  Step  by  Step." 

New  Third  Book.  "The  Four  Seasons."  18mo,  cloth. 
Price  6d. 

This  new  volume  Is  Intended  to  be  used  with  the  No.  III.  already  published ; 
but  where  two  books  cannot  be  adopted,  it  may  be  used  alone ;  and  it  is  re- 
commended for  this  purpose  in  preference  to  the  former  No.  III.,  as  it  con- 
tains a  greater  variety  of  lessons  both  In  poetry  and  prose. 

4.  Fourth  Book.     Lessons  on  Common  Things.    18mo,  cloth. 

Price  9d. 

SELECTION   FROM  CONTENTS. 

Where  does  our  Food  come  from?— Oil,  Whalebone,  and  Fur— Greenland— The 
Breakfast  Table— The  Damask  Table-Cloth—Linen—Cups  and  Saucers- 
English  Earthenware— Teaspoons— Knives  and  Forks— Steel,  Ac.  Ac. 

5.  Fifth  Book.     12mo,  cloth.    Price  Is. 

New  Fifth  Book.    See  Junior  Reader,  No.  I. 

6.  Sixth  Book.    12mo.    Price  Is. 

New  Sixth  Book.    See  Junior  Reader,  No.  II. 


"THE  PROGRESSIVE  READING-BOOKS." 

A  HEW  BEKMS  OF  ENGLISH  READERS,  DESIGNED  TO  FOLLOW  AFT£R 
No.  IV.  OP  THE  "STEP  BY  STEP"  BOOKS. 

The  object  aimed  at  is  to  provide  a  set  of  books  adapted  to  all  classes  of  Schools 
and  fitted  to  teach,  not  only  the  art  of  reading,  but  to  train  the  pupil  to  the 

love  of  read  ing. 

Junior  Reader,  No.  1   Post  8vo,  cloth.   Price  is.  3d. 

SELECTION   FROM  CONTENTS. 

Stories  and  Fdblet:— Grumble  and  Cheery— The  Sfonkey  and  the  Cat — The 
Stinging  Nettle— The  Sheep  and  the  Birds—  Robinson  Crusoe:  Crusoe  and 
his  Boat — The  Footprint  on  the  Sand— Crusoe  and  the  Savages— Crusoe 
saves  Friday,  <fec.  True  Stories:— The  Young  Witness— The  Guarded  House 
—The  Spider's  Web— The  Sailor  Boy's  Prayer,  <fec.  Stories  of  Animate,  <tc. : 
—A  Tiger  Story— A  Faithful  Dog— The  Arab  and  his  Horse— Androcles  and 
the  Lion,  &c.  Poetry:—  By-and-by— The  Voice  of  Spring  —The  Spider  nnd 
the  Fly— The  Butterfly's  Ball— We  are  Seven,  <fcc.  <fcc. 

[Continued 


NELSONS'    SCHOOL    SERIES. 


6.  Junior  Reader,  No.  II.   Post  8vo,  cloth.   Price  is.  6<L 

SELECTION   FROM  CONTENTS. 

MISCELLANKOUS.— .Proie:— Five  Minutes  Too  Late— The  Ploughboy  and  tho 
Principal— My  First  Guinea — The  Boy  makes  the  Man,  Ac.  Poetry^- Work 
—My  Father's  at  the  Helm— The  Queen  of  May— Lord  Ullln's  Daughter,  Ac. 
NATURAL  HISTORY,  Ac. — Prote:— Stories  of  the  Shepherd's  Dog— The  New- 
foundland Dog— Wolves  in  Britain— Robert  the  Bruce  and  the  Bloodhound, 
Ac.  CHIEFLY  HISTORICAL. — Prose: — Unwritten  History — The  Coining  of 
the  Romans— The  Druids— The  Sea  Kings— Alfred  the  Great— The  Battle  of 
Hastings,  Ac.  Historical  and  National  Poetry :—  God  Save  the  Queen — The 
Nation's  Prayer — Home — Love  of  Country — Rule,  Britannia — England's 
Oak,  Ac.  THB  HBHOES  AND  TRIUMPHS  or  PEACB:— The  Art  of  Printing- 
Story  of  Laurence  Coster— Story  of  John  Guttenberg— The  Printing  Machine 
—The  "Times"  Printing-Offlce,  Ac. 

7.  The  Senior  Reader.   Post  8vo,  doth,  384  pages.   Price 

2s.  6d. 

•SELECTION   FROM  CONTENTS. 

The  World  we  Live  in  .-—Thou  art,  O  God,  the  life  and  light— The  Earth's  Jour- 
ney Round  the  Sun— What  is  Gravitation ?— The  Stellar  Universe — The  Air 
Ocean,  Ac.  The  Land  we  Live  in  .-^Britannia— Rise  of  the  English  Nation- 
Pictures  of  the  Olden  Time — Scenes  from  Ivanhoe:  The  Siege  of  Torquii- 
stone;  Trial  by  Combat— Rise  of  Cities — Travelling  in  the  Seventeenth  Cen- 
tury. Ac.  The  Age  let  Live  in:— Modern  London— The  Bank  of  England: 
— Penny  Postage— The  Electric  Telegraph,  Ac.  Home  and  Country  Scenea, 
<£«.:— The  Deserted  Village— The  Skylark— Elegy  in  a  Churchyard— The 
Cottar's  Saturday  Night,  Ac.  Round  the  World:—  Hymn  to  the  North  Star— 
The  North  Pole— Adventures  In  Spitzbergeu — Ice,  Icebergs,  arid  Glaciers- 
Greenland  and  the  Greenlanders— Snow  and  Snow  Huts— The  Whale  Fishery 
—The  Last  Search  for  Franklin— The  Siege  of  Quobec,  Ac, 

8.  The  Advanced  Reader.  [Now  Published. 


EXTBA  VOLUMES. 

9.  Readings  from  the  Best  Authors.   Edited  by  A.  H. 

BRYCE,  LL.D.,  one  of  the  Classical  Masters  of  the  High  School, 
Edinburgh.    12mo,  cloth.    Price  Is.  6d. 

Containing  Historical  and  Descriptive  Selection*  from  Macanlay  — Prescott — W. 
Irving— W.  H.  Russell  Fiction  from  Croly  — Bulwer  Lytton-  Scott— Mrs. 
Stowe— Dickens.  Oratory  from  Pitt— Burke — Sheridan — Lord  Brougham. 
J'oetry  from  Cowper— Campbell — Scott — Mrs.  Hemans— Bell— Macanlay— 
— Rogers — Wordsworth — Goldsmith — Byron — Tennyson,  Ac.  Ac. 

10.  Readings  from  the  Best  Authors.    SECOND  BOOK. 

Edited  by  A.  H.  BRYOE.    LL.D.     Post  8vo,  cloth.     Price  2s. 

The  Extracts  which  form  the  Second  Book  of  "  Readings  from  the  Bust 
Authors "  have  been  selected  mainly  with  regard  to  their  suitableness  as 
Exercises  in  Elocution,  for  the  members  of  middle  and  upper  classes  in 
schools ;  and  thus  many  of  them  are  of  a  higher  order  than  the  specimens  In 
the  first  book. 


NELSONS'    SCHOOL    SERIES. 


Milton's  Paradise  Lost  and  Paradise  Regained.  With 

Notes  for  the  Use  of  Schools.  By  the  Rev.  J.  EDMONSTON.  12mo, 
cloth.  Price  2s.  6<L 

ClaSS-Book  Of  Poetry.  Chronologically  Arranged.  With 
Critical  and  Biographical  Sketches  by  D.  WILSON,  LL.D.  12mo,  495 
pages.  Price  2s.  6d. 

The  English  Word-Book  :  A  Manual  Exhibiting  the  Sources, 
Structure,  and  Affinities  of  English  Words.  By  JOHN  GRAHAM. 

PART  L  Prefixes  and  Postfixes.  Illustrated  by  Parallel  Columns  in 
the  Primary  and  Secondary  Meanings.  In  Wrapper.  Price 
3d. 

PART  II.  Roots,  Derivatives,  and  Meanings.  In  Wrapper.  Price  6d. 
The  two  Parts  in  one  volume,  cloth,  Price  Is. 

Word  Expositor  and  Spelling  Guide :  A  School  Manual 

Exhibiting  the  Spelling,  Pronunciation,  Meaning,  and  Derivation  of 
all  the.  Important  and  Peculiar  Words  in  the  English  Language.  With 
Copious  Exercises  for  Examination  and  Dictation.  By  GEORGE  COUTIB, 
A.M.,  English  Master  of  Liverpool  High  School,  Liverpool  Institute. 
12mo,  cloth.  Price  Is.  3d, 


FOR  ADVANCED  GLASSES. 

History  Of  English  Literature.  In  a  Series  of  Biographical 
Sketches.  By  WILLIAM  FRANCIS  COLLIER,  LL.D.,  Author  of  "  School 
History  of  the  British  Empire,"  "  The  Great  Events  of  History,"  &c. 
12mo,  cloth,  538  pages.  Price  3s.  6d. 

"  Tracing  the  origin  and  progress  of  our  literature  from  the  period  of  the 
monkish  annalists  to  our  own  times,  a  clear  view  is  given  of  its  development  in 
every  branch," — Witness. 

History  of  the  Church  of  Christ :  With  a  Special  View  to 

the  Delineation  of  Christian  Faith  and  Life.  With  Notes,  Chrono- 
logical Tables,  Lists  of  Councils,  Examination  Questions,  and  other 
Illustrative  Matter.  From  A.D.  1  to  A.D.  313.  By  the  Rev.  ISLAY 
BURNS,  M.A.,  Dundee.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  Price  5s. 

"It  is  a  book  that  deserves  to  be  popular.  Though  oftentimes  of  a  painful 
uarnre,  the  interest  throughout  is  so  well  sustained  that  one  is  irresistibly  com- 
pelled to  read  right  to  the  end."— Spectator. 

"A  very  excellent  work,  suited  to  general  nse,  and  likely  to  promote  not 
only  the  higher  intelligence,  but  the  more  earnest  and  genial  religiousness  01 
attentive  readers." — Jffoneortformist. 


NELSONS'    SCHOOL    SERIES. 


GEOGRAPHIES. 

Modern  Geography,  for  the  Use  of  Schools.  By  ROBERT 
ANDERSON,  Head  Master,  Normal  Institution,  Edinburgh.  Foolscap 
8vo,  cloth.  Price  Is.  6d. 

This  work  has  been  pronounced,  by  upwards  of  one  thousand  Teachers,  to  be 
the  best,  as  well  as  the  cheapest  School  Geography  published. 

Exercises  in  Geography,  adapted  to  Anderson's  Geography. 
18mo,  cloth.  Price  6d. 

This  work  contains  about  10,000  Questions  and  Exercises  in  Geography,  and 
•will  be  found  of  great  service  to  both  teacher  and  pupil 

Geography  for  Junior  Classes.  By  ROBERT  ANDERSON, 
Head  Master,  Normal  Institution,  Edinburgh.  18mo,  cloth.  Price  lid. 

Bible  Geography.  By  the  Rev.  W.  G.  BLAIKIE,  D.D.  With 
Coloured  Maps,  Price  Is.,  12mo,  cloth;  or  with  the  Maps  mounted 
on  Cloth,  Is.  3d. 

HISTORIES. 

The  Great  Events  of  History,  from  the  Beginning  of  the 

Christian  Era  till  the  Present  Time.  By  W.  F.  COLUBR,  LL.D. 
12mo,  cloth.  Price  2s.  6d. 

History  of  the  British  Empire.   By  W.  F.  COLLIER,  LL.D. 

With  Tables  of  the  Leading  Events  of  each  Period — Lists  of  Contem- 
porary Sovereigns — Dates  of  Battles — Chapters  on  the  Social  Changes 
of  each  Period,  &c.  12mo,  cloth.  Price  2s. 

"  Mr.  Collier's  book  is  unrivalled  as  a  School  History  of  the  British  Empire. 
The  arrangement  is  admirable."— English  Journal  of  Education. 

Bible  History,  in  connection  with  the  General  History  of  the 
World.  With  Descriptions  of  Scripture  Localities.  By  the  Rev. 
W.  G.  BLAIKIE,  D.D.  470  pages  12mo,  with  Maps.  Price  3s. 

This  volume  has  been  prepared  mainly  with  a  view  to  the  instruction  of 
Schools  and  Families.  Its  plan  differs  lu  many  respects  from  that  of  any  other 
Pible  History. 

I.  It  follows  the  great  outline  of  the  Bible  Narrative, — arranging  and  classi- 
fying the  leading  facts,  to  at  to  aid  eye  and  memory  in  grasping  Ute  whole. 
8.  It  describes  briefly  the  chief  Countries,  Towns,  and  other  Scenes  of  Bible 

History,  as  they  occur. 

3.  It  glances  at  the  History  and  Progress  of  the  leading  Nations  of  the  World, — 
showing  what  was  going  on  elsewhere  while  the  History  of  the  Bible  was 
being  enacted. 

History  Of  Scotland.  By  the  Rev.  JAMES  MACKENZIE.  12mo, 
cloth.  Price  Is.  6d. 


NELSONS'    SCHOOL    SERIES. 


CLASSICAL  SERIES. 

First  Latin  Reader.  By  ARCHIBALD  H.  BRYOE,  LL.D.,  of 
Trim  Coll.,  Dublin,  one  of  the  Classical  Masters  in  the  High  School 
of  Edinburgh.  Second  Edition.  216  pages,  12mo.  Price  2s. 

This  is  intended  as  a  First  Latin  Book,  snpplying  everything  which  a  pnpll 
will  require  during  his  first  year.  It  contains — 

L  The  leading  facts  and  principles  of  Latin  Grammar,  with  the  Inflexions 
of  Substantives,  Adjectives,  Pronouns,  and  Verbs,  set  forth  at  full 
length ;  and  also  a  Synopsis  of  the  Syntax  of  simple  sentences. 

II.  A  numerous  set  of  Simple  Exercises,  with  lists  of  the  words  used  in  them. 
III.  A  Series  of  easy  and  interesting  Lessons  in  continuous  reading,  consist- 
ing of  a  few  simple  Fables  of  Phaedrus,  &c. 

W.  A  Vocabulary,  in  which  the  quantities  of  syllables  are  marked,  and  the 
derivation  of  words  given. 

The  two  great  features  in  the  plan  of  the  book  are—  Pint,  That  pupils  are 
enabled  daily,  and  from  the  very  first,  to  mate  practical  use  of  grammatical  facts 
and  principles  so  soon  as  they  are  learned ;  and  Secondly,  That  acquisitions, 
when  once  made,  are  impressed  by  constant  repetition. 

Second  Latin  Reader.  By  ARCHIBALD  H.  BRTCE,  LL.D.  384 
pages.  Price  3s.  6d. 

This  volume  is  intended  as  a  Sequel  to  No.  L    It  contains— 
I.  EXTRACTS  FKOM  NEPOS. 
II.  EXTRACTS  FROM  C-SSAK, 

III.  EXTRACTS  FBOM  OVID. 

IV.  Notes  on  the  above,  with  Tables  for  the  Declension  of  Greek  Nouns. 

V.  A  System  of  Syntax,  in  which  the  Illustrative  examples  are  taken  from 
the  Reading  Lessons,  and  to  which  constant  reference  is  made  in  the 
Notes. 

VL  A  full  Vocabulary  (proper  nouns  being  inserted),  In  which  are  noted 
peculiarities  of  Inflexion,  Conjugation,  and  Comparison.  Quantities 
are  carefully  marked,  and  derivations  given,  with  frequent  illustra- 
tions from  modern  languages. 

First  Greek  Reader.  By  ARCHIBALD  H.  BRTCE,  LL.D.  Third 
Edition.  222  pages.  Price  2s.  6d. 

The  plan  of  the  "Greek  Reader  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  Latin,  and  seeks  to 
carry  out  the  same  principles.  As  much  of  the  Grammar  is  given  as  is  deemed 
absolutely  indispensable  in  a  first  course ;  while  care  has  been  taken  not  to  over- 
load the  text  with  minutiae  and  exceptions,  which  serve  only  to  confuse  and 
bewilder  the  beginner.  The  Extracts  for  reading  are  such  as  to  interest  and 
amuse  the  young,  consisting  of  selections  from  the  Witticisms  of  Hierocles,  from 
Anecdotes  of  Famous  Men,  and  from  the  Fables  of  JJsop,  with  a  few  easy  Dia- 
logues of  Luclan.  A  body  of  Notes  is  appended  to  the  Reading  Lessons,  explain- 
ing peculiarities  of  form  and  of  construction. 

Horace.  Edited  by  Dr.  FHEUHD,  Author  of  "  Latin  Lexicon,"  &c., 
and  JOHN  CARMICHAEL,  M.  A.,  one  of  the  Classical  Masters  of  the  High 
School,  Edinburgh.  With  Life  of  Horace,  Notes,  Vocabulary  of  Proper 
Names,  and  Chronological  Table.  12mo,  cloth.  Price  3s.  6d. 

Virgilii  Maronis  Carmina.  Edited  by  Dr.  FKETJND.  With 
Life,  Notes,  and  Vocabulary  of  Proper  Names.  12mo,  cloth.  Price 
3s.  6d. 


NELSONS'    SCHOOL    SERIES. 


AWARDED  THE  PRIZE  MEDAL  AT  THE  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION 

NELSON'S  WALL  MAPS. 

EACH  4  FEET  BY  4  FEET. 

Beautifully  Coloured  and  Mounted  on  Rollers, 
Price  13s.  6d.  each. 

1.  PALESTINE.    Divided  into  Squares  of  Ten  Miles. 

2.  THE  BRITISH  ISLANDS  in  relation  to  the  Continent.     Divided  into 

Squares  of  100  Miles. 

3.  ENGLAND.    Divided  into  Squares  of  100  Miles. 

4.  SCOTLAND.    Divided  into  Squares  of  100  Miles. 

5.  EASTERN  HEMISPHERE.    With  Circles  at  intervals  of  1000  English 

Miles,  showing  the  distance  from  London. 

6.  WESTERN  HEMISPHERE.  Do.  Do. 

7.  EUROPE.    Divided  into  Squares  of  1000  English  Miles. 

The  attention  of  Teachers  and  others  interested  in  Education  is  specially  Invited  to 
yiese  Slaps.  They  will  be  found  to  possess  advantages  for  educational  purposes  over 
any  hitherto  published. 

Each  of  the  Hemispheres  forms  a  circle  four  feet  in  diameter.  They  are  so  large 
that,  with  the  exception  of  Europe,  of  which  a  separate  Hap  is  Just  ready,  the  Geo- 
graphy of  all  the  countries  of  the  great  Divisions  of  the  Globe  can  be  taught  from 
them.  Separate  Maps  of  Africa,  Asia,  Australia,  North  America,  and  South  America, 
will  not  be  required  in  the  great  majority  of  schools. 


THE  FOLLOWING  AKE  REDUCED  COPIES  OF  THE  WALL  MAPS  :  — 

NELSON'S  SCHOOL  MAPS. 

PricelfL.  each,  Plain,  with  Cover;  2d.  each,  Coloured;  3d.  taeh,  ColwrtA, 
and  Mounted  on  Cloth. 


THE  BRITISH  ISLANDS  in  relation 
to  the  Continent  of  Europe. 

2.  ENGLAND. 

3.  SCOTLAND.  ' 


4.  IRELAND. 
6.  PALESTINE. 

6.  BIBLE  LANDS. 

7.  EUROPE. 


ATLASES. 

Nelson's  School  Atlas.  Containing  22  Maps,  Full  Coloured. 
4to,  cloth.  Price  3s.  6d. 

Nelson's  Junior  Atlas.  An  entirely  New  Work,  consisting  of 
Reduced  Copies  of  Nelson't  Wall  Maps.  Full  Coloured.  Price  Is.  6d. 
stiff  cover. 

Nelson's  Shilling  Atlas.  Containing  16  Maps,  plain  Stiff 
wrapper,  4to. 


VA   .^vSjv&iV,  AVS\  &?'-      V*i  2 

-•X'V-v  :N^<C\W^  ^^S»fca  i  ^';  • 
gjaEB^JHRfljiJtJQBC   '   '  ''.Xv  ^ "-  *     •' 


1111 
s^^.1