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HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS.
BY CHARLES HENRY ROBINSON, D.D.

INTERNATIONAL THEOLOGICAL LIBRARY

HISTORY OF
CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

BY

CHARLES HENRY ROBINSON, D.D.

HON. CANOX OF RIPON CATHEDRAL AND

EDITORIAL SECRETARY OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE 1'ROPAGATION
OF THE GOSPEL IN FOREIGN PARTS

EDINBURGH : T. & T. CLARK, 38 GEORGE STREET

1915

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NEW YORK : CHARLES SCRIBNER's SONS

PREFACE

THE story of missions, which reaches back to the beginning
of the Christian era, and embraces almost every country
in the world, cannot be told within the limits of a single
volume. The task which I have ventured to undertake
is of a far less ambitious character, my object being to
provide the intelligent reader with an outline sketch of
Christian missions which may enable him to obtain a
correct perspective, but which will need to be filled in for
each several country and period of history by much careful
study. This volume is not intended to serve as a diction-
ary nor as a commentary upon missions, but as a text-book
to encourage and facilitate their study. Those who have
devoted the largest amount of time to such study will be
most ready to forgive its imperfections and shortcomings.
A well-known authority on the subject of Foreign Missions,
to whom the task of writing this book was originally
assigned, but who failed to respond to the invitation,
wrote to its present author, " You have an almost impossible
task ; I should absolutely quail at the work you are
doing."

It would have been comparatively easy to fill the
space allotted to me by the publishers with a discussion of
the principles which have governed the activities of
Christian missionaries, and it would have been still less
difficult to compile a volume of statistics which would
have shown, more or less accurately, the progress that has
been made in bringing about the conversion of non-
Christian lauds, but in neither case would the object witli
which this volume was planned have been fulfilled. Of

vi PREFACE

missionary statistics I have tried to avoid any extensive
use, and have only given such when they appeared to be
necessary in order to elucidate the relative progress that
has been made in different sections of the mission field or
at different epochs.

In attempting to describe the work of hundreds of
missionary societies it is obvious that no single individual,
however good his opportunities for obtaining information
may be, can estimate correctly the relative importance of
that which has been done in each several country and
by individual societies. If in some instances I have
appeared to dwell at disproportionate length upon the
work of Anglican missions, this has not been due to my
ignorance of the relative insignificance of their results, if
these are calculated on a numerical basis, but is due to the
fact that I have tried to lay special emphasis upon the
beginnings of missionary enterprises, and to the fact that
in many countries, where a large amount of work is now
being carried on by other societies, missionary enterprise
was initiated by Anglican missionaries. I desire to tender
my apologies in advance to the representatives of several
American societies concerning whose work I have found
it difficult to obtain adequate information. As the series
of which this volume forms a part is published both in
(Jreat lU'itain and in America, I venture to hope that
those who live on either side of the Atlantic may be
helped by its perusal to appreciate better than they have
previously done how much good work is being accom-
plished by those with whom they have not themselves
been brought into contact. In order to render my task a
little less " impossible " than it would otherwise have been,
I have, albeit with reluctance, omitted any account of the
conversion of Europe and of the methods which were
adopted by its early missionaries. I had hoped to have
included at least one or two chapters which would have
served as an introduction to later missionary efforts, but
the limits of my space have rendered this impossible.

The list of those who have most kindly helped nie to

PRKFACE vii

obtain information for the purposes of this book in Europe
and America, and who have read sections of it while it was
passing through the press, is too long to give, but I desire
to express rny special obligations to the three friends who
have read the whole of the proofs and by doing so have
prevented me from making a number of mistakes. These
are Dr. Eugene Stock, formerly editorial secretary of the
Church Missionary Society, Professor Cairns of Aberdeen
University, and the Rev. B. Yeaxlee, formerly editorial
secretary of the London Missionary Society, and now
editor of the United Council for Missionary Education.

I have given in various footnotes references to a few of
the books which I have had occasion to consult, but it has
not seemed desirable to attempt any kind of bibliography
in view of the fact that the Board of Study for the Pre-
paration of Missionaries has recently issued " A Bibliography
for Missionary Students," edited by Dr. "Weitbrecht, which
is much more complete than any which it would have been
possible for me to include.

Throughout this volume I have used the expressions
Eoman Catholic, Anglican, and Protestant to designate re-
spectively the Churches which are subject to the authority
of the Pope, the Churches in Great Britain, America, and else-
where which are in communion with the Church of England,
and the non-Episcopal Churches. The title Catholic is some-
times claimed as its exclusive possession by the Roman
Church, but as the title officially used in the decrees of
the Council of Trent is " the Catholic and Apostolic Roman
Church," and as the title Catholic is universally claimed by
the Anglican Church and is frequently claimed by other
Churches, it would have been misleading to limit its use in
the way suggested. A large section of the members of
the Church of England and of Churches in communion
with it are proud to designate themselves as Protestants,
but inasmuch as many other members regard this desig-
nation as inadequate, if not misleading, I have used the
neutral word Anglican, which does not raise any contro-
versial issue. I have avoided the use of the expression

viii PREFACE

" Free Churches " as this would not have included several
of the Protestant bodies in Great Britain or any of those
in America. As the word " native " is much disliked by
many of those to whom it has often been applied, and as
there is no justification for its employment, I have avoided
its use except in the case of quotations.

In comparing the statistics issued annually by the
Roman Catholic missions with those issued by Anglican
and Protestant missions, it is necessary to bear in mind
the custom observed by Eoman Catholic missionaries of
baptizing infants and others who are at the point of death.
These far exceed in number all other baptisms. Thus—
to quote the figures supplied in the Atlas Hierarchicus
in 1913 — the number of those baptized when in the
act of dving in the three dioceses of North Manchuria,

v <j f

South-West Chihli, and East Sichuen during 1912 was
48,339, whilst the number of adults and of children of
Christian parents baptized was only 10,274.

In using the statistics supplied by several of the
Anglican, Protestant, and Eoman societies, it is necessary
to bear in mind that they relate in some instances
to work which is being carried on amongst Europeans
or Americans who are living in foreign lands. The
English Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, the
American Methodist Episcopal Church, the American
Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions and
several other smaller societies devote a certain part
of their annual incomes to the support of those who are
engaged in ministering to the spiritual needs of European
or American Christians. In dealing with the statistics
supplied by the Eoman Catholic organizations a similar
caution is needed.

The test of the success of missionary enterprise is
furnished by moral and not by numerical results, and
inasmuch as these are slow to appear and difficult to
appraise, the student of missions is often tempted to
impatience. He needs to remember that the progress of
Christian missions, if it is to be judged aright, must be

PREFACE ix

measured by units which consist not of years, but of
generations. In the beginning of the third century of
the Christian era Dion Cassius, referring to the inhabitants
of Britain, described them as an " idle, indolent, thievish,
lying lot of scoundrels." As a result of Christian teach-
ing extending over fifty generations, the proportion of the
inhabitants of Britain to whom these epithets can justly be
applied has perceptibly decreased. The epithets used by
Dion Cassius are often applied to some of the peoples
amongst whom Christian missionaries are now working, but
before we institute any comparison between these peoples
and ourselves to the detriment of the former, or to the
disparagement of missionary efforts, we need to ascertain
whether the progress which has been achieved within
recent years does not compare favourably with that which
occurred in our own land during any equal period of
time. Few, if any, persons who have made a prolonged
study of the work of Christian missions during the
last two generations have failed to reach the conclusion
that, as a direct result of the spread of missionary efforts,
the prospects of the regeneration of the human race and
of the establishment of the kingdom of God upon earth
are brighter than they have been at any previous period
in the world's history.

C. H. K.

CONTENTS

PACK

PREFACE ....... v

CHAP.

I. INTRODUCTORY ...... 1

II. METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK . . .8

III. THE DAWN OF MODERN MISSIONS (1580-1750) . 42

IV. INDIA 61

V. CEYLON ....... 145

VI. BURMA ....... 151

VII. CHINA 160

VIII. JAPAN 219

IX. COREA 247

X. MALAYSIA ....... 256

XI. WESTERN AND CENTRAL ASIA .... 268

XII. AFRICA . . . . . . .277

XIII. AMERICA (U.S.A.) 366

XIV. CANADA . .... 382
XV. THE WEST INDIES . . . . .389

XVI. CENTRAL AMERICA ..... 401

XVII. SOUTH AMERICA . . . . . .409

XVIII. AUSTRALIA . . . . . .430

XIX. NEW ZEALAND . . . . . .4-40

si

xil CONTENTS

CHAP. PAGE

XX. ISLES OF THE PACIFIC ..... 445

XXI. MISSIONS TO MOSLEMS ..... 465

XXII. MISSIONS TO THE JEWS ..... 473

XXIII. MISSIONARY SOCIETIES ..... 477

XXIV. THE OI-TLOOK . . . . . .493

APPENDIX. — CHRISTIAN REUNION IN THE MISSION

FIELD . . . . . .499

INDEX . . . 507

ABBREVIATIONS

A.B.C.F.M. . American Board of Commissioners for Foreign
Missions.

A.B.F.M.U. or A.B.M.U. American Baptist Foreign Missionary
Union.

A.M.E.C. . . American Methodist Episcopal Church.

A.U.P.M. . . American United Presbyterian Mission.

B. & F.B.S. . British and Foreign Bible Society.

B.M.S. . . . Baptist Missionary Society.

C.I.M. . . . China Inland Mission.

C.E.Z.M S . . Church of England Zenana Missionary Society.

C.L.S. . . . Christian Literature Society in India.

D.U.M. . . . Dublin University Mission.

E.P.M. . . . Presbyterian Church of England Mission.

F.M.S. . . . Foreign Missionary Society.

L.J.S. . . . London Society for Promoting Christianity among
the Jews.

L.M.S. . . . London Missionary Society.

M.E.C. or A.M.E.C. American Methodist Episcopal Church.

R.C Roman Catholic.

S.A.M.S. . . South American Missionary Society.
S.P.C.K. . . Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.

Mil

xiv ABBREVIATIONS

S.P.G. . . . Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign
Parts.

S.V.M.U. . . Student Volunteer Missionary Union.
U.F.C.S. or U.F.C. United Free Church of Scotland.

U.M.C.A. . . Universities' Mission to Central Africa.

U'.M.S. . . . Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society.

V.M.C.A. . . Young Men's Christian Association.

Y.W.C.A. . . Young Women's Christian Association.

Z.B.M. . . . Zenana Baptist Mission.

Z.M.S. . . . Zenana Bible and Medical Mission.

HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

i.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE missionary activities of the Christian Church have,
since the Day of Pentecost, been one of its distinguishing
characteristics. Nevertheless, there are some modern
critics who maintain that its world- wide propaganda, which
the apostles inaugurated and which subsequent Christian
missionaries developed, was not founded upon any direct
commands given by our Lord and did not form part of
His original plan. Over against the command contained
in St. Matthew (xxviii. 19) to go into all the world and
make disciples of all the nations, they set the words,
recorded in the same Gospel (xv. 24), " I was not sent
but unto the lost sheep of the house of Israel," and the
fact that the original commission given to the Twelve con-
tained no statement that they were to be pioneers of a world-
wide mission. It is clear that the question " Did our
Lord from the first intend that the religion which He
taught should become a missionary religion throughout the
whole world ? " cannot be answered by quoting individual
texts, but that the answer must be deduced from a
consideration of the essential character of His mission.
The words in which He Himself defined that mission
were : " The Son of Man is come to seek and to save that
which was lost." The title which He here applies to
Himself is, as all critics admit, one which He habitually
used. If the assumption of this title be regarded, as all

HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Christians have regarded it, as a claim to be the repre-
sentative of the whole human race, its occurrence in this
passage implies that the scope of our Lord's mission includes
all human beings who stand in need of being saved, and
the limitation of its scope to the lost sheep of the house
of Israel must be regarded as having been merely
provisional.

In endeavouring to interpret the underlying meaning
of our Lord's teaching, it is necessary to remember that
inasmuch as it was addressed to the hearts as well as
to the minds of men, he alone is qualified to understand
its full significance in whose heart it has awakened a
sympathetic response, and whose life has become in some
degree a reflection of the life of Jesus Christ. If this
be admitted, and if, therefore, we may appeal for the
interpretation of His intention regarding the evangeliza-
tion of the world from the intellectual student of
Christianity to the man to whom " to live is Christ," there
can be no doubt as to the reply that we shall receive.
It is not too much to say that the more Christlike
a man becomes the more ardent becomes his desire
to bring the whole world to his Master's feet and the
more certain does he feel that in seeking to accomplish
this object he is rightly interpreting the mind of his
Teacher. To know the mind of Christ we must appeal
not only to the Gospel records, but to the beliefs and
aspirations of the most Christlike persons in this and every
other time.

An appeal lies, moreover, not only to the subjective
but to the objective experience of mankind.

The unique claim of Christianity to be the uni-
versal religion is not grounded upon the possession of a
sacred book, nor upon the miracles which accompanied
its introduction into the world, nor upon its revelation of
a future life, nor, lastly, upon the testimony of the saints
and heroes who have accepted its teachings. Other
religions which do not attempt to appeal to all mankind
have advanced similar claims. The unique claim whieh

INTRODUCTION 3

Christianity puts forward is grounded upon the fact, of
which the whole history of Christian missions serves to sub-
stantiate the truth, that it alone, of all religions, is capable
of satisfying the needs of every member of the human race.
The Chinese who said to Bishop Boone, whom he had
helped to translate the New Testament into his own
language, " Whoever made that book made me ; it knows
all that is in my heart," was putting into language the
response which the teaching of the Christian message
has evoked from men of every race and of every stage
of civilization or of savagery throughout the world. If
we have read aright the story of Christian missions, we
are justified in saying that the religion of the New
Testament has been tested in every clime and amongst
races of every degree of culture, and that its teachings
have never been presented patiently and lovingly to any
people whom they have failed to uplift and transform
and whose deepest needs they have failed to supply.
The Christian religion came into existence as the result
of the manifestation of One who was at once the Son of
God and the Son of man, and its claim to universal
acceptance is founded on the fact that this divine-human
Being can supply the whole world's needs.

There is no race or people to which the gospel
message, when once it has been apprehended, has appealed
in vain. A savage Bechuana, on hearing the story of
the Cross, was deeply moved, and exclaimed, "Jesus,
away from there ! That is my place." The early Moravian
missionaries in Greenland laboured for years to teach their
hearers the principles of right and goodness, but without
result. When, however, they read to them the Gospel
account of the death of Christ, one of them exclaimed,
" Why did you not tell us this before ? Tell us it again." l
Its repetition was speedily followed by the conversion of
many of their hearers. If Christian missions have done
nothing else, they have proved that the earth contains no
race so degraded but that the gospel story can appeal to it.

1 See p. 52.

4 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

In the course of our attempt to sketch the work of
Christian missionaries we shall have occasion to point out
some of the distinctive needs of the various races to which
their appeal has been made, and the response that it has
served to evoke, but before doing so it may be well to
recall three fundamental needs of which every human
being is conscious, and which Christianity can supply more
completely than any other religion.

1. Man, whether savage or civilized, needs a power
greater than any that he is conscious of possessing wrhich
can enable him to live up to his owTn highest ideals. In
studying the chief non-Christian religions we come across
rules and maxims which, if they could be translated into
action, would enable their possessors to rise high above
the level on which their lives are being lived, but we
search in vain in the sacred books of these religions for a
power or source of inspiration that can enable them so
to rise. In Christianity, on the other hand, we have a
revelation of the highest ideals of conduct and we have at
the same time offered to us the help of One who has Him-
self lived the highest life and can live it over again in the
lives of those who accept His help. The task of the
Christian missionary is not to sweep away or undermine
the teachings of non-Christian religions, but to reveal the
source of the power which can enable men to fulfil the
best teaching which these religions inculcate and to rise to
higher ideals than any to which they point.

The contrast between the helplessness of the great
Oriental religions when confronted with failure to reach
life's highest ideals and the helpfulness of Christianity is
well illustrated by an allegory told by a Chinese catechist
who was trying to explain to his fellow-countrymen the
practical difference between the way of salvation as taught
respectively by Confucius, Buddha, and Christ. He de-
scribed man as a traveller who had fallen from the narrow
path of rectitude into an abyss of evil and despair.
Presently on the narrow path above him China's great
teacher, Confucius, appears, and to him the fallen traveller

INTRODUCTION 5

appeals for help, but only to receive the reply uttered in
tones of reproach, " Here is no place for prayer." When
Confucius has gone on his way Buddha is seen ap-
proaching, and in response to an agonized appeal for
help he descends a few steps from the narrow path, and
peering with sympathetic gaze into the abyss, he says, " If
thou couldst rise a little higher, then could I deliver
thee," but the weak and exhausted traveller sinks yet
lower into the murky depth. Finally, the form of Jesus
Christ is seen advancing along the same narrow path, and
to Him is the traveller's final appeal addressed. No sooner
has it been uttered than the divine Deliverer, clothed in
light, descends to the bottom of the abyss, and raising the
helpless traveller in His arms, carries him up to the
narrow path, and having set his feet securely upon it,
walks by his side supporting him ever and anon until the
path emerges at last into the final light. The allegory
helps us to understand how Christianity appealed to a
Confucian Buddhist, and wherein the gospel message
differs from the teachings of other religions.

2. The second need of which man is conscious
is sympathy. If his efforts to rise to a higher moral
and spiritual level than that to which he has as yet
attained are not to end in despair, he needs to know
that there is a Being to whom his welfare is a matter of
immediate concern, and who can both rejoice and sym-
pathize, that is, " suffer together with " him. Divine
sympathy is a concept that can hardly be said to exist
outside the Christian revelation, but man has no greater
need than that which these words express. Bishop Selwyn
of New Zealand told how the knowledge that God suffered
because of man's sin transformed the character of the
cannibal savages of New Zealand. He wrote in 1840 :

" I am in the midst of a sinful people, who have been
accustomed to sin uncontrolled from their youth. If I
speak to a native on murder, infanticide, cannibalism, and
adultery, they laugh in my face, and tell me I may think
these acts are bad, but they are very good for a native, and

6 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

they cannot conceive any harm in them. But, on the con-
trary, when I tell them that these and other sins brought
the Son of God, the great Creator of the universe, from His
eternal glory to this world, to be incarnate and to be made
a curse and to die, then they open their eyes and ears and
mouths, and wish to hear more, and presently they acknow-
ledge themselves sinners, and say they will leave off their

sns."

3. Lastly, if a man is to be sustained in his efforts to
realize the highest ideals embodied in his own religion and
to rise to those which are still higher, he needs to become
the possessor of a hope which reaches out beyond his
present horizon. The saddest feature of the religions of
ancient Greece and Rome, and of the great religions of the
East, is the absence of hope. Amongst the debris of an
ancient house in Salonica (the Thessalomca of St. Paul's
time) were found two funeral urns of apparently the same
date : one bore the inscription, " No hope " ; the other,
" Christ, my life." The contrast between the two is the
contrast between man's destiny as interpreted by most of
the chief religions of the world and man's destiny as inter-
preted by the message which Christian missionaries have
to proclaim. According to orthodox Hinduism, we have
now reached the five thousandth year of the Kali Yuga,
or "evil cycle," of which there are 427,000 more years to
run. There will then be three other cycles extending
over 4,000,000 years before this evil cycle again recurs,
which is to happen many thousands of times. The possi-
bility that after countless re-births, extending over unnum-
bered millions of years, a man may at last escape from
the miseries of human existence, furnishes no ground of
hope that is worthy of the name.

The conviction that in Christianity alone of all the
religions of the world are to be found the revelation of the
power, the sympathy, and the hope which the world needs,
begets the assurance that it will one day fulfil what we
believe to have been the purpose of its Founder and will
1 Life of Bishop Selicyn, p. 72.

INTRODUCTION 7

become the religion of the whole world. Meanwhile, as
the message carried by the Christian missionaries makes
its appeal to one race after another, the fact that it con-
tinues to meet the needs of all provides cumulative
evidence that the source of the message is divine. The
missionary, albeit unconsciously, becomes the Christian
apologist. The only certain proof that the Christian
Bible is inspired is that it continues to inspire, and this
proof the missionary is in a position to furnish to a
unique extent. It is impossible in the brief space at our
disposal to follow out this line of thought, and to show
otherwise than by incidental illustrations how the gospel
message has inspired men of all races to lead new lives
and to aim at higher and ever higher ideals, but the story
of Christian missions will have been ill told if it does not
serve to demonstrate this fact.

II.

METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK.

ONE of the chief results which the careful student may
hope to attain by a study of Christian missions is an
intelligent appreciation of the methods that are likely to
prove most successful in the mission field to-day. The
materials for study are well-nigh inexhaustible. We may
venture to assert that no new method of prosecuting
Christian missions has been suggested within recent years
which has not been tested in practice during the eighteen
centuries that lie between us and the work of the first
missionaries. It is much to be desired that those who
speak, or write books, on Christian missions from the theo-
retical standpoint would fit themselves more adequately
for their task by a prolonged study of their subject carried
on both in libraries at home and in the mission field. In
attempting to discuss methods of missionary work, the first
question that arises is, What guidance can we hope to
obtain from the pages of the New Testament, and in
particular, from the experience of the greatest of Christian
missionaries, the Apostle St. Paul ?

The task which he set himself to accomplish was to
interpret, by word and action, his Master's purpose of love
towards the whole world, and, supported by the belief that
Jesus Christ was not only with him but in him, he trans-
formed Christianity from a national into the universal
religion, and laid the foundation of the missionary work
which the Church of Christ has since accomplished. The
chapters in the Acts of the Apostles which refer to his
work when read in conjunction with the letters addressed

METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 9

to the churches which he helped to establish, help us to
understand the principles which guided his missionary
policy and the methods which he adopted in his endeavours
to embody these principles in action.

Every one who desires to promote the success of
Christian missions to-day will admit that the records
which have been preserved of St. Paul's missionary
labours have a significance which transcends the limita-
tions of time and place by which his work was
originally conditioned, but when he proceeds to ask how
far the methods adopted by St. Paul can or ought to be
copied in any part of the mission field of to-day, he
is confronted with a problem which he will find it hard
to solve.

Few Christians would deny that the principles on
which St. Paul based his missionary methods are applicable
to all times and to all lands, but any one who surveys the
vast area of the modern mission field and who appreciates,
as far as the limitations of his knowledge will allow, the
differences which exist between the conditions which govern
missionary development, say in Japan and West Africa, or
in India and New Guinea, will realize that the exigencies
of the modern mission field demand more numerous and
more complex methods of action than any which can be
deduced from the recorded experiences of St. Paul or his
fellow-apostles.

There are three questions which are constantly being
discussed by the representatives of missionary societies at
home and by those responsible for the supervision /of
missionary work abroad. These concern (1) the diffusion
of missionary influence over wide areas as contrasted with
its concentration at strategic points ; (2) the qualifications
to be required of those who are to be appointed as ministers
of the Christian Church in the mission field ; (3) the stage
in the development of a particular mission at which it is
wise to attempt the establishment of an independent
Christian Church or branch of the Christian Church in a
non-Christian country.

10 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

St. Paul's Missionary Methods.

Before proceeding to illustrate from the history of
missions the answers which have been given and are being
given to these questions, let us ask how far we are justified
in appealing to the experience of St. Paul in the hope of
obtaining an authoritative solution to the problems which
they raise. Those who have appealed to his example and
experience and, on the strength of such an appeal, have
condemned many of the practices of modern missionaries,
have too often failed to realize how different were the
conditions under which he worked from those which prevail
in the greater part of the mission field to-day.

1. The first of these questions may be expressed thus :
Is it wiser as a general rule to diffuse missionary effort
over a wide district in the hope of reaching all who may
be found willing to listen to the Gospel message, or to
concentrate the missionary forces at a few important
centres, in the hope that the light of the Gospel may
eventually radiate throughout the surrounding districts
which are for the time being perforce neglected ? It is
obvious that the conditions under which missionary
work has been, and is being, carried on in different
parts of the world differ so widely that no answer can be
given to this question to which exceptions must not be
admitted.

To take a single illustration, which has a special
bearing upon the problem raised by the first question.

St. Paul's missionary activities were largely, if not
entirely, confined to towns, whereas the chief sphere of
the modern missionary may be said to lie in villages.
The visitor to India or China who takes an interest in
missionary work is naturally impressed with the crying
needs of the vast centres of population which he sees, and
is apt to forget that the population contained in the towns
represents but the tiniest fragment of the total population.
Nearly half the human race is to be found to-day in the
villages of India and China. These villages are so small

METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 11

and so close together that it is often possible, where the
ground rises by a few feet, to count twenty or thirty at
one time.

It is obvious, therefore, that the experiences of the
modern missionary who tries to evangelize the villages which
constitute the greater part of the modern mission fields are
likely to differ widely from the experiences which St. Paul
met with in his attempt to preach the Gospel in some of
the great cities of the ancient world.

Even when we compare missionary work in modern
cities with that carried on by St. Paul, the conditions of
the two will be found to be widely dissimilar. In nearly
all the cities in which St. Paul worked, Greek or Latin
was understood, and a Jewish community afforded him the
opportunity to appeal through Jewish converts to the
wider circle with which they were in touch. In one case
only did he attempt to start missionary work and to bring
into existence Christian Churches in a district where the
prevailing conditions approximated to those which are found
in the greater part of the mission field to-day.

Bishop Mylne, who was formerly Bishop of Bombay,
in his book entitled, Missions to Hindus, maintains (and
there is much to be said for his contention) that St. Paul
adopted a mistaken policy in attempting to do pere-
grinating evangelistic work in Galatia, and urges that his
letter to the Galatians and the fact that he never again
attempted similar work prove that he had realized his
mistake.

"One great convincing experience," Bishop Mylne
writes, " was to come to St. Paul which would serve with
its disastrous shock to convince him of the falsity of his
method — the great Galatian apostasy. . . . The method
which had prospered elsewhere had disastrously failed
among them. The withdrawal of his personal presence from
converts of a barbarous race with a poor reputation for
stability, far removed from civilizing influences, had proved
to be a shock to their faith against which they could not
stand. They fell victims to the first false teachers, who

12 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

offered them a plausible Judaism in place of the Gospel of

Christ," !

With this one exception, it would appear from the
accounts of St. Paul's missionary labours which have been
preserved that he never attempted to preach in villages,
but concentrated his efforts upon towns, and specially upon
six or seven towns where he sought to establish Christian
Churches, which should serve as strategic points in view
of the eventual evangelization of the surrounding districts.
On the one occasion on which he and his companions
thought of attempting to evangelize the scattered country
districts of Bithynia, " the Spirit of Jesus suffered them
not," 2 and impelled them to extend their labours to the
towns of southern Europe.

It would appear, therefore, that in so far as St. Paul's
experience affords any help towards the solution of the
problem raised by the first question, it tells in favour of
concentrated as opposed to diffused missionary work. At
the same time the fact that his experience of a diffused
mission appears to have been limited to a single instance,
makes it impossible to regard this as affording unmistakable
guidance.

The lesson which we have ventured to deduce from
the example of St. Paul is endorsed by the experience of
later missionaries.

Whilst examples might be obtained from many other
countries, the history of Christian missions in India affords
the most convincing illustrations of the comparative
value of the two methods. In the judgment of Bishop
M vine, whom we have already quoted, the three greatest
missionaries who have laboured in India were the Jesuit,

1 Pp. 86, 124. Bishop Mylne held with Bishop Lightfoot that " Galatia "
was in the extreme north of Asia Minor, but if we accept Ramsay's theory
that it was in the south, and included Phrygia and Lycaonia, it would still
be the case that the majority of the inhabitants of Galatia to whom St.
Pan! preached were less civilized than were those amongst whom the other
Christian churches established by him were founded.

2 Acts xvi. 7.

METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 13

Francis Xavier, the Lutheran, Schwartz, and the Baptist,
Carey. As we shall see later on,1 Xavier adopted the
" diffusive " method as completely as it was possible for
any one to adopt it. His aim was to spread a know-
ledge of the Christian faith over the widest possible
area, and in accordance with his principles of evangeliz-
ation, he baptized tens of thousands of persons whose
language he did not understand and whose knowledge of
Christianity was limited to the verbal acceptance of a few
dogmatic statements. He did this in the hope that some
of them, or at any rate that some of their children, might
eventually attain a fuller knowledge of the faith. His
successors down to the present day have endorsed his
action, and to a greater or less extent have followed in his
steps. What, then, has been the result ? To quote the
words of Bishop Mylne :

"The result is that the conversion of the country to
Christianity is no nearer than it was when he left it, for
anything that his followers have done ; that they form but
a Christian caste, unprogressive, incapable of evangelizing,
observing distinctions of caste within the body of the
Christian Church ; holding their own with a pathetic
faithfulness among people of other creeds, but woefully low
in their practice, and scandalously superstitious in their con-
ceptions ; afraid of the Hindu gods ; and all but idolaters
themselves in their veneration of saints and their images." 2

The methods adopted by Schwartz, to whose work we
shall have occasion to refer later on, differed in important
respects from those of Xavier. He spent nearly fifty years
in Southern India and was able to speak the language of
the people to whom he appealed. He refused to baptize
until the candidates for baptism had given clear proofs of
repentance and faith. He traversed enormous areas, and
at his death in 1798 his converts were reckoned by tens
of thousands. When, however, several of the missions
which he had founded were taken over by the S.P.G. in
1825, villages and communities which had formerly been
1 See pp. 70-74. 2 Missions to Hindus, p. 115 sq.

14 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Christian were found to have lost almost all knowledge of
the Christian faith and to have relapsed into Hinduism.
The collapse of the greater part of Schwartz's work is
apparently to be attributed to the diffused methods of
evangelization which he adopted and to his " reliance on
the power of the gospel to develop spiritual independence
in characters quite unprepared for it."

The aim that Carey set before him was to create one
" red-hot centre from which the light and influence of
Christianity might radiate throughout a gradually widening
circle." We shall have occasion later on to refer in
greater detail to the methods adopted by Carey and to
point out the lasting nature of the results which he
achieved (see pp. 81-83).

It would be easy to produce evidence of a similar
character from other mission fields, though in no other
country has sufficient time elapsed since missionary work
was inaugurated to enable the results to be seen as clearly
as they are to be seen to-day in India.

2. The second problem to which we referred is raised
by the question, What moral and intellectual qualifications
ought to be required of those to be appointed as ministers
of a newly established Christian Church in the foreign
mission field ? There are some who have sought to find an
answer to this question by referring to the example of St.
Paul, who, in certain instances after a stay of a few months
or even a few weeks in a city, felt able to appoint elders
to carry on the work which he had begun and to guide
and organize the infant Church. They ask, If St. Paul
was able to act thus, how can it be necessary that a course
of preparation extending over several years should be
required before ministers are appointed or ordained in
countries where Christian missionary work is being carried
on to-day ? Before we can admit the relevance of this
direct appeal to the example of St. Paul we need to know
what were the moral and intellectual qualifications of the
elders to whom he was accustomed to entrust the carry-
ing on of the missionary work which he inaugurated.

METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 15

Outside Galatia it is doubtful whether St. Paul ever
founded a Church in any place in which there did not
already exist a Jewish synagogue and in which Jewish
methods of church organization were not well understood.
It is certain that in the great majority of the places in
which he is reported to have preached the infant Church
included Jews or Jewish proselytes who had accepted the
teaching contained in the Old Testament before they
became Christians, and who must have exerted a profound
and lasting influence upon the converts who joined the
Church from the ranks of heathenism. How widely
scattered were the Jews may be inferred from the remark
of Seneca, who wrote : " The customs of this most accursed
race have prevailed to such an extent that they are every-
where received. The conquered have imposed their laws
on the conquerors." l Strabo wrote : " They have now got
into every city, and it is hard to find a spot on earth
which . . . has not come under their control." 2 Harnack
calculates that the Jews and their converts formed 7 per
cent, of the population of the Eoman Empire, which at the
beginning of the Christian era was reckoned at 54 millions.
He writes :

" In order to comprehend the propaganda and diffusion
of Christianity, it is essential to understand that the religion
under whose ' shadow ' it made its way out into the world
not merely contained elements of vital significance but had
expanded till it embraced a considerable proportion of the
world's population." 3

It is hardly necessary to point out that the conditions
under which Christian missionaries labour to-day are far
removed from those which existed in the countries in
which St. Paul established the earliest Christian Churches.
It is clear, therefore, that his example affords no precedent
for leaving newly established Christian Churches in charge
of Christians who have had no preparation for the fulfil-

1 Aug. dc Civ. Dei, vi. p. 11. 2 Josephus, Ant. xiv. 2. 7.

3 Expansion of Christianity, vol. i. p. 11.

16 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

ment of their task analogous to that which the Jewish
elders had inherited and received. In the course of this
volume we shall have occasion to refer to instances in
several different lands and at different epochs in which
those in charge of missions have sought to imitate the
letter of St. Paul's example and to note the results which
ensued. Christian missions have to a large extent passed
out of the empirical stage, and one of the most certain
lessons to be deduced from their history is that attempts
to imitate literally the example of St. Paul, and to appoint
as Christian ministers the best men who may be avail-
able in a newly established Christian community, with-
out insisting upon any long course of preparation, are
destined to retard the establishment of the Christian
Church. Many parts of the mission field contain ruins
which represent attempts that have been made to build
the Church of God by individuals who imagined that
they were following primitive or Pauline methods, but
who acted in ignorance or disregard of the lessons which
have been taught by the long experience of Christian
missionaries.

3. The third problem, which is an extension of the
second, is raised by the question, At what stage in the
evangelization of a non-Christian country ought the
foreign missionaries to retire and to leave the entire
control of the Church to the Christians of the district or
country ? One of the most common charges brought
against the representatives of foreign missionary societies
is their alleged reluctance to hand over the government of
a Church which they have helped to found to the members
of that Church. Such charges are seldom if ever brought
by careful students of missionary history, for whom the
failures of the past act as a warning against the assumption
that any uniform time limit can be suggested, at the
expiration of which it can be assumed that an independent
and self-governed Church ought to be established. Most
students of missionary history will admit that the
premature withdrawal of European supervision has not

METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 17

infrequently retarded the building up of a Christian com-
munity and the establishment of a Christian Church
that can be considered worthy of the name. As illustra-
tions of the lamentable results which have followed the
withdrawal of adequate European supervision we may
point to the experience of the C.M.S. on the Niger, of the
S.P.G. in parts of Southern India and Burma, of the W.M.S.
in South Africa, and of the L.M.S. in British Guiana.

Before we proceed to consider the development of
Christian missions in later times, it is well that we should
recall what was the spiritual condition at the close of the
first century of seven of the Christian Churches in Asia
Minor, one at least of which had been founded by St.
Paul, and all of which must have been influenced by him.
Nor is there any reason to doubt the ancient tradition that
they had all been superintended during a considerable
number of years by the Apostle St. John. The messages
transmitted by the writer of the Apocalypse to these
Churches suggest that their growth in the Christian life
was as interrupted and as slow as that which we observe
in the missionary Churches which have been founded
within recent years. The Church at Ephesus, where St.
Paul had laboured long, and where, according to tradi-
tion, St. John had afterwards resided, " had left its ' first
love,'" and was urged to repent on pain of having its
candlestick removed. The Church at Sardis had a name
to live but was in reality dead, and contained but few who
had " not defiled their garments." The Church at Laodicea
was lukewarm, and knew not that it was " wretched, and
miserable, and poor, and blind, and naked." To two only
of the Seven Churches is a message of encouragement sent
unmixed with blame.

The story of these Churches, which were cared for and
superintended by the apostles and their immediate suc-
cessors, should serve to encourage the missionary who
is tempted to-day to suppose that because the lives of the
Christians amongst whom he has laboured are un-Christlike,
his work cannot have been carried on upon apostolic lines,

2

18 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Political methods of evangelization.

We pass on now to consider a method of propagating
the Christian religion which can claim no support from the
example of St. Paul, but which has exercised a large in-
fluence upon the development of Christian missions. We
refer to the use of political influences for the purpose of
facilitating conversions to the Christian faith. Under
the term political influences we include all offers of
material inducements and threats of punishments or loss,
whether made by Governments or by individuals. The
change of attitude on the part of most Christian people
towards the employment of political methods for the
spread of the Christian faith among non-Christian races
has been so gradual and at the same time so complete that
we do not easily appreciate how far we have travelled
from the standpoint of our forefathers. From the days of
Constantino down to a period well within the nineteenth
century comparatively few Christians would have rejected
the proposition that it was lawful, and in many cases
advisable, that missionaries should avail themselves of
political influences in order to facilitate the prosecution of
their work. During the Middle Ages the writings of St.
Augustine exercised a dominating influence over the
missionary policy of Christendom. He was not himself
distinguished for missionary zeal, and apparently made no
attempt to organize any missionary enterprise amongst the
heathen races in North-West Africa. His writings, how-
ever, include several passages in which he urges that the
pagans in Hippo and the surrounding district ought to be
punished with death if they persisted in their refusal to
embrace the Christian faith.1 His interpretation, moreover,
of the words in the Parable of the Great Supper, " compel
them to come in," as affording authorization for the em-
ployment of force to compel an acknowledgment of the
Christian faith, wxs accepted by most of his readers.

One or two voices were raised from time to time
1 Epist. 93. 2, 185. 6.

METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 19

against the policy of forcible conversion, but their protests
met with little response. Thus Raymond Lull, the first
missionary to Mohammedans (d. 1315), wrote:

" They think they can conquer by force of arms : it
seems to me that the victory can be won in no other way
than as Thou, 0 Lord Christ, didst seek to win it, by love
and prayer and self-sacrifice."

Later on, in the sixteenth century, Las Casas, the
" Apostle of Mexico," in his treatise De umco vocationis
modo, urged that men ought to be brought to Christianity
only by persuasion, and where no special injury had been
received, it was not lawful for Christians to carry on
war against infidels merely on the ground that they were
infidels.

It would be impossible to name any country in Europe
apart from Great Britain and Ireland the conversion of
which to Christianity was not to a large extent hastened
by the employment of physical force. In the early days
of Anglican and Protestant missions, whilst the employ-
ment of force was usually discouraged, it was thought to
be right to make use of material inducements in order to
hasten the work of conversion.

The following extract from a journal kept by Van
Riebeek in 1658 at Cape Town might be paralleled in
many other lands :

" April 17. — Began holding school for the young slaves,
the chaplain being charged with the duty. To stimulate
the slaves to attention while at school, and to induce them
to learn the Christian prayers, they were promised each a
glass of brandy and two inches of tobacco when they finish
their task." i

During the eighteenth century several missionaries
wrote in defence of the slave trade, basing their justification
of this trade upon the advantages which those captured

1 A History of Christian, Missions in Houth Africa, by J. Du Plcssis,
p. 30.

20 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

and sold as slaves would eventually receive by being
brought into contact with Christian masters.1

An example, on a large scale, of the disastrous results
of employing political methods of spreading Christianity is
afforded by the religious history of Ceylon. When the
Dutch took over from the Portuguese the island of Ceylon
in 1656, they attempted to force a Protestant form of
Christianity upon its inhabitants by subjecting Buddhists,
Hindus, and Romanists who were not prepared to embrace
Protestantism, to heavy civil disabilities. The unsatisfactory
nature of the conversions so obtained was made clear when,
on the cession of the island to England in 1798, these
disabilities were removed. In 1801, soon after this change
took place, there were 342,000 Singalese and 136,000
Tamils who professed Protestant Christianity ; but before
ten years had elapsed more than half of thes6 had declared
themselves Buddhists or had become devil-worshippers, and
a large proportion of the " Government religion " churches
were in ruins. The far-reaching effects of the policy
adopted by the Dutch for spreading Christianity may be
inferred from the statement of Bishop Copleston, formerly
Bishop of Colombo, who wrote a few years ago : " Not till
within the last twenty years has the Buddhist- Christian
element been in the main got rid of."

Although the principle of endeavouring to spread the
Christian faith by the direct offer of material inducements
is now rejected by nearly all other missions, it is still
accepted by the representatives of many Roman Catholic
missions.

To take a single illustration which has come under the
notice of the writer : After the Lutheran and Anglican
missions had obtained a widespread success in the Chota-
Nagpur district in North-Eastern India, the Roman
missionaries, who then appeared for the first time, adopted
the policy of granting small loans to all who were willing
to attend their churches, on the understanding that these

1 See reference to pamphlet published by the Rev. T. Thompson, the
first English missionary to Africa, on p. 291.

METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 21

loans would not be repayable as long as tbose who received
them continued to attend. The recipients include a large
number of those who were formerly attached to the
Lutheran and Anglican missions, and the system is in
working order at the present time.

The country in which this principle has been most
definitely adopted and in which it has produced results
which have affected all Christian missions is China. In
an elaborate work,1 which has received the official sanction
of the Eoman Church, lately issued by the Foreign Mission
Press of Hong-Kong, the writer reviews in detail the
different methods that have been adopted by missionaries
in China. After explaining all that can be said for and
against the adoption of political methods, he arrives at the
conclusion that interference by European missionaries in
Chinese lawsuits is a means designed by Providence " to
draw to religion the simple country people." It is signifi-
cant to find that the writer who approves this policy of
offering material inducements to non-Christians in China
goes on to deplore the fact that the present prospect of
Eoman Catholic missions in that country is far from
encouraging.

To Christian missionaries the two events of recent years
in the Far East which will appear of greatest importance
are the official announcement that the Japanese Govern-
ment is prepared to recognize Christianity as one of the
three religions of Japan, Shinto and Buddhism being the
other two, and the appeal for prayer addressed by the
Chinese Government to its Christian subjects. In both
cases the change of attitude on the part of the Government
concerned marks a new stage in the spread of the Christian
faith over a large part of the non-Christian world, and in
both cases political and religious motives appear to have
been inextricably intermingled. The student of Christian
missions who is familiar with the results which, in ancient,
mediaeval, and modern times alike, have followed the

1 Mtthode de I'Apostolat moderne en Chine,, par R. P. L. Kcrvyii,
Hong-Kong. Imprimerie de la Soci6t£ des Missions-^trangeres, 1911.

HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

employment of political influences in support of the
Christian faith, will regard with profound misgivings the
possible exercise of such influences on a wide scale. Cases
are to be found in all parts of the mission field in which
converts have been induced to make a profession of their
Christian faith in the hope that they might secure for
themselves material advantages, and in some instances
the responsibility for arousing this hope lies with the
missionaries. The principle, however, of endeavouring to
attract converts by the offer of such advantages is one
which has now been abandoned by all uon-Eoman
missionary societies. Experience shows conclusively that
missionary work prospers most and that the best types of
Christian character tend to be produced when the convert
to the Christian faith has to face at least a mild form of
persecution. The nominal spread of Christianity through-
out Europe which, in the course of time, followed the
Edict of Milan, ushered in the " dark ages," from which
Europe as a whole can as yet hardly be said to have com-
pletely emerged. No one would desire that the future
history of China or Japan should afford any parallel to the
experience of Europe.

Educational Missions.

During the last seventy years educational missions have
gradually taken the place of the employment of political
influences in a great part of the mission field. As will be
shown later on in our references to Dr. Duff and others,
the provision of colleges, schools, and industrial institutions
has gradually become an important factor in the situation
and has greatly affected the work of the evangelistic mis-
sionary. Missionaries have not always or generally been
educational experts, and it is not a matter for surprise that
the success of the schools which they have established has
been by no means uniform.

Moreover, in view of the fact that they are endeavouring,
by means of educational missions, to appeal to races which

METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 23

differ in culture and mental powers as much as do the
Brahmans of India and the cannibals of the Pacific, it is
obvious that the educational methods which they need to
adopt must admit of wide variation. Methods of teaching
which would be the best possible in West Africa or in
New Guinea would be worse than useless in India, China,
or Japan, and vice versa.

But though the methods should vary, the principles
which underlie them must remain the same. The object
which the educational missionary needs to keep in view is
to " educate " — that is, to draw out and develop the latent
capacities of his pupils in order that the additional know-
ledge which he desires to impart to them may be correlated
with their previous knowledge and with their methods of
thinking. To accomplish this would be to accomplish one
of the most difficult tasks which it is possible to attempt,
and it is no cause for wonder that many failures have to
be recorded.

It would be easy to give illustrations of the disastrous
results which have followed the attempt to provide a
distinctively English education for converts to Christianity
who were wholly unfitted to benefit thereby. The writer
of this volume was sitting one day outside a mission school
in the tropics -watching its pupils walking to and fro in
the mission enclosure. Some of them had come from
homes in which it had not been customary to wear clothes
and in which cannibalism would not have been regarded
with horror. These pupils of the mission school, however,
wore immaculate shirt fronts and the smartest of English
clothes, and carried gilt-headed walking canes and watch
chains to correspond. It was with no feelings of surprise
that he learnt that the principal English trading company of
the district, which had for several years employed as clerks
those who had been trained at this school, had recently
issued an order that henceforth no one who had attended
this school was to be employed in any capacity, and that
Moslems or pagans were to be employed in their stead.
Superficial investigators of missionary work abroad are

24 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

never tired of asserting that missionary education tends to
deprive converts of their hereditary virtues and to give
them no others in their place, and it is impossible to deny
that in the past there has been some foundation for such
criticisms. A hopeful symptom is that missionaries them-
selves have become the severest, and at the same time the
most intelligent, critics of the methods which have satisfied
their predecessors and which continue to satisfy some of
their contemporaries. They have come to realize that the
more anglicized in appearance and in methods of thought
and action their pupils become the more complete has been
their own failure. They have also come to realize that in
dealing with backward races it is worse than useless to try
to anticipate the results of education by allowing to their
pupils a minimum of initiative and by providing continuous
supervision. The temptation to impatience which besets
the missionary may be described in words borrowed from
Dr. Montessori, who writes :

" Little children who are undertaking something for the
first time are extremely slow. Their life is governed in
this respect by laws especially different from ours. Little
children accomplish slowly and perseveringly various com-
plicated operations agreeable to them, such as dressing and
undressing, setting the table, eating, etc. In all this they
are extremely patient, overcoming all the difficulties pre-
sented by an organism still in process of formation. But
we, on the other hand, noticing that they are ' tiring them-
selves out,' or ' wasting time,' in accomplishing something
which we could do in a moment, and without the least
effort, put ourselves in the child's place and do it our-
selves. . . . What would become of us if we fell into the
midst of a population of jugglers or of lightning-change
impersonators of the variety hall ? What should we do if,
as we continued to act in our usual way, we saw ourselves
assailed by these sleight-of-hand performers, hustled into
our clothes, fed so rapidly that we could scarcely swallow,
if everything we tried to do was snatched from our hands
and completed in a twinkling and we ourselves reduced to
impotence and to a humiliating inertia ? Not knowing how
else to express our confusion, we should defend ourselves

METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 25

with blows and yells from these madmen ; and they, having
only the best will in the world to serve us, would call us
haughty, rebellious, and incapable of doing anything." l

These words of Montessori help to explain how extra-
ordinarily difficult is the problem that confronts mis-
sionaries, who are usually the first representatives of the
more advanced races to attempt to impart to the members
of the more backward races the education and culture
which they have themselves inherited. It is not possible
to attempt here any description of the various forms of
educational missionary work which have been tried in
different countries. For a description and criticism of the
methods which have been tried in South Africa the student
would do well to consult the books written by Mr. Dudley
Kidd, also the striking testimony relating to the benefits
resulting from missionary education contained in the report
of the South African Government Commission (see p. 335).

In India more than in any other part of the mission
field the time and labour of missionaries have been devoted
to educational work. In connection with this work the
question has often been raised both by missionaries abroad
and by missionary critics at home, Is it worth while to go
on spending time and labour on the support of educational
institutions in India and elsewhere when the labour spent
on them produces hardly any visible result, and when men
and women missionaries are urgently needed to evangelize
the uneducated classes who are anxious to be taught the
Christian faith ? To answer this question aright, we need
to be endowed with long vision ; we need to look beyond
the immediate present and to prepare for a future which
perhaps none living may see but the advent of which is
certain.

During a visit to the chief centres of missionary
activity in India the writer had an opportunity of
seeing most of the largest colleges which are affiliated
to universities in India, and which belong to many
different missionary societies. In response to inquiries

1 See International Review of Missions, April 1913, p. 333.

26 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

addressed to those now in charge of theiie colleges, he

O O '

gathered that the conversion and baptism of a student in
any one of them was an exceedingly rare event. The
Principal of one of the largest colleges in North India was
unable to tell of the occurrence of a single case during the
sixteen years of his principalship. At another college
belonging to a different society two conversions had taken
place during the last ten years ; at another belonging to
yet another society no conversion had occurred for at least
twelve years. "When it is remembered that there are large
districts in India where the missionaries in charge have
had to discourage applications from the representatives of
villages which desire to abandon Hinduism and to become
Christian, on the ground that there are no Christian
teachers, European or Indian, available, it is impossible not
to sympathize with those who desire to divert from the
educational missions a few of those missionaries whose work
is attended with no visible result and whose presence else-
where is urgently demanded. Nevertheless, we believe
that no more fatal policy can be suggested than to weaken
or circumscribe the appeal which the Church of Christ is
making to the educated classes of India by means of its
educational missions. The great need for men created by
the success of the mass movements supplies an argument
not for withdrawing men from educational work but for
holding on to and strengthening this work. For it is
certain that the day will come when Christianity, having
overcome the opposition of caste, will spread throughout
India like a flood. It will make all the difference when
this movement occurs whether or no there is then in
existence a body of experienced European educationalists
and of highly educated Indian teachers to guide and direct
the movement. We can only secure the provision of such
a body of men at the critical moment if the various
missionary societies are content for the time being to
forgo counting the visible results of their educational
work and hold on unhesitatingly to the schools and colleges
which they possess.

METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 27

Our impatience at the small number of conversions
which can be traced directly to the influence of missionary
schools and colleges will be lessened in proportion as we
realize that their primary object is not to impart informa-
tion, or even to produce conversions, but to develop char-
acter. Where the education of character is concerned,
we should be content to count time not by years but by
generations.

It need hardly be added that the principle which is
illustrated by what is happening in India applies to all
other non-Christian countries in which educational work on
any large scale is being attempted.

In China the results obtained in the missionary
colleges (e.g. in the Tientsin College under Dr. Lavington
Hart) have been encouraging, and the attitude of the
student class towards the preaching of Christianity has
become remarkably sympathetic (see p. 201).

In dealing with the more backward races, experience
has demonstrated the high value to be attached to all kinds
of industrial schools. Amongst such races industrial
training can best be imparted in conjunction with book
learning. Thus the author of The Story of the Lovedale
Mission writes :

" It is a fact abundantly confirmed by experience that
the greatest difficulties in the teaching of trades are to be
met with in the case of those who are deficient, and just in
proportion as they are deficient, in school education."

Eeferring to the results of the training at Lovedale, which
is the best known centre of industrial training in South
Africa, Dr. Stewart, who was for a long period its Principal,
was able to state that of 2000 who had been educated
here, and whose subsequent history could be traced, from
75 to 80 per cent, had led or were leading useful and
industrious lives.

We refer later on to the work of industrial missions in
various parts of the mission field.

28 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Medical Missions.

A further method by which Christian missionaries have
sought to appeal to non- Christian races is represented by
the establishment of medical missions.

The aim of the medical missionary is twofold: (1) To
alleviate suffering and to train those who in non-Christian
lands are ignorant of the art of medicine in order that
they may be enabled to alleviate the sufferings of their
fellow-countrymen. (2) To co-operate with the Christian
evangelist by interpreting the Divine compassion and
breaking down the prejudices of those who would not other-
wise be willing to listen to the gospel message.

Some of those who have advocated the extension of
medical missions have laid exclusive emphasis upon the
latter objects, but have failed to grasp the importance of
the former. The charge given by Christ Himself to His
first missionaries was to preach the gospel and to heal the
sick, but there is nothing in the context to suggest that in
places where the preaching of the gospel was welcomed
they might consider themselves absolved from the obliga-
tion to heal those who were sick. It may with confidence
be asserted that apart altogether from any consideration
of the fact that medical missions have proved a power-
ful evangelistic agency, it is the duty of the whole
Christian Church to establish missions which have as their
object the alleviation of bodily suffering, and that it is
the duty of the individual missionary who possesses a
knowledge of medicine that is not shared by any of those
amongst whom he works to use his knowledge with
the object of alleviating human suffering, and to continue
his labours with this object in view until such time
as the medical practitioners of the country are in a
position to carry on the work which he has inaugurated.
When such a time arrives, as it has arrived in Japan and
in some other parts of the mission field, the need for
medical missionaries will still remain in so far as their work
may subserve the purpose of a direct missionary agency.

METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 29

1. Confining our attention for the moment to the first
of the two objects which medical missionaries have in
view, we may note the striking service which they were
able to render to China on the occasion of the great out-
break of plague in Manchuria in 1910-11. The virulence
of the attack may be gathered from the fact that the
number of patients attacked and the resultant deaths alike
numbered 43, 942. l Had it not been for the medical
missionaries, and the Chinese doctors and attendants who
worked under their direction, the deaths would have been
reckoned by millions. Amongst those who took part in
fighting the plague should be mentioned Dr. Aspland of the
Anglican mission in Peking, Dr. Dugald Christie of the
United Presbyterian mission in Moukdeu, and Dr. A. F.
Jackson, a new recruit belonging to the same mission, who
himself died of the plague. On the occasion of the death
of Dr. Jackson, the Chinese Viceroy, Hsi Liang, delivered a
funeral oration at Moukden on February 2, 1911, in the
course of which he said :

" Our sorrow is beyond all measure, our grief too deep
for words. 0 spirit of Dr. Jackson, we pray you intercede
for the 20,000,000 people in Manchuria, and ask the Lord of
heaven to take away this pestilence, so that we may once
more lay our heads in peace upon our pillows. In life you
were brave, in death you are an exalted spirit. Noble spirit,
who sacrificed your life for us, help us still and look down
in kindness upon us all."

To the list of the medical missionaries who have died
whilst fighting the plague, albeit in a different country,
may be added the name of Dr. Alice Marval of the S.P.G.,
who died at Cawnpore, January 4, 1904.

By way of illustrating the efforts which medical
missionaries are making to train men and women in non-

1 For a description of the kind of work accomplished by medical
missionaries during the outbreak of plague in Manchuria, see The Claim of
Suffering, by E. K. Paget, pp. 79-84 ; also The Life of Arthur Jackson, by
A. J. Costaiii.

30 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Christian lands to alleviate the physical sufferings of their
fellow-countrymen, we may mention the central training
colleges which have recently been established in China
and elsewhere.

At the triennial conference of the Medical Missionary
Association held in Peking (January 1913), it was urged
that combined efforts should be made to strengthen existing
hospitals in which Chinese might be trained to become
fully qualified medical missionaries.

One of the most successful medical training colleges is
the Union Medical College in Peking, which is supported
jointly by the American Board (A.B.C.F.M.), the L.M.S. and
the S.P.G. This hospital, besides ministering to the needs
of Chinese patients, is turning out year by year a number
of qualified Chinese doctors who will carry the fame of
European medicine and a sympathetic report of the Christian
faith far and wide throughout the Empire of China. A
hospital on similar lines has been started in Shanghai.

Another combined hospital and medical school, which
is supported by missions connected with several different
denominations, is the Severance hospital outside Seoul, the
capital of Corea. This was started by the Presbyterian
mission, but its staff includes representatives of the S.P.G. ,
the A.M.E.C., and other societies. Thirty fully qualified
Coreau doctors have already been trained here. It is in
fact due to the influence exerted by this hospital that
vaccination has been introduced into almost every village
in Corea, with the result that smallpox, which has been
one of the greatest plagues of Corea, has been checked, and
may ere long be exterminated.

An important step towards the education of Indian
women who may become medical missionaries was taken
in 1894, when the North India School of Medicine for
Christian Women was founded at Ludhiana in the Punjab,
the two first teachers being Dr. Edith Brown and Miss
Greenfield.

2. It is hardly necessary to quote instances in which
the medical missionaries have, by the exercise of their art,

METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 31

gained for themselves or for others the opportunity to
explain and commend the Christian faith. In the case of
Corea it was the work of a medical missionary which laid
the foundation of Protestant missions in that land.

"Up to 1884 no mission work had been possible, the
rulers and people being determined to exclude all mission-
aries. In the autumn of that year, however, Dr. Allen, an
American medical missionary, was deputed to attempt an
entry into Corea. He could only do so by becoming
physician to the American Legation at Seoul. For some
time no opportunity presented itself. Then one night there
occurred a riot, during which the nephew of the king-
Prince Min Yong Ik — was seriously wounded. Dr. Allen
was summoned to attend him, and when he arrived found
about thirteen of the native doctors, who were trying to
staunch the bleeding wounds by filling them with wax.
They gazed in amazement as the medical missionary secured
the bleeding vessels, and cleansed and sutured the wounds.
Dr. Allen, by this successful application of medical skill,
not only occasioned a revolution in the medical treatment
of that country, but also obtained a marvellous vantage-
ground for carrying on missionary work. The then Govern-
ment of Corea subscribed for the building of a hospital for
Dr. Allen, which was established under royal patronage, and
where not only the healing of the sick was carried on, but
also the preaching of the gospel. Other missionaries were
allowed to settle in Corea ; the people showed confidence in
them, and to-day this once-closed land has been the scene
of some of the most splendid triumphs of the Cross, as the
direct outcome of the work of medico-evangelism." 1

One further illustration may be given of the influence
which the medical missionary may exert in a non-Christian
land. During the Boxer rebellion a small mission hospital
was attacked by an infuriated niob crying, " Death to the
foreign devils ! " The doctor and evangelist went out and
faced the mob, requesting that the Chinese patients in the
hospital might be spared. The leader of the mob said :
" I have been told you can work miracles here ; if you can
prove that, all your lives will be spared." A voice at
1 The Appeal of Medical Missions, by R. F. Moorshead, p. 73 f.

32 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

once replied from the mob : " They can. Six years ago I
was blind ; that doctor there gave me back my sight."
The leader at once drew off his followers, and left the
mission hospital and its inmates in peace.

" Who could doubt such love, or be unwilling to trust
such a Saviour ? " was the exclamation of a poor Chinese
woman whose body had been healed and whose soul had
been won to Christ in a mission hospital. " We have been
loved into heaven by the love and mercy of the doctors
and nurses, and we have given our souls to Christ, who
sent them here to save us," was the answer given by an
Arab mother regarding her daughter and herself, who had
formerly been Mohammedans, when asked by a Scottish
doctor why they had become Christians.

A Brahmin woman who had bitterly opposed the
work of Christian missionaries, after being treated in a
mission hospital, exclaimed, " I was against them once, but
I know now what love means."

Similar testimonies and results might be quoted from
every land where medical missionaries have worked. The
C.M.S. mission at Srinagar in Kashmir, which is now one
of the most successful in India, was started by a medical
missionary, Dr. Elmslie, in 186 5, after several unsuccessful
attempts to preach the Christian faith had been made by
other missionaries. The United Presbyterian mission at
Jeypore in Eajputana was the result of a successful treat-
ment by a medical missionary, Dr. Valentine, of the wife
of the Maharajah.

And if the results from the missionary standpoint
which have been achieved by the work of men doctors
have been great, greater far have been the results produced
by the work of women doctors. No language can describe
the appalling needs of India's zenanas, where women die
in countless thousands or linger on in helpless misery for
lack of medical assistance. To such, the woman missionary
doctor comes as an angel from God, and the physical
health which she brings is often the precursor of the
spiritual health which she longs equally to impart.

METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 3.'>

The results achieved by medical missionaries in all
lands cannot be better described than in the words of a
Brahman who addressed a meeting at Arcot which had
been summoned by the American Arcot Mission :

" I have watched the missionaries, and seen what they
are. What have they come to this country for ? What
tempts them to leave their parents, friends, and country,
and come to this, to them, unhealthy clime ? Is it for gain
or profit they come ? Some of us, country clerks in
Government offices, receive larger salaries than they. Is it
for an easy life ? See how they work, and then tell me.
Look at this missionary ! He came here a few years ago,
leaving all, and seeking only our good ! He was met with
cold looks and suspicious glances, and was shunned and
maligned. He sought to talk with us of what he told us
was the matter of most importance in heaven and earth,
but we would not listen. He was not discouraged : he
opened a dispensary, and we said, ' Let the pariahs [lowest
caste people] take his medicines, we won't ' ; but in the time
of our sickness and distress and fear we were glad to go to
him, and he welcomed us. We complained at first if he
walked through our Brahmin streets, but ere long, when
our wives and daughters were in sickness and anguish, we
went and begged him to come, even into our inner apart-
ments; and he came, and our wives and daughters now
smile upon us in health ! Has he made money by it ?
Even the cost of the medicine he has given us has not been
returned to him.

" Now what is it that makes him do all this for us ? It is
his Bible ! I have looked into it a good deal, at one time or
another, in the different languages I chance to know — it is
just the same in all languages. The Bible ! — there is nothing
to compare with it, in all our sacred books, for goodness,
and purity, and holiness, and love, and for motives of action.
Where did the English people get all their intelligence and
energy, and cleverness and power ? It is their Bible that
gives it to them. And now they bring it to us and say,
' That is what raised us ; take it and raise yourselves.'
They do not force it upon us, as did the Mohammedans
with their Koran, but they bring it in love, and translate it
into our languages, and lay it before us, and say, ' Look at it,
read it, examine it, and see if it is not good.' Of one thing
I am convinced : do what we will, oppose it as we may, it

34 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

is the Christian's Bible that will, sooner or later, work the
regeneration of our land." 1

The Development of Medical Missions.

Although it does not appear that the Jesuits sent out
qualified doctors to act as medical missionaries, it often
happened that some of their missionaries possessed a
serviceable knowledge of medicine which they used to good
effect. Thus Professor Okakura Yoshisaburo of Japan
writes :

" In 1568 Oda Nabunaga gave a plot of ground of about
ten acres in Kyoto to build a Christian church. . . . Two
Jesuit priests who served the church, being well versed in
the practice of medicine, built wards on the premises,
where poor patients were invited and treated free of charge.
Nabunaga also gave them an area of about 1200 acres in the
province of Omi, where three thousand kinds of medical
plants were transplanted, the artemisia vulgaris still used in
cauterization being supposed to be one of them." 2

We have referred elsewhere to the presence at the
court of Japan of a Christian physician during the first
part of the eighth century.

China. — The first medical missionary to China of whom
much is known was Bernard Khodes, who was born in
1644 at Lyons. Having studied medicine and surgery, he
entered a religious Order as a lay brother, and eventually
went to China, where he lived for sixteen years and died
near Peking in 1715. He attended all ranks of Chinese,
from the Emperor downwards. Father Karenni in a letter
written from Peking in 1715 gives a graphic account of
the widespread influence that he exerted and of the
affection with which the Chinese regarded him.3

In 1820 Dr. Livingstone, who was in the employ of
the East India Company and was stationed at Macao,

1 Medical Missions, their Place and Power, by J. Lowe, p. 115 f.

2 The Life and Thought of Japan, 1913, p. 109.

3 See Lcttres Edifiantes et Curieuses, vol. xiv. p. 431.

METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 35

opened a dispensary for the benefit of poor Chinese, in
connection with which Dr. Morrison acted as inter-
preter and endeavoured to preach the gospel to the
patients.

The first medical missionary in modern times to reach
China was the Eev. Peter Parker, M.D., who arrived
in 1835 and was supported by the American Board of
Missions. His hospital at Hong-Kong attracted patients
from far and near. In 1839 Dr. Lockhart of the L.M.S.
started work at Macao and was joined the same year by
Dr. Hobson. Dr. Lockhart eventually undertook work at
Shanghai and Dr. Hobson at Hong-Kong.

Amongst the medical missionaries who reached China
during the next thirty years were the Eev. Hudson Taylor
(founder of the China Inland Mission), W. Gauld and
James Maxwell of the Presbyterian Church of England,
and F. Porter Smith of the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary
Society. In 1890 the number of medical missionaries in
China had risen to 125 and in 1913 to 435 (see p. 203).

The S.P.G. may perhaps claim to have been the
first missionary society or organization to attempt to
train or send out medical missionaries. By his will, dated
February 22, 1703, General Codringtou bequeathed to
the S.P.G. his two plantations in Barbados, one of the
conditions being that a convenient number of professors
and scholars should be maintained there who should be
" obliged to study and practise Phisick and Chirurgery as
well as Divinity," so that they might " both endear them-
selves to the people and have the better opportunities of
doing good to men's souls whilst they were taking care of
their bodys." : As soon as the society obtained possession
of the estates (in 1712), superintendence of " the sick and
maimed negroes and servants " was undertaken by a
missionary (Eev. J. Holt) skilled " in physic and surgery,"
"a chest of medicines to the value of £30 being supplied
him." As a result of the labours of Mr. Holt and his
successors, the report for 1740 records that "some
1 See p. 396, also Two Hundred Years of the. S.P.G., p. 816 a.

36 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

hundreds of negroes have been brought to our Holy
Religion, and there are now not less than seventy Christian
negroes on those Plantations."

This was, however, the only organized medical mission-
ary work undertaken by the S.P.G. during the eighteenth
century.

The first medical missionary whom this society sent
out in the nineteenth century was the Rev. (afterwards
Bishop) F. T. McDougall, F.R.C.S., who began work in
Borneo in 1848. Amongst other Anglican bishops who
have been fully qualified medical missionaries may be
mentioned Dr. H. Callaway, who began work in Kaffraria
in 1855; Dr. Strachan, Bishop of Eangoon ; Dr. Smyth,
Bishop of Lebombo ; and Dr. Hine, Bishop of Nyasa.

The London Society for Promoting Christianity amongst
the Jews may perhaps claim to have been the first society
to send out medical missionaries with the intention that
the missionaries should devote practically their whole time
to the practice of medicine. This society sent out Dr.
George Clarke to Gibraltar in 1823, and Dr. George Dalton
in 1824 to Jerusalem.

India. — Medical missions in India, in the modern
sense of the term, date from 1783, when John Thomas,
a ship's surgeon, commenced missionary work in Bengal.
After itinerating for three years in the Malda district, and
translating part of the New Testament into Bengali, he
returned to England in 1792, and having offered his
services to the Baptist Missionary Society, was sent out
as a companion to Carey in 1793. Though he was an
eccentric person, and had to be confined for some time in
an asylum, he laboured strenuously to promote the cause
of Christian missions. He died in 1801, and had no
successor till 1838, when Mr. Archibald Eamsay began
medical work in Travancore. In 1852 the L.M.S. sent
out Dr. Leitch, who was drowned two years later, but
whose work inaugurated the large and successful medical
mission which the L.M.S. has since developed at Neyoor
in South India. About the same time the American Board

METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 37

of Missions sent out Dr. John Scuclder, who laboured first
in Ceylon and afterwards in Madras.

In 1856 the Free Church of Scotland sent its first
medical missionary, Dr. David Paterson, to Madras.

The Church of England Zenana Missionary Society
sent the first woman doctor to India (Dr. Fanny Butler)
in 1880.

The S.P.G. began medical missionary work in 1870 at
Nazareth in Tinnevelly, and Dr. Strachan, its first medical
missionary, afterwards became Bishop of Eangoon.

As a development of Mrs. Winter's work at Delhi,
which was begun in 1863, the first hospital for women
and children in India was established in connection with
the S.P.G. mission to Delhi. The work grew steadily till
the foundation of St. Stephen's Hospital in the central
street of Delhi in 1884 In 1906 the new St. Stephen's
Hospital was founded outside the walls.

The Zenana Bible and Medical Mission (1852), which
is an undenominational society, supports the Victoria
Hospital at Benares, the Duchess of Teck Hospital at
Patna, the Kinnaird Memorial Hospital at Lucknow, and
a hospital at Nasik in Western India which was presented
by local Brahmans. For further details in regard to the
hospitals and medical missions which are scattered through-
out India, see p. 131. The total number of qualified
medical missionaries in India was 140 in 1895, 281 in
1905,and 335 in 1912.

Medical Missions to Moslems.

It has been the well-nigh universal experience of
missionaries who have worked amongst Moslems that the
best, and often the only, way by which a successful appeal
can be made is by means of medical missions. The
experience of Dr. Pemicll on the borders of Afghanistan,
Dr. W. Miller in Northern Nigeria, and many others, is
the same, namely, that the prejudices of Moslems against
the Christian faith can best be combated by the practical

HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

demonstration of the love of Jesus Christ which is em-
bodied in a medical mission.

One reason why medical missions appeal so strongly to
Moslems is that in many cases their knowledge of medicine
and surgery is so deficient that it can only be compared
with that of heathen or pagans. Even in Moslem lands
which have long been in touch with European influence
and science the knowledge of medicine has lagged behind
the knowledge of all other subjects.1

Four doctors and four nurses were sent out by the
Dutch Church, twenty years ago, to the Dutch East Indies.
One of the Scotch doctors who visited the scene of their
work in 1912 wrote home as follows :

" I find here over 30,000 converts from Islam, all the
work of four doctors and four nurses. And these men and
women are living better Christian lives than the vast bulk
of our Christians at home."

Women's Work in the Mission Field.

Our failure to describe in detail the share which
women have taken in the work of Christian missions is
due to no want of appreciation of the supremely important
part which they have played in the past and are destined
to play in the future in all parts of the mission field. The

1 An illustration of this may be found in a series of questions and
answers which were published by the Lancet, July 16, 1898. The questions
to which the answers were appended had been addressed by the French
Statistical Department to the Pasha of Damascus.

" Q. What is the death-rate per thousand in your principal city?
A. In Damascus it is the will of Allah that all must die — some die old,
some young. Q. What is the annual number of births? A. We do not
know ; God alone can say. Q. Are the supplies of drinking water sufficient
and of good quality ? A. From the remotest period no one has ever died of
thirst. Q. General remarks on the hygienic conditions of your city.
A. Since Allah sent us Mohammed, His prophet, to purge the world with
fire and sword, there has been a vast improvement. But there still remains
much to do. And now, my lamb of the West, cease your questioning, which
can do no good either to you or to anyone else. Man should not bother him-
self about matters which concern only God. Salaam aleikum."

METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 39

future status of women for many years to come in non-
Christian lands will depend to a very large extent upon the
ability of missionary societies to send out into the mission
field an increased staff of highly qualified Christian women.
The suffragist and suffragette societies at home would be
amongst the strongest supporters of missionary work
could they but realize that the work accomplished by
these has done more towards effecting the emancipation
and uplifting of women than all other societies or political
organizations in the world. To two-thirds of the women
now living in the world Christian missions hold out the
only immediate prospect of raising their social status.
No religion other than Christianity inculcates the doctrine
that women are the equals of men and should be accorded
equal freedom and equal opportunities of education. Their
future is therefore inseparably connected with the diffusion
and acceptance of the teaching of Christianity.

More than half the women now living in the British
Empire are Hindus. This fact adds point to the words
uttered by a well-known Brahman in India who said that
among the countless divisions and sects of Hinduism the
only two things on which all Hindus are agreed are the
sanctity of the cow and the depravity of woman. We
note with joy the isolated efforts which have so far been
made by Hindus and Moslems to imitate the actions of the
Christian missionaries and to agitate for the emancipation
of their women, but without the support of Christian
teaching and the inspiration of Christian love it is im-
possible that these efforts should obtain their true fruition.

To appreciate the nature of the problem which con-
fronts those who desire to uplift India's women, we need to
remind ourselves that there are 40,000,000 Indian women
confined in zenanas, that there are 26,000,000 widows,
335,000 of whom are under fifteen years of age and
111,000 under ten, that not one woman in 100 in India
can read, and that only one in 100 of girls of school-
going age are at school. How difficult it is for the
enlightened Hindus to win over their fellow-countrymen

40 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

to the institution of any radical reforms may be gathered
from the fact that the teaching of their sacred books
strongly supports the treatment of women which is at
present in vogue. Thus their great law-giver, Manu, whose
teaching is accepted by nearly all orthodox Hindus, can be
quoted by those opposed to reform as having said : " Day
and night must women be kept in dependence by the male
members of the family ; they are never fit for independence ;
they are as impure as falsehood itself : that is a fixed
rule." l

The need for transforming the life of women by im-
parting to them the teaching of Jesus Christ is as real in
other countries as it is in India.

Few, if any, English women outside the ranks of the
missionaries have had so wide an experience of the con-
ditions under which women in India and the Far East live
as the famous traveller, Mrs. Bishop. Speaking of the
influence which the religions of these countries exert upon
women, she said :

" Just one or two remarks as to what these false faiths
do. They degrade women with an infinite degradation. I
have lived in zenanas and harems, and have seen the daily
life of the secluded women, and I can speak from bitter
experience of what their lives are — the intellect dwarfed, so
that the woman of twenty or thirty years of age is more
like a child of eight intellectually; while all the worst
passions of human nature are stimulated and developed to
a fearful degree ; jealousy, envy, murderous hate, intrigue,
running to such an extent that in some countries I have
hardly been in a woman's house or near a woman's tent
without being asked for drugs with which to disfigure the
favourite wife, to take away her life, or to take away the
life of the favourite wife's infant son. This request has
been made to me nearly two hundred times." 2

The Indian zenana was first penetrated in the name of
Christ by the wife of a missionary sixty years ago when

1 Manu, ix. 2, 3, 18.

2 Speech at Exeter Hall, November 1, 1893.

METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 41

asked to visit a Hindu woman who was dying, and who had
been in secret a reader of the Christian Bible. The sequel
of this visit was the establishment in London in 1852 of
the Zenana Bible and Medical Mission, which supports
more than 30 stations and a number of well-equipped
hospitals for women (see p. 132). Miss Swain was
apparently the first woman to become a qualified medical
missionary (1870). The number of qualified women doctors
in the mission field is now nearly 400.

Another sphere of women's work in the mission field is
afforded by the demand for qualified nurses. It is encourag-
ing to know that during the last ten years 700 nurses have
joined the Nurses' Missionary League, thereby declaring
their intention, if God permit, to become missionaries, and
that of this number 230 are already (1914) at work
abroad.

The number of unmarried women missionaries now
at work is nearly 7000. Of these 2700 come from
the U.S.A. and about the same number from Great Britain.
The remainder are connected with continental societies.

The work which women missionaries have accomplished
in the mission field will be referred to again and again in
the sections relating to different countries, but nothing
which can be said will give the supporters of missions an
adequate idea of the important part which women are
playing in the spread of Christian missions and of the
supreme importance of extending their work.

III.

THE DAWN OF MODERN MISSIONS1
(1580-1750).

DURING the two centuries preceding the Reformation
hardly any attempt was made to evangelize the non-
Christian world, and nearly two centuries elapsed after
the Eeformation before the Churches of Europe which had
the open Bible in their hands realized that it was their duty
to impart the knowledge of its contents to the heathen.
Some of the leaders in the Reformation movements were
so far from initiating missionary work abroad that they
regarded all such work as useless or even wrong.

Thus Luther (1483-1 546) in his Table Talk says : " The
arts are growing as if there was to be a new start and the
world was to become young again. . . . Another hundred
years and all will be over. God's Word will disappear for
want of any to preach it. ... Asia and Africa have no
gospel. In Europe, Greeks, Italians, Spaniards, Hungarians,
French, English, Poles have no gospel." " The small
Electorate of Saxony will not hinder the end," he replied
to one who observed that when Christ came there would be
no faith at all on the earth, and that the gospel was still
believed in that part of Germany.

Zwingli (1484—1531), whilst admitting that the gospel
must continue to spread throughout the world, makes no
suggestion that it is the duty of the Church to send out

1 This chapter contains a brief sketch of missionary work other than that
connected with the R.C. Church up to 1750. A further account of the work
to which reference is made will be found under the headings of the various
countries in which the work was attempted.

42

THE DAWN OP MODERN MISSIONS 43

missionaries. It is interesting to note that he maintained
that pious heathens would be saved who died without a
knowledge of the gospel.

Calvin (1509—1564) held that any special agency for the
conversion of the heathen is needless, for, as he wrote, " we
are taught that the kingdom of Christ is neither to be
advanced nor maintained by the industry of men, but this
is the work of God alone."

In 1535 Erasmus, who was not definitely associated
with the Reformation movements, had urged in the
strongest language the duty of evangelizing the whole
world.1

The first theologian connected with the Reformation
movements to maintain that " the command to preach the
gospel to all nations binds the Church " for all time was
Adrianus Saravia (1531—1613), a Dutchman, who, after
being a Reformed pastor at Antwerp and Brussels, and a
professor at Leyden, eventually became Dean of Westminster.
In his treatise " concerning the different orders of the
ministry of the gospel as they were instituted by the
Lord," published in 1590, he urges the duty of the Church
to carry on the task of the evangelization of the world,
which had been begun by the apostles, and argues that
the maintenance of the episcopal office is necessary to the
fulfilment of this task.

This treatise by Saravia drew from Theodore Bcza of
Geneva a reply (1592) in the course of which he disputed
the interpretation of the missionary command given by
Saravia and maintained that its obligation did not extend
beyond the first century. Later on, Johann Gerhard
(d. 1637) wrote, opposing the views of Saravia and
maintaining that the command to preach the gospel in
the whole world ceased with the apostles (mandatum
prcedicandi evangelium in toto terrarum orbc cum apostolis
desiit). He gives as one reason for believing that this

1 See his treatise, Ecclesiastcs, sivc de ratione concionandi. A quotation
of some length is given by Dr. Geo. Smith in his Short History of Christian
Missions, p. 116 f.

44 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

was so, that St. Paul himself declared that this command
had been already obeyed, and that the gospel had brought
forth fruit in the whole world (Eom. x. 18, Col. i. 23).
The arguments that he adduces reappear in an official
document issued by the theological Faculty of Wittenberg
which represented Lutheran orthodoxy, and which had been
elicited by an inquiry addressed to the Faculty by Count
Truchsess, who desired to have an explanation of the scope
of the missionary command recorded by St. Matthew.
The Faculty declared that the command to go into all the
world was only a personal privilege (personate privilegium)
of the apostles, and had already been fulfilled. They
argued that if this were not so it would be the duty of
every Christian to become a missionary — a conclusion
which was absurd. They further declared that inasmuch
as all nations once possessed the knowledge of God, He
is not bound to restore to their descendants what has
been taken away crimine lessee majcstatis. Lastly, they
suggested that where a Christian Government is established
in a non-Christian land it behoves the civil authorities to
build churches and establish schools for the benefit of the
" sinners " whom they have brought under their sway.

The first attempt at missionary work made by
members of the Eeformed Churches was not followed by
any permanent result. In 1555 Villegaignon, a French
adventurer, who founded a colony in Brazil, asked Calvin
to send Christian preachers, whether to minister to the
French Protestants or to evangelize the heathen is not
certain. Eichier, who was one of four clergymen sent,
wrote shortly after his arrival in Brazil that they had
purposed to win the native heathen for Christ, but that
their barbarism, their cannibalism, and their spiritual
dullness " extinguished all our hope."

It would be interesting to watch the countenances of a
missionary committee to-day which should receive a similar
pessimistic report from one of its missionaries before he
had even begun to learn the language of the country to
which he had been sent !

THE DAWN OF MODERN MISSIONS 45

George Fox (1624—91), who founded the Society of
Friends, and who had himself visited America, wrote :
" All friends everywhere, that have Indians or blacks, you
are to preach the gospel to them and other servants if
you be true Christians." In 1661 three of his followers
set out as missionaries to China, but did not succeed in
reaching that country.

The first Lutheran to attempt definitely missionary
work was an Austrian, Baron Justinian von Wcltz (b. 1621).
After writing several treatises in which he maintained the
missionary obligation attaching to all Christians, he laid
aside his baronial title and sailed for Dutch Guiana, where
he soon afterwards died. The change of attitude in favour
of the recognition of the duty of prosecuting foreign
missions that took place amongst the Lutheran Christians
towards the end of the seventeenth century was due in
part to the writings and example of Von Weltz.

Thus Spener (1635—1705), who has been called the
" Father of pietism," in the course of a sermon preached
on the Feast of the Ascension said :

" The obligation rests on the whole Church to have care
as to how the gospel shall be preached in the whole world,
. . . and to this end no diligence, labour, or cost be spared
in such work on behalf of the poor heathen and unbelievers.
That almost no thought even has been given to this . . .
is evidence how little the honour of Christ and of humanity

concerns us."

At the close of the seventeenth century the cause of
foreign missions found an earnest advocate in the well-known
philosopher, Baron von Leibnitz, whose interest in them
had been aroused by his conversations with Jesuit mis-
sionaries from China whom he had met in Kome. One
of those whom he influenced was Francke, who was
associated with the sending out of the Danish Mission
to India.

In 1700 the Royal Society of Prussia was founded in
Berlin, and in 1702 a collegium orientate was added in

46 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

order that the society — to quote the words of the royal
declaration —

" may also be a college for the propagation of the Christian
faith, worship, and virtue, that upon occasion of their
philosophical observations which they shall make in the
northern part of Asia, they shall likewise diligently endeavour
that among the barbarous people of those tracts of land as
far as China, the light of the Christian faith and the purer
gospel may be kindled, and even that China itself may be
assisted by those Protestants who travel thither by land or
sail to that country through the Northern Sea."

Dr. Jablonski, the vice-president of the Eoyal Society,
writing to a representative of the English S.P.G-. (on Jan-
uary 20, 1711) stated that the formation of this "oriental
college " was an act of " pious emulation " on the part of
those in Prussia who had heard of the proposed formation
of the S.P.G.

Dutch Missions. — The Dutch East India Company,
which was founded in 1602, was bound by the charter
granted by the State to care for the planting of the Church
and the conversion of the heathen in the countries with
which it traded. At its instigation was founded in 1622,
at the University of Leyden, an institution called the
Seminarium Indicum, which for twelve years helped
to provide preachers and missionaries for the Company's
service. These engaged for a period of five years only,
and the majority of them returned to Holland without
having mastered the languages of the peoples amongst
whom they lived.

The causes of the comparative failure of the Dutch
missions are thus described by Dr. Warneck : l

" At the best the preachers mastered the language of the
Malays, but the motley population of the wide archipelago
has many languages, and only in the case of Ceylon and
Formosa can it be pretended that they attempted to learn
other languages. No doubt there was a Malay and also a
Singalese translation of the Bible : so also in Formosa some

1 History of Protestant Missions, p. 45 f.

THE DAWN OF MODERN MISSIONS 47

books of the New Testament were translated into the
language of the country . . . with honourable exceptions
the mission work itself became very superficial. . . . The
example of Portuguese sham-Christianization worked
infectiously. Thousands were received into the Church by
baptism without heed to inward preparedness. . . . When
in 1674 one of the kings of Timor declared that he and his
people were willing to become Christians, the preacher
Rhymdyk was sent ' to see to what was necessary '- —that is, to
baptize the whole people off-hand. In the state of Amboina
the chiefs simply received a command to have always at the
time of the preacher's visit a number of natives ready for
baptism ; and since for everyone who was baptized the
preacher received a sum per head, it will be easily under-
stood that he was not particular if, as often happened, he
himself was not a man full of the Holy Ghost and of faith.
. . . With such a method of conversion it can easily be
understood how at the close of the seventeenth century the
number of Christians should be given in Ceylon alone as
from 300,000 to 400,000, in Java as 100,000, in Amboina
as 40,000, and no less easily how the Christianity of these
masses was inwardly worthless, and almost vanished when,
as in Ceylon, the rule of the Dutch came to an end, or con-
tinued to exist only as a dead nominal Christianity. . . .
In Formosa alone had a better foundation been laid, but
there, after the expulsion of the Dutch by the Chinese pirates
in 1661, the nascent Christianity was forcibly extinguished."

The Danish-Halle Mission. — The Danish colonial pos-
sessions date from 1620 in the East Indies, and from
1672 in the West Indies and Gold Coast. In 1705 Dr.
Liitkens, who had been appointed as a Danish court chaplain
in the previous year, and who had lived for a time with
Spener in Berlin, was commissioned by the king, Frederick
iv., to seek out missionaries who might be sent to the
Danish colonies. Having failed to find suitable men in
Denmark, he applied to Francke at Halle in Germany, and
through his assistance the first two missionaries, Bartholomew
Ziegenbalg and Henry Pliitschau, were sent forth from
Copenhagen by the Bishop of Zealand on November 29,1705.
Whilst staying at the Cape of Good Hope, on their way
out to Tranquebar, they sent home a deplorable account of

48 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

the Hottentots who were under Dutch rule. This eventu-
ally resulted in the commencement of a Moravian mission
at the Cape. On arriving at Tranquebar (July 9, 1706)
they experienced much hostility from the Danish officials,
who regarded their enterprise as fanatical and quixotic.
Their work, nevertheless, was soon attended by visible
results. Ten months after their arrival they baptized five
heathen slaves of Danish masters, and five months later
they baptized nine adult Hindus. In the following year
Ziegenbalg made a preaching tour through the kingdom of
Tanjore, and the reports of this tour, and of his public
conferences with Brahmans, were translated into English by
the Eev. A. W. Boehm, formerly chaplain to Prince George
of Denmark, and were dedicated to the S.P.G., and the 500
copies purchased and distributed by this society " proved
a motive to many charitable benefactions contributed by
well-disposed persons for advancing this mission." The
English East India Company offered to convey the books
and letters belonging to the mission free of charge, and
the S.P.C.K. undertook to receive funds on its behalf.

In 1714 a college for promoting the spread of the
gospel was founded as a state institution at Copenhagen,
but, notwithstanding the existence of this college, the real
direction and control of the mission remained at Halle
in Germany. Pllitschau returned invalided in 1711, by
which time the New Testament had been translated into
Tamil and a Tamil dictionary was nearly completed. When
Ziegenbalg returned in 1715, he was presented to George I.,
who wrote to him after he had returned to Tranquebar a
letter (dated August 23, 1717) expressing satisfaction
" not only because the work undertaken by you of con-
verting the heathen to the Christian faith doth, by the
grace of God, prosper, but also because that in this our
kingdom such a laudable zeal for the promotion of the
gospel prevails."

When Ziegenbalg died in 1719, aged thirty-six, he
left 355 converts and numerous catechumens, a complete
Tamil Bible, a dictionary, a mission seminary and schools.

THE DAWN OF MODERN MISSIONS 49

Fraucke was the chief supporter in Germany of the
Danish-Halle Mission and helped to train many of its
earliest missionaries.

We shall refer to this mission later on in describing
missionary work in India. Meanwhile we may quote Dr.
Warneck's statement :

"As to the history of the Danish-Halle Mission, ... let
it suffice to note that from Fraucke's institutions there have
been sent out in the course of a century about sixty mission-
aries, amongst whom, besides conspicuous men like
Ziegenbalg, Fabricius, Janecke, Gericke, Christian Friedrich
Schwartz was distinguished as a star of the first magnitude.
Amid various little strifes and ample distress . . . this . . .
on the whole solid and not unfruitful mission (about
15,000 Christians) maintained itself until in the last quarter
of the century and afterwards rationalism at home dug up
its roots. Only when the universities, having fallen com-
pletely under the sway of this withering movement, ceased
to furnish theologians, was the first trial made in 1803 of
a missionary who had not been a university student.
Meanwhile a more living interest had been awakened in
England, and so the connection which had already for some
time existed with friends of missions there, and specially the
alliance with the Church missionary societies, saved the
Tamil Mission from ruin. Then later the Dresden-Leipsic
Lutheran Missionary Society stepped into the old heritage
of the fathers, after Halle had long ceased to be an active
centre." l

The college which had been founded at Copenhagen
sent out Hans Egede, a Norwegian pastor, to start work in
Greenland in 1721. The hardships and disappointments
that he and his associates encountered resulted in an
order from the King of Denmark to discontinue the work
(see p. 51).

Moravian Missions. — The missionary activities of no
other branch of the Christian Church can compare with
those of the Moravian Church. Within twenty years of
the commencement of their missionary work the Moravian
Brethren had started more missions than Anglicans and

1 History of Protestant Missions, p. 57 f.

50 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Protestants had started during the two preceding centuries.
Their marvellous success was largely due to the fact that from
the first they recognized that the evangelization of the world
was the most pressing of all the obligations that rested
upon the Christian Church, and that) the carrying out of
this obligation was the " common affair " of the community.
Up to the present time the Moravians have sent out nearly
3000 missionaries, the proportion of missionaries to their
communicant members being 1 in 12. Amongst English
Christians generally the proportion is said to be 1 in 2000.
To the Moravians it seemed impossible that any branch of
the Christian Church could continue to exist which failed
to recognize this common obligation. It would be little
exaggeration to say that the continued existence and vitality
of the Moravian Church are a result of its missionary
activity.

The Moravian community or brotherhood (Unitas
Fratrum) dates back to 1467. The Moravians who were
expelled from Austria in 1722 settled atHerrnhut, not far
from Dresden, where they were welcomed by Count von
Zinzendorf (1700-60), who helped to inspire them with
a zeal for foreign missions and was eventually consecrated
(1737) as a Bishop of the Moravian Church. Their first
mission l was to the negro slaves in the Danish island of
St. Thomas in the West Indies. A negro from this island,
who had been invited to Herrnhut by Count Zmzendorf,
appealed to the Brethren for help. He said to them, " You
cannot come unless you are willing to become slaves " ; and
although this forecast was not literally fulfilled, the first
missionaries who responded to this appeal were not dis-
couraged by the terms proposed. On August 21, 1732,
Leonard Dober, a potter, and David Nitschmann, a
carpenter, left Herrnhut for Copenhagen on their way to
the West Indies, being the advanced guard of an army of
nearly 3000 missionaries which the Moravian Church has
sent forth.

1 For a sketch of Moravian missions see A Short, History of the Moravian
Church, by J. E. Hutton.

THE DAWN OF MODERN MISSIONS 51

On reaching St. Thomas :

"they won the hearts of the slaves and made them clap
their hands for joy. They aroused the anger of the brutal
slave-owners. . . . They caused the negroes to weep and
pray in sugar-field and hut, and brought hundreds of con-
verts to baptism. . . . They stood fearlessly before high
officials . . . and by showing the slave-owners that they
should no longer treat their slaves as beasts, prepared the
way for negro emancipation." x

In 1734 mission work was started in the island of
St. Croix, and a little later in Jamaica and Antigua.

The Mission to Greenland. — When Count Zinzendorf
visited the Danish Court at Copenhagen in 1731, he met
two Eskimos, who had been baptized by the Danish
missionary Egede. On hearing that it was proposed to
discontinue the work in Greenland, two Moravian Brethren,
Stack and Boemisk, who were by occupation grave-diggers,
volunteered to undertake work there, and reached Green-
land in 1733.

" At first their outlook was gloomy. When they tried
to earn their living by fishing, they found themselves unable
to manage their boat, and had to live chiefly on seaweed.
They had to learn two new languages — first, the Danish, and
then through the Danish the Eskimo — and the Greenlauders
took the opportunity to cheat them. . . . When the two
cousins stood up to preach, the natives treated them shame-
fully, danced around them, mimicked them, howled,
drummed, pelted them with stones. ' As long as we have a
sound body,' said these greasy Greenlanders . . . ' we have
enough. Your people may have diseased souls; go back to
those that need you.' When the first convert, Kajarnak,
came forward with his family to be baptized, a plot was
formed, and his father-in-law was murdered. To add to the
missionaries' troubles, the small-pox broke out and carried
off from two to three thousand of the people. . . . The
Moravians were hated and despised by the people: they
were looked upon as the cause of the small-pox ; they had
to attend on two thousand ungrateful patients ; they were

1 A Short History of the Moravian Church, p. 152.

52 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

almost dying of hunger ; and as they lay in their snow huts
at night, with the cold stars above them and the sounds of
midnight revelry in their ears, they felt indeed that only by
the strength of Christ could they win the hard-fought
battle. At last, after years of waiting, the long night began
to break . . . and from the moment when Kajaruak, as he
listened with awe to the story of Gethsemane, came forward
with his eager question, ' What is that ? Tell me that again,'
the work began to flourish, the hope of the missionaries
swelled to faith, and the Eose of Sharon began to bloom in
the eternal snows of the ' Land of Desolation.' " 1

In 1740 the Moravian missionaries made an important
change in the methods of presenting the gospel to the Green-
landers which they had hitherto adopted. In the Historical
Sketches of the Missions of the United Brethren? written by
John Holmes and published in 1818, this change is thus
described :

" A great change took place in the mode adopted by our
brethren in their endeavours to instruct the natives. The
method hitherto pursued by them consisted principally in
speaking to the heathen of the existence, the attributes,
and perfection of God, and enforcing obedience to the divine
law, hoping by this means gradually to prepare their minds
for the reception of the subliiner and more mysterious truths
of the gospel : and it must be allowed that, abstractly con-
sidered, this method appears the most rational ; but when
reduced to practice, it was found wholly ineffectual. For
five years our missionaries had laboured in this way, and
could scarce obtain a patient hearing from the savages.
Now, therefore, they determined in the literal sense of the
word to preach Christ and Him crucified without first ' lay-
ing the foundation of repentance from dead works and faith
towards God.' No sooner did they declare unto the Green-
landers ' the word of reconciliation ' in its native simplicity
than they beheld its converting and saving power. This
reached the hearts of the audience and produced the most
astonishing effects. An impression was made which opened
a way to their consciences and illuminated their under-
standings. They remained no longer the stupid and brutish,

1 A Short History of the Moravian Church, p. 154 f. * P. 31 f.

THE DAWN OF MODERN MISSIONS 53

creatures they had once been ; they felt they were sinners,
and trembled at their danger ; they rejoiced in the oiler of a
Saviour, and were rendered capable of relishing sublimer
pleasures than plenty of seals and the low gratifications of
sensual appetites. A sure foundation being thus laid in the
knowledge of a crucified Redeemer, our missionaries soon
found that this supplied their young converts with a power-
ful motive to the abhorrence of sin and the performance of
every moral duty towards God and their neighbour. . . .
In short, the happiest results have attended this practice,
not only at first and in Greenland, but in every other
country where our missionaries have since laboured for the
conversion of the heathen."

Within the territory occupied by the Moravians the
work of evangelization has long since been completed. At
their General Synod in 1899 the Moravians handed over
their missions in Greenland to the Danish Church and
quitted Greenland in the following year.

The mission to Labrador, which was commenced soon
after the middle of the eighteenth century, was attended
by even greater difficulties than those which the mission-
aries had to encounter in Greenland, but these were
successfully surmounted, and nearly all the population of
Labrador is now Christian.

In 1738 a mission was established in Surinam or
Dutch Guiana. On reaching the coast the missionaries
made their way through three hundred miles of jungles and
swamps and finally settled amongst the Accawois, the
Warrows, the Arawaks, and the Caribs. George Da'hne,
one of the missionaries, lived in a lonely hut in the forest
for two years, " surrounded by wild beasts and wilder
men." After six years of strenuous toil, the first convert,
an old woman, was baptized. As the work began to attain
visible success it was bitterly opposed by the Dutch traders,
and the Dutch Government issued orders forbidding the
Indians to join any Moravian settlement.

In 1735 the Moravians undertook colonization in
Georgia, and commenced missionary work amongst the
American Indians. Their work, which met with a large

54 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

amount of initial success, was so vehemently opposed by
the other white settlers that they at length withdrew
altogether.

In 1742 the Moravian missionary Eauch developed
a mission at Shckomeko in the state of New York,
but the opposition of the white settlers compelled its
abandonment. A missionary settlement established in
1746 at Gnadenhiitten prospered for ten years, but was
then destroyed during one of the innumerable wars waged
against the Indians.

In 1736 Huckoff, who belonged to an old Moravian
family, attempted to start a school among the slaves on the
Gold, Coast.

In 1737 George Schmidt reached Cape Town, having
been sent out by the Brethren at Herrnhut. By this
time the Dutch had held Cape Town for nearly a century,
but they had done nothing towards the evangelization of
the Africans. Schmidt had been imprisoned for conscience'
sake for six years in Bohemia before he set sail for South
Africa. He worked for six years among the Hottentots at
Bavianskloof, and won the hearts of many by his teaching
and preaching. The Dutch Boers, who disliked and de-
spised the Hottentots, were far from being pleased at his
success. In 1742 Schmidt, having received an "act of
ordination " from Zinzendorf, proceeded to baptize five
Hottentots. His action gave umbrage to the regular
Dutch ministers at Cape Town, and after fruitless attempts
to arrive at an understanding with them he started in
October 1743 on his return to Europe. He left behind
49 adherents, 5 of whom had been baptized. For nearly
fifty years after his departure no attempt was made to
carry on the work which he had inaugurated.

The principles and methods which characterized these
early Moravian missions have been well summarized by a
Moravian historian, who wrote :

"No Moravian missionary worked alone. The whole
Church threw its heart into the task. All missionaries went
out with full instructions, and were followed by the prayers

THE DAWN OF MODERN MISSIONS 55

of the whole Church. No man was to go unless his mind
was fully made up ; nay more, unless he could not help it.
He must be a man, so ran the rules, who felt within him an
irresistible call ; a man who loathed the lusts of the world,
who burned with love to Christ, who was approved by all
his brethren, and whose face shone with the light of a
divine joy, which should enlighten the black hearts of the
heathen. As for the work of the missionaries, it was
thorough and deep and well organized. Everything was
done according to a well-considered plan. When the
missionaries arrived at their post they were to announce
themselves to the people as messengers sent by Jesus
Christ. ... As soon as possible after their arrival they
translated portions of the gospels into the native language,
and with this as their weapon spoke straight to the hearts of
the people. Instead of puzzling the poor heathens' brains
with shadowy notions of a great and good God, they went
straight to the mark : ' Jesus Christ lived and died, and
lives now, to save thee from thy sins.' ... As they never
baptized till they were perfectly sure (as far as man can be
sure) that the candidate was a genuine Christian, they often
seemed to work but slowly ; but they found it better to do
their work thoroughly than be content with a mere coating
of sham religion. . . . Above all, with their teaching, they
did not forget discipline. . . . But the iron hand had a
silken glove . . . and by kindness and love and tenderness
they won the hearts of the heathen. . . . ' It will not do,'
said Zinzendorf, 'to measure everything by the Herrnhut
yard." *

The districts in which Moravian missionaries are at
work to-day include Labrador, Alaska, California (amongst
the Indians), Jamaica, eight of the West Indian Islands,
Nicaragua, Demerara, Surinam, South Africa, East Central
Africa, West Himalayas, and North Queensland. Their
missionaries, who number altogether 367, include 38 theo-
logians, 1 doctor, 26 tradesmen, 6 artisans, 6 deaconesses,
12 brethren trained in London and 6 at Tubingen. Of the
whole number 142 are ordained. In addition to these
the native missionaries include 48 ordained and 25 un-
ordained brethren.

1 A Short History of the Moravian Church, p. 102 f.

56 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Anglican Missions. — Of missionary societies now con-
nected with the Anglican Church the oldest is the New
Eivjland Company (formerly known as " The Corporation
for the Propagation of the Gospel in New England "), which
was founded by the Long Parliament in 1649. It was
founded at the instigation of Cromwell after a petition
had been presented to Parliament in 1641 by 70 English
and Scottish ministers. The money necessary for its
support was obtained by a collection directed by the
same Parliament to be made throughout England in all
parishes, which amounted to what was then the large
sum of nearly £12,000. The money was invested in
land, and the income forwarded from time to time
through the Governors of the United Colonies to the
Company's first missionary in New England, the Eev. John
Eliot, and afterwards to his assistants.

At the Eesto ration the Company was reconstituted,
and incorporated by King Charles II. in 1661. The first
Governor of the Company was the Hon. Eobert Boyle1
(later one of the founders of the Koyal Society).

The Company continued its work in New England until
the year 1775, when the War of Independence broke out.

After the Declaration of Independence the Company
transferred the scene of its labours to New Brunswick, and
the work among the Indians there was carried on from
1776 to 1822."

In 1822 the Company transferred its operations from
New Brunswick farther to the west. Since then its
missionaries have been working among the six Indian
nations on the Grand Eiver Eeserve, Ontario, which is
the largest Indian reserve in Canada. The Company has
built several churches on the reserve, and entirely main-
tains three clergymen, several catechists, and a trained
hospital nurse.

1 Robert Boyle was for thirty years Governor of this Corporation. In
addition to his labours on behalf of the American Indians, he published at
his own expense the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles in the Malay
language. These were printed at Oxford in 1677-

THE DAWN OF MODERN MISSIONS 57

The Company has also charge of the Mohawk Church
(which is the oldest church belonging to the Anglican
Communion in Canada), and has built and maintains the
Mohawk Institution. This institution is considered by the
Indian Department of the Canadian Government to be
one of the most successful industrial schools for the
children (boys and girls) of Indians in the Dominion. The
Mohawk Church and Institution are in Brantford, Ontario.
The church is the only chapel royal in Canada, being
styled by the Crown " His Majesty's Chapel of the
Mohawks," and possesses silver communion plate and a
Bible presented by Queen Anne to " Her Chapel of the
Mohawks," in the Mohawk Valley, Albany (now U.S.A.), in
the year 1712. During the war the plate and Bible were
buried, but were subsequently recovered by the Indians and
by them brought to Canada.

In 1901 the Company opened a new sphere of work
and built (at the invitation of the bishop of New West-
minster) a school for Indian boys at Lytton in British
Columbia. The membership of the New England Com-
pany has since its foundation consisted entirely of laymen
and is limited to 25 members.

The Company maintains its missionary work upon
the annual income derived from its endowments, which
have been obtained partly by the amount realized from
the collection already referred to, and partly from
the bequests of the Hon. Eobert Boyle and Dr. Daniel
Williams.

The Christian Faith Society, originally called the
Society for the Conversion and Eeligious Instruction and
Education of the Negro Slaves in the British West India
Islands, was founded as a result of a bequest made in the
will of Eobert Boyle, dated 1691. Its first achievement
was the foundation of the College of William and Mary
in Virginia for the instruction of Indian children. After
the War of Independence the operations of the society
were diverted to the West Indies. It has an income of
£2300 per annum, derived from investments, which is spent

58 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

on the support of Anglican work for the benefit of the
inhabitants of the West Indian Islands.

The formation of English missionary societies for the
promotion of missionary work throughout the world
may be said to date from the opening of the eighteenth
century. In 1698, the Society for Promoting Christian
Knowledge was formed, its chief object being to provide
Christian literature and to promote Christian education
both at home and abroad. When the Danish mission to
South India was in danger of becoming extinct through
lack of funds, the S.P.C.K. supported it financially for
a hundred years. The missionaries were for the most
part German Lutherans, of whom Schwartz was the most
remarkable (see p. 79).

The oldest missionary society now existing in England,
which was founded with the object of sending out mission-
aries, is the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in
Foreign Parts. It can claim to be the official representative
of the Church of England, since it was brought into exist-
ence as the result of a resolution passed by convocation
(March 13, 1700), and all the diocesan bishops in England
are ex officio members of its standing committee.

The society was founded with the twofold aim of
ministering to English settlers beyond the seas and of
propagating the gospel amongst the heathen with whom
the settlers might come into contact. The society
recognized that it was as important to prevent English
people from becoming heathen as it was to attempt
the conversion of heathen to the Christian faith. One
of its earliest missionaries, the Eev. Thorogood Moore,
who was sent to New York in 1704 as a mission-
ary to Indians, wrote home to the society : " To begin
with the Indians is preposterous, for it is from the
behaviour of the Christians that here they have had, and
still have, their notion of Christianity, which, God knows,
hath been generally such that it hath made the Indians to
hate our religion."

Although the chief efforts of the society were directed

THE DAWN OF MODERN MISSIONS 59

at first towards supplying and maintaining clergy for the
colonies and dependencies of Great Britain, it soon began
definite work amongst the Indians and negroes of North
America.

It has sometimes been stated that the founders of the
S.P.G. did not regard its work as definitely missionary
in character, but this is far from being the case. In the
sermon preached at the first anniversary of the formation
of the society in 1702, the preacher stated that it was part
of the design of the society " to proceed in the best methods
they can towards the conversion of the natives," and that
it included " the breeding up of persons to understand the
great variety of languages of those countries in order to be
able to converse with the natives and preach the gospel
to them." At a meeting of the society held on April 20,
1710, the following resolutions were carried:

" 1. That the design of propagating the gospel in foreign
parts does chiefly and principally relate to the conversion
of heathens and infidels, and therefore that branch of it
ought to be prosecuted preferably to all others. 2. That, in
consequence thereof, immediate care be taken to send
itinerant missionaries to preach the gospel among the Six
Nations of the Indians according to the primary intentions
of the late King William of glorious memory."

Bishop Seeker (who afterwards became Archbishop of
Canterbury) said in 1741 :

" In less than forty years, under many discouragements
and with an income very disproportionate to the vastness
of the undertaking, a great deal hath been done; though
little notice may have been taken of it by persons unatten-
tive to these things, or backward to acknowledge them . . .
great multitudes upon the whole of negroes and Indians
brought over to the Christian faith, many numerous
congregations have been set up, which now support the
worship of God at their own expense where it was not
known before, and seventy persons are constantly employed
at the expense of the society in the further service of
the gospel." l

1 See S.P.G. Anniversary Sermon, 1741, p. 11 f.

60 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

The " seventy persons " to whom reference is here
made included all those who were engaged in ministering
to English-speaking congregations. Many of these would,
however, be in touch with the Indians, as " the instruction
of the negro and Indian slaves and (their preparation) for
conversion, baptism, and communion was a primary charge
to every missionary . . . and to all schoolmasters of the
society in America." x

Further references to the work undertaken by the
S.P.G. for the benefit of Indians and negroes between
1701 and 1750 in North America and the West Indies
are given later on (p. 371-6).

1 Two Hundred Years of the S.P.O., p. 63.

IV.
INDIA.

BEFORE attempting to describe the beginnings of Christian
missions in India it would be well to make a brief refer-
ence to the connection which, it is often maintained, exists
between the Baghavad Gita and other Hindu literature
and the Christian Scriptures. The conclusion which seems
to be best supported by evidence may be expressed in
the words of Dr. E. W. Hopkins (U.S.A.). After con-
sidering in detail the points of resemblance which have
been suggested between the teaching of the Gospels, specially
that of the Gospel of St. John, and the Gita and other
Hindu scriptures, he writes :

"The most reasonable explanation of the data as a
whole appears to me to be that the Fourth Gospel, perhaps
not uninfluenced by the Gnosticism of the time, but not
necessarily influenced by a Buddhistic tradition or by any
Sanskrit texts, was of a mystical tone that made it
peculiarly suitable to influence the Hindu divines, who
transferred from it such phrases and sentiments as best
fitted in with the conception of Krishna as a god of love.
For it must be remembered constantly that before Krishna's
advent in his new role those characteristics of Krishna that
bring him into closest likeness with Christ are entirely
lacking in the conception of any previous Hindu divinity.
Buddha never pretended to forgive sin. . . . But suddenly
there appears this benign man-god, who proclaims that all
sins are forgiven to him who believes in Krishna, and that
those who believe in him are very few in number, yet this
new religion of love and faith is better than the old
Brahmanic religion of works and ceremonial purity." :

1 India Old and X>ew, by Dr. E. W. Hopkins (New York, 1901),
p. 158.

61

62 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

When we come down to the writings of Tulsi Das (the
Kamayana) in the sixteenth century the influence of
Christian teaching becomes so apparent that it is im-
possible to resist the conviction that his development of
the doctrine of WiaHi which was hinted at in the
Bhagavad Gita was the outcome of Christian influences.
Keferring to this doctrine Dr. Grierson writes :

" Suddenly in India there came this great revolution of
Wiakti. Religion was no longer a matter of knowledge, it
became one of emotion. Bhakti may be translated by
' faith ' or ' devotion.' It requires a personal, not an im-
personal, God. I do not myself doubt that this great
step forward of the Hindu soul was due to the influence
of the Christians who were then settled in the country. It
was not openly an adoption of Christian principles by
Hindu thinkers, who had been wasting their lives on a
barren search for knowledge. In such a search, even with
the brother-love of Buddhism added to it, the people could
find no permanent happiness. The craving for expressing
love towards the Infinite which exists in every heart was
there, a spark was sufficient to set it in a flame, and that
vital spark came from Christianity." l

For a detailed discussion of the influence which
Christianity has exerted upon the teachings of modern
Hinduism the reader is referred to any of the standard
books on Hinduism. A helpful account of the approxima-
tions of modern Hindu writers to Christian thought will
be found in The Crown of Hinduism, by J. N. Farquhar,
and in The Renaissance in India, by C. F. Andrews.

We pass on to consider the beginnings of actual mis-
sionary work in India.

The obscurity attaching to the first preaching of the
Christian faith in Southern India is in part due to the fact
that the word India was used during the early centuries of

1 See "Hinduism and Early Christianity," by G. A. Grierson, The East
and The West, April 1906, p. 142 f. As an incidental proof of the existence
of intercourse between Rome and South India in the first century A.D. we
may refer to the discovery in 1850 at Calicut of several hundred coins all of
which were as early as the reign of Nero.

INDIA 63

the Christian era, in a number of different senses. The
tradition that St. Thomas, whose tomb is shown to-day at
Mylapore, a suburb of Madras, was the first to preach the
gospel in Southern India is of comparatively late origin.1
On the other hand, Origen's statement that St. Thomas
went as a missionary to Parthia is probably correct. The
tradition that he was sold to a Parthian chief called
Gondophares has been rendered credible by the discovery
that a prince of this name 2 actually existed in Parthia at
the period when St. Thomas might have been there.
Heracleon, a Sicilian Gnostic who wrote about A.D. 170,
says that St. Thomas ended his days in peace ; and
St. Clement of Alexandria, who quotes this statement,
does not deny it. It is by no means inconceivable that
St. Thomas extended his missionary activities from Parthia
into North -West India, but it seems certain that he never
visited Southern India. Pantamus is said by Eusebius to
have travelled from Alexandria to India about A.D. 190 in
order to preach the gospel. The words of Eusebius are :

" He (Pantsenus) is said to have found there among
some of the inhabitants who were acquainted with
Christ the Gospel of Matthew, which had reached that
country before him. For Bartholomew is said to have
preached to these people and to have left them a Hebrew
version of Matthew's Gospel, which they had kept until the
time of which I speak." 3

It seems probable that by India is here meant either
Southern Arabia or the India of Alexander the Great—
that is, the valley of the Indus. One of the bishops who
attended the Council of Nicaea, A.D. 325, was described as
"John of Persia, in all Persia and Great India," the
latter word apparently being intended to denote the
country which lay between Persia and the Indus. The

1 See "St. Thomas and his Tomb at Mylapore," by James Kennedy,
in The East and The West, April 1907.

2 Undaphares of Arachosia.

3 Historia Ecclesiastica, v. 10. 3.

64 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

India visited by Frumentius early in the fourth century
was apparently Abyssinia, and the India of Theophilus the
Indian towards the end of the fourth century was Arabia
Felix. A tradition which does not date back earlier than
the seventh century assigns Calaraina, or Calamita, as the
site of St. Thomas' martyrdom. Possibly this may be
Kerman in Eastern Persia, or Calama in Beluchistan.

The Church in Southern India, which claims to trace back
its ancestry to St. Thomas, was an offshoot from the Church
in Persia, which, at the time when the Church in India was
established (that is, at the beginning of the sixth century),
was part of the patriarchate of Babylon.

Keferring to the missionary activities of this patriar-
chate, Dr. Neale writes :

they " pitched their tents in the camps of the wandering
Tartar : the Lama of Thibet trembled at their words : they
stood in the rice fields of the Panjab and taught the fisher-
men by the Sea of Aral : they struggled through the vast
deserts of Mongolia : the memorable inscription of Singanf u
attests their victories in China : in India the Zamorin
(the ruler of Calicut) himself respected their spiritual and
courted their temporal authority. . . . The power of the
Nestorian patriarch culminated in the beginning of the
eleventh century, when he had 25 metropolitans, who ruled
from China to the Tigris, from Lake Baikal to Cape
Cornorin." x

The identification of the founder of Christianity in
Southern India with the Apostle is probably to be
explained by the local tradition which asserts that in the
year 345 there landed in Malabar, under the convoy of a
Jerusalem merchant, a bishop from Edessa, named Thomas,
who brought with him a large following, which included
several priests and deacons. We know from other sources
that in 343 a severe persecution of Christians occurred in
the Persian Empire.

The first definite authority for the existence of a

1 A History of the Holy Eastern Church, vol. i. p. 3, 143. For a further
reference to Nestorian Bishoprics in Asia, see p. 164 f.

INDIA 65

Christian Church in Southern India is Cosmas Indi-
copleustes, who, about A.D. 535, found Christian churches
and clergy in Ceylon, interior India and Male (Malabar),
as well as a bishop at Kaliana (Kalyan) near Bombay.

He states that the Bishop of Kaliana receives imposition
of hands from Persia.

In 1547 the so-called Thomas Cross was discovered at
Milapur, Madras. On it and on two other similar crosses
found at Cottayam, 500 miles away, there is an inscription
in ancient Persian (or Pahlavi). In the case of the cross
at Madras and of one of those at Cottayam the inscription
proves that the cross must have been in existence at least
as early as the seventh century. In 883 King Alfred of
England sent two priests, Sighelm and Athelstan, to
India via Eome to carry the votive offerings which he had
promised to St. Thomas during the siege of London.

Of what befell the Christians in South India during the
next four centuries we know nothing. Marco Polo, who
travelled in the East from 1270 to 1295, writes:

"In the kingdom of Quilon (Travancore) dwell many
Christians and Jews who still retain their own language."

By this time the connection between the Apostle
Thomas and Milapur had attained general acceptance.
Marco Polo says that there lies

"the body of the glorious martyr St. Thomas Apostle,
who su tiered martyrdom there ... a great multitude of
Christians and Saracens (Mohammedans) make pilgrimages
thither."

John of Monte Corvino, who afterwards became
Archbishop of Cambaluc (Peking), spent thirteen months
in South India, 1292-93, on his way to China. He
writes :

"At different places in that province (which contains
the Church of the Apostle St. Thomas) I baptized some
hundred persons."

5

06 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Menentillus, a friar who visited India in 1310, writes:

" Christians and Jews there are, but they are few and of
no high standing. Christians and all who have Christian
names are often persecuted."

Sir John Mandeville, who visited South India early in
the fourteenth century, states that round about the tomb of
St. Thomas were fifteen houses inhabited by Nestorian
monks, recreant Christians and schismatics. He states
that the body of St. Thomas has been transported to Edessa
in Syria, but had again been brought back to India. The
papal nuncio John of Marignola on his way home from
China spent nearly two years in India, 1348-50, but
the information which he supplies adds little to our
knowledge of the development of Christianity in South
India.

In 1503 the Nestorian Patriarch Mar Elia iv. sent
three bishops to Southern India, and a letter received by
his successor which announced their arrival stated that in
one of the two districts in which Christians were found
there were 30,000 "families of the faith." In 1599 the
Portuguese representatives in India succeeded in forcing
the Syrians into obedience to the See of Borne, but half
a century later, when Portuguese political influence in India
began to wane, the larger part of the Church renounced its
connection with the E.G. Church.

The Syrian Christians in South India are now divided
into four sections : —

1. " Orthodox Syrians," or simply " Syrians." These live
under their Matran, Mar Dionysius, and his four suffragans.
They are Monophysite in confession, and subordinate to
the Patriarch of that Church, who resides at Mardin in
ChakUea. They are often called Jacobites because they
use the Liturgy of St. James, in the form employed by the
Church referred to.

2. Bomo-Syrians. These of late years have been ruled
by Indian bishops, guided by Eoman Catholic fathers
of the Jesuit and Carmelite orders. While Eoman

INDIA 67

Catholic in confession, they use their own rite, which is an
expurgated and amended version of the Liturgy of SS.
Adai and Mari, though not identical with the version of the
same liturgy used by the Chaldavans of Mosul.

3. Eeformed Syrians, called by themselves the
" Christians of St. Thomas." This is an independent
Church, an offshoot from the Monophysite Syrians, having
their own bishop, Mar Titus Thomas, with two suffragans.
Their formal separation from the " Syrians " dates only
from about the year 1880. The Church is in close accord
with the English C.M.S. missionaries but is in no way under
their control, and it uses an expurgated and amended
version of the Liturgy of St. James, in the Malayalam
language.

4. The Syro-Chaldreans. This body, which is the
smallest of the four, is an off-shoot from the Eomo-Syrians,
from whom they separated in 1880. In theory they are
Nestorian, and their bishop, Mar Timotheus, was con-
secrated by the Nestorian Patriarch in 1907, but in
practice they bear considerable traces of long subjection to
Roman Catholic influences, and would better be described
as " Old Catholics." The real reason for their separation
was apparently the refusal of the Vatican to allow native
bishops to the Eorno-Syrian Church ; but though that
concession has been made since their departure, it has not
brought about their reconciliation. They use the same
liturgy as the Eomo-Syrians.

(For the number of Christians belonging to each of
these bodies see p. 121 f.)

In 1816 the C.M.S. sent four clergy to try to revive
the Syrian Church and to translate the Scriptures into the
vernacular. This " mission of help " continued for twenty
years, after which the C.M.S. undertook independent
missionary work amongst non-Christians.

The Syrian Christians during the long centuries of
their history have never been inspired with missionary
enthusiasm and have constituted a select community which
corresponded closely to an Indian caste. During the last

68 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

few years, however, there has been a revival amongst them,
and the " Beforrned Christians " have sent four missionaries
of their own race to work in connection with the National
Missionary Society at Karwar in the Bombay Presidency.

The only contemporary reference to Christianity in
India during the fifteenth century is the statement of the
Venetian Nicolo de Conti, who on his return to Eome
stated that the body of St. Thomas " reposes honourably
in a large and beautiful church, close to which dwell a
number of Nestorian Christians, who are also found dis-
seminated all over India, just as Jews are found in Europe.'
We should greatly like to penetrate the darkness which
conceals the fortunes and condition of these tiny Christian
communities during this long period, but there seems little
hope that we shall ever be enabled to do so.

On May 9, 1498, Vasco da Gam a landed at Calicut
after sailing round the Cape of Good Hope. His arrival
in India inaugurated the establishment of missions, sup-
ported by the kings of Portugal. The expedition under
C.-ibral, which sailed in 1500, included several monks
who were intended for missionary work, and their numbers
were rapidly augmented. In 1534 Goa was constituted
a bishopric, and in 1557 an archbishopric. The mission-
aries belonged to the Franciscan and Dominican Orders.
The Portuguese encouraged their soldiers and sailors to
take native Indian wives, and as the offspring of these
unions, which were often of a temporary nature, were
baptized, the moral character of the Christian community
tended to become more and more deplorable. During the
first forty years of the sixteenth century the missionaries
do not appear to have made any considerable number of
converts, but before the middle of the century India was to
receive a missionary whose arrival forms a landmark in the
history of Christian missions in the East.

In 1523 — that is, eleven years before the institution of
the " Company of Jesus " —Ignatius Loyola had himself left
Spain with the avowed object of converting the
Mohammedans of Palestine to the Christian faith and

INDIA 69

of reconciling the Greek Church to the See of Eonie.
Sailing from Barcelona to Gaeta, he visited Rome and
thence begged his way by land to Venice. From here
he sailed to Cyprus and eventually to Jaffa. On Sep-
tember 4, 1523, in company with other pilgrims, he set foot
inside the Holy City. Here, had he been allowed to do so,
he would have spent the rest of his life. The Superior of
the Franciscan convent in Jerusalem, who had been given by
the Pope control over Christian pilgrims, refused, however,
to allow him to stay, and when he lingered behind the
pilgrim caravan he was forcibly conducted to Jaffa. Had
he been able to carry out his purpose, there is little doubt
that the Society of Jesus would not have been formed and
that he would himself have met his death at the hands of
the fanatical Moslems of Jerusalem. Despite the failure
of his efforts in Jerusalem, he deserves to be remembered
as one of the earliest missionaries who made a definite
attempt to convert Mohammedans otherwise than by the
sword.

By his personal activities and by his teaching Loyola
was largely instrumental in arousing the whole Roman
Church to a sense of missionary obligation. His society
sent missionaries to India, Brazil, and North America, and
his zeal was the indirect cause of the missions of the
Dominicans to China, of the Franciscans to Tartary, of
the Theatins to Armenia, Persia, and Sumatra, and of the
Sulpicians in Montreal. He founded at Rome the first
Jews' Society, the first Magdalene Asylum, and the first
Orphan House on record.

In the year that Columbus died (1506) Francis Xavier
was born. The youngest of a large family in which all
the other boys became soldiers, he entered the University
of Paris at the age of eighteen, and became a teacher of
philosophy in this university when he was little more than
twenty. His conversion from a life of carelessness and
selfishness to one of self-denial and devotion was the
result of five years' close intercourse with Ignatius Loyola,
who began by being his pupil, but whom he soon learned

70 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

to regard as his master. On the Feast of the Assumption
in the year 1534, Loyola and six companions, of whom
Xavier was one, repaired to the subterranean chapel of
Montmartre, and amid the darkness, at dead of night,
dedicated themselves by solemn vows to become missionaries
of the Church and to preach the gospel to every man
whom they might meet. Two years later the members of
the new Order placed themselves unreservedly at the dis-
posal of the Pope, to be sent by him as missionaries to any
part of the world. The seven years which passed before
a definite plan was elaborated were spent by Xavier in
visiting hospitals and tending the sick in some of the
principal towns in Italy and in preaching to the poor
wherever he could obtain an audience. After abstaining
from interviewing his widowed mother and his much-loved
sister, lest he should be tempted to draw back from his
high call, he embarked, with a smiling face, on his thirty-
fifth birthday, in a ship sailing for India. His first year
there was spent in preaching, catechizing, and visiting the
sick. At the time of his arrival a missionary college was
in course of erection at Government expense to accommodate
100 Indians who were to be trained as Christian
missionaries. The Franciscan Principal ere long gave
place to a member of the Jesuit Order, and the college
became one of the chief centres of its work in India.
Prior to the arrival of Xavier, 85 deputies had come to
Goa to implore help on behalf of a community of low caste
pearl-fishers (Paravas) who lived between Cape Comorin
and Ramnad on the east coast and were oppressed
by Mohammedan pirates. They offered, as the price of
assistance, to become Christians and to acknowledge the
sovereignty of Portugal, and as an earnest of the genuineness
of their offer they all allowed themselves to be baptized in
Goa. A fleet was dispatched to their aid, which drove off
their enemies. The whole community, 20,000 in number,
were baptized in the course of a few weeks, no teacher,
however, being left behind to teach them the meaning of
Christian baptism.

r.

INDIA 71

After Xavicr had laboured for a year in Goa he spent
fifteen months with these Paravas, living on rice and water
and associating with them as one of themselves. After
returning to Goa and obtaining the assistance of some of
the students in the missionary college there, he returned
to the Paravas and endeavoured to minister both to their
material and spiritual wants. During this period he is
said by his biographer to have spent twenty-one and a half
hours each day in prayer and labour on their behalf, and
his zeal begat a corresponding zeal in his companions.

To those who are familiar with modern missionary
methods, it may seem almost incredible that during the
whole of Xavier's missionary activities in India and iii the
Far East he made no attempt to learn any language
understood by those to whom he preached and was
dependent entirely upon interpreters. How unsatisfactory
were the efforts of his interpreters may be gathered from
his own words :

" It is a difficult situation to find oneself in the midst
of a people of strange language, without an interpreter.
Eodriquez tries, it is true, to act in that capacity, but, he
understands very little Portuguese. So you can imagine
the life I lead here, and what my sermons are like, when
neither the people can understand the interpreter nor the
interpreter the preacher — to wit, myself."

Again he writes :

"We could not understand one another, as I spoke
Castilian and they Malabar, so I picked out the most
intelligent and well-read of them and then sought out with
the greatest diligence men who knew both languages. We
held meetings for several days, and by our joint efforts
and with infinite difficulty we translated the Catechism into
the Malabar tongue. This I learnt by heart, and then I
began to go through all the villages of the Malabar country,
calling around me by the sound of a bell as many as I could,
children and men. I assembled them twice a day and
taught them the Christian doctrine, and thus in the space
of a month the children had it well by heart.

"Every Sunday I collected them all, men and women,

72 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

boys and girls, in the church. They came with great
readiness and with a great desire for instruction. Then,
in the hearing of all, I began by calling on the name of the
most Holy Trinity, Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, and I
recited aloud the Lord's Prayer and the Creed in the
language of the country, and they all followed me in the
same words, and delighted at it wonderfully. Then I
repeated the Creed by myself, dwelling upon each article
singly . . . and asking them after each article whether they
believed it. ... After explaining the Creed I go on to the
Commandments, teaching them that the Christian law is
contained in these ten precepts, and that everyone who
observes them all faithfully is a good and true Christian.
After this I recite our principal prayers, such as the Our
Father and the Hail Mary, and they say them after me.
Then we go back to the Creed, adding the Our Father after
each article with a short hymn ; for as soon as I have
recited the first article I sing in their language : ' Jesus, Son
of the living God, grant us the grace to believe firmly this
first article of Your faith, and that we may obtain this from
You we offer You the prayer taught us by Yourself.' We
do the same after all the other articles.

" We teach them the Commandments in the following
way. After we have sung the first, which enjoins the love
of God, we pray thus : ' Jesus, Son of the living God, grant
us the grace to love Thee above all things ' ; and then we
say for this intention the Lord's Prayer. So we go on
through the other nine, changing the words of our little
invocation as occasion requires. Thus I accustom them to
ask for these graces with the ordinary prayers of the Church,
and I tell them at the same time that if they obtain
them they will have all other things that they can wish
for more abundantly than they would be able to ask for
them.

" I make them all, and especially those who are to be
baptized, repeat the form of general confession. These last
I question, after each article of the Creed as it is recited,
whether they believe it, and after they have answered ' Yes,'
I give them an instruction in their own language, explaining
the chief heads of the Christian religion and other duties
necessary to salvation. Last of all I admit them, thus
prepared, to baptism.

" As to the number who become Christians, you may
understand from this that it often happens to me to be

INDIA 73

hardly able to use my hands from the fatigue of bapli/ing;
often in a single day I have baptized whole villages. Some-
times I have lost my voice and strength altogether with
repeating again and again the Creed and the other forms."

In a letter relating to a missionary tour which he had
made through Travancore, he speaks of having baptized
all the fishermen (Machhas) whom he could possibly meet
with, but does not say whether these baptisms were
preceded by any kind of instruction.

In forming an opinion on the methods adopted by
Xavier, it is only fair to him to remember that he was
himself profoundly dissatisfied with the results which his
labours produced. In a letter addressed to Ignatius
Loyola in January 1549 he writes:

" The natives [of India] are so terribly wicked that they
can never be expected to embrace Christianity. It is so
repellent to them in every wray that they have not even
patience to listen when we address them on the subject ; in
fact, one might just as well invite them to allow themselves
to be put to death as to become Christians. We must now
therefore limit ourselves to retaining those who are already
Christians."

From first to last Xavier did not scruple to invoke the
aid of the secular powers in order to further his mission-
ary projects. He obtained authority from the King of
Portugal authorizing him to punish by death the makers
of idols, and in 1543 he urged the Portuguese Viceroy in
India to support the claims of a brother of the King of
Jaffna, who offered to be baptized as a Christian if the
Portuguese would establish him on his brother's throne.
With reference to this proposal Xavier wrote :

" In Jaffna and on the opposite coast I shall easily gain
100,000 adherents for the Church of Christ."

Two years later, in the course of a letter addressed to
the King of Portugal, he wrote :

" I have discovered a unique, but, as I assuredly believe,
a sure means ... by which the number of Christians in

74 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

this land may without doubt be greatly increased. ... I
demand that your Majesty shall swear a solemn oath affirm-
ing that every Governor who shall neglect to disseminate
the knowledge of our most holy faith shall be punished on
his return to Portugal by a long term of imprisonment and
by confiscation of his goods. ... I will content myself with
assuring you that if every Viceroy or Governor were con-
vinced of the full seriousness of such an oath, the whole of
Ceylon, many kings on the Malabar coast, and the whole of
the Cape Comorin district would embrace Christianity
within a year. As long, however, as the Viceroys and
Governors are not forced by fear of disfavour to gain
adherents to Christianity, your Majesty need not expect
that any considerable success will attend the preaching of
the gospel in India, or that many baptisms will take place."

After the departure of Xavier the Jesuit missions
continued to make rapid progress on the lines on which he
had started them. So unsatisfactory have been the results
that Bishop Caldwell, who spent a long lifetime in South
India, and knew the people as few Europeans have learned
to know them, could write concerning the converts con-
nected with the Eoman missions in Tinnevelly : " In
intellect and morals they do not differ from the heathen
in the smallest degree." As the Jesuit missions spread
they came into conflict with the Syrian Church in Travan-
core, the metropolitan of which they burnt in 1654.

There is no Christian missionary other than Xavier in
whose case it is more necessary to separate his life and
character from his methods of work, if we are to do justice
to the former. Of his self-devotion, his prayerfulness, and
his capacity for inspiring others with his own spirit it is
hardly possible to speak too highly. The record of his
life has sent many to the mission field, and has helped to
sustain their faith there, and to support them in times of
despondency and trouble. But whilst we thank God for
the many virtues which he possessed and which have placed
his name high in the roll of missionary heroes, we cannot
blind our eyes to the fact that his work was so marred by
the methods of missionary enterprise which were recog-

INDIA 75

nized by his contemporaries, and which he adopted as his
own, that it is at least open to question whether the final
conversion of India to the Christian faith has not been
retarded by the work done by himself and by those who
followed in his steps.

In 1567 the Governor of Goa, at the suggestion of
the Jesuit missionaries, issued a decree ordering that in
those districts of Goa which yet remained heathen, the
pagodas and mosques should be pulled down and that
orphans under fourteen years of age should be baptized.
Similar action was taken in the other Portuguese settle-
ments in India. Dr. Eichter estimates the number of
E.G. missionaries in India in 1590 as 500, and the
number of converts connected with these missions as
254,000 ; these representing the result of ninety years'
work. He compares these results with those obtained
up to 1870 by about the same number of Anglican and
Protestant missionaries, after eighty years' work ; the
number of converts connected with these missions being
then 224,000. It is apparently true to say that the
numerical results obtained by Anglican and Protestant
missionaries in the face of frequent opposition on the part
of Government authorities were approximately equal to
those which the E.G. missionaries obtained when backed
by the material forces of the Portuguese Government.

The next great missionary to India was Robert Jl
Nobili, an Italian, who reached India in 1605. His
work is deserving of special attention inasmuch as the
principle which he adopted of recognizing and accepting
the Indian caste system has been accepted to a greater
or less extent by nearly all the E.G. missionaries who have
since laboured in India. He started his work at Madura,1
which was outside the region in which Portuguese political
influence prevailed. Having determined to make himself
an Indian, in order that he might win the Indians, he
adopted the dress and the sacred thread of a Brahman,
and painted the sandal-wood sign on his forehead. Jle

1 See Lctlrcs Edifianlex, vol. x. pp. 46, 62.

76 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

called himself a Eajah from Eome, and eventually pro-
duced a new Veda, which he had himself forged, in support
of his own teaching. He kept aloof from men belonging
to the lower castes and only allowed Brahmans, or men of
high caste, to have access to him. The principle which
underlay his action was sanctioned by a Papal Bull in
1623 which declared that "out of compassion for human
weakness, Nobili's converts are permitted to retain the
plait of hair, the Brahmanical thread, the sandal-wood
sign on the forehead, and the customary ablutions of their
caste." The hair and thread were, however, first to be
sprinkled with holy water. After more than fifty years'
work, Nobili died at Milapur in 1656. After his death
the Jesuit missions in South India were carried on on the
lines which he had inaugurated, and the missionaries who
worked amongst the higher castes refrained from any
intercourse with those who worked amongst the lower
castes. In the eighteenth century, when it was found
impossible to provide Jesuit missionaries for the lower
castes, those who worked amongst the Brahmans were
accustomed to administer the sacraments at dead of night
outside the doors of the higher caste churches.

From 1690 to 1750 the missionaries and converts
were subject to constant persecutions, and one at least
of the Jesuit missionaries suffered martyrdom. At the
time of Nobili's death the Christians connected with
this mission were reckoned at 100,000, but by 1815,
according to Dubois, himself a Jesuit, these numbers had
decreased to 33,000.

In 1703 Pope Clement XL commissioned Tournon, the
Patriarch of Antioch, to visit and report upon the methods
which had been adopted by the Jesuits in this mission.
On his suggestion the Pope published a decree which
condemned several of the practices introduced by the
Jesuits and contained the statement : " In future, refusal of
the Holy Sacrament to Pariahs who may be sick will no
longer be permitted."

Unfortunately this decree, which was confirmed later

INDIA 77

on by several other decrees, failed to effect any funda-
mental change in the methods which had been adopted
and which are still to a large extent followed. The writer
of this volume has himself seen three E.G. churches in a
village not far from Madura which are used by Christians
from three different castes.

In considering the work accomplished, or attempted,
by Robert di Nobili, we need, as in the case of Xavier, to
distinguish between the man and the methods which he
adopted. Of the missionaries who have laboured in India,
few have lived lives of such continuous self-denial, or have
been inspired with a more ardent passion to effect the
conversion of the Indians. Whilst we deplore the super-
ficial character of the results which his work produced, and
the methods to which these results were due and which he
bequeathed to his successors, we cannot withhold our ad-
miration and respect for the Christ-like enthusiasm which
was the motive power of his life.

At the time that Nobili was living in Madura, the
Jesuit missionaries at the Court of Akbar in North India
were prosecuting their labours with a large amount of
success. In 1610 three princes of the royal blood received
baptism in Lahore at the hands of Geronimo Javier, a
nephew of St. Francis Xavier. Akbar himself reverenced
" the images of Jesus Christ and the Virgin when they
were shown to him by the missionaries, and solicited
permission, reluctantly accorded, to retain them in his
palace for a single night." l

Another name deserving of special mention is that of
Juan de Urito, the son of a Viceroy of Brazil, and for a
time one of the royal pages at Lisbon. He arrived in
India in 1673, and in the course of a few years baptized
with his own hands many thousands of converts, who had,
however, received a far more careful preparation than many
of those who had been baptized by his predecessors. On

1 Elphinstone's History of India, vol. ii. p. 323. Many thousands were
baptized, and it seemed for a time as though Christianity were about to
supplant Islam and Hinduism in North India.

78 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

several occasions he was imprisoned and tortured, and at
length, on February 3, 1693, lie suffered death as a martyr.

Another member of the Society of Jesus who was
martyred a few years later, Xavier Boryhese, when bidden
by his heathen judge to refrain from mentioning the Holy
Name, replied, " Think you that I left my country and all
that was dear to me on earth, and came here to preach the
law of the true God, which I have preached for so many
years, only to keep silence now ? I declare to you that, so
far from obeying your command, I will employ all that
remains to me of life and power to make new disciples
to the God of heaven." l " We will see," said the judge,
" whether your disciples have as much courage as yourself,"
and then he ordered his soldiers to break the bones of one
of his catechists. When the catechist heard the command
which had been given, he exclaimed, " Now I begin to be
truly your disciple. Do not fear, my father, that I shall
do anything unworthy of a Christian."

Another E.G. missionary whose name is deserving
of mention is the Abbe Diibois, who went to India on
the outbreak of the French Revolution and remained
there for thirty-two years, living a simple and self-
denying life. He laboured amongst the E.G. Christians in
South India, whom he describes in pessimistic language.
" I must confess," he wrote, " with shame and humiliation,
that there was not a single member of them of whom it
could be said that he had accepted Christianity save for
some objectionable secondary consideration." He returned
to France in 1823, expressing the belief that missionary
work in South India had been and was likely to be a
complete failure. The book which he published on the
manners and customs of India is a standard work of
reference.

Anglican and Protestant Missions.

Long before the advent of the first Anglican or
Protestant missionaries Anglican chaplains were sent out
1 Lcttrcs Edifiantes, vol. x. p. 210.

INDIA 7 9

by the East India Company, and especially in the early
years were allowed or even encouraged by the Company
to take an interest in the religious welfare of the Indians
with whom they were brought into contact. Between
1667 and 1700 eighteen chaplains were provided by the
Company, the first being sent to Madras in 1667.

The first Indian to become a Christian as a result of
the missionary efforts of a representative of the Anglican
Church was, perhaps, an Indian from Bengal, who was
baptized in 1616. According to a minute contained in
the Court Minute Book of the East India Company at
Masulipatam, which is dated August 19, 1614, Captain
Best took home a young Indian who was instructed by
Mr. Patrick Copland, or Copeland, the preacher, one of
the first chaplains to travel in the Company's ships to
Masulipatam. On December 22, 1616, the lad was
baptized, after consultation with the Archbishop of Canter-
bury, in the presence of some members of the Privy
Council, Lord Mayor and Aldermen, and also the members
of the East India Company, and the sister company of
Virginia. He received the name of Peter, chosen by the
King (James I.). Some Latin letters exist written by the
lad signed " Peter Papa." He seems to have gone with
Mr. Copeland to Virginia. It is not possible to determine
the actual place of his birth, but it is certain that he
came from the Bay of Bengal, that he was taught by
a visiting chaplain to Masulipatam, and that he was taken
home at the Company's expense.

1750-1820.

We have already referred to the work of the Danish
and Moravian missions to India down to 1750. On
July 16 of this year Christian Friedrich Schicartz
landed at Cuddalore and continued to work in South
India till his death in 1798 (aged seventy-two). After
working at Tranquebar for ten years he moved to Trichin-
opoly, where he laboured for sixteen years (1762-78).

80 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Trichinopoly then belonged to the Mohammedan Nawab
of Arcot, who was an ally of the English. It contained
an English garrison, and in 1767 Schwartz ceased to be
connected with the Danish Mission and became an English
chaplain and was in part supported by the S.P.C.K. He
was a Lutheran and did not receive Anglican Orders. In
1763 he visited Tanjore and, at the request of its Rajah,
settled there in 1778 and made this the centre of his
work till his death. His reputation for probity spread
throughout South India and became a distinct asset to
the English Government. Thus Colonel Fullerton, the
Commander of the British army in South India, wrote in
1783: "The knowledge and integrity of this irreproach-
able missionary have retrieved the character of Europeans
from imputations of general depravity." The Rajah of
Tanjore before his death in 1787 desired to appoint
Schwartz as the guardian of his heir and Regent of his
kingdom. Two years after his death Schwartz was
appointed to both these posts by the English authorities.
He entrusted the care of the young Rajah to his colleague
Gericke" at Madras till his accession to the throne in
1796. The important political offices which Schwartz
filled naturally affected his work as a missionary, and
many accepted Christianity under the influence of the
" royal priest of Tanjore " who were not Christians at
heart. He travelled extensively throughout South India
and established a considerable number of schools, and at
the time of his death, in 1798, the total number of
Christian adherents connected with the Danish Mission
was about 20,000. Between 1706 and 1846, 57 mission-
aries connected with this mission went out to India,
of whom 20 died at Tranquebar, the chief educational
centre of the mission. When the Tanjore Mission was
handed over to the S.P.G. in 1825, there were about
2000 persons in the congregations and 700 children in
the schools. During the ten years which followed the
adherents increased to 4300.

It is interesting to note that Schwartz, together with

INDIA 81

his adopted son, J. C. Kohlhoff, and his son, J. B. V.
Kohlhoff of Tranquebar, worked in South India for an
aggregate period of 156 years.

The permanent results of Schwartz's work were disap-
pointing, but when we consider the conditions under which
it was carried on, it is hard to see how a better foundation
for subsequent work could have been laid. He deliber-
ately refrained from using the political influence which he
possessed as prime minister of the Eajah of Tanjore in
order to increase the number of baptisms, and those whom
he baptized had for the most part an intelligent knowledge
of their new faith ; but the wide area over which his
activities were spread, and the difficulty of sending efficient
teachers to carry on the various mission centres which he
created, gave to his work a superficial character which he

would have been the first to deplore.

r

Six years before his death there had landed in Bengal
one who may be regarded as one of the greatest mission-
aries who have set foot in India, William Carey, a cobbler
who was sent out by the newly formed Baptist Missionary
Society. He was so far from possessing the material and
political support which Xavier enjoyed, and which in a
lesser degree Schwartz obtained, that the East India
Company refused him permission to work anywhere within
the sphere of its influence, and he was compelled to retire
to Serampore, a mission station which had been occupied but
abandoned by Moravian missionaries, and which belonged
to the kingdom of Denmark. Carey's first companions
were Marshman, who had been a ragged-school teacher, and
Ward, a printer — a trio of missionary heroes and geniuses
to which it would be impossible to suggest a parallel. By
the beginning of 1800 Carey had translated the whole of
the New Testament into Bengali. The style of Bengali
writing which he created in doing this, and which was
specially distinguished by his efforts to enrich its vocabu-
lary by a liberal borrowing of Sanskrit words, has affected
all Bengali prose literature which has since been published.
In 1801 he was appointed by Lord Wellesley master of
6

82 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

the new college in Calcutta which had been erected for the
training of Anglo-Indian officials, and he subsequently filled
the posts of Professor of Bengali, Sanskrit, and Marathi.

Amongst many books which he published were a
Sanskrit grammar and dictionary. He also edited three
volumes of the Ramayana and other Sanskrit works, and
before his death in 1834 he had translated the whole
Bible into Bengali, Hindi, Marathi, and Sanskrit. These
translations were imperfect, and were eventually replaced
by completely new versions, but their production testifies
to the marvellous enthusiasm and industry of their author.
The Serampore Brotherhood sent out missionaries or
missionary agents to places as far distant as Benares, Agra,
Delhi, and Bombay in the one direction, and to Burma, the
Moluccas, and Java in the opposite direction. They also
started work at Barisal, Dacca, Chitagong, Dinajpur, and
Katwa in Bengal, and among the Khasia tribes in Assam.
Many of these stations were eventually handed over to
other missionary societies. In 1816 the missionaries at
Serampore separated from the Baptist Missionary Society,
but on their death the greater part of their work passed
into the hands of this society. In 1818 they commenced
the foundation of a college which was intended to expand
into a university with a view to the education and training of
Indian missionaries. To this college the King of Denmark
granted the right to confer degrees.

After the death of the three missionary founders the
college wras carried on with decreasing effectiveness till
1883, when it came to an end. After this date it became
a Baptist seminary for preachers and teachers in Bengal,
and has recently been reorganized as an arts college with
a theological faculty on an undenominational basis.

The distinguishing characteristic of Carey's work was
his adoption of the principle of concentration. It is true
that he sent agents to distribute his translations of the
Bible and to attempt to found mission stations in places
far distant from Serampore, but his life-work was the
establishment of the training college at Serampore and of

INDIA 83

the group of schools in its neighbourhood. To a far
greater extent than any of his predecessors he realized the
comparative futility of diffused missions and the impossi-
bility of converting India by means of European evangelists.
By concentrating the greater part of his activities within a
narrow circle, and by spending his time upon the education
and training of Indian teachers, he inaugurated a new
method of missionary work the importance of which it is
impossible to exaggerate.

Dr. Mylne, formerly Bishop of Bombay, writes :

" If ever a heaven-sent genius wrought a conquest over
obstacles and disabilities it was . . . this humbly-born
Englishman. Not only was he born in low station . . . but
he received hardly any education. . . . And this man before
he died took part in translating the Bible into some forty
languages or dialects, Chinese among the number! He
started in life as a cobbler — would never let anyone claim
for him the more dignified title of shoemaker — he died a
professor of Sanskrit, the honoured friend and adviser of
the Government whose earliest greeting, when he landed on
the shores of the country, had been to prohibit him from
preaching. He founded a notable college (Serampore) for
the training of native missionaries. . . . But the one grand
merit of Carey, without which his marvellous qualities had
been lost like those of his predecessors, was that he, with
the intuition of genius, set to work instinctively from the
first on the lines of the concentrated mission. There was
no diffusion of his energies over impossible tracts of country
and impracticable numbers of converts. A few really
Christianized people, with the means of future extension—
this he seems to have set before him as his object. He left
no great body of converts, but he laid a solid foundation, to
be built on by those who should succeed him. ... I should
hardly be saying too much did I lay down that subsequent
missions have proved to be successful, or the opposite, in a
proportion fairly exact to their adoption of Carey's methods." 1

In 1797 the S.P.C.K. sent the Eev. W. T. Ringeltaiibc

as a missionary to Calcutta. He returned after two years,

and was then sent out by the L.M.S. to Travancore.

Between 1806 and 1815 lie was stationed at Myladi,

1 Missions to Hindis, p. 129 f.

84 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

where his work resulted in the conversion of more than
1000 of the Shans. Of these, 677 were admitted to
Holy Communion in 1812.

Of the Anglican chaplains who did much to promote
a missionary spirit in Calcutta in the early part of
the nineteenth century the Eev. David Brown and the
Kev. Claudius Buchanan deserve special mention. The
Eev. T. Thomason and the Kev. Daniel Corrie, who
acted as chaplains up the country, also contributed much
to create interest in missions both at home and in
India. Yet another chaplain whose name is still more
widely known was the Eev. Henry Martyn (1781-
1812). Landing in Calcutta in 1806, he commenced
the study of Hindustani, Hindi, Persian, and Arabic, and
within five years he had translated the New Testament
and the Book of Common Prayer into the first of these
languages. In 1811 he proceeded to Persia. After
spending ten months in Shiraz, where he translated the
greater part of the New Testament into Persian, he set out
on his return to Europe via Asia Minor. Worn out by
mental and physical strain, he died at Tokat at the age
of thirty-one. Although he apparently made but one
convert, and his translations needed much revision,
his life and death did much to inaugurate a new
interest in missionary work both in India and else-
where. The romance connected with his scholarship —
he had graduated at Cambridge as senior wrangler — and
with his early death, far from the help of friends, helped
to attract the attention of many who had taken no interest
in missions to the cause to which he had given his life,
and the ardent faith and piety which are reflected in the
letters that were subsequently published inspired many
who read them to become missionaries in their turn. His
only convert, Abdul Masih, was ordained by Bishop Heber
in 1826 and was the second Indian to receive Anglican
Orders. The first was a Ceylon catechist, Christian David,
who was ordained by Bishop Heber in 1824.

The year 1813, in which the Charter of the East

INDIA 85

India Company was renewed and modified by Parliament,
was a critical year in the history of Indian missions. A
clause was then inserted in the Charter the effect of which
would be to authorize and encourage the sending out of
Christian missionaries. A similar clause had been suggested
twenty years before, but was then vehemently opposed
by some of the Directors, one of whom, Mr. Bensley,
speaking at an assembly of the General Court held on
May 23, 1793, at the East India House, said: "So
far from approving the proposed clause or listening to it
with patience, from the first moment I heard of it I con-
sidered it the most wild, extravagant, expensive, and
unjustifiable project that ever was suggested by the most
visionary speculator."

One of the clauses in the new Charter ordered the
appointment of a bishop and three archdeacons for the
oversight of work amongst Europeans in India. Bishop
Middle ton, who was consecrated in 1814, founded Bishops'
College, Calcutta, the object of which was to train Indian
Christians to become preachers, catechists, and teachers,
and to serve as a centre for translation and other literary
work. The college, which was established at a cost of
£60,000, was placed under the supervision of the S.P.G.
Its foundation-stone was laid in 1820, and the Eev. W. H.
Mill, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, was appointed
as its first Principal. The Bishop of Calcutta reported in
1837 that " the amount of good already effected by the
College was really surprising," and in 1840 it was stated
that there were 1800 Christians in the Barripore and
Tollygunge missions as a result of the influence exerted by
the College. But despite these and other encouraging
reports of a later date, it cannot be maintained that the
College has so far fulfilled the hopes of its founders.
When, however, the new scheme for its removal from
Calcutta and its reconstitution has been carried into effect,
there is good reason to hope that it may do much to help
forward the work of Anglican missions not merely in Bengal
but throughout India,

86 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

We have already referred to the work of Eingeltaube,
which was begun in Travancore in 1806. By 1835 the
total number of converts connected with his mission
numbered 11,000. In certain districts of Tinnevelly not
far removed from the scene of his labours the Eev. C. T.
Ehenius, who was in Lutheran Orders but was employed
by the C.M.S., began work in 1820, and was so successful
that by 1835 there were nearly 12,000 baptized Christians
living in 261 villages, and nearly 3000 children were under
instruction in 107 schools.

The work in Tinnevelly, which was at first supported
by the S.P.C.K. and for which the S.P.G. a little later
became responsible, was started by Schwartz, who dedicated
the first church in Palamcottah in 1785. There were
at that time 40 baptized Christians. In 1803 the
Eev. C. W. Gericke, a colleague of Schwartz, visited this
mission and took part in one of the " mass movements "
towards Christianity for which Tinuevelly subsequently
became famous. In a single tour he baptized 1300 people
who had been carefully prepared, and an Indian missionary,
Satthiauadhan, soon afterwards baptized 2700 more. By
1835 the total number of Christians connected with the
English and Danish missions in South Travancore and
Tinuevelly was about 30,000.

After the death of Schwartz, Janicke (1795), and
Gericke (1803), the work of the Danish Mission rapidly
dwindled. The enthusiasm of its missionaries in the
field seemed to decline, and it became increasingly difficult
to provide them with successors from Europe. By 1840
the greater part of the mission stations had been transferred
to the S.P.G. and nearly all were occupied by English
missionaries in Anglican Orders. In 1835, Archdeacon
Corrie was consecrated as the first Anglican Bishop of
Madras.

Caste in the Christian Church.

We have already referred to the results produced by
the recognition of caste within the Christian Church by

INDIA 87

E.G. missionaries in South India,1 Their recognition of
caste rendered it extremely difficult for the Danish and
German missionaries to do otherwise than follow their
example. With few exceptions, they permitted the Sudras
and Pariahs to observe their caste distinctions, to sit
apart in church, and to receive the Holy Communion on
separate occasions. The Eev. C. T. Ehenius was one of
the earliest missionaries to make a decided stand against
the observance of caste. Bishop Wilson of Calcutta, who
visited South India in 1833, issued a pastoral letter in
which he said, " The distinction of caste must be abandoned,
decidedly, immediately, and finally." He further described
caste as " eating as doth a cancer into the vitals of our
infant Churches." When his pastoral letter was read in
Vepery Church, Madras, the Suclra Christians rose and left
the church, and for the time being renounced their
membership of the Christian Church. In Tanjore the
reading of the pastoral caused a similar upheaval and
produced but little permanent result.

We have not space in which to discuss the significance
of caste observances or the grounds on which they appear
to be inconsistent with the spirit of Christianity. It is
sufficient to say that an overwhelming majority of the
most intelligent and the most successful missionaries who
have laboured in India have agreed with the view
expressed by Bishop Wilson.

Nehemiah Goreh, himself a Brahmin convert and one
of the most remarkable missionaries of Indian nationality,
once said, " Christianity with caste would be no Christianity
at all."2

The General Missionary Conference which met in India
in 1902 passed this resolution:

" The Conference would earnestly emphasize the deliver-
ance of the South India Missionary Conference of 1900,
namely, that caste, wherever it exists in the Church, be
treated as a great evil to be discouraged and repressed. It
is further of opinion that in no case should any person who

1 See p. 76. - Life of Father Goreh, p. 7.

88 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

breaks the law of Christ by observing caste hold any office
in connection with the Church, and it earnestly appeals to
all Indian Christians to use all lawful means to eradicate so
unchristian a system."

Ever since the establishment of Protestant missions
in South India the Lutheran missionaries, and especially
those connected with the Leipzig Missionary Society,
have practically condoned the observance of caste by
the Christian converts. The Anglican and the other
Protestant missionaries have striven with varying, but
on the whole with very incomplete, success to put an end
to its observance.

Alexander Duff and his work (1830—57).

Of the pioneer missionaries whose labours have left a
permanent impression upon missionary work in India and
to whom we have already referred, four names stand out
pre-eminent — Xavier, Nobili, Schwartz, and Carey. To
these we should now add that of Alexander Duff}- Dr.
Duff, who landed at Calcutta in 1830, after being twice
shipwrecked on his outward voyage, was the first missionary
sent out by the Established Church of Scotland. He at
once resolved to strike out what was then a new line of
missionary policy and attempt to influence the higher
castes of North India by providing schools in which,
through the medium of the English language, a liberal
education should be offered to all who were willing to
receive Christian instruction at the hands of missionaries.
In adopting the English language as the chief medium of
instruction he did not desire to discountenance the use
of the vernacular languages, but he was convinced that
the use of these was incompatible with the imparting of
a comprehensive education, and still more that they were
inadequate to express the fundamental conceptions of
Christian doctrines. In carrying out his scheme he
obtained the assistance of Earn Mohan Roy, the founder

1 See Life of Alexander Duff, Ly Geo. Smith.

INDIA 89

of the Brahmo Samaj. The first school which he opened
in Calcutta in July 1830 proved so great a success and
seemed likely to result in the conversion of so many of
its scholars, that the Hindu newspapers announced that
anyone continuing to send his son to school would be
driven out of caste. The school thereupon emptied, but
only to fill again to the very last place before the end of
a week. With a few interruptions Duff continued his
work in Calcutta till 1863. His converts were not
numbered by thousands, or even by hundreds, but they
included a large number of high caste Hindus whose
brilliant mental gifts and whose strength of character
have exercised an immense influence upon their fellow-
countrymen in North India.

Amongst the names widely known in India are Krishna
Mohan Banerjea, Gopinath Nundy, Mohesh Chunder
Ghose, and Anando Chunder Mozumdar. Not only in
the schools started by Duff, but in other schools and
colleges which were founded as an indirect result of his
work, conversions from amongst members of the highest
and most distinguished families took place during this
period. Amongst the number of important colleges which
were founded during Duff's time in India may be mentioned
the Robert Noble College at Masulipatam (C.M.S.), 1841 ;
St. John's College at Agra (C.M.S.), 1853 ; the General
Assembly's school, afterwards known as " the Christian
College," in Madras, 1837; St. Thomas' College, Colombo
(S.P.G.), 1851; Almora College (L.M.S.), 1851; Trichinopoly
College (S.P.G.), 1863; the Forman College, Lahore
(A.U.P.M.), refounded in 1886.

A colleague of Duff, Dr. John Wilson, founded the
college in Bombay which now bears his name.

The influence which Duff exerted upon the Government
of India was at least as important as that which he
exerted upon those who were responsible for the control of
missions. The trend of its policy and the course of legisla-
tion were profoundly affected by Duff, and had he done no
direct missionary work he would still have left a permanent

90 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

impress upon the development of education throughout
India. No sooner had the success of Duff's initial efforts
become apparent than the Government of India — Lord
Bentinck being then the Governor-General and Sir Charles
Trevelyan one of his chief advisers — issued a minute
(1835) in which it was stated that it was the desire of
the Government to naturalize European literature and
science and to foster English culture. Later on, and after
consultation with Duff, the Government announced the
establishment of a department of Public Instruction in
each of the Presidencies, and in 1857 founded universities
in Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay. These were eventually
supplemented by the foundation of one at Lahore in 1882
and one at Allahabad in 1887. During this period the
system of grant-in-aid was also established by which
government grants could be claimed by missionary or
other' schools which provided a secular education up to a
given standard. This system has made it possible for
missionary societies to establish and carry on mission
schools at little or, in some instances, at no cost to their
own funds.

Indian Christians in 1851.

In 1851 the first attempt was made to count the
number of Christians connected with the Anglican and
Protestant missionary societies in India. The statistics
obtained, though incomplete and less accurate than those
which were subsequently available, enable us to form some
idea of the progress of these missions up to the middle of last
century. The number of Christians in 1851 was 91,092,
they formed 267 congregations, and 14,661 of them were
communicants. Of these, 24,613 were connected with the
C.M.S. Tinnevelly Mission, 10,315 with the S.P.G. Mission
in the same district, and 16,427 with the L.M.S. Mission
in South Travancore. These three missions claimed
51,355 out of the 74,176 Christians in the Madras
Presidency. The remaining number included those who
had become converts in connection with the old Danish

INDIA 91

missions in the Cauvery districts. In the whole of the
rest of India there were only 16,916 converts, of whom
14,177 were in Bengal. Of these, 4417 were connected
with the C.M.S., 3476 with the S.P.G., and 1600 with the
Baptist mission.

Of the 339 ordained missionaries in India at this time
the C.M.S. had 64, the L.M.S. 49, the S.P.G. 35, the
Baptists 30, the Basel Missionary Society 23, and the
American Board 22.

The advent of American missionaries.

The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign
Missions (A.B.C.F.M.) sent their first missionaries to India
in 1812, but, owing to the opposition of the East India
Company, they were not allowed to remain in Calcutta.
In 1813 they started work in Bombay, but little progress
was made till 1833, when they crossed over from Ceylon,
where they had been previously at work, and founded a
series of mission stations at Madura and in the surrounding
districts. Soon afterwards they began work in Madras
and in the Arcot district. In 1831 they began work in
Ahmadnagar, which subsequently developed into their
Maratha Mission.

The American Presbyterians started work in the United
Provinces and subsequently in the Punjab. Their first
station was opened at Ludhiana in 1834. Later on they
opened stations at Allahabad (1836) and Fatehgarh
(1838), and in the Punjab at Jullundur (1846), Ambala
(1848), and Lahore (1849). They were the first Protestant
missionaries to work in the Punjab.

The American Baptists started their Telugu Mission
in 1840 and their mission to Assam in 1841. For
a long time neither of these societies made any great
progress.

The American United Presbyterians started work at
Sialkot in 1855.

92 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Lutheran Missionary Societies.

We have already referred to the work of the German
missionaries who went out to India in connection with
the Danish-Halle missions. The Basel Missionary Society,
which was founded in 1815, began work at Mangalore on
the south-west coast in 1834, and a little later at
Dharwar (1837) and Hubli (1839) in the South Maratha
country.

The Leipzig Missionary Society, which was founded in
1836, took over the work amongst the Tamils in 1840
which had been carried on by the Danish-Halle mission.

Pastor Gossner, after severing his connection with the
Berlin Missionary Society in 1836, sent out missionaries,
who commenced work at Hadjipore (1839), and other-
places on the river Ganges. Later on, in 1845, he began
the work amongst the Kols of Chota Nagpur which was
to develop into one of the most successful missions in
North India. For a further reference to Lutheran societies
in India, see pp. 121, 124.

The Mutiny (1857).

Exactly a century after the battle of Plassey, which
gave India to England, North India was convulsed
with war and massacre and many Indian Christians
were murdered on the ground of their supposed
sympathy with the English. On the capture of Delhi
(May 11) by the mutineers, every missionary was killed.
Their number included the Eev. A. R. Hubbard and two
catechists, Sandys and Koch, of the S.P.G., the English
chaplain, and Mr. J. Mackay of the Baptist mission,
also an Indian Baptist preacher, Wilayat Ali. At Cawn-
pore were killed the Eev. W. H. Haycock and the Rev.
H. E. Cockey of the S.P.G., and the Revs. J. E. Freeman,
D. E. Campbell, A. D. Johnson, and R. M. M'Mullen from
the American Presbyterian mission at Fatehgarh. At
Sialkot the Scotch Presbyterian missionary and his family

INDIA 93

were massacred. Including English chaplains and their
families, about 36 connected with missionary work were
murdered and 15 leading Indian Christians. Ghokal
Parshad, the headmaster of the American Presbyterian
mission at Farrukhabad, on being offered life and freedom
for himself and his family if he would abjure his faith,
replied, " What is my life that I should deny my Saviour ?
I have never done that since the day I first believed on
Him, and I never will."

Throughout the Mutiny the Indian Christians re-
mained loyal, and they assisted materially in holding the
fort at Agra.

The Mutiny helped Englishmen to realize the obliga-
tion which rested upon them to spread the knowledge
of their faith throughout India, and the years which
immediately followed it witnessed a great expansion of
missionary effort, more especially in the north-west.
This development of missionary work was greatly aided
by the whole-hearted support accorded by some of the
officials who were responsible for the government
of the north-west. Amongst these were Sir John
Lawrence (Viceroy, 1864-69), Sir Robert Montgomery
and Sir Donald M'Leod, Lieutenant-Governors of the
Punjab ; Sir Herbert Edwardes, General Eeynell Taylor,
and Sir Bartle Frere, Governor of Bombay. Without
infringing the policy of religious neutrality, which was
enunciated in the Queen's proclamation that followed the
suppression of the Mutiny, they made no secret of their
personal faith, and contributed largely out of their private
incomes towards the establishment of new mission stations,
especially those which were supported and controlled by
the C.M.S. Amongst the important centres occupied in
succession by this society in the Punjab were Amritsar
(1852) and Peshawar (1854), Multan (1856), Lahore
(1867), Dera Ismail Khan (1868), and Srinagar, the
capital of Kashmir (1863). In Oudh it established centres
of work at Lucknow (1858) and Fyzabad (1862).

A few months before the Mutiny, the first representa-

94 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

tive of the Methodist Episcopal Church of North America
(A.M.E.C.), Dr. Butler, had landed in India. Immediately
after the Mutiny this society started work at a number of
centres in Oudh, and later on in the United Provinces, and
it soon established single stations in almost every part of
India. It has been the policy of this society to spread
its operations over the widest possible area, rather than
to establish a series of centres in any one province or
district. During the first ten years of its operations in
India, it devoted its attention (except in the United
Provinces) to work amongst Europeans and Eurasians, but
later on it developed its missionary activities in all the
districts in which it was represented. Bishop Thoburn
and his sister, Isabella Thoburn, exercised a large influence
upon the development of its work.

The distribution of mission workers.

In order to gain some idea of the present condition of
missionary enterprise in India, we will try to make a brief
survey of the field from south to north. In this survey
only the work of the larger societies can be mentioned.
The total number of the societies at work exceeds a
hundred. The distribution of the workers belonging to
the E.G. missions will be referred to later on.

In the Tamil-speaking country, which forms the eastern
portion of South India to the south of Madras, the Anglican
missions, i.e. the C.M.S. and the S.P.G., which latter took
over many of the converts belonging to the old Lutheran
missions, have about 100,000 converts. The bishop
resides at Palamcottah, which is the chief centre of the
C.M.S. mission. At Nazareth, which is the most important
centre of the S.P.G. mission, there is a medical and an
industrial mission. The mission workers include 13
European and 80 Indian clergy. Amongst the mission-
aries who have worked in these missions should be men-
tioned Edward Sargent (C.M.S.) and Eobert Caldwell
(S.P.G.), both of whom afterwards became bishops. Many

INDIA 95

thousands of Indian Christians belonging to the Anglican
missions in Tiuuevelly have become Roman Catholics in
order to avoid having to abandon their caste customs
and ceremonial. In the district of Madura the American
Board and the Leipzig Missionary Society are represented.

Travancore.

We have already referred to the work of the L.M.S.
missionary, Ringeltaube. The work which he began in
South Travancore has developed till the number of con-
verts is now over 80,000, the greater part of whom are
ministered to by Indian teachers and pastors. The mission
staff includes 1 6 Europeans, 1 7 ordained Indians, and over
600 preachers and teachers.

The C.M.S. began work amongst the Syrian Christians
who were independent of Rome in 1816, in the hope of
creating a revival amongst the members of this ancient
Church. During the first twenty years encouraging results
were attained ; but when this work was brought to a stand-
still by the opposition of the metropolitan, the C.M.S.
began to develop work amongst the Hindus. This mission
has steadily developed. It is superintended by the
Anglican Bishop of Travancore, but is largely self-
supporting. Connected with the Anglican Church in
Travancore there are 12 European and 40 Indian clergy.
The bishop lives at Kottayam, where the C.M.S. has a
college which is affiliated to the University of Madras.
Part of the C.M.S. mission is in the State of Cochin, where
missionary work is carried on amongst the Arayer, a hill
tribe which had not become Hindus. The chief stations
in Cochin are Trichur and Kunnankulam.

The members of the ancient Syrian Church 1 under
the Jacobite Patriarch of Antioch number 225,190, and
those of the Reformed, or St. Thomas Syrian, Church
under its own metropolitan about 75,000. Those owing

1 The following figures include the members of the Syrian Church in
Cochin and in other ^arts of South India.

96 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

allegiance to the Church of Eome number, according to
the Syrian or the Latin rite, 413,142. Those under the
East Syrian Patriarch (the Catholicos of the East) number
about 13,780. These Churches are supervised by 11
Indians, 1 Chaldean, and 3 European bishops (see p. 66 f).

Madras and the Telugu country.

In the districts which include Trichinopoly and
Tanjore, the chief agencies at work are the S.P.G., the
Leipzig Mission, and the Wesleyans. The Trichinopoly
college (S.P.G.)and schools attached to it have about 1600
pupils. The college is affiliated to the University of Madras.

In the city of Madras the best-known missionary
institution is the Christian College (1837), belonging to
the Scotch U.F.C.M., of which Dr. Miller was for many
years Principal. As a direct missionary agency the college
has attained little success, but it has helped to raise the
ideals of education in Madras and throughout South India.
One of the aims of the college is " to influence and mould
the corporate thought of Hinduism," and to be a con-
stant witness to the close bond that exists between Chris-
tian faith and modern thought. Those who have been
educated at the college and who now hold posts of re-
sponsibility throughout South India are to be numbered
by thousands. There are 800 students at the college,
200 of whom live in hostels and 800 in the school
attached to the college. The Anglican diocese of Madras
includes the whole Presidency, with the exception of
Tinnevelly and Madura, and the bishop also superintends
the Anglican clergy in the native states of Hyderabad,
Mysore, and the province of Coorg. In the area included in
the diocese there are 38 European and 110 Indian clergy.

To the west of Madras the Eeformed Dutch Church of
America has a mission, including about 30 stations and
about 10,000 Christians. Eight sons and two grandsons
of the founder of this mission, Dr. Scudder, who died in
1855, have worked in its service.

INDIA 97

The principal societies which are at work in the
Telusru districts to the north of Madura are the C.M.S.,

o

the S.P.G., the L.M.S., and the American Baptists
(A.B.M.U.). In these districts there has been within
recent years a series of mass movements towards
Christianity. If these should continue, as seems likely
to be the case, there is every prospect that within the
lifetime of this generation the greater part' of the
20,000,000 people speaking the Telugu language who
inhabit these districts will have become Christians.
Up to the present the movements have been almost
entirely confined to what is called the outcaste population,
but applications for Christian instruction have recently
been received from communities belonging to the Sudra
class. The conversion of any large number of Sudras
would pave the way to the acceptance of the Christian
faith by the caste population throughout the whole of India.

The L.M.S. began work in the Telugu country in
1805, in which year they sent two missionaries to Vizaga-
patam, but it was not till 1835 that their first converts
were made. They opened a station at Cuddapah in 1822.
By 1870 they had 23 stations, which five years later had
increased to 80. After the famine of 1877 they, like the
other societies working in this district, were wholly unable
to cope with the applications which were received for
Christian teachers. Their converts and adherents, which
include a considerable number of Sudras, number about
25,000. The society has an important medical mission
at Jammalamadugu.

The American Baptists began work in 1835. One of
their first missionaries, Sewett, who was invalided home
after twelve years of apparently unsuccessful work, when
informed by his society that they wished to abandon this
mission, said, " I know not what you will do, but for myself,
if the Lord gives me my health, I will go back to live, and
if need be to die, among the Telugu." " Then," was the
answer, " we must surely send a man to give you a
Christian burial." In 1869, at a new centre which had

7

98 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

been opened at Ongole, the number of converts began rapidly
to increase, and by 1879 they numbered over 10,000.
The number at the present time exceeds 60,000. The
mission supports five hospitals, three high schools (at Ongole,
Xellore, and Kurnool), and a training school for teachers.

The territory occupied by the C.M.S. mission lies
between the rivers Krishna and Godavery, and stretches
from the coast about 100 miles inland. Work was
commenced in 1841, when R. T. Noble and H. W. Fox
were sent to Masulipatam. From the high caste school
which Noble started a number of Brahmin converts were
obtained, especially during its early years. On the staff
of the college there were in 1911 four Brahmin converts
and five sons of Brahmin converts. A mission at Nellore
was opened in 1854 and at Bezwada in 1858. In 1859,
after eighteen years' work, the converts connected with the
mission numbered about 200. In this year a remarkable
man named Pagolu Venkayya was converted, and with his
conversion the whole aspect of the mission changed. He
belonged to the Mala caste, and had been the leader of a
band of violent men. At the age of forty-seven, having
been told by a companion that a Christian missionary had
declared that idols were incapa.ble of helping their wor-
shippers, he then and there determined to renounce the
worship of idols. His friend also told him that the mis-
sionary had spoken of one only God. From that time he
began to use these words as a form of prayer : " 0 Great
God, who art Thou ? Where art Thou ? Show Thyself to
me." Later on he came across a Christian tract which
referred to God as the Saviour of the world. Thenceforth
he prayed, " 0 great God, the Saviour, show Thyself to
me." For three years he continued to pray. In 1859,
whilst attending a Hindu bathing festival at Bezwada, he
met a Christian missionary, and having heard and eagerly
accepted the Christian faith, he became a preacher of
Christianity amongst his fellow-countrymen. Conversions
soon followed, and when Venkayya died in 1891 the
converts connected with the C.M.S. mission, who had

INDIA 99

numbered 200 at the time of his baptism, had increased to
10,000. At the present time they number over 32,000.
There are 28 Indian clergy connected with this mission.
Hopeful work is also being carried on amongst the members
of the Sudra caste.

The territory occupied by the S.P.G. lies to the west
of the C.M.S. mission, and comprises the collectorates of
Cuddapah and Kurnool. In 1842 several of the L.M.S.
missionaries, amongst whom was Dr. Caldwell, afterwards
Bishop of Tinnevelly, became members of the Anglican
Church. In 1854, in response to repeated requests, the
S.P.G. undertook to support the Anglican mission at
Cuddapah, which had been carried on by the Eev. V.
Davies and by the Eev. J. Clay, who had been previously
supported by the Additional Clergy Society. In 1855
the centre of this mission was moved to Mutyalapad. By
1859 the mission included 13 congregations, 619 baptized
Christians, and 527 persons under instruction for baptism.
A station which was opened at Kalasapad in 1861 soon
became the centre of a large number of other stations.

The S.P.G. Telugu Mission has from the start been
greatly undermanned, with the result that its representatives
have had to refuse a long succession of pressing requests
from villages which asked, but asked in vain, to receive
Christian instruction. Despite the fact that there had
never been half a dozen European missionaries in the field,
by 1879 the number of congregations had increased to 76,
and the baptized Christians to 2377. Ten years later
they had increased to 115 congregations and 5562
baptized Christians. In 1913 the number of congrega-
tions was 230, and of baptized Christians 13,541. The im-
portant factor in this mission has been the 300 or more
Christian teachers, most of whom have been trained at
Nandyal, and who in most cases have had to act not
only as teachers of village schools but as catechists or
preachers. The general rule, in the case of the S.P.G. and
C.M.S. missions, has been that when an application for
Christian instruction has been received from a Hindu

100 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

village, the inhabitants of the village have been asked to
provide evidence of their sincerity by building a school
and a house for a teacher, and by guaranteeing to supply
him with food. Where these conditions have been ful-
filled, and it has proved possible to supply a teacher, the
teacher has taught the children of the village, and given
daily religious instruction, and conducted daily worship for
the inhabitants of the village for perhaps two years. The
village has, meanwhile, been periodically visited by an
Indian catechist, and at rarer intervals by a European
missionary. After three, or in some cases four or five,
years' continuous instruction, a third, or perhaps half of
those who have become candidates for baptism, are baptized.
A more or less similar course of procedure has been
followed by the other missionary societies represented in
the Telugu country. Experience has shown that a long
course of instruction and period of probation is necessary
if due precautions are to be taken to guard against moral
relapses. In 1913 the Bishop of Dornakal ordained 1G
Telugu Christians, 1 0 of whom belonged to the S.P.G. and
G to the C.M.S. mission. In addition to the large
number of day schools connected with its mission, the
S.P.G. has 5 boarding schools, one at each of its principal
centres of work. A beginning has been made of work
amongst women, but there is urgent need of further
development.

In the district which comprises the estuary of the
rivers Krishna and Godavery the Canadian Baptists and
the American Lutherans have missions which have
achieved considerable success.

Before we leave the Telugu-speaking country, refer-
ence should be made to a small but specially interesting
mission which was founded and is maintained entirely by
Indian Christians. At a meeting of Indian Christians
connected with the Anglican Church which was held at
Palamcottah in Tinnevelly in 1903, it was resolved to
form the Indian Missionary Society of Tinnevelly. In
1904 this society sent two Indian Christians to open a

INDIA 101

mission at Dornakal, 600 miles from Palamcottah, between
Bezwada and Hyderabad, in Hyderabad State. In 1906
the staff had grown to 3, in addition to 4 local workers.
In that year the Bishop of Madras baptized 23 converts
who had been won by this mission. The work, which is
rapidly spreading, is carried on in over thirty villages.
In 1912 the Eev. Vedanayakam Azariah was consecrated
as Bishop of Dornakal and the surrounding district, and as
an assistant bishop to the Bishop of Madras.

The fact that this mission is entirely self-supporting,
and that it has as its head the first Indian bishop in
communion with the Anglican Church, will appeal to all
who desire to see Indian churches self-supporting and
governed by men of their own race.

Farther north, in the Hyderabad State, the American
Episcopal Methodists, the American Baptists, and the
English Wesleyans have a considerable number of mission
stations.

Malabar.

In Malabar, which lies to the north of Travancore and
Cochin on the west coast, several societies are represented
by one or two mission stations. The Basel Mission
Society has a series of stations reaching from here north-
wards to the South Mahratta country in the Bombay
Presidency. A chief characteristic of this mission is its
development of industrial training, especially of weaving,
brick-making, and carpentry. These industries were
started in order to give employment to those who had
been left orphans by famine, and Indian Christians who
had been deprived of any means of livelihood by their
conversion to Christianity. These are carried on by an
industrial committee in Basel, which is not connected
financially with the Basel Missionary Society.

From a commercial standpoint this mission has been
a great success :

"There arc dangers in such work, chiefly lest the
mingling of business and evangelism shall hamper the

102 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

spiritual influence of the mission, and lest the tendency
shall be to induce individuals to profess Christianity for
the sake of securing a lucrative position. Even those who
for these reasons believe that only necessity will justify the
starting of mission industries, have to admit, however,
that this Basel work has made a real contribution to
economic progress and to the dignifying of labour as worthy
of a Christian." l

Mysore.

In the native state of Mysore work is carried on by the
L.M.S. from Bellary as a centre. The English Wesleyans
have also been at work since 1838. The A.M.E. Church
has mission stations at Bangalore and Kolar. The L.M.S.
has an extensive mission of which Bangalore is the centre.
This is also the site of an important United Missionary
College.

From the missionary standpoint, the educational policy
which has been adopted by the native Hindu Government
of Mysore is of special interest, as it may perhaps forecast
what will be eventually adopted in other parts of India.

The Times correspondent in Mysore, writing on
October 3, 1908, said:

" The tendency of the present system is purely secular
in character and has not been satisfactory. For various
reasons the homes of the pupils have ceased to impart
religious education, and the influence of religious teachers
and places of worship has almost disappeared. Irreverence
and disrespect for authority have been on the increase ;
modesty, self-restraint, and good sense have been largely
at a discount, while presumption, vanity, and unrestrained
aggressiveness appear to be increasing. In the circum-
stances, the Maharajah's Government has decided that the
readiest way of remedying this state of affairs is by impart-
ing religious and moral instruction as a systematic part of
education."

In view of the widespread interest which was aroused
by the regulations issued by the Mysore Government and
the possibility that they may create a precedent in other

1 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands, by E. W. Capen, p. 66 f.

INDIA 103

parts of India, it will be well to quote the actual wording
of the regulations :

" The time to be given to religious and moral instruction
will be limited to five periods a week, the first thirty minutes
after roll-call being devoted thereto. There will be a
moral discourse on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays,
and religious instruction on Tuesdays and Thursdays. The
moral discourse will be common to pupils of all persuasions,
and be based on a text taken from some religious, moral,
historical, or literary book. In addition, there will be
specific religious teaching from books like the Sanatana
Dharma Advanced Text- Book, the Koran and approved
commentaries and essays on the Mohammedan religion, and
the Bible. The question of extending the scheme to aided
schools not under Government management is reserved for
future consideration.

" As Mysore is a Hindu State and the bulk of the
population is Hindu, provision for imparting teaching in the
Hindu religion will be made in all Government institutions
other than those intended purely for the education of par-
ticular classes of non-Hindus — as, for instance, Hindustani
schools. The classes will be open for Hindus of all de-
nominations, but attendance will be optional in the case of
other pupils. It will at the same time be laid down for
the present that, when in any Government institution the
number of Mohammedan or Christian pupils is not less
than twenty, arrangements should be made, as far as may
be possible, for imparting instruction to them in their
respective religions. If, however, any private persons or
bodies interested in either of these religions wish to make
special arrangements at their own cost for teaching their
respective religions in Government institutions, where the
number of pupils of such religions is below twenty, every
facility should be given for this being done."

In the Native States of Mysore, Baroda, and Travan-
core, primary education is now compulsory.

Bombay District.

In the Mahrathi-spealcing country which lies to the north
of the Kanara country the societies represented by the
largest number of Christians are the American Board, the

104 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

S.P.G., and the United Free Church of Scotland. In
Ahmadnagar and the neighbouring districts the S.P.G. has
several hundreds of village schools and a large amount of
work amongst women. There are also signs of special
interest which may develop into a mass movement amongst
some of the Sudra villages. In Poona the C.M.S. is
represented, and there is also a strong mission which has
heen worked by the Cowley Fathers since 1870. Closely
associated with this mission, which also maintains work in
Bombay, are the Wantage and All Saints' sisterhoods,
which carry on work amongst Indian women. Khedgaon,
near Poona, is also the centre of the remarkable work
amongst high caste Indian orphans which has been carried
on by Pandita Eamabai since 1899.

Industrial work is being carried on by a large number
of missionary societies and by several independent in-
dustrial associations, e.g. the Scottish Mission Industries,
which works in connection with the U.F.C. of Scotland
at Ajmer and Poona, and the Industrial Mission Aid
Society, which has a large carpet-weaving establishment at
Ahmadnagar in connection with the A.B.C.F.M.

In the city of Bombay a number of missionary societies

-including the A.B.C.F.M., the C.M.S., the S.P.G., the

U.F.C.S., and the A.M.E.C. — are at work, but the visible

results have been small. The Wilson College connected

with the U.F.C.S. is doing good work.

In Gujerat the Irish Presbyterians have been work-
ing since 1841. In the province of Sindh, where the
majority of the population is Mohammedan, the C.M.S. and
American Episcopal Methodists have a few stations.

The A.M.E. Church has resident missionaries at Ajmer
and Phalera.

The Punjab.

We have already referred to the starting of missionary
work in the Punjab (see pp. 91, 93). Of the population of

INDIA 105

the Punjab 10,955,721, i.e. rather more than half, are
Moslems. The Sikhs in the Punjab number 2,093,804;
in the whole of India they number 3,014,466.

Eefereuce has been made to the rapid development of
missionary work in the Punjab by the C.M.S. which
followed the Mutiny, and to the active support given to
this work by leading Government officials. It was alleged
at the time, and the statement has frequently been made
since, that for Government officials to display sympathy
with Christian missions was to render the task of govern-
ing Hindus and Moslems more difficult than it would
otherwise be. This suggestion has been refuted again and
again by the history of the missions which have been
established in the North-West Provinces. Dr. Eichter,
quoting one of many instances, writes :

" No town was so notorious for its fanaticism as Pesha-
war, near the Khyber Pass. An English Commissioner had
declared that so long as he had anything to say in the
matter, no missionary should cross the Indus. A short
time afterwards this individual was stabbed by an Afghan
on the veranda of his house. His successor, Sir Herbert
Edwardes (in 1853), began his official activity in the very
house, the veranda pillars of which were still splashed with
the dead man's blood, by founding an evangelical mission for
the town, and he established peace and quiet in the place." l

The chief centres of the C.M.S. work in the Punjab
are Lahore, Amritsar, and Mullan. At Clarkabad, and by
other missions at other centres, attempts have been made
to establish villages to be inhabited by Christian converts,
but great difficulties have been experienced in regard to
their organization and control. On one occasion 200
nominal Christians, who imagined that they had a grievance,
suddenly announced their conversion to Islam. Successful
attempts have been made by the C.M.S. to create a
series of representative church councils with a view to
encourage self-government and self-support amongst the
Christian converts.

1 History oj Indian Missions, p. 210 f.

106 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Lahore is also an important centre of the American
Presbyterian Mission, and its college, the Forman College,
which has over 500 students, is one of the most important
colleges in North India. The A.M.E.C. has mission

O

stations in several parts of the Punjab, but the greater
portion of its work is in the Patiala state, and specially
in Patiala city.

During the last few years the Central Punjab has been
the scene of several movements towards Christianity
similar to the " mass movements " that have taken place
in South India. These have occurred in the American
United Presbyterian missions and in the C.M.S. missions.
There are over 60,000 Christians connected with the
former.

The great increase in the number of Christians in the
Punjab may be seen from the fact that whereas thirty
years ago their number was about 4000, in 1901 they
had increased to 37,000 and in 1911 to 163,000. In
the C.M.S. missions in the Chenab colony there were in
1913 about 10,000 Christians, and the number is rapidly
increasing. Both the C.M.S. and the A.U.P.M. are very
inadequately staffed in view of the large number of
Indians, mostly Chuhras, who are desirous of receiving
instruction. The Bishop of Madras, who has had ex-
perience of the " mass movements " in the Telugu country,
after visiting (in 1913) the missions in the Punjab
wrote :

" One result of the scarcity of workers in the Punjab is
that their whole system of education is far behind ours . . .
but the fact that they have such an inadequate organization
and such a great dearth of workers has obliged them to
stimulate the Christians to take a larger share in the
management of their own affairs than is the case in the
South. Many congregations of the United Presbyterian
Mission - - the strongest and in many ways the best
organized mission among the outcastes of the Punjab — are
self-supporting and self-governing. One feature of the
work in the Punjab which impressed me very much was
their system of agricultural colonies and settlements. As

INDIA 107

I passed through the Chenab colony I visited five of these,
each with a population of 1000 to 1500 Christians. . . .
There are two classes of Christian villages and agricultural
settlements in the Punjab. In one class the mission holds
the land as the property of the Mission, and the Indian
Christians are the tenants of the Mission. In the other
class of Christian villages the people own their own land
and are independent. It is an interesting fact that the
first class of villages are nearly all a failure, and the other
class, where the people are independent, are so far a

success."

The total number of Christians in the Punjab at the end
of 1912 was reckoned at 167,413. Their rapid increase
in number has been in part due to the policy adopted
by certain missionary societies of baptizing those who
desired to receive baptism without demanding any period
of probation or any intelligent knowledge of the Christian
faith. Most of the missionary societies which are at
work in the Telugu country, where mass movements on
a large scale have taken place, have found by experience
that it is necessary to keep groups of inquirers under
instruction for three or even four years before admitting
them to Christian baptism. A contrary policy has been
adopted in the Punjab by the American Methodist Epis-
copal Church, the American Presbyterian missions, and the
Salvation Army, which are working among the Chuhras,
who occupy a position similar to that of the Lai Begis in
the United Provinces, at the very bottom of the social
scale.

Professor Griswold of the Forman (Presbyterian)
College in Lahore, in defending the policy of these
missions, writes :

"The conditions laid down for baptism are not the
same in all the missions. Earnestness of purpose is
required by all. Sometimes considerable numbers are
baptized with no other qualification than an apparently
sincere desire to become Christians. But usually something
is given in the way of instruction, e.g. at least the name of
the Saviour, and the fact that He gave His life for sinners

108 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

and that salvation is only through Him, and frequently the
Lord's Prayer, Ten Commandments, and Apostles' Creed,
either the whole or in part." l

Replying to the objection that as a result of this
policy the Christian Church will be crowded with those
who are practically heathen, he urges that though this
may be true as long as the adult members are concerned,
there is hope that " their children may become very much
better than their parents, and really enter the promised
land of spiritual renovation." The same experiment has
been made and the same argument has been urged in
other parts of the mission field and in different periods
of Christian history ; but few who have made a careful
study of Christian missions from the earliest times down
to the present day would venture to say that in any
single case have the final results justified the adoption
of the policy of " speedy baptism " for which Professor
Griswold pleads.

Amongst the C.M.S. stations on the North-West
Frontier are Srinagar in Kashmir, Peshawar, Bannu,
Dera Ismail Khan, and Dera Ghasi Khan. At Srinagar,
where the work was started by Dr. Elmslie (see p.
32), there is a large mission hospital under Drs. A.
and E. Neve, and a boys' school under the Kev. C. Tyndale
Biscoe. This school, which is chiefly attended by high
caste Hindus and Moslems, is one of the most remarkable
in India. By his personal influence and example the
Principal has inspired his pupils with the desire to display
many Christian virtues which are but seldom practised
by those who are nominally Christians. The visitor to
this school may see high caste boys engaged in rowing
on the lake low caste women and other patients who are
convalescents at the Srinagar Hospital, and performing,
for the benefit of suffering people and animals, tasks
which the ordinary high caste Hindu would regard as
defiling. Although few of the scholars or ex-scholars

o o

1 Sec article "The Mass Movement in the Punjab," by H. D. Griswold,
The East and The West, January 1915.

INDIA 109

have as yet been baptized, the Christian influence exerted
by this school has been felt throughout a large part of
North- West India,

Delhi, the capital of India, is an imperial enclave
within the Punjab province. We have already referred to
the S.P.G. and Baptist missions which were established there
prior to the Mutiny (see p. 92). As soon as the S.P.G. re-
ceived the news of the massacre of its missionaries, it issued
an appeal for fresh workers, which met with an immediate
response. Before the arrival of the new workers, amongst
whom the Eev. T. Skelton, Fellow of Queens' College,
Cambridge, and the Eev. E. Winter deserve special
mention, Earn Chuuder and another Indian had recom-
menced the mission school, which by the end of 1859
contained 300 boys. During the years that followed, the
educational work carried on by this mission developed to
a large extent.

In 1877 the Cambridge University Mission was
formed, its object being to co-operate with the S.P.G. in
developing its educational and evangelistic work in Delhi.
The Eev. E. Bickersteth, who afterwards became a Bishop
in Japan, was the first Head. The next Head of this
mission was the Eev. G. A. Lefroy, who afterwards
became Bishop of Lahore (1899), and subsequently
Bishop of Calcutta and Metropolitan of India (1913).
St. Stephen's College, which is affiliated to the University
of Lahore and has over 200 students, lias an Indian
Principal, Professor Eudra, who is assisted by a staff of
English University graduates. The college, which is now
being rebuilt in the new city of Delhi on a site granted
by the Government of India, has recently increased its
staff of professors and has the prospect of a wide sphere
of usefulness in the future.

The S.P.G. also supports a large mission hospital for
women and educational, industrial, and zenana work. The
S.P.G. and Baptist missions work in complete harmony
and have been able to co-operate in some of the educational
work which they carry on.

110 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

On the Indian border of Tibet to the north of the
Punjab the Moravians have carried on a mission for over
fifty years, and have translated the Bible into the Tibetan
language.

Central Provinces and Eajputana.

The C.M.S. has mission stations at Jubbulpore and in
the country of the Gonds in the Central Provinces, and
at Bharatpur and in the Bhil country in the eastern part
of Eajputana. The Scotch Episcopal Church has a mission
to the Gonds at Chanda. The C.E.Z.M.S. has also work
in these Provinces. The TJ.F.C. of Scotland has work at
Nagpur, the Swedish Fatherland Institution at Sagar, and
the German Evangelical Synod of North America at
Bisrampur. The A.M.E.C., the Friends Foreign Missionary
Association, and several other Bodies have also a number
of mission stations in Eajputana. The A.M.E.C. has
resident missionaries at Nagpur, Jubbulpore, Gondia,
liaipur, Khandwa, and Jagdalpur.

United Provinces.

The United Provinces, i.e. Agra and Oudh, include the
important towns of Agra, Cawnpore, Lucknow, Allahabad,
and Benares. The Anglican Bishop of Lucknow, in whose
diocese these provinces lie, resides at Allahabad.

We have already referred to the development of
missionary work in these provinces up to the time of
the Mutiny, and to the missionaries who were killed in
Cawnpore on the outbreak of the Mutiny. After the
Mutiny the Government handed over the church which
had been built for the use of Europeans, and which
was not destroyed by the mutineers, to the S.P.G., which
has made it the centre of its work in Cawnpore. It is
interesting to record that the son of the man who was
the direct instigator of the massacre at Cawnpore even-
tually became a catechist in the S.P.G. Mission. In 1889
George and Foss Westcott (who are now Bishops of

INDIA 111

Lucknow and Chota Nagpur) started a Brotherhood in
connection with the S.P.G. Mission which has been the
means of developing educational, industrial, and evangelistic
work in the city and the surrounding country.

The college which the Brotherhood helped to establish
at Cawnpore is affiliated to the Allahabad University.

Amongst the Indian clergy who have done good work
in connection with the S.P.G. Mission should be mentioned
Sita Earn, a Brahman convert, who died in 1878.

In 1899 St. Catherine's Mission Hospital for Women
was opened. One of its doctors, Alice Marval, and four
of the hospital workers died as a result of nursing plague
patients in 1904. Offshoots of the S.P.G. Cawnpore
Mission have been established at Eoorkee (1861) and
Banda (1873).

Other missionary societies represented in Cawnpore are
the A.M.E.C.,1 the American Presbyterian Mission, and the
Women's Union Missionary Society of America. The
A.M.E.C. Mission dates from 1871. Here as in many
other places in India its representatives work not only
amongst the Indians but amongst the Europeans and
Eurasians.

Agra. — St. John's College, which is supported by the
C.M.S., was established in 1853 and is now affiliated to
the University of Allahabad. The daily attendance at
the college and its branch schools in the city is over
1200. The Queen Victoria Girls' High School (1904)
has about 100 Christian scholars and exercises a laro-e

O

influence amongst the Christian community throughout the
province.

Other missions represented in Agra are the A.M.E.C.,
the English Baptist Missionary Society, and the Edinburgh
Medical Missionary Society.

The C.M.S. and the A.M.E.C. began their work in
Lucknow in 1858. The A.M.E.C. supports the Eeid
Christian College for Boys and the Isabella Thoburn

1 For a reference to the rapid development of the work of the American
Methodist Episcopal Mission in the United Provinces, see pp. 124, 138.

112 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

College for Girls. It also supports work at several stations
in the Sitapur and Philibhit districts.

In Allahabad the C.M.S. began work in 1813, when
it placed there Abdul Masih, who was the first Indian
to receive Anglican Orders. The American Presbyterians
have an important college which is affiliated to the
Allahabad University, and the C.M.S. has a hostel for
students attending the University. The A.M. E.G. and the
Z.B.M. are also represented.

In Benares, which is in a sense the religious capital of
India, work was begun by the C.M.S. in 1817, by the
L.M.S. in 1820, by the Baptists in 1827, and later on by
the Wesleyan Missionary Society and by the Zenana Bible
and Medical Mission. This latter society supports a
strong medical mission and hospital. The L.M.S. and the
C.M.S. have large high and elementary schools.

Clwta Naypur.

Work amongst the aboriginal tribes in Chota Nagpur
was inaugurated by the Rev. J. E. Gossner, a German who
had received priest's Orders in the R.C. Church, and having
separated from its Communion prepared and sent out
evangelists to India. Four of these, who were sent to
India in 1844, were instructed to start work in some
district in which there were no other workers. Their
attention was directed to Eanchi in Chota Nagpur by
coming across some of the inhabitants of that district who
were working as coolies in the streets of Calcutta and
whom they followed to their homes. After they had
laboured at Eanchi for four years, four men came to them
asking that they might be allowed to see Jesus, and when
told that this was impossible, they went away disappointed,
believing that the missionaries had refused their request
because they were not high caste people. As the result,
however, of watching the missionaries at their devotions, they
became the first converts to Christianity in that district.

By 1851 thirty-one baptisms had taken place, and by

INDIA 113

the time of the Mutiny the converts had increased to
900. At the close of the Mutiny Gossner proposed to
transfer the mission and his funds to the C.M.S. This
offer was refused, though the C.M.S. made a grant of
£1000 to the mission in 1858. On the death of Gossner
in this year a committee was formed in Berlin to carry on
the mission. When in 1868 this committee proposed to
alter the constitution of the mission, the older Lutheran
missionaries found themselves unable to accept the orders
of the Home Committee, and were obliged to quit the
churches and mission buildings which they had erected.
At this time the number of Christian Kols was about
9000. Application was made by the missionaries to
Bishop Milman of Calcutta to receive them and their
converts into the Anglican Church. The Bishop for a
long time refused to take action and did his utmost to
promote a reconciliation between the older Lutheran
missionaries and the Berlin Committee. When it at
length became apparent that no reconciliation could be
effected, he applied to the S.P.G., and having received a
promise of support from this society, he formally received
7000 Kols into the Anglican Church and conferred
Anglican Orders upon their three pastors. On the same
occasion he ordained an Indian catechist. Daud Singh.

' O

It is scarcely necessary to point out that for one
society to invite converts who had previously been attached
to another society to join its mission would be wholly in-
compatible with the principles of Christian comity and
would be altogether deplorable. In this case, however, the
Anglican Bishop had refused to recommend the S.P.G. to
undertake work in Chota Nagpur till the representatives
of the Lutheran Mission had declared that their separation
from the Berlin Committee was irrevocable. The mission
supported by the Berlin Committee was carried on with
undiminished enthusiasm and increasing success. Satis-
factory relations, moreover, were soon established with the
S.P.G., and the two missions have since worked harmoniously
side by side.
8

11-4 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

In 1890 the Kev. S. G. Whitley was consecrated as
the first Bishop of Chota Nagpur.

Seventy miles to the north of Eanchi a Dublin
University Mission was established at Hazaribagh in 1891.
This mission maintains a college, several schools, and a
hospital, and has done much to further the higher educa-
tion of the people of Chota Nagpur. It has a number of
women associates, who form part of the mission staff.

Missionaries belonging to the E.C. Church first appeared
in Chota Nagpur in 1880, when the Lutheran and S P.G.
missions had already attained a large amount of success.
In order to win the confidence of the people, the new
missionaries started an extensive system of agricultural
loans, offering to those whose wages did not exceed 2d. or
3d. a day a loan of two or three rupees, which was not to
be repayable as long as the borrowers continued to be
" good Catholics." As the Lutheran and S.P.G. missionaries
did not consider it to be right to offer similar advantages,
the result was that a large number of the converts who
had been baptized by them joined the Eoman Church.
This method of conversion was not adopted on the initiative
of individual missionaries, but was definitely sanctioned by
the E.G. Jesuit authorities on the ground that to rely upon
religious motives would be to forgo the possibility of
extending their work. Thus the editor of the Government
Census for 1911 writes: "A well-known E.G. missionary
in Chota Nagpur writes to me as follows concerning the
inducements to conversion : —

"'As a general rule religious motives are out of the
question. They want protection against zamindars (farmers)
and police extortions, and assistance in the endless litigation
forced on them by zamindars. . . . Personally, 1 know of
some cases where individuals came over from religious
motives. But these cases are rare.' " l

The Belgian Jesuit missionaries in Chota Nagpur
have acted from the highest motives, and they have

1 Census Report, vol. i. pt. i. p. 137.

INDIA 115

themselves lived self-denying and laborious lives, but
it is much to be deplored that in Chota Nagpur, as in
many other districts in India, the E.G. missionaries should
have thought it to be their duty to proselytize those who
were already Christians rather than to begin new work
amongst non-Christians.

So great was the success attained by the Jesuit
missionaries in the districts round Eanchi that they were
able to baptize, or re-baptize, 10,000 converts within the
course of a few years. Their best work has been the
establishment of village schools where a large number of
children are in course of being educated. Moreover, as
their work has extended they have gathered in many who
had not been touched by other missions. In the Jashpur
native state, which lies to the west of Chota Nagpur in
the state of Berar, they had in 1911 33,000 adherents,
chiefly aboriginal Oraons, nearly all of whom had been
won since 1901. A considerable number were won from
the ranks of the Lutheran Christians, who number about
10,000.

Bengal.

The Indian Christian community in Bengal l numbered
43,784 in 1911. Of the total number of Christians in
Bengal 35 per cent, are Eoman Catholics, 27 per cent.
Baptists, and 22 per cent. Anglicans. Nearly two-fifths
of the Eoman Catholics are found in the district of Dacca.
The Baptists have obtained their greatest success amongst
the Namasudras of Eastern Bengal, and half their con-
verts are in the Dacca division. The great majority of
the Indian members of the Anglican Communion are found
in Nadia, the twenty-four Parganas, and Calcutta.2

A large number of missionary societies are represented
in Calcutta, amongst which are the C.M.S., the S.P.G.,

1 These statistics relate to "Bengal proper." In Behar, Orissa, and
Chota Nagpur — which were also included in the Bengal census— the Indian
Christians numbered 19,893, 7110, and 197,168 respectively.

2 See Census Report, 1911, vol. i. pt. i. p. 134.

116 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

the Oxford University Mission, the Scotch Established
and the U.F. Churches, and the Baptist and Wesleyan
Missions.

In Calcutta itself (as in the case of Bombay and
Madras), the progress of missionary work has been slow
and unsatisfactory compared with the progress achieved in
some other parts of India. This is partly due to the very
unsatisfactory moral atmosphere which prevails in these
cities, and partly to the mixed and changing character of
their populations.

The work of the Oxford Mission to Calcutta amongst
students attending the Calcutta University has been
carried on for thirty-five years with a self-denying de-
votion which has never been excelled in the history of
modern missions, but the visible results are as yet in-
significant.

The largest missionary college in Calcutta is that
belonging to the Church of Scotland and the U.F.C.,
which has over 1000 students. The L.M.S. and the S.P.G.
have also colleges, and the C.M.S. has a college and two
high schools for boys, and a boarding school for girls.

Throughout the greater part of Bengal, missionary
work is being carried on, but a large proportion of the
inhabitants are still unreached. The Anglican, Scottish,
London, Baptist, and Wesleyan societies are all repre-
sented. At Barisal, east of Calcutta, the Oxford Univer-
sity Mission and the English Baptists are strongly
represented. The C.M.S. has many stations in the Krish-
nagar or Nadia district north of Calcutta. In this
district there occurred a mass movement towards Christi-
anity about sixty years ago, but the results were not
altogether satisfactory.

The C.M.S. began work at Taljhari in Western Bengal
among the Santals, one of the aboriginal races which have
not embraced Hinduism, in 1860, and soon covered the
Santal districts with a network of mission stations. In
1913 there were 24 European and 25 Indian clergy, and
389 Christian lay agents connected with this mission ; the

INDIA 117

total number of Christians being about 6000. The Indian
Home Mission, founded by two Scandinavians in 1867,
lias also a considerable amount of work amongst the
Santals, its chief station being Ebenezer.

The U.F.C. of Scotland also began work amongst the
Santals in 1871, and has several mission stations.

The Church of Scotland has excellent work in the
neighbourhood of Darjeeling and Kalimpong amongst the
hill tribes of the Lepcha, Gurkha, and Bhutia.

Assam.

The Assamese people have for the most part become
Hindus, but there are several hill tribes (Garos, Nagas,
Khasis, Lushais, and Kacharis) which are still pagan. The
largest number of converts have been won by the Welsh
Calvinistic Methodists, who started work in 1841. Their
chief work lies in the Khasi and Jaintia hills, their
principal station being Shillong. The mission has also
branches in Cachar, Sylhet, and the Lushai bills. In the
latter district rapid progress has been attained. The heir
to the throne of a small independent kingdom in the
Khasi mountains who embraced Christianity when offered
the choice of renouncing his new faith or of abandoning his
claim to the throne, chose the latter alternative. During
the decade the converts connected with the W.C. Mission
have nearly doubled. They numbered 31,000 in 1911.

The American Baptists, who started work in 1836,
number over 21,000. The Christians connected with this
mission are chiefly found in the Brahmaputra valley and
in the Garo and Naga hills. This mission has also some
work amongst the Assamese.

Anglican Mission in Assam. — In 1850, Captain Gordon,
who was stationed at Tezpur, began a mission at this place,
which was taken over by the S.P.G. in 1862. In 1851
the S.P.G. started work at Dibrugarh, and later on opened
several stations amongst the Kachari in the neighbourhood
of Dibrugarh and Attabari. In this district there are

118 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

about 3000 converts. Quite recently a E.G. mission has
been started amongst the people to whom the S.P.G. is
ministering.

Apart from the work which is being done amongst the
hill tribes and the Assamese, the S.P.G. and the German
Lutherans minister to the needs of a large number of
Christian Kols and Santals (numbering about 8000), who
have come as immigrants to labour on the tea and other
plantations.

The recent creation of a diocese of Assam will
probably lead to a considerable expansion of Anglican
missions in this province.

The total Christian population of Assam (apart from
Europeans) is about 64,000 (1911).

Indian Census Returns.

Greater facilities exist for gaining a bird's-eye view of
the progress of missions over a wide area and during a
considerable number of years in India than in any other
non-Christian country. These facilities are afforded by a
careful study of the returns issued by the Indian Census
Commissioners at intervals of ten years since 1871.
The student of missions is warned that great care is needed
in making comparisons supplied for the different decades, as
the limits of the Indian Empire have undergone several
important changes. Moreover, the returns do not include
the Portuguese and French territories in India, in which a
large proportion of the Christians attached to the E.C.
Church reside. Many of the tables, moreover, which are
contained in the returns include European and Eurasian
Christians. It is obvious that the number of these must in
every case be subtracted before any trustworthy estimate
of the progress of Christian missions can be gained.

During the decade 1901-11 the population of India as
a whole increased by 6 '4 per cent., or, if we include the
gain due to the addition of new areas, 7'1. The Indian
Christians have increased during the same period from

INDIA 119

2,664,313 to 3,574,770— that is, 34'2 per cent., or live
times as fast as the whole population (included in both the
returns) has increased.

The rate of increase of Indian Christians during the
last four decades has been 22 per cent., 3 3 '9 per cent.,
30'8 per cent., and 34'2 per cent. Boughly speaking, it
may be stated that the Indian Christians in the Indian
Empire numbered 1 in 143 in 1891, 1 in 111 in 1901,
and 1 in 86 in 1911.

Those interested in the spread of Christianity in
India have sometimes tried to forecast the future and to
estimate the length of time which may be expected to
elapse before India becomes a Christian country. Those
who regard the future from a more hopeful standpoint
are influenced by a consideration of the mass move-
ments which are now in progress and by the anticipation
that the caste system which is the chief obstacle to the
spread of Christianity will probably ere long disappear as by
a landslide. The fact that 24,000 Moslems in the Dutch
East Indies have become Christians within recent years
forbids them to despair of the conversion of the Indian
Moslems, when they come to be surrounded by a Christian
population of the same race and speaking the same
languages as themselves.

On the other hand, those who take a less hopeful view
point to the comparatively small number of conversions
which are taking place at the present time amongst the
high caste peoples and the Mohammedans, and con-
template the possibility that the present conditions may
long continue to operate. It is obviously unwise to rely
upon statistics relating to progress in the past in order to
prognosticate what the future has in store, but this at
least may be said : should the increase which has been
taking place during the last 30 years be maintained, in
50 years' time the Christians will number 1 in 21 of the
population, in 100 years they will number 1 in 5, and in
160 years the whole population of India will be Christian.
If the relative rate at which the Koman and non -Roman

120

HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

missions are expanding be also maintained, in 160 years the
Christians in India connected with the E.G. Church will
form about 1 in 30 of the whole Christian community.

The following table shows the number of Christians of
Indian nationality according to the last three census
returns : —

Provinces.

1891.

1901.

1911.

Madras ....

825,424

983,888

1,150,379

Travancore and Cochin .

713,403

892,054

1,149,495

Bengal and Assam

167,304

258,305

367,079

Bombay .

127,575

171,214

191,973

United Provinces

23,406

68,341

136,469

Punjab

19,639

37,695

163,220

Burma

101,303

129,191

185,542

Mysore

27,981

39,585

46,554

Total for all India l ,

2,036,590

2,664,000

3,574,770

As will be seen from the above table, the rate of
increase has varied considerably in different parts of India.
The most striking increase has been in the Punjab, where
the rate has been 333 per cent. This has been due
to the mass movements among the Chuhras, which have
resulted from the work of the American Presbyterian and
C.M.S. missions. More than half the Indian Christians in
the Punjab are connected with the A.U.P.M. (see p. 106).
The Salvation Army converts in the Punjab have increased
during the decade from a few hundreds to 18,000. "A
special feature of the activities of the Salvation Army is
the attention which they pay to the criminal tribes and
depressed classes generally. In several provinces they have
entered into special arrangements with Government for
the reclamation of tribes whose criminal proclivities it has
been found impossible to curb by means of police surveil-
lance. They endeavour to improve the moral and material

1 These totals include the Christians in the Provinces as given above
together with the Christians in the native states.

INDIA

121

condition of these people by sympathetic supervision and
by teaching them various industries which will enable them
to earn an honest livelihood." l

In the Central Provinces and Central Provinces States
the general increase of the population has been 18 per
cent, while the Christian increase has been 162 per cent.

The population of the Madras Presidency, including
the Travancore and Cochin States, has increased by
3 per cent., whilst the Christians have increased by 16'9
per cent. In the case of Burma, the statistics revealed
by the Government Census are much more encouraging
than missionaries had anticipated. During the last ten
years there has been an increase of 56,000 Christians, the
ratio of increase being 44 per cent.

The following table shows the comparative progress
of Eoman and Anglican missions, and of the largest of the
Protestant denominations during the decade 1901—11 :

Total Number of Indian

Number

Christians.

Actual

Increase

per 1000

Increase.

PerCent.

Indian
Chris-

In 1911.

In 1901.

tians.

Eoman Catholics, ex-

cluding Romo-Syriana

1,393,720

1,122,508

271,212

24

390

Romo-Syriaus

413,134

322,583

90,551

28

116

Anglicans

332,807

213,273 i

119,534

56-2

93

Baptists .

332,171

216.915

115,256

53-1

93

SyrianChristians( Jacobite,

Reformed, Chald'ean)

315,157

248,737

66,420

26-7

88

Lutherans

216,842

153,768

63,074

41

61

Presbyterians .

164,069

42,79:)

121,270

283-3 2

46

Methodists

162,367

68,4-9

93,878

137

45

Congregatioualists

134,240

37,313

96,927

259-7 3

38

Salvationists .

52,199

18,847

33,352

177

15

1 Omitting the 92,644 unclassified "Protestants" which were added to
the Anglican totals in 1901, but which were omitted in 1911.

- The greater part of this increase has been in the Punjab, where a mass
movement has occurred. See p. 106.

3 In 1901 nearly 60,000 Christians in Travancore connected with
Congregationalist missions were classified as Protestant or un-sectarian. It
these be added to the 1901 figures, the rate of increase would appear to have
been about 38 per cent.

1 See Census of India fieport, vol. i. pt. i. p. 133.

122 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

The preceding table affords information which will enable
us to appreciate the present strength and the rates of increase
of the chief Churches or religious organizations in India.

The Romo- Syrians who are found in Travancore
acknowledge the authority of the Pope, but their services
are in the Syrian language and they follow in part the
Syrian ritual. If they are included in the E.G. returns, it
appears that slightly over half the Indian Christians were
connected with the E.G. Church when the census was
taken in 1911. The rate of increase for the decade in
the case of the Roman Catholic missions was only 25 per
cent, as compared with 45 per cent, for the Anglican and
Protestant missions taken together. If we suppose that the
proportionate rates of increase have been maintained, the
converts connected with the E.G. Church within the Indian
Empire will now (1915) number about 1,980,000 as
against rather more than 2,000,000 converts connected
with non-Eoman missions. In addition to the E.G. Indian
Christians within the Indian Empire there are, according
to a return made by E.G. missionaries six months after the
census was taken, 25,918 in French and 296,148 in
Portuguese territory within the Indian Peninsula. Their
rate of increase is probably less than that of the E.G.
Christians within the Indian Empire. In the province of
Madras, where the Eoman Catholics are most numerous,
they have increased only by 8 per cent., the rate of increase
being slightly in excess of that of the general population.
In Behar and Orissa (chiefly in the Eanchi district and the
state of Gangpur) they have gained 68 per cent., in Burma
62 per cent., in Bombay 35 per cent., and in Bengal
1 9 per cent. Their greatest progress has been attained in
Jashpur State in the Central Provinces and Berar, where
they have now 3 3,0 00 adherents, chiefly aboriginal Oraons,
practically all of whom " have been gathered into the fold "
since 1901.

The rate of increase of the E.G. Church in the Indian
Empire taken as a whole is slower than that of any other
large body of Christians in India.

INDIA 12.°,

Anglican Missions. — In interpreting the figures which
are given for Christians connected with the Anglican Church
it should be noted that in 1901 and in the earlier returns
all Indians who called themselves Protestants, and did not
claim to belong to any particular Church or body, were
returned as Anglicans. In this way, 92,644 Christians
were added to the Anglican total in 1901. In the census
for 1911 all Protestants who did not claim to belong to
any particular Church were entered in a separate column
by themselves. In order, therefore, to compare the number
of Christians connected with Anglican missions to-day
with those which existed in 1901, we must deduct from
the returns for 1901 92,644. We then discover that the
number of these Christians has increased during the past
ten years from 213,273 to 332,807 — that is, an increase
of 5 6' 2 per cent.

The editor of the Government Census for 1901,
referring to the 92,644 Christians who returned them-
selves as belonging to no denomination and were
wrongly added to the Anglican totals, says : " Of
these 59,810 were returned in Travancore, where
the majority were probably members of the London
Mission." x

The Anglican Church in India comes next in point of
numbers to the E.G. Church, but it includes only one-
eleventh of the Indian Christians.

The principal centre of the Baptists is in the Madras
Presidency, where about two-fifths of their converts are
found, chiefly in the districts of Guntur, Nellore, Kurnool,
and Kistna. In Burma, where there are 120,000
converts, they have nearly doubled their number, but,
according to the Census Eeport, " the increase is probably
less than would appear from the figures, as in 1901 many
failed to return their sect, and were thus not shown as
Baptists." In Burma the Baptists have by far the largest
number of Christians : thus the Baptists have 120,549, the
Roman Catholics 50,770, and the Anglicans 9999. In

1 Vol. i. pt. i. p. 387, note.

124 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Assam, where their numbers are much smaller, the pro-
portional increase has been greater.

The Syrians (excluding Eomo-Syrians) show an increase
of 66,420, or 26'7 per cent. By far the largest number
of Syrian Christians are in the Travancore State. Most of
the rest are in Cochin. Madras contains over 20,000
(see p. 66f).

The Lutherans, whose actual increase in the decade has
been 63,074 Indians, have increased at the rate of
41 per cent.; 104,074 out of a total of 216,842 are in
the Madras Presidency. Here their increase has been at
the rate of 35 per cent. In the province of Bihar and
Orissa, where their numbers are nearly 88,000, they have
increased at the rate of 43 per cent.

The Presbyterians show an actual increase of 121,270
Indians, which is larger than any other Protestant denomi-
nation. Their numbers for 1901 have been multiplied
three and five-sixth times in the course of the decade. The
most remarkable progress has been made in the Punjab,
which now contains 95,000 Presbyterians, against only
5000 in 1901; in the two districts of Sialkot and
Gujranwala alone there are now 52,000, whereas in 1901
there were only 500. Most of the converts belong to
the Chuhra, Chamar, and other depressed castes. In the
United Provinces there are 14,000 Presbyterians, or nearly
three times as many as in 1901.

In Assam there are 31,000 converts, chiefly connected
with the Welsh Calviuistic Mission in the Khasi and
Jaintia hills, where their number has risen from 16,000
to 28,000.

The Methodists (most of whom are connected with the
A.M.E.C. missions) have doubled their numbers in the
United Provinces in the course of the decade, and have a
large absolute majority of Christians of all races taken
together in these Provinces — 104,148 out of a total of
177,949. Three-fifths of the present strength of the
Methodists are in the United Provinces. Their rate of
increase has been higher in the Punjab, where they now

INDIA 125

number 11,582 Indians : in Bombay 11,609, Baroda 4833,
and Hyderabad 8121. Their total of Indian Christians
(162,367) is two and one-third times as large as in 1901.
Their total increase of Indian Christians in the decade has
been 93,878.

The Conyreyationalists, according to the census figures,
have gained 96,927, though in 1901 their numbers were
only 37,313, an increase at the rate of 2597 per cent.
This increase, however, is largely artificial, due mainly to
Congregationalists in 1901 being put down as Protestant
or Unsectarian. If (as is suggested by the editor of the
Census returns) the figure 59,810 was added to 37,313,
the actual increase in the decade would be reduced to
37,117, or 38 per cent. The Cougregationalists number
134,240 Indian Christians. Of these 81,499 are in
Travancore, 36,565 in Madras, 11,519 in Bombay, and
2336 in Bengal.

The Salvationists have grown from 18,847 to 52,199,
at the rate of 176'4 per cent. In the Punjab they have
now 17,970, as against a few hundreds in 1901. In
Travancore their present strength of 16,759 is five times
what it was ten years ago. In Bombay they number 9924
Indians, in Madras 4876, in Baroda 1540.

Of the effect of conversion on the Indian Christians
themselves, Mr. Blunt (one of the Provincial Superin-
tendents of the Census), writes :

" The missionaries all these years have been providing
the corpus sanum (if one thing is noticeable about Indian
Christians it is their greater cleanliness in dress and habits),
and now they are being rewarded by the appearance of the
mens sana. The new convert, maybe, is no better than his
predecessors ; but a new generation of converts is now
growing up. If the missionaries could and can get little out
of that first generation, the second generation is in their
hands from their earliest years. The children of the
converts born in Christianity are very different from their
parents ; their grandchildren will be better still. It is this
which provides the other side to the black picture so often
drawn of the inefficiency of Christian conversion. And this

126 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

generation is now beginning to make its influence felt. The
Hindu fellows of these converts have now to acknowledge
not only that they are in many material ways better off
than themselves, but that they are also better men."

The Census Superintendent of the Mysore State, him-
self a Hindu, says that the missionaries work mainly among
the backward classes, and that

" the enlightening influence of Christianity is patent in the
higher standard of comfort of the converts, and their sober,
disciplined, and busy lives. To take education, for instance :
we find that among Indian Christians no less than
11,523 persons, or 25 per cent., are returned as literate, while
for the total population of the State the percentage is only
6. ... The success in gaining converts is not now so marked
as the spread of a knowledge of Christian tenets and
standards of morality."

The figures of the Indian census returns which we have
been considering, whilst they afford mathematical demon-
stration that the number of Christians is increasing in
India, are but a skeleton outline. They need to be clothed
with flesh and blood in order that their significance may
be appreciated. It is instructive to learn that India is
becoming Christian at a rate unprecedented in the history
of the world, but to realize what this means one needs to
go out to India and to walk through the districts where the
Christian faith is being taught, and to note the changes
which are taking place. A visitor will not need to ask as
he enters any particular village whether its inhabitants are
Christians. A glance at their faces, or even at the faces
of their children, will show whether the spirit of fear,
engendered by the debased form of Hinduism which is
professed in the average Hindu village, has been exorcised,
and whether Christian hope and freedom have taken its
place. He may find many who call themselves Christians,
but whose lives are unworthy of their profession ; but the
proportion will not be as large as he will have been pre-
pared to discover if he is acquainted with the history of

INDIA 127

Europe during the centuries which succeeded its nominal
conversion to Christianity, nor will the superficial
Christianity of a few greatly lessen the impression which
will be produced upon him as he comes to understand the
marvellous transformation which is taking place in the
experience alike of individuals and communities.

It is easy to criticize the mass movements which have
taken place in South India and are beginning to take
place in the north, and to call in question the motives
which, in some instances, lie behind these movements.
The nominal acceptance of Christianity on the part of a
community is, obviously, no substitute for the conversion
of heart and character which can alone enable individuals
or communities to lead a Christian life, but in many
instances the nominal and to some extent superficial con-
version of a community may be regarded as the almost
indispensable preparation for the conversion of its indi-
vidual members. The atmosphere which caste has gener-
ated is so unwholesome, and so completely destroys the
recognition of individual responsibility, that until this
atmosphere can be dispelled it is well-nigh impossible for
individuals to appreciate the liberty wherewith Christ
would set them free. The nominal conversion of a whole
village may not be accompanied by many signs of spiritual
life, but it brings every individual in the village within
the reach of spiritual influences and renders possible the
growth of the Christian character. It is not difficult for
the critic of Christian missions to discover instances in
which the desire for Christian instruction on the part of a
village community has been strengthened, if not created,
by the hope of material advancement, but the student of
missions, who is familiar with the many unworthy motives
which hastened the nominal conversion to Christianity of
the peoples in Northern Europe, will not be unduly dis-
heartened when he realizes that in the history of the
evangelization of non-Christian countries to-day a limited
number of cases are to be found which recall what might
almost be termed the normal occurrences of the past.

128 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Missionary Education.

The Government has come to realize that if elementary
education is to be spread throughout India and is to bring
any moral gain to its peoples, its efforts must be largely
helped and supplemented by the missionaries. These
alone are in a position to supply trained Indian teachers
and to superintend the teaching if it is to be supplied on
any large scale. In the province of Chota Nagpur, which
is chiefly inhabited by races that have not embraced
Hinduism, the Government has offered to place the whole
school system of the province under the direction of the
three missionary societies which are at work there, i.e. the
S.P.G., the E.G. Mission, which is manned by Belgian
Jesuits, and the German Gossner Mission. Here, and in
many other parts of India, an unlimited opportunity is
offered to the representatives of Christian missionary
societies to exercise a decisive influence upon the whole
moral and religious future of its peoples.

Missionary Colleges. — The Anglican and Protestant
missionary societies have 38 colleges, of which 23 prepare
for the B.A. degree, the other 15 having only a two years'
course and finishing with the First Arts qualification. In
these colleges there were (in 1912) 5447 students, includ-
ing 61 women. Of these students 4481 were Hindus,
530 Mohammedans, and 436 Christians. All the students
receive daily instruction in the Christian Scriptures, and
of those attending mission schools throughout India 92

o O

per cent, are non-Christians. There is a Christian
college for women at Luckuow and one has recently been
organized at Madras. This latter has received support
from eleven British and American missionary societies.
In South India at least 1000 Christians are university
graduates.

There are 1163 boarding and high schools belonging
to missionary societies with 110,763 students.

In the Christian elementary schools there are about
450,000 pupils, of whom 146,000 are girls and 170,000

INDIA 129

are Christians. The 160 industrial schools have 9125
pupils.

The colleges connected with the Anglican Church in-
clude St. Stephen's College, Delhi (S.P.G.) ; St. John's
College, Agra (C.M.S.) ; Christ Church College, Cawnpore
(S.P.G.) ; Hazaribagh College, Chota Nagpur (D.U.M.) ;
Trichinopoly College (S.P.G.) ; the C.M.S. colleges, at
Madras, Peshawar, Amritsar, Masulipatam, and Kottayam.

Those connected with the Church of Scotland include
the General Assembly's Institution, Calcutta, and the
college at Sialkot. The principal colleges supported by
the United Free Church of Scotland are the Christian
College, Madras, the Wilson College, Bombay, and Nagpur
College.

Those connected with the L.M.S. include the Eamsay
College at Alniora in the United Provinces, a college in
Calcutta, and colleges at Bellary and Nagercoil in South
India.

Those connected with the American Presbyterian
missions include Forrnan College, Lahore, and the Ewing
Christian College, Allahabad.

Those connected with the American Methodist Episcopal
Church include the colleges at Lucknow (for men and
women) and Allahabad.

Amongst other colleges which deserve special notice
may be mentioned the Canadian Presbyterian college at
Indore, the Wesleyan colleges at Bankura and Manargudi,
and the American Baptist college at Ongole.

The total number of students attending colleges of
university standing in India is about 25,000, and of these
about 5500 are at missionary colleges. During recent
years the Government of India has realized that the
provision of university education to all who desired it has
been anything but an unmixed blessing to its recipients,
and that the moral atmosphere of many of the university
towns was injuriously affecting the characters of a large
number of university students. They have in consequence
adopted the policy of contributing largely towards the cost

9

130 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

of establishing residentiary hostels in which students may
live under sympathetic supervision. By far the greater
number of these hostels are in the hands of the missionary
societies. At the two new universities of Patna and
Dacca the Government desire that the majority of the
students should live in such hostels. How great is the
need of establishing university colleges or hostels may be
gathered from a statement made by the Rev. W. E. S.
Holland of Calcutta, who writes :

" Seven thousand Bengali students congregate in Calcutta
under conditions that are nothing less than appalling. The
circumstance that determines everything else is their ex-
treme poverty. A mere handful are in properly supervised
hostels. A good many live at home. The remainder are
huddled together in the cheapest lodgings they can find;
so that the slums and student quarter are almost inter-
changeable terms. Fancy Oxford transferred to lodgings
in the slums of Whitechapel ; and picture an England with
its leading classes educated thus ! The moral and sanitary
environment is deplorable ... 80 per cent, [of the students]
join no college societies, 90 per cent, play no games ; their
only recreation a slack stroll up and down College Street,
their only pabulum the gutter-press of Calcutta."

At Dacca and Patna hostels to accommodate 200
students are being built almost entirely at Government
expense which are to be under the direction of the Oxford
University Mission in the one case and of the C.M.S. in
the other.

Interest in education has been steadily increasing
throughout India during recent years. According to the
Government Quinquennial Review published in 1914, the
number of boys in attendance at secondary schools in
which English is taught went up from 473,000 to 667,000
between 1907 and 1912. During the same period the
number attending primary schools went up from 3,986,000
to 4,998,000. Of these about a quarter were attending
missionary schools. During the year 1912-13 the total
increase of pupils attending all kinds of schools was nearly
400,000.

INDIA 131

The backward condition of female education may be
inferred from the fact that whilst nearly 30 per cent, of
boys of school-going age were at school, the proportion of
girls was only 5 per cent. Daring the period 1907—12
the number of girls in primary schools increased from
645,028 to 952,911.

Seminaries. — Of Anglican seminaries for the training
of Indian clergy the S.P.G. and C.M.S. each have one in
Madras ; the S.P.G. has also Bishop's College, Calcutta
(which is being re-organized) ; the C.M.S. has also divinity
schools at Lahore, Allahabad, Calcutta, Poona, and Kottayam.
The American Board (A.B.C.F.M.) has seminaries at Madura
and Ahmadnagar, the A.M.E.C. at Bareilly, the Lutheran
Mission at Tranquebar, the A.P.M. at Saharampur, the
A.U.P.M. at Ptawal Pindi, and the Baptists have the theo-
logical college at Seraniporc, which has the standing of a
university. In 1910 a United Theological College was
established at Bangalore which is supported by the L.M.S.,
W.M.S., A.B.C.F.M., the American Eeformed Church, and
the U.F.C. of Scotland. The largest theological seminary
in the Indian Empire is that at Insein in Burma, which is
supported by the A.B.M. and has 160 students.

Medical Missions.

Anglican. — The C.M.S. has hospitals at Srinagar in
Kashmir, Peshawar, Bannu, Quetta, Dera Ismail Khan,
all on the North- West Frontier ; and at Amritsar and
Multan in the Punjab. The S.P.G. has hospitals at Delhi,
Cawnpore, Hazaribagh (D.U.M.), Murhu in Chota Nagpur,
and at Nazareth and Eamnad in South India. The Church
of England Zenana Missionary Society works to a large
extent in conjunction with the C.M.S. and maintains
hospitals at Peshawar, Quetta, Tarn Taran, Dera Ismail
Khan, Amritsar, Bangalore, etc.

The U.F.C. of Scotland maintains hospitals at Ajmer,
Udaipur, Jodhpur, Nasirabad, Poona, Nagpur, Bhanclara,
and Ward ha. In the Santal country it has three medical

132 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

missions and in the Madras Presidency it has hospitals for
women at Eoyapurani and Conjeveram. It also supports
a medical mission at Aden in Arabia. The Church of
Scotland has medical missions for women at Poona, Gujerat,
and at Sholiu^hur in Madras.

o

The Canadian Presbyterians maintain hospitals for
women at Neemuch, Indore, and Dhar, and have several
other general hospitals. The A.U.P.M. has hospitals for
women at Jhelum and Sialkot.

The A. Presbyterian Church has a large medical mission
at Miraj in the South Maratha country. It has also
stations at Kolhapur, Vengurla, and Kodoli in the same
district, and at Sabathu, Arnbala, Ferozepore, Kasur,
Allahabad, and Fategarh. The Irish Presbyterians have a
hospital at Anand in Gujerat.

The L.M.S. has a large medical mission at Neyoor in
Travancore. It has also hospitals at Jammalamadugu in
the Telugu country, and at Kachwa, Almora, and Jiagauj
in North India.

The A.B.C.F.M. has medical missions in the Marathi
country, at Madura and in Ceylon.

The A. Baptist F.M.S. has medical missions in Burma,
Assam, and in the Telugu country.

The W.M.S. carries on medical work chiefly amongst
women in South India. It supports hospitals at Mysore,
Hassan, Ikkadu, Medak, Nizamabad, Nagari, and Madras.

The A.M.E.C. has hospitals at Bareilly, Bhot, Brindabun,
Baroda, Kolar, and Bidar.

The Zenana Bible and Medical Mission has hospitals at
Benares, Patna, Lucknow, and Nasik.

The Basel Mission has medical stations at Calicut and
Betgeri-Gadag.

The Salvation Army has hospitals at Nagercoil, Anand,
Moradabad, and Ani.

In addition to these there are a large number of
hospitals and medical missionaries connected with smaller
missionary societies. In 1910 there were in mission
hospitals about 50,000 in-patients, more than 1,000,000

INDIA 133

out-patients, and over 56,000 surgical operations. Train-
ing institutions for Indian doctors and nurses have been

O

founded at Ludhiana and Agra.

The greatness of the need to which medical missionaries

O

minister may be gathered from a recent statement made
by the Inspector- General of Civil Hospitals in Bengal, to
the effect that in order to supply the rural districts with
dispensaries sufficient to bring the supply of medical aid up
to the lowest standard that is considered necessary in
England, the agencies would have to be multiplied by 40.

Work amongst Indian Moslems.

The first missionary to work amongst Moslems in India
was Geronimo Xavier, who came to Lahore from Goa in
1596. He wrote three books — a Life of Christ, a Life of
St. Peter, and a disquisition on the religion of Islam. It
is known that he baptized several converts (see p. 77).
Amongst those who worked amongst Indian Moslems in the
nineteenth century should be mentioned Dr. C. G. Pfauder,
Bishop French, Ptobert Clark, Kev. T. P. Hughes, Ptev. R
Bateman, Dr. Imad-ud-din, and Safdar Ali. In 1856 the
Harris school, which is under the charge of the C.M.S., was
opened in Madras. The C.M.S. has also some work amongst
Moslems in Hyderabad and Alleppey. The Church of
England Zenana Missionary Society supports schools for
Moslem girls in Madras, Bangalore, Mysore city, Ellore,
Bezwada, Masulipatam, and Khammamett, the last four being
in the Telugu country.

The S.P.G. works amongst Moslems in Delhi, where a
large proportion of the students attending St. Stephen's
College are Moslems.

The A.M.E.C. Mission has work at Hyderabad and Kolar.

The U.F.C.S. has a mission at Conjeveram in the
Tamil country, and the L.M.S. has a station at Trivaudrum
in the Malayalam country.

One or two small associations have work amongst
Moslems in the Tamil and Telugu country. Industrial

4 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

schools have been established in Madras, Bangalore, and
Guntur to provide employment for destitute Mohammedan
women. Most of the larger missionary societies carry on
indirect mission work amongst Moslems in connection with
their missions to Hindus.

Missionary Societies in India.

Of the 117 foreign and 19 indigenous missionary
societies working in India and Ceylon, 41 are British, 41
American, 12 from the continent of Europe, 8 from
Australia, and 3 are international. The three societies
which support the largest number of missionaries are the
C.M.S., which supports (1913) 142 European clergy; the
American Baptists, who support 136, and the A.M.E.C.,
which supports 124 American clergy. The tendency of
the British and American societies is to leave the adminis-
tration of affairs and the initiative to those in India, whilst
the tendency of the continental missionary societies is to
retain a larger measure of control in the hands of the home
committees.

The following is a brief summary of the work of some
of the chief missionary societies in India and Ceylon, with
the date at which they began work.

I. Anglican.- -The C.M.S. (1816) and the S.P.G.
(1818) are at work in all the provinces of India. The
total number of Indian Christians in India connected with
the Anglican missions in 1914 was about 350,000. These
include the converts connected with the C.M.S., the S.P.G.,
the Church of England Zenana Mission (1851), and several
smaller Anglican societies or associations.

In 1913 the C.M.S. had 142 European and 206 Indian
clergy and 196,000 baptized Christians; the S.P.G. had
104 European and 139 Indian clergy and 113,000 baptized
Christians.

The Church of England Zenana Missionary Society
(C.E.Z.M.S.) is an offshoot formed in 1880 from the
Indian Female Normal School and Instruction Society, an

INDIA 135

undenominational body which began work in Bengal in
1851. It supports medical and evangelistic work among
women in Bengal, the Central Provinces, the Punjab, Sinclh,
and in several parts of South India. This society works
in close association with the C.M.S., and occasionally the
two societies interchange workers. (For a list of hospitals
supported by the C.E.Z.M.S. see p. 131).

The total number of missionaries supported by this
society in India in 1913 was 145 Europeans and 256
Indians.

Of the twelve bishops in India who superintend the
Anglican missions, seven are appointed by the English
Government — namely, those of Calcutta, Madras, Bombay,
Lahore, Eangoon, Lucknow, and Nagpur. These occupy a
somewhat anomalous position, as they are at once Govern-
ment officials and in charge of the Government chaplains,
and superintend the Anglican missions which have been
established in their dioceses. The Bishops of Travancore,
Tinnevelly, Chota Nagpur and Assam, are not appointed or
paid by Government and are simply missionary bishops.
The Bishop of Dornakal, who was appointed by the Bishop
of Madras, has a small diocese of his own in the state of
Hyderabad. He also acts as an assistant bishop in the
diocese of Madras.

As long as there is an English army in India and
a large European population it will be necessary to
have English chaplains and English bishops. It would,
however, be an undoubted advantage from a missionary
standpoint if the bishops who are responsible for the
supervision and development of missionary work in
India were no longer supported or appointed by the
Government.

II. Baptist Missionary Societies. — The English B.M.S.
(1792) works chiefly in Bengal, Bihar, the United Pro-
vinces, and the Punjab. Its " church members " number
about 11,000 and its adherents 30,000. It has hostels
for students at Calcutta and Dacca, and a university
college at Serampore. In Ceylon, where it began work in

136 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

1812, it has 1057 "members." The Baptist Zenana
Mission has 70 missionaries and 100 girls' schools.

The A.B.M.U. (1813) has 140 European and 425
Indian clergy and 135,000 baptized adherents. Nearly
half these are in Burma. In Assam it has 60 missionaries
(including men and women) and about 11,000 communi-
cant members. It has also work in Bengal and the Teluort
country. The total number of Baptists in India in 1911
was 332,000.

III. The Lutheran Missions. — Next to the Anglican
and Baptist missions come, in point of numbers, the
Lutheran missions, the largest of which are (1) the
Gossner Mission of Berlin (1841), which has 71,000
baptized adherents in Chota Nagpur, and a staff of 50
European and 44 Indian missionaries and 400 Indian
lay-workers (see p. 112). (2) The Evangelical National
Missionary Society of Stockholm (1877) has 1500 baptized
Christians and 23 European (men) missionaries in con-
nection with its work in the Central Provinces. (3) The
Schleswig - Holstein Evangelical Lutheran Mission (1883)
works among the Telugus in the Vizagapatam district
and amongst the Uriyas of the Jeypore Agency. The
Christian community numbers about 15,000 and is
ministered to by 24 European missionaries.

The Basel Mission (founded in 1815) started work on
the west coast of India in 1834. It has 26 principal
stations in the districts of Kanara, Malabar, Coorg, the
Nilgiris, and South Maratha. It has 60 European and
26 Indian clergy, and its baptized Christians number
20,000. Its constitution is Presbyterian in character.
Industrial work forms a chief feature of the mission.

The industrial mission work of this society has been
criticized by many of the supporters of Indian missions,
and not altogether without justification. A member of
the Basel Mission, the Kev. A. Scheuer of Tellicherry,
writes :

"This system is not without its disadvantages. Most
Christians look to the mission for everything ; the temporal

INDIA 1 :; 7

and the spiritual are too closely allied, and therefore often
confounded. The factories attracted undesirable converts.
In the minds of the people mission work became associated
with providing a living. Well-to-do Hindus may not seldom
have stood aloof from the Church because they needed no
material help. . . . There can be no doubt that these
industrials have been very helpful factors in building up a
few strong congregations in the most caste-ridden parts of
India. But it remains doubtful if without them a smaller
and more efficient Church, better distributed, would not
in the long-run have amply compensated for speedier
numerical success."1

There are also two American Lutheran Missions, the
General Synod (1842) with its headquarters at Guntur,
and the General Council with its headquarters at Bajah-
mundry. The former has over 40,000 adherents, which
include over 1000 Sudra converts ; the latter, which
started in 1869, has about 17,000 adherents.

The Danish Evangelical Lutheran Missionary Society
(1867) has 29 European missionaries, 5 Indian pastors,
and about 1600 members connected with its work at
Pattambakam in South Arcot. The total number of
Christians connected with the Lutheran missions in 1911
was 216,000.

IV. Presbyterian Missions. — (1) The Foreign Missions
Committee of the Church of Scotland, which sent out
Alexander Duff as its first missionary (1829), works in
Calcutta, the Eastern Himalayas, the Punjab, Poona, and
Madras. It has 77 European agents (32 men and 45
women) and 16,000 baptized Christians.

(2) The United Free Church of Scotland (U.F.C.S.) in-
cludes three missions which existed before the time of the
Disruption in Western India (1823), Calcutta (1829), and
Madras (1837). Its other missions are in Eajputana,
Santalia, and in the Central Provinces. The European
workers which it supports include 56 ordained and 32
unordained men and 117 women. Its Indian workers
include 18 ordained men. There are about 12,000
1 Year-Book of Indian Missions (1912), p. 507.

138 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

persons "in fellowship with the Church." It supports
16 medical stations. The Women's Foreign Mission
in connection with the U.F.C. of Scotland supports 275
schools with 15,000 scholars. The Christian College at
Madras founded by this society also receives support from
the C.M.S., the W.M.S., and the Church of Scotland
Mission.

(3) American Presbyterian Missions. — The chief centres
of work are in the Punjab (1846), Allahabad (1836), and
in the state of Kolhapur (1852), which lies about 150
miles south of Bombay. It supports university colleges
at Lahore and Allahabad (see p. 91).

(4) The Canadian Presbyterian Mission (1877) has
eleven chief stations, mostly in Central India. It has an
important college at Indore. It supports a good deal of
medical work, including three hospitals for women.

The total number of Indian Christians connected with
Presbyterian missions in 1911 was 164,000.

V. Methodist Missions. — (1) The largest Methodist mis-
sion is that of the A.M.E.C., which works in many different
parts of India. This society has done excellent educa-
tional, medical, and industrial work. In the carrying out
of its evangelistic work it has been content to accept a
lowrer standard as a qualification for baptism than that
accepted by other societies, and complaints, which have
often been well grounded, have been made against its
representatives that the society has established itself in
areas already occupied by other societies, and has baptized
large numbers of converts who were in course of being
prepared for baptism by other missions. It is greatly to
be hoped that those who are responsible for the direction of
its policy will fall into line with that adopted by all other
great societies with the exception of the representatives of
the B.C. Church and of the Salvation Army.

The A.M.E.C. also works to a considerable extent
amongst Europeans and Eurasians in India. It has 112
American and 264 Indian ministers.

(2) The Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society (W.M.S.)

INDIA 139

supports work in Ceylon (1814), Madras, Negapatam,
Hyderabad, and Mysore, and in North India in Bengal,
Lucknow, Bombay, and Burma. A large part of its work
is amongst Europeans and Eurasians.

The total number of Indian Christians connected with
Methodist missions in 1911 was 162,000. (In 1912 the
A.M.E.C. claimed to have 185,000 "baptized adherents.")

VI. Congregationalist Missions. — (1) The London Mis-
sionary Society (L.M.S.) occupies 10 centres in North
India, 12 in South India, and 6 in Travancore. In connec-
tion with its missions in North India it has about 4000, in
South India about 33,000, and in Travancore about 81,000
Christians. Its staff consists of 70 European men, 50
European women, and 41 Indian clergy.

(2) The missions of the American Board support
29 American and 83 Indian clergy attached to three
principal centres — Ahmadnagar, the Jaffna peninsula in
Ceylon, and the Madura district. It has about 40,000
Christian adherents. It supports 6 mission hospitals.

The total number of Christians connected with
Congregational missions in 1911 was 134,000.

VII. The Salvation Army employs 207 European and
2285 Indian officers and teachers. Its work is carried on
in 13 different districts and in 12 languages, its general
headquarters being at Simla. The contributions raised in
India and Ceylon equal in amount those sent from
England. It supports 3 hospitals, 21 industrial boarding
schools, 6 farm colonies, 1 7 weaving schools, and 1 1 settle-
ments for criminal tribes accommodating 2300 persons
(see p. 125).

The Indian National Missionary Society. — One of the
most hopeful developments of missionary work in India
during recent years has been the formation of the National
Missionary Society of India, which was first organized on
Christmas Day, 1905, and began its missionary operations
in 1907. Mr. K. T. Paul, the Secretary, writes:

" The society is strictly denominational in the evangel-
istic work done in its fields. Each field is worked in a

140 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

particular connection exclusively of others. For instance,
the Punjab field is Anglican, to which only those candi-
dates who are of that connection are sent. The first
missionary to that field was ordained by the Bishop of
Lahore in 1911. The field in the United Provinces is
Presbyterian, to v/hich only those candidates who are of
that connection are sent. One of the workers there was
ordained by the Presbytery of Ludhiaua (in 1912). And
so with the other fields, one of which is in connection with
the ancient Syrian Church." l

The " five fields of labour " which have so far been
selected are the Montgomery district in the Punjab ; the
Nakkar tahsil of the Saharaupur district in the United
Provinces ; the Omaher taluk in the Salem district,
Madras ; the district of North Kanara in the south of
the Bombay Presidency ; and the Karjat-Karmala taluks
near Ahmadnagar. In 1914 there were 26 agents
employed by the society, of whom 12 had received a
college education and of whom 2 were doctors. The
converts numbered about 1000.

Had we space, we should like to refer to some of the
movements which owe their origin to the Christian ideals
which missionaries have inculcated in India, such as the
Society of the Servants of India, founded in 1906 by
Mr. Gokhale ; the Seva Sadan or Sisters of India Society,
founded in Bombay in 1908 by the Parsee philanthropist
Mr. Malabari ; or the Ramakrishna Home of Service, in
Benares. The Seva Sadan Society seeks to train Indian
women for educational, medical, social, and philanthropic
work. These and many others are supported by those who
do not call themselves Christians but whose lives have been
influenced by the spirit of Christ.

Bible Societies. — An important missionary agency is the
British and Foreign Bible Society, which employs many
hundreds of Biblewomen and colporteurs to read and dis-
tribute the Bible. Since its foundation (1804) it has
issued in the languages of India nearly 20,000,000

1 Year-Bool: of Indian Missions, p. 431.

INDIA 141

portions of Scripture. The American Bible Society (1817)
does similar work on a smaller scale. The National Bible
Society of Scotland (1861) maintains 223 colporteurs in
India and Ceylon, who sold in 1910 239,000 copies of
the Scriptures.

Roman Catholic Missions in India.

We have already referred to the early missions of the
E.C. Church in India and to the work which it is carrying on
in special districts. In 1886 India and Ceylon were placed
under a regularly constituted hierarchy with eight arch-
bishoprics (Goa, Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Pondicherry,
Verapoly, Agra, and Colombo). The total number of bishops
and priests (1912) is 2653, of whom 1700 are indigenous
to the country and 953 are Europeans. " Of these
European missionaries a small percentage are of Irish and
a still smaller percentage of English descent. The rest are
members of various religious Orders from Italy, Spain,
France, Holland, Belgium, and Germany, while the prelates,
in every case except one, belong to these continental
nationalities." l

E.G. Colleges and Schools. — The E.C. Church has 23
seminaries containing 700 candidates for the priesthood,
of which the most important are situated at Kancly in
Ceylon, Shernbagamir near Trichinopoly, Eanchi, and
Kurseong near Darjeeling. It has 1 1 colleges which prepare
for university degrees with 1300 students, 65 high schools,
248 middle schools, and 2438 elementary schools with
98,000 pupils. It has also 47 industrial and 74 boarding
schools with 5917 pupils, and 97 orphanages. For girls
it has 59 high schools, 240 middle class schools, and 672
elementary schools. The total number of pupils (1912)
in E.C. schools is 143,000 boys and 73,000 girls, out of
whom about 12,000 are orphans. The boys' schools are
for the most part managed by members of religious Orders
and the schools for girls by professed Sisters.

1 See article by Father E. R. Hull in TJie Yearbook of Missions -in
India, p. 160.

142 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Of the university colleges the most important are
St. Xavier's College, Calcutta, under Belgian Jesuits (276
students) ; St. Xavier's College, Bombay, under German
Jesuits (350 students); St. Joseph's College, Trichinopoly,
under French Jesuits (420 students).

The educational establishments are to a large extent
supported by Government grants-in-aid. They are in part
maintained by the two European societies, the Association
for the Propagation of the Faith and the Society for the
Holy Childhood.

Religious Unity in South India.

In 1908 five separate missions in South India were
organized as one body under the name of the South India
United Church — namely, the United Free Church of
Scotland in and about Madras, the Arcot Mission of the
Reformed Church of America, the American Madura
Mission, and two London Missionary Society missions—
the Travancore Mission and the South Indian District
Committee Mission. Its affairs are managed by a small
committee elected by the General Assembly which meets
once in two years. The Basel Evangelical Mission and
one or two other missions are considering the possibility of
joining the South India United Church.

Proposals have also been made to incorporate in a
" Federation of Christian Churches in India " all churches
and societies that " accept the Word of God as contained
in the Scriptures as the supreme rule of faith and practice,
and whose teaching in regard to God, sin, and salvation
is in general agreement with the great body of Chris-
tian truth and fundamental doctrines of the Christian
faith."

In December 1911 a Presbyterian Alliance was
organized in Allahabad. As a result the General
Assemblies of the Church of Scotland, the U.F.C. of
Scotland, the Presbyterian Church in America, and the
Canadian and Irish Presbyterian Churches approved the

INDIA 141

scheme and voted to allow their Indian Churches to join
the Union.

The member of missionaries in India.

In 1912 there were 5200 Anglican and Protestant
missionaries in India (compare China, 4299). Of the
1442 ordained missionaries, 620 were from Great Britain,
559 from the U.S.A., and 222 from the continent of
Europe. There were 118 men and 217 women doctors. Of
the total number of missionaries, 2076 were men and
3124 women; of these latter, 1800 were unmarried
women. Of Indian men and women there are about 40,000
who devote their whole time to missionary work ; of these,
1665 are ordained. Amongst the Indian workers there
are about 250 university graduates, most of whom are
teachers. Of the 40,000 Indian workers about 10,000
are women.

The difficulty of developing an educated ministry
supported entirely by Indian contributions will be realized
when it is remembered that the average income per capita
of the people of India is £2 per annum. At the present
time the average contribution towards the support of his
Church made by each member of the Indian Christian
Churches is 4s. per annum.

The Young Men's Christian Association, which works
chiefly amongst students in the larger towns, exercises a
widespread influence. The Christian Literature Society
(C.L.S.) translates and produces in various Indian lan-
guages books bearing directly or indirectly upon the
Christian faith, and thereby furnishes invaluable aid to the
missionary societies.

Philanthropic Work.

Some idea may be obtained of the organized philan-
thropic work, apart from that of medical missions, which
is being done by missionary societies in India from the

144 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

following statement. The figures in brackets denote the
number of inmates in the various institutions. There
are now in India in connection with missionary societies :
orphanages, 181 (13,400); leper hospitals and asylums,
59 (4815); institutions for blind and deaf mutes, 8 (340);
rescue homes, 8 (360); industrial homes, 19 (1134);
houses for widows, 15 (410).

V.
CEYLON.

SOON after the arrival of the Portuguese, who effected
a settlement in Ceylon early in the sixteenth century,
some Franciscan monks reached Ceylon, and a bishopric of
Colombo was established. In 1544 St. Francis Xavier
preached among the Tamil fishermen of Manaar in the
kingdom of Jaffna and baptized over 500 of them. These
were massacred by the Kajah of Jaffna, whose kingdom
was conquered by the Portuguese in 1548. The Portuguese
used forcible methods of conversion, and a large proportion
of the people, including the Brahmans, were baptized. In
the south of the island less violent means were adopted,
but even here " many became Christians for the sake
of Portuguese gold." When the Dutch expelled the
Portuguese in the middle of the seventeenth century, they
strove hard to induce the Singalese to adopt the Pieformed
faith. The E.G. priests were banished, E.G. rites were
forbidden on pain of death, and the people were ordered to
become Protestants. No unbaptized person was allowed to
hold any office or to possess land. Before the end of the
Dutch occupation it had been realized that the conversion
of the people was merely nominal, and when pressure was
relaxed the number of the Christians rapidly fell. When
the English gained possession of the island in 1798,
300,000 persons registered themselves as members of the
Dutch Church. Of these a few were intelligent members,
a large number were Eoman Catholics, but the majority were
Buddhists or Hindus. The English Government proclaimed
religious toleration, but did nothing to teach or evangelize
10

146 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

the people. As a result of the religious liberty which they
established, a number of the Singalese declared themselves
to be Roman Catholics and a larger number claimed to be
Hindus or Buddhists.1

The first Protestant missionary to establish work in
Ceylon in the nineteenth century was James Chater of the
Bapfixf Jf.S. After spending six years in Burma, he reached
Colombo in 1812, where he laboured for sixteen years.
His successor, the Eev. E. Daniel, did much to spread
Christianity in the villages near Colombo. The B.M.S.
has now 4 European missionaries and 1057 baptized
Christians, its chief centres of work being Colombo, Kandy,
and Ratnapura.

In 1814 five Wcslcyan missionaries arrived and started
work at Jaffna and Batticaloa for the Tamils, and at
Matara and Galle for the Singalese. The mission proved
discouraging in its early years, but afterwards maintained
a steady growth. In 1842 work was started among the
savage Veddahs. The W.M.S. has training colleges at
Colombo and Galle and a large number of day and board-
ing schools in various parts of Ceylon. In 1913 the
number of European missionaries was 26 and of communi-
cants 6186.

In 1816 four missionaries belonging to the A. B.C. I. M.
arrived, and in the following year started work at Jaffna.
The work of this society, which has since been developed,
has been concentrated in this district. A special feature
of the mission, especially in its earlier days, has been the
establishment of missionary schools. The greater part of
its work has been handed over to Singalese, and but little
evangelistic work is now being done. In 1912 it had
a staff of 3 American missionaries, and its communicants
numbered 2170.

In 1818 four missionaries sent by the C.M.S. landed
in Ceylon and, like their predecessors, received a warm
welcome from the Governor, Sir Robert Brownrigg. They

1 For a further reference to the relapse of the Protestant Christians in
Ceylon, see p. 20.

CEYLON 147

began work among the Tamils at Jaffna and among the
Singalese at Kandy. The mission to the Tamil coolies in
the north has for many years received a large amount of
financial support from the English planters, who have
learnt to appreciate its value. The college at Kandy, of
which the Eev. A. G-. Fraser is the Principal, is a " red-
hot centre " of missionary life and enthusiasm, and seems
likely to exercise a far-reaching influence upon the prospects
of Christianity in Ceylon. Another important college be-
longing to the mission is situated at Jaffna. In 1913 it
had 20 European missionaries and 5097 communicants.

The first missionary supported by the S.P.Gr. was
stationed at Colombo in 1840, and was transferred to
Matara in the south in the following year. A large part
of the work which this society has helped to develop has
been done in close conjunction with Government chaplains
or with the diocesan clergy. The centre of its educational
work is St. Thomas' College, Colombo, which has recently
been rebuilt on a new site. It is one of the leading
educational institutions in Ceylon.

In 1845 the first Anglican Bishop of Colombo (Dr.
Chapman) was appointed.

The words which one of the C.M.S. missionaries wrote
in 1868, on the occasion of the jubilee commemoration of
the C.M.S. Mission in Ceylon, apply to the work of all the
existing societies. He wrote :

" A more arduous task, a more trying field of labour, it
would be difficult to imagine. . . . Pure Buddhists and
Hindus are tenfold more accessible than are the thousands
of relapsed and false professors of Christianity. . . . The
tradition preserved in native families of the fact that their
forefathers were once Christians and afterwards returned to
Buddhism is naturally regarded by them as a proof of the
superiority of the latter religion ; whilst the sight of churches,
built by the Dutch but now gone to ruin, adds strength to
the belief that Christianity is an upstart religion which has
no vitality, and which, if unsupported by the ruling powers,
cannot stand before their own venerated system." 1

1 History of the C.M.S., i. 218.

148

HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

During the years which have elapsed since these words
were written, Christianity has made considerable progress,
but the missionaries have not yet got rid of the handicap
created by the religious history of the past centuries.

Other societies at work in Ceylon are the Salvation
Army, which commenced work in 1882, and the Friends'
Foreign Mission Association, which began in 1896.

There are five E.G. dioceses in Ceylon — Colombo, Kandy,
Galle, Trincomalee, and Jaffna. The missions in the
dioceses of Colombo and Jaffna are conducted by the
Oblates of the Blessed Virgin Mary, those in Galle and
Trincomalee by the Jesuits, and those in Kandy by the
Silvestrine Benedictines. The staff includes 173 European
and 67 native priests. The European priests are also
engaged in ministering to European residents. The number
of E.C. Christians, according to the latest K.C. returns, is
345,628. These figures include about 1300 Europeans and
12,500 Burghers (i.e. Dutch half-castes).

The Jesuits are in charge of the seminary at Kandy,
which was established in 1893 for the training of native
priests.

The population of Ceylon (excluding the military),
according to the census of 1911, is 4,105,535. The
following table gives the religious profession of the inhabit-
ants as shown by the last four census returns : —

TOTAL POPULATION (INCLUDING EUROPEANS).

1881,

1891.

1901.

1911.

Christians

267,977

302,127

349,239

409,168

Buddhists

1,698,070

1,877,043

2,141,404

2,474,270

Hindus .

593,630

615,932

826,826

932,696

Mohammedans

197,775

211,995

246,118

283,582

Of the total Christian population of 409,000, 239,000
were low-country Singalese, 6000 Kaudyan Siugalese,

CEYLON 149

86,000 Ceylon Tamils, 41,000 Indian Tamils, 7470
Europeans, and 26,454 Burghers.

The Anglican Christians (who included 4983 Europeans
and 7299 Burghers) numbered 41,095 ; the Wesleyans
(who included 1977 Burghers and 310 Europeans)
numbered 17,323; the Presbyterians (who included 663
Europeans and 2684 Burghers) numbered 3546 ; Baptists,
3306 ; Congregationalists, 2978; Salvation Army, 1042.

The figures belonging to the different denominations

O o o

given in these census returns include adherents as well as
baptized Christians.

During the decade 1901—11 the percentage of increase
in the Christian population was 16'8, whilst that of the
total population was 16'5. In the Christian schools in
Ceylon, 54,967 scholars are in charge of Roman Catholics,
32,713 of Anglicans, and 29,192 of Wesleyans. The per-
centage of literates — i.e. of those who can read — is much
higher both in Ceylon and in Burma than it is in India,
and there are therefore greater opportunities for extend-
ing missionary influence by the circulation of Christian
literature.

One result of the progress of Christian missions during
recent years has been that the Buddhists, who include the
majority of the inhabitants, have recently awakened to
the fact that Christianity is a force to be feared, and
therefore deserving of active opposition. In an article
entitled "The Buddhist Revival in Ceylon,"1 Mr.
Ekanayake, who is himself a Siugalese Christian, describes
the remarkable efforts which have been made by the
Buddhists in different parts of Ceylon to establish schools
and to organize lectures and addresses in order to
counteract the spread of Christian influences. He writes :

" Work among children, which was entirely unknown in
Buddhist circles, whether in the earliest or in the latest
days of Buddhism, is being vigorously carried on. Catechism,
Sunday schools, religious instruction in day schools, the
teaching of Buddhist stanzas to school children, and their

1 The East <md The West, July 1904,

150 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

processions to temples on festival days, are noteworthy
features of work amongst children."

Unfortunately, it does not appear that this revival of
Buddhism is accompanied by any serious effort to bring
the debased form of this religion which is found in Ceylon
up to its original standard or ideals.

"What is most disappointing," writes Mr. Ekanayake,
" is that in spite of all this activity there is no attempt
made to purify Buddhism of its corruptions . . . the
worship of trees, relics, and images still takes place . . .
devil worship has not been denounced, but still goes on,
though it is contrary to the principles of Buddhism. Caste,
which the teaching of Buddhism denounces, is strongly
upheld in Buddhist circles."

From the missionary standpoint this attempt to
revivify Buddhism is perhaps the most encouraging
feature of the present situation. The fact that the re-
vival itself is, so to speak, on the surface, and that it is
doing little to raise the religious and moral standards of
the people, suggests that it is not likely to interfere for
long with the progress of Christian missions.

VI

BURMA.

IN 1603 Felipe de Brito, a Portuguese adventurer, estab-
lished himself as Governor of Syriarn near Kangoon. He
built a church at Syriam and began to destroy the
Buddhist pagodas and to force the Buddhists to become
Christians. After ten years he was killed by the king
of Ava, and his wife and most of the Portuguese at
Syriam were taken as slaves to Ava. Their descendants
constitute the bulk of the E.G. population in that part of
the country to-day. In 1692, the first missionary priests
of the Society of Foreign Missions at Paris reached Pegu.
In the following year they were arrested by order of the
king, exposed naked to the bites of mosquitoes, and then
sewn up in sacks and thrown into the Pegu Paver. In
1721 two more priests arrived, who were followed by
others.

During the next forty years a bishop and several
priests were murdered, including Father Angelo, who was
"a skilled doctor," but the work continued. By 1800
there were two E.G. churches in Eangoon and 3000
Christians, but in 1824, on the outbreak of the first
Burmese War, the two churches were destroyed. In 1857
King Mindon helped the E.G. priests in Mandalay to
build a church and a mission house. Soon after this the
E.G. mission work in Burma was handed over to the
Foreign Mission Society of Paris, and Father Bigandet,
who had already been a missionary for fourteen years, was
consecrated as bishop. He became one of the chief
authorities on the language and religion of the Burmese.

'51

152 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

The Christian Brothers started work at Moulrnein in 1859
and at Kangoon in 1861. In 1867 the Milan Society for
Foreign Missions took charge of the work at Toungoo and
in East Burma. The Eoman Catholics have virtually
abandoned direct evangelistic work amongst the Burmese,
the bulk of their adherents in Burma being Tamils, Pwo-
Karens, and Eurasians. They have also done good work
amongst the Chinese immigrants. During the decade
1901-11 their increase in Burma was at the rate of
62 per cent., and the total number of their converts in
1911 was 50,770. They have 3 bishops and over 200
European priests, monks, and nuns. The Eev. W. C.
Purser of the S.P.G. Mission writes :

"The Eoman priests have won the admiration of the
European residents by the devotion of their lives. Few
return to Europe after coming out to the East, and the
missionary priests live right among the natives. The
educational and social work of the Eoman Catholics is
beyond praise. St. Paul's School, Eangoon, is one of the
largest and best equipped boys' schools in the East, and is
staffed by the ' Teaching Brothers,' who are trained lay
teachers and give their labour free. It is the wonderful
organization of the Eoman Church, as shown by this brother-
hood of teachers, that enables it to compete successfully
with other Christian bodies in India, with the result that
many Anglican and Nonconformist children are being
educated in E.C. schools."1

Baptist Missions.

In 1806 five students sat beneath the shelter of a
haystack in Williamstown, Massachusetts, discussing the
possibility of evangelizing the world. Mills, ene of their
number, suddenly cried out, " We can if we will," and the
cry was taken up and repeated by his four companions.
Five years later Adouiram Judson joined this company,
each member of which was pledged to give up all and dare
all in order that they might spread the Kingdom of Christ
throughout the world.

1 Missions in Burma, p. 93.

BURMA 153

In 1810 Judson, with three others, offered himself for
missionary work to the General Association of the Congre-
gational Church, and as a result the American Board for
Foreign Missions was founded. After being ordained for
the Congregational Church he and his companions eventu-
ally reached Calcutta in 1812, where soon afterwards
he became a Baptist. The East India Company having
refused him permission to work in India, he arrived on
July 13, 1813, at Eangoou, where one of the Careys had
already (1807) begun missionary work. When the American
Baptists heard of Judson's change of views, they determined
to support him, and founded the society which is now
known as the American Baptist Missionary Union. There-
upon the English missionaries in Eangoon handed over
their work to this society. At the end of seven years
Judson had baptized 10 Burmese converts.

On the outbreak of the Burmese war with England
in 1823, he and his companion, a medical missionary
named Price, were thrown into prison, and for twenty-one
months endured the greatest hardships. When the war
was over, and after the death of his first wife (he married
three times), he lived the life of a hermit, and on one
occasion fasted for forty days in the jungle. In 1828
Mr. Boardman baptized the first convert among the
Karens — Ko Tha Byu — who became an apostle to his
fellow-countrymen.

Meanwhile Judson gave himself up to the task of
translating the Bible into Burmese. He died in 1850.
Judson believed in peregrinating as opposed to concentrated
mission work, and was doubtful as to the value of mission-
ary schools. His legacy to those who came after him was
the inspiration of a devoted life and the translation of the
Bible into Burmese.

In 1852 there were 62 missionaries, male and female,
and 267 Burmese and 7750 Karen Christians belonging
to the A.B.M. The number of baptized members belong-
ing to this mission in 1911 were: Burmese, 3182;
Karens, 54,799; Kachius, 371; Chins, 1011; Slums,

154 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

338 ; Takings, 308 ; Muhsos, 9343 ; Tamils, 465 ; others,
579 — making a total of 70,396. The total number of
Christian adherents belonging to the mission was 120,549.
There are about 200 American missionaries (including
wives) and 2200 native workers, and the contributions of
the native congregations amount to over £20,000 per
annum. Of the 976 churches connected with this mission,
717 are self-supporting. Two institutions connected with
the mission deserve special notice :

1. The Baptist College at Eangoon, which is affiliated
to Calcutta University. Its new buildings were opened in
1909 in memory of Dr. Gushing, a former Principal and
the translator of the Bible into the Shan language.

2. The theological seminary at Insein, established in
1845, where Karens, Burmese, Chins, and others are
trained to become evangelists. It has 150 students in
residence.

The American Methodist Episcopal Mission has been
represented in Lower Burma since 1878. For many years
its missionaries confined themselves to work amongst
Europeans, but they are now doing missionary work as
well.

In Upper Burma the English Wesleyan Methodists
have been at work since 1885. They help to support a
home for lepers which has accommodation for 250 lepers.

The Y.M.C.A. has a large organization in Eangoon, but
its work is chiefly amongst Europeans.

Anglican Missions.

At the close of the second Burmese war in 1853 the
Anglican chaplain at Moulmein, supported by English
civilians, began to organize missionary work. In 1854
the S.P.Gr. sent a Eurasian from Calcutta to assist him,
and in 1859 they sent the Eev. A. Shears from England.
In 1860, Mr. J. E. Marks (now Eev. Dr. Marks), a trained
schoolmaster, arrived, who enlarged and developed the
school which had been started. In 1863 Mr. Marks was

BURMA 155

ordained and transferred to Eangoon, where he started a
school which was afterwards known as St. John's College,
which stands in 13 acres of laud and has now nearly 700
boys, 190 of whom are boarders.

In 1867 Mr. Marks visited Maudalay on the invitation
of the king, and in 1869 he opened a school which had
been built at the king's expense, and which included
amongst its scholars nine of the royal princes. The king
also built a church, to which Queen Victoria gave a font,
and which was consecrated by the Bishop of Calcutta in
1873.

In 1863 difficulties arose between some of the A.B.M.
missionaries amongst the Karens and their converts, and
in 1870 the wife of the founder of the Karen Mission
suggested handing over to the Anglican Church 6000
converts together with a number of mission schools and
other property. The Eev. J. Trew, whom the Bishop of
Calcutta deputed to make inquiries, advised that the offer
should be refused and that the members of the A.B.M.
should be left to settle the dispute among themselves.
In 1873 a mission station for work amongst Burmese
was opened at Toungoo. In 1875, the dispute among the
members of the A.B.M. still continuing, and some of the
Karen Christians having drifted back into heathenism,
the Anglican Mission at Toungoo undertook the care of the
Karen Christians who had finally separated themselves
from the A.B.M. In 1877 the bishopric of Eangoon was
constituted, and in the following year the first four Karen
clergy were ordained.

On the succession of KingThibaw in 1878, the mission
at Mandalay was broken up, and the church was converted
into a state lottery office. In 1885 the mission was
re-started, after the annexation of Upper Burma by the
English Government, by the Eev. James Colbeck, a most
capable missionary and a man of saintly character. He
died in 1888, after fifteen years of unbroken service in
Burma. In 1895 Dr. Marks was compelled to return to
England after thirty-five years of strenuous work in the

156 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

cause of Burmese education. On the resignation of Bishop
Strachan, after an episcopate of twenty years, the Eev. A.
M. Knight was consecrated as third bishop of Rangoon in
1903. During the six years which followed, before he
was forced by ill-health to resign, he did much to
strengthen and develop the work of the Anglican missions,
and on his return to England he became the Warden of
St. Augustine's Missionary College at Canterbury.

A Missionary Brotherhood, supported by funds collected
in the diocese of Winchester, started work amongst Burmese
in Mandalay in 1904, and a community of women was
organized in 1909. The first Head of the Brotherhood

O

was the Eev. R. S. Fyffe, who became Bishop of Rangoon
in 1910.

The S.P.G., besides supporting work amongst the
Burmese and Karens, carries on work amongst Tamil,
Telugu, and Chinese immigrants at Rangoon, Moulmein,
Toungoo, and Mandalay, and has a small mission amongst
the Chins. Connected with the Anglican Mission there
are 16 ordained native missionaries, of whom 10 are
Karens, 3 Burmese, and 3 Tamils.

Its most important institutions are St. John's College
for boys, and St. Mary's High and Normal Schools for girls
in Rangoon. It has also some work at Car Nicobar, one
of the group of islands south of the Andamans, which are
in the diocese of Rangoon. The total number of baptized
Christians connected with the Anglican Mission is about
10,000.

Of the converts in Burma connected with all the
Christian missions, by far the largest proportion have been
won from amongst animists who had not previously
embraced Buddhism. But although the profession of
Buddhism renders the Burmese difficult for the Christian
missionary to approach, the Burmese are far from being
consistent Buddhists.

No picture could be more ideal than that of Burmese
Buddhism depicted in the book entitled The Soul of a
People. We are loth to admit the truth, which is that

BURMA 157

the Buddhism described by Mr. Fielding Hall exists
only in the imagination of the writer. Over against the
poetical, but wholly misleading, descriptions of Mr. Hall
we have to set the matter-of-fact, but true, description by
Mr. C. Lowis in the official Census Eeport for India and
Burma. He speaks of

" the fact — now largely recognized — that the Buddhism
of the people is of the lips only, and that inwardly
in their hearts the bulk of them are still swayed by
the ingrained tendencies of their Shamanistic forefathers—
in a word, are, at bottom, animists pure and simple. . . .
The Burman has added to his animism just so much
of Buddhism as suits him, and with infantile inconsequence
draws solace from each of them in turn. I know of no
better definition of the religion of the great bulk of the
people of the province than that given by Mr. Eales in
his 1891 Census Eeport : ' a thin veneer of philosophy laid
over the main structure of Shamanistic belief.' The facts
are here exactly expressed. Animism supplies the solid
constituents that hold the faith together, Buddhism the
superficial polish. Far be it from me to underrate the
value of that philosophic veneer. It has done all that a
polish can do to smooth, to beautify, and to brighten ; but
to the end of time it will never be more than a polish. In
the hour of great heart-searching it is profitless. It is then
that the Burman falls back upon his primeval beliefs. Let
but the veneer be scratched, the Burman stands forth an
animist confessed." l

A more hopeful view of the possible developments
of Burmese Buddhism was expressed by Dr. Tilbe, an
American missionary working in Burma. Speaking at a
recent Conference in America of the change which has
taken place during recent years in Burmese Buddhism,
he said :

"This whole country of Burma is absolutely different from
what it was not so very long ago. The people are different,
the religion is different. Twenty- five years ago the term
' Buddhism ' meant the Buddhism of the books, the Buddhism
of the priesthood. To-day, Buddhism is still a religious term,

1 Census Eepcn-t, 1901, vol. i. p. 35.

158 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

but the thing itself is vastly different from what it was twenty-
five years ago. At that time, when I spoke of God, I had to
prove the existence of God in a way that would satisfy those
people. When I spoke then of man having a soul, almost
every man in my congregation denied it. To-day, I preach
everywhere, appealing to their own belief in God, appeal-
ing to their own belief in the human soul : and I find
unanimous assent. Christian teaching, Christian tracts,
Christian schools have modified the belief in Buddhism
until to-day it is not the Buddhism of the books, not the
Buddhism of the priesthood." l

One of the most remarkable of the Burmese converts
to Christianity is a man named Mauug Tha Dun, who
lived in the forest for thirteen years the life of a Buddhist
hermit. Without having received any Christian instruc-
tion, or having come into contact with a European
missionary, he came to believe that much of the teach-
ing of modern Buddhism was false and that there was
a Supreme God who could be thought of as the great
Father, and he began to preach this truth in the sur-
rounding villages. He at length came into contact with
the Kev. T. Ellis, an Anglican missionary at Kemmendine,
and, after long and careful preparation, was baptized in
1911. Since his baptism he has lived the life of an
ascetic and has occupied his time partly in meditation and
partly in travelling from village to village in districts
where he was previously known, in order to preach the
faith of Christ to his former disciples and followers. Of
these, 150 have been baptized as the result of his efforts,
and the number of those who have been influenced by
him, but have not yet been baptized, may be counted by
thousands. Of the hermit and his followers the Rev.
G. Whitehead writes :

" I am more and more struck with the self-denying life
and the earnestness of the hermit, and with the beauty
of character reflected in the face of him and of quite a

1 Students and the World-wide Expansion of Christianity. Report of a
Coufurence at Kansas City, 1914, p. 270.

BURMA 159

number of his followers. The hermit himself is so patient
and unselfish, humble and pure-minded, earnest and devout,
full of benevolence towards all men, anxious to lead his
brethren into the right way, and unwearied in service, that
it is a great joy to be with him."

In the discovery and the conversion of men like
Maung Tha Dun lies the hope of interpreting Christ to
the Burmese.

VII.
CHINA.

THE story of Christian Missions in China may be con-
sidered under five heads: 1. The influence exerted by
Christian teachers upon the development of Chinese
Buddhism, prior to the arrival in China "of the Nestorian
missionaries. 2. The Nestorian Missions of the fifth and
following centuries. 3. The Franciscan Missions in the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. 4. The Jesuit and
other Eoman Missions from the sixteenth to the end of
the eighteenth century. 5. Modern Missions to China
from the beginning of the nineteenth century.

I. The influence of Christianity on Northern

Buddhism.

Any inquiry into the history of Christian Missions
in China, if it is to take account of the conditions under
which these missions have been carried on, must include
a reference to the influence which Christian teaching
may have exerted in China before the Christian faith was
definitely preached there. Northern Buddhism, that is,
roughly speaking, the Buddhism of China and Japan,
differs so fundamentally from the southern Buddhism,
which is now represented in Ceylon and Burma, that
only by a stretch of language can the two be called
one religion. The differences that exist between them
are more fundamental than those that exist between

Christianity and Islam. How then was Indian Buddhism

1 60

CHINA 1G1

transformed, and under what influences ? One answer
appears to be that northern Buddhism was indebted for
part of its distinctive teaching first to Gnostic teachers of
the first and second centuries, and, later on, to the teaching
of Manicheism.

Before we attempt to suggest how this debt may have
been incurred, it is well to recall the essential difference
between northern and southern Buddhism. The latter,
as represented in Ceylon, Burma (and apparently in Tibet),
knows nothing of a personal God, or of salvation to be
gained as a gift from God or as the result of faith
in Him. It teaches that without expecting to receive
divine, or external, help man should aim at securing
salvation by accumulating merit. The salvation which,
after countless rebirths on this earth, he may hope to
secure will result in his individual life and consciousness
being merged in universal life and, in so far as the ex-
pression has a definite meaning, in universal conscious-
ness.

If by northern Buddhism we mean the Buddhism
embodied in The Awakening of Faith and The Lotus
Scripture^ which are accepted by Chinese Buddhists, and
the Buddhism of the Amida sects and the Pure Land
School in Japan, we may claim for northern Buddhism a
belief in a personal God who is moved with love towards
men, and in a salvation which includes personal immortality
to be won not by the accumulation of merit but by faith
in God.

The teaching of the Amida sects and the Pure Land
School, which include more than half the population of
Japan, go far beyond this.

1 The Awakening of Faith, the Chinese translation of which was made
by the Buddhist missionary Paramartha during the first half of the sixth
century, and which is about the size of the Gospel of St. Mark, is said to
rank fifth amongst the religious books of the world which have the largest
number of adherents, i.e. after the Bible, the Koran, the Confucian Classics
and the Vedas. The Lotus Scripture, which is the most popular of all the
Buddhist scriptures in Japan, existed before A.D. 250, and was translated
into Chinese about the end of the third century.
II

162 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

According to the doctrine accepted by the Amida and
Pure Land sects, " Amida is without beginning and without
end : all love, wisdom, benevolence and power. In ages
incalculably remote he appeared in various forms among
men, all his incarnations being to bring salvation to man-
kind. In his last incarnation he registered a vow that,
should the perfect consummation of the Buddhahood ever
be in his power, he would not accept deliverance unless
such deliverance should also mean the salvation of man-
kind. ... To grasp the salvation wrought out for man by
Amida . . .r nothing is needed but faith— no works of the
law, no austerities, penances, no repentance, nothing but
faith." * V

Whilst it is impossible to maintain that this teaching,
or the teaching of those Buddhists in China to whom
reference has been made, is a natural development of the
teaching of southern Buddhism, it is hard to suggest
any source from which the distinctive doctrines of this
form of Buddhism could have been derived other than
Christianity or the early heretical sects which had accepted
part of the Christian faith. The two sects which were in
touch with Christian thought, and which might have
exerted influence upon Buddhist teachers in very early
times, are the Gnostics and the Maniehees. A book en-
titled Pistis Sophia, which is a Gnostic Gospel and pro-
fesses to give in the words of Jesus an exposition of the
chief doctrines of Gnosticism, was discovered by ^chwartze
in 1851 among the Coptic MSS. contained in the British
Museum. The original, which was apparently written in
Greek, dates from the second century and may have been
written by Valentinus. The resemblances which can be
traced between the teaching of the Pistis Sophia and that
of the Amida sects of Japan are so striking as to make it
difficult to doubt that Egyptian Gnosticism either influenced,
or was influenced by, Buddhism. The latter alternative
is apparently quite inadmissible. Professor Lloyd has
shown that it is far from being impossible that Gnostic
1 The Creed of Half Japan, by Arthur Lloyd, pp 266-8.

CHINA 163

teaching may have reached Japan via Southern India at a
very early date.1

We cannot give even a summary of the evidence which
Professor Lloyd and others have adduced in proof of the
theory that Chinese Buddhism was influenced by Chris-
tianity, represented in a distorted form by early Gnostic and
Manichee teachers, but no careful student can lightly

>c" """

disregard such evidence.

An interesting discovery was made in China m 1908
which tends to support the theory that Manjxjlieism
exerted a widespread influence in China in very early times.
In 1908 there was found in a cave in Tunhuang in the
province of Kansu, a large number of' MSS7which have
been in part deciphered by MM. Chavannes and Pelliot.2
The cave had been sealed up for many centuries (from
1035 A.D.). One of the MSS. is a Chinese translation
of two short Manichean treatises.3 The discovery of
this book affords evidence that Manichean teaching was
represented in China in or about the eighth century.4
Another MS. found in the same cave consists of a
hymn addressed to the Holy Trinity entitled " A hymn
by which to obtain salvation to the Three majestic Ones of
the Illustrious Religion." The hymn consists of 309 words
divided into eleven stanzas of four lines each, and includes a
list of persons and books venerated by Christians. This
recent discovery confir-ms and supplements the information
supplied by the famous stone* discovered at Hsianfu, to
which we shall have occasion to refer.

'See "Gnosticism and Early Christianity in Egypt," by P. I. Scott-
Moncrieff, Church Quarterly Review, October 1909 ; "Gnosticism in Japan,"
by A. Lloyd, in The East and The West, April 1910 ; and The New Testament
of Higher Buddhism, by Timothy Richard.

2 Cf. Un traite manichccn rctrome en Chine, traduit et annote par
Chavannes et Pelliot, Paris, 1912 ; of. also "An Ancient Chinese Christian
Document," in the Church Missionary Review for October 1912, by A. C.
Moule.

3 The actual title of the Chinese MS. is missing.

4 In A.D. 981 the Chinese traveller Wang Yent? spoke of the existence
of Manicheun temples in the neighbourhood of Tourfau.

164 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

II. The Nestorian Mission.

There is no certain proof that a mission connected
with any branch of the Christian Church reached China
prior to the arrival of the Nestorian missionaries.

It is true that a fourteenth-century tradition mentioned
by Nicholas Trigault (1615) states that St. Thomas, after
preaching the gospel in South India, preached and founded
Christian churches in China, but the tradition has no
historic value.. The earliest reference of any value to the

_j * (

existence of Christianity in China is that of Arnobius, who
wrote about A.D. 300. He says : " The work done in India,
among the Seres, Persians and Medes may be counted and
come in for the purpose of reckoning." l

If by Seres we are te^under&tand Chinese, the state-
ment would show that (Arnobiusy believed that Christian
missionary work amongs^Chinese was in existence
there at the time when he wrote. It is difficult to say
what value can be attached to this statement. We are on
surer ground when we come to speak of the Nestoriau
Mission.

At the Council of Ephesus held in A.D. 431, Nestorius,
who was then Patriarch of Constantinople, was condemned
as a heretic and banished beyond the frontiers of the
Eoman Empire. His banishment, which was apparently jthe
result of a serious misunderstanding of hjs^leacliiiio^was the
immediate ^ause or a great extension of Christian Missions
throughout the Far Jiast. A~sch*ool was founded at Edessa
(the modern Ourfa) which became a centre for missionary
expansion, and owing to the activity of the followers of
Nestorius the Christian faith was spread over a great part
of Central Asia. *

Many archbishoprics or metropolitical sees were eventu-

1 Adversus Gentes, Leyden, 1651, lib. ii. p. 50, quoted in the Book of
Governors, i. p. 115, note 2. The Book of Governors is the Historia
MoiMstica of Thomas, Bishop of Marga, written in Syriac, c. 840, printed with
English translation and notes by Dr. Budge, 1893. Bishop Thomas was
secretary to Mar Abraham, the Patriarch, between 832 and 840.

CHINA 165

ally established, of which two were at Cabul and Can\baluc
(Peking). Other metropolitical sees were at Elam, Nisibis,
Bethg^rma, and Carach in Persia; at Haiti van^ or Hajach
on the confines of Media ; at Mara in Ko^san ; at Kara
in Caniboya ; at Da\j}en, Sam^cand, and Marav^lnabar ;
and at TanUgt or Tanjgut — the modern province of Kansu.1
The canon of Theodore, Bishop of Edessa in 800 A.D.,
refers to " Metropolitans of China. India, and Persia, of
the MerWtes of Siam, of the Baziojjes, of the Haribps, of
Samarcarld, which are distant, and which by reason of the
infesteol mountains and turbulent sea are prevented from
attending the four-yearly convocations with the catholicos,
and who therefore are to send their reports every six
years." 2

Our chief source of information in regard to the work
of this mission is the famous Nestorian Stone which was
inscribed at Hsianfu in the eighth century, and was
buried during the great persecution of A.D. 845, to be
rediscovered by Chinese workmen in 1625, and roofed
over by a patriotic Chinese in 1859. The inscription
refers to the work accomplished by one or more Syrian
monks who arrived at Hsianfu in A.D. 635. It throws so
much interesting light upon the work of the Nestorian
missionaries that it is worth while to describe it in some
detail. The inscription is in Chinese, the names of the
clergy being given for the most part in Chinese and Syriac.
The inscription, which is entitled, " Monument commemor-
ating the propagation of the noble law of Tach'in (the
Eoman Empire) in the Middle Kingdom," states : It is
handed down by Chingching, priest of the Tach'iu
monastery (called in Syriac Adam, Priest and Chorepiscopos
and Papas of China), that there is one Alaha, Three in
One, the unoriginated true Lord. Then follows the story
of creation, an account of Man, of Satan, and the rise of

1 See Assemani, Bibliotheca Orientalis, vol. iii. This is a collection of
Syriac and other MSS. published in Rome, 1719-28. The complete list of
Nestorian dioceses given by Assemani (vol. iii. pt. ii.) occupies eighty
folio pages.

2 Quoted in The Greek and Eastern Churches, by W. F. Adeney, p. 534 f.

166 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

idolatry. The Triune Alaha divided His Godhead, and
Messiah appeared. Angels proclaimed Him ; a Virgin
bore Him in Tach'in ; a bright star announced His birth ;
Persians visited Him. He left twenty-seven books of a
New Testament, and baptism. His ministers turn to the
east at prayer and wear beards as a sign that they
maintain outward relationships, shaving their crowns.
They pray for the living and the dead ; they have the
weekly offering ; they have no slaves, no wealth, but they
promote harmony. In the days of T'ai Tsung (627—650),
Alop^n brought the Scriptures and translated them into
Chinese. He built a monastery for twenty-one monks.
Religion spread through ten provinces (650—683).
Monasteries .filled a hundred cities (6J)8-699). But
Buddhists demded it. The Emperor Tai Tsung^GS-TSO)
every year on the day of the ]\ativit^~ presented divine
incense to proclaim the perfected work, and offered a royal
feast to do honour to the Christian congregation. Chien-
chuug (780-784) helps us. Priest Issu restored the old
monasteries and doubled the size of the churches. Erected
(781) in the days of Henan Ishu, the Catholicos (ob.
780), by JazedWizid, Priest and Chorep\is£opos of Knmdan

.- — — j — __^___^__ _

(Hsiau) by the disposition of our Saviour, and preaching
of our fathers to the Kings of the Chinese.

Then follow names, Lingpao, Adam, HsiftgJ/ung,
Sabranisjiu, etc., of Kunldan and oa^ag (China).1

As suggestive of the possible influence exerted upon
the development of Chinese Buddhism, we. may note that
Chingcning, the author of this inscription, helped an
Indian Buddhist missionary to translate a Buddhist sutra
into Chinese.

We have already referred to the references to the
Nestorian Mission contained in the Christian MS. found
in the cave at Tuuouang. The following references, which
occur in the writings of contemporary Chinese writers, are
deserving of special notice : —

1 A rubbing of the stone, the lettering of which is easily decipherable,
can be seen at the S.P.G. Mission House, Westminster.

CHINA 167

"Allusions to the Nestorian Mission in Chinese Writings.
— In the seventh month (August 15 to September 12)
of the twelfth of the Chcngkuan years (A.D. 0:38) a decree
was made saying : Teaching has no immutable name, holy
men have no unchanging method. Eeligions are founded
to suit (respectively, different) lands, that all the masses
of men may be saved. Alopen, a Persian monk, bringing
the religion of the Scriptures irom far, has come to offer it
at the chief metropolis. The meaning of his religion has
been carefully examined : it is mysterious, wonderful,
calm ; it fixes the essentials of life and perfection ; it is
the salvation of living beings, it is the wealth of men.
It is right that it should spread through the Empire.
Therefore let the ministers build a monastery in the
Iniug quarter, and let twenty-one men be duly admitted
as monks.1

" In the ninth month (September 30 to October 29)
of the fourth of the T'ienpao years (A.D. 745) a decree was
made saying : It is long since (the teachers of) the religion
of the Scriptures of Persia, starting from Syria, coming to
preach and practise, spread through the Middle Kingdom.
When they first built monasteries we gave them in conse-
quence (of their supposed origin) the name (of Persian).
In order that men may know their (real) origin, the
Monasteries of Persia at the two capitals are to be changed
to Monasteries of Syria. Let those (monasteries) also which
are established in all the Prefectures and Districts observe
this."2

The next decree suggests alike the widespread influence
of the Nestoriau Mission and the development of official
government opposition to its claims :

" As to the monks and nuns who come under the head
of aliens, making known the religious of other countries,
we decree that over 3000 Syrians and Muhufu return to
lay life and cease to confound our native customs." 3

1 Tang hui yao (ed. 1884, first published A.D. 960), xlix. fol. 10.
Chinese text in Varietis Sinolocjiqvcs, No. 12, p. 376.

2 T'any hui yao, xlix. fol. 10, 11 ; Hsihsitsung, vii. fol. 22. Text in
VariiUs Sinologiques, No. 12, p. 376 ; translation, p. 255. There seem to
have been "Persian" if not "Syrian" monasteries of other creeds besides
the Christian.

3 Vartitts Sinologiques, No. 12, p. 378. The words come in a decree
dated A.D. 845.

168 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

"When Wu Tsung (A.D. 840-846) was on the throne,
he suppressed the Buddhist religion, destroying in the
Empire 4600 monasteries and 40,000 lesser establishments.
Monks and nuns to the number of 265,000 were enrolled
as ordinary subjects, with their slaves, 150,000 ; and many
thousand myriad ctiing of land were confiscated ; Syrians
(Tach'in) and Muhuyao over two thousand. In the chief
metropolis and the eastern metropolis two monasteries
were left in each main street, with thirty monks in each
monastery. In the provinces, monks were left in (monas-
teries of) three grades, with a limit of twenty men (in the
largest houses). . . ."1

"Long ago some foreigners built a monastery here
(Chengtu) for a Syrian monastery. The ten divisions of
the gate-tower all had blinds made of strings of pearls and
blue jade. Later it was destroyed and fell to the ground.
To this day the foundations remain, and every time there
is heavy rain, people (living) behind and in front (of the
site) pick up quantities of pearls, sheshe, gold, blue jade and
different things." 2

" Among the different foreigners who have come there
are the Moni (Manichees), the Tach'in (Nestorians) and the
Hsienshen (Zoroastrians). All the monasteries of these
three (sorts of) foreigners in the Empire are not enough to
equal the number of the Buddhists in one small district." 3

Of the subsequent development of the Nestoriau
Mission in China hardly anything is known.

Abou'l Faradj, writing in A.D. 987, speaks of having
met a Christian who had travelled extensively in China,
and who declared that "there was not a Christian then left
in the country and that the Church buildings had been
destroyed.4

Apart" from references to the existence of Syrian
monasteries at Hsian in 1076 and at Chengtu at about
the same date, Chinese contemporary writers make hardly
a single allusion to Christianity between the decree of

1 Vartttts Sinologiqucs, No. 12, p. 376 f.

2 Chinese work quoted by A. C. Moule, to whom it was communicated
by P. Pelliot.

3 Varittte Sinoloyiqucs, No. 12, p. 394.

4 See Les Influences Iraniennes en Asie centralc et en extreme-orient, par
Paul Pelliot, Paris, 1912, p. 15.

CHINA 160

845 and the coming of the Franciscan Mission in the
thirteenth century. The following is a quotation from
Cathay and the Way Thither, translated from a book written
in the fourteenth century :—

" Concerning the Schisn^atics or Nestorian Christians who
dwell in that country. — In the said city of Cambaluc
there is a manner of schismatic Christians whom they
call Nestorians. They follow the manner and fashion of
the Greeks, and are not obedient to the Holy Church of
Eome, but follow another sect, and bear great hate to
all Catholic , Christians there who do loyally obey the holy
Church aforesaid. And when the Archbishop .of/ whom
we have been speaking was building those Abbiys of the
Minor Friajjs aforesaid, these Nestorians by night went
to destroy them, and did all the hurt that they were able.
But they dared not do any evil to the said Archbishop,
nor to his friars, nor to other faithful Christians in public
or openly, for that the Emperor did love these and showed
them tokens of his regard.,^

"These Nestorians" are more than 30,000, dwelling in
the said Empire of Cathay, and are passing rich people,
but stand in great fear and awe of the Christians. They
have very handsome and devoutly ordered churches, with
crosses and images in honour of God and the saints. They
hold sundry offices under the said Emperor, and have
great privileges from him ; so that it is believed that if
they would agree and be at one with the Minor Friars
and with the other good Christians who dwell in that
country, they would convert the whole country and the
Emperor likewise to the true faith." 1

In 1725, what is supposed to be a relic of the
Nestorian Christianity in China was discovered in the
shape of a Syrian MS. which contained a large portion
of the Old Testament and a collection of hymns. These
were in the possession of a Chinese Mohammedan.

1 Cathay cmd the Way Thither, vol. i. p. 238. The Latin original is
not extant. The French version is found in the Bibliotheque Nationale at
Paris, MSS. 7500 and 8392, and was printed in the Journal Asiatique, vi.
pp. 57-72. Cf. Cathay, vol. i. pp. 189-190. Yule gives the original date
as circa 1330. The author was John of Cora, who had served under John
of Monte Corvino and was made Archbishop of Sultania in Persia in 1328.
Cf. Ency. Brit., 1910, vol. vi. p. 190.

170 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

III. The Franciscan Missions.

At the Council of Lyons which was held in 1245,
Pope Innocent iv. appealed for a spiritual army which
should be the means of converting the Mongols to Christ.
In j:esponse__to his appeal three Franciscan friars started
on April 16, 1245, and succeeded in penetrating to the
heart of the Mongol territory, but failed to reach China.
A second attempt made a little later met with still less
success. In 1271, Nicolo Polo and his more famous son
Marco visited the Great . Khan, .and after his return in
1295 Marco Polo dictated the well-known story of his travels
in xthe Far East. Meanwhile, in 1289, Pope Nicolas iv.
sent forth John of Monte Corvino with letters addressed
to Kublai, the ruler of Cambaluc 1 (Peking), who after
many adventures in Persia and India reached Cambaluc
in 1294. On his arrival he found the Nestorian Mission
strongly established and bitterly opposed to his Mission.
Thus he writes on January 8, 1305 :

"The Nestorians, certain folk who profess the name
of Christians but who devote sadly from the Christian
religion, have grown so powerful in those parts that they
will not allow a Christian of another rite to have ever
so small a chapel, or "to proclaim any but the Nestorian
doctrine."

A further extract from this letter will give in the

» '. .

fewest words an idea of the work accomplished by Friar
John during the twelve years which- followed his arrival in
China :

" I, indeed, was alone in this pilgrimage and without
confession for eleven years, until there came to me brother
Arnold, a German of the province of Cologne, who
came to me last year. In the city of Khanbalig, where
the king's chief residence is, I have built a church, syhich
I completed six years ago, and I have built a campanile
to it, in which I have put three bells. I have baptized

1 Cambaluc does not appear to have become the capital of Northern
China before the tenth century A.D.

CHINA 171

there up to this time as well as I can estimate about six
thousand persons, and if there had not been those charges
of which I have spoken above, I should have baptized more
than thirty thousand; and I am still often engaged in
baptizing.

" Also I have gradually bought forty boys, the children
of pagan parents, between the age of seven and eleven,
who up to that time had known no religion. These
boys I have baptized, and have taught them Latin
letters and our rite, and have written out thirty psalters
for them, with hymnaries and two breviaries, by rde'ans
of which eleven of the boys already Know our Office,
and form a choir and take their weekly turn of duty
as is done in convents, whether I am there or not ; and
several of them are writing out the psalter and other
necessary books ; and the Lord Emperor delights much in
their singing. I have the bells rung for all the hours, and
with my congregation of babes and sucklings I fulfil the
Divine Office, and we sing by ear because we have no Office
book with the music. I have a comp^etent knowledge of the
language and character which is generally used by the
Tartars ; and I have already translated into that language
and character the whole New Testament and the Psalter,
which I have caused to be written out in their most beauti-
ful script. I understand the language and read and preach,
openly and publicly, in testimony of the Law of Christ." x

On receiving the news contained in this letter Pope
Clement v. nominated John of Monte Corvino as Arch-
bishop of Cambaluc and Primate of the .Far^Easfc, and
dispatched seven friars whom he had consecrated as bishops
with orders to consecrate Friar John as Archbishop. Appar-
ently four of these Jblshops died before reaching China. The
other three arrived and performed the act of consecration in
1308. After this we have very little information in regard
to the work of the Franciscan Mission. Archbishop John
died soon after 1328 and his place was left unfilled for
many years despite the dispatch of a message from the Great
Khan himself, begging that more teachers might be sent.

1 The original of this Latin letter is given in Annales Minorum, ed.
Fonseca, vol. vi. p. 69, and in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, July
1914. For an English translation see The East and The IFcst, April 1904.

172 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Mr. Marshall Broomhall writes :

" One of the grandest opportunities that the Church of
Christ has ever had presented • to it is connected with the
lifetime of Kublai Khan. There are letters still extant,
preserved in the French archives, relating the remarkable
fact that Kublai Khan actually requested the Pope to send
one hundred missionaries to his country, ' to prove by force
of argument to idolaters ._ ami-Other kinds' of folk thatltEe,
law of Christ was best, and that all other religions were
false and naught ; and that if they would prove this, he and
all lender him would become Christians and the Church's
liegeruen.'

" ' What might have been ' is a question that cannot but
rise in the hearts of those who read this extract. The death
of the Pope, however, and faction among the cartHnals, with
the subsequent failure of the two missionaries sent — they
turned back because of the hardships of the way — lost to
Asia an opportunity such as the Church has seldom
had." i

The last authentic reference to the mission mentions
the sending of a mission by Pope Urban v. in 1370, but it
is doubtful whether any of its members reached China.
Meanwhile the tolerant Tartar dynasty had given place to
the intolerant and persecuting Ming dynasty. James jof
Florence, fifth bishop of Zaituu, a" city on the coast three
weeks' journey from Peking, was martyred, together
with certain of his fellow Christians, in 1362, and his
martyrdom is the last fact which we know concerning
the Franciscan missions in China.' If the representation
of Odoric on his tomb in the cathedral at Udiue is true
to life, it would appear that the Franciscan missionaries
were accustomed to wear the dress of the people amongst
whom they worked and to shave their heads in the^Tartar
fashion.

1 The Chinese Empire, p. 8. The quotation made^j)j_Mr._Broomhall is
from a summary of a letter given by Marco Polo, but Dr. George Smith,
who is his authority For 'the statement quoted above (cf. The Conversion of
India, p. 35), was mistaken >n supposing that the letters in the French
archives referred to the request made~Dy~Kublai Khan, see The Book oj
Ser Marco Polo (1903), Up. 13—

CHINA 173

Before going on to refer to the establishment of the
Jesuit missions in China it may be well to say a few
words with regard to the failure of the Nestorian and
Franciscan missions to letfve any permanent traces of
work which was carried on for so long a period and with
so many outward signs of success. Three special reasons
may be suggested to account for the' eventuatTailure of
these missions.

1. In neither case was any serious attempt made to
establish the missions 'on "a democratic basis. After they

•W"'""

had been dispatched from their home base, no financial
help was sent' to them, and" they were_therefore compelled
to be self-supporting. In order to fulfil this requirement
it was considered to be" necessary that they should obtain
support from the_ rulers of the countries to which they
went. " "They did not labour with their own hands, nor
receive support as a rule from their converts, as far as we
know. They went wlth~iettenr of recommendation from
the Pope (or some other potentate), and received support
from the Emperor as forming part of his retinue in some
vague sense, or as the representatives of a friendly foreign
Power. This applies atr~least to the early Nestorians
(635-845) in part and to liEeTFranciscan Mission (1294-
1350). The later Nestorians did engage in trade and
agriculture, and there are" Imperial decrees extant which
refuse exemption from taxes to Christian monks who were
so engaged." l

2. A second reason that may be assigned for the
disappearance of the later Nestorian and Franciscan
converts is to be found in their connection with the ruling
dynasty, the overthrow of_which_involved the overthrow
and persecution of the Christians. The Christians came
to be regarded as foreigners and lost all power of influenc-
ing those who were not already Christians.

3. A third reason is the failure on the part of either
mission to train an effective body of Chinese clergy. For
the early Nestorian Period (635-845) there is no evidence

1 A. C. Moule, The East and Tlie West, October 1914.

174 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

to show whether the Nestorian missionaries included any
Chinese priest, though it is at least possible that some of
the "seventy names on the Hsian monument are those of
Chinese clergy. In the accounts of the later Nestorians,
though there is no mention of the ordination of Chinese,

it is probable that some were ordained. The Franciscan
Mission apparently " took no steps to found a Chinese
ministry. There is only one case on record of a Chinese
bishop, and he was a Chinese who had become a Dominican
monk. Alu, subsequently called Gregory Lopez, came
from the Province of Fukien. He followed the Dominican
preachers to Peking and was imprisoned, and subsequently
banished with them. At Manila he studied Spanish, Latin,
and philosophy. In 1654 he was ordained, being the first
Chinese priest of whom any record exists. In 1674
Clement x. designated him as Bishop of Basilea and Vicar
Apostolic over six provinces in China. He was, however,,
too humble to accept the honour, and was not consecrated
as a bishop till 1G86, when he was over seventy. He
died at Nanking in 1687. iHe was the author of a
pamphlet of twenty pages, in which he defended A the
observance by Christians of the rites observed by Con-
fucianists in the worship or commemoration of their
ancestors. I The Bishop is reported to have been a man of
great samuliness.1 Had either the Franciscan or Nestoriau
Mission succeeded in training a body of Chinese clergy,
there is little doubt that their work would have continued.
In regard to the translation of the Bible and of other
books in connection with these missions, it is interesting
to note that of 500 books which the early Nestorian
missionaries possessed 35 were translated into Chinese.
One of these, the Book of the Holy King David, was
apparently the Psalter, and another was the hymn in
praise of the Holy Trinity to which we have already
referred. The later, and probably the earlier, Nestorian

1 Further particulars in regard to Bishop Alu are given in Quttif (Echard)
Scriplores Ord: Praedicatorum, Tome ii. (1721), p. 708, and in Hue's
Christianismus, Tome iii. ch. 3.

CHINA 175

missions used Service books in Syriac. John of Monte
Corvino translated into the " Tartaric tongue " the Psalms
and the New Testament and part of the Missal.

The Jesuits obtained leave in 1615 to celebrate
Mass in Chinese, but there is no evidence to show that
they actedyupon this permission, and it is most unlikely
that either of the earlier missions translated the Mass
into Chinese.

By the time that the Jesuit Mission reached China few
traces remained of the work of the Nestorian or Franciscan
missionaries. According to Nicholas Trigault,1 whp-wrote

early in the seventeenth century, a Jew named(_ Ai ho
had come from Kaifengfu told Piicci that the Chrfstians
" had been very numerous, especially in the northern
provinces, and had prospered so much both in civil and
military careers that _they had made the Chinese suspect
a revolution\ He thought the suspicion had been excited
by the Saracens . . . not more than sixty years before.
And it had reached such a pitch that they were afraid
that the magistrates would lay hands upon them, and all
fled in different directions and professed, from fear of
death, to be Saracens or Jews or for the most part
idolaters. Their churches were changed into idol shrines." 2

IV. The Jesuit Mission.

It had been the special ambition of S. Francis Xavier
to preach the gospel to the Chinese. After spending
two years in Japan, he landed on the island of Shangch'uan,
near Macao, where he died of fever on December 2, 1552,
aged forty-six, without having set foot on the mainland of

1 De Christiana cxpcditione (Rome, 1615), pp. 119, 122 ff. Nicholas
Trigault was a Jesuit who reached China just after Ricci's death and was
entrusted with the editing of the latter's commentaries.

- I arn indebted for this reference and for much help in obtaining in-
formation concerning the Nestorian and Franciscan Missions to the Rev.
A. C. Moule, who has done much original work relating to early Christian
missions to China. See article, "The Failure of Early Christian Missions to
China," in The East and The Wc.st for October 1914, and article in the
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society for July 1914.

176 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

China. Thirty years later an Italian missionary named
Ricci, who was a member of the Society of Jesus, came to
China as a member of an embassy from Macao. He had
been preceded by Michael Rogers, who had arrived three
years before. Ricci's methods, which were followed by all
subsequent Jesuit missionaries in China, differed widely
from those of Xavier. During the first seven years of his
work he dressed as a Buddhist priest. He strove to over-
come the prejudice of the Chinese and to ingratiate himself
and his mission in their favour by assuring them that
the faith which he came to teach was a development of
Confucianism, and that they could embrace it without
abandoning their ancestral beliefs or customs. His know-
ledge of mathematics and of astronomy won their respect,
and his preaching was ere long attended by widespread
results.

A mandarin of Shanghai, who on his baptism took the
name of Paul, did much to commend the Christian faith to
the educated classes.

"His youngest daughter, Candida, was a remarkable
woman. Having been left a widow at an early age she
devoted herself to the promotion of the cause of Christianity,
and, reserving enough for her eight children, she conse-
crated the rest of her fortune to the founding of churches
and the printing of Christian books, for the instruction of
the surrounding heathen. Having heard that the pagans
in several of the provinces were accustomed to abandon
their children as soon as born, she established a foundling
hospital for infants, and seeing many blind people telling
idle stories in the streets for the sake of gain, she got them
instructed and sent forth to relate the different events of
Gospel history. A few years before her death the Emperor
conferred on her the title of the ' virtuous woman ' and
presented her with a rich dress covered with plates of
silver, which she disposed of in order to apply the proceeds
to acts of charity." l

At the time of Ricci's death in 1610 it seemed likely
that Christianity, or rather an amalgamation of Christianity

1 China, its Mate and Prospects, by W. H. Medhurst, 1833, p. 227 sq.

CHINA 177

and Confucianism, would ere long become the religion of
China. In 1622, Adam Schall, a German, whose policy
was the same as that of Eicci, became the head of the
mission in China. Keports of its success reached Europe
and evoked the enthusiasm of the other great religious
Orders, and in 1631 the first Dominican missionaries
arrived. They were followed by the Franciscans, who
re-entered China in 1633. Ere many years had elapsed
the missionaries attached to these two Orders began
to protest in vehement language against the methods
employed by the Jesuits. The two special grounds on
which they denounced the Jesuit missions were that
they allowed their converts to continue " ancestor-worship "
and that the words Tien and Shane/ Ti, which they had
accepted as representing the Christian God, were inadequate
and misleading.1 For some years the three missions
worked on side by side.

In 1617 the number of Christians in China was
reckoned at 13,000. These had increased in 1650 to
150, OOO.2 In 1669, according to a volume3 which was
published in Eome in 1 6 7 1 , the Dominicans had 2 1 churches,
the Franciscans 3, and the Society of Jesus 159.

The number of baptized Christians was then 308,780,
of whom 3500 had been baptized by the Franciscan
missionaries.

In 1692 the Emperor Kanghsi, who had been educated
by Schall, one of the Jesuit missionaries, issued a decree
in which he legalized the preaching of the Christian faith
throughout the Empire.4

1 For a detailed account of the use of Tien and Shang Ti in Chinese
literature see article by Stanley Smith in The East and The West, April 1913.
In A.D. 1116 the latter title was given to a Taoist priest by an imperial decree.

2 These are the figures given by Joannis Adam Schall in a book entitled
Hlstorica relatio de ortu et progressu fidei orthodoxae in reyno Chimnsi
(published at Ratisbon in 1672), p. 109.

3 See Compendiosa narratio de statu Missionis Chinensis ab anno 1581
usque et annum 1669, oblato Eminentissimis Cardinalibus sacrae Cougrega-
tionis de propaganda fide. Romae, 1671. (Copy in the S.P.G. library.)

4 See Leltres edifiantes et curieuses (published in Paris, 1781), vol. xvi,
Preface, p. xiii.

12

178 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Pere Pelisson, writing from Canton on December 9,
1700, states that the Emperor of China had given to
the members of the Jesuit Mission a house in the Palace
enclosure and had contributed towards the building of a
Christian church in Peking.1

In 1645, Morales, a Dominican missionary, had ob-
tained a bull from Pope Innocent x. which denounced as
superstitious and abominable the rites connected with
ancestor-worship which the Jesuits had approved. In
1G56, however, the Jesuits induced Pope Alexander vn. to
declare that they were merely political ceremonies, and
that the toleration of them was both prudent and chari-
table. In 1665, during a temporary persecution, the
missionaries belonging to the different Orders made an
unsuccessful attempt to arrive at an agreement. In 1693,
Maigrot, the Apostolic Vicar of Fukien, decided that Tien
signified nothing more than the material heavens and that
the rites connected with ancestral worship were idolatrous,
a decision which was endorsed by a papal decree of
Clement XL in 1704. In 1707, Tournon, the papal legate
who had been sent from Eome to China, promulgated
this decree. The Emperor, Kanghsi, thereupon banished
the legate to Macao, where he died under suspicious circum-
stances in 1710. The Pope sent yet another legate, who
arrived in 1720, and who granted "eight permissions" in
connection with the points in dispute, which were, however,
afterwards disallowed at Eome.2

The expression Tien Chu is used to-day by all the
Chinese connected with the Eoman Missions, and the
religion of these Chinese is everywhere spoken of as the
Tien Chu religion. The same term is used by the
members of the Greek Church, by the Anglican Mission
in North China, and by the American Episcopal Mission
in Mid-China.

Shany Ti (supreme ruler), which was the original

1 Lettrcs ddifiantcs et curieuses, vol. xvi. p. 409.

2 See The Jesuits in China and the Legation of Cardinal de Tournon, by
K. C. Jenkins, 1894,

CHINA 179

Jesuit term, is used by nearly all the Missions in Central
and South China. It is also adopted as the rendering
for God in the Anglican Prayer Book in use in North
China.

Some American missionaries have adopted the ex-
pression Shen, a word which is used by the Chinese for
spirit and is frequently applied by them to an idol. It is
recognized by all that the Chinese language does not
contain any satisfactory equivalent for the word God, and
that every rendering which has been suggested is open to
more or less serious objection.

It is impossible for the impartial student of Missions
to take sides either with the Jesuits or with the
Franciscans and Dominicans in the long series of con-
troversies which did much to discredit the work of
Christian Missions in the eyes of the Chinese. Eicci and
some of the earliest of the Jesuit missionaries in China
honestly believed that they were following the example
set by St. Paul at Athens when they tried to identify the
God of the Christians with the Power or Powers held in
reverence by the Chinese, and that they were further
justified in putting for the time being into the background
of their teaching the doctrine of the Atonement. They
numbered amongst the members of their Order some of
the most devoted and earnest missionaries who have ever
visited China. Whilst most students of Christian Missions
will agree that the methods which they adopted in China
and in other non-Christian lands have been shown by the
logic of history to have been unwise, if not actually
wrong, they will not hastily condemn the motives that
prompted the policy which the Jesuits adopted. The
steady decline in the number of Chinese Christians during
the eighteenth century was in part due to a decrease of
missionary enthusiasm in Europe and in part to persecu-
tions in China. In cases where Christian missionaries
appeal for support to rulers of non-Christian countries, the
success which they secure as the result of such an appeal
is apt to be transitory. A new ruler, prompted by advisers

180 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

who are not themselves Christians, is easily induced to
suspect the Christians of political or revolutionary aims
and to persecute them on this plea. So it was in China, and
so it has been in many other countries where Christian
missionaries have attained success under the friendly
auspices of a ruler who has not himself become a Christian.
Kanghsi, the Emperor who had done much for the
Jesuit missionaries, died in 1721. His successor, Yung-
cheng, was persuaded by the Chinese literati to persecute
the Christians, and in the following year 300 churches
were destroyed and 300,000 Christians were left without
the ministrations of their Church. When Chienlung
became Emperor in 1736 the persecution became more
severe and was continued with occasional intermission for
many years. In 1773 the Jesuit Mission was further
weakened by the suppression of its Order by Clement xiv.
(It was re-established by Pius, vn in 1814.) In 1815 a
special persecution occurred in the province of Szechwan.
In 1819 the imperial censor complained of the existence
of Christians, but his suggestion that the existing laws
against them should be rigorously enforced was rejected by
the Emperor on the ground that to do this would create a
disturbance.

In Tonking, where Christian missions were carried on by
the Jesuits,1 the persecutions were exceptionally severe, and
continued with little intermission from 1720 down to the
time of the French occupation in 1883.

In 1840 the Vicariate Apostolic of Eastern Tonking,
administered by the Spanish Dominicans, contained 40
native priests and 120,000 "catholics," whilst the
Vicariate of Western Tonkiug, the missionaries in which
belonged to the French Society of Foreign Missions,
contained 80 native priests and 180,000 "catholics."

According to Marchini's map of Missions presented to

1 The Head of the Jesuit Mission in Tonking during the first year of his
work in the province of Tonking, 1692-93, states that he and one companion
had baptized 1735 persons and had given the Holy Communion to 12,122.

2 See Annals of the Propagation of the Faith (published in Paris, 1840),
vol. i. p. 419.

CHINA 181

the Bishop of Maccao in 1810, the Christians in the
Chinese Empire then numbered 215,000, the number of
missionaries being 23 and of native agents 80. It is
difficult to say what reliance can be placed upon these
figures, which are at best very rough estimates. At this
time the chief missionary agencies were the Propaganda
and the Lazarites.

(For a further account of E.G. missions in China see
p. 208.)

V. Modern Missions.

A Chinese politician who held one of the highest
positions under the new republican government, in answer
to the question, When did the Chinese revolutionary
movement begin ? replied, On the day that Eobert Morrison
the missionary landed in Canton. The start of Protestant
missions in China, notwithstanding the fact that the
earliest Protestant missionaries were wholly devoid of
political aims, was, in fact, the introduction of a new factor
into the political life of China, the far-reaching results of
which can now be seen.

Robert Morrison1 reached China in 1807 as the
representative of the London Missionary Society.

Although he was not directly instrumental in winning
many converts, his literary work and his skill and
perseverance in overcoming what often seemed insuperable
difficulties, justify us in regarding him as one of the
greatest among Christian missionaries to China.

Eobert Morrison was born near Morpeth in 1782 and
his youth was spent at Newcastle, where his father was an
elder of a Scotch church. After being accepted as a
missionary he started for China via America and landed
at Macao on September 7, 1807. At this time the
dislike of foreigners was so strong that it was a capital
offence to be found teaching Chinese to a foreigner, and in

1 For a sketch of his life and work see Life of Robert Morrison, by
W. J. Townsend.

HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

oiv. avoid exciting - - :ion he lived at first in

tent. In 1SOS he oeased 1 :.ent

upon the L.M.S., having accepted the | < -;

'onipany. lu 1S13 he was joined by
M:\ and Mrs. Milne, who, however, were nor allowed to
remain at Ma:ao. Mr. Mi'.:.-: V.MS the author of the
des.' D of the - QguagG which h.> D often

quoted. " To acquire Chinee 38 work for men with
bodies of brass, lung? of steel, heads of oak, eyes of ea_ -
he,--:- I apostles, memories of ar_ Ifi .:id lives of
Me:husaleh."

Morrison's ohifil work was of a lit •;•..-.:%• charac:
In 1813 he published the whole Xew Testament in a
colloquial a he priu: :he expense

Sasl Pau>"- h-s Chinese diet: nary, which

was of immense - B -equcnt missionaries and

ath in 1S34 he

had tr - i nearly the whole of the Bible in: -.-.ese

and had published in addition a large number of : : - :.ud
bookie:- 1: may also be / .1 for him that he
:-.-.: I medical D -- . work iu:o China, as he

.shed a dispensary over which he placed a qualified
Chinese practitioner. The first medical mi-- ay sent
m ':" ,'..md to China was Pr. I . V ...-.rt, who was sent out
by the L.M.S. in 1S39. The first Chinese to become
a Chris :ian as the result of Pivtestant missions * -
Tsai A'v . who was baptised by Morrison in 1S14 "at
spring of - g :vom the foot of a lofty hill, by

the - .- -\ awav from human observation." Durir._

* «^

twer.:v-::.ve years which followed the arrival of Morrison

• «

in China ten I - - :ook place, two of the converte
bei: g uese printei-s who had worked for Pr. Milne at
the M Bga This college, which was start v

Dr. Milne, was intended partly for the education of
Chi- - md pa%.:'y for tra g Europe - - of

Chines desired to work in China.

For twenty-seven - with the exception of his

furlough in IS 24, Morrison laboured on practically alone

CHINA 183

at Canton and in the face of almost every possible dis-
couragement. At the time of his death there were only
two Protestant missionaries in China, both of whom
belonged to the American Board of Missions.

1835-1850.

We shall now refer very briefly to the new missions
which were started in China during the next twenty-five
years.

The Church Missionary Society sent Mr. E. B. Squire,
an officer in the Navy, on a tentative mission to Singapore
and Macao in 1837. In 1844 the first two missionaries
belonging to this society arrived in China, namely, the Kev.
G. Smith (afterwards Bishop of Victoria, Hong-Kong), and
the Eev. T. M'Clatchie. The latter started missionary
work at Shanghai. In 1848 the Eev. W. A. Russell
(afterwards Bishop of North China) and the Eev. E. Cobbold
began work in Ningpo, which eventually became one of
the centres of the C.M.S. Chekiang Mission (see p. 189).

In 1845 the English General Baptists commenced work
in Ningpo which was carried on for some years, but was
eventually given up.

In 1847 the English Presbyterian Church sent the
Eev. W. C. Burns as their first missionary to China. He
spent some time in Hong-Kong and Canton, and eventually
started permanent work in Amoy (see p. 195).

In 1836 the American Southern Baptist Mission sent
the Eev. Jehu Shuck as a missionary to Macao. In
1842 their mission was moved to Hong-Kong, and during
the next six years work was started at Canton and
Shanghai.

In 1834 the American Baptist Missionary Union sent
a missionary to work amongst Chinese in Siam, and in
1842, the year in which Hong-Kong was ceded to England,
started work in that town.

In 1835 the American Protestant Episcopal Church
sent two missionaries to Canton, who retired for a time

184 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

to Batavia. In 1837 the Eev. W. J. Boone, M.D., joined
the mission, which in 1842 was established at Amoy. In
1845, Dr. Boone, who had been consecrated as a bishop,
brought out from America a party of nine workers, where-
upon the mission was removed to Shanghai. The first
convert, who was baptized on Easter Day 1846, was after-
wards ordained and was for many years an effective
missionary.

In 1842 the American Presbyterian Mission (North)
sent a missionary to Macao, and during the following eight
years opened missions at Ningpo, Amoy and Canton.

In 1847 the American Methodist Episcopal Mission
sent their first missionary to China, who started work at
Foochow.

In 1848 the American Southern Methodist Mission
sent two missionaries to China.

In 1844 the American Presbyterian Dutch Reformed
Church started work at Amoy, where, in 1846, a first
convert was baptized.

In 1846 the Rhenish Mission at Barmen sent out
four missionaries, two of whom belonged to the Basel
Mission. They reached Hong-Kong in 1847.

It will be seen from the list of missionary societies
given above that by the middle of the nineteenth century
active interest had been aroused in the work of Chinese
Missions in England, America and Germany. When King
Frederick William of Prussia was informed by Bunsen
that experienced men in England doubted the possibility
of doing missionary work in China, he " wrote a letter of
sixteen pages, urging Bunsen to arouse the Bishops and
clergy of the Church of England to more vigorous action
for the evangelization of China." l

By 1850 there were at least a dozen Anglican and
Protestant missionary societies at work in China. In
most cases these societies had but recently commenced
work, and it is doubtful whether the whole number of

1 See "Private Journal," October 11, 1850, quoted in History of tht
C.M.S., i. 468.

CHINA 185

Christian converts connected with these missions exceeded
a hundred. Missionary work, moreover, hardly extended
beyond the five treaty ports, Canton, Amoy, Shanghai,
Ningpo and Foochow, which were declared open to
foreigners by the Treaty of Nanking in 1842.

1850-1875.

On Good Friday, 1850, the first English bishop (Dr.
George Smith) arrived at Hong-Kong accompanied by a
party of C.M.S. missionaries. Work was started Jby the
C.M.S. in the great city of Foochow in May 1850, and
in 1851 the first five converts in connection with the
C.M.S. were baptized, two at Ningpo and three (blind men)
at Shanghai. By the end of 1855 the number of converts
at Ningpo had increased to sixty. While Bishop Smith was
delivering his first charge, the church at Shanghai in which
he was speaking was struck by a cannon ball fired by the
Taipings, the rebellion raised by whom had a direct bearing
upon the progress of the missions in China.

No rebellion that has taken place for centuries has
been so prolific in massacres and nameless atrocities ;
nevertheless, as we look back, after an interval of sixty years,
we are forced to admit that General Gordon's successful
repression of the Taiping rebellion, and the continuance of
the Manchu dynasty which it involved and on behalf of
which he fought, put back the clock of China's progress
for at least several decades.

The instigator of the Taipiug revolt, Hung Hsiuch'iian,
came under the influence of a Christian missionary (who
was probably Morrison) at Canton in 1833. In 1837
he declared that he had seen a vision in which he had
received a divine command to destroy idolatry, and to put
an end to the Manchu dynasty. In 1853 he and his
followers stormed and captured the great city of Nanking.
When the British Plenipotentiary went up to Nanking,
his boat encountered " hundreds of colossal images of

O

Buddha and various gods and goddesses, broken and defaced,

186 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

floating down the river." It is not possible here to
describe the course of the Taiping revolt.1 Suffice it to
say that the movement, the leaders of which were at first
inspired by good motives, degenerated into a rebellion
which devastated the fairest provinces of China and
resulted in the massacre of millions of people. The
rebellion, which began in 1850, ended with the capture
of Nanking in 1864.

After describing the course of the Taiping rebellion,
Dr. Norris (now Bishop in North China) writes :

" It is argued with much apparent reason that Christian
missions may aim at the conversion of Chinese individuals,
may found little Christian communities in every province
of the Empire, may perhaps in time meet with such success
that those communities will be mainly self-supporting and
self -governing ; but that the idea of Christianity ever really
permeating China, as much, for example, as it permeated
Western Europe in the Middle Ages, or as it permeates
European nations to-day, is a wild and impossible dream
which will require the lapse of several centuries before it
can approach fulfilment. . . . Surely the history of the
Taiping movement has a warning for the critic, no less than
a real encouragement for ourselves. Granted that it was
not in the end successful, granted that it won its way by
methods of which a truer Christianity would be ashamed, it
remains true that a movement which took shape originally
in the brain of a single man . . . which made no apparent
stir for several years, ran like wildfire when once it started.
Spreading from district to district, from province to pro-
vince, it speedily established itself from Canton to Nanking,
and from thence made a great effort, not far short of success,
to reach Peking itself. . . . The Church of Christ, whatever
her shortcomings, has something better to offer than the
religion of the Taiping Wang ... it may be that for the
present, and for years to come, she will make no apparent
stir; but at least she is justified in claiming that in the
light of history it is not incredible that Christianity should
one day run like wildfire over China, until the whole nation
has been won for Christ." 2

1 For specimens of its proclamations and literature see History of the
C.M.S., ii. 297 ff.

" China, by F. L. Norris, pp. 48 sqq.

CHINA 187

In 1842 the total number of communicants unconnected
with the Eoman Missions was 6, by 1855 these had increased
to 5 00, and by 1860 to about 1000. In 1877 l the number
of Christian converts was reckoned at 13, 000, and the total
number of European missionaries at 473, of whom 228 were
connected with British, and 212 with American societies.
We have already mentioned the names of the societies
which were represented in China prior to 1850. There
are now over 100 missionary societies, large and small, at
work in China. It may be well to note the dates at which
some of the larger societies began their work there. The
Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society entered China in
1852, the United Presbyterian Mission (to Manchuria) in
1872, the Church of Scotland Mission in 1877, the Society
for the Propagation of the Gospel sent two men to Peking in
1863, but did not commence regular work in China till 1874.
The society which supports more missionaries in China
than any other, i.e. The China Inland Mission, was founded in
1865 by the Eev. Hudson Taylor, who himself began work
in China in 1853. In 1875 the C.I.M. was carrying on work
in fifty stations scattered over five provinces (see p. 192).

In few other countries have the pioneer missionaries
met with so many discouragements and waited so long to
see visible results from their labours. This fact is specially
significant, as the progress of Christianity in China during
recent years bids fair to outdo the progress in any other
large non-Christian country. The experience of the C.M.S.
missionaries in Foochow may be quoted as typical of that
which has been repeated in many other places. This
society commenced work in the city of Foochow in 1850.
After ten years had elapsed, " without a single conversion,
or the prospect of such a thing," the committee at home
discussed the desirability of withdrawing this mission. In
the following year, that is after eleven years of earnest,
devoted work, the first convert was baptized, who was the
first-fruits of a mission which has since attained most
encouraging results (see p. 189).

1 We have not been able to secure the exact statistics for 1875.

188

HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

It is impossible to sketch in detail the work of the
hundred and more European and American missionary
societies which are now represented in China, but it will
be worth while to give a very few statistics which will
show how far the various denominations are represented.
The figures relate to the year 1913.

Foreign

Chinese

Communicants or

Missionaries.

Workers.

Full Members.

Anglican .

626

1,814

28,317 6

Presbvterian .

898

3,831

59,884

Methodist

753

4,527

44,844

Baptist

567

1,527

25,693

Lutheran l

503

1,551

24,419

Congregationalist 2 .

263

1,244

17,691

China Inland Mission3

1,076

1,551

31,243

Miscellaneous .

500

1,834

3,212

Total .

5,186

17,879 *

235,303

1 Under Lutheran are included most of the German, Swiss, Norwegian,
Scandinavian and Swedish missions.

2 Under Congregationalist are included the L.M.S. and the A.B.C.F.M.

3 These returns include those of twelve continental societies which are
affiliated to the C.I.M.

4 These returns include school teachers as well as church workers.

5 These statistics are for 1912.

Anylican Missions.

On April 26, 1912, the representatives of the eleven
Anglican dioceses in China decided to form one united
Church, the title of which should be Chung Hua Sheng
Kung Hui (pronounced Joong Hwa Shung Goong Hway).
Its constitution and organization correspond with those of
the Nippon sei Kokwai of Japan. It is founded upon the
recognition of the Lambeth quadrilateral, i.e. the historic
episcopate, two sacraments, two creeds, and the acceptance
of the Old and New Testaments. The first act of the
synod of the new Church was to form a Board of Missions,
which is to present at its next meeting, in 1915, a report
proposing that the eleven united dioceses should combine

CHINA 189

to send a mission to some untouched part of China and
that this mission should have a Chinese bishop as its
leader.

The Anglican missions are supported by the C.M.S.
in Central and Southern China, by the S.P.G. and the
Canadian Church in North China, and by the Protestant
Episcopal Church of America in Central China.

The dioceses in which the missions of the Church
Missionary Society are situated are those of Victoria (Hong-
Kong), Chekiang, Western China, Fukien and Hunan.

Hong -Kong (1849). Since 1900 the Chinese Christians
have undertaken the entire pecuniary responsibility for the
support of their pastors and the upkeep of their churches
in the city of Hong-Kong. A church hostel for under-
graduates at the new Hong-Kong University was opened
at the same time as the university in 1912. The mission
work of the Church on the mainland is carried on from
Canton and Pakhoi. At Canton a training college was
opened in 1912; at Pakhoi there are hospitals for lepers
and other patients.

Chekiang, formerly part of Mid-China (1872). The
missionary work centres round Niugpo, Hangchow,
Taichow, Chuki and Shaohing. There is a theological
college and normal school at Ningpo, an Anglo- Chinese
school at Shaohing, and a girls' high school at Hangchow.
The C.M.S. supports three hospitals in this diocese. Its
staff includes 24 Chinese clergy.

The diocese of Western China (1895) is practically
co-extensive with the province of Szechwan, and the work
is chiefly of an evangelistic character. There is a diocesan
training college at Paoning, a church hostel in connection
with the new university at Chengtu and a medical mission
at Mienchu. In this diocese several of the Anglican
missionaries are supported by the C.I.M. The bishop and
the missionaries wear Chinese dress.

Fukien (1906). Foochow, which is the chief centre of
work, was occupied in 1850, and eleven years passed before
the first convert was baptized (see p. 187). The missionary

190 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

institutions in Foochow include a hospital and a Union
medical college and a school for the blind. The diocesan
staff includes 1 8 Chinese clergy. Work amongst lepers is
carried on at five centres. Dublin University supports a
mission in this diocese in connection with the C.M.S.

Kwangsi and Hunan (1909). Work is carried on at
Siangtan, Kueilinfu, Yungchow and Hengchow.

Amongst the missionaries who have worked in con-
nection with the C.M.S. in China should specially be
mentioned the Eev. George E. Moule, who went out to
China in 1858 and was Bishop in Mid-China 1880-1907,
and Archdeacon J. E. Wolfe, the pioneer of the Fukieu
Mission.

The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel began work
in China in 1863, but its work was interrupted and was
not definitely started till 1874, when the Eev. C. P. Scott
and a companion were sent to Chefoo. Mr. Scott became
the Bishop of North China in 1880 and continued as
bishop till his resignation in 1913. The present bishop,
Dr. Frank Norris, by the influence which he exerted over
the Chinese Christians in Peking, was largely instrumental
in preserving the European Legations during the Boxer
revolution in 1900, till they were relieved by the allied
forces. With the help of the Pan- Anglican grant a large
school has been opened in Peking. The society also
shares in the work of the Union medical college.

The diocese of Shantung (1903) includes the province
of the same name. There is a college at Chefoo. Other
centres are at Pingyin and Taianfu. The medical work
of the university is at Chinaufu and the Arts College at
Weihsien. It is proposed to remove the latter also to
Chinanfu. A mission hospital has been established at
Yenchowfu, near the birthplace of Confucius.

Three missionaries in connection with the S.P.G. were
martyred during the Boxer outbreak, namely, S. M. W.
Brooks, C. Robinson and H. V. Norman. In 1912 the Eev.
Frederick Day was murdered by Chinese soldiers near
Paotingfu.

CHINA 191

The Protestant Episcopal Church of America supports
missions in the Yangtse Valley at Shanghai, and in the
district of Hankow and Wuchang. This mission has from
the first afforded an instructive object-lesson of the good
results to be attained by concentrating on a few strategic
positions instead of attempting to spread its influence over
a wide area. In 1844 the Rev. W. S. Boone was con-
secrated as bishop of the missionary district of Shanghai.
No missionary colleges have exercised a wider influence
in China than St. John's University College, which was
founded by Bishop Schereschewsky in 1872 at Shanghai,
and Boone University College at Wuchang, which was
started (as a school) in 1871. At the latter college
several of those who acted as leaders in the last Chinese
revolution received their education. At Wuchang are
situated also the Boone Medical and Divinity schools.

The bishoprics, or rather missionary districts, supported
by this mission are those of Shanghai (1844), Hankow
(1901) and Anking (1911). In the missionary district
of Shanghai, which consists of the province of Kiangsu, the
chief centres of work, apart from Shanghai, are Soochow,
Wusih, Kiating, Yangchow and Zangzok. In the missionary
district of Hankow, which includes the provinces of Hupeh
and Hunan, the chief centres are Hankow and Wuchang.
In the missionary district of Anking (formerly Wuhu),
which comprises the province of Anhwei and that part
of Kiaugsi which lies north of lat. 28°, the chief centres of
work are Wuhu and Anking in the Anhwei province, and
Kiukiang and Nanchang in the province of Kiangsi.

Amongst the missionaries who have been members of
this mission, the name of Bishop Schereschewsky is
deserving of special mention. He was a Eussian Jew
who was converted in America, and after working as a
missionary in Peking for some years, was eventually
consecrated as Bishop of Shanghai (1877). For the last
twenty-five years of his life he was paralyzed and unable
to speak distinctly, and used a typewriter which he worked
with two fingers. He translated the whole Bible and

192 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

the Prayer Book into literary Chinese (Wenli) and the
Old Testament into Mandarin. After he became paralyzed
he relinquished the duties of the bishopric in 1884, but
he continued to work in the cause of missions till his
death in 1906.

In 1909 the Church of England in Canada undertook
to support a bishop and a staff of missionaries in the
province of Honan. The centre of the work, which is still
in a pioneer stage, is at Kaifeng.

Protestant Missions.

The founder of the China Inland Mission, the Eev. J.
Hudson Taylor, M.E.C.S., went to China in 1853 in con-
nection with the Chinese Evangelization Society. Forced
by ill-health to return in 1860, he spent several years in
pleading the cause of China, and in 1865 he organized the
China Inland Mission. One of its distinctive rules has
been that its workers receive no fixed salaries and are
not authorized to solicit funds on its behalf. In 1866 Dr.
Taylor returned to China accompanied by the first fifteen
members of the mission staff. For the first twenty years
the work of this mission was largely of a pioneer character.
In 1876 it started work in the provinces of Shansi, Shensi
and Kansu, and in 1877 in Szechwan, Yunnan and
Kweichow. Since then its field of operations has steadily
expanded until it has now work at 227 centres situated
in eighteen provinces of China and in Chinese Turkestan.
In 1884 seven Cambridge graduates, who included amongst
their number the captain of the cricket eleven (C. T.
Studd) and the stroke of the university boat (Stanley
Smith), joined the mission staff, and their departure for
China helped to make known to a wide circle the needs
of the Chinese and the good work which the C.I.M. had
already accomplished on their behalf. In 1876 the
mission began to send out unmarried women as missionaries,
and by 1881 work amongst Chinese women had been
started in six of the inland provinces. The income of the

'

CHINA 19b

mission in 1913 was £91,000, of which £51,000 was
received in England. Its European and American stall
in China is 988 (including wives), of whom 580 are
women. Its list of martyrs contains 58 names. Its
missionaries belong to various denominations, those attached
to each denomination being grouped together. In Western
China its members, who belong to the Church of England,
are superintended by Bishop Cassels.

Amongst the ranks of its workers have been many the
record of whose lives, if it could be given, would add a
new page to the story of missionary heroism. It is true
that criticisms have from time to time been made that this
society, in its anxiety to start new centres and occupy new
provinces, has sent out men and women whose chief qualifi-
cation was their intense desire to become missionaries, but
who had given no evidence that they were able to act as
Christian teachers under the extremely difficult conditions
under which their work in China would have to be carried
on. These criticisms, which have sometimes been made by
those who knew China well and were anxious to promote
missions to the Chinese, are to some extent justified, but
the fact that enthusiasm has outrun knowledge and that
the methods adopted have been proved by experience to
be faulty, must not be allowed to diminish our appreciation
of the great work which has been accomplished by this
society. The mission has established training homes in
China for men and women missionaries, where newly
arrived recruits can study the Chinese language and receive
training to prepare them for their future work.

The work of the London Missionary Society (1807) is
carried on in North China, Central China, Shanghai and
district, Amoy and district, and in Canton province. Its
European staff includes 43 missionaries, in addition to 25
doctors who superintend twenty-six hospitals. The number
of its full church members is about 10,000. In many
cases its congregations have become entirely self-supporting
and self-governed, and carry on missionary work on their
own initiative. In Peking the L.M.S. has a large medical
13

194 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

college in which teaching is given by members of all the
missions in that city except the Koman Catholics. Its
most famous institution is the Anglo-Chinese College at
Tientsin, of which Dr. S. Lavington Hart was the founder
and first Principal. Its list of missionaries includes the
names of Morrison, Milne, Medhurst, Lockhart, Legge,
Griffith John and Giluiour. We have already referred to
the work done by the first three. Dr. James Legge (1815—
97) was appointed in 1840 to take charge of the Anglo-
Chinese College at Malacca, which had been founded by
Dr. Morrison and Dr. Milne, and was afterwards moved to
Hong-Kong. In 1876 he was appointed Professor of
Chinese Language and Literature at Oxford, and was
the translator into English of all the Chinese Classics.
Dr. Griffith John (1831-1912) spent the greater part
of his life at Hankow. His writings in Chinese are known
all over China. (For reference to the work of James
Gilmour see p. 215.)

Its first woman missionary was appointed to China in
1868.

The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign
Missions (1847) supports work in the city and neighbour-
hood of Foochow. In this city it has a theological
seminary which is jointly supported by the C.M.S.
and the A.M.E.C. It also helps to support a Union
medical training college in conjunction with the C.M.S.
and the Methodists.

In Peking it helps to support a Union men and
women's medical college, a Union women's college and a
Union theological college. Its roll of missionaries includes
the name of Dr. Peter Parker, who was the first regular
medical missionary to China in modern times.

The Government officials in the province of Shansi
have offered to place all the Government schools in eight
counties, containing a population of 4,000,000, under the
superintendence of the A.B.C.F.M. missionaries, and the
society has sent additional missionaries to take charge of
the schools.

CHINA 195

The chief centres of the Presbyterian Church of Eng-
land Mission (1847) are at Aruoy, Swatow and Tainan in
Formosa. The mission supports 14 hospitals, 4 theo-
logical colleges and a large number of schools. It has
50 ordained Chinese ministers and about 12,000 com-
municant members. Its most famous missionary was Kev.
W. C. Burns (1815-68), who laboured chiefly at Arnoy
and Swatow. He became a good Chinese scholar, and
translated The Pilgrim's Progress and other books into
Chinese.

The Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian
Church in the U.S.A., which began work in China in 1844,
has over 300 missionaries, of whom 9 0 are ordained clergy
and 40 are medical missionaries. It has eight chief
centres situated in the provinces of Chihli, Shantung,
Kiangsu, Chekiaug, Anhwei, Hunan, Kwangtung and the
island of Hainan. It has a staff of over 1000 Chinese
preachers and teachers, 126 organized churches with more
than 20,000 communicants. Its 69 hospitals and dis-
pensaries treat about 200,000 cases each year. Its
educational institutions include the Shantung Union Uni-
versity, the University of Nanking, the college, medical
school and theological seminary in Peking and the theo-
logical seminary in Nanking, in all of which it works in
co-operation with other missionary organizations.

Amongst those who have served on its staff may be
mentioned the names of John G. Kerr, M.D., John L.
Nevius, C. W. Mateer and W. A. P. Martin. Dr. Nevius
laboured in China from 1854 to 1893 and did much
useful translation work. Dr. Martin, who is the author of
a number of books in Chinese, wag President of the
Imperial University.

The various Presbyterian missions in China have taken
steps in view of constituting an independent Chinese
Presbyterian Church. The Churches represented at the
Council which was held at Chinanfu in 1914 in view of
organizing this Church were the English, Scotch, Irish,
Canadian, Dutch Reformed, Northern and Southern (U.S.A.)

196 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Presbyterians. The converts connected with these missions
number over 60,000 adult Church members.

The Wesley an Methodist Missionary Society (1852) sup-
ports work in the central portion of the Kwangtung province
and in the adjoining Kwangsi province. It has hospitals at
Fatshan and Wuchow and a home for lepers at the latter
place. Farther north in the Wuchang district it has 4
hospitals. At Wuchang itself it has a college, high school
and theological institution. In the Hunan district it
supports 2 hospitals and a theological school. Its roll of
missionaries includes the name of the Rev. David Hill
(1840—96). He worked chiefly at Hankow, and died
of typhus whilst administering famine relief. He was
instrumental in the conversion of Pastor Hsi, a well-known
Chinese missionary connected with the C.I.M.

The English Baptist Mission (1859) carries on work in
the provinces of Shantung, Shansi and Shensi. It has a
European staff of 52 men and 52 women who work at
nineteen chief stations. Its communicant members number
about 6000. The mission supports 12 medical mis-
sionaries and 6 hospitals.

In Shantung the mission has started a Christian Uni-
versity, which is carried on partly by the B.M.S. and partly
by the American Presbyterians. It consists of a theo-
logical college and normal school at Chingchoufu with 200
students, rather more than half of whom are Baptists ;
an arts college at Weihsien with 350 students, and a
medical college and hospital in Chinanfu, which is the
capital of the province. The S.P.G-. has opened a hostel
for its students at Weihsien who are attending the university.
In the course of a revival which took place in November
1909, 100 of the students joined the Volunteer Missionary
Band and have since been actively engaged in evangelistic
work.

One of the missionaries belonging to the B.M.S. is Dr.
Timothy Richard, who was the first Chancellor of the
Imperial University established by the Chinese Govern-
ment of Shansi after the Boxer rising in 1900. He has

CHINA 197

contributed more than any other missionary towards the
creation of a Chinese Christian literature.

The Baptist Foreign Mission Society (U.S.A.) (1836)
supports work in South, West and East China. In con-
junction with the Southern Baptist Convention Mission
it supports a large college and seminary at Shanghai. It
shares in the support of the universities of Nanking and
Chengtu in West China.

Other societies which support a large amount of work
in China are (the numbers in brackets represent the foreign
staff) — The Irish Presbyterian Church Mission (44), The
Canadian Presbyterian Mission (80), The Berlin (59), The
Basel (72), and The Swedish Missionary Societies (51),
The Christian and Missionary Alliance, U.S.A. (87), The
Presbyterian Church, South, U.S.A. (129), and the Inter-
national Y.M.C.A. (75).

Amongst missionary organizations should be mentioned
the Christian Literature Society for China, which by its
translations and by its books composed in Chinese has
done much to spread a knowledge of Christian literature
throughout China.

The Young Men's Christian Association is exerting
a wide influence in many different parts of China, and
several Chinese who have recently become prominent
politicians have been associated with it. At its national
convention held in Peking in 1912 requests were received
from several provincial governors asking that branches of
the Association might be formed in their provinces. The
YM.C.A. is likely to exercise an increasing influence in
the near future.

In China, as in all other non-Christian countries, the
work of missions has been greatly helped by the circula-
tion of the Scriptures by the Bible Societies of England,
Scotland and America. The B. and F. B. Society alone
circulated in 1913 considerably over two million portions
of the Bible in various Chinese versions.

We do not propose to trace the statistical advance of
the 104 missionary societies which are now working in

198 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

China, nor to illustrate by tables the gradual spread of
their work throughout the different provinces. In each of
its twenty-one provinces mission stations are now to be
found, but in several of them the proportion of missionaries
to the population is less than 1 to 200,000.

The increase in the number of Christians in China
which has taken place since the beginning of this century
has been proportionately more rapid than at any previous
period within recent times. During the first ten years of
this century the number of European missionaries (which
is now 5186) increased 50 per cent., the number of
Chinese missionaries still more rapidly, and the number of
Christian adherents was more than doubled.

The rapid increase during recent years is undoubtedly
connected with the persecutions to which the Christians
have been exposed.

There are few, if any other, instances in Christian history
in which an attempt to exterminate the Christians over a
wide area has resulted in so immediate and large an increase
in their number and in such a strengthening and expansion
of the Christian Church. The movement organized by the
Boxers in 1900 was directed against Europeans and against
all Chinese Christians, inasmuch as these were supposed to
be in sympathy with foreigners. The Chinese Christians
were in many instances offered their lives if they would
abjure their religion, but despite the cruel tortures to which
they were subjected comparatively few recanted and about
16,000 died a martyr's death. Of Europeans there were
killed 135 Anglican and Protestant missionaries and 53
children, 35 E.G. priests and 9 E.G. sisters. Had it not
been for the efforts of Yiian Shihkai and some other
Chinese viceroys the massacres might have spread over the
whole Chinese Empire.

Statistics.

The following table will give some idea of the rapidity
with which the Anglican and Protestant missions developed

CHINA

199

during the ten years which followed the Boxer persecu-
tion : —

X

•o *

s

H

_eS

.

2

0 t.

33 .c u

c

£

C co

OJ I-

O flj <fc*

X £

c

c ~

— *-• o

V

c o

?! o

4* i*

gj

Year.

2 o

5

~ f

5 o"§

C .*
.— fc-

c

D

Til'S

rt' r- O

0

^ o

O

0 s'5

-^ O

° =

~3Q

•£

s

-Q

°is

•3

1900 . .

610

4L6

1518

162

79

2785

6,388

204,672

1910 . .

910

582

2347

251

114

4175

12,082

469,896

1 Including wives of missionaries.

The number of Christian adherents, apart from those
connected with E.G. missions, were in 1860 about 1000 ; in
1877, 13,000 ; in 1890, 37,000 ; in 1900, over 200,000 ;
and in 1910, about 470,000.

At the end of 1913 the number of full members of
Christian Churches was returned as 235,303, the number
under Christian instruction as 59,106, and the "total
Christian constituency" as 356,209. The last figure does
not include those who are merely " adherents."

The following table illustrates the progress made by
Anglican and Protestant missionary societies in China
between 1876 and 1913 : —

Year.

issionaries,
ng wives.

K

o'c'

p

Women.

— i6"

~ a

'— CS

onimuni-
or Full
ibers.

£

U)

"3

O1

^^ : oE

11

01

3

S— c

^.l0 ?!l

"o

1 = g
o "M

8*

3

a«^3

03

o o

o

i

1876

473

73

511

90

290

5,686

13,035

No returns

1895

1324

252

1157

326

1333

21,353

55,093

12,495

1905

3445

345

5722
(including
lav

897

2583

57,683

178,2511

78,528

preachers)

1913

5186

650

6851

2270

6436

118,650

235,303

356,209

1 The returns for 1905 include some baptized children.

200 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Comparing the progress of Anglican and Protestant
missions in India and China between 1900 and 1910,
we note that whilst the increase in India was at the rate
of 45 per cent, the increase in China was at the rate
of 129 per cent. Within the memory of one or two
missionaries still living the Christians connected with these
missions increased from less than 200 (in I860) to
nearly half a million (1912). During the same period
(1900—10) the baptized Christians connected with the
Roman Catholic missions increased from about 762,000
to 1,363,000, the increase being at the rate of about 70
per cent. As far as we can appraise the prospect of
Christian missions in China by the use of missionary
statistics, it appears to be singularly encouraging. In the
case of China, however, more than in the case of other
countries, we need to remember that the evangelistic work
which is being done in different parts is very unequal in
character. A considerable number of the missionaries now
working in China have been sent there by small local
associations in America and have received no training to
prepare them for their work. The result has been that
European visitors to China have had occasion to point out
that their methods of work would admit of great improve-
ment, and that there was reason to fear that some of those
who had been moved to go forth as missionaries had
mistaken their vocation.

Nevertheless, after making all deductions in view of
the inefficiency of some missionaries, and of some of the
societies now working in China, there is no reasonable
doubt that the Christianization of China is rapidly coming
within the sphere of practical politics. The one thing
certain in regard to its future is that within a very few
years the greater part of its population will come under
the influence of Western education. It depends upon the
peoples of England and America whether the Western
education, which is about to sweep the country, will tell
for or against the spread of the Christian faith, and whether
at the close of this century China will be mainly Christian

CHINA 201

or mainly agnostic. The peoples of China are not instinc-
tively religious, as are the peoples of India, and if China
does not become Christian it may long remain content
without any form of vital religion. Very few of the
Chinese Christians belong to the literary classes. This has
been largely due to the fact that their contempt for
Western knowledge has led them to despise what they
regarded as a Western religion. But, as the reception
which Dr. Mott received from tens of thousands of Chinese
students in 1913 has shown, a great change has come over
the attitude of the literary classes.1 A unique opportunity
now exists for establishing Christian universities and for
developing higher education under Christian auspices, and
upon the use which is made of this opportunity will depend
the attitude of the learned classes towards the Christian
faith. In six years, 1905-11, the number of students in
the one province of Chihli rose from 8000 to 230,000, and
what has happened in this province is happening through-
out the length and breadth of China. A recent visitor to
China saw in course of building the new normal school at
Canton, which was rising in the very same compound in
which stood the ruins of the stalls used for the old Chinese
examinations. In this new school 800 teachers are now
being trained. Yiian Shihkai, who is now President, bore
emphatic testimony to the good work done by Christian
missionaries at the time of the Boxer riots, and his sons
were educated at a missionary school in China and after-
wards at a school in England.

University Colleges in China.

Boone University, which was founded at Wuchang in
1871 and was incorporated (in the U.S.A.) as a university

1 An equally remarkable series of meetings was held by Mr. Sherwood
Eddy in 1914 for Government students and officials. In seven cities, the
meetings in which averaged an attendance of 3000, there were 7000
"enquirers," who included many Government officials and scholars. A
large number of women students have also been reached.

202 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

iii 1909, had about 400 students previous to the Kevolution.
It and St. John's College, Shanghai (see p. 191), are under
the control of the American Church Mission.

The University of flanking, which began work in 1910,
represents the union of the educational work in Nanking
of the Presbyterian Mission, the A.M.E.C. and the Foreign
Christian Missionary Society. It is the property of a
Board of Trustees elected by these societies. Its students
number about 500.

Shantung Christian University. This was formed by
the English Baptist and American Presbyterian Missions.
The Anglican Mission (S.P.G.) has also a representative on
its teaching staff, and is building a hostel for its students
in attendance at the university. The college of arts and
science at Weihsien, the normal and theological college at
Chingchowfu and the medical college at Chinanfu are to be
united in the university buildings to be erected at Chinanfu.
In the three colleges there are about 600 students.

Peking University College belongs to the A.M.E.C. and
has 81 students in the "collegiate department." The
Union Medical College, which is supported by several
missionary societies, is uniting with this college in order to
form a university of Peking.

Canton Christian College, which has about 200 students,
represents the union of several American missionary agencies
in the neighbourhood of Canton.

As a result of the formation of the West China
Christian Educational Union there has been created the West
China Union University, in which five missionary societies
participate. A site for this university was purchased out-
side Chengtu in 1908. The various societies which it
represents propose to establish colleges or hostels in which
their students in attendance at the university will reside.

A Foochow Christian University has been organized and
a constitution adopted. It is supported by the following
missionary societies : C.M.S., A.M.E.C., A.B.C.F.M., E.P.M.
and L.M.S.

The Shansi University, which was for ten years under

CHINA 20.°,

foreign supervision, has not been a help to the cause of
missions. Until the recent Revolution it was rendered
practically impossible for Christian students to enter it.

An important step towards Christian unity in China
was taken by the National Conference which met under
the chairmanship of Dr. Mott in 1913. The following
formed part of the resolutions passed by this Conference,
which represented nearly all the chief Anglican and
Protestant missions in China : —

A. " In order to do all that is possible to manifest the
unity which already exists among all faithful Christians in
China and to present ourselves in the face of the great mass
of Chinese non-Christian people as one brotherhood with
one common name, this Conference suggests as the most
suitable name for this purpose . . . The Christian Church
in China.

B. " As steps towards unity this Conference urges upon
the Churches : 1. The uniting of Churches of similar ecclesi-
astical order planted in China by different missions. 2. The
organic union of Churches which already enjoy inter-
communication in any particular area, large or small.

3. Federation, local and provincial, of all Churches willing
to co-operate in the extension of the Kingdom of God.

4. The formation of a National Council of the Churches."

The constitution of the Chung Hua Sheng Kung Hui

o O O

(see p. 188) in 1912 by the representatives of the Anglican
missions anticipated, as far as these missions were con-
cerned, the proposal B. 1.

In no part of the great mission field have medical
missions done so much to break down opposition and to
commend the Christian faith as in China. At the end of
1913 there were 300 men and 135 women doctors con-
nected with missionary societies. In addition to these
who are Europeans or Americans, there were 94 qualified
Chinese doctors and over 10,000 Chinese medical students.
There are about 264 mission hospitals in China, and the
number of in-patients treated in 1913 was 126,788 and
of out-patients 2,129,774. (For a further reference to
the development of medical missions in China see p. 199.)

204 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Reference should be made to the Schools for the Blind
which have been started by various missions. In Europe
the proportion of blind to seeing is about 1 in 1500, in
India it is about 1 in 500, and in China about 1 in 400.
The total number of blind is about 1,000,000. Many of
the blind have been taught to read by the system invented
by the Rev. W. H. Murray of Peking, and industrial work
has been taught in most of the schools.

Work amongst Women. - - The various missionary
societies have been gradually extending and developing
their work amongst Chinese women, but there is still
much to be accomplished in order to bring it up to the
level of the work which has been done amongst men.
The following are extracts from the " findings " of the
National Conference over which Dr. Mott presided in
1913:—

" The present conditions present an unparalleled oppor-
tunity for widespread and aggressive evangelization. . . .
There are hundreds of walled cities and thousands of towns
in China in which the women are absolutely unreached as
yet. . . . The number of women missionaries is hopelessly
inadequate. . . . We favour the speedy establishment of
more and better primary schools for girls, especially in
country districts. . . . We must increase our educational
work in quantity, so that we can provide the teachers
needed in missionary schools and respond to calls for help
from non-Christian schools. We must increase it in quality,
and fit our graduates for college and training schools to in-
vestigate social and industrial problems, to study religious
questions and in every way to be leaders of Chinese women
in the regeneration of China."

The general outlook is certainly more encouraging than
it has been at any previous time. Thus a C.M.S. missionary
in Mid-China writes :

" One of the changes wrought in the country by the
Revolution is said to be that while in the past it has always
been difficult to get any one to look after the sick, quite a
number of educated women are now desirous of undertaking
the work. Five women, all belonging to literary families,

CHINA 205

were under training at Foochow, and four of them did well
in an examination in elementary physiology and general
nursing." l

Early in 1914 two Chinese women received diplomas
from the Union Medical College in Peking. They were
the first women in North China to become qualified as
doctors.

The importance of the training of China's women, to
which the " findings " of the Conference bear witness, is
accentuated by the past history of Christian missions in
this country. The failure of the Christian Church to
establish permanent Christian communities in China may
be traced, at least in part, to the failure of its missionaries
to influence the lives of its women. Had the Nestorians,
the Franciscans or the Jesuits been able to appeal to
China's women and to create Christian homes, it is in-
conceivable that the after results of their work, carried on
during such long periods and with such apparent success,
should now be so far to seek.

A Student Volunteer Movement has been started, the
members of which pledge themselves to prepare to enter
the Christian Ministry. They are for the most part
college students who have the prospect of good secular
positions with large salaries on the completion of their
college course. Six hundred members have already been
enrolled and 100 have already begun their theological
training. In fifteen of the chief theological training
schools in China there are 450 Chinese who are preparing
for ordination.

The total number of Anglican and Protestant foreign
missionary workers in China is about 5200. This represents
one man or woman worker to each 75,000 of the Chinese.

Although Christian mission centres are widely
scattered throughout China, there are still large districts in
which very little work is being carried on. The provinces
of Yiinnau, Kwangsi. Kweichow and Kansu are largely
unoccupied by representatives of any missionary society.

1 China Mission Year Book, 1914, p. 193.

206 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

In the provinces and dependencies of China there are
552 centres from which missionary work over the sur-
rounding district is organized, but in China proper, the
population of the provinces and districts in which hardly
any missionary work has as yet been attempted amounts
to 40,000,000, and beyond these there lie Mongolia,
Turkestan and Tibet. In one county in the province of
Shensi, which includes 900 walled villages, the only non-
Eoman missionaries are one man and his wife belonging
to the C.I.M.

An Appeal for Prayer. — No event has served to impress
the general public with the progress attained by mission-
ary propaganda in China more than the official request
which was made by the acting Chinese Government
for the prayers of its Christian subjects on Sunday,
April 27, 1913. A few days prior to this date tele-
grams were sent to the leaders of Christian Churches
asking that special prayers should be offered on behalf of
the Chinese nation, and to provincial governors and other
high officials directing them to attend the Christian
services. The suggestion apparently originated with the
Christians, of whom sixty were reported to have been
members of the first Chinese parliament, and was perhaps
adopted by the Government authorities partly in the hope
of securing the goodwill of the nations of the West.
The day of prayer was widely observed in England and in
America as well as in China, and its observance helped to
bring home to many the rapid progress which Christianity
in China had made during recent years.

It was a happy coincidence that within a fortnight
of the day appointed for prayer by the Chinese Govern-
ment, the House of Commons in England was officially
informed that the exportation of Indian opium to China,
which had done so much to retard missionary work in
China, had finally ceased.

We have not space to do more than allude to the
discussions which have from time to time been raised in
regard to the attitude which missionaries ought to take

CHINA 207

towards what is usually described as " ancestor- worship."
In deciding what attitude he ought to adopt, the missionary
cannot afford to forget the lesson taught by the experi-
ence of the past. The policy adopted by the R.C. mission-
aries in regard to the maintenance of ancestor-worship
has been fraught with disaster, and has tended more than
any other action on their part to produce a superficial
conversion of character which must hinder rather than
hasten the true evangelization of China. On the other
hand, the missionary who knows anything of the early
history of his religion cannot fail to remember how helpful
and inspiring memorial services for the dead have been,
especially in countries where Christians have formed a
small minority of the population, and how incomplete is
the presentation of Christianity which does not lay
emphasis upon the indissoluble connection which exists
between those who are striving to live the Christ-life
here and those who are with Christ in the life into which
they have passed. There is no problem raised by
missionary work in the Far East on which it is more
difficult to formulate a definite policy and which at the
same time presses so urgently for a solution.

In trying to appraise the prospect of the missionary
appeal in China to-day we need to take into consideration
the distinctive features of the Chinese character.

The writer of the section of the Edinburgh Conference
Reports which dealt with Christian Missions in China, after
summarizing the contents of the reports from missionaries
in the field, writes :

" While they (the Chinese) possess certain traits which
are inimical to the Gospel, those which promise most as
allies to the propagation of truth are the following : love of
peace and a high regard for law ; absence of all caste
distinctions and the prevalence of a democratic spirit;
respect for superiors, whether in age, position or intellect ;
unusual docility and imitativeness ; domination by the
historic instinct to such an extent that the past is not only
reverenced but is a wholesome check upon ill-considered
innovations in belief and practice ; a genius for labour, and

208 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

thrift in making provision for the future ; a mental capacity
and willingness to apply the mind unremittingly to study
which may one day make them the greatest students in the
world ; a perpetual emphasis of reason . . . ; a suavity and
tact that will meet any hard situation and win unexpected
victory from apparent defeat ; a talent for organization
which has made the Chinese past-masters in combinations,
guilds, and societies of all sorts ; a sense of responsibility
which is based on a high ideal of the duties of kinship ;
an economy which will one day make the most out of every
Christian resource ; and great susceptibility to the influence
of a strong personality, be it the missionary or the Master
whom he is trying to imitate. Men of such traits have
already made superb preachers and teachers, as well as
most consistent Christians." 1

The author of a recently published work entitled
Methode dc I'Apostolat moderne en Chine, after a survey of
the difficulties which missionaries encounter who work
among the Chinese, sums up his impressions of the
Chinese character in words that partly supplement and
partly contradict the opinion which we have just quoted.
He writes :

" Les phenomenes bien caracteristiques de I'affaiblissement
de la voloute chez les Chinois : manque de caractere, besoiu
de solidarite, versatilite, pusillanimite, force de 1'inertie,
absence d'initiative, suggestibility tels que nous venons de les
etudier, presentent au missionaire justement preoccupe de
la perseverance finale de ses Chretiens, un bien douloureux
probleme. Car ce que nous avons surtout a reprocher dans
nos fideles, n'est pas un manque de sincerite dans leur foi,
mais cette absence d'energie de volonte qui est cause que
leur conduite sera paieune ou chretienne, exacte ou relachee
d'apres les circonstances." 2

Roman Catholic Missions in China.

Partly as a result of the suppression of the Jesuit
Order and partly as the result of the closing of religious

1 Edinburgh Conference Reports, i. p. 85.

2 Par R. P. Louis Kervyn de la Congregation du occur imniacule de Marie,
Hong-Kong, 1911, p. 359.

CHINA 200

houses and seminaries which followed the French Eevolu-
tion, the Christians of China were almost entirely left to
their own resources. In many provinces " the converts
left without priests drifted back into paganism, or if they
kept the faith, were ill-instructed and had no sacrament
but baptism. The Vinceutian (Lazarist) Fathers, in the
face of terrible trials, held on to Peking and a few
other places, and the re-establishment of the famous Paris
Seminary of Foreign Missions eventually supplied a re-
inforcement for other districts. The Spanish Dominicans
in the south-east, and the Portuguese priests at Macao,
kept the faith alive in these places." l

Tinikowski, a Russian official who visited Peking in
1805, wrote:

" A fresh persecution was commenced against the Chris-
tians. They endeavoured to oblige them to trample upon
the cross and to abjure their errors; they who refused were
threatened with death. At Peking many thousand persons
were discovered who had embraced the Christian religion, even
among the members of the imperial family and mandarins." 2

In 1815 Bishop Dufresse was led to execution at the
head of 32 confessors. In 1818 many Christians were
exiled to the wilds of Tartary. In 1 8 1 6 a Franciscan Father
and 4 Chinese priests were martyred in Szechwan. Never-
theless in the same province and at the same time a priest
was able to report that he had baptized 1006 adults and
given the Holy Communion to 79,000 persons in one year.

In the Salle des Martyrs belonging to the Paris
Seminary of Missions are preserved relics of the martyrs
of China and Corea. One of these is the chalice belonging
to the Bishop Boric, who was tied to a stake and slowly cut
to pieces in Central China. Every priest trained in this
seminary who is about to leave for China is allowed to
say a Mass at which he uses this chalice.

1 The Missions of China, by A. H. Atteridge, p. 12. Published by the
Catholic Truth Society.

2 See "Roman Catholic Missions," by R. Eubank, The East and The
West, January 1905.

14

210 HISTORY OP CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

The revival of Eoman Catholic missions in China
dates from 1830. These missions are now to be found
in every province in China and on the borders of Tibet,
and in 1850 the number of baptized Christians was
estimated at 330,000. In 1881 they numbered 470,000 ;
thirty years later, i.e. in 1911, these had increased to
1,363,000. (Eapid as this rate of increase has been, it
has, however, been less rapid than the increase of the non-
Eoman missions throughout China, see p. 200.) These were
grouped in 47 dioceses or vicariates. There were 1365
European and 721 Chinese priests and 1215 Chinese
students for the priesthood. There were also 247
European and 86 Chinese lay-Brothers in religious houses
or in "teaching congregations," and 2172 nuns, of whom
1429 were Chinese women.

According to Die Katholischen Missionen of June
1913, the total number of converts connected with
RC. missions in China was 1,421,258, in addition to
448,220 catechumens. The three tasks which are put
forward as being most pressing are : the development of
education ; the securing of a more powerful political unity
and influence ; and the formation of strong religious or-
ganizations within the Church.

The E.G. missions have for many years supported
orphanages in different parts of China for the care of
destitute children. These number 260, and a considerable
proportion of the baptisms which take place annually are
of infant children in these homes. As a general rule the
Chinese priests are members of families which have been
Christian for at least three generations.

The E.G. priests for the most part live simple, self-
denying lives, and live and die amongst their converts.
On the other hand, their bishops claimed the rank
and dignity of mandarins. This claim, and the further
claim to interfere in Chinese lawsuits wherever a E.C.
Christian was concerned, often gave rise to hostility
and persecution on the part of Chinese officials, and was
one of the causes of the Boxer insurrection in 1900.

CHINA 211

When, in 1898, the claim to rank with a governor of a
Chinese province and to travel in a green sedan chair
with a retinue following was eventually allowed by the
Chinese Government, the same honours were offered to
the Anglican bishops, but were declined.1 The right
to assume this rank has been disallowed by the present
Chinese Government.

At the close of the Boxer riots, in which 54 E.C.
missionaries lost their lives, the E.C. missionaries claimed
£1,500,000 from the Chinese Government as an
indemnity.

The following Orders and foreign missionary societies
are at work in China : Jesuits in Chihli and Kiangnan ;
Lazarists in Chihli, Kiangsi and Chekiang ; Franciscans
in Shensi, Shansi, Shantung, Hupei and Hunan ; Augus-
tinians in Hunan ; Spanish Dominicans in Foochow and in
Amoy ; Milan F.M.S. in Honan and in Hong-Kong ; Paris
F.M.S. in Manchuria, Kweichow, Szechwan, Kienchang,
Yunnan, Kwantuug, Kwangsi and Tibet ; Scheutvelt Belgian
F.M.S. in Mongolia and Kansu ; Borne F.M.S. in Shensi ;
Steyl German F.M.S. in Shantung; Parma F.M.S. in
W. Honan ; and Spanish Augustinians in N. Hunan.

In Tonking, where work was begun in 1678, the
E.C. Church has 7 vicariates. The Christians, including

o

Europeans, number 711,000. The work is carried on by
230 priests and is supported by the Paris F.M. Society.
In Cochin China, where the work dates from 1659, there
are 3 vicariates, 164 priests and 180,000 Christians. In
Cambodia, where work was begun in 1850, there are
45,000 Christians and 48 priests.

The Russian Mission.

The Chinese Mission of the Eussian Orthodox Church
was the result of the capture of some Eussians, one of
whom was a priest, by a Chinese force at the end of the

1 See " E.G. Mission Work in China," by Clement Allen, formerly Consul
at Foochow, The East and The West, April 1905.

212 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

seventeenth century. In 1716 a missionary party, in-
cluding 2 priests, a deacon, and 7 students, reached
Peking. Though the mission has remained small, its
members have translated the Bible and other Christian
books into Chinese. Of the 700 Christians attached to
the mission in 1900, 400 are said to have been killed
during the Boxer insurrection. The work has since been
resumed and has a Russian Bishop as its head.

Chinese Turkestan.

Chinese Turkestan or Sinkiang contains over 550,000
square miles, but a population of only 1,250,000. It
is the meeting-point of many races, Kalmuks, Mongolians,
Tangus, Tartars, Manchus, Chinese and Turkis. The
majority of its inhabitants are Moslems. In the extreme
west the Swedish mission have centres at Kashgar and
Yarkand, and at the capital, Urumchi, the C.I.M. has
had a station since 1905.

Manchuria.

The Presbyterian Church of Ireland began work at
Newchwang in 1869. In 1872 the Eev. John Eoss
arrived, as a pioneer of the United Free Clw.rch of Scotland
Mission, and ten years later he and Dr. Christie established
the medical mission at Moukden, which has exercised a
far-reaching influence.

In 1891 the two Presbyterian missions united in
order to form a native Manchurian Church.

The Danish Lutheran Mission, which began work in
1895, has stations at Port Arthur and in the surrounding
district.

The missionaries belonging to the Scotch, Irish and
Danish missions, together with the B. and F. B. S. and
Y.M.C.A. representatives, number 153, including wives.
These occupy 26 stations. The number of baptized
Christians (1913) is 26,024 and of catechumens 7000.

CHINA 2 1 3

Though the more visible results of the great llevival which
took place in 1908 have passed away, the spiritual impetus
then received has been lasting, and " a new vision of sin
and holiness remains as a ground of appeal." x

There are 12 mission hospitals and 19 doctors in
Manchuria, and the number of out-patients in 1913 was
about 150,000. At the Moukden Medical College
50 Chinese medical students are being trained.

In Manchuria, to a greater extent than in almost any
section of the mission field, the growth of the Church has
resulted from the efforts made by the converts to influence
their friends and neighbours. As an illustration of this
statement we may quote a case described thus by Dr. Christie
of the Moukden hospital : —

" A patient came to the Moukden hospital many years
ago. When admitted he had never heard the gospel, but
before he left he had a clear knowledge of Christian truth
and showed an intense desire to make it known to others.
For many years he witnessed for Christ, most of the time
without salary of any kind and under no control but that of
his heavenly Master. The missionary who had charge of
the district where he laboured till his martyrdom by the
Boxers, tells us that he was a direct means of leading at
least 2000 souls into the fold of Christ." 2

The Eeport of the U.F.C. of Scotland presented in
1914, referring to the colleges supported by this mission
at Moukden, says, these colleges " thrive amazingly and
give promise of providing the whole of Manchuria with
adequately trained teachers, pastors and doctors."

The E.G. missions in Manchuria date from the seven-
teenth century. When the first Bishop arrived in 1840
he found a scattered Christian community of over 3000
members, who were for the most part immigrants from
China. By 1891 these had increased to 13,000. During
the Boxer riots the Bishop of Moukden, his clergy and
most of his congregation, GOO in all, were massacred.

1 China Mission Year Book, 1914, p. 421.

s ISdiriburgh Missionary Conference Report, i. 334 f.

214 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Mongolia.

Mongolia, the largest dependency of China, is nearly
as large as the eighteen provinces of China put together.
Its population, however, hardly exceeds 3,000,000, the
great majority of whom are Buddhists.

The most extensive work is that done by the R.C. Church,
which has a chain of stations near the Chinese border, at
several of which attempts are made to reach Mongols. At
Barin, north of Jehol, and at a station in the Ordos country,
there are Mongol congregations under priests who speak
Mongolian. The* converts number several hundreds in
all. The E.G. Church has three bishops and reports
69,000 converts in Mongolia. They have stations at
Pakou, Tatzuk'ou, Hata, and a few other places, and in
the far north at Maoshantung. Only a very small
proportion of the converts are Mongols, the majority of
the remainder being Chinese. In The, Catholic Church in
China, by Father Wolferstan, the Christian community in
Mongolia is returned as consisting of " Chinese Christians."
J. Hedley, the author of Tramps in Dark Mongolia,
writes :

The devotion of the E.G. missionaries "is most praise-
worthy, and so far as I could learn the conduct of their
work of a fine character. . . . They have a practice of
insisting on a whole family submitting to baptism, when
a man seeks to enter their Church, with the twofold result
of swelling numbers much faster than can be done by any
Protestant mission, and of having within their Church a
large percentage of uninformed adherents." l

Eeferring to the difficulties which confront the
Christian missionary in Mongolia the same author writes :

" This colossal system of Lamaism is the most effective
obstacle to the Christian missionary. . . . The attempt to
evangelize Mongolia presents one of the greatest problems
that faces Christian enterprise to-day. . . . Humanly
speaking it is impossible, an absolute impossibility, for any

1 P. 363.

CHINA 215

Mongol to avow himself a Christian and remain among his
own people and clan. To an extent undreamed of in China
the priest terrorizes over the layman, and a profession of
adherence to any other faith would inevitably mean a
system of persecution that would wear out the unfortunate
man's nerves, if he did not sicken and die from some
mysterious disease. . . . The only hope for the Mongol who
wishes to attach himself to the Christian faith would be
to remove far away from the influence and association of
the people among whom he has been reared." :

Mongolian Bible. — In 1827 two Buriats reached St.
Petersburg having been sent from the head Lama of
Mongolia to request that part of the N.T. might be
translated into Mongolian. They had seen a copy of a
N.T. in Kalmuck. The L.M.S. sent two representatives
to Irkutsk, and after many years of work the whole Bible
was translated into Mongolian. No actual attempt to
evangelize the Mongols was, however, made till the coming
of James Gilmour in 1870.

James Gilmour. — Of the missionaries who worked in
the Far East during the nineteenth century, he was one
of the most remarkable. Although his work in Mongolia
(1870-91) did not result in a single baptism, his life
and labours have been an inspiration to very many.
A reviewer of his book, Among the Mongols, in the
Spectator has well expressed the difficulties under which
his work was carried on. He wrote :

" Mr. Gilmour . . . quitted Peking for Mongolia on an
impulse to teach Christ to Tartars. He could not ride, he
did not know Mongolian, he had an objection to carry arms
and he had no special fitness . . . for the work. Neverthe-
less he went and stayed years, living on half-frozen prairies
and deserts under open tents on fat mutton, sheeps' tails
particularly, tea and boiled millet, eating only once a
day because Mongols do, and in all things, except lying,
stealing and prurient talk, making himself a lama. As
he could not ride, he rode for a month over 600 miles
of dangerous desert, where the rats undermine the grass,
and at the end found that the difficulty had disappeared
1 Tramps in Dark Mongolia, p. 361 f.

216 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

for ever. As he could not talk, he ' boarded out ' with a
lama, listened and questioned, and questioned and listened,
till he knew Mongolian as Mongols know it. ... If ever
on earth there lived a man who kept the law of Christ
and could give proofs of it, and be absolutely unconscious
that he was giving them, it is this man whom the Mongols
he lived among called ' our Gilmour.' He wanted, naturally
enough, sometimes to meditate away from his hosts, and
sometimes to take long walks, and sometimes to geologize,
but he found all these things roused suspicion — for why
should a stranger want to be alone'; might it not be 'to
steal away the luck of the land ' ? — and as a suspected
missionary is a useless missionary, Mr. Gilmour gave them
all up, and sat endlessly in tents, among lamas. And he
says incidentally that his fault is impatience, a dislike to
be kept waiting."1

The work of which Gilmour laid the foundation was
not eventually to be developed by the L.M.S., as in 1901
it was handed over to the care of the Irish Presbyterian
Mission. This Mission has mission stations at Siuminfu
and Fakumen in Manchuria, from which some work
amongst Mongols is carried on. The station where
Gilmour worked during the latter part of his life in
Mongolia, Ch'aoyang, has now been handed over to a
mission supported by the " Brethren," who have stations
in N.E. Chihli which are in touch with Mongols. The
Scandinavian Alliance Mission has a small agricultural
mission station at Patsibolong, where 40 or 50 Mongols
are at work, several of whom have been baptized. There
is a small Swedish Mongol mission at Hallong Osso, 85
miles north of Kalgan. The Canadian Pentecostal Move-
ment has sent six missionaries also to this place.

Tibet.

It has often been pointed out that much of the ritual
of the lamas of Tibet, including the use of the cross, the
mitre, censers, the dalmatica, the cope, etc., is so closely

1 The Story of the L.M.S., p. 384 f,

CHINA 217

similar to that which has long been in use in sections of
the Catholic Church that it is practically certain that they
have come from Christian sources. Father Hue conjectured
that these are to be traced to the influence of Franciscan
missionaries who were working in China in the fourteenth
century. It is not inconceivable that some of the Nestorian
missionaries of a much earlier date may have visited Tibet.
In 1325 Friar Odoric made a journey from N.W. China
through Tibet and resided for some time in Lhasa. In
1661 Fathers Griiber and Dorville, and in 1716 Fathers
Desideri and Freyre, made missionary tours in Tibet, and
the latter resided in Lhasa for thirteen years. In 1719 a
Capuchin Friar named Francisco della Penna, with twelve
companions, began a mission in Lhasa which was continued
till 1760.1

The Tibetans themselves have a tradition that a white
lama from the far west visited Tibet long ago and in-
structed the lamas of Tibet in the doctrines of the West.
It is, however, more probable that to some of the mission-
aries referred to above should be ascribed the resemblances
which can be traced to-day between the Tibetan and
Christian religious customs.

No success has been attained in establishing mission
stations in Tibet despite the many attempts which have
been made. The Moravians have long had representatives
at Leh in Kashmir, and have four stations in the Indian
frontier states. The C. of S. Mission and the Scandinavian
Alliance have several similar stations on the Indian side.
On the Chinese side, the Christian and Missionary Alliance
started work at Taochow in Kansu in 1895, the C.I.M.
started at Tatsieulu in Szechwan in 1897, and later on the
Foreign Christian Mission started in the same place.
From these centres itinerations have been made, and many
thousands of portions of Scripture have been distributed.
About twenty Tibetans have been baptized. On the Chinese
border there are nine missionaries who speak the Tibetan
language.

1 See With the Tibetans in Tent and Temple, by S. C. Rijnliart, p. 108.

218 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

The R.C. Church has a mission at Tatsienlu at which
a Bishop and 22 European priests are stationed. The
baptized Christians, who number 2683, include a few
Tibetans. The work is supported by the Paris F.M.

There are also mission stations at Batang, Atuntsu, Tseku
and Weihsi in the provinces of Szechwan and Yunnan, in
connection with which efforts are made to reach Tibetans.

VIII.

JAPAN.

WE have already referred to the influence which
Christian teaching probably exerted upon the Buddhism
which was introduced into China from India and from
which Japanese Buddhism was derived. Professor Lloyd
of Tokyo believed that there was so much in common
between the Amida sects of Buddhists and Christians that
Christian missionaries ought to be encouraged to study
their writings, in the hope that a sympathetic understanding
of their teaching might enable them to make an effective
appeal on behalf of the Christian faith. In considering
the rapid spread of Christianity at the time of its first
introduction into Japan, it is well to bear in mind the fact
that the teachings of the Amida sects had familiarized the
Japanese with the doctrine of a divine saviour, through
faith in whose name entrance into paradise could alone
be obtained. The acceptance of this doctrine may partly
account for the rapid spread of the Jesuit missions, and is
likely to affect the future history of Christianity in Japan.
The first Christian who is reported to have visited
Japan was a Nestorian physician, whose Japanese name
was Rimitsu and who was present at the court of the
Emperor Shomu, 724-748 A.D. His consort, the Empress
Komyo, bore the title " Light and Illumination," which was
the official name by which the Christian faith was known
in China at that time. She is described by Japanese
writers as a great saint and as one by whom miracles of
healing were wrought. It is possible to suppose that she

had become a Christian under the influence of Rimitsu.

219

220 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

There is no further trace of the existence of Christians
in Japan till the day (August 15, 1549) when Francis
Xavier and his two companions, Father Cosmo Torres and
Brother Juan Fernandez, landed at Kagoshima in the
province of Satsuma. The mission to Japan was under-
taken at the suggestion of a Japanese named Anjiro, who
had been converted to Christianity at Goa and who ac-
companied the Jesuit missionaries to Japan and acted for
awhile as their interpreter. When the missionaries left
Kagoshima a year later they left Anjiro in charge of 150
baptized Christians. The methods adopted for effecting
the conversion of the Japanese were similar to those
adopted by Xavier in India, to which reference has
already been made. Baptism was administered as a
general rule before those desirous of receiving it had gained
any clear appreciation of the meaning of the Christian
faith. Thus in a letter written by Xavier from Hirado,
where he stayed for ten days after leaving Kagoshima, we
read : " The lord of that country received us with much
affection and kindness. In a few days about a hundred
persons became Christians, thanks to what was preached
to them by Brother Juan Fernandez, who already knew
how to speak passably well, and to the book translated
into the Japanese language, which we read to them."

It is interesting to note, in view of the late Professor
Lloyd's investigations, that some of the Buddhist priests
belonging to the Shingon sect professed to find a great
resemblance between the Jesuit teaching in regard to the
Christian Trinity and their own beliefs. The feeling of
the Buddhist priests was not, however, reciprocated by
Xavier, as Father Froez wrote in 1586: " They should
recognize that the teaching of the Shingon sect, like that
of the others, was only an invention of devils and a tissue
of falsehoods." The visit of the missionaries to Kyoto (in
January 1551) where they had hoped to have obtained an
audience with the Mikado, proved unsuccessful, and they
then retired to Yamaguchi, from which Xavier wrote : " In
two months at least 500 persons have become Christians, and

JAPAN 221

the number is daily increasing." After a stay of twenty-
seven months in Japan, Xavier sailed on November 20, 1551,
for India, whence he sailed again for China, off the coast of
which (in the island of Sanchian) he died in November 1552.

Although his name has been completely overshadowed
by that of Xavier, to Juan Fernandez is due the chief
credit for the initial successes of the Jesuit missionaries in
Japan. " No one," says Dr. Otis Gary, " deserves so much
as he to be called the founder of the early Japanese Church."
Fernandez had been a rich silk merchant in Cordova, and
on joining the Society of Jesus had refused the honour of
the priesthood and had preferred to labour as a humble
layman. Xavier never learned to speak Japanese and had
to rely entirely upon interpreters, whereas Fernandez soon
learned to speak and preach with fluency. Soon after the
departure of Xavier, difficulties arose which tended to
become more and more political. The Portuguese Jesuits
were followed by Dominicans and Franciscans, who were for
the most part Spaniards, and the Dutch and other traders,
who began to increase in number and in influence, enter-
tained no good feelings towards any of the missionaries.
If the policy of the missionaries had been to establish a
Japanese Church which could have been independent of
foreign ecclesiastics or princes, all might have gone well
and Japan might long since have been a Christian country,
but to tell the Japanese that to become Christians was to
profess allegiance to an Italian Pope, or to connect Chris-
tianity in any way, however indirectly, with the encourage-
ment of European trade, was to build a Church upon
foundations which could not endure.

The story of the Roman Catholic Church in Japan
affords an object-lesson on the largest scale of the disastrous
results which attend the adoption of political methods for
spreading the Christian faith. Within thirty years of the
departure of Xavier the number of Christians in Japan is
said to have risen to GOO^OO,1 who were mostly to be

1 In a letter, however, written by Bishop Cerqueira in 1603 he asserts that
the total number of Christians prior to 1600 \vasbetween 200,000 and 300,000.

222 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

found in Nagasaki and the surrounding districts. Nagasaki
had become simultaneously a Christian city and the centre
of the Portuguese trade with Japan. The spread of
Christianity had been in part due to the assistance of
Nobunaga, a military dictator in Japan, who did not
himself become a Christian, but who supported the Chris-
tians against his personal enemies, who were Buddhists.
He was killed in battle in 1582. After his death
Hideyoshi, who became the real ruler of Japan, began to
show disfavour towards the rapidly increasing Christian
population, and in 1587 he issued an edict ordering all
missionaries to leave Japan within twenty days. The edict
was not strictly enforced, but for the next fourteen years
the spread of Christianity was checked by intermittent
persecutions. In 1596 the captain of a Spanish galleon
which had been wrecked at Urado, in explaining to a
Japanese official the significance of a map that he pro-
duced, said: "The kings of Spain begin by sending out
teachers of our religion, and when these have made
sufficient progress in gaining the hearts of the people,
troops are dispatched who unite with the new Christians
in bringing about the conquest of the desired territory."
These words were immediately reported to Hideyoshi and
did much to confirm him in his hostility towards the
missionaries. His dislike of the Christians was, moreover,
confirmed by the accusations of perfidy and disloyalty
which the Franciscans and Jesuits continued to make
against each other. Early in 1597 he commenced to take
active measures against the Christians, and on February 5
there were crucified at Nagasaki 6 Franciscans, 3 Japanese
who were members of the Jesuit Order, and 17 other
converts. Early in 1598, 137 Christian churches were
destroyed and a large proportion of the Jesuit missionaries
were driven out of the country. Hideyoshi died in
September 1598. During the civil war which followed
his death three Christian Daimyos, who were leaders of the
defeated party, were killed. leyasu, who now became the
military ruler of Japan, was at first disposed to tolerate

JAPAN 223

the Christians, but in 1603 the persecution of them recom-
menced. It did not, however, become at all severe till
1613, when three prominent Christians together with
their wives and families were burned to death at Arima.
As illustrating the superb courage of Japanese Christian
children, we may note that one of these who was con-
demned to be burnt to death as a Christian, when the
cords that bound him to the stake had burnt away, went
to his mother, who said to him, " Look up to heaven."
He died whilst still clinging to his mother. Truly the
Japanese Christians of to-day have reason to thank God
for their Christian martyrs. To them no less than to
their sisters in the West could the words attributed by
Browning to St. John be literally applied :

" What little child,

"What tender woman that had seen no least
Of all my sights, but barely heard them told,
Who did not clasp the cross with a light laugh,
Or wrapt the burning robe round, thanking God ? "

In 1614, 300 persons, including a large proportion of
the foreign missionaries, were shipped out of Japan, and for
the next twenty-four years the Christians were subjected to
tortures and persecutions which throw into the shade all
the cruelties practised against Christians under the Eoman
Empire. On the capture of the castle of Shimabara, where
the Christians had endeavoured to defend themselves in
1638, 17,000 Christians were put to death.

In the following year an Italian Jesuit (Porro) was
burned alive together with all the inhabitants of the
village in which he was found. Soon after this all visible
signs of Christianity disappeared from Japan. As late as
1666 some Japanese who had escaped to Siam reported
that in the previous year 370 Christians had been put to
death in Japan. In 1640, 4 Portuguese envoys, together
with the 57 other persons who sailed with them in the
same ship, were beheaded on their arrival in Japan. A
notice-board which was erected near the spot where the
heads were exposed bore the inscription :

224 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

" Thus is it that hereafter shall be punished with death
all those coming to this Empire from Portugal, whether
they be ambassadors or common sailors, and even though
it be through mistaking the way or because of a tempest
that they come : yea, every such person shall perish, even
though he be the King of Portugal, or Buddha, or a
Japanese god, or the Christians' God Himself, yea all
shall die." *

Five Jesuit priests and three other companions who
visited Japan in 1642 were put to death with torture, and
five others who followed them a year later met the same
fate.2

In 1708 Father Sidotti landed in Japan. He was
imprisoned for seven years and died in 1715. During the
next century and a half Japan was so closely barred
against foreigners that few tidings reached the outer world.
On two or three occasions Japanese who landed in the
Philippine Islands, or at Macao, described certain Japanese
families as continuing to preserve Christian traditions ; and
in 1821, 17 Japanese who had been shipwrecked on the
Philippine Islands and who were found to possess some
Christian medals, asked for and received baptism.

Modern Missions in Japan.

The resurrection of the Christian Church in Japan dates
from 1859. In the previous year, as the result of treaties
made between America, England, France and Japan,
foreigners were permitted to reside at certain selected
Japanese ports. In the very year that these treaties were
signed, 80 Japanese Christians were discovered at Nagasaki,
10 of whom were tortured to death. The honour of send-
ing the first missionaries to take advantage of the sign-
ing of the treaties belongs to America. On May 2, 1859,

1 For the form of this proclamation see A History of Christianity in
Japan, by Otis Gary, i. p. 231.

2 According to Japanese accounts, however, these recanted and became
Buddhists.

JAPAN 225

before the treaties came into force, the Rev. J. Liggins, of
the Protestant Episcopal Church, and, a month later, the
Eev. C. M. Williams (afterwards Bishop of Yedo) arrived
at Nagasaki. Within a year Dr. Hepburn of the American
Presbyterian Board, Dr. Verbeck of the Dutch Reformed
Church of America, and (in 1860) a representative of the
American Baptists Society were settled at Nagasaki, or at
other treaty ports. In September 1859, M. Girard, a
Roman priest, arrived at Yedo, and two months later M.
Mermet commenced active missionary work at Hakodate.
During the next five years the Roman missionaries got
into touch with a number of Christian communities, whose
numbers were variously estimated at from twenty to fifty
thousand, which still retained the sacrament of baptism
and observed in secret Sundays and other Christian festivals.
Dr. Gary writes :

" The organization of the communities was nearly the
same in all the villages. There were usually two leaders.
When possible the first of these was a man who knew how
to read and write. He presided at the prayers on Sunday
and came to the beds of the dying. The second was the
baptizer. He always had a pupil in training to be his
successor. The baptizer did not hold office for longer than
ten years, and the pupil as a rule studied the formula and
assisted in administering the rite for at least five years
before succeeding to the office. Sometimes the offices of
baptizer and prayer-leader were held by the same person.
The Christians had some books and religious emblems that
had been handed down from generation to generation. One
treatise on Contrition had been composed in 1603." :

The open avowal of their Christian faith soon brought
persecution upon the Japanese Christians. Between 1867
and 1870, 4000 who had refused to recant were arrested
in Nagasaki and its neighbourhood. These were deported
from their native villages and were placed in different
provinces, where they were subjected to very harsh treat-
ment, under which many of them died. By the end of
1872 these exiles began to be more kindl y treated, and in

1 A History of Christianity in Japan, i. 286.
15

226 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

the following year the persecution of Christians fell into
abeyance.

Dr. H. Nagaoka, who was for a time an attach^ at
the Japanese Legation in Paris, and who published in
1905 a book entitled Histoire des relations du Japan avec
V Europe aux xvie et xviie silcles, represents the Japanese
official standpoint with reference to the Christian missions.
According to him, the question of encouraging or dis-
couraging the spread of the Christian faith was from first
to last a political and not a religious question. The
missionaries were encouraged at first by rulers of the
semi-independent provinces of Japan, partly because they
were regarded as the pioneers of profitable trade and partly
because their presence in one district seemed to afford the
ruler of that district moral if not material support in his
disputes with the rulers of adjacent provinces. The final
extirpation of the Christians was prompted by the convic-
tion that by no other means could Japan retain her
political independence. Whilst then those who suffered
for their faith have every right to be regarded as martyrs, it
is not possible to ascribe to their persecutors the religious
bigotry or intolerance which in many other countries has
brought about religious persecutions.1

The first Japanese unconnected with the Eoman
Mission to receive baptism was Yano Eiuzan, who had
for three years acted as language teacher to the Rev. J. H.
Ballagh of the Reformed Church Mission, and had helped
Mr. Ballagh to translate the Gospel of St. John into
Japanese. His baptism took place in November 1864.

In 1868 the revolution occurred in Japan which
restored the supreme power to the Emperor and in-
augurated the modern Japanese system of government.
Although the change in the form of government was not
immediately followed by a cessation of persecution, it
facilitated the residence of foreigners in Japan and in-
directly paved the way for the spread of Christian missions.
The first English missionary to commence work in Japan

1 P. 51.

JAPAN 227

was the Rev. George Ensor of the C.M.S., who reached
Nagasaki in 1869. Up to this time the number of
baptisms connected with missions other than those of the
Roman Church had only amounted to nine. Soon after
Mr. Ensor's arrival, a man named Futagawato feigned to
be interested in Christianity in order that he might
assassinate Mr. Ensor. The story of Christ's love, however,
as he heard it from Mr. Ensor, so affected him that he
became a Christian, and later on, when imprisoned on
account of his faith, he preached Christ to the inmates of his
prison, with the result that seventy of them began to study
the Bible for themselves. For several years inquirers
could only dare to visit Mr. Ensor at night, and interviews
had to take place behind barred doors.

Of the pioneer Protestant missionaries Dr. G. F.
Verbeck (see p. 225) deserves special mention. He
exercised a wide influence, especially amongst the Govern-
ment officials, and the school which he organized became
the first Imperial university. He died in 1898.

The missions that were established in different parts
of Japan continued to progress, despite considerable
persecution, until the year 1873, when the attitude of the
Japanese Government towards Christianity underwent a
change. On February 19 the Government ordered the
removal of the notice-boards which contained the prohibi-
tion of Christianity. At this time some of the recognized
leaders of Japanese thought began to suggest that the time
had come for Japan to fall into line with the nations of
the West by adopting Christianity as its national religion.
Had their suggestion been adopted the results from the
Christian standpoint would have been disastrous. This
danger was happily averted, partly in consequence of the
vehement opposition of the official representatives of
Buddhism, and partly because the Christians in Japan were
not disposed to accept an eclectic form of Christianity and
other religions which found favour with the advocates of a new
Japanese national religion. In 1873 the number of foreign
missionaries in Japan, in addition to those connected with

228 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

the E.G. and Greek missions, had risen to 87, of whom 79
hailed from America or Canada. The only English societies
then represented were the C.M.S. and the S.P.G. One of
the missionaries wrote — and his words would have been
endorsed by nearly all his fellow-workers — " the avalanche
of opportunities that slides down upon us almost stuns us."
So late as 1886 cases continued to be discovered in
which the Christian faith had been secretly handed down
from generation to generation. Thus Dr. Cary writes :

" There were sections of the country where even fairly
intelligent men knew nothing of the great changes that were
coming upon their land. One of these persons, who lived
among the mountains of Yamato, came on business to the
town of Shingu in the province of Kii. In the evening he
lodged at the house of a friend whom he had not seen for
years. As the two sat talking together, the master of the
house inquired : ' Have you ever heard anything about
Christianity ? '

" His guest, with a frightened air, lowered his voice and
said : ' Be cautious. If you talk of such things, you will
surely be beheaded.'

" ' What makes you think so ? '

" ' Why, are you so ignorant as not to know that Chris-
tianity is strictly prohibited ? '

" ' Can it be,' said the host, ' that you are unaware of the
great changes that have taken place ? We are now free to
believe in Christianity. In this city there is a church of
which I am a member, and it is constantly growing larger
and larger.'

" ' I never dreamed of such a thing. I myself am a
Christian. For ten generations the religion has been handed
down in our family from father to son. I supposed that
the laws against it were still in force, and so I have never
told others of my faith. God be praised if I am now at
liberty to speak of it ! '

" He was instructed by his friend, and a few mouths later
became a member of the Shingu Church."

A special characteristic of the work done by Christian
missionaries in Japan up to about 1888 was the successful
appeal which it made to men of culture and education.

JAPAN

220

In support of this statement we may quote the words of
Dr. D. C. Greene, written in 1889 :

" Not less than thirty students of the Imperial
University are avowed Christians. Among the members of
a single Congregational church are a judge of the Supreme
Court of Japan, a professor in the Imperial University, three
Government secretaries (holding a rank hardly, if any,
inferior to Mr. Kaneko himself), members of at least two
noble families ; while in a Presbyterian church are the three
most prominent members of the Liberal party, one of them
a count in the new peerage. Two influential members of the
legislature of the prefecture of Tokyo, one of them the
editor of the Kcizai Zasshi, the ablest financial journal in
Japan, are also members of a Congregational church. In
the prefectures of Kyoto and Ehime, the Christians have
two representatives in each local legislature. In the pre-
fecture of Guma the president and vice-president and three
other members of the legislature are Christians, and in the
Executive Committee, out of a total of five, three are
Protestant Christians."

The following figures illustrate the progress of Christian
missions in Japan other than those connected with the
Koman and Greek Churches. The numbers given refer to
communicants or baptized members of Christian Churches : —

1879

1882
1889

2,700

4,300

31,800

1900
1908
1913

42,400
73,400
98,000

From these figures it will be seen that a period of rapid
advance extending from 1879 to 1889 was followed by a
period of retarded growth from 1889 to 1900, and that this
has again been followed by a period of steady advance. It
is interesting to note that whereas on the accession of the
late Emperor in 1868 there were but 4 Christians in
Japan connected with Anglican or Protestant missions, at
the time of his death in 1912 their number was over
83,000. The least satisfactory point in connection with
the numerical progress of the Christians is the large
number of persons in Japan who have for a time professed
to be Christians and have since abandoned their profession.

230 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

The number of self-supporting mission stations in Japan,
which formed 14 per cent, of the whole number in 1882,
had increased to 40 per cent, in 1913.

Greater progress has been made in Japan than in any
other non-Christian land in the formation of churches
that are self-governed and are to a large extent indepen-
dent of help received from foreign missionary societies.
The total number of Christians in Japan is about 200,000,
of whom half belong to the Konian and Eussian missions.
Of the other half, at least three-quarters are members of
one of the four Japanese Churches which have absorbed
the converts connected with the various English and
American missionary societies. These are the Nippon Sei
Kokwai, the Kumiai Kyokwai, the Nihon Kirisuto Kyokwai
and the Nippon Methodist Sei Kyokwai. The word Kokwai
is usually rendered as " Catholic Church " by the members
of the first Church and the word Kyokwai as " United
Church," or " General Assembly," by the members of the
other three Churches.

The Nippon Sei Kokivai or " Holy Catholic Church of
Japan," which was formed in 1887, includes all Christians
connected with the missions of the Anglican Church. Its
adherents number about 20,000, including 17,500 baptized
Christians. In 1903, its baptized Christians numbered
10,500, the increase during the past decade being at the
rate of 66 per cent.

The control of the Church is vested in the General
Synod, which meets once in three years and in which the
Japanese clergy and laity have a predominant share. The
appointment of its bishops also rests with the diocesan
synods. There are at the present time seven dioceses, all
of which are presided over by European or American
bishops. The S.P.G. helps to support the Bishops of South
Tokyo [originally "Japan"] (1883) and Osaka (1896), the
C.M.S. the Bishops of Kyu-shu (1894) and Hokkaido (1894),
the American Episcopal Church the dioceses of North Tokyo
[originally " Yedo "] (1871) and Kyoto (1900), and the
Anglican Church in Canada the diocese of Mid- Japan (191 2).

JAPAN 231

At the end of 1913 the Sei Kokwai contained 7
bishops, 64 European or American and 94 Japanese clergy,
and 136 Japanese catechists.

Kumiai Kyokwai (Congregational United Church),
which was formed in 1883, includes the Christians con-
nected with the missions established by the A.B.C.F M.
Its total membership is about 20,000. In 1903 its
members numbered 18,000, its rate of increase for the
decade 1903-13 having been about 11 per cent.

The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign
Missions, which is chiefly supported by Congregationalists,
began work in 1869. The most famous convert connected
with this mission was Dr. Neesima, the founder of the
Doshisha College. In 1905 all the churches which were
partly supported from America and partly supported by
Japanese contributions were handed over to the Kumiai
Kyokwai with a gift of money, which was paid in three
annual instalments. The groups of Christians who are
now ministered to by American missionaries connected
with the A.B.C.F.M. are not integral parts of the Kumiai
Kyokwai, but the desire of the American missionaries is
that they should soon become constituent members of this
Church.

The Nikon Kirisuto Kyokwai (i.e. United Church of
Christ in Japan) was formed in 1877, and includes
Christians connected with the American Presbyterian
missions and with the Dutch and German Eeformed
Churches in U.S.A. It has a total membership of about
23,000. In 1903 it had 16,500 members; its rate of
increase therefore during the decade 1903-13 was about
40 per cent. It supports 146 ordained Japanese
ministers. At Tokyo the Presbyterians have a well-
equipped series of educational institutions known as the
Meiji Gakuin (school of the enlightened rule).

The Nij)pon Methodist Kyokwai, which was formed
in 1907, includes the Christians connected with the
Methodist Episcopal Church (U.S.A.) (North), the Methodist
Episcopal Church (South), and the Methodist Church of

HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Canada. It has a total membership of about 14,000,
aud has a Japanese Methodist bishop. At Aoyama in
Tokyo the M.E.C. (North) has a college and school with
650 students.

The Baptists number about 4000, and there are
about 10,000 Christians connected with a large number
of small societies, amongst which are two Lutheran
societies from America and Finland and the Scandinavian
Missionary Alliance, also a Unitarian Mission with 200
members. The Kumiai Kyokwai has made less rapid
progress than any other of the Christian Churches in
Japan, a fact which is probably to be in part explained
by the spread of Unitarian teachings amongst its members
during recent years and a consequent slackening of their
evangelistic zeal.

The Protestant missions, with very few exceptions,
have united in a general body called the Federated Missions
of Japan, through which a large amount of good work has
been done. The object of the Federation is to avoid
unnecessary duplication of organization and to arrange
joint efforts for the evangelization of Japan. One im-
portant piece of work which the Federation has accom-
plished is the formation of a Christian Literature Society
for the production and distribution of Christian literature.
A Union hymn-book has already obtained a circulation of
250,000 copies. The Anglican missions have not become
a corporate part of this Federation, but many of their
representatives have given it their cordial support. A
\vriter on missions in Japan says :

" There is little wonder that the brotherly relationship
of the different bodies of Christians becomes a source of
surprise to the Japanese, who are accustomed to the con-
tentions and quarrels so common between the different
sects of Buddhists and Shintoists. The cordial relations
which are maintained between the Christian peoples appear
in very great contrast and greatly commend the Christian
faith to the approval of the people." l

1 Art. by the Rev. Dr. J. D. Bearing, in Missions Overseas, 1914, p. 22.

JAPAN

Special mention should be made of the work that is
being doue in many parts of Japan by the Y.M.C.A., which
has 56 student associations. It arranges lectures for the
benefit of the 50,000 "college men"; it supports hostels
for business men in Dairen, Kobe and Nagasaki, and exerts
a strong influence for good in Tokyo and other towns.
The Y.W.C.A. is also doing excellent work amongst
Japanese women.

Amongst the philanthropic works which have been in-
augurated by Christian Missions mention should be made
of the four leper asylums that are supported by Christian
Missions in Japan, namely, the Fukusei Kogama at
Shizuoka and the Biwasaki Hospital near Kumamoto be-
longing to the E.G. missions, the Eesurrection of Hope
Hospital near Kumamoto connected with an Anglican
Mission, and one at Tokyo belonging to the Mission to
Lepers in India and the East.

Educational Work. — From the time that Japan was
re-opened to Christian missionaries, special stress has been
laid upon the educational side of mission work. Of the
missionary colleges which have been established in Japan,
the Doshisha College has perhaps exerted the widest in-
fluence. Its founder was Joseph Neesima (or Niishima).
In 1864, at a time when Japanese were forbidden under
pain of death to leave their country, he made his way to
America, where he became a Christian, and ten years later
returned to Japan with funds wherewith to establish a
Christian college. The site selected was Kyoto, which
was the stronghold of Japanese Buddhism. For twenty
years this college, which was in part supported by the
American Board of Missions, accomplished a great work in
training Japanese Christian students. In 1895, however,
the character of the college underwent a considerable
change. The Japanese trustees refused to co-operate with
the American Board, which had been instrumental in
building the college and encouraged the teaching of a
Unitarian form of Christianity. After a long-protracted
dispute the trustees resigned, and the college came again

234 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

under direct Christian influence. Mr. Kataoka, who was
four times chosen as Speaker of the Lower House of
Parliament and was a member of the Presbyterian Church,
became President of the Doshisha in 1902.

In 1913 its professors and teachers numbered 44, of
whom 3 2 were Japanese and 1 2 American. There were in
addition 29 lecturers, most of whom were attached to the
Kyoto Imperial University. In this year the college was
raised to university rank. The students number about 700.

In 1912 the Sei Kokwai and the Anglican mis-
sionary societies acting together founded a central theo-
logical college at Ikebukuro, near Tokyo, for the study of
Christian theology. This college is a union of divinity
schools which have hitherto been carried on in the different
dioceses of Japan. It admits graduates from St. Paul's
College (S.P.G.) in the department of philosophy.

At the conference of Christian missionaries in Tokyo,
over which Dr. Mott presided on April 7, 1913, it was
decided to attempt the formation of a Christian university
for Japan.

One of the most serious problems which confront the
missionary organizations in Japan is how to develop self-
support in the Japanese Church, and to ensure a supply of
properly educated clergy and ministers. Bishop Cecil of
South Tokyo states the problem thus :

" The conditions of Japan require men of education, and
these men must have support for a family as well as for
themselves. Who is to supply it ? Relatively to their
degree of education the Japanese, especially the official,
professional and student classes, ... in contrast to the
business and farmer classes, are impecunious. Our missions
began generally on the theory that a priest or catechist, put
down in a station and supported by the mission, would in
the course of time raise round him a self-supporting con-
gregation. After a generation this theory is now stultified
by general experience, and no one seems to have any other.
The number of places in which a foreign mission can support
the native pastorate on foreign funds is clearly very limited
—if indeed the whole theory be not vicious. Are we to

JAPAN

235

return to the (apparent) New Testament way of a 'tent-
making ministry,' of ordaining ' in every city ' presbyters
who are not set apart from earning their own living ? . . .
If so, how is the situation to be combined with their proper
educational training ? "

The experience of the Kumiai Kyokwai and the Nihon
Kirisuto Kyokwai, to which we have already alluded, does
not encourage the hope that in the near future the
difficulty can be surmounted by the withdrawal of foreign
help and by leaving the Japanese to solve the problem for
themselves.

Roman Catholic Missions.

The following table illustrates the progress of the
E.G. missions to Japan during the last forty years : —

1870.

1880.

1891.

1900.

1910.

1913.

Christians .

10,000

23,000

44,505

57,195

63,000

66,000

European priests .

13

28

82

—

150

152

Japanese priests .

—

—

15

—

33

33

It will be noticed that during the decade 1900—10
the rate of increase was only 10 per cent, (as compared
with 92 per cent, increase of the Anglican and Protestant
missions). During the three following years the rate of
progress has been greater. The converts connected with
the E.G. missions form about one-third of the Christians
now in Japan.

In 1891 Pope Leo xm. re-established the Catholic
hierarchy in Japan, and constituted the archdiocese of
Tokyo with three suffragan sees of Nagasaki, Osaka and
Hakodate under the care of the Missionary Seminary at
Paris. To these have since been added the prefectures of
Shikoku and Niigata, under the care of the Dominicans
and the Missionary Society of Steyl.

236 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

The Jesuit College in Tokyo was recognized by the
Japanese Government in 1913 as a university.

The Russian Mission to Japan.

The Mission of the " Orthodox " Church to Japan is
one of the most romantic and most successful missions of
modern times. Its founder, Pere Nicolai, began his work
at Hakodate in 1861. For several years he served as a
Consular chaplain whilst studying the Japanese language
and waiting an opportunity to preach the Christian faith.

" At last the opening came, and in a most dramatic and
startling fashion. A certain Japanese knight (Samurai)
named Sawabe, who had become the keeper of a Shinto
shrine, and had long observed Nicolai with suspicion and
horror, burst in upon him as he sat in his quarters and told
him to prepare for instant death, rightly deserved by the
professor of a corrupt religion, who, moreover, was bent
upon handing over Japan to Paissia. Nicolai calmly asked
him what he knew about Christianity, to which the knight
replied that he knew it was an evil teaching, and that was
enough. Whereupon Nicolai asked him to hear him for a
little while, and then opened his Bible at Genesis and made
known the doctrine of creation. Sawabe listened im-
patiently, but soon became interested, put by his drawn
sword, and asked for instruction. Little by little he learned
the truth, then brought two friends, and after some months
they were baptized. Eight long years had passed since
Nicolai had come to Japan before he gained these first-
fruits of his vocation. Before he died, early in 1912,
over 30,000 Japanese looked up to him as their father-in-
God. He took away the reproach of sterility from the
Church of Eussia, for his example in Japan kindled a fresh
zeal for missions in that Church, so that all over Siberia
little groups of devoted Christians are working for the
Master and preaching Christ in all that wide empire." x

A special feature of the work of Pere Nicolai, or
Archbishop Nicolai as he afterwards became, was his
reliance upon Japanese workers for the conduct and
1 Missions Overseas, 1914, pp. 16 f.

JAPAN 237

development of his mission. He never had six Europeans
as members of his staff. During the Kusso-Japanese War
the Archbishop, who had refused to leave Japan, bade the
Christians connected with the Eussian mission pray for
the success of their own countrymen. The mission is
represented in many different parts of Japan, especially in
the larger towns. Its cathedral at Tokyo occupies the
finest site in the city, and its dome and spire can be seen
for miles round. Before his death the Archbishop had the
help of Bishop Sergius, who has proved a worthy successor
to the great founder of the mission. Sawabe, who had
desired to murder Archbishop Nicolai, was himself ordained
as a priest and survived his master by a year.

A new departure has recently been made by this
mission in view of training boys who may hereafter serve
as priests in Japan. Several Russian boys are being
educated in the theological seminary of the mission along
with Japanese boys. The Eussian boys share the life of
the Japanese boys in every detail. Those who are respons-
ible for the control of the policy of the mission believe
that the effect will be to produce Eussian priests possessed
of a better insight into Japanese character than any
which Occidentals have hitherto obtained. The experi-
ment that is being made is one of extraordinary interest.

The total number of adherents of the Eussian mission
is about 33,000 (1914).

EECENT DEVELOPMENTS.

The year 1889 marked the beginning of a period of
reaction, not only against Christianity but against the
tendency which had been developed to imitate the customs
and actions of Western nations. The reaction was due to
political as well as to religious causes. At the time when
the edict against Christianity was withdrawn, the Japanese
were disposed to look with favour upon almost everything
that reached them from the West, or from America, and the
suggestion to which we have already referred, was seriously

238 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

mooted that Japan ought to follow the example of Europe
and America and accept Christianity as its national religion.
Had it done so it is difficult to say for how long the
Christiauization of Japan would have been delayed, but
happily this was not to be. As the influence of Christianity
continued to spread throughout Japan, those responsible
for the government of the country realixed that it would
be difficult, if not impossible, to maintain the traditional
reverence for the Emperor's divinity if the teaching of
Christianity were allowed free course. Moreover, in Japan,
as in many other countries, liberal and socialistic move-
ments began to develop which threatened the stability of
the Government and of the imperial regime.

Shintoism, which is sometimes called the national
religion of the Japanese, had its origin in the primitive
nature-worship of the earliest inhabitants of Japan, and an
early type of it is found still amongst the Ainu in the
north. It inculcated reverence for deceased ancestors,
which developed into a reverence, almost amounting to
worship, for the Mikado and the ancestors of his house.
The fall of the Shogunate in 1868, and the revolution
which accompanied it, were followed by a great revival of
Shintoism as distinguished from Buddhism. The emphasis
which was laid upon the cardinal doctrine of Shintoism,
that is upon a belief in the Emperor's divine descent, was a
chief factor in binding the Japanese nation together and
preparing the way for their victory in their war with Russia.
The Japanese realized that reverence for the Emperor's
divinity was the pivot of the position, and that from a
political point of view their best hope of maintaining the
popular reverence for the Emperor was to encourage
Shintoism as the State religion. Accordingly official
encouragement was given to its supporters and Christianity
became correspondingly unpopular.

For twenty years Shintoism and Buddhism, but
especially the former, received State patronage, and though
Christians were never actively persecuted, it was generally
understood that the acceptance of the Christian faith would

JAPAN 239

retard the advancement of any one employed by the State.
Two causes have been acting within recent years which
have brought about a change of attitude on the part of
the Japanese Government. It has come to be recognized
by the Japanese that whilst Shintoism can suggest noble
ideals, it cannot supply the motive power necessary to the
attainment of these ideals, nor can it become a moral force
which can purify and uplift the life of the nation. For
many years after the re-introduction of Christianity those
who were responsible for the government of Japan believed
that Shintoism, the profession of which involved an acknow-
ledgment of the Emperor's divinity, provided the best
means of inculcating patriotism and loyalty. They have,
however, now come to realize that the belief in the divine
prerogatives of the Emperor can no longer be maintained
in its old form, and that Shintoism can no longer serve
as the national religion of Japan.

At the same time they have realized that Buddhism
cannot take its place, and that the only alternative to
Christianity must be a form of agnosticism, which would
not help the nation either morally or politically. A step,
which marked the beginning of an epoch in the history
of religion in Japan, was taken on January 17, 1912,
when Mr. Tokonami, Vice-Minister of Education, announced
to a meeting of press representatives that the Government
had decided to recognize Christianity as a religion which
they were prepared to encourage. In his speech, which was
in fact a formal declaration of the new Government policy,
he began by saying : —

" In order to bring about an affiliation of the three
religions it is necessary to connect religion with the State
more closely, so as to give it additional dignity, and thus
impress upon the public the necessity of attaching greater
importance to religious matters. In the early years of the
Eestoration the nation, too eager to reform all the traditional
institutions, did not judiciously discriminate between what
should be destroyed and what should be preserved intact.
Many Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines were demolished,

240 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

and the national sentiment towards religion was thereby
greatly impaired. Christianity was then also held in
abhorrence and distrust. Since the freedom of religious
faith has been arrested, however, Christian teachers have
been energetically engaged in the propaganda of their
religion. Taking these circumstances into consideration,
it is felt necessary to give religion an additional power and
dignity. The culture of national ethics can be perfected
by education combined with religion. At present moral
doctrines are inculcated by education alone, but it is
impossible to inculcate firmly, fair and upright ideas in the
mind of the nation unless the people are brought into
touch with the fundamental conception known as God,
Buddha, or Heaven, as taught in religions. It is necessary
that education and religion should go hand in hand to build
up the basis of the national ethics, and it is therefore
desirable that a scheme should be devised to bring education
and religion into closer relations to enable them to promote
the national welfare. This necessitates binding the State
and religion by closer ties."

He then went on to express the hope that Christianity
would " step out of the narrow circle within which it is
confined, and endeavour to conform to the national polity
and adapt itself to the national sentiments and customs,
in order to ensure greater achievements."

One result of this action on the part of the Government
was that a conference of certain representatives of " the
three religions" was held (Feb. 25, 1912) which was
attended by several members of the Japanese Cabinet.
The resolutions which were subsequently passed began
with the following statement (the translation into English
is made by a Japanese) : —

"We acknowledge that the will of the Government
authorities, which led us to hold the conference of the
representatives of the three religions, is to respect the
authority of religion, which each possesses, to promote
national morality, and to improve public discipline, without
spoiling our original creeds ; and the statesmen, religionists,
and educationists, non-interfering with one another, and
to maintain the honour of the Imperial Household and to
contribute to the progress of the times."

JAPAN 241

The missionary prospect in Japan has been considerably
modified by this change of attitude towards Christianity
on the part of the Government of Japan, but whether or
no Christian missionaries have reason to be thankful for
the change remains yet to be seen.

Count Shigenobu Okuma, who was one of the founders
of New Japan and was Prime Minister in 1898, and
again in 1914, describes the condition of things in 1909
thus : —

" Japan at present may be likened to a sea into which
a hundred currents of Oriental and Occidental thoughts have
poured in, and not having yet effected a fusion, are raging
wildly, tossing, warring, and roaring." " The old religions
and old morals," he writes, " are steadily losing their hold,
and nothing has yet arisen to take their place." " A portion
of our people go neither by the old code of ethics and
etiquette nor by those of modern days, while they are also
disinclined to conform, to those of foreign countries, and such
persons convey the impression of neither possessing or being
governed by any ideas about morality, public or private." l

We may compare this statement with a later state-
ment by Count Okuma in 1912 :

" Although Christianity has enrolled less than 200,000
believers, yet the indirect influence of Christianity has
poured into every realm of Japanese life. It has been
borne to us on all the currents of European civilization ;
most of all the English language and literature, so sur-
charged with Christian ideas, has exerted a wide and deep
influence over Japanese thought.

" Christianity has affected us not only in such superficial
ways as the legal observance of Sunday, but also in our
ideals concerning political institutions, the family, and
woman's station. Even our lighter literature, such as
fiction and the newspapers, betrays the influence of Anglo-
Saxon and German literature and personalities. Not a
few ideals in Japan which are supposed to have been
derived from Chinese literature are in reality due to
European literature." 2

16

1 Fifty Years of New Japan, London, vol. ii. p. 568.

2 See International Review of Missions, vol. i. p. 654.

242 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

In endeavouring to estimate the prospects of
Christianity in Japan in the near future, it is necessary
to take into account the low standards in regard to
purity and truth which the religions of Japan have done
little to raise. Polygamy in the ordinary sense of the
term is not found, but prostitution and other forms of
immorality are sadly common. Moreover, concubinage
is sanctioned by custom and divorce is easy. In a
country the language of which is said to contain no
equivalent for " home," one of the chief tasks con-
fronting those who would interpret Christianity to its
people is to place before them the Christian ideal of
family life. Until the average conception of home-life
is raised far above the level at which it now stands, the
opening words of the Lord's Prayer and the fundamental
doctrines of the Faith which are inherent in them will
wake but a weak response in the hearts of the Japanese
nation. In regard to the question of truth, it is hard to
convince a Japanese that, unless the telling of a lie
involves cowardice or disrespect to authority, there can
be anything in it to which objection can be taken.
Commercial dishonesty is perhaps less common than it
was, the change being partly due to the fact that within
recent years the higher and better educated classes of
society have taken part in commerce. The greatest of
all the obstacles to the spread of the Christian faith is
a widespread belief that the Japanese people have a divine
descent and a divine mission which differentiate them from
all other nations and races. To accept a religion which
comes to Japan from Europe or America appears to many
Japanese equivalent to the abandonment of this claim.
Moreover, to suggest that their Emperor should kneel
(albeit in the company of the Kings and Emperors of
Europe) and acknowledge himself a " miserable sinner,"
is to suggest what to the average Japanese appears
nothing short of blasphemy. Dr. Gary, in referring to
the article published by Professor Iiioue Tetsujiro of the
Imperial University in 1893, says:

JAPAN 243

" By quotations from Christ's words and by references to
European history, he endeavoured to show that Christianity
is destructive of patriotism. He closed by asserting that
as Christ Himself had said, ' Every kingdom divided against
itself is brought to desolation,' therefore the reception of
Christianity would involve national destruction." x

A leading monthly periodical published in Japan in
1907, after referring to the progress of Christian missions
in Japan, went on to remark :

" Supposing that these movements should be successful,
our Empire will be changed into a Christian country, our
unique history extending over a period of 2500 years will
be trampled on, and the spirit of Japan will be destroyed.
Not only is the Christian spirit not sufficient to lead the
new generation, but it will make the people weak and
hypocritical, and destroy their character." 2

There is probably no country in the world at the
present time in which so large a proportion of the educated
section of the population would call themselves " agnostics "
as is the case in Japan.

According to a recent analysis of the religious beliefs
of the students attending the Imperial University in Tokyo,
3000 were agnostics, 1500 atheists, 450 Shintoists or
Buddhists and 60 Christians. We may compare with
this statement the fact that out of the 315,000,000
people in India enumerated in the last census, only
50 declared themselves as agnostics, and one as an atheist.
Of the former apparently 45 were Chinese.

The Japanese have not the religious instinct developed
to anything like the same extent as it is developed
amongst the majority of the peoples of India. European
civilization and culture burst suddenly upon Japan,
with the result that those who began to absorb Western
literature and Western science rapidly lost faith in the
religious sanctions which had exerted an influence upon

1 A History of Christianity in Japan, vol. ii. p. 243.
3 Reproduced in Japan Evangelist, June 1907.

244 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

them in the past, and before they had had time to make
any intelligent study of the Christian faith.

We believe that Christianity will one day be the
religion of Japan, but the Japanese Christianity of the
future may be of a less emotional, and perhaps less
devotional, and less dogmatic character than the Chris-
tianity of many other countries.

The Bible in Japan. — In the sixteenth century the
Jesuits translated the Decalogue, the Lord's Prayer and
other extracts from the Bible which occurred in their
liturgical services. They are also said to have printed a
translation of the New Testament at Miyako (Kyoto)
before 1613, but no copy of this translation appears to
have survived. In 1831 three survivors of a Japanese
junk which had been driven by a storm across the Pacific
made their way across Canada to London, and eventually
assisted the well-known missionary Gutzlaff, of the Nether-
lands Missionary Society, who was stationed at Macao, to
translate into Japanese the Gospel and Epistles of St. John.
These were printed at Singapore in 1837. The earliest
complete version of the New Testament was begun by
Goble, an American Baptist missionary, in 1871, and was
completed in 1879. In 1887 a complete edition of the
Bible was issued, in the translation of which representatives
of the principal missionary societies working in Japan had
taken part. In 1895-97 the four Gospels and in 1911
the whole of the N.T. were translated from the Vulgate by
Ptoman Catholic missionaries, and in 1900 a version of the
N.T. translated by Bishop Nicolai of the Greek Orthodox
Church was issued. The following story illustrates the
influence which a study of the New Testament exerted
upon some of the Japanese who first saw it. In 1855,
whilst a British fleet lay at anchor in Nagasaki Bay,
Wakasa Murata, who was in command of the Japanese
forces which had received orders to prevent any one from
the British fleet landing on the shores of Japan, picked up
a Dutch New Testament which was floating in the water
and had apparently been dropped by one of the Dutch

JAPAN 245

merchantmen which were permitted to trade at Nagasaki.
The officer's interpreter, who was a Dutchman, explained
that this was the Holy Book of the Christians. The curi-
osity of Wakasa was aroused, and having learned that a
copy of the book could be obtained in classical Chinese, he
had a copy sent to him from Shanghai. A study of the
book resulted, after eight years, in the baptism of himself,
his brother and several other members of his family.

Notwithstanding the large number of missionary
societies which are now represented in Japan, and the
existence of four self-governed Japanese Churches, Christian
missions have hardly yet touched more than the fringe of
the country. At the Missionary Conference over which
Dr. Mott presided in Japan in 1913, it was stated that
whilst 80 per cent, of the Japanese people live in villages,
96 per cent, of the village inhabitants of Japan are as
yet unreached by Christian missions, or if we take the
town and country population together, 80 per cent, of the
entire population of Japan are out of reach of Christian
missionaries.

Formosa.

Formosa, which is about half the size of Scotland, has
a population of over 3,000,000. The mountains are in-
habited by savages, the lower hills by civilized aborigines,
and the level plains by Chinese interspersed with Japanese.
From 1624 to 1662 the Dutch were in possession of
the island, and idolatry was treated as a criminal offence
(see p. 47).

Despite the superficial character of the missionary
work done by the Dutch in Formosa, some knowledge of
the Christian faith lingered on for nearly a century.
Long after the Chinese had driven the Dutch from the
island (1683) the Jesuit, de Mailla, who was working as
surveyor for the Imperial Government in 1715, found
indications of the Dutch Mission, and even of the Dutch
language. Many natives, abhorring idols, professed belief
in one God, Father, Son and Holy Spirit ; knew the story

246 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

of Adam and Eve's fall ; believed that baptism effaced the
" stain " of that fall ; knew the baptismal formula ; were
reported by the heathen Chinese to have the custom of
pouring cold water on new-born infants. " Nevertheless,"
de Mailla continues, " we were unable to know certainly if
they were baptized or not. ... It seemed that they have
no idea of the rewards or punishments of the other life, so
it is probable they do not take great care to baptize their
children. We tried, as far as we could, to teach them the
most necessary truths of our holy religion . . . and above
all to baptize their children as soon as they were born,
in case there might be some hope of instructing them when
they were capable of receiving it. What grief for us to
see ourselves in the midst of so fair a harvest, which would
become very abundant if it had apostolic labourers to
cultivate it, and yet to be obliged to abandon it without
hope of help ! "

When Formosa became part of the Chinese Empire
in 1683, Christianity, or rather the nominal profession of
Christianity, began to die out. In 1865 the English
Presbyterian Church began missionary work, having been
preceded by a few years by a E.C. mission. In 1872 the
Canadian Presbyterian Church started a mission in North
Formosa. The cession of the island to Japan in 1905
has been followed by its opening up to Western civilization
and has facilitated the extension of missionary enterprise.

In 1912 a union was effected between the Canadian
and English Presbyterian missions. The united synod
represents a Christian community of over 30,000.

The Japanese Church in Japan in connection with
the Anglican missions started work among the Japanese
residents in Formosa in 1897 at the suggestion of the
Japanese authorities.

IX.
COREA.

THE story of Christian missions in Corea is full of romance
and of inspiration. In no other country has the persecution
of Christians been so intense, and in no other has Chris-
tianity within recent years made such rapid advance. The
country is one of which little has been known in Europe
until comparatively lately.

Many who are familiar only with its chequered history
during recent years are ignorant of its great and, in
some respects, glorious past. The Coreans can boast of
having been the first people to print from metal type, of
having invented an alphabet to take the place of the
Chinese ideographs, and of having constructed the first
ironclad ship. This last was used by them in their efforts
to repel the Japanese invasion in the sixteenth century.
At this period, when Corea was starting on her downward
career, " she had made great advances in civilization and
prosperity. Polite learning, as typified in the knowledge
of the Chinese classics, was universal among the higher
classes, while among the lower many of her artisans had
attained a high degree of technical and artistic skill . . . her
people, homogeneous, industrious, intelligent, and tranquil,
lived in physical comfort and security." 1 The Japanese
invasion of the country resulted in a determination on the
part of its rulers rigidly to exclude from Corea all foreigners.
By murdering almost every stranger who was shipwrecked
on their coasts or who attempted to enter from the north,
they succeeded in shutting themselves off from the outside
world for three centuries and a half.

1 The Story of Corea, by S. H. Longford, 1911.
247

248 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Before we describe the introduction of Christianity
into Corea a few words must be said in regard to its earlier
religions.

The Religion of Corea. — Corea is a less religious country
than either China or Japan. The people for the most part
profess to be Confucianists and practise ancestral worship.
Buddhism has even less influence than it has in China,
The real religion of the people is a form of Shamanism,
which peoples the world with spirits and demons who are
believed to require constant propitiatory offerings.

Hideyoshi, the Japanese commander who invaded
Corea at the end of the sixteenth century, took back to
Japan a number of Coreans, some of whom embraced the
Christian faith and died as martyrs in Japan. In 1784 a
son of a Corean ambassador to Peking was baptized by the
Franciscan Mission in Peking. On his return to Corea he
began to preach and to baptize, but persecution almost
immediately broke out and the first convert was induced
to renounce his new faith. Many, however, of those whom
he had helped to convert were tortured to death rather
than recant, and, despite increasing persecution, the
number of Christians continued to grow. These elected
from amongst themselves a bishop and priests, who ad-
ministered the Christian sacraments, and after the lapse
of two or three years they opened communication with the
Eoman missionaries in Peking and asked to have a priest
sent to them. The first sent was a Chinese named Tsiou,
who lived in disguise for seven years, till 1801, when he
was put to death by the authorities.

In this year a systematic attempt was made to
exterminate the Christians, who then numbered nearly
10,000. Many thousands were put to death, including
all their leaders, their books were destroyed or buried,
and the survivors were scattered among the heathen
without having opportunities for common worship or even
for communication with each other. Although some
recanted, the vast majority were content to suffer every
form of torture or death rather than abjure their faith. It

COREA 249

is doubtful whether any Christians in the old Roman
Empire suffered as did the Corean Christians during the
first seventy years of the nineteenth century. Renewed
efforts were made to exterminate the Christians in 1815,
1819 and 1827.

In 1832, Bishop Bruguiere, who had worked in Siam,
was sent to Corea by the Society of Foreign Missions at
Paris. After a journey which occupied three years he
died just as he was reaching the borders of Corea. His
place was taken by Maubant, who had previously been a
missionary in Tartary, who reached Seoul in safety. In
1837, Bishop Imbert also succeeded in reaching Seoul.
At the close of 1838 the number of Christians was
reckoned at 6000. In the following year another cruel
persecution occurred. Many of the victims belonged to
the upper classes in Corea, who sacrificed everything and
shared with the common people the death from which
their rank should legally have exempted them. Amongst
the martyrs were the Bishop and the two European priests
at Seoul, who were cruelly tortured before being killed.
In 1845, Bishop Ferreol and a priest named Daveluy,
both of French nationality, succeeded in crossing in a small
boat from Shanghai to Corea, and were joined five years
later by another priest named Maistre.

Ferreol died in 1850 and Maistre in 1857, but the
number of their successors began to increase rapidly. By
1859 the number of Christians was reckoned at 16,700.
In 1865 the anti-Christian party in the State persuaded
the Regent to sanction the extermination of the Christians,
and the Bishop and seven European missionaries were put
to death with cruel tortures. In the course of a few
weeks Christianity was well-nigh exterminated. A French
fleet made an abortive attempt to obtain redress for the
murder of the French missionaries. Between 1866 and
1870 more than 8000 Coreans suffered death as Chris-
tian martyrs, apart from the large number of those who
perished of cold and hunger on the barren mountains to
which they fled.

250 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

In 1876 a few Coreau ports were opened to Japanese
trade, but it was not till 1882 that, by a treaty made with
the U.S.A., the country was practically opened to foreigners.
Missionary work was commenced by American Presbyterians
and by the American Episcopal Methodists in 1884. An
Anglican Mission, with Bishop Corfe as its leader, started
work in 1890. At this time the number of converts un-
connected with the Roman missions did not exceed 100.
During the following ten years they multiplied by 10.

Protestant missionary pioneers. — In 1832 Gutzlaff (see
p. 244) landed and spent a month in Basil's Bay selling
Chinese Bibles and other books. In 1866, Mr. Thomas
of the L.M.S. sailed for Corea in an American schooner,
but he and all the other members of the crew were
apparently murdered by the Coreans. In 1877 the
Rev. J. Ross of Moukden (of the U.F.C. of S. Mission)
published an English-Corean primer, and he and Mr.
M'Intyre translated the whole of the New Testament into
Corean, their translation being published by the Presbyterian
Press at Shanghai. The conversion of several Coreans is
known to have resulted from this work.

So rapidly did Christianity spread that when the
annexation of the country was proclaimed by Japan in
1910 there were in all 453 missionaries, of whom 50
were French, 90 British and 306 hailed from America.
Although the honour of having started the Christian
Church in Corea and of ministering to it during nearly
a century of continuous persecution belongs to the Roman
missions, these do not at the present time minister to
half the Christian population, and the proportion of
R.C. converts is rapidly decreasing. As we take note of
the rapid change which has come over this ancient land, we
cannot but ask with anxiety whether the depth and
stability of the work are in any degree proportionate to
its speed. On the whole the answer to our question is
less unsatisfactory than we might have feared. It is true
that some of the missionaries, especially those who come
from America, are prepared to baptize converts after a

CORE A 251

preparation which appears to be dangerously short, but
even in these missions baptism has, as a general rule,
been preceded by the confession of sins and by efforts to
make restitution to those who have been wronged, which
have afforded proof of the sincerity of the converts.

General Statistics. — In 1913 the number of baptized
Christians connected with the Anglican and Protestant
missions numbered 75,000 and the number of Christian
adherents 185,000. Connected with these missions there
were 10,000 churches and schools containing 13,250 boys
and 5800 girls, 20 hospitals and 23 dispensaries. The
American and European missionaries (including wives)
number about 330. Of these 164 are connected with
Presbyterian missions, 95 with Methodist, 32 with Anglican,
16 with the Salvation Army and 24 with other societies.

The number of Christians connected with E.G. missions
in 1913 was 80,657. These were ministered to by 58
European and 17 Corean priests.

The statement made by Dr. A. M. Sharrocks with
reference to the progress of the American Presbyterian
Missions (North) in Corea applies with little modification
to the other missions. He writes :

" Those who have been following the missionary enter-
prise in Corea will have noticed that the phenomenal
growth took its start about the year 1904, the year of the
Eusso- Japanese War. ... In the years 1904 and 1905 a new
life seemed to take hold of the Church. The growth in 1906,
1907 and 1908 became phenomenal. The 30,000 in 1905
suddenly increased to nearly 110,000 in 1911. It seemed
as though the whole nation were on the eve of bolting into
the Kingdom. ... In the midst of this rapid growth, that
is in the years 1906 and 1907, there broke out in the
Church one of the most remarkable revivals that ever swept
a mission field. The distinctive feature of the revival was
that it was among the professing Christians rather than the
non-converted. During the period of rapid growth . . .
the year 1907 stands out conspicuously as the only one
that shows a falling off in the increasing number of the
baptisms. . . . The casual reader of mission reports will
pronounce the years 1910-12 as years of decline. In some

2h2 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

respects they were. The total adherentage (sic), which had
been going up by leaps and bounds, not only failed to
increase, but actually shrunk about 10 per cent, on its
former number. . . . But the year 1912, when so many of
the pastors and Church officers were in Seoul on trial in the
' Conspiracy case,' turns out to be the banner year in the
number of baptisms administered. ... In 1909 the total
adherents numbered about 95,000 and the communicants
25,000. At present (1914) they are 92,600 and 43,000
respectively. . . . There have been far more baptisms
administered in the last two years than in any previous
two, and more than the total of any seven years prior to
1909."

Eeferring to the training to which a convert is
subjected prior to baptism, Dr. Sharrocks writes :

" Our methods recognize three classifications of
Christians ; new believers, catechumens and communicants.
Any one who attends services and wishes his name recorded,
is enrolled as a new believer. If he remains faithful and at
the end of six months passes a satisfactory examination, he
is received as a catechumen. He is then held on probation
for one year, after which time he is again examined to
ascertain the progress made, and if his examination and
past conduct are satisfactory he is baptized and becomes a
communicant. The sum of these three grades constitute
what we call the total adherentage." l

A similar period of probation is arranged by the other
missions. In the case of the Anglican mission, the period
is not less than three years.

The Presbyterian Mission (American Church, North)
began its work in 1884, when Dr. H. N. Allen (afterwards
U.S.A. Minister to Corea) was put in charge of a Govern-
ment hospital.2 His medical work paved the way for direct
evangelistic efforts, which were begun by the Eev. H. G.
Underwood in the following year. Since then the work
has spread rapidly throughout the central portion of the
peninsula, from Kang-kei in the north to Fusan in the
south. Sessions, Presbyteries and a General Assembly

1 The Christian Movement in Japan, 1914, p. 378 f.
3 See p. 31.

CORE A 253

have been established, and 43,000 members have been
baptized. The doctrine of self-support has been so success-
fully taught that during the year ending June 30, 1913,
the Christians contributed £15,240 towards the support
of this Church. A theological college, attended by 200
students, has been established at Pyongyang, from which
101 pastors have already been ordained. The total num-
ber of Corean pastors is 219, all of whom are supported
by the Corean congregations.

At Phyong An, said to be " the most wicked city in
Corea, the Presbyterian Church has a regular Sunday
congregation of over 1500 converts, and its mid-week
prayer meeting has an average attendance of 1100."

The Severance Hospital at Seoul is supported by
several missionary societies; see p. 30.

In 1892 the Presbyterian Church, South (U.S.A.), com-
menced missionary work in the southern part of Corea.
In 1907 a united "Corean Presbyterian Church" was
constituted, and at the same time 7 Coreans were ordained,
being the first ordained ministers of the Presbyterian
Corean Church.

The Australian Presbyterian and the Canadian Presby-
terian Churches have also missionaries in Corea ; the former
began work in 1889 in the south Kyengsang province,
the stations of the latter are in North-East Corea and in
Manchuria.

The Methodist Episcopal Mission (U.S.A.). — The first
Protestant missionary to enter Corea was the Eev. E. S.
Maclay, who landed in Chemulpo on June 23, 1884.
As a result of his favourable report two missionaries were
appointed before the close of the year, and reached Corea
in April 1885. This mission supports a hospital for
women and two dispensaries in Seoul, and has more than
100 churches in the district, which includes Seoul and
Chemulpo. It has also a considerable amount of work in
the district of Pyongyang. The mission has a joint-
college with the Presbyterians in Pyongyang. It has made
work among women a special feature of its programme.

254 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

In 1895 the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, estab-
lished a mission. It has stations at Seoul, Song Do and
Won San.

The Methodist Episcopal Church, North and South,
have combined to form one Methodist Episcopal Church
in Corea.

Anglican Missions. — Dr. Corfe, who had been a chaplain
in the Navy, was consecrated as a Bishop for Corea on
All Saints' Day, 1889, and with a small staff of clergy
settled at Seoul. At the end of seven years, which were
largely occupied in learning the languages required for
missionary work in Corea, the first convert was baptized.
This convert was ordained in 1914 as the first Corean
deacon in connection with the Anglican Church. The
missionary who prepared him for baptism is now the
Bishop in Corea. The centres of the Anglican Mission
are at Seoul, Chemulpo, Kanghwa, Suwon and Chinchun.
It also supports work amongst the Japanese at Fusan and
Chemulpo, and a mission hospital at Chemulpo, and takes
its share in the work of the Severance Hospital at Seoul.
The Anglican Mission is supported by the S.P.G.

A small " Orthodox " Mission has been opened under the
auspices of the Kussian Archimandrite, who resides on
premises adjoining the Russian Consulate. There are in
addition several other smaller Protestant missions.

At the Continuation Committee held at Seoul in
March 1913, four Presbyterian and two Methodist
missions reported 11,700 baptisms as having taken place
during the previous year. These four Presbyterian
missions have had a united General Council since 1905.

The Y.M.C.A. works in close touch with the various
missionary societies. Bishop Turner (of the Anglican
Mission) was president of its Board of Directors until his
death, and his successor is a member of its Board. Prince
Ito took part in laying the foundation-stone of its new
buildings in Seoul in 1907.

Medical Missions. — The Presbyterian, Anglican and
Methodist Missions have each of them several mission

COREA 255

hospitals, which have done much to further the spread of
the Christian faith. The Severance Hospital in Seoul
(which was founded by Mr. L. H. Severance) in connection
with the Presbyterian Mission, North, has a medical train-
ing college attached to it. The following missions con-
tribute one or more workers to the teaching staff of the
college : — American Presbyterian Missions, N. and S.,
American Methodist Missions, N. and S., Australian
Presbyterian Mission and the S.P.G. Over 30 qualified
doctors have already been trained in this college, and the
supply is likely to increase during the coming years.

The students, who must be Christians well recom-
mended by their clergy or pastors, take part in Sunday-
school teaching and other work connected with the
churches to which they are attached.

X.

MALAYSIA.

The Malay Peninsula.

IN 1813 the Rev. E. Milne, who was sent out by the
L.M.S. to join Morrison in China, was refused permission
to land at Macao and eventually settled at Malacca, where
he established an Anglo-Chinese college for the training of
Chinese and of European students of the Chinese language.
Before his death in 1822 Dr. Milne had helped to train
several European missionaries and had established schools
for Malays and Chinese, besides accomplishing a large
amount of translational work and printing. Attempts
were also made to start missionary work at Singapore and
Penang.

The Straits Settlements are situated on the west and
south coasts of the Malay Peninsula, and consist of the
islands of Singapore, Penang, and Pankor, with the districts
of Malacca, Province Wellesley, and the Bindings on the
mainland. Besides these there are the protected states of
Perak, Selangor, and Negri Sembilan. The total population
of this area is about 52,000, 000, of whom about 8000 are
Europeans. The Straits Settlements were included in the
Anglican diocese of Calcutta till 1869, when they became
part of the diocese of Labuan and Sarawak. In 1909 they
became the diocese of Singapore. On the coast there are
a large number of Chinese and Tamil immigrants.

An Anglican mission was established by a local com-
mittee in 1857 and was transferred to the S.P.G. in 1861.
The Rev. W. H. Gomes, a Singalese who had been trained

at Bishop's College, Calcutta, laboured for over fifty years

256

MALAYSIA 257

as a missionary, first in Borneo and after 1872 in Singa-
pore. He translated the Prayer Book and several other
books into Malay and the colloquial Chinese spoken in
Singapore. The S.P.G. started or supported work in
Malacca (I860), Penang (1880), Province Wellesley
(1879), Perak (1884), and Selangor (1887). Towards the
support of the " missionary chaplain," whom the S.P.G.
appointed for the Province Wellesley, a Presbyterian Com-
mittee formed in Penang contributed £200 per annum
from 1879 to 1890.

In these missions, which are still in their infancy,
missionary work has been carried on and schools established
amongst the Malays, Chinese, and Tamils, \vith the assist-
ance of Chinese and Tamil missionaries or catechists.
There are about 8000 European and 1200 Asiatic
members of the Anglican communion in the diocese of
Singapore.

Work is also being carried on by the English
Presbyterians and by the A.M.E. mission. The Methodist
Anglo-Chinese school at Singapore has over 1000 pupils,
amongst whom a number of conversions to Christianity
have occurred.

The English Presbyterian mission which is represented
in Singapore carries on most of its work in China and
Formosa. Its work in Singapore is among the Chinese
immigrants, many of whom have become Christians in
connection with this mission.

The E.G. missions in the Malay Straits are in the
diocese of Malacca, which contains 35,000 E.G. Christians,
including Europeans. In Singapore there are churches for
Europeans, Eurasians, Chinese, and Tamils, also a large
Brothers' school with a staff of British and American
teachers.

In Malacca the Portuguese Church is over 300 years
old, but the descendants of those who originally worshipped
in it are Christians only in name.

Siam. — The population of Siam (6,686,000) contains
a large intermixture of Chinese, Burmese, and immigrants

258 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

from the Malay States. The Siamese, or Thai, who are
the dominant race, number about 2,000,000, and have
been Buddhists for many centuries. Closely related to the
Siamese are the Laos, who occupy the tributary states in
the north of the country. The Laos-speaking Thai number
about 10,000,000, about 2,000,000 of whom live within
the kingdom of Siam. The remainder live in Burma,
French Indo- China, and Yunnan. A large proportion of
them are not Buddhists. The Chinese population in Siam
number nearly 2,000,000.

There was apparently a Nestorian bishopric in Siam in
early times (see p. 165), but of the Christianity which it
represented no trace remains.

The K.C. Church has Apostolic Vicariates of Siam
(1662) and of Laos (1899). In the former there are 45
priests and 23,000 Christians; in the latter there are 33
priests and 12,000 Christians. The work is supported
by the Paris F.M. Society.

The American Presbyterians, who began missionary
work in 1840, have two missions, one to the Siamese and
the other to the Laos-speaking people in the north. In
Siam they have a station at Bangkok, and at three or four
other places, their work being chiefly of an educational
character. They have also some medical missions. Their
work amongst the Siamese has made very slow progress,
and in 1909 the number of communicants was under
1000. The great difficulty which has been experienced
in finding native evangelists is attributed by their mission-
aries to the teaching of Buddhism that religion is a
personal matter and that no one is responsible for the
religion of his neighbour. The mission to the Laos,
which was commenced in 1867, has, after a period of
severe persecution, attained considerable success, and
what may almost be termed a mass movement towards
Christianity has begun amongst them. In 1913 more
than 3000 new converts were obtained. The central
station of the mission is at Chieug Mai.

French Indo-CMna, in which many of the Laos live, is

MALAYSIA 259

closed by the French Government to the work of Protest-
ant missionaries. Two Swiss " Brethren," who are the
only Protestant workers there, report a great desire on the
part of the Laos to receive Christian teaching.

Dutch East Indies, etc.

We have already referred to the work of the Dutch
missions in the seventeenth and the first half of the
eighteenth centuries (see p. 46). At the beginning of the
nineteenth century, the total number of Christians through-
out the Dutch East Indies was reduced to about 100,000.
The great majority of the descendants of the old Christians
belong to the Gevestigte Gemeenten, which, with the
European congregations, form the Protestant Church,
as recognized by the Government in the Dutch East
Indies.

The three chief missionary organizations in the Dutch
archipelago, which includes Sumatra, Java, the North
Celebes and Dutch Borneo, and a few small islands, are
(a) The Established Church (Protestantsche Kerk) ;
(6) the Khenish Mission ; and (c) the Dutch missionary
societies.

(a) The Established Church includes about 300,000
members, many of whom are the descendants of those who
became Christians in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries.

(b) The Khenish Mission works amongst the Bataks
of Sumatra, in the island of Nias, and in Borneo. It has
72 principal stations and about 100 missionaries.

(c) There are five large and three smaller Dutch
missionary societies at work in the islands which form
the Dutch East Indies. Of these societies, the Nether-
lands Missionary Society carries on work in Java, the
Celebes, and East Sumatra ; the Eeformed Church works
in Java and Sumba ; the Utrecht Association works in
Java and Dutch New Guinea. Its staff includes three
medical missionaries.

2GO HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

The number of converts from Islam throughout the
Dutch archipelago, chiefly in Java and Sumatra, is about
40,000. Most of these are the result of the work of the
Ehenish Mission.

Sumatra. — Assemani quotes Cosrnas (Indicopleustes),
who wrote about A.D. 535, as saying:

" In the island of Taprobana (i.e. Sumatra), towards inner
India, where the Indian Ocean is, there is a Church of
Christians where clergy and believers are found. Whether
(there are Christians) beyond (that is in Southern China) I
do not know." 1

There does not appear to exist any later reference to
this early Christian Church in Sumatra.

In 1861 the Ehenish Missionary Society, working in
conjunction with a Dutch society, started work amongst the
Bataks in the interior of Sumatra. The Batak Christian
community now numbers 30,000, 14,000 having been
baptized during 1913. Thirty Bataks have been ordained,
and work is carried on at 41 centres and 500 out-stations.
There are 55 European missionaries, and 27,500 Batak
children are being educated in 500 schools. A training
school for native evangelists and teachers and a hospital
have been erected in the valley of Si Lidung, and on the
shore of Lake Toba there is a leper asylum and a large
industrial school. The majority of the population of
Sumatra are Moslems, amongst whom the Ehenish Mission
has most encouraging work.

The A.M.E.C. has a missionary in East Sumatra, and
the Ehenish Mission carries on work in Nias and in other
islands along the western coast of Sumatra.

There is a small E.C. mission manned by 5 priests,
who are Capuchins.

There are over 7000 Christian converts from Islam,
but despite the number of conversions to Christianity
which have taken place, Islam is making rapid progress

1 Assemani, Bibliotheca Orientalis, iii. 2, 437. There is a copy in tho
British Museum (see p. 165 n.).

MALAYSIA 261

amongst the pagan population. Islam first appeared
in Sumatra about A.D. 1200, and in Java about two
centuries later. Thousands of pilgrims go annually from
Java and Sumatra to Mecca, and on their return become
active propagandists of their religion.

Java contains a population of about 30,000,000.
The Established Church ministers to the Europeans and
to about 5000 native Christians. In addition to that
done by the Dutch societies, missionary work is carried on
by the German Neukirchen Mission in North Central Java,
by the Salvation Army in Central Java, and by the A.M.E.C.
in Batavia. The Neukirchen Mission has 11 principal
stations.

The principal centre of missionary work in the island
is Modjowaruo.

The Dutch societies have appointed a joint " missionary
consul " in Batavia to look after their common interests.

The Jesuits have a mission in Batavia, connected with
which there are 58 priests and 34,000 Christians.

The vast majority of the Javanese are Moslems, but
these are more approachable here and in Sumatra than in
any other part of the world. A Moslem university has
been established in Java, and an edition of the Koran in
Javanese has been issued. The Hindu dynasty which
formerly ruled in Java was overthrown by the Moslems in
the fifteenth century, and the religion which now prevails
has absorbed many of the tenets of both Hinduism and
Buddhism.

Borneo.

In British North Borneo, the sultanate of Brunei,
Labuan, and Sarawak, which have a population of about
550,000, the S.P.G., the A.M.E.C., and the Basel Society
are at work.

When James Brooke became Eajah of Sarawak in 1841,
he appealed to the English universities to undertake
missionary work, and as a result of his appeal the Borneo
Church Mission was formed. Its work was taken over by

262 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

the S.P.G. in 1854. The first missionary, who was also a
doctor (Rev. E. T. McDougall), was consecrated as Bishop
in 1855. Dr. McDougall, on his arrival in 1848, started
work amongst the Europeans and Chinese at Kuching, and
in 1851 the work was extended to the Sea Dyaks at
Banting. By 1867 the Dyak converts in Sarawak
numbered 1000. The Sea Dyaks are an uncivilized
people, a whole community living under a single roof and
practising cruel and barbarous customs. The acceptance
of Christianity has effected marvellous changes in their
habits of life and in many cases in their characters. The
Anglican mission has always been undermanned, and some
stations which had been opened have had to be abandoned
through lack of workers. Nevertheless, much encouraging
work has been accomplished. The number of baptized
Christians is about 7000.

In 1883 a Chinese catechist was sent by the S.P.G.
from Kuching to North Borneo to work amongst his
fellow-countrymen, and in 1888 the Rev. W. H. Elton
opened a mission station at Sandakan as a centre of work
among Europeans and natives. There is now a congrega-
tion of 100 Chinese Christians at Sandakan, and in 1890
a mission to Chinese was opened at Kudat, where there
were 1000 Christians, of whom 600 were converts of the
Basel, the Berlin, the Wesleyan, the Baptist, and other
missions in China. The two Chinese congregations there
are superintended by a Chinese priest. In 1896 a mission
station at Kaningan was opened to work amongst the
Muruts in the centre of North Borneo, but owing to lack
of workers this work has not been developed.

The island of Labuan, off the north coast of Borneo,
was ceded to Great Britain in 1846. Its inhabitants are
chiefly Malays from Borneo and Chinese. A church was
opened in 1866, and some missionary work has been
carried on amongst the Chinese.

At Jesselton, on the west coast of Borneo, the mis-
sionary chaplain ministers to the East Indian and Chinese
Christians as well as to the Europeans.

MALAYSIA 263

Roman Catholic Missions. — lu 1687, Father Vcutimiglia
was commissioned by Pope Innocent XL to preach
Christianity in Borneo, but no trace of his labours has
survived. In 1857, Father Cuarteron, who had been
originally a sea-captain, landed as a missionary in Labuau,
but he returned to Eome in 1879 and soon afterwards
died. In 1881 a mission was undertaken by the Society
for Foreign Missions of Mill Hill, England. The two
centres of work are at Labuan and Kuching in Sarawak.
There are 22 priests, 2 lay brothers, 15 sisters, and about
3000 baptized Christians connected with this mission.

Dutch Borneo.

In 1835 the Ehenish Mission began work amongst the
Dyaks, who were fierce savages and " head-hunters." The
missionaries succeeded in establishing eight stations on
the rivers, but in 1859, when the Mohammedan Malays
rebelled against the Dutch, the Dyaks became involved,
and all the inland mission stations were destroyed and
seven of the mission staff were murdered. The work was
started again in 1866 and is carried on now at nine
stations, at which the number of Christians, who include
some immigrant Chinese, is already considerable.

The A.M.E.C. has two missionaries in Dutch Borneo,
who are stationed at Pontianak.

The E.G. Church has a mission manned by Capuchins
which is served by 16 priests and has 876 Christian
converts. The chief centres of its work are at Singkawang
and Sedijiram.

Celebes. — The majority of the inhabitants in this island
are Mohammedans. Amongst the Alifurs in the north-
east of the island some remarkable missionary work has
been accomplished by the Netherlands Missionary Society.
When Hellendoorn, its first representative, began missionary
work here in 1826, he found traces of Christianity, the
results of some earlier mission. The work has developed
in a marvellous way, and has transformed the conditions

264 HISTORY OP CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

of life under which the people live. The native Christian
Church which has been formed includes over 150,000
Christian Alifurs. Owing to lack of funds the Netherlands
Missionary Society has had to transfer this, its most suc-
cessful mission in the Dutch archipelago, to the Dutch
Colonial State Church, which took the missionaries into its
service as assistant preachers and now appoints pastors.
The Netherlands Missionary Society continues to support a
small part of the work.

Near to Celebes are the Sangir and Talaut Islands,
where extensive missionary work has been done. Gossner
missionaries from Germany, together with some Dutch
assistants, resuscitated the Christian community which had
survived from earlier days. The mission, which is now
managed by a committee connected with a society in
Batavia, reports 44,000 converts. Their moral condition
appears to leave much to be desired.

The Netherlands Missionary Society laboured success-
fully in the Molucca group, especially in Ceram and Aiiibon.
On the withdrawal of this society in 1865 the congrega-
tions became attached to the Netherlands State Church.
In the islands of Burn and Almaheira, where work is
carried on by the Utrecht Missionary Union, there are
about 2000 Christians. In the Lower Sunda Islands there
are about 50,000 Christians belonging to the Dutch State
Church. Missionary work is carried on in Sawu by the
Netherlands Missionary Society and in Sumba by the
Eeforrned Church, the number of Christians in the two
islands being about 6000.

The Philippine Islands number in all about 2500, the
largest being Luzon and Mindanao. In the former is
situated the town of Manila. The population, about
8,000,000, consists of various Malay tribes who have
driven the early population, the Negritos, into the more
inaccessible parte of the islands. The non-Christian
population, which includes many Chinese and Mohammedans,
numbers about 700,000. Most of the non-Christians are
to be found in the island of Luzon.

MALAYSIA 26 5

The islands were discovered by Magellan in 1521. In
1565 the Spaniards commenced their conquest and forcible
Christianization, but owing to the good influence exerted by
the Spanish missionaries, the conquest was effected with-
out the massacres and depopulation of the country which
accompanied the Spanish conquests in Mexico and South
America.

The first Spanish settlers included an Augustinian friar
named Urdaneta, who formed one of the party of Spaniards.
The friars soon became a political as well as a religious
factor in the development of the islands, and in 1768
Governor Anda addressed to the king a memorial charging
the friars with " commercialism, neglect of their spiritual
duties, oppression of the natives, opposition to teaching
Spanish, and interference with civil officials and affairs."
The Augustinians were followed by the Franciscans in
1577, the Jesuits arrived in 1581, the Dominicans in
1587, and the Recolletos in 1606. The Jesuits became
the richest of the Orders, and their wealth was in part the
cause of their expulsion in 1767. They were, however,
allowed to return in 1852 on the condition that they
would devote themselves to missions in Mindanao and to
the higher education of the Filipinos.

Of the present condition of the E.G. Church in the
Philippines the American Bishop Brent writes :

" The parishes are served, except in a few centres, by
Filipino priests, many of whom I have met, some of them
being worthy of respect as pastors, though the best are
incompetent and ignorant according to our mode of reckon-
ing. . . . But there is another less pleasing (aspect of
Christian life) to contemplate. No ope but a blind partizan,
afraid to recognize and face painful facts, seriously denies
any longer the grave moral laxity that has grown up and
still lives under the shadow of Church and convento
(parsonage) in the Philippines. Inch by inch I have been
forced back by the pressure of facts from the position I
originally held that there was a minimum rather than a
maximum of immorality. The cumulative testimony that
has come to me has been chiefly incidental and unsought,

266 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

containing in it the witness of Eoman Catholics of good
standing. . . . No doubt the Church has in the past spasmodi-
cally struggled with this besetting sin of the Filipino. But
in spite of everything, by degrees its filthy stream trickled
into the sanctuary, and apathetic acquiescence in a seemingly
hopeless situation ensued. In my judgment the rift in the
lute is in the ecclesiastical ordinance, which enforces celibacy
upon the priesthood under such racial and climatic con-
ditions as obtain here. . . . Wherever similar climatic and
racial conditions obtain, we are confronted with a similar
story of shame — Mexico, Central America, South America,
and the Azores." l

Since the American occupation, an Independent Filipino
Church, composed of Catholics who have seceded from
Eome, has been formed under the leadership of Gregorio
Aglipay, who is styled Obispo Maximo, or chief bishop
of the movement. It claims to have about 3,000,000
adherents.

In 1898, when the Philippine Islands were annexed by
the U.S.A., the country was for the first time opened to
missionary work other than that connected with the K.C.
Church.

In 1901 the Protestant Episcopal Church of America
organized missionary work in the islands, and Dr. C. H.
Brent was appointed as the first Anglican Bishop. The
mission has started work amongst the Chinese in Manila,
but its chief sphere of work is amongst the Bontoc
Igorrotes, who number about 70,000 and who are pagans.
The centre of the work is at Sagada. The confidence of
many of this tribe has been gained, and there is a
prospect of a considerable advance in the near future.

An attempt is also being made to start work amongst
the Moros, who number 275,000, and who have been
Mohammedan from a date prior to the Spanish occupation
of the Philippines.

Work has also been begun amongst the Bagabos in the
island of Mindanao.

In 1901 there also arrived representatives of the

1 Religious Conditions in the Philippine Islands. Published, 1904.

MALAYSIA 267

American Methodist Episcopal Church, the Baptists, the
United Brethren, the Congregationalists, and the Disciples
of Christ. These missions, which work to a large extent
amongst the R.C. Christians, arranged to start in different
areas. Of these, the A.M. E.G., which has the largest
amount of work, has 30 missionaries, about 30,000
members, and 130 churches or chapels. Its sphere of
work lies in Luzon, to the north and north-east of Manila.

XL

WESTERN AND CENTRAL ASIA.

ASIA MINOR.

WE have not space in which to sketch the gradual spread
of Christianity in Asia Minor. Dr. Harnack in his
Expansion of Christianity suggests four categories in
which the countries within or adjacent to the Eoman
Empire might be placed in the early decades of the fourth
century.

" 1. Those in which Christianity numbered nearly one-
half of the population and represented the most widely
spread, or even the standard, religion. 2. Those in which
Christianity formed a very material portion of the popula-
tion, influencing the leading classes and the general culture
of the people, and being capable of holding its own with
other religions. 3. Those in which Christianity was
sparsely scattered. 4. Those in which the spread of
Christianity was extremely weak, or where it was hardly
to be found at all." l

Under 1 is placed the entire province of what is now
known as Asia Minor, with the exception of some out-of-
the-way districts ; also Armenia and the city of Edessa.
Under 2 : Antioch, Coelo-Syria, and Cyprus. Under 3 :
Palestine, Phoenicia, Arabia, parts of Mesopotamia, and
perhaps Western Persia. Under 4 : • the towns of ancient
Philistia, Persia, India, and Scythia.

By far the larger number of the Christians were
dwellers in towns, and the strongest centre of the Chris-

1 Vol. ii. p. 457.
268

WESTERN AND CENTRAL ASIA 2G9

tian Church at this time was Antioch, where iu A.D. 320,
of a population of 200,000 half were Christians.1 The
only known instance in which a whole district had
become Christian is Armenia, where at the close of the
third century Christianity had so far become the religion
of the country that the King of Armenia proposed to
make it the State religion. At the beginning of the fourth
century the Christian population of the world was probably
about 4,000,000.

The capture of Damascus by the Arabs in A.D. 634
was speedily followed by the subjugation of the greater
part of Asia Minor. The lot of the Christian population,
which was comparatively a mild one under the early
Moslem rulers, was much worse when the Ottoman
Turks became the dominant power in the eleventh century.
Since then the Armenian and other Christians have been
subjected to an almost unceasing persecution. We may
well hope that the present century will see a great change
in their condition, and will witness the final end of the
religious persecution which has continued for a thousand
years.

As a result of the persecutions suffered by the Chris-
tian population of Syria and Palestine, it is probable that
at the time of the Crusades the whole Christian popula-
tion did not exceed half a million in number. Since the
wars of the Crusades the Christians have made little effort
to convert their Mohammedan conquerors.

In 1820 the American Board of Commissioners for
Foreign Missions (A.B.C.F.M.) began to send missionaries
to various parts of the Turkish Empire, their primary
object being to evangelize Moslems and Jews. In course
of time the missionaries came to realize that the un-
satisfactory lives of many of the Christians belonging to
the Oriental Churches rendered their task of influencing
Moslems a hopeless one, and they were led by the force
of circumstances to devote a large portion of their time
and attention to the education of the Greek and Armenian

1 See The Missionary Prospect, pp. 61 ff.

270 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Christians, amongst whom they were living. The Robert
Noble College, which they established in Constantinople,
and the schools and colleges at Smyrna, Tarsus, Aintab,
and other centres, have had a wide-reaching influence upon
the pupils who have attended them, and who have included
a considerable number of Moslems. Although the work of
the A.B.C.F.M. has not resulted in the conversion of any
appreciable number of Moslems, it has indirectly pre-
pared the way for the missionary work which will become
possible under the new political conditions that have lately
arisen. The pioneers and many of the leaders of this
mission have disclaimed any wish to proselytize or to form
a Protestant Church in Turkey, and have as a general rule
endeavoured to induce those whom they have influenced,
or who have been educated in their schools, to continue
as members of their own churches. Thus Dr. S. L. Barton,
the Secretary of the A.B.C.F.M., writes :

" The missionaries have never had any other purpose or
expectation than that the Gregorian, Greek, and Syrian
Churches, with their noble histories and splendid services,
should be perpetuated . . . they hope to see the churches
so reformed from within . . . that they would reach the
point where they could present to the Moslems with whom
they were in such close contact the beauty and attractive-
ness of the religion of Jesus Christ and so win them as His
followers." l

In 1870 the Presbyterians of America organized a
separate mission, and the A.B.C.F.M. left to them the work
in Syria and in Persia, retaining under their own control
the missions which had been started in Macedonia, Asia
Minor, Armenia, Kurdistan, and Northern Syria.

The chief educational centre in Syria is the Protestant
College at Bey rout (1865), which, though not under the
control of the Presbyterian mission, serves as its chief
educational centre.

The C.M.S. has stations at Mosul and Bagdad, which
are worked in connection with its missionary work in Persia.
1 The East and The West, April 1909.

WESTERN AND CENTRAL ASIA 271

RC. missions are carried on in many parts of the
Turkish Empire, but the efforts of the various Orders by
which they are conducted are almost entirely devoted to
winning over other Christians to the Eoman Church, and
no attempts are made to convert Mohammedans.

There are several missionary organizations, such as the
British Syrian Schools and Bible Mission, which carry on
good work amongst the Christian population of Asia
Minor and Syria, but their work is not of a definitely
missionary character.

PALESTINE.

The C.M.S. began work in Palestine in 1851. The
chief centres of its work are at Jerusalem, Nazareth,
Nablous, Jaffa, Gaza, Haifa, and at Salt on the east of
the Jordan. At all the stations special efforts are made
by women missionaries to reach Mohammedan women in
their homes. The staff includes six medical missionaries.
In 1841 a bishopric in Jerusalem in connection with the
Anglican Church was founded. The bishop, by the help of
his diocesan fund, is endeavouring to develop missionary
work amongst Mohammedans.1

The U.F.C. of Scotland has a Mission at Tiberias.

Prior to the war the missionaries reported a change of
attitude in favour of Christianity on the part of many of
the common people, especially in the districts in which
medical missions had been stationed. It seems likely that
after the war the opportunities of the Christian mission-
aries will be greatly increased.

ARABIA.

Missionary work in Arabia is still in an initial stage,
and there is urgent need of additional missions and
missionaries in this long-neglected land.

In 1885 the Hon. Ion Keith-Falconer, who had been

1 See art. "The Anglican Bishopric in Jerusalem" in The East and
The West, October 1914.

272 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

the Eeader in Arabic at Cambridge University, made a
preliminary visit to Aden, and in 1887 he and his wife
and Dr. B. S. Cowan settled at Sheikh-Othman, ten miles
from Aden. Four months later Keith-Falconer died.
The United Free Church of Scotland has since carried on
the mission, and is endeavouring to promote medical and
educational work amongst the Arabs and Somalis.

In 1891 Bishop French, who had formerly been Bishop
of Lahore, went to live in Muscat in the hope of getting
into touch with the Arabs, but after four months' residence
there he died. He was a great scholar, and was one of the
greatest missionaries connected with the C.M.S. who had
worked in India.

In 1889 an undenominational mission was established
in America to support work among Mohammedans in
Arabia. This mission was taken over by the Eeformed
(Dutch) Church in America in 1894. In addition to its
work at Muscat and Bahrein (an island in the Persian
Gulf), it has stations outside the Arabian peninsula at
Bussorah and Koweyt. Its staff consists of 14 men and
9 women. Five of its staff are doctors. Dr. S. M. Zwemer,
who is one of its staff, is a well-known writer and speaker
on missions to Mohammedans.

The population of Arabia is reckoned at about
8,000,000, of whom 6,000,000 are wholly unreached by
Christian missions.

PERSIA.

By the end of the third century Christian missions had
made considerable progress in Persia, chiefly as the result
of efforts made by Syrian and Egyptian missionaries,
although the Christians suffered grievous persecution under
Shapur II. Oue of the bishops who attended the Council
of Nicsea, A.D. 325, signed as John the Persian. After
the separation between the Christians of the East and
the West the Persian Church began to display considerable
missionary activity in the regions which lay farther to the
East. By 641 the Arabs had overrun the country and

WESTERN AND CENTRAL ASIA 273

had enforced the acceptance of Islam. Christianity,
however, lingered on for a long time. The last of the race
of Christian kings was killed about 1202 by Genghis Khan,
who married a daughter of this king, and was induced by
her to show tolerance towards the Christians. A Nestorian
patriarch ruled the Church during the reigns of seven
Mogul kings, but after this Christianity almost disappeared.
In 1811, Henry Marty n spent ten months in Shiraz and
translated the New Testament into Persian. In 1829 the
Eev. C. G. Pfander of the Basel Mission visited Persia, and
wrote a book entitled Mizan-cl-Hakh (" The Balance of
Truth "), in which he compared Christianity with Islam, and
which has had a large circulation both in Persia and in
other Mohammedan countries. As a result of the visit of
Dr. Joseph Wolff (a converted Jew) in 1827, the A.B.C.F.M.
opened a mission in 1834 amongst the Nestorian Chris-
tians. This mission was transferred in 1871 to the Pres-
byterian Board, which has also undertaken work amongst
Kurds and Mohammedans in Northern and Western Persia.
In 1869 the Kev. K. Bruce visited Ispahan and Julfa,
and in 1875 the C.M.S. undertook to support and extend
the work which Mr. Bruce had started. A medical
missionary was sent out in 1879, and women were added
to the staff in 1891. Kerman was occupied in 1897,
Yezd in 1898, and Shiraz in 1900. A large proportion
of the work centres in the men and women's hospitals
at Ispahan, Yezd, and Kerman. In 1912 an Anglican
bishop for Persia was appointed. A considerable and
slowly increasing number of converts from Islam have been
obtained, and there is good reason to hope that in the near
future the work of Christian missions will make much more
rapid progress than has been possible in the past.

BALUCHISTAN.

In Baluchistan, missionary work is represented by a
single station belonging to the C.M.S. at Quetta. Con-
nected with the hospital there are two dispensaries in the
18

274 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Kalat State. There are also out-stations in Baluchistan
at Sibi and Chaman. According to the last C.M.S. report,
" a small mass movement among the same class of people
as is heing influenced so widely in the Punjab is in progress,
and a willingness to learn was displayed such as had not
been previously known."

AFGHANISTAN.

The earliest trace of Christianity in what now
constitutes Afghanistan is the attendance of a bishop of
Herat at the Council of Seleucia in 424. In the
thirteenth century there was a Nestorian bishop of Kabul
who was subject to the Patriarch, whose seat was suc-
cessively situated at Seleucia, Ctesiphon, Bagdad, and
Alkosh. The Christians at Kabul and other places in
Central Asia were exterminated apparently by Tiniur
(1336—1405). There were Armenian Christians who
were expelled from Kabul as lately as 1880, but there
is no evidence to show that these were descendants of the
Afghan Christians of an earlier date.

At the present time no direct missionary work is being
attempted. On more than one occasion an Afghan who
has become a Christian in India has attempted to preach
the Christian faith to his fellow-countrymen, but in each
case the missionary has been murdered or has disappeared.
Dr. Pennell, whilst working at Bannu near the border of
this country, came into touch with many Afghans, and
through their instrumentality a knowledge of Christian
teaching has penetrated into several parts of Afghanistan.

The story of one of the few who have dared to preach the
Gospel in Afghanistan is worth telling, as it illustrates at
once the superb courage of an Afghan Christian and the
difficulties which lie in the way of those who would
undertake missionary work in that country. " Qazi Abdul
Karim came of a good Afghan family and was a very
learned man. He became a Christian at Quetta. In 1907
he crossed over the frontier with the object of preaching
the Gospel to his fellow-countrymen, and was seized by

WESTERN AND CENTRAL ASIA 275

Afghan soldiers. These brought him before the Governor
of Kandahar. He was offered rewards and honours if he
would recant and accept Mohammedanism, and when he
refused he was cast into prison, loaded with eighty pounds
of chains. He was examined by the Amir . . . but
remained firm in his confession of Christianity. Finally
he was marched off to Kabul. . . . He had to walk loaded
with chains and with a bit and bridle in his mouth from
Kandahar to Kabul, while any Mohammedan who met him
on the way was to smite him on the cheek and pull a hair
from his beard. After reaching Kabul . . . (according to
a report which purported to be that of an eye-witness) he
was set at liberty, and set out alone for India."

Missions of the Greek Church in Central Asia.

Since the rise and spread of Islam very little missionary
work has been accomplished by any of the churches of the
East, except the Eussian Church, and in view of the
continuous persecution by the Mohammedan Governments,
missionary enterprise in Moslem countries has been
practically impossible. By the Eussian branch of the
Greek Church, however, a large amount of missionary work
has been done, though, with two exceptions, this work has
been done within the Eussian Empire.1 Eussian missions
may be said to have begun during the reign of the first
Czar, John the Terrible (1533-84), who began to
extend the Eussian Empire towards the East. The
Mohammedan kingdom of Kazan was conquered in 1552,
and that of Astrakhan in 1556, and the colonization and
conversion of these territories went on together. The
subjugation of Siberia, which was begun in 1580, was
not completed till 1697. At the present time it has
a population of about eight and a half millions, half
a million of whom are still heathen. In Tartary and
Turkestan the Eussian Church is making progress, although

1 For an account of the missions of the Russian Church see article by R.
Eubank in The East and The West, April 1904 ; also Russian Orthodox
Missions, by E. Smirnoff, published by Rivington.

276 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

the majority of their inhabitants are Mohammedans.
Special mention should be made of two missionaries of
recent times, John Veniaminoff and Macarius. Of the
former, Mr. Smirnoff wrote that he was " the most famous
missionary of the nineteenth century, and that not only of
the Eussian Church but of the whole Christian world."
He started missions in Siberia, then in Kamtchatka, and
afterwards in several different districts of Eastern Siberia.
In 1850 he was consecrated as bishop under the name
of Innocent, and in 1867, after thirty-three years of work,
in the prosecution of which he had endured almost every
privation that can fall to the lot of a pioneer missionary,
he was made metropolitan of Moscow. In 1870 he
founded the Orthodox Missionary Society to assist in the
conversion of the non-Christian peoples within the limits
of Eussia, and in 1879 he died.

The Empress of Eussia became patron of the Mission
Society, and the metropolitan of Moscow became president.
Its work is conducted on the same lines as those of the
English Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. Public
interest is sustained by sermons and public meetings, and
grants are made from its funds to various missions in
accordance with their needs. The archimandrite Macarius
founded the Altai Mission in Siberia in 1830, and helped
to organize mission work, which has since been carried on
with a large amount of success.

Mention should also be made of the remarkable mission-
ary work initiated by Nicholay Ivanowitch Ilminsky
(1822-91) amongst the tribes in Eastern Eussia and in
Siberia. During the first half of the nineteenth century
Moslem propaganda had made great progress amongst these
tribes, but by the labours of Ilminksy, who became Professor
of Eastern languages at Kazan University, the Bible was
translated into Tartar, and a most hopeful mission has
been started amongst tribes who are hovering between
Christianity and Islam.1

1 For a detailed account of this mission see article by Professor Alexev
Yakovlev in The East and The West, July 1913.

XII.
AFRICA.

THE problem with which Christian missions is confronted
in the continent of Africa differs materially from that
which is presented in any other large section of the
mission field. The majority of the inhabitants of this
continent are more backward, and from a social and
intellectual point of view less developed than are those of
any other continent. Whilst it is true to say that many
of the South Sea Islanders might vie with the worst of the
West African cannibals in savagery and degradation, the
campaign which Christian missionaries had there to wage
was far less complex, consisting as it did of a series of
isolated battles, whereas the missionary campaign in Africa
has to be fought on a battle front which reaches for
thousands of miles.

If, as we believe, the physical features of the earth
have been adapted by God with a view to promote the
welfare of its inhabitants, there is no outstanding feature
of its configuration for which we have more reason to be
grateful than the great Sahara Desert. It is not often
realized how important a part has been played by this
desert in the evolution of human history. This desert has
for decades of centuries prevented the establishment of
free intercourse between the peoples of Europe and of
Central Africa, and has kept them apart until the time
should arrive when the white races had learned to recog-
nize their obligation to bear the black man's burden.
By the negative influence exerted by its existence it
has affected the religious, moral, and social development of
the nations of Europe and indirectly of the whole world.

277

278 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Had this desert not existed, the African races of the far
interior would long ago have had free access to the shores
of the Mediterranean, arid would have been brought into
close contact with the stronger and more virile races which
inhabited its northern shores. The inevitable result would
have been the enslavement of large numbers of the
African races, and a mixed coloured population would
have come into existence, which might have delayed
the progress of European and of the world's civilization
for centuries. The desert, by interposing an impassable
barrier,1 deprived the races in the Equatorial regions of
the stimulus which contact with the European races might
have provided, but at the same time saved Europe from
being confronted with a race problem immeasurably more
difficult than that raised by the presence of the negroes in
the United States.

From the missionary standpoint we have reason to be
grateful that the battle between Christianity and paganism
which has now to be joined is not handicapped by the
existence on any large scale of the pagan Christianity
which is to be found in Abyssinia to-day, and which existed
for a time on the Congo and on the Zambesi. Central
Africa has had long to wait for the advent of Christian
missionaries ; but in view of the past history of Christianity
in Europe, and of the meagre success which attended the
missions of the Dominicans and Jesuits on the west and
east coasts in the sixteenth century, it is doubtful whether,
if free intercourse between Europe and Central Africa had
been established before the beginning of the nineteenth
century, the prospects of Christian missions would be any
brighter than they now are.

The missionary problem in Africa is complicated by
the fact that here, to a greater extent than in any other
continent, Mohammedan missionaries are to be found side
by side with those who represent the Christian faith. Up
to the present time Islam has hardly penetrated south

1 The writer of this volume spent the greater part of a year in a vain
effort to cross from Tripoli to Lake Chad.

AFRICA 279

of the equator, and it rests with the Christian Church to
say whether in the near future the wave of Mohammedan
propaganda shall be checked in its southward course, as it
has been checked in Uganda, or whether the pagan tribes
in Central Africa near and to the south of the equator are
to become Moslems.

From the Christian standpoint the least hopeful
prospect at the present time is in West Central Africa.
Here, as will appear iii our references to particular missions,
partly in consequence of the enervating climate and partly
owing to the degradation caused by centuries of intercourse
with European slave-traders and gin-importers, the tribes
who live on or near the coast are found to be appallingly
deficient in moral stamina and strength of character. One
result is that Christian missionaries are heavily handicapped
when competing with the representatives of Islam, the
demands made by which are much less exacting than are
those of Christianity. If the Christian faith is ever to
become the religion of West Africa and to stay the
progress of Islam, this result will be achieved not so much
by the development of the Christian communities which
are now to be found on the coast, as by the conversion of
the Hausas and of one or two other races in the interior,
who possess a strength of character which is not to be
discovered amongst the peoples in the coastal districts.
If, as seems by no means impossible, a Christian Church
can be established in Northern Nigeria in the compara-
tively near future, it may well be that from the members
of this Church African missionaries and evangelists will be
forthcoming who will spread the knowledge of their new
faith amongst the other weaker races, and will be able, by
their example and influence, to impart to them the stability
and strength of character which they now lack. No part
of the world has been more grievously wronged by Europe
than has West Africa. To no part of the world, therefore,
are the Christians of Europe under a greater obligation to
share with its peoples the blessings which their religion
can bestow.

280 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

In our survey of Christian missions in Africa we
shall begin with Egypt, as being the country which was
probably first influenced by Christian missionaries, and,
travelling in the first instance westwards, shall proceed
round the continent.

Before beginning our survey it may be well to give
here a rough estimate of the number of Christians
throughout the continent of Africa. The following figures
are taken from the Statistical Missionary Atlas, issued in
connection with the Edinburgh Conference (1910), and
include all Christian adherents other than Europeans :

North-West Africa (Tripoli to Morocco)

West Africa

South- West Africa (Caineroons to German South

West Africa)

South Africa .....
South Central Africa ....
East Africa .

224
248,702

103,201

1,144,926

92,583

118,107

1,707,741

To the above should be added about 800,000 Coptic
Christians in Egypt.

According to the statistics supplied by this atlas, it
appears that the Christian adherents in Africa increased
from 576,530 in 1900 to 1,707,741 in 1910, that is
at the rate of 196 per cent.

Egypt.

It is probable that Christianity entered Africa by way
of Egypt. Eusebius * records a tradition that St. Mark
preached the gospel in Egypt and founded " churches
first of all at Alexandria itself." This tradition appar-
ently existed as early as the beginning of the third
century, but there is no other confirmatory evidence.
The Christian Church " emerged into daylight " in the
episcopate of Demetrius, A.D. 183—231. It was then
firmly established and exercised a wide influence. By the
end of the second century there were a large number of
1 Hislorica Ecclesiastica, ii. p. 16.

AFRICA (EGYPT) 281

Christian centres in Egypt and the Thebais. Although in
early times Egypt apparently had fewer bishops than
other countries in proportion to the number of its
Christians, Athanasius is able to state in A.D. 303 that there
were nearly one hundred bishops in Egypt, the Thebais,
Libya and Pentapolis. The last thirty years of the third
century witnessed the development and spread of monasti-
cisni for which Egypt afterwards became famous.

One reason why the Church in Egypt increased more
rapidly and developed on more stable foundations than it did
in many other countries, was the fact that the Bible was
translated into at least three Coptic dialects, of which
the oldest, the Upper Egyptian, dates from the second half
of the third century. The earliest monks in the Nitrian
desert probably possessed copies of the Bible in their own
language.

It does not lie within the scope of this book to trace
the history of Christianity in Egypt down to the time
when Islam was introduced and promulgated by force of
arms in the seventh century. We pass on to note the
efforts which have been made in modern times to convert
the Moslems of Egypt to the Christian faith.

The American United Presbyterian Mission began work
amongst Copts and Moslems in 1854. Although the
work lies chiefly among Coptic Christians, the missionaries
have by their medical, educational and colportage work
exerted a Christian influence upon Moslems, especially
in the Delta.

The Church Missionary Society began work for Moslems
in 1882, the year of the British occupation. The centre
of their work is at Cairo, where the Rev. D. Thornton, who
died in 1907, did much to interpret Christianity to Moslems,
and to pave the way for further work on their behalf.
In Old Cairo the C.M.S. has a self-supporting hospital
and dispensary with two English and two native doctors.
Closely associated with this is Dr. Harpur's itinerating
medical mission, which is centred in a floating dispensary
on the Nile. In Cairo and three out-stations the C.M.S,

282 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

has a staff of clergy whose work lies amongst the more
highly educated Moslems and amongst the students at the
Al Azhar University. The Mission issues a newspaper in
Arabic which has a considerable circulation. It has estab-
lished friendly relations with the Coptic Church, which it is
the desire of the C.M.S. clergy to strengthen and help.

Other Protestant societies at work are the N. Africa
Mission, the Egypt General Mission and the Sudan Pioneer
Mission (German).

The Roman Catholic missions in Egypt contain about
G0,000 Christians (including Europeans). The missionaries
are from the Lyons Society for African Missions and the
Minor Franciscans of Rome.

According to the census taken in 1907, there are
10,466,000 Mohammedans and 881,000 Christians in
Egypt.

The Egyptian Sudan.

The Egyptian Sudan, which is under Anglo-Egyptian
rule, contains about 1,000,000 square miles and a popu-
lation of about 3,500,000. Of these about 2,500,000
are Mohammedans and 990,000 pagans. Of the Christians,
who number about 6000, 3000 belong to the Oriental
Churches, 2000 to the E.G. Church and 1000 are
Anglicans or Protestants.

Connected with the R.C. missions, which are supported
by the Algerian Missionary Society and the English Foreign
Missionary Society (Mill Hill), there are 14 priests, 10
schools and 4 orphanages.

In the Northern Sudan, under Bishop Gwynne of
Khartoum, the C.M.S. has a medical mission with an
English doctor at Khartoum and schools under women-
workers in and around that city.

As we proceed south from Khartoum, the first mission
station, which is 420 miles south, has recently been opened
by the Sudan United Mission ; 100 miles farther south,
the American United Presbyterians have a station manned
by 7 missionaries at the junction of the Sobat and the

AFRICA (NORTH-WEST) 283

Nile; 200 miles farther south, the C.M.S. has a station
with 4 missionaries at Malek. The next station, which is
300 miles farther south, is the C.M.S. station of Gulu in
Uganda. West of the Nile, in the Bahr-el-Ghazal province
of the Sudan, are two C.M.S. stations at Zan and Xambio.
On the west bank of the Nile are three Austrian E.G.
missions.

North-West Africa.

Amongst those present in Jerusalem on the Day of
Pentecost were Jews " from the parts of Libya about
Gyrene." It is possible that some of these acted as the
first Christian missionaries to North-West Africa. Before
the end of the second century the Church of Carthage was
firmly established and was apparently more vigorous than
the Church of Rome or of Alexandria. In North-West
Africa, as in Italy, the majority of the early converts were
won from those who had come into contact with Greek or
Roman culture. Their numerical increase may be roughly
gauged by the increase in the number of Christian bishops.
Haruack reckons the number of bishops in North-West
Africa in A.D. 220 as from 70 to 90, in A.D. 250 as nearly
150, in A.D. 300 as hardly less than 250, and in A.D. 400
as about 600. When in the seventh century the forces
of Islam spread over North-West Africa, they eventually
swept out of existence this Church which had once been
one of the largest Churches in Christendom. It has been
suggested that the complete disappearance of this Church
can best be explained by the fact that it had been
conspicuously lacking in missionary zeal, and had failed
to make any serious effort to commend its faith to
the native tribes in the interior. In support of this
suggestion it may be pointed out that the voluminous
writings of the two great bishops of North-West Africa,
Cyprian of Carthage and Augustine of Hippo, apparently
contain no references to the duty of evangelizing these
races. Whilst it is dangerous to rely upon negative
evidence, and the traces of ancient Christianity found

284 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

in the interior of Tunis and Algeria suggest at least a
possibility of the former existence of churches recruited
from the native tribes, it is impossible to deny that mis-
sionary enthusiasm, especially during the fourth, fifth and
sixth centuries, was at a low ebb, or to contest the state-
ment that a Church which makes no effort to do missionary
work is itself in danger of its life. Two other reasons
which may be alleged to account for the disappearance of
this Church are — its failure to translate the Bible into the
language spoken by the majority of the inhabitants of the
country, and the internecine quarrels that long disgraced
the Christians of North-West Africa prior to the destruction
of their Church. Haruack writes :

" Rapidly as Christianity struck down its roots into the
soil of Africa and spread itself abroad, it was as rapidly
swept away by Islam. The native Berber population was
but superficially Christianized, so far as it was Christianized
at all. The next stratum, that of the Punic inhabitants,
appears to have been Christianized for the most part, but
as the Punic language never got possession of the Bible, the
Christianizing process was not permanent. The third
stratum, that of the Greco-Eoman population, became in
all likelihood entirely Christian by slow degrees. But it
was too thin." 1

There exists no parallel in the history of Christendom
to the catastrophe which befel the Church in North Africa.
In 411 there met at Carthage a conference of Christian
bishops, numbering in all 565, nearly all of whom came
from North-West Africa, and each of whom represented
a considerable Christian community. The conference was
summoned to discuss a dispute relating to details of Church
discipline. Impossible as the assembled bishops found it
to agree on the subject which they discussed, there was at
least one point on which no variety of opinion existed.
They all alike believed that the triumph of Christianity in
North-West Africa was already assured. What a storm
of indignation would have greeted the speaker who should
1 Expansion of Christianity, vol. ii. p. 435,

AFRICA (NORTH-WEST) 285

have dared to forecast the future and to suggest that
before many centuries had elapsed the Faith represented
by the 565 assembled bishops and by 300 other bishops
in North-West Africa who were not present at the
conference would have been swept away !

Amid much that is dark and discouraging in the later
history of North- West Africa, one story has been preserved
which reminds us of the heroic martyrs at Carthage at a
still earlier date. An Arab boy named Geroninio, who
had been baptized and taught the Christian faith, was
captured together with his master and ordered to recant
the profession of his faith. On his refusal to do so, twenty-
four hours were allowed him in which to change his mind.
He was then brought before the Sultan of Algiers, who
was engaged in superintending the erection of a fort. In
the wall of the fort was a space partly filled with cement.
Geronimo was told that unless he would abandon his
Christian faith he would be laid in the cement and built
up in the wall. He replied that he would not deny his
faith. He was accordingly placed face downwards in the
cement with his hands and feet tied, and the builders
proceeded with their work. The fort in which Geronimo
was immured (in 15 69) was destroyed by the French in
1853, and at the spot which was identified by tradition, a
skeleton of a boy was found embedded in the cement, lying
prostrate in the position described.

Towards the end of the thirteenth century Eaymond
Lull attempted to preach the Christian faith in Tunis and
at Bougiah, but without any visible results. He died on
board a Genoese ship in 1315 at the age of eighty, from
injuries received whilst preaching at Bougiah. See p. 466.

The population of North-West Africa, that is of Tripoli,
Tunis, Algeria and Morocco, is about 14,000,000.
Protestant missions, which are chiefly represented by the
" North Africa Mission," were started about forty years ago,
and a few isolated conversions of Moslems have occurred.
The attitude of the French Government in Tunis and
Algeria has been uniformly hostile alike to Protestant and

286 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

to Eoman Catholic missions. The latter have, however,
been allowed to care for and educate a number of Arab
orphans and to establish the Order of the White Fathers
in Algiers, from which missionaries have been sent out to
the hinterland of Algeria and to other parts of Africa.
In 1876 three priests who were sent to Timbuctoo were
murdered before they reached their destination. In 1881
three more priests were murdered by the Tuaregs at
Ghadames. At a later date armed bands of mission-
workers were sent by Cardinal Lavigerie, the Head of the
Roman Mission in Algeria, with instructions to establish
themselves at some of the wells in the interior and to
endeavour to preach the Christian faith to those who
frequented the wells. On the death of Cardinal Lavigerie
this method of work was abandoned.

Morocco.

In Morocco the North Africa Mission supports 2 5 mis-
sionaries and 6 mission hospitals or dispensaries. There
are 36 R. C. priests in Morocco, but these only minister to
the resident European population. The Jews number
about 150,000.

In the Spanish possession of Eio DE ORO there are no
Christian missions. To the south of this come the French
possessions. On the SENEGAL RIVER there is a small
Protestant mission of the Paris Society. In FRENCH GUINEA
there is a small Anglican mission called the Rio Pongo
Mission which is assisted by the S.P.Gf. It was started in
1855 and is manned and organized by the Anglican Church
in the West Indies. Connected with the R.C. mission (1897)
there are 21 priests and 5680 Christians. In SENEGAMBIA
and in the whole of the French territory as far south as
Dahomey, which has a population of about 9,000,000,
there are 17,000 Christians and 37 priests connected with
the R.C. missions. In PORTUGUESE GUINEA, which has a
population of about 1,000,000, there is a small R.C. mission.

AFRICA (SIERRA LEONE) 287

In the British colony of GAMBIA, which lies on both
sides of the Gambia Eiver, there is a population of 91,000,
of whom 35,000 are Mohammedans and 50,000 pagans.
Of the Christians, who number 5600, 3800 are Roman
Catholics and 1800 are Protestants. The W.M.S. has 9
stations, 2 missionaries and 1500 professed Christians.

Sierra Leone.

Sierra Leone was bought by the African Company in
1790, and was handed over to the British Government in
1808 in order to form a settlement for negro soldiers who
had fought on behalf of Great Britain in the War of
Independence, and for the African slaves who had been
liberated after the legal abolition of the slave-trade had
been enacted. As early as 1792 Methodism had been
introduced into this district by negro converts who came
from Nova Scotia. As the result of their work a chapel
to hold 400 people was erected, and in response to an
appeal which was sent to England some Methodist preachers
arrived in 1796. This mission, however, proved unsuc-
cessful and was abandoned. In 1811 a preacher named
George Warren, accompanied by three schoolmasters, sailed
for Sierra Leone and, despite great loss of life on the part
of the early pioneers, the mission was at length firmly
established.

In 1804 the C.M.S. began work by sending out, in
the first instance, some German missionaries, amongst
whom the names of Nylander and Jansen are worthy
of notice. By 1846, 50,000 liberated slaves had been
landed in the colony, who spoke, as it was stated, 117
different dialects. As a result of the multiplicity of
African tongues English was adopted as the language
of the colony, and most of the inhabitants near the coast
speak to-day no other language. The mortality amongst
the early missionaries was appalling. In twenty-five
years 109 men and women died. In 1852 an Anglican
bishopric was established. The first three Bishops (Vidal,

288 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Weeks and Bowen) died at their posts before the end of
ten years.

The work of the English Methodists has been subject to
great fluctuations, but the numbers of converts have
steadily increased. The Girls' High School in Freetown,
which is superintended by three English Methodist
deaconesses, has recently been enlarged. Both the Angli-
can and Methodist missions have developed into what are
practically independent churches. The moral character of
the Christians connected with all the missions leaves very
much to be desired ; the tendency of the Christians is to
imitate the dress and the social habits of Europeans, whilst
making little attempt to imitate the character which they
have acquired as a result of long centuries of Christian
education. Their ancestors, who were said to have repre-
sented 117 different tribes, were a " confused mass, destitute
of the slightest feeling of community, (who) lived in a state
of constant conflict among themselves, and were dull, lazy
and in the last degree unchaste, besides being in bondage,
without exception, to heathenish superstition." l It is not,
therefore, to be wondered at that the development of
Christian character has not kept pace with the material
developments of the people.

Until within the last few years no efforts have been
made by the Christians of Sierra Leone to evangelize their
heathen neighbours, but there is now reason to hope that
the recent efforts which have been made to organize and
support the Christian missions in the interior of the
country will meet with success and will react beneficially
upon the Christian population on and near the coast.

Dr. Eugene Stock's reference to the state of the
Church in Sierra Leone in 1872 is applicable to the state of
the Anglican and Methodist missions at the present time :

" The churches were filled, the Communions well
attended, Sunday-schools fairly efficient, the collections
large, but . . . while there were many godly and praying
people, particularly among the poorer and older members

1 Wavneck's Protestant Missions, p. 216.

AFRICA (LIBERIA) 289

of the congregations, the younger and more opulent folk
manifested for the most part little personal religion. The
weaknesses of the African character, too, were very manifest :
sensual indulgence and vain display were common, and
dislike to hard work crowded the markets for clerks and
shopmen, while handicrafts and agriculture were neglected.
Together with an almost grotesque aping of the externals of
European refinement and luxury, there was a growing spirit
of rather petulant independence."

The Fourah Bay College, which is carried on by the
C.M.S., is a higher grade school or college at which a
large proportion of the African clergy and schoolmasters
employed throughout West Africa have been trained.

Other missionary societies which are at work in the
colony are the American United Brethren (15 of whose
missionaries were massacred by the Tenin^ tribe in 1898)
and the International Missionary Alliance. This latter
society works in the Sherbro district, to the south of the
colony, and has met with a large measure of success.

The E.G. missionaries, who number 22, belong to
the Order of the Holy Ghost and the Sacred Heart of
Mary. The Christian population numbers about 60,000,
of whom about 3250 are African Eoman Catholics.

Liberia.

The colony, or state, of Liberia originated with the
efforts made by the American Colonization Society (formed
in 1817) to transplant free American negroes from
America to West Africa. The total number of negroes
who have come from America is about 20,000, all of
whom were nominally Christian. In 1847 Liberia was
declared an independent state, with the result that from a
political and social standpoint hardly any progress has
since been achieved. Included in its area are various
tribes (Kroo, Bassa, Vey, etc.), which number about
2,000,000. The Liberians have not attempted to evan-
gelize their heathen fellow-countrymen, but some good
missionary work has been done by the American Presby-

290 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

terians, the Episcopal Methodists and the Protestant Episcopal
Church of America. This last supports work in the Cape
Palmas district, which is superintended by Bishop Ferguson,
who is himself a Liberian. The total number of professing
Christians is about 20,000.

A Lutheran mission has attempted to open some
stations in the interior.

A R. C. mission was started in 1903, and there are
70 Christians and 7 priests connected with it.

Ivory Coast.

The Ivory Coast, which is a French possession, has a
population of about 2,000,000, of whom about 200,000
are Mohammedans. The R.C. mission (1895), which is
supported by the Lyons Society, has 19 priests and 2400
Christians.

Gold Coast.

The first missionary to the Gold Coast, and perhaps the
first Englishman to go as a missionary to any part of
Africa, was the Rev. Thomas Thompson (b. 1707), who was
Fellow and Dean of Christ's College, Cambridge, and
resigned his position there (1744) in order to undertake
missionary work in New Jersey. After labouring there
for five years, he volunteered to the S.P.G. to go as a
missionary to West Africa, if the Society would support
him out of its " Negro Conversion Fund." In offering to
go as a missionary, he urged that " if ever a church of
Christ is founded among the negroes, somebody must lay
the first stone, and should he be prevented in his intention,
God only knew how long it might be again before any
other person would take the same resolution." He was
appointed as Missionary to the Gold Coast on Febru-
ary 15, 1751. On reaching the coast he began at
once to learn " the native language." The king frequently
attended the services which he conducted, but continued
"firm and unshaken in his superstition." He completed

AFRICA (GOLD COAST) 291

a vocabulary of above 1200 words and baptized some
adult negroes "as well as others." In 1756, in con-
sequence of a breakdown of health, he returned to
England. He had meanwhile sent home three negro

o o

boys under twelve years of age to be trained at the
Society's expense to become missionaries to their fellow-
countrymen. On their arrival in London in 1754 they
were placed under the charge of a " very diligent school-
master," and after receiving instruction for four years, two
of them, Quaque and Cudjo, were baptized (January 7,
1759) in the Church of St. Mary, Islington. The third
boy died of consumption in 1758, and Cudjo afterwards
died of madness in Guy's Hospital. Philip Quaque was
ordained as an Anglican clergyman, and in 1765 was
appointed by the S.P.G. " missionary, schoolmaster and
catechist to the negroes on the Gold Coast."

During his stay in England he had to a large extent
forgotten his own language and had, at least for some
years, to instruct his fellow-countrymen by the aid of an
interpreter. During the first nine years after his return
to Africa he baptized 52 persons, some of whom were
soldiers or mulattoes.

After his return to England, Thompson published (in
1772) a pamphlet entitled "The African Trade for Negro
Slaves shown to be consistent with the principles of
humanity and with the laws of revealed religion." l He
had himself seen much of the operations of the slave-traders
on the coast of Africa. The arguments contained in his
pamphlet are for the most part drawn from Aristotle and
his plea of justification from the Pentateuch.

Quaque continued to work in different parts of the
Gold Coast, both as a missionary and as a chaplain to the
factory at Cape Coast Castle, till his death at the age of
seventy-five in 1816.

The S.P.G. helped to support two chaplains as " mission-
aries to the natives," but in 1824 their connection with the
Gold Coast was interrupted. In 1841 they voted salaries
1 A copy of this pamphlet exists in the British Museum.

292 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

for two clergy to be stationed at Cape Coast Castle, but
men were not forthcoming. In 1904 the S.P.G. resumed
its work on the Gold Coast and a bishop was appointed, first
as a suffragan to the Bishop of W. Equatorial Africa and
later on as Bishop of the diocese of Accra. The chief centres
of work are at Accra, Cape Coast, Sekondi and Kumasi.

Up to the present the S.P.G. missionaries have been
able to do little more than minister to the European and
African Christians who belong to the Anglican Church, but
the Society hopes to take its share in the evangelization of
the large population which has not yet come into touch
with any Christian mission.

The greater part of the missionary work in the Gold
Coast is carried on by the English Weskyans in the
western and the Basel Mission in the eastern districts
of the colony. The Wesleyans, who work chiefly amongst
the Fanti, began their work in 1835.

The climatic difficulties, with which all missionary
societies have had to contend in West Africa, may be
illustrated by the sacrifice of life which accompanied the
start of the Wesleyan mission. The first worker, who
landed in 1835, died within six months. His two
successors, who arrived in the following year, died within
fourteen months. The next two workers died within a
month of their arrival. At the present time the mission
has 15 European and 27 African ministers and 63,000
baptized Christians.

The Basel Mission, which started in 1824, works
amongst the Ga, Chi and Fanti peoples. One of its
missionaries, Christaller, translated portions of the Bible
into the Ga and Chi languages. The mission, which began
on the coast, has now penetrated into the interior, and
extends from Ashanti to the river Volta. In 1857, after
thirty years' work, their converts numbered only 367. In
1867 these had increased to 1500, and the present
number of adherents is about 25,000. The mission has
organized and developed on a considerable scale industrial
missions, which are placed under the charge of a special

AFRICA (TOGOLAND, DAHOMEY) 293

missionary trading society. It has also devoted special
attention to the development both of elementary and
secondary schools.

The R.C. missions (1879), which are connected with the
Lyons Society for African Missions, support 2 1 missionaries
at 8 mission stations, and 13 schools. The Christians
connected with this mission number 10,800. The total
number in the colony is 41,000.

Togoland.

The North German (Bremen) Mission started work
among the Evhe people, who number about 2,000,000, in
1847, but owing to constant loss by death of its mission-
aries and the small permanent staff which it has been able
to maintain, its progress has been slow. After twenty- five
years' work its church only numbered 93 members. The
employment of missionary deaconesses has been a great
help in the more recent development of its work. In
1913 the mission reported 1535 baptisms.

The Steyl Fathers of the R.C. Church began work in
1894, and the Christian community attached to their
mission numbers about 15,000. In 1912 they reported
2000 baptisms. There are 44 priests attached to the
mission.

The English Wesleyans have a station at Little Popo,
and German Methodists have also started a mission.

Dahomey.

Dahomey, a French colony, contains a population of
about 1,000,000, of whom about 700,000 are pagans and
300,000 Moslems. The R.C. mission (1882) is connected
with the Lyons Missionary Society. There are about
11,500 converts and 34 priests connected with the
missions. The Bishop in Dahomey reports a great opening
for evangelistic work.

The Wcsleyan Methodist Missionary Society has a station
at Porto Novo on the coast.

294 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Yorubaland.

A number of slaves, who had been set free and
had become Christians in Sierra Leone, began, in 1840, to
return to the Yoruba country, from which they had been
taken by Portuguese slave-raiders. In response to an
appeal from these Christians the Rev. H. Townsend, the
Rev. C. A. Gollmer and the Rev. Samuel Crowther, who
were sent by the C.M.S., started work in Badagry and
Abeokuta in 1846, and in 1852 work was begun at Lagos
and Ibadan, at the latter place by the Rev. D. Hinderer.
Within eighteen months of the starting of work at
Abeokuta six converts were baptized, one of whom was
the mother of Samuel Crowther, whom he had accidentally
met in the street of Abeokuta. The mission soon prospered
and extended, and by 1860 the number of Christians in
the Yoruba mission, including the immigrants from Sierra
Leone, numbered 2000. The extension of the work was
interrupted by the invasions of the warlike people of
Dahomey, and by the state of internal warfare, which
continued to distract the country and to endanger the
lives of the missionaries. Doherty, an African catechist,
was captured by the king of Dahomey, who ordered him
to read to him the Christian Scriptures. The king eventu-
ally ordered him to be killed, with a portion of Scripture
in one hand and a lamp in the other hand, in order that
he might be lighted into the spirit world and might read
the Scriptures to the last king. The executioner executed
another man by mistake and Doherty eventually resumed
his work as a catechist.

A state of war existed in the neighbourhood of
Abeokuta for five years, 1860—65, during which Mr.
Hinderer and his wife were detained as prisoners in
Ibadan. Towards the end of 1867 the Egba chiefs
suddenly expelled all European missionaries from Abeokuta,
and for the next thirteen years the Christians there were
left in charge of African pastors.

In 1871, Bishop Cheetham of Sierra Leone ordained

AFRICA (YORUBALAND) 295

four Yorubas as clergy, arid in 1876 he ordained three
more. One of the latter was Phillips, who afterwards
became assistant bishop.

Soon after the English Government had taken posses-
sion of Lagos (1861) it became the centre of the C.M.S.
Yoruba Mission ; and the interior was left without a resident
European missionary, from 1865 to 1883, when the
Kev. J. B. Wood became the superintending missionary.
In 1888 the C.M.S. obtained the approval of the Arch-
bishop of Canterbury to the appointment of an African as
Bishop of the Yoruba country, but owing to the opposition
of the African Christians the proposal was abandoned.

In 1864 the Kev. Samuel Crowther was appointed as
Bishop of the Niger (see p. 297), and on his death in 1891
Bishop Hill succeeded him in 1893 with the title of
" Bishop in West Equatorial Africa," Lagos, which had
formerly been supervised by the Bishop of Sierra Leone,
being now incorporated in the same diocese as the Niger.
At the same time two Africans, Kev. C. Phillips and Eev. I.
Oluwole, were consecrated as assistant bishops for the
Yoruba country. On the death of Bishop Hill, in the
following January, Bishop Tugwell succeeded him. Bishop
Phillips died in 1906. In 1900 another African, Eev.
James Johnson, was consecrated as an assistant bishop.
The Anglican mission has 40,000 adherents and 15,000
school children. On the coast, and specially at Lagos,
which is the centre of organization for the various missions,
a large proportion of the Christians speak English and
tend to imitate English customs.

Many of the churches in Lagos are served by African
clergy or pastors. The Anglican church at Breadfruit,
which has a congregation of about 1400, and raises nearly
£1000 a year for religious objects, is built on the site of
the old baracoon, the building in which slaves waiting to
be shipped were formerly confined. The Anglican churches
in Lagos and district are no longer connected with any
missionary society, but are beginning to support missionary
work en their own account.

296 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

In the " Lagos District," which includes tho Yoruba
country, the English Wcsleyans have 11 European and 21
African ministers and 9000 baptized Christians. Missions
are also carried on by the Southern Baptist and National
Baptist Conventions, U.S.A.

Belonging to the R.C. missions, which are supported
by the Lyons Society, there are 27 priests, 24 schools and
16 orphanages.

The Niger Mission.

The C.M.S. Niger Mission has a special interest for all
students of Missions. It embodied a serious attempt,
which was persevered in for nearly half a century, to
establish a branch of the Christian Church in tropical
Africa through the instrumentality of Africans and with a
minimum of European supervision. The attempt was the
outcome of the realization that the climate of the river
Niger and surrounding districts was so unhealthy that
white men could not hope to work there for more than a
few months at a time. When the first British expedition,
which was accompanied by Dr. Schon and Samuel
Crowther, went up the Niger in 1841, 42 white men out
of a total of 150 died within two months. After a
second and more successful expedition had been made in
1857, Samuel Crowther, who had been originally a slave
and had been educated at Eourah Bay and ordained in
London in 1843, was commissioned by the C.M.S. to
open a Niger Mission to be staffed by Africans from Sierra
Leone. In 1859 the C.M.S. sent out five Europeans to
join the staff of the mission, but none of them succeeded
in reaching Onitsha, which was the first mission station to
be occupied. Until the cause of malarial fever was dis-
covered to be the bite of the Anopheles mosquito, the river
Niger deservedly possessed the reputation of having the
most unhealthy climate that the world contained. When
the writer of this volume was on the Niger in 1894 the
average length of a white man's life was reckoned to be
two years. Since the discovery of the cause of malaria the

AFRICA (NIGERIA) 297

conditions have completely changed. When it was
realized that white men could not live for any length of
time on the Niger, the C.M.S. decided to apply to the
Archbishop of Canterbury to consecrate Crowther as
Bishop, and to place the whole of the mission under his
charge. Amid scenes of great enthusiasm he was conse-
crated in Canterbury Cathedral in 1864, and remained as
Bishop of the Niger till his death in 1891. The only
African who had been consecrated as a bishop before the
time of Crowther was the Bishop of the Congo (see p. 302).

The experiment of placing an African bishop to super-
vise a mission where, as experience seemed to have shown,
European missionaries could not work, was fully justified
by the circumstances of that time, but it must regretfully
be admitted that it proved an almost complete failure.
Bishop Crowther was a humble and saintly man, but he
lacked the qualities which were essential for the due
performance of his duties as a bishop. When, as alas
frequently happened, complaints were made to him that
one of his missionaries had committed a serious moral
offence, he was wont to reply, " I never hear evil spoken
against my missionaries." The result was that when he
died, after an episcopate of twenty-seven years, little
progress had been made, and the reputation of the
Christians at some of the mission stations was such that
the reconstruction of the mission proved a more difficult
task than would have been the founding of a completely
new mission.

During his long episcopate Bishop Crowther never
learnt any language which could be understood on the
Niger, and till his death he was dependent on the help
of interpreters, who were in many cases quite incompetent.
He habitually spoke English, but could also speak Yoruba,
which he had learned as a boy, and which was available
in parts of the Lagos district.

Bishop Tugwell in the course of a speech in which he
alluded to the jubilee of Bishop Crowther's consecration,
referred thus to the failure of Bishop Crowther to infuse bis

298 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

own spirit into his fellow-workers : " He suffered greatly by
the hands of others. He suffered greatly because some men
who should have been true . . . failed, and failed griev-
ously. Under temptations which were great, cut off from
the companionship of their fellow-Christians, some became
drunken and immoral, others greedy of gain engaged in
trade. In 1885 there was a grievous scandal at Onitsha
. . . the blow fell mainly upon Bishop Crowther. The
remainder of his life was spent under a cloud, and he
carried his burden to the grave." l

On the death of Bishop Crowther in 1891 the Arch-
bishop of Canterbury sent out the Kev. J. S. Hill to report
to him on the condition of the mission. Mr. Hill was
subsequently consecrated as Bishop, but died at Lagos on
his return journey in 1894.

Since 1894 much good work has been done and
foundations have been laid on which there is every reason
to believe that a Christian Church, worthy of the name,
may eventually be built up. The two African bishops
have given valuable assistance to Bishop Tugwell in the
supervision of his widely extended diocese. In this diocese,
which includes the Niger and Yoruba Missions, there are
now (1915) 89 clergy, of whom 65 are Africans. Of
these last 51 are supported by the local Church. Of the
450 African lay agents the local Church supports 225.
There are about 70,000 Christian adherents connected
with the Anglican Church in the diocese.

In the lower reaches of the Niger missionary work is
carried on by the Niger Delta Pastorate, which is now
practically independent of the C.M.S. Higher up the
river, in Southern Nigeria, the chief centres of work are
at Onitslia, Obusi and Asaba. There are 9 European
clergy in this part of the mission and 2 European doctors.

In 1890 the Rev. J. Alfred Robinson and Mr. G.
Wilmot Brooke, accompanied by several others, attempted
to start mission work amongst the Hausas in Northern
Nigeria. Both the leaders of this mission died, however,

1 Address to his diocesau synod at Lagos, May 1914.

AFRICA (NIGERIA) 299

before any station in the Hausa country had been opened.
Dr. Walter Miller, who went out to Nigeria in 1898, has
carried on medical and other missionary work at Zaria
under circumstances of special difficulty, and, besides
gathering round him a number of converts from Islam,
he has seen the building of a Christian village inhabited
by ex-Moslem Christians or Christian inquirers. This
mission has greater promise than perhaps any other in
West Africa, as the Hausas, whose language is the lingua
franca of the Western Sudan, and who travel as traders
over the whole of North Africa, are possessed of more
character than those belonging to any other race in West
Africa. The majority of them are nominal Mohammedans,
but there are signs that many are prepared to listen to
Christian teaching. The conversion to the Christian faith
of any large number of the Hausas would be the prelude
to the conversion of a large part of Africa north of the
equator.

By far the greater part of the missionary work on the
Niger is in the hands of the C.M.S., which, in addition to
the stations already referred to, has work amongst the
pagans in the Bauchi district of Northern Nigeria.

The United Free Church of Scotland has a mission at
Old Calabar (1846). The success achieved by this mission
is to be attributed to the fact that its work has been
more carefully supervised by European missionaries than
perhaps any other mission in West Africa. The Sudan
United Mission, which works on undenominational lines,
and was started in 1904, has several stations amongst the
pagan tribes on the river Benue. Its aim is eventually to
connect with other missions in the Nile basin. The R.C.
missionaries belong to the Orders of the Holy Ghost and the
Sacred Heart of Mary. In the Vicariate of Benin (1860)
there are 8500 Christians and 28 priests; in the apostolic
prefecture of Western Nigeria (1884) there are 17 priests
and 2800 Christians; in that of Eastern Nigeria (1911)
there are 5 priests; and in that of Lower Nigeria (1889)
there are 4789 Christians and 18 priests.

300 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

The Cameroons.

In 1845, Saker, a representative of the English Baptists,
coming from Fernando Po, began missionary work, but the
visible progress attained was comparatively small. In
1884, when the German Government occupied this
territory, the Baptists handed over their work to the
Basel Mission. Owing to difficulties which arose between
the Africans and the European missionaries, several con-
gregations declared themselves independent, while others
are now superintended by German Baptist missionaries.
The Basel Mission has since made good progress, and has
established centres both amongst the Dualla-speaking
peoples and in other parts of the territory. In 1913 the
Basel Mission reported 1500 baptisms. The Gossner
Mission has started work in the eastern districts.

In the southern part of the Cameroons, in Batanga
Land, the American Presbyterians, who began work in
1875, have a number of stations. They have also
stations in French territory on the Gaboon Kiver and
Corisco Island.

The R.C. mission, which began work in 1890, has been
making rapid progress within recent years. During 1913
it reported 6000 baptisms, bringing the total number of
baptized Christians up to 20,000. There are 31 priests
connected with the mission.

Rio Muni

Rio Muni, a Spanish possession, which lies to the
south of the Cameroons, has a population of about 40,000.
Off the coast lie the Spanish islands of Fernando Po, Corisco,
and Anno Bon, containing a population of about 34,000.
The E.G. missions, which are carried on by the Spanish
Congregation of the Sacred Heart of Mary, report 6500
converts. Work is carried on at fourteen stations by
24 priests. The American Presbyterian Church has five
stations and GOO Christians on the mainland. The

AFRICA (CONGO) 301

Primitive Methodists have four stations and 100 Christians
in Fernando Po.

The Congo.

In 1491 a band of Portuguese missionaries, who
had come in response to a request sent by the king of
the Congo,1 landed near the mouth of that river.
Shortly after their arrival the king of the Congo and
many of his principal chiefs were baptized with great
state and ceremonial and thousands of persons followed
their example. To the capital of the Congo was given
the new name of San Salvador. The second Christian
king commanded all his subjects to abandon idolatry and
receive baptism on pain of being burnt alive, and images
of the saints were offered to them to replace their former
idols. The European missionaries included representatives
of the Dominicans, Franciscans, Augustinians and, later on,
of the Jesuits. Dissensions occurred amongst the repre-
sentatives of these Orders, and the king sent back some
of the priests as prisoners to Portugal. In course of
time the kingdom of Congo was declared " wholly Catholic."
A large number of the slaves shipped abroad from West
Africa were taken from the Congo districts, and a marble
chair formerly existed on the pier at St. Paul de Loanda
from which the bishops used to give their blessing to
the slave-ships which were preparing to sail for the
Portuguese possessions in Brazil or the West Indies.

Some of the Jesuit missionaries preached earnestly
against polygamy and unchastity, which the African clergy
permitted, but they were not supported by the king or
the court. After several alternations of revival and
retrogression the profession of Christianity began to
decrease. In 1640 the Capuchin friars arrived. At
first they preached against the practice of polygamy, but

1 For a detailed account of the earl}' Christian missions to the Congo see
A Report of the Kingdom of the Congo, drawn out of the writings and
discourses of the Portuguese Duarte Lopez, by Filippo Pigafetta, 1591.
Translated by M. Hutchinson.

302 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

they eventually agreed to its retention. In 1698 the
missionary Zucchelli wrote, concerning the people amongst
whom he was working : " Here is neither knowledge nor
conscience, neither Word of God nor faith, neither state
nor family, . . . neither discipline nor shame, . . . neither
fear of God nor zeal for the welfare of souls. . . . You
can say nothing of these people except that they are in
fact nothing else than baptized heathen, who have nothing
of Christianity about them but the bare name, without
any works." A negro, who was a descendant of the
royal house, after being educated in Portugal and at Borne,
was appointed Bishop of San Salvador, but died before
reaching his diocese.

Several subsequent attempts were made by the
Capuchins and Benedictines to raise the moral and
religious tone of the people, but without success.
Captain Tuckey, who was sent by the English Government
in 1816 to explore the Congo, could find no trace of
Christianity except crucifixes and relics, which were not
distinguished by the people from their amulets and fetiches.

It would seem that Christianity had at no time exerted
more than a superficial influence upon the inhabitants,
and had from the first failed to effect any real change
in the characters of those who adopted its profession.
It is, indeed, hard to see how a mission which not only
condoned but engaged in slave-raiding, and which permitted
polygamy in its most repulsive forms, could have obtained
better or more permanent results than those which were
attained.

The exploration of the Congo by Stanley (1876-77),
which was followed by the establishment, under Belgian
auspices, of the Congo Free State, prepared the way for
the re-establishment of Christian missions. Eepresentatives
of the English Baptists from the Cameroons began work
in 1879, and in the course of a few years established
nine stations extending up almost to the Stanley Falls.
The eagerness of the missionaries, amongst whom Bentley
deserves special notice, to cover too much ground led to

AFRICA (CONGO) 303

the establishment of weak centres at great distances from
one another, and the progress attained has been less than
might have been expected in view of the number of
agents who have been employed. The English Baptists
have now opened two stations, Mabondo and Wayika, on
the Lualaba Eiver, which are within 300 miles of Uganda.

A little later a mission, entitled the Congo Inland
Mission, was organized by Grattan Guinness, the founder
of the East London Institute. His work was characterized
by undue haste, and several stations had to be abandoned
after having been opened. Partly in consequence of the
lack of due care in the selection of missionaries at home,
and partly in consequence of unskilful organization abroad,
a large proportion of the missionaries, many of whom
were women, died after a very brief period of service.
The mission was eventually taken over by the American
Baptist Missionary Union.

In 1886, Grattan Guinness founded another mission
amongst the Balolo tribe, which lives on the basin of the
Lulongo, a tributary on the left of the Congo south of
its great bend.

In 1886, Arnot, an independent missionary, a member
of the Plymouth Brethren, started a new mission in Garen-
ganze or Katanga, in the far east of the Congo Free State.
This mission, which has now a staff of 1 5 missionaries, has
established fifteen stations between Bih£ and Lake Mweru.

The American Methodist Episcopal Church (South)
started a mission among the Batetela, north of the Lobefu
River, in November 1913, under the superintendence of
Bishop Lainbuth. The recently formed Societ6 Beige de
Missions Protestantes au Congo is starting work at Chofa,
on the Lomami.

The American Presbyterian Church (South), which has
a mission on the Kasai and Lulua Kivers, was strengthened
in 1914 by the addition of 14 new missionaries, who
are to be supported by funds provided as a result of the
Laymen's Missionary Movement.

Attempts are being made from three different bases

304 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

to evangelize the Niam-Niam or Azandi people, who live
at the meeting-point of the Belgian Congo, the French
Congo and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. The C.M.S. are
advancing from Malek on the river Nile, the Africa
Inland Mission is advancing from Mahagi on the western
shore of the Albert Nyanza, and a Roman Catholic mission,
which started from Wau in the Bahr-el-Ghazal, has opened
stations at Mupoi among the Niam-Niam and at Palaro
and Gondokoro.

Many who have had little personal experience of
missionary work and profess to base their theory of
missionary methods simply on the teaching of the New
Testament, have from time to time suggested that a
mission established amongst primitive or backward races
ought to be self-supporting from the outset. The Congo
lias been the scene of an experiment based upon this
theory on a large and disastrous scale.

The Eev. William Taylor was appointed by the
American Methodist Episcopal Church in 1884 as "Bishop
of all Africa." He created a great impression in America,
by holding a series of meetings in which he declared that
Africa could be converted to Christianity by the establish-
ment of a chain of self-supporting missions, the members of
which would earn their living as carpenters, agriculturists
and traders. Within twelve years 140 men and women
were sent out to West Africa, and having been deposited
at stations selected by Bishop Taylor, were left to earn
their own living and preach the gospel. At the end of
ten years the vast majority of these had died, and only
17 remained in the Congo district and in Liberia.
A few near Stanley Pool had endeavoured to save them-
selves from starvation by shooting hippopotami and sell-
ing their flesh to the natives. Nothing had been accom-
plished from a missionary standpoint, and the missionaries
had apparently failed to learn any African language.

It is difficult to insist too strongly upon the fact that
there is to-day little place in the mission field for solitary
missionaries independent of any missionary organization.

AFRICA (CONGO) 305

Missionaries who have no experience to guide them, and
who have no successors, can do little good and may do
much harm. The writer came across one such in a lonely
spot in Central Africa hundreds of miles from the nearest
mission station. He had become impressed, whilst living
in America, that it was his duty to attempt the conversion
of the people of West Central Africa. Without making
an effort to learn any language, or to gain a knowledge
of the religion or customs of the people whom he hoped to
influence, he and one companion sailed for West Africa.
When the writer of this book came across him he was
dying of dysentery, and his companion, whom he had left
behind at a distant town, subsequently died also, before
either of them had got into touch with the people whom
they hoped to evangelize.

Hundreds of similar cases have occurred, and it cannot
be maintained that these missionaries have by their lives,
or even by their deaths, helped forward the cause which
they had at heart.

Missionary work needs the very best men and women
who can be found, and if there is any place for untrained
missionaries it can only be at a mission station, where the
untrained recruit can obtain the constant help and
guidance of others.

The E.G. missions are carried on by the Algerian
M. Society, the Belgian KM. Society and the Order of
the Sacred Heart of Jesus (Rome). There are about
100 missionaries and 17,000 converts.

The population of the Congo Free State is about
30,000,000, of whom about 600,000 are Moslems.

French Congo.

In the French Congo the mission work of the
American Presbyterians in Gaboon was handed over to
the Paris Society on the establishment of a French
Protectorate. There are four missions on the river Ogowe
extending to a distance of 250 miles from the coast.
20

306 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

The Swedish Missionary Society has three stations in
the French Congo, one of which is at Brazzaville.

A new and independent mission was begun in 1914 at
Lambareue by Dr. Albert Schweitzer, who is widely known
in Germany and in England both as a musician and as a
learned theologian ; he is the author of The Quest of the
Historical Jesus.

The R.C. missions, which are connected with the
Algerian Missionary Society, support 46 missionaries and
26 schools. The total number of Christians connected
with the E.G. missions is about 5000.

Angola.

In the Portuguese colony of Angola, which contains
484,800 square miles and a population of about 4,200,000,
there are 815,000 RC. Christians, including Europeans.

The R.C. missions are in the diocese of St. Paul de
Loanda. The Congregation of the Sacred Heart have their
principal station at Huilla, where there is a large industrial
institution in which 80 Africans are taught skilled trades,
e.g. tanning, boot-making, tailoring and wagon-making.
The missionaries are specially interested in botany and
botanical researches. Of the 36 priests in charge of the
missions 2 are Africans.

The English Baptists are represented at San Salvador.
A mission begun by Bishop Taylor (to whom we have
already referred) in Loanda is now under the charge of
the American Methodist Episcopalians, and industrial and
evangelistic work is being carried on in the river region of
the Kuansa. In 1881 the American Board (A. B.C. P.M.}
began work in the kingdom of Bihc, where slow but
satisfactory progress has been accomplished.

German South- West Africa.

German South-West Africa, which, previous to the war,
embraced an area of 322,000 square miles, had a population

AFRICA (SOUTH) 307

of about 200,000, of whom 5000 are Europeans. The
Herero and Ovanibo tribes in the north are Bautus, while
the Namaquas in the south are of Hottentot descent. The
pagans number about 170,000 and the Christians 30,000.
Of the latter 12,000 are Roman Catholics and 18,000
Protestants. Connected with the R.C. missions, which
form the ecclesiastical prefecture of Cinebabasia, there
are 47 priests, 30 schools and 10,600 adherents. The
Protestant missions are chiefly conducted by the Rhenish
and the Finnish Missionary Societies. These report 72
missionaries, 58 stations or out-stations and 12,700 pro-
fessed Christians.

South Africa.1

If by South Africa be meant Africa south of the
river Zambesi, the honour of sending to it the first
Christian missionary and the first Christian martyr belongs
to the Portuguese. In 1560, twenty years after the
formation of the Society of Jesus, Father Gonzalo da Silveira
landed at Sofala, accompanied by two other members of
this Order. His first visit was to a chief named Ganiba,
not far from Inhambane. After a stay of seven weeks
with this heathen chief he wrote : " Thanks be to God and
to the Holy Virgin, the queen as well as the king's sons
and daughters, his household, court and relations— in a
word, all the subjects of that kingdom — are now Chris-
tians." Leaving this chief and his Christian subjects,
Father Silveira made his way up the Zambesi to the
Portuguese settlement of Sena. During the two months
which he spent here he baptized 500 slaves and servants
of the Europeans. He then proceeded to visit the reigning
Monomotapa (chief), whose country was probably situated
near the modern Mount Darwin, about 150 miles from

1 1 am indebted for a large amount of help in compiling this sketch of
missionary work in South Africa to Christian Missions in South Africa, by
J. Du Plessis. His book is by far the best which has been published
dealing with his subject.

308 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Tete on the Zambesi. He was at first well received, and
within a month he baptized the chief and 300 of his
councillors and attendants. He baptized also a number
of others, his custom being to present calico and beads
to all who allowed themselves to be baptized. Soon,
however, the chief became jealous of his influence, and
on March 16, 1561, he was murdered by the chief's
orders.

After a short time, and in obedience to orders received
from Goa, his companions left the country. In 1577 the
Dominicans began work in East Africa, and eventually
established several missions on the river Zambesi, where
they were followed by further representatives of the Jesuits.
The most remarkable among the Dominican missionaries
was Friar Nicolau do Kosario, who began as a missionary
in India and who suffered death as a martyr in 1592. A
son of the succeeding Monomotapa was sent to India and
became a Dominican friar. Despite the fact that two
Monomotapas in succession embraced Christianity, neither
the Dominican nor the Jesuit mission made any real
progress, and complaints, which were apparently not
unfounded, were made to the Portuguese Government con-
cerning the character of the missionaries themselves. At
length, in 1760, the Portuguese Government expelled the
Jesuits from South-East Africa, and in 1775 the Dominicans
also were ordered to leave. Dr. Theal, the chief historian
of South Africa, says that "within 100 years from the
time when European teachers left them, they had lost all
knowledge of what their ancestors had acquired during
nearly two centuries of training." The story of the east
coast is similar to that of the west coast. Missionaries
belonging to different Orders began by quarrelling amongst
themselves, and having lost their purity of aim they
eventually lost their purity of character, and became
incapable of inspiring the Africans to seek after an ideal at
which they themselves had ceased to aim.

AFRICA (SOUTH) 309

Arrival of the Dutch.

\ran Eiebeek, who was commissioned by the Dutch
East India Company to establish a victualling station at
Capetown, arrived there on April 6, 1652. He was a
religious man, and desired to spread the knowledge of the
Christian faith amongst the native population. In 1662
a Hottentot girl who had been servant to a Dutch master
was baptized, but the efforts which were made by some of
the Dutch settlers to teach the Hottentots were unsuccessful.
Soon after the establishment of a settlement at the Cape,
slaves who had been captured at sea were brought there,
and ere long the slave population became of considerable
size. During the first twenty-five years several efforts were
made to evangelize these slaves as well as the Hottentots,
but ere long these efforts were relaxed, and the irreligious
lives of their master or employers rendered missionary
work almost impossible.

Eeference has already been made to the work of the
Moravian, George Schmidt, who reached Capetown as
the first Protestant missionary to South Africa in 1737
(see p. 54), but was forced to return to Europe in 1743,
after baptizing 5 Hottentots, in consequence of the
opposition of the Dutch Ministers.

In 1795 the rule of the Dutch East India Company
came to an end and the English took possession of the Cape.
In 1802 it was restored by treaty to the Dutch, but in
1806 it was finally annexed by England.

In 1792 three Moravian missionaries arrived in order
to take up the work which Schmidt had been forced to
leave at Bavianskloof. By 1806 the number of baptized,
or candidates for baptism, had reached 464. By 1813
this number had increased to 1157.

(For a further reference to Moravian Missions in
South Africa see p. 328.)

We shall now proceed to sketch the development in
different parts of South Africa of the missionary work

310 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

supported by the principal European and American
missionary societies.

Anglican Missions.

While the Dutch retained possession of the Cape no
Anglican services were allowed to be held, but when in
1819 immigrants from England arrived to settle in the
eastern districts, the S.P.G. appointed a clergyman to
minister alike to the Europeans and to the African natives.
In 1821 the Eev. William Wright landed in Capetown.
He opened a school for coloured children at Wynberg,
and conducted services for the coloured people on Sundays.
In 1822 he started and maintained at his own expense in
Capetown a school for free and slave children. In 1835,
Captain Allen F. Gardiner of the Royal Navy arrived at
Port Natal (Durban) and endeavoured, though without
success, to establish a mission station in Dingaan's territory.
Later on, having obtained Diugaan's consent, he returned
to England and pleaded with the C.M.S. to undertake this
mission. In 1837 the Kev. Francis Owen, who was sent
by the C.M.S., arrived in Capetown with Captain Gardiner
and proceeded to Port Natal. It soon became clear that
Dingaan would not allow missionary work to be carried
on, and after suffering many hardships, Owen and his
family returned to Capetown in 1838. After making
another attempt to carry on missionary work at Mosega, he
left South Africa in 1841. Captain Gardiner had already
left in order to attempt to start a mission in New Guinea, on
the failure of which he eventually sailed for South America.
This was the only effort made by the C.M.S. to start a
mission in South Africa. After the departure of Owen and
Captain Gardiner the Anglican Church for several years
did nothing towards the evangelization of South Africa
beyond sending out a limited number of chaplains, whose
primary duty was to minister to the European colonists.

So slowly did the Anglican work develop that in 1847
there were only 14 clergy and 11 churches in the colony.

The first Anglican Bishop, Robert Gray, who was

AFRICA (SOUTH) 311

appointed Bishop of Capetown in 1847, was a man full
of missionary zeal. He founded Zonnebloem College " for
the education of sons of chiefs from all parts of Africa
in the Christian faith," an institution which proved an
immense help to the cause of Christian missions in South
Africa. Before his death in 1872 he had done much to
establish Anglican missions in many different parts of
South Africa.

The first mission station which he helped to establish
was amongst the Xosa people in Kaffraria. His desire
was to obtain from Government a series of locations where,
under the direction of a missionary, the natives might be
taught to become mechanics, carpenters and agriculturists.
Between 1855 and 1857 the Home Government granted
£40,000 to subsidize educational and industrial work, and
the portion of this grant which was entrusted to the
Bishop of Grahamstown (Armstrong) was used by him
to establish three stations in Kaffraria, in addition to the
one that had been already started. These stations were
named St. Luke's, situated among the Xosa people, 30
miles east of King William's Town ; St. Matthew's, at
Keiskama Hoek, among the Fingoes ; St. Mark's, among the
Galekas ; and St. John's, among the Gaihas.

When Dr. Cotterill, the second Bishop of Grahamstown,
was appointed Bishop of Edinburgh, he succeeded in
inducing the members of the Scotch Episcopal Church to
take special interest in Kaffraria, with the result that a
Bishop of Kaffraria (Dr. H. Callaway) was appointed
in 1873. The first Bishop was a remarkable Bantu
scholar and an enthusiastic missionary.

In the diocese of Capetown (1847) the Cowley Fathers
and the All Saints' Sisters of the Poor carry on work in
Capetown amongst Bantus and amongst Malays, i.e.
Mohammedan immigrants. The S.P.G. has given grants
to the college at Zonnebloem, and many of the European
clergy whom it helps to support carry on missionary
work amongst the African population of the parishes in
which they serve.

312 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

In the diocese of Graliamstown (1853) the S.P.G.
helps to support the training and industrial schools at
Keiskarna Hoek, which have about 350 pupils. In this
diocese is found the majority of the members of the
Ethiopian Order, under the Rev. J. M. Dwane, who are in
communion with the Anglican Church (see p. 338).

In 1911 a new diocese of George was constituted to
include part of the diocese of Capetown and of
Grahamstown.

In the diocese of St. John's, Kaffraria (1873), which is
almost entirely a missionary diocese, there are 6 3 clergy, of
whom 28 are Africans. The educational establishments
include a " Callaway Memorial " College at St. John's, St.
Bede's Theological College and an industrial mission at
Umtata, and a girls' training school at Engcobo. At the
theological college a large number of African clergy have
been trained. One of them, Canon Masiza, who was for
more than fifty years a missionary, proved conclusively
that it is possible for an African to minister to colonial
(i.e. European) congregations, and to be loved and respected
by those not of his own colour.1

The first bishop of the diocese of Natal (1853) was
Dr. J. W. Colenso. Soon after his appointment he caused
distress to many missionaries by urging that polyganiists
should be allowed to be baptized. Later on, the book
which he published on higher criticism applied to the
O.T. resulted, after a long period of controversy, in his trial
and deposition by Bishop Gray, who proceeded to appoint
a successor in his place. Bishop Colenso, however,
supported by the civil courts and by a section of his
clergy, continued in Natal till his death in 1883. The
unhappy division which had been created in the diocese
was not finally healed till 1901. Despite the long-con-
tinued ecclesiastical dispute a good deal of missionary
work has been accomplished.

St. Alban's native training college at Estcouri has
educated and sent forth a considerable number of clergy,

1 South Africa, by Bishop Baynes, p. 129.

AFRICA (SOUTH) 313

catechists and teachers, who are at work in Natal and
Zululand.

Successful mission work has also been carried on
amongst the large population of immigrants from India,
especially in the neighbourhood of Durban. There is a
boarding school for boys at Eiverdale and one for girls at
Euhlouhlweni, and a home for girls at Maritzburg. There
are about 8000 baptized African Christians in the diocese
connected with the Anglican missions.

The diocese of Zululand, which was formed in 1870,
was the outcome of the Memorial Mission which was
established in memory of Bishop Charles Mackenzie, who
was a missionary in Natal and was afterwards appointed
Bishop for the U.M.C.A. The diocese includes Zululand.
Tongaland, Swaziland and the districts of Vryheicl,
Utrecht and Piet Eetief. Its African population is about
200,000.

The chief centres of work are at Kwa Magwaza, where
there is a training college for African teachers and cate-
chists, also a mission hospital, and St. Augustine's, near
Eorke's Drift, where Archdeacon Johnson superintends the
work carried on at about seventy different centres. The first
Anglican missionary was the Eev. E. Eobertson, who entered
the country in 1860 and established himself with other
workers at Kwa Magwaza in the days of King Panda.
Later on a station was opened in Swaziland, near the
river Usutu. After the death of Bishop Mackenzie
(1862) a Mackenzie Memorial Mission to Zululand was
formed.

There are 34 Anglican clergy at work in the diocese,
of whom 14 are Africans.

The diocese of Blocmfontein, which was formed in
1863, now includes the Orange Free State and Basuto-
land. It has been suggested that the Anglican Church
ought not to have established a mission at Thaba Nchu in
Basutoland, inasmuch as the Paris Mission was already
represented there, but in view of the fact that this place
was the centre of a wide district, the vast majority of the

314 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

inhabitants of which were still heathens, it cannot be
maintained that " effective occupation " had been established
by this mission.

The spirit in which the Anglican work was organized
may best be described in the words of Canon Widdicombe,
its chief organizer, who stated that the desire of the
Anglican missionaries was, " to respect the labours of
those missionaries already in the country, who, in the
present divided state of Christendom, are unhappily not
in communion with our branch of the Church catholic : not
to receive into the communion of the (Anglican) Church,
should they desire to enter it, Christians of other religious
bodies under censure for evil conduct, or any whose motives
for wishing to unite with us were not, as far as could be
judged, pure and above reproach." 1

The missionary activities in the diocese include St.
Mary's Training College for Women Teachers at Thlotse
Heights, Basutoland, St. Catherine's Industrial Girls'
School at Maseru, the work of the Society of the Sacred
Mission at Modderpoort, and of the Sisterhood of St.
Michael and All Angels at Bloemfontein.

In 1911 the diocese was divided and a new diocese of
Kiiriberley and Kuruman was formed, which includes the
whole of Bechuanalaud and Griqualand West, with
Kimberley as its centre. The missionary work of the
Anglican Church is chiefly carried on in South Bechuana-
laud, the principal centre being Phokoane. The majority
of the clergy are Africans.

The diocese of Pretoria was formed in 187 7, but until
after the Boer War comparatively little missionary work
could be attempted. The chief centre of work is the Eand,
near Johannesburg, which is a series of towns extending
for fifty miles. An effort has been made to establish a
strong centre at Johannesburg, with a school for catechists.
The European missionaries pay sectional visits along the
Eeef and African catechists are stationed at the large
centres, whilst travelling catechists work in the intervening

1 Fourteen Years in Basutoland, p. 76.

AFRICA (SOUTH) 315

country. The contributions received from the Africans are
sufficient to pay the salaries of the catechists. The work
is chiefly carried on by the Community of the Eesurrection
in connection with the S.P.G. Work amongst women on
the Eancl is also carried on.

The diocese of Mashonaland l was formed in 1891, the
headquarters of the missionary organization being at Fort
Salisbury. The chief mission centres are at Penhalonga,
where there are industrial schools for boys and girls (in
which 240 boys and 80 girls are being trained), Salisbury,
Buluwayo, Bembezi, Francistown, Wreningham, Victoria
and Eusape.

The moral and social improvement of the natives,
which has been the visible outcome of the missionary work
done amongst them, has done much in Mashonaland to enlist
the sympathies of the European population, which through-
out, South Africa has been frequently antagonistic to mis-
sionary work. The change of opinion that has been effected
in Mashonaland may be illustrated by a recent statement
which occurred in the leading newspaper at Buluwayo :
" He who scoffs or sneers at missions writes himself down
as a fool or something worse."

The baptized Christians connected with the Anglican
missions number about 6000.

The diocese of Lebonibo, which was formed in 1891, and
of which the first bishop (Dr. Smyth) was consecrated in
189 3, is in Portuguese territory, and includes Delagoa Bay
and the country which lies between the Lebombo Mountains
and the Indian Ocean. The total population is about
700,000. At St. Christopher's College in the Lebombo
Mountains, which was founded in 1901, African clergy and
catechists are being trained, their training including a

tJ O O

course of manual labour. Other centres of work are at
Louren^o Marques, Inhambane East and West, and in
Chopiland. The population consists chiefly of Bantu tribes,
who speak several different languages.

1 The title of the diocese is about to be changed to Southern Rhodesia.

316 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

The London Missionary Society.

In 1799, during the first British occupation of the
Cape, the " South African Society for Promoting the Exten-
sion of Christ's Kingdom " was formed by Dr. Van der
Kemp and the Kev. M. C. Vos. The former had recently
arrived as a representative of the L.M.S., which was
formed in 1795. The Dutch Government from 1802-6
hindered the extension of their work, but on the restora-
tion of British government it began to expand. Van
der Kemp married a daughter of a slave " of Madagascar
extraction," and three other of the L.M.S. missionaries
married Hottentot wives, a fact which created great
prejudice against them and their work amongst the Dutch
settlers. Work was started amongst the Hottentots in
Griqualand, amongst the Bechuanas, and amongst the
Namaquas, but, partly in consequence of the difficult
character of the peoples amongst whom they worked, and
partly in consequence of the lack of wisdom and missionary
enthusiasm on the part of the early missionaries, the
progress made was slow and discouraging. Van der
Kemp, after an unsuccessful attempt to work in Kafirland,
settled first at Graaff Eeinet and afterwards at Bethelsdorp,
near Algoa Bay, where he gathered a small society of
Christian Hottentots. He died in 1811. In this year
the work of the L.M.S. was separated from that of the
" South African Society for Promoting the Extension of
Christ's Kingdom " and was placed under the super-
intendence of one of the L.M.S. missionaries in South
Africa. From this time onwards the L.M.S. missionaries
had occasion to make frequent complaints, both to the
local authorities and to the Government at home, of the
ill-treatment which the Hottentots and other African
peoples received at the hands of the English and Dutch
colonists. The missionaries were sometimes prejudiced
or ill-informed, but in many cases their complaints were
justified, and the Africans benefited by their interference.

In 1859 the L.M.S. formed the congregations which it

AFRICA (SOUTH) 317

had helped to establish in Cape Colony into a Congrega-
tional Union. In 18 So these congregations were received
into the fellowship of the " Congregational Union of South
Africa," and ceased to have any direct connection with the
Society at home.

In 1816, Robert Moffat (I. 1795), who had been an
nnder-gardener in Scotland, was sent by the L.M.S. as
a missionary to South Africa. After a period of waiting
at Stellenbosch he reached Afrikaner's Kraal in Namaqua-
land in 1818. In 1821, at the request of the L.M.S.
superintendent in South Africa, he started work amongst
the Bechuanas and settled on the banks of the Kuruman
Eiver. In 1829 the mission work began to bear visible
fruit and the first six converts were baptized. In 1837,
Moffat visited England in order to arrange for the printing
of his Sechuana version of the New Testament and was
received with the greatest enthusiasm.

In 1843 he returned to South Africa, and by 1857 he
had completed the translation of the whole of the Bible
into Sechuana. In 1870, after nearly fifty years spent in
South Africa, he retired from active work and died in
1883, aged eighty-seven. He and Dr. Livingstone, his
son-in-law, have left an enduring impress upon missionary
work in South Africa.

After his death his son continued for a time in charge of
the mission at Kuruman, which included the Moffat institu-
tion for the training of African evangelists. This institution
was subsequently removed to Tiger Kloof, near Vryburg.

David Livingstone, who was born at Blantyre,
March 19, 1813, began work in a factory at the age
of ten, and worked from 6 a.m. to 8 p.m. Part of his
first week's wages were spent on the purchase of a Latin
grammar, and by attending a night school after his work
in the mill he prepared himself for Glasgow University,
where, supporting himself meanwhile, he took his medical
degree. He then volunteered to the L.M.S. to go as a
missionary to China, but was sent to Africa. When called
upon as a student to preach a sermon he gave out a text

318 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

and then said, " Friends, I have forgotten all I had to say,"
and forthwith left the chapel. In 1841, at the age of
twenty-eight, he sailed for Africa. From 1841 to 1852
he acted as a missionary, and from 1852 to 1873 as a
missionary explorer. His first station was at Mabotsa,
where he married a daughter of Dr. Moffat. The chief,
Sechele, became a Christian, and Christian influence had
begun to spread widely when the Boers attacked and
plundered the town and carried off 200 of the mission
children as slaves, after burning the mission-house and
school.1 It was, to a large extent, Livingstone's horror of
slavery as he saw it in South Africa that turned him
into an explorer. The ambition which he formed was to
open up Central Africa in order that by the establishment
of proper trade-routes and by the discovery of satisfactory
outlets to the sea, the slave-trade might be rendered
unnecessary and eventually be suppressed.

It is not possible to do more than give the briefest
outline of his travels. His first long journey of explora-
tion was to Loauda on the west coast, in Portuguese
Africa. By this journey he established the fact that much
country which had been supposed to be desert was fertile
land through which ran a magnificent waterway. Return-
ing overland from Loanda in order to restore his twenty-
seven Makololo companions to their homes, he turned
east and, after discovering the Victoria Falls, reached the
coast at Quilimane. Thence he returned to England, and
at the historic meeting held in the Senate House at
Cambridge in 1857, which resulted in the formation of
the Universities' Mission to Central Africa, he ended his
address with the words, " I know that in a few years I shall
be cut off in that country which is now open : do not let
it be shut again. I go back to Africa to try and make an
open path for commerce and Christianity. Do you carry
out the work which I have begun. I leave it with you."

The direct result of this speech was the starting of the

1 See Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa, by David
Livingstone, p. 39. Published 1857.

AFRICA (SOUTH) 319

Universities' Mission to Central Africa, which now works
in Zanzibar, German East Africa and Northern Rhodesia.
On his return to Africa, Livingstone explored the Zambesi
and the Shire, and discovered Lake Nyasa. Later on, he
crossed the Indian Ocean in a small river steamer, navi-
gated by himself, and after his return to Africa spent the
last two years of his life searching for the sources of the Nile.
Rescued by Stanley when in great distress at Ujiji in 1872,
he refused to return to England, and died on his knees in
prayer at Ilala to the south of Lake Bangweolo on May 1,
1873.

The annals of missionary enterprise contain no more
wonderful illustration of the love wherewith a missionary
has inspired his followers than that afforded by the
conduct of Susi and Chuma, the two Africans who, after
embalming their teacher's body, carried it for hundreds of
miles through hostile tribes, at the peril of their own
lives, and delivered it at length to English officials on the
coast. The inscription which is placed over the spot where
the body now rests in Westminster Abbey, reads :

" Brought by faithful hands over land and sea, here rests
David Livingstone, missionary, traveller, philanthropist;
born March 19, 1813, at Blantyre, Lanarkshire ; died May 4,1
1873, at Chitambo's village, Ilala. For thirty years his life
was spent in an unwearied effort to evangelize the native
races, to explore the undiscovered secrets, and abolish the
desolating slave-trade of Central Africa, where with his last
words he wrote : ' All I can say in my solitude is, may
Heaven's rich blessing come down on every one — American,
English, Turk — who will help to heal this open sore of the
world.'"

Livingstone's claim to fame as an explorer is a
unique one. He travelled twenty-nine thousand miles in
Africa, and added to the parts of the world known to
civilized men nearly one million square miles. Although
equipped with but third-rate instruments, he recorded
his innumerable observations with scientih'c accuracy and

1 This date should probably be May 1.

320 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

contributed more towards the construction of the map of
Africa than perhaps any three other explorers who could
be named. It was not, however, as an explorer that he
lived and died. He was primarily and above all else a
missionary. He wrote of himself : " I am a missionary,
heart and soul. God had an only Son and He was a
missionary. A poor, poor imitation of Him I am or wish
to be. Tn this service I hope to live, in it I wish to die."
The primary task which he set before him was the
abolition of the slave-trade, and his life and death hastened
by many long years the accomplishment of this object.
The writer of this volume has himself witnessed in West
Africa many of the horrors of the slave-trade which
Livingstone often described, but here, as well as in the wide
districts which Livingstone traversed, slave-raiding is now
no more.

The secret of Livingstone's success, as of that of every
other great missionary, was his capacity for sympathy.
His Christlike sympathy — we can use no other epithet
— enabled him to win the confidence of the African chiefs
whom he visited, of their peoples amongst whom he stayed,
and of the carriers who formed his travelling companions.
Apart from the indomitable will and the unfaltering
courage which he possessed he could not have attempted
the task that he essayed, but without the loving sympathy,
which was a divine gift, his task would have remained
unaccomplished.

In 1856, on the occasion of Livingstone's visit to
England, the L.M.S. arranged to start a mission among the
Matabele in Southern Rhodesia. It would be difficult to
name any mission field where so much heroic and self-denying
labour has been expended with so little visible result.
The pioneer, Thomas Sykes, died in 1887 without having
baptized a single convert. Coillard, writing in 1878,
said : " You ask me what influence the gospel has had up
till now on this savage nation ? Alas ! apparently none
whatever. I confess it is the most perplexing problem of
modern missions. . . . (the missionaries) have laboured for

AFRICA (SOUTH) 321

twenty years in this country. In spite of all these efforts
and sacrifices there is no school, no church, not a single
convert. In fact, I do not know which ought most to
astonish the Christian world, the barrenness of this mission
field or the courage and perseverance of these noble
servants of Christ, who have for so long ploughed and
sown in tears." After the defeat and exile of Lobengula
in 189-4 a little progress was made, but the mission con-
tinues to be one of the most discouraging in South Africa.

A much more encouraging mission was established
in 1862 at Shoshong amongst the Bamaugwato tribe in
Bechuanalaud. Kbama, the son of the chief, who had em-
braced Christianity, established himself after some fighting
as chief at Shoshong. From the first he showed his resolve
to banish heathen customs and to govern according
to Christian principles. His kingdom to-day affords a
unique example of a country governed by an African
chief whose conduct conforms to the teaching of Christi-
anity. His capital was moved later on to Palapye, and
again moved to Serowe.

The L.M.S. stations in Bechuanaland include Kuruman,
Tiger Kloof and Vryburg, and in the Bechuanaland Pro-
tectorate Molopolole and Kanye.

The total number of baptized Christians in connection
with the L.M.S. missions in South Africa is about 22,000.

Wesleyan Missions.

In 1816 the Eev. B. Shaw, a Methodist minister who
had been sent by the W.M.S., reached Capetown, and a few
months later settled at Kaniiesbergeii in Namaqualand.
His work lay chiefly amongst Naniaqua Hottentots, with
whom were intermingled representatives of several other
races. After ten years he was removed to Capetown to
work amongst Europeans.

In 1823 work was begun amongst the Kafirs in
Kaffraria, six stations being established, forming a chain
200 miles long. In 1822, Samuel Broadbent established

21

HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

a pioneer mission amongst the Baralong in Bechuanaland.
In 1833 the people amongst whom the mission was work-
ing migrated to Thaba Nchu in Basutoland, accompanied
by their missionaries. Since 1832 the Wesleyan Church
in South Africa has had an independent organization, and as
the Wesleyan Methodist South African Missionary Society
it carries on work independently of the W.M.S. in England.

It is difficult to trace the subsequent development of
Wesleyan missions, as in their reports work amongst
Africans is not distinguished from that amongst Europeans.
After making an encouraging start the various Wesleyan
missions for many years made but slow progress, a fact
which was partly due to the series of native wars, and to
the " cattle-killing delusion " which impoverished the people
in Kaffraria in 1857. After 1866, when a revival took
place, there came a period of steady growth. In 1847 a
new mission was started at Edendale in Swaziland which has
developed considerably since.

According to the returns of the Government census of
the Union of South Africa for 1911, there are 396,797
Wesleyans and 53,100 connected with the American
Methodist Episcopal Church. These figures include
Europeans.

The A.M.E.C. started work at Old Umtali in Southern
Ehodesia in 1899 and at Inhambane and Beira on the east
coast in 1901. The work in Southern Khodesia has made
some progress and there are about 1200 baptized converts.

The Free Methodist Church has a few stations in Natal
and one at Germiston, near Johannesburg.

French Missions.

In 1829 three missionaries sent by the Paris Evan-
gelical Missionary Society reached Capetown, one of whom
began work amongst Hottentots at Wellington, whilst the
other two went north and started work at Motito, near
Kururnan. In 1834, at the invitation of Moshesh, the
Basuto chief, work was begun near Thaba Bosiu (Bosigo).

AFRICA (SOUTH) 32.1>>

In this district the work rapidly developed. From the
beginning of the work at Thaba Bosiu the chief Moshesh,
accompanied by 400 of his people, attended the Sunday
services. By 1850 eleven stations had been occupied and
1200 Christians had been baptized. In 1858 the mission
staff was joined by Francois Coillard, one of the most devoted
and successful of the missionaries who have worked in South
Africa. During the wars and disputes of the next ten years
between the Basutos and the Boers of the Free State the
mission suffered considerably, and for a period of three years
the 13 French missionaries were kept out of Basutoland
by the Boers. In 1869, when Great Britain came to
the assistance of the Basutos, the mission was resumed.
During the absence of the missionaries a revival had taken
place and 436 candidates for baptism were awaiting their
return. Since then the mission has steadily progressed.

In 1884 a number of Christians from Basutoland
under the leadership of Coillard established a mission
amongst the Barotsi people in the neighbourhood of the
Zambesi. The Barotsi were a far more backward and
degraded race than the Basutos, and, according to Coillard,
it took twenty years " to bring the Barotsi up to the social
level of the Basuto when mission work began among them
in 1833."1

The climate proved very unhealthy, and in three years,
1899-1901, 9 missionaries died. The last seven years of
Coillard's life (he died in 1904) were clouded with sorrow
and anxiety in regard to the future of his mission. In
his will he had written : " I solemnly bequeath to the
Churches of France, my native land, the responsibility of
the Lord's work in Barotsiland, and I adjure them in His
Holy name, never to give it up — which would be to despise
and renounce the rich harvest reserved to the sowing they
have accomplished in suffering and tears."

In 1910 there were in the Basutoland and Barotsiland
Missions 15 head stations, with 43 European missionaries
and 17,100 baptized members.

1 Life of Franfois Coillard, p. 329.

324 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Scottish Missions.

The Glasgow Missionary Society, which was formed in
1796, and the work of which was eventually taken over
by the United Free Church of Scotland, sent out in 1820
the Eev. W. E. Thomson, who joined a representative
of the L.M.S. who had settled amongst Gaika's people in
Kaffraria. Two further representatives of the Glasgow
Society founded the station of Lovedale in 1824.

During the Kafir War, 1834-35, Lovedale and other
mission stations were laid in ruins, and at the close of the
war Lovedale was rebuilt on a new site on the west bank
of the river Chumie. In 1840 the educational and
industrial work at Lovedale was greatly enlarged, but in
the war of 1846 it was again nearly destroyed. In 1850
another war broke out which caused widespread destruction,
but the progress which Christian missions had made was
evinced by the fact that in this war 1500 African
Christians refused to side with their fellow-countrymen.
When the Free Church of Scotland was constituted in
1843 the missionaries in South Africa became members
of it, and the Glasgow Missionary Society was placed under
the Free Church's Foreign Missions Committee.

After the close of the Kafir War of 1851 the mission-
aries rebuilt Lovedale with the aid of a Government grant,
and it gradually became one of the most important
missionary centres in South Africa. The wide influence
which it has exerted throughout South Africa has been
largely due to the work of Dr. James Stewart, who became
Principal in 1867 and continued for nearly forty years.
Carpentry, masonry, wagon-making, blacksmithing, and
every kind of industrial work in addition to various
branches of general education were started. Between
1870 and 1874 the number of students rose from 92 to
480, and the fees paid by them steadily increased. In
1907 the fees received amounted to £5503. There are
now (1914) 526 scholars.

In 1877 Blythswood, in the Transkei, was founded in

AFRICA (SOUTH) 325

direct imitation of Lovedale, the Fingoes, for whose benefit
it was started, having first contributed £1000 towards its
cost. The United Free Church started work on the
Erngwali River, and work at several other centres in close
co-operation with the United Free Church missionaries has
also been carried on by the Free Church of Scotland in
East Griqualand, and in the Greytown district of Natal.

" The real value of the Scottish missions in South Africa
lies not so much in the extent of territory which they cover
— though this is by no means inconsiderable — as in the
widespread influence wielded by their educational establish-
ments. Lovedale, Ely ths wood, Emgwali are names that
stand out as landmarks in the history of educational
mission work in South Africa. Of Lovedale this is true
in an especial degree. Its students are found all over
South Africa, filling various positions of trust and responsi-
bility, as native ministers, catechists, teachers, tradesmen,
farmers, interpreters, clerks, employees and servants. . . .
We may sincerely echo the prayer that, under the hand of
God, the promise of its future may be even greater than the
performance of its past." 1

German Missions.

The Rhenisli Missionary Society, which began to send
men to South Africa in 1829, supports work on the west
coast between Capetown and the Orange River. Its
chief centres are Worcester, Stellenbosch, Wupperthal,
Sharon and Steinkop. It has also a station at Carnarvon.
Part of its work in Namaqualand and Damaraland lies in
German South-West Africa. The total number of baptized
converts is about 16,000.

The Berlin Missionary Society (Die Gesellschaft zur
Beforderung der evangelischen Missioueu unter den Heiden),
which was established in 1824, sent 5 missionaries to
South Africa in 1834. They began work amongst the
Korauna between the Orange and Vaal Rivers, and four
years later joined with the South African Mission Society

1 Christian Missions in South Africa, by Du Plessis, p. 364 f.

326 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

in work which this society had started in Cape Colony, and
eventually founded a number of stations in Kaffraria and
in Griqualand East. Their work lay both amongst the
Hottentots and the Kafirs. Up to 1853 their work was
greatly interrupted by the various Kafir wars. In 1860
pioneer missionaries went north to the Transvaal, and in
1865 they established a mission at Botshabelo, near
Middelburg, which soon prospered greatly. During the
following ten years (1865-75) fourteen new stations were
opened in the Transvaal, where the work has so greatly
developed that it exceeds that of any other missionary
society in the Transvaal.

A mission to Mashonaland was organized in 1892, but
after three stations had been opened the Society transferred
them in 1907 to the Dutch Reformed Church.

In addition to the centres already mentioned the
Society has established missions at Ladysmith (1856),
Eiversdale (1868), Herbertsdale (1872), Mossel Bay
(1879), Laingsburg (1884), Capetown (1907), and has
seven centres in Natal. The total number of baptized
converts is about 24,000. Amongst its more notable
missionaries have been Wuras, who worked at Bethany in
Kaffraria for nearly fifty years, and Grlitzner, who worked
as a missionary at Bethany and elsewhere for forty-nine
years. Its staff of European workers is 160, including 67
ordained ministers. It has also 21 ordained African
ministers. Its work is carried on at 55 chief stations and
nearly 1000 sub-stations.

The Hermannsburg Mission. — In 1854, Pastor Ludwig
Harms of Hermannsburg in Hanover dispatched a boat
containing 12 missionaries and 8 colonists to found a
mission in South Africa. Their first centre was at a place
to which they gave the name Hermannsburg, near Grey-
town, in Natal. The attempts at colonization were not
successful, but the mission succeeded in giving a large
amount of useful industrial training to the natives amongst
whom it was established.

In 1857, on the invitation of Pretorius, President of

AFRICA (SOUTH) 327

the Orange Free State, work was established at Shoshong,
where one of the missionaries baptized Khama (see account
of L.M.S. mission to the Bechuanas, p. 321).

A few years later several stations were opened in
the Western Transvaal.

The baptized Christians connected with the Hernianns-
burg Mission number about 25,000.

The Hanoverian Free Church Mission, which started in
1878 as an offshoot of the Hermannsburg Mission, has
8 stations, with 10 European missionaries and about
6000 converts.

The American Board Missions (A.B.C.F.M.).

In 1834 the American Board of Commissioners for
Foreign Missions sent six missionaries to South Africa,
hoping to start work amongst the Zulus. The missionaries
were allowed by the chief Dingaan to settle at Port
Natal, but in consequence of a war between him and
the Boers they and the C.M.S. missionary, Owen, were
forced to leave the country. One of their number,
Lindley, was eventually appointed a minister by the Dutch
Volksraad. Two others carried on missionary work at
the Umgeui and Umlazi Elvers. By 1850 twelve stations
had been established which were occupied by 14
missionaries, and 123 baptized members were reported.
By 1870 these had increased to 500. During recent
years the mission has been steadily expanding, and after
1894 the American Board was not called upon to make
any grant towards the support of African congregations or
African preachers in Natal. The majority of the present
American staff are engaged in educational work, the most
important educational centre being the Amanzimtote semi-
nary and industrial school, which was established in 1853
in the neighbourhood of Durban. Towards the support of
the mission's educational work the Natal Government
makes a grant of £7000 annually.

The total number of baptized converts is about 5500.

HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

In 1906, as the result of a careful investigation of
the records of the Amanzimtote seminary and industrial
school, it was shown that out of 800 pupils whose record
could be traced, only 1 1 had heen convicted of crime ;
10 per cent, had turned out badly, 20 per cent, were
good workmen but not Christians, while 70 per cent,
were living lives which were a credit both to their school
and to their religion.

Members of the American Board of Commissioners for
Foreign Missions have produced the translation of the
Bible into Zulu, which was completed in 1883, and is
used by the other societies working amongst the Zulus.

In 1894, after several unsuccessful attempts, the
Society started work in Eastern Ehodesia at Mount Silinda,
and at Chikore, near the Sabi Eiver. It has also a little
work on the Rand at Johannesburg.

Moravian Missions.

Reference has already been made to the first attempts
on the part of the Moravians to start missionary work
in South Africa (see p. 54). In 1823 they undertook
to minister to the leper settlement near Caledon, and in
1846, when the lepers were moved to Robben Island,
a Moravian missionary accompanied them. In 1826
work construction was started at Shiloh amongst Tembus
and Hottentots. By 1840 the Moravians had seven stations
with a membership of 4500. Since then their work in
the Cape province has largely developed. In South Africa
they have now 65 European or American and 624 African
workers, 23 mission chief stations, 7153 communicants
and 21,133 baptized Christians (1914).

Missions of the Dutch Reformed Church.

It has sometimes been asserted that the Dutch have
been the greatest opponents of Christian missions in South
Africa. This statement has, unfortunately, a measure of

AFRICA (SOUTH) 329

truth in it, inasmuch as the Dutch opposed and interfered
with the work of Dr. Moffat and Dr. Livingstone and
many other early missionaries ; but it is by no means true
to-day to say that the Dutch take no interest in missions.
In the charter of their East India Company, which was
formed in 1602, and which built the first fortress at the
Cape in 1652, there was a clause inculcating the duty of
instructing the children of the " natives," " in order that
the Name of Christ may be extended," and during the
next seventy-five years more than 1100 children and
50 adult slaves were baptized. In 1799 was formed
" The South African Society for Promoting the Extension
of Christ's Kingdom." In 1861 this Society commenced
a " foreign " mission in the Transvaal (with the aid of
a Scotsman named M'Kidd and a Swiss named Gonin),
in 1888 they began work in Nyasaland, and in 1891 in
Mashonaland.

The Home Mission work of the Dutch Eeformed
Church in the Cape province is carried on amongst the
coloured population, entirely in the Dutch language.
There are at present sixty-seven congregations, with
17,500 members, while during the year 1913 over 1200
were confirmed.

The Foreign Missions of the Dutch Church may be
divided into two classes — namely, the older fields, south
of the Limpopo River, started about fifty years ago, and
the newer fields, north of this boundary, which were
entered upon about twenty-five years ago.

The former work is carried on in what are now the
Zoutpansberg and Rustenberg districts. At present there
are in connection with this older work 7 mission
stations, with 8 ordained missionaries (one of whom is
an African), and 78 outposts under African evangelists.
On these stations and out-stations there are mission
schools. The membership is now over 5000, and 300
members were admitted during the past year.

The other two fields of mission work of the Dutch
Church lie farther north, in Mashonaland and Nyasaland.

330 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

The work in Mashonaland is carried on among the
Vakaranga or Banyai, a rather degraded race, who were
the slaves of the Matabele, and very much oppressed by
them. The headquarters of this mission are at Morgen-
ster, three miles from the Zimbabwe ruins in the
Victoria district. The Dutch Church has there 8 chief
stations, 20 outposts and 35 mission schools. There
are 28 European workers, of whom 12 are ordained
missionaries. The total membership is 330, and the com-
municants are about the same in number.

The largest foreign field of the Dutch Church is in

o O

Nyasaland, in a district lying to the south-west of the
lake, between the Blantyre Mission of the Established
Church of Scotland and the Livingstonia Mission of the
United Free Church. The population is about 400,000,
and the people call themselves Achewa or Anyanja.

To the west of this field, and adjoining it, in North-
East Rhodesia, is the mission sphere of the Dutch Church
of the Orange Free State, with 5 stations ; while to the
south, in Portuguese territory, the Transvaal Dutch Church
has started work at 3 stations.

Altogether in these three sections of the work there
are 16 chief stations, with about GO European mission-
aries, and 600 outposts, under charge of evangelists and
teachers trained at an institution at Myera, the present
head station.

There has been a great extension in this work during
the past ten years. The Church counts over 4000
members, while about 7000 are in the baptism or cate-
chumen classes, and 60,000 children and adults are under
daily instruction in the mission schools. There has been a
great spiritual awakening among the people ; the Chris-
tians are earnest and active, about one-fourth of them
being workers for the spread of the gospel. The income
for Foreign Missions in 1886 was £1700, and in 1913
had risen to £25,000, an average of 4s. per member.

AFRICA (SOUTH) 331

Scandinavian Missionary Societies.

In 1844 the Norwegian Missionary Society, which
was founded by members of the Church of Norway in
1826, sent Hans Schreuder as a missionary to Zululand.
After a preliminary failure and a visit to China he and
thirty others started a mission station in 1850 at Um-
pumulo on the borders of Zululand. After twenty-five
years' steady work the number of Christians was 245. In
1913 the Society had 12 chief stations in Natal and
Zululand, with 31 European workers and 3842 baptized
Christians. Schreuder, its first missionary, founded in
1872 an independent society which is called The Church
of Norway Mission, of which Bishop Nils Astrup is the
present head. There were 5 European and 3 African
clergy attached to it in 1910.

The Church of Sweden Mission.

The Lutheran Church of Sweden conducts its mis-
sionary work through a Board. Its fields of work are
in India and South Africa.

Its first missionary to South Africa arrived in 1876.
Work was commenced in Natal, its chief centre being
Dundee. Other centres are at Appelsbosch in the Um-
voti country, Ekuhuleni in Zululand, and Johannesburg.
It has also commenced a mission in Southern Ehodesia.
The mission has 8 chief stations, 13 ordained European
missionaries, 1 ordained African, and 3408 baptized
converts (1910).

In addition to the three Scandinavian societies men-
tioned, there are several other small societies, e.g. the Mission
of the Swedish Holiness Union, the Scandinavian Alliance
Mission, the Scandinavian Independent Baptist Union.

The Finnish Missionary Society sent representatives to
Walfisch Bay in South Africa, in 1869, who began to
work in Ovamboland. In the Ondonga district their work
has specially prospered. The Society has 37 European

332 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

and 35 African workers, and 8 chief stations. The
number of baptized Christians is over 2000.

Undenominational Missions.

The South Africa General Mission, or the Cape General
Mission as it was first called, was organized in 1889 to
work amongst both the white and the coloured populations.
Its missionary work is in Swaziland, Kaffraria, Tongaland,
and amongst Indian immigrants in Natal. It is at present
only a pioneer agency and has no form of Church
government. It lias found it impossible to obtain a supply
of educated or trained workers, and has in some instances
had to rely upon the services of men and women who
were ill- qualified for missionary work of any kind.

The Salvation Army started work amongst Africans in
1890 near Eshowe in Zululand. It has organized agri-
cultural mission centres here, at King William's Town and
other centres in Kaffraria, in the Transkei, on the Eand at
Johannesburg, in Matabeleland and Mashonaland. The work
has shown considerable advance during the last few years.

Keference ought also to be made to the South African
Baptist Missionary Society (1892) and the missions of the
Presbyterian Church of South Africa (1904).

Roman Catholic Missions.

Eeference has already been made to the E.G. missions
in East Africa in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. In 1685 six Jesuit priests paid a visit to
Capetown on their way to Siam, but were not permitted
by the Dutch to celebrate Mass. In 1805 two priests
obtained the permission of the Dutch authorities to settle
at the Cape in order to minister to their fellow-religionists,
but on the reconquest of the Cape by the English they
were ordered to leave. In 1820 a E.G. church was
built and a priest was appointed. It was not, however,
till many years later that any definitely missionary work

AFRICA (SOUTH) 333

was attempted. The missionary work which is now being
carried on is so closely identified with the work amongst
Europeans that it is difficult to ascertain its extent.

In the eastern and western vicariates of the Cape no
missionary work had been attempted before 1879. In
that year Bishop Eicards bought a tract of land near
Port Elizabeth and stationed on it thirty-one brethren
belonging to the Trappist Order, but in 1882 these
abandoned this site as unfruitful and built a monastery at
Pinetown in Natal, between Durban and Maritzburg.
Here have been erected a fine church, a hospital and an in-
dustrial school. The work of the Trappists has developed,
and there are now 22 chief centres of their work in
Natal and East Griqualand. The schools under their
charge exceed 100.

In Basutoland, Dr. Allard established a mission station
in 1862 near Thaba Bosiu, which is now called Koma.
The work, which is carried on at 9 chief stations, is super-
intended by 25 priests and lay brothers (Oblates of Mary
Immaculate). There are 51 European and African nuns,
and the African adherents number 11,000.

The Orange Kiver vicariate, which was created in 1898,
includes the mission station of Pella, which was occupied
in 1870 by the Fathers of the African Mission of Lyons,
but was transferred in 1882 to the Oblates of St. Francis
of Sales. In the Kimberley and Transvaal vicariates no
missionary work is at present being carried on.

In Damaraland and Great Namaqualand the Oblates
of St. Francis of Sales occupy 1 3 stations, but the converts
only number about 200.

In Barotsiland the Jesuits commenced mission work
in 1879, but eventually withdrew. They have several
stations in Matabeleland and Mashonaland, their most
important stations being at Empandeni (near Plumtree)
and at Chishwasha (near Salisbury). They have also a
mission at Shupanga on the Zambesi, and at Chinkoni in
North-West Ehodesia.

In German South- West Africa 3 priests made an un-

334

HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

successful attempt in 1878 to start work amongst the
Omaruru. In 1896 the Oblates of Mary Immaculate
commenced a mission among the Herero. The E.G.
missions in South Africa which minister both to Europeans
and to Africans have 313 European priests, 445 lay
brothers, 1667 sisters, 258 stations and out-stations, 269
churches and chapels, and 58,548 adherents.

General Outlook.

There are over thirty missionary societies now at work
in South Africa, and, according to the Government census
for 1911 (which omits Hhodesia, Basutoland, the
Bechuaualand Protectorate and Swaziland), the total
number of African Christians is 1,053,706 ; of these the
Anglicans number 170,704, Wesleyans 396,797, Lutherans
113,125,Congregationalists 7 4, 6 3 7, Dutch Church 71,422,
Presbyterians 68,211, American Methodist Episcopalians
53,100. The Cape province has the largest number of
African Christians, 472,304; Transvaal has 282,420;
Orange Free State, 158,017; and Natal, 140,965. The
total " native " population, according to the census, is
4,061,082; in British territory outside the Union there
are 1,367,483, and in German and Portuguese territory
3,120,000, making a total "native" population of 8,506,489.

The following statistics are taken from the Government
census of 1911 : —

Total.

European.

Africans.

Half-castes.

Cape of Good Hope

2,563,024

583,177

1,545,308

434,539

Natal

1,191,958

98,582

951,808

141,568

Transvaal .

1,676,611

420,831

1,224,155

31,625

Orange Free State .

526,906

175,435

339,811

11,660

Total .

5,958,499

1,278,025

4,061,082

619,392

AFRICA (SOUTH) 335

The population of the Union of South Africa, which
comprises these four States, increased from 5,175,824 in
1907 to 5,958,490 in 1911. During this period the
European population increased at the rate of 14*4 per cent,
and the population other than European at 15 '3 per cent.

It will be seen that the relation between the numbers
of Europeans and Africans di tiers greatly in different
districts. In Cape Colony the Africans outnumber the
Europeans by nearly 4 to 1 ; in Basutoland they out-
number them by 380 to 1.

The experience of missionaries in all parts of Africa
has been that where they have been enabled to carry on
their work apart from the presence of European traders
or settlers they have seen the most striking results.
Such results are to be seen to-day in Uganda, Kaffraria,
Zululand, and several other districts. Their complaints
that the kind of civilization which results from the inter-
course of Africans with other Europeans is frequently
injurious to the African, is borne out by the Report of the
Government Commission which was appointed to investi-
gate the condition of the South African " natives." The
Keport of this Commission may serve as an answer to the
suggestion that the effect which Christian missions are
producing upon the African races is of doubtful value. The
following sentences form part of this official Eeport : l —

"For the moral improvement of the natives there is
available no influence equal to that of religious belief. The
vague superstitious of the heathen are entirely unconnected
with any moral ideas, though upon sensuality, dishonesty
and other vices there have always been certain tribal
restraints which, while not based upon abstract morality,
have been real, and so far as they go, effective. These
removed, civilization, particularly in the larger towns, brings
the native under the influence of a social system of which
he too often sees and assimilates the worst side only.

" The Commission considers that the restraints of the
law furnish no adequate check upon this tendency towards

1 Report of the South African Native Affairs Commission, 1903-5, pre-
sented to both Houses of Parliament by command of His Majesty, p. 40 f.

336 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

demoralization, and that no merely secular system of
morality that might be applied would serve to raise the
natives' ideals of conduct or to counteract the evil in-
fluences which have been alluded to, and is of opinion that
hope for the elevation of the native races must depend
mainly on their acceptance of Christian faith and morals.

"... To the Churches engaged in mission work must
be given the greater measure of credit for placing syste-
matically before the natives these higher standards of
belief and conduct. It is true that the conduct of many
converts to Christianity is not all that could be desired, and
that the native Christian does not appear to escape at once
and entirely from certain besetting sins of his nature ; but,
nevertheless, the weight of evidence is in favour of the
improved morality of the Christian section of the population,
and to the effect that there appears to be in the native
mind no inherent incapacity to apprehend the truths of
Christian teaching or to adopt Christian morals as a
standard."

The unequivocal testimony in favour of Christian
missions contained in these and many other passages
throughout this Report is of special interest in view of the
opposition to missions which has frequently been dis-
played by Europeans in South Africa. It cannot be
denied that this opposition has sometimes had a measure
of justification. The education supplied in some mission
schools has not always been adapted to the real needs
of the Africans, and, especially in cases in which
Africans have received only a smattering of the educa-
tion provided, they have often brought disgrace upon
the mission with which they have been connected.
Taught by the experience of the past the missionaries are,
as a rule, providing an education which is likely to prove
helpful in building up Christian character.

Colour antipathy is a factor in the missionary question
in South Africa to a greater extent than it is in any other
part of the world. In many parts of South Africa " there
is an absolute and almost bitter refusal on the part of
white Christians to mingle in any kind of fellowship with
black Christians. ... As regards individual natives, no

AFRICA (SOUTH) 337

amount of education or of culture or of that impress which
the sacred ministry bestows avails in any appreciable degree
to break through this attitude of reserve and aloofness. A
native may have passed his Cape matriculation and wear
clothes ordered from a London tailor and speak English
faultlessly, or he may be a person of considerable wealth,
yet there are very few houses where he would run the risk
of entering by the front door or sitting down to tea with
the hostess." 1

Many causes combine to account for the existence of
this antipathy. Its existence helps to explain why the
most successful missionary work has been done where the
Africans have not come into contact with Europeans other
than missionaries. The contempt with which the African
has too often been treated by European colonists in the
past, and the sensitiveness and self-assertion which are in
part the result of this treatment, greatly complicate the
difficulties that lie in the way of the missionaries.

In South Africa, and indeed in all parts of Africa,
industrial missions have been of untold use in training
Africans and developing their characters on the best lines.
The Principal of the largest centre of industrial training in
connection with Christian missions in South Africa (at
Lovedale) was able to show that out of 2000 Africans who
had been trained there, 80 per cent, could be proved to
have led industrious and useful lives after leaving. In
Central Africa, and in a lesser degree in South Africa, the
future of Christian missions is bound up with the success-
ful development of industrial missions.

In South Africa the missionary problem has been made
more difficult of solution by the rise of a movement which
was more political than religious and which is known as
the Ethiopian Movement. This Movement, which had its
origin in America, represents an attempt to use the cry,
Africa for the Africans, in order to discredit the motives
of the European missionaries and to found a national

1 Cf. article on "Colour Antipathies," by E. F. Callaway, in The East
and The West, January 1910, p. 60.
22

338 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

church in South Africa. Needless to say, it has made no
attempt to undertake missionary work amongst the heathen.
The more religious section of the Movement under its
leader, Dwane, is now a part of the Anglican Church and
is known as the Ethiopian Order. It does not appear
likely, however, that the Ethiopian Order will greatly
increase, or that the time has yet come when the construc-
tion of a national church, which is a primary object of
Christian missions, can usefully be attempted.

Portuguese East Africa.

Portuguese East Africa contains 301,000 square miles
and a population of about 3,120,000, including 100,000
Mohammedans, 3000 Hindus and about 20,000 Christians.
Of these latter 4000 are (African) Roman Catholics. The
KG. missions are in the ecclesiastical district of Mozam-
bique.

Anglican missions are represented by the U.M.C.A. at
Unangu and by the S.P.G. at Louren^o Marques, which is
the centre of the diocese of Lebombo. Protestant missions
are represented by the A.M.E.C. and the Free Methodists
from the U.S.A., also by the "W.M.S. and the Swiss
Romaude Mission. The A.B.C.F.M. has a station at Beira.

Nyasaland.

Nyasaland, formerly known as British Central Africa,
lies on the western shores of Lake Nyasa and in the Shire
country to the south of this lake. It contains an area of
40,000 square miles and a population of about 1,000,000,
of whom about 300,000 are Mohammedans and about
20,000 Christians. The U.M.C.A. (see p. 343) works
amongst the Yao tribes east of the Shire River, south of
Lake Nyasa, on Likoma Island and at several stations
on the east shore of the lake, the U.F.C. of Scotland on the
west shore of the lake, the S.A. Dutch Reformed Ministers'
Union in the Angoni hills west of the lake, the Church of

AFRICA (NYASALAND) 339

Scotland at Blantyre in the Shire district, and the Zambesi
Industrial Mission west and north-west of Blantyre.

The Anglican bishopric of Nyasaland, formerly called
Likoma, was founded in 1892, though work had been
begun on the shores of Lake Nyasa in 1881. Bishop
Maples, who became bishop in 1895, was drowned in the
lake the same year. The diocese includes territory belong-
ing to Britain, Germany and Portugal, and extends along
the coast for 300 miles. The centre of the mission is the
island of Likoma, where there are 3000 baptized Christians.
A chain of more than 40 mission stations extends from
Amelia Bay in German territory to the south end of the
lake. On the west side of the lake is the important
station of Kota-Kota, with out-stations extending along a
coast-line of twenty miles north and south. There has
recently been a large increase of work in the Yao hill
country and amongst the Yao and Nyasa tribes along the
banks of the Upper Shire.

The Living stonia Mission of the Scottish Free Church,
which was organized in 1875, soon after the death of
Livingstone, extends along the west shore of Lake Nyasa,
the centre of its work being at Band awe. It has also
stations in South Ngoni Land, which lies south of the lake
and on the Tanganyika plateau to the north of the lake.

The Livingstonia Institution, which was started in
1895, is situated near Florence Bay, six miles from the
lake shore. It provides industrial training on the lines
of Lovedale in South Africa. Its first leader and super-
intendent was Dr. Laws. This mission, which received
sympathy and help from the African Lakes Corporation,
has exercised a wide influence in behalf of religion and
civilization. The number of scholars in the United Free
Church schools is very large.

Mr. Donald Fraser, who is a member of this mission,
in his book Winning a Primitive People, gave an encourag-
ing account of the check which Christian missions have
offered to the progress of Islam in the Nyasa district,
and specially amongst the Ngoni, Senga and Tembuka

340 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

peoples. Whilst in 1894 there were no African Christians
amongst these peoples, within twenty years the number of
Christians has risen to 20,000 and the number of places
of worship to 250. Preferring to the barrier which
Christian missions have raised to the progress of Islam,
he writes :

"The Arabs were pressing down from three or four
different points, and the whole of the lake regions were in
danger of becoming a great Mohammedan slaving empire,
threatening disaster to the defenceless tribes, and menacing
the progress of civilization. By the timely occupation of
strategic points and the final intervention of the British
Government with armed forces, these perils were overcome.
. . . To-day, Mohammedanism is scarcely a recognizable
quantity in any of the tribes among which the Livingstonia
Mission is stationed, while Christianity is rapidly becoming
the nominal religion, at least, of the people. A large
educational system has been developed, and although we
have only eight European stations there are 787 schools
and 52,000 pupils under our supervision. Thousands of
the people are able to read and write.

" A large institute at Livingstonia, under Dr. Laws, is
training skilled native artizans, teachers and preachers, and
these people, who, a generation ago, were utterly barbarous,
to-day send forth scores of builders, carpenters, printers,
clerks, and intelligent helpers to the Europeans who are
rapidly raising these lands into commercial prosperity." 1

Other important centres of the U.F.C. Mission are
London (11,530), Baudawe (7038) and Ekwendeni (6614).
The numbers in brackets represent the size of the
Christian community in 1913.

Blantyre Mission.

The Blantyre Mission, founded by the Established
Church of Scotland in 1876, is situated on the Shire
highlands south of Lake Nyasa, within the British Pro-
tectorate, though close to the Portuguese border. Its
church is one of the most striking and dignified in Central
1 Winning a Primitive Peo}>le, p. 9.

AFRICA (RHODESIA) 341

Africa. The mission includes a large amount of industrial
work, a hospital, in which a course of medical training is
provided, and a theological seminary. There are 3 chief
centres and 1 3 schools connected with the mission.

The reunion of the Established Church and the Free
Church of Scotland would naturally be followed by the
amalgamation of the two Scotch missions which have

o

done such good work in Nyasaland. It has recently
been arranged to form a synod of the two Presbyteries of
Livingstonia and Blautyre, and to give to the united
body the title of " The Church of Central Africa,
Presbyterian."

Two other industrial missions have been attempted in
the neighbourhood of Blantyre, the Zambesi Industrial
Mission and a Baptist Industrial Mission. The Z.I.M. has
a staff of 32 European workers, 8 mission stations and 70
schools. It cultivates coffee, cotton and rubber, and teaches
various industries. The Christians connected with it
number about 1000.

The Christians in Nyasaland connected with the
Protestant missions number about 17,000, and those
connected with Anglican missions about 8000.

Northern Rhodesia.

The Anglican diocese of Northern Rhodesia was founded
in 1910 by the U.M.C.A. The bishop resides for the
present at Livingstone, Victoria Falls. Other centres of
work are Mapauza (where work has been begun among the
Baila and Bataliga tribes), Fort Jameson, and in the
district south-west of Lake Bangweolo. The work is still
in a pioneer stage, the total number of baptized Christians
connected with the U.M.C.A. being about 300.

The L.M.S. began work near the southern end of Lake
Tanganyika in 1877. Its chief stations are at Kawirnbe,
Kambole, Mbereshi and Mpolokoso.

The Dutch Reformed Church has a strong mission near
Fort Jameson, the Paris Missionary Society has stations at

342 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

and near Livingstone. The A.M.E.C., the Primitive
^}[ethodists, the American Adventists and the Brethren have
also missions in Northern Rhodesia. There is also a small
E.G. mission superintended by the White Fathers.

The Mohammedan movement coming from the north
has not yet begun to exercise much influence.

British East Africa Protectorate.

The B.E.A.P. includes 350,000 square miles and a popu-
lation of about 4,000,000, of whom 25,000 are Asiatics.
About 700,000 are Mohammedans. The chief missionary
societies at work are the C.M.S., the Church of Scotland, the
U.F.C.M., the Neukirchen Mission Institute, the Africa
Inland Mission, the Scandinavian Alliance of the U.S.A.,
and the American Friends.

The Christians connected with the Anglican and
Protestant missions number about 12,000. The Anglican
diocese of Mombasa, which was formed in 1899, includes
nearly all British East Africa and German East Africa
where the Anglican Church is represented, except the area
in which the U.M.C.A. is working. The founders of the
Anglican missions in British East Africa were Dr. Krapf
(1837-56) and John Eebmann (1846-76). In 1875
the C.M.S. undertook to superintend a colony of freed
slaves which was established at Frere Town, near Mombasa.
In 1883 work was begun among the Wasagalla tribe, and
later on work was undertaken in Ukaguru and Ugogo.
Within the last few years stations have been established at
Nairobi (1906), Weithaga, and other centres in the Kenia
province. In the diocese of Mombasa there are about
5000 baptized Christians connected with the Anglican
missions and 22 clergy. There are also 3 medical
missionaries, who are stationed at Kahia and Embu in the
Kenia province.

The Church of Scotland Mission includes among its
stations Kikuyu in the Kenia province, which has given a
name to a recent ecclesiastical controversy. A medical,

AFRICA (ZANZIBAR) 34f>

industrial and evangelistic mission has been established
here which is exercising a wide influence in the surround-
ing districts. Kikuyu lies on the Uganda railway, 340
miles from the coast.

The missions of the R.C. Church belong to the Con-
gregations of the Holy Ghost and of the Sacred Heart of
Mary. British East Africa, with the exception of a small
area near Mount Kenia, is included in the E.G. diocese of
Zanzibar. The total number of E.G. Christians in the
diocese is 4050.

Zanzibar and the U.M.C.A.

We have already referred to the speech delivered by
Dr. Livingstone in the Senate House at Cambridge,
December 4, 1857 (p. 318). As a result of this speech
and of a visit to Cambridge by the Bishop of Capetown
in 1858, committees were formed to promote a Universities'
Mission to Central Africa. Charles Frederick Mackenzie,
who had been 2nd Wrangler and a tutor of Gains College
and for a short time Archdeacon of Natal, was chosen as its
leader. He sailed for Capetown with two clergy and
three laymen, where he was consecrated as bishop on
January 1, 1861. By the advice of Livingstone he
settled at Magoniero near the river Shire.

Livingstone did all that was in his power to help
forward the work of the mission, and Bishop Mackenzie
wrote most gratefully of the help and encouragement
afforded by him. Moreover, the fact that he was a
Congregationalist did not prevent him from sharing in a
common act of worship with the Anglican missionaries.
Thus he wrote :

" Livingstone and his party came to our ordinary services.
We have on board Morning Prayer and sermon. ... On
Whitsunday I proposed having the Litany, and asked
Livingstone whether he thought it would weary the sailors.
He said, ' No ' ; he always used it himself. We have always
had it since. They all attend Holy Communion." l

1 ffistory of the Oversea? Mission, p. 17,

344 HISTORY OF CHKISTIAN MISSIONS

Bishop Mackenzie died on January 31, 1862, and
two of his companions died soon afterwards. Bishop
Tozer, who succeeded him, moved the mission to the island
of Zanzibar, hoping to make this the base for future work
on the mainland. Bishop Steere, who became head of the
mission in 1874, was one of the most striking and
capable missionary bishops whom the Anglican Church has
possessed. His attitude towards the problems with which
he was confronted may be gathered from his words
addressed to one of his ordination candidates. " Let me
give you one word of advice. Never say, ' I can't.' '

Under his guidance the mission was re-established on
the mainland. At his death in 1882 the mission had
3 stations in Zanzibar, 5 in the Usambara country,
3 in the Rovuma country and 8 in Nyasaland. Under
Bishop Smythies, who succeeded him, great progress
was made, and in 1892 the diocese of Likoma (subse-
quently called Nyasaland) was formed. In 1909 a third
diocese of Northern Rhodesia was constituted. The
mission is staffed by unmarried men and women who
receive no stipends beyond an allowance of £20 per annum
for clothing and personal necessities. The cathedral at
Zanzibar, of which Bishop Steere was the architect, is built
on the site of the old slave market, the foundation-stone
having been laid on Christmas Day, 1873. The mission in
the island of Zanzibar has had to face special difficulties,
as a large number of the inhabitants are Moslems and
were formerly slave-raiders, whilst a considerable number
of those for whom the mission has endeavoured to care
have been rescued slaves. Of the people on the mainland
amongst whom the mission works, Bishop Steere wrote :

" The East Africans are not idolaters ; they all believe
in God, but they think of Him as too great and too far-off
to care individually for them. Their whole thoughts are
full of evil spirits and malicious witchcraft. A man gropes
his way through his life, peopling the darkness round him
with fearful shapes, and on the continual look-out for some
omen, or for some man who, as he supposes, knows more

AFRICA (ZANZIBAR) 345

than he does of the invisible world to give him some
faltering guidance. His life is dark, his death is darker
still. His friends dare not even let it be known where his
body is laid, lest some evil use should be made of it. No man
in the whole world has more need of inward strengthening
and comfort, and no man in the whole world has less of it." l

Special features of the mission are the Kiuugani
college for the training of released slaves and up-country
boys, hospitals in Zanzibar and on the mainland, and St.
Mark's College, Zanzibar, for the training of African
candidates for ordination. A cathedral has been built on
Likoma, an island in Lake Nyasa, and work is carried on at
a large number of stations on the eastern shore of the lake
(see p. 339). The Mission works in German East Africa,
Portuguese East Africa and in British Central Africa. It
has also a station in Pemba Island. For many years after
the mission was started the conditions under which the
missionaries lived were so unfavourable to health that, on
the average, at least half of the men and women sent out
died, or were invalided home within a year of their arrival
in the mission field. Owing to the improvement in these
conditions, and to the advance in medical knowledge, the
loss of life has been reduced to a fraction of what it was
during the earlier years.

Besides the island of Zanzibar the diocese includes
the island of Pemba and the Usambara, Zigua and Eovuma
countries on the mainland. In Pemba the work is chiefly
amongst released slaves, amongst whom the Friends have
also a successful mission.

At the end of 1913 the number of baptized Christians
in the diocese of Zanzibar was about 9000 and the
number of adherents about 20,000. Of the 39 clergy
in the diocese 17 were Africans. In the three dioceses
supported by the U.M.C.A. there are 71 clergy of whom
24 are Africans.

There is no English or American society other than the
U.M.C.A., which supports work in the island of Zanzibar.

1 History oj the Universities' Missions, by Morsheacl, p. 109 f.

346 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

The small R.C. mission is under the charge of the
Brothers of the Congregation of the Holy Ghost, which
works both in the island of Zanzibar and in Pemba. Con-
nected with this mission there are about 1400 Goanese
Indian Christians and about 500 Swahili-speaking Africans.
The mission is in charge of a small Government leper
asylum, which is superintended by four " Sisters."

German East Africa.

The population of what was German East Africa,
previous to the war, which was bounded by British East
Africa on the north and the Portuguese province of Mozam-
bique on the south, is about 10,000,000. According to
the " Kolonial Adressbuch " for 1912, published in Berlin,
the white population at the beginning of 1911 was 4227,
of whom 3113 were Germans.

Two Anglican, five Protestant and three Eoman
Catholic missions are at work. The Universities' Mission
to Central Africa carries on work at sixteen principal
stations, most of which are within 150 miles of the coast.
The Christians number about 5000.

The Church Missionary Society has eight stations in
Usagara and Ugogo, the Christians numbering about 1200.
The newly-opened railway from Dar-es-Salaam to Lake
Tanganyika passes through the district in which these
stations are situated.

The Evangelical Missionary Society, sometimes called
the " Bielefeld Mission," has twelve central stations and a
large number of out-stations. Its Christians number
about 1700.

The Berlin Missionary Society carries on work from
three chief centres, Usaramo, Konde and Hehe, and has
about 3000 Christians.

The Moravians have work at six stations in Unyamwezi
and Nyasa. The Christians number about 1500.

The Evangelical Lutheran Mission in Leipzig works in
four districts (Kilima Njaro, Meru, Pare-gebirge and

AFRICA (UGANDA) 347

Iramba) and has thirteen principal stations and about 2300
Christians.

The three R.C. societies working in German East
Africa are —

1. The Congregation of the Holy Ghost and the
Immaculate Heart of Mary, which carries on work at
twenty-three stations in Bagamoyo and Kilinia Njaro.
The Christians number about 10,000.

2. The St. Benedictine Missionary Association carries
on work at fourteen stations near Dar-es-Salaam. The
Christians number about 8000.

3. The Missionary Society of the White Fathers
carries on work in the vicariates of S. Nyanza, Unyanyembe
and Tanganyika. The Christians number about 30,000.

Between 1908 and 1912 the number of baptized
Christians connected with the E.G. missions increased from
34,200 to 55,700. During the same period the baptized
Christians connected with the Anglican and Protestant
missions increased from 8500 to 13,500.

Uganda.

In the annals of missionary enterprise there are few,
if any, stories more romantic than that of the founding of
the Uganda Christian Church. On April 5, 1875, the
traveller Stanley interviewed Mtesa, the king of Uganda,
who had made a profession of Islam. A few weeks later
Stanley wrote :

" Since the 5th of April I had enjoyed ten interviews
with Mtesa, and during all I had taken occasion to intro-
duce topics which would lead up to the subject of Christianity.
Nothing occurred in my presence, but I contrived to turn
it towards effecting that which had become an object with
me, namely, his conversion."

A little later Stanley dispatched a letter addressed to the
Daily Telegraph which led to the sending out of the first
Christian missionaries. In the course of the letter he wrote :

"I have indeed undermined Islamism so much here that

o

48 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Mtesa has determined henceforth, until he is better in-
formed, to observe the Christian Sabbath as well as the
Mohammedan Friday. Oh that some pious, practical
missionary would come here! What a field and harvest
ripe for the sickle of civilization. . . . Such an one if he
can be found would become the saviour of Africa. . . . Here,
gentlemen, is your opportunity ; embrace it ! The people on
the shores of the Nyanza call upon you. Obey your own
generous instincts and listen to them; and I assure you
that in one year you will have more converts to Christianity
than all other missionaries united can number."

This letter was entrusted by Stanley to a Belgian named
Bellefonds, who was subsequently murdered by members of
the Bari tribe. His skeleton was eventually discovered, on
the legs of which had been left the high boots for which the
Bari had no use. Stanley's letter was' found inside these boots
and was forwarded to General Gordon, who was at Khartoum.
On November 15, 1875, it was published in the Daily
Telegraph, and within a week of its publication the Church
Missionary Society had resolved to send a mission to
Uganda. Within two years of their start two of the original
party of eight had been massacred, two had died of disease
and two had been invalided home. One of the remaining
two, Alexander Mackay, an engineer, became the real
founder of the Uganda Church. Mtesa at first received the
missionaries in a friendly way, but when, two years later,
some French B.C. priests arrived and assured him that
the religion of the English missionaries was false, he
vacillated in his opinions and ended by relapsing into his
original heathenism. At his death in 1884 there were
38 African Christians. On January 30, 1885, his successor,
Mwanga, began to persecute the Christians with the object
of exterminating them. A Celtic cross marks the spot
where on this day six Waganda Christians were martyred.
Their arms were cut off', and after they had been tied
to a rough scaffolding a fire was kindled beneath them.
While they were being slowly burnt to death their murderers
bade them pray to Jesus Christ to save them. As the flames
coiled around them they are reported to have sung the hymn
beginning with the words, " Daily, daily, sing the praises."

AFRICA (UGANDA) 340

When the cross which stands upon this spot was
erected in 1910, the number of Christians in Uganda had
risen to 70,000. A few months after these martyrdoms
Mwanga procured the murder of James Hauniugton, who
had been appointed as the first Bishop of Uganda and was
approaching Uganda through the Masai territory, by a
route which had not previously been travelled by white
men. Soon afterwards the king seized 46 more Christians
and ordered them to be burnt. Mackay continued to
support the Christians by his prayers and exhortations,
and, despite the cruel persecutions to which they were
subjected, their number continued to increase. The number
of adherents of the C.M.S. and E.G. missions who were
put to death at this time was at least 200, and many
more suffered mutilation or banishment on account of
their faith. When news of this persecution reached
Tinnevelly, Indian Christians collected £80 and sent it for
the relief of their fellow-Christians.

The spirit and language of the letter which Mackay
addressed to the Christians of Uganda at the height of the
persecution bore a striking resemblance to those which
characterized the letters of the Bishops or other Christian
leaders during the earliest persecutions to which the Chris-
tian Church was subjected. In the course of it he wrote :

"We, your friends and teachers, write to you to send you
words of cheer and comfort, which we have taken from the
Epistle of Peter the apostle of Christ. Our beloved brothers,
do not deny our Lord Jesus, and He will not deny you in
that day when He shall come in glory. Eemember the
words of our Saviour, how He told His disciples not to fear
men who are able only to kill the body. . . . Do not cease
to pray exceedingly, and to pray for our brethren who arc
in affliction and for those who do not know God. May
God give you His spirit and His blessings. May He deliver
you out of all your afflictions. May He give you entrance
to eternal life, through Jesus Christ our Lord."

Mackay himself died on February 8, 1890, but by
this time the religious crisis had passed and it had become
evident that the spread of the Christian faith in Uganda

350 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

could not be checked by material force. Bishop
Hannington was succeeded by Bishop Parker, who had been
a missionary in India. He was consecrated in September
1886 and sailed soon afterwards for Africa, but died in
the spring of 1888 before he had reached Uganda. A few
months later Mwanga, having plotted unsuccessfully to
kill all the Christian and Mohammedan teachers in the
country, these combined against him, and having driven
him from his throne, proclaimed religious liberty for all.
On October 12, 1888, the Mohammedans, with the
assistance of some Arab slave-raiders, gained control and
placed Kalema, a son of Mtesa, on the throne, about a
thousand Christians, together with all the Christian
teachers, having been driven out of the country. In 1889,
Mwanga, aided by the Christians whom he had driven away,
regained his throne.

The party supporting Mwanga now appealed for help
to the Imperial East African Company. Their repre-
sentative, Captain (now General Sir Frederick) Lugard,
entered Uganda, but the Company soon found that the
expense of maintaining their position there was greater
than they could afford. When the Company announced
its intention to withdraw, an appeal was made at a C.M.S.
Meeting in Exeter Hall (October 30, 1891) and £8000
was guaranteed on the spot, the sum being doubled in the
course of a few days and handed over to the Company
on the understanding that their withdrawal would be
postponed for a year.

In January 1892 the E.G. section, which was generally
known as the French party, made an unsuccessful attack
upon the converts connected with the English mission, and
afterwards carried the king Mwanga with them to some
islands in the lake. At Captain Lugard's suggestion, the
province of Budu was then assigned as a sphere of work
for the E.G. mission, and this arrangement proved satis-
factory to all concerned.

On January 1, 1894, an English protectorate of Uganda
was declared by Sir Gerald Portal, who had been sent out

AFRICA (UGANDA) 351

as the representative of the British Government. During the
years which immediately followed, the number of Christians
steadily increased and thousands of persons placed themselves
under instruction in order that they might learn to read
the Bible. Mr. G. L. Pilkington, who reached Uganda at
the end of 1890, was largely instrumental in translating
the Bible into Luganda and in preparing catechisms and
text-books for the instruction of converts. He was a man
" full of the Holy Spirit " and exercised a marvellous influence
upon the Baganda. He was killed in the mutiny of the
Sudanese soldiers on December 11, 1897. On Trinity
Sunday 1893, six Baganda were ordained as deacons and
the foundation of an African self-supporting Church was
laid. In 1897 Mwanga attempted to revolt, and appealed
to the heathen Baganda to aid in exterminating the
Christians. As a result he was banished and his infant
son Daudi was proclaimed king in his place.

When Bishop Tucker arrived in Uganda in 1890 the
number of baptized Christians was scarcely 200. By 1913
this number had risen to 90,000 and the Christian ad-
herents (including the E.C. converts) were little short of
half a million. It would be impossible to find a parallel
in the history of the Christian Church during the last
thousand years for the progress in the establishment and
consolidation of a Christian Church in a heathen land to
that which has been attained in Uganda in twenty-three
years. The present Bishop of Uganda (Dr. Willis) has
stated his conviction that the rapid progress must, under
God, be largely attributed to the fact that the Church in
Uganda has been to a greater extent than almost anywhere
else in the mission field a united Church.

The present organization of the Christian Church is
thus described by the Bishop :

" Episcopacy in Uganda is not an autocracy ; it is the
unifying force in an organization scarcely less complex and
far more widely extended than the native feudal system.

" The Church in Uganda is self-governing, and its
government is at once elastic, capable of adapting itself to

352 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

a variety of local conditions, and strong, in that it binds the
whole Church together in one organization. The unit of
government is the ' Parish,' which consists of a central
church, with six or eight little village churches which are
grouped around it. This ' Parish ' has its own parochial
Church Council, composed entirely of native members.
This local Council conducts all the business of the ' Parish,'
interviews candidates for baptism, inquires into cases of
discipline, and manages parochial finance. Small and local
as it is, it yet has executive power within its own limited
area of a few square miles, and more perhaps than anything
else, it has trained the native Christians to regard the
Church as their own, and its welfare and progress as their
own — and not a European responsibility.

" Similarly, but on a larger scale, there is the District
Church Council, representative of a pastorate or missionary
district, into which a number of ' Parishes ' are grouped.
This has similar but enlarged powers, and among them the
right of hearing an appeal from the smaller parochial
Council. An English missionary or a native clergyman
presides over this Council, to which every parochial Council
within the district elects its representatives. The more
important questions, concerning the district as a whole, are
submitted to it, and local catechists are sent out by it to
take charge of the village churches. This represents the
second stage in the development of native self-government." 1

The final stage in Church government is reached in
the synod, composed of 300 representatives, which meets
annually and which appoints an executive of 30 mem-
bers, which is called the Diocesan Council. The Prime
Minister of Uganda, Sir Apolo Kagwa, is a member of the
synod.

Whether or not we agree with the Bishop of Uganda's
suggestion that the phenomenal progress of Christianity in
Uganda was chiefly due to the fact that the English
missionaries to Uganda were members of a united Church,
there can be no doubt that this was one of the most
important factors in the situation and one which is
deserving of clear recognition by the student of Missions.

1 "A United Church in Uganda," by the Bishop of Uganda, The East
and The West, April 1914.

AFRICA (UGANDA) 353

Had the Christian Church not been strong, and perhaps we
may add, had it not been united, there can be little doubt
that a large proportion of those who are Christians would
now be Moslems. The sudden uprising of a Christian
Church in the heart of Africa, right across the track of
Mohammedan progress southwards, has to an appreciable
extent served to stem the tide of the advance of Islam.

Although there has been good reason for encourage-
ment in the rapid development of the Christian Church of
Uganda, there is also much cause for anxiety and sorrow.
One of the missionaries stationed at Mityana wrote a few
years ago, and his description still holds good :

" We are constantly hearing of the sad state of immorality
and indifference prevalent. For months past I do not
remember a single Church Council meeting here without
some case of a breach of the seventh commandment being
brought forward. Important chiefs to whom I have spoken
tell me that they never knew such widespread immorality
in heathen days, as the punishment was too severe. Now
there is practically no punishment, and we have to
remember that, broadly speaking, the people are still
children in self-control, yet men in evil with generations
of heathenism behind them." l

Educational work has formed a special feature of
missionary enterprise in Uganda. The mission schools
contain about 50,000 boys and about 40,000 girls.
Uganda itself forms but a small part of the Uganda
Protectorate, which includes the kingdoms of Toro,
Bunyoro and Ankole, and other districts beyond. The
country of Busoga had a resident missionary in 1891,
Toro was occupied in 1896, Bunyoro in 1899, Kavirondo
in 1900, Ankole in 1901, the Acholi country in 1904
and the Teso country in 1908. In 1897 a separate
bishopric of Mombasa was established. The missionary
evangelistic work has from the first been mainly in the
hands of African evangelists superintended by European
missionaries. In 1913 the staff of the mission consisted

1 The Wonderful Story of Uganda, p. 186.
23

354 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

of a bishop, 33 European clergy, 4 doctors, 61 women
missionaries (including wives of missionaries), 35 African
clergy and over 3000 African agents. In 1914 the
number of persons baptized in the diocese was 7899, of
whom 6042 were adults.

The first Roman Catholic missionaries to enter Uganda
were sent by Cardinal Lavigerie and arrived on February
23, 1879. It was most unfortunate that they were
natives of France, the Government of which was at that
time eager to extend its influence in Central Africa, as their
national aspirations greatly increased the strength of their
opposition to those whom on religious grounds they were
bound to oppose. When at length the British Government
established a protectorate over Uganda, it succeeded in
arranging with the authorities of the Eoman Church that

o o

English missionaries belonging to the Eoman Church should
be substituted for French missionaries. On Easter Day,
1880, two E.C. catechumens were baptized. During the
great persecution which occurred in 1886, 30 newly bap-
tized E.G. converts were burnt to death on May 2 6th, and
70 others were afterwards murdered. The first E.G. bishop
to reach Uganda was Mgr. Hanlon, who arrived in 1895.
In 1914 two natives of Uganda were ordained as priests.

It is difficult to form an impartial opinion in regard
to the relative condition of the Anglican and Eoman
converts, who are about equal in number. One significant
fact must be recorded. When in March 1893 forty
Protestant chiefs voluntarily drew up and signed a petition
asking Sir Gerald Portal to abolish slavery and to set
free all slaves in Uganda, he was for some time unable
to accede to the request owing to the opposition of the
E.G. chiefs.

Three E.G. missions are at work in different parts of
the Uganda Protectorate. The eastern portion, that is
Uganda proper, is occupied by the English mission from
Mill Hill, the western by the White Fathers from Algeria,
and the northern by the Austrian mission. The complete
geographical separation of the Anglican and Eoman

AFRICA (UGANDA) 355

missions was productive of satisfactory results, but owing
to the inevitable intermingling of the Christians the
arrangement has now ceased to be operative.

In a charge delivered to the missionaries in Uganda in
1913, the Anglican Bishop of Uganda sums up in a few
sentences the moral outlook. He says :

" There is something most pathetic in the rushing of a
quick, impressionable, intelligent people through all the
stages of civilization within the lifetime of a single genera-
tion. That momentous decision to build a railway into the
heart of this continent has been followed with startling
rapidity by consequences, logical, inevitable, necessary, but
none the less pathetic. Within thirty years the whole
fabric of this country, social and political, has been up-
heaved ; perhaps never in any country has there been seen
a more sudden and more complete reversal of the whole-
national life within so short a time. No people, and
certainly no African people, could stand the shock of such
an upheaval without serious loss."

Referring to the moral condition of the Christians of
Uganda, the Bishop says :

" Apart from the matter of the return to pagan habits of
thought and action there are two dominant evils in the
field, drunkenness and immorality. These are not new in
the country or in the Church. But of late, within the last
six years, there has been a recrudescence on an alarming
scale . . . there seems no reason to question the statement,
all but universally made, that a very large number of the
Christians, at one time or another, fall under the power of
one or other of those two evils. . . . The passing from a
nominal paganism to a nominal Christianity will not at
once produce morality, and we must not assume that the
establishment of Christianity will, of itself, necessarily
regenerate a country." l

The reports received relating to the moral condition of
the Roman Catholic Christians suggest that the condition

1 A Charge to Missionaries of the Uganda Mission, by the Bishop of
Uganda. Published by Longmans, 1914.

356 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

of these is not better, if indeed it is not actually worse,
than that of the other Christians.

Despite, however, the prevalence of the serious evils to
which the Bishop refers, there is solid ground for hope
that the Church in Uganda which has had so bright a
beginning may yet be purified and strengthened and act as
the great missionary Church of Central Africa.

Italian Somaliland.

In Italian Somaliland, which contains about 250,000
Mohammedans and about 50,000 pagans, there are
apparently no Christian missions.

British Somaliland.

In British Somaliland, which has an area of about
68,000 square miles, the population is about 500,000, all
of whom are Mohammedans.

Eritrea.

Eritrea, an Italian colony on the Eed Sea.has a population
of about 500,000. Of these 100,000 are Mohammedans
and 320,000 are pagans. There are 2000 Europeans.
Of the Christians 17,000 are Roman Catholics, 12,000
belong to Eastern churches and 1000 are Protestants.
There are 53 E.C. priests (Franciscans). The Swedish
National Society has 34 missionaries, 10 mission stations
and about 600 Christians.

Abyssinia.

Abyssinia was converted to the Christian faith in the
fourth century, its first bishop being Frumentius, who was
consecrated by Athanasius. An Ethiopia translation of
the Bible was apparently begun by Frumentius and com-
pleted a little later. An Ethiopic king, at the instigation

AFRICA (ABYSSINIA) 357

of Justinian, conquered part of Southern Arabia and
placed a Christian king on the throne. At the end of the
fifteenth century Jesuit missionaries, supported by Portu-
guese soldiers, attempted to win over the Abyssinians to
obedience to Eome, but after much fighting they withdrew.
Another attempt was made in 1621 and a third in 1750,
but without any permanent result. In 1830, Samuel
Gobat (afterwards Bishop in Jerusalem) and Mr. Kugler
were sent by the G.M.S. to Abyssinia, but Mr. Kugler died
and Mr. Gobat retired through ill-health. About this time
the Jesuits made a further attempt to work amongst the
Abyssinians, but in 1859 they were expelled by King
Theodore. In 1860 Dr. Stern arrived as a representative
of the London Jews' Society. The king's suspicions having
been excited against Dr. Stern and other Europeans who
had been sent by Bishop Gobat, he detained them as
prisoners. On his refusal to release them war with
England followed in 1868. Abyssinian Christianity is a
strange mixture of Christianity, Judaism and Moham-
medanism, and it is hard to imagine how it can be re-
formed from within. It is calculated that 1800 Jews
have been baptized in Abyssinia since Dr. Stern began
his work.

Of the 3,000,000 nominal Christians 7000 belong
to the Eoman Catholic Church and all the rest are
members of a branch of the Coptic Church. The popula-
tion of the country includes 50,000 Mohammedans,
60,000 Jews and 300,000 pagans. The E.G. mission,
supported by the Lazarists of Paris, has 12 European
and 18 native priests. The Swedish National Missionary
Society, which has a mission in Eritrea, supports native
evangelists amongst the Gallas.

358 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Madagascar.

Of the Christian missions established during the nine-
teenth century none have been subjected to so long and
severe a persecution as that which befel the mission which
the London Missionary Society was instrumental in starting
in Madagascar. A larger number of Christians were killed
during the Boxer revolution in China, but in this case the
trial was brief and none of the Christians were subjected
to the long-protracted torments which the Malagasy
Christians endured. Their sufferings were worthy to be
compared with those of the Japanese Christians in the
sixteenth and those of the Corean Christians in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

When the first L.M.S. missionaries landed in 1818 the
king, Baclama, was well disposed to Europeans and desirous
of encouraging the education of his subjects. Actual
missionary work was begun by Mr. David Jones in 1820,
and by 1828 32 schools had been opened containing
4000 scholars. Eadama, who died in this year, was
succeeded by Queen Ranavalona, one of the twelve wives
of Eadama. She forbade all teaching and learning and dis-
couraged the spread of the Christian faith. In May 1831
28 converts were baptized, who formed the nucleus of a
Malagasy Church. In 1835 the queen began an active
persecution, and in 1839 she "issued an order that the
soldiers should seize every Christian they could find, and
without trial, bind them hand and foot, dig a pit on the
spot, and then pour boiling water upon them and bury
them." *

After a temporary lull the persecutions broke out
again in renewed force in 1849, when 18 persons were
sentenced to death and over 2000 were condemned to
slavery, public floggings and other degradations, and four
nobles were burned alive. A spectator of their martyrdom
wrote : " They prayed as long as they had life. Then they
1 The Story of the L.M.S. , p. 197.

AFRICA (MADAGASCAR) 350

died, but softly, gently. Indeed, gentle was the going
forth of their life, and astonished were all the people around
that beheld the burning of them."

Meanwhile the missionaries had retired to Mauritius,
as their presence served only to increase the fury of the
persecutors. Though the mission stations were closed for
twenty-six years, the number of the Christians tended steadily
to increase. On the death of the queen in 1861 liberty
of conscience was proclaimed by her successor. Of the
scenes which were then enacted Mr. Silvester Home wrote :

"Men and women were brought out of the land of exile
who had been banished for many years. There were re-
unions of those who had supposed each other to be dead
long since. Out of the recesses of the forests there came
men and women who had been wanderers and outcasts for
years. They reappeared as if risen from the dead. Some
bore the deep scars of chains and fetters ; some, worn
almost to skeletons by prolonged sufferings from hunger or
fever, could scarcely drag themselves along the roads that
led to the capital. Their brethren from the city went out
to meet them, and to help them, and ... as they saw
their old loved city again, they sang the pilgrim song,
' When the Lord turned again the captivity of Zion we
were like them that dream. . . .' " l

In 1836, when the persecution of the Christians began,
the number of Christians in Madagascar was estimated at from
1000 to 2000. During the twenty-six years of persecution
it is reckoned that over 10,000 persons were sentenced to
various punishments as Christians, and that 200 were put
to death. Nevertheless, at the end of this period the
Christians were four times as numerous as they were when
the persecution began. Although the Christians were
deprived of the help of their European teachers, they had
the New Testament in their hands and large numbers of
them had learned to read it. To this fact must to a great
extent be attributed the continuance and extension of the
Church during these years. Queen Eanavalona II. and her

lThe Story of the L.M.S., p. 353 f.

360 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Prime Minister were publicly baptized by a Malagasy
preacher in 1868, and, Christianity having now become
popular, the Christians rapidly increased in number. In
1869 they were reckoned at 37,000 and in the following
year at 250,000. Many of these were Christians only
in name, and their new religion made little perceptible
difference in their lives. In 1883 the French bombarded
Tamatave and soon afterwards declared a French pro-
tectorate over the whole island. One result of the French
conquest was that a large number of those who were
merely nominal Christians and who had become such
because the profession of Christianity had become popular,
ceased to call themselves Christians. Thus in 1904 the
250,000 adherents connected with the L.M.S. had sunk to
48,000.

The anti-Christian policy of the French Governor-
General, M. Augagneur, who was appointed in 1906,
resulted in the closing of four-fifths of all the mission
schools in the island. The L.M.S., which in 1888 had
90,000 scholars in its schools, in 1910 had less than
5000. The decree, which was issued in Paris in March
1913, dealing with the regulation of Public Worship has
removed some of the obstacles which had been placed by
the local authorities in the way of the spread of Christianity,
but missionary work is still carried on under exceptional
difficulties.

In 1862 the S.P.G., after it "had ascertained that the
L.M.S. would gladly see it taking part in the work of
evangelizing the Malagasy,"1 requested the Bishop of
Mauritius to visit Madagascar with a view to establishing
a mission. In 1864 work was started at Tamatave. In
the same year the C.M.S. started a mission at Vohimare
in the north of the island, but in 1874 this Society with-
drew its workers from Madagascar.

Within a year of their arrival the S.P.G. missionaries
were able to baptize 81 persons, and in 1866, in response
to an invitation from the king, they opened a mission
1 Two Hundred Years of the S.P.G., p. 374.

AFKICA (MADAGASCAR) 361

station at the capital, Antananarivo (Tananarive). In 1874
the Rev. E. K. Kestell Cornish was consecrated at Edinburgh
as the first Bishop in Madagascar.

The first woman to be sent out by the S.P.G. as a mis-
sionary was Miss Emily Lawrence, who was sent in 1867
to Mauritius and in 1874 to Madagascar, where she worked
indefatigably for over twenty years. Three years after her
arrival at Tananarive 43 girls were baptized and 10 con-
firmed from her own school.

In 1891 the Kev. E. 0. (afterwards Archdeacon)
McMahon undertook the perilous task of starting a mission
amongst the Sakalava in the west of Madagascar. Though
the mission had to be abandoned for a time, it has been
successfully restarted.

Bishop King reached Madagascar in 1899, and since
then the good work which had been accomplished by Bishop
Cornish has steadily developed. After the annexation
of the island the French Government insisted on French
being taught in all mission schools, and by other regula-
tions which they made seriously interfered with the work
of all the Christian missions in the island. As the result
of remonstrances addressed direct to the Government in
Paris these regulations were modified in 1913, but the
development of all branches of missionary work is still
restricted and liable to be interfered with by the French
officials in Madagascar.

Archdeacon McMahon, who has been a missionary in
Madagascar for over thirty years, writing of the times
which followed the periods of persecution, says :

" The want of catechists and evangelists made it practi-
cally impossible to cope with the new state of things, and
instead of being an advantage the numbers which professed
to be Christians at this time were a decided drawback and
set a low standard from which the Malagasy have not yet
recovered, . . . the slackness in morality, honesty and
truthfulness which troubles us now, is in a large degree
owing to the looseness which resulted in the flooding of the
churches by half-converted heathens at this time. The
form of Christianity which they understood was too easy-

362 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

going, and there was a great lack of definite teaching. 1
think that there are signs of improvement . . . since the
profession of Christianity brings no advantage to anyone,
rather the reverse. ... It takes generations to make a race
Christian, and the Malagasy have their strong as well as
their weak traits ; for instance, they could give us points in
patience, long-suffering, humility and like virtues." 1

The E.C. Mission. — French priests accompanied a
French Government expedition to Madagascar in the
seventeenth century and again in 1845, but it was
not till 1861 that a French E.G. mission was established
in Tamatave and in the capital. The mission was for a
time encouraged and subsidized by the French Government,
but in recent years it has been subjected to restrictions
similar to those imposed upon the other missionary
societies. The missionaries include Jesuits, Lazarists and
Brothers of the Congregation of the Holy Ghost. There
are 139 European and 2 Malagasy priests, and about
200,000 baptized Christians.

The Norwegian Lutheran Mission sent its first mission-
aries in 1866, who began work amongst the Betsileo tribe.
With the two affiliated American societies this mission has
worked amongst the Bara, Sakalava and other tribes in the
south, south-east and south-west. In 1913 it had 784
churches and 83,727 baptized members, 5201 of whom
had been baptized during the previous year. Before the
French authorities stopped its schools they numbered 885;
these are now reduced to 84. The mission has 96 native
pastors and over 900 catechists. It includes two medical
missions, and a leper asylum at Antsirabe. The work of the
mission is well organized and thorough.

The Friends Foreign Mission Association began work
in 1867 and has co-operated with the L.M.S. at Imerina.
It has now started work on the west coast.

After the French occupation of Madagascar representa-
tives of the Paris Missionary Society arrived in 1896 to
help the other Protestant missions and to take over part
1 Christian Missions in Madagascar, by E. 0. McMahon (1915), pp. 74 f.

AFRICA (MADAGASCAR) 363

of the work of the L.M.S. The help which their mission-
aries have afforded to the other missions has been specially
welcome in view of the Government's requirement that
all scholars in the mission schools should be taught
French. The French missionaries have helped to get the
Malagasy scholars through their brevet examination and
so to keep open a few of the mission schools. Two of the
French missionaries were assassinated by a band of rebels
in 1897. The Paris Society has undertaken as its special
sphere of work the coast from Taniatave to Diego Suarez.

The total number of baptized Christians connected
with the Anglican and Protestant missions is about
130,000 and of Christian adherents about 250,000. Of
the former, 29,800 belong to the L.M.S. and 14,200 to the
Anglican Mission.

Malagasy missionary societies. — Several attempts have
been made by Malagasy congregations to send out
evangelists to preach to the non-Christian populations in
their districts. No difficulty has been experienced in
raising money for their support, but up to the present the
results have not been encouraging.

The Malagasy version of the Bible, which was issued
in a revised form in 1887, has done much to create a
standard of the written language.

Mohammedan traders and others have effected a con-
siderable number of conversions to Islam in the east of
the island, and the Moslems number about 75,000.
Islam is making rapid progress amongst the Sakalava race.
Nearly all the population on the coast from Soalala to
Mojanja is already Mohammedan. Many Indian Moslems
have settled in the country.

In answer to the question " Has Christianity made
progress in Madagascar during the last twenty years, that
is since the country has been under European rule ? "
Archdeacon McMahon writes :

" It is very difficult to say, but I think that there is not
much doubt that the good Christians have become better,
while there has been a falling off of the nominal Christians,

364 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

as was to be expected. In the towns the churches are
generally well attended, and there is as much interest taken
in all that has to do with religion as was the case formerly.
In the country there has been a falling off in the numbers
found in Church on Sundays : this is largely due to the
difficulty in finding catechists. . . . On the whole I think
one may say that the Christian religion has taken deeper
and firmer root in the hearts and minds of the Christians
in Madagascar, but the difficulties during the last few years
show how much there is yet to be done, even more than
those who know the country best thought." l

Mauritius.

The Dutch, who gave the name to this island, found it
uninhabited in 1598. From 1715 to 1810 it belonged
to France, and at the latter date it was annexed by
England. Of the present population (370,000) about
two-thirds are East Indians by birth or descent, the rest
are Creoles of various races. At the time of its capture
by England there were four E.G. priests in the island, and
the religion of the whole population was nominally R.C.
On the abolition of slavery in 1834 the S.P.G. helped to
establish schools for some of the 90,000 emancipated
slaves. In 1854, when an English Bishop (Eyan) was
consecrated for Mauritius, half the population, which was
reckoned at 190,000, were "living in a state of heathen-
ism." Since this time a large amount of successful work
has been done, especially amongst the Indian coolies, who
constitute a majority of the population and are likely to
become the permanent inhabitants of the islands.

Work is also being carried on with success amongst
the Creoles in the Seychelles Islands.

The C.M.S. started work amongst the Indian coolies in
1856. Since then, 7000 converts have been baptized,
many of whom have returned to India. The C.M.S. is
1 Christian Missions in Madagascar, p. 104 f.

AFRICA (MAURITIUS) 365

now withdrawing its grant and handing its work over to
the bishop and the diocesan representatives.

The L.M.S. supported for many years a mission in
Mauritius which was started in 1814.

The R.C. clergy, who number about 50, include 6
Jesuits and 11 from the Congregation of the Holy
Spirit and the Sacred Heart of Mary. The rest are
parish priests.

The population of the island includes 41,000 Mo-
hammedans.

XIII.

AMERICA (U.S.A.).

Spanish Missions in America.

PONCE DE LEON, who sailed for Florida about 1520,
carried with hirn instructions from the king which required
him to summon the natives to submit themselves to the
Catholic faith and to the King of Spain under threat of the
sword and slavery. His expedition was driven away by the
natives whom he desired to convert. In 1565 Menendez
founded the city of St. Augustine. The Floridas were
eventually occupied by Dominicans, Jesuits, and Franciscans,
and seventy years later the Christians were reckoned at
30,000. For the 115 years during which Spain retained
possession of Florida, the number of Christians continued
to increase, but when in 1763 Florida was transferred to
the British Crown, "no longer sustained by the terror of
the Spanish arms and by subsidies from the Spanish
treasury, the whole fabric of Spanish civilization and
Christianization tumbled at once to complete ruin and
extinction." l

In New Mexico the first permanent occupation of
territory took place in 1598, when the Spanish settlers
were accompanied by Franciscan friars. In ten years
8000 persons were baptized, and ere long the entire
population was nominally Christian. When, however,
eighty years later, a revolt occurred against the Spanish
Government, within " a few weeks no Spaniard was in
New Mexico north of El Paso. Christianity and civilization
were swept away at one blow. The measures of compulsion
1 A History of American Christianity, by L. W. Bacon, p. 11.

AMERICA (U.S.A.) 367

that had been used to stamp out every vestige of the old
religion were put into use against the new." l

Although the Spaniards returned, twenty years later,
they never again succeeded in producing more than a
sullen submission to the religion of their conquerors. In
1845, 20,000 out of a total of 80,000 professed to be
Christians. Spanish settlements and missions on the
Pacific Coast date from 1769. By 1834 these missions
had amassed much wealth, but the Indian Christians were
in a condition of servitude. In this year the mission
property was distributed, and as a result, " in eight years
the more than thirty thousand Catholic Christians had
dwindled to less than five thousand, the enormous estates
of the missions were dissipated, the converts lapsed into
savagery and paganism."2

Although the Spanish missions in North America
produced such small spiritual results and ended so dis-
astrously, it must not be forgotten that the early records
of these missions contain many accounts of heroism and
devotion which go far to redeem their story from the
realm of mere secular history.

Franciscan and Jesuit Missions.

Between 1717 and 1833, 20 Franciscan missionaries
laboured among the Indians of Texas, and in 1769 a
Franciscan monk began a series of missions at San Diego
in California.

The northern part of what is now the U.S.A., stretching
from the Atlantic to the Eocky Mountains, was formerly
included in the two French provinces of Canada and
Louisiana. As long as the French rule lasted the greater
part of the missionary work amongst the Indians was
carried on by French Jesuits. The first mission west of
Huron county was begun in 1660 amongst the Chippewa
and Ottawa Indians. Within the next few years mission
stations were established at Sault St. Marie, Mackinaw,

1 Ibid., p. 12. 2 Ibid., p. 14.

368 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Green Bay, and among the Foxes and Mascoutins. Pere
Marquette, one of the greatest of the Jesuit pioneer
missionaries, started work amongst the Illinois in 1674,
which was carried on with such success that in 1725 the
entire Illinois nation was civilized and Christianized. Here,
however, as in many other districts, the missionary work
was interrupted by wars, and in 1750 the whole Illinois
nation was reduced to 1000 persons.

In 1818 work was begun amongst the Chippewas on
the Eed River inside the U.S.A. boundary. Missions were
also started in East Minnesota in 1837, amongst the
Menoniinees of Wisconsin in 1844, and among the
Winnebagos in 1850.

Anglican and Protestant Missions.

The first charter for an English colony, which was
granted to Sir Humphrey Gilbert in 1583, contained a
reference to the " compassion " of God " for poor infidels, it
seeming probable that God hath reserved these Gentiles
to be introduced into Christian civility by the English
nation."

The first attempt of a missionary character made by
the English in North America was made by Thomas Heriot,
the scientist and philosopher, who went out as one of a band
of colonists to Virginia. During the stay of the colonists
at Roanoke (1585-86), Heriot "many times and in every
towne " where he " came," " made declaration of the contents
of the Bible " and of the " chiefe points of religion " to the
natives according as he " was able." One of the natives,
who was called Manteo, returned to England with the
English party in 1586, was appointed by Sir Walter
Raleigh as Lord of Roanoke, and was baptized in that
island (August 13, 1587). This is the first recorded
baptism of a native of Virginia.

'in 1588 Sir Walter ^Raleigh gave £100 to the
Virginian Company " for the propagation of the Christian
religion in that settlement."

AMERICA (U.S.A.) 360

In 1560 John Knox wrote in the first Confession:
" This glaid tyclingis of the kyngdome sail be precheit
through the haill warld for a witness unto all natiouns
and then sail the end cum." More than a century later
the Scottish General Assembly (1699) enjoined the
ministers whom it sent forth with the Darien expedition
to labour among the heathen.

Pocahontas, the daughter of the Indian chief Powhatan,
who in 1607 persuaded her father to save the life of
Captain Smith, the President of Virginia, became a
Christian, and having married an Englishman, came to
England and was received by King James.

The Pilgrim Fathers, who sailed for Massachusetts in
the Mayflower (1620), were not unmindful of their
obligation to Christianize the American Indians. Their

O

pastor, John Ptobinson, wrote to the Governor of New
Plymouth, " 0 that you had converted some before you
had killed any." One of their number was set apart " to
promote the conversion of the Indians." In 1621 one of
the Puritan Elders, Eobert Cushman, appealed to England
on behalf of the Indians, and in 1636 the colony passed
legislation in order to promote the " preaching of the
gospel among them." In 1628 the charter granted by
Charles I. to the colony of Massachusetts stated that
" the principal end of the plantation " was that the
colonists may "win and invite the natives of the country
to the knowledge of the only true God and Saviour of
mankind and the Christian faith." In 1646 the Colonial
Legislature passed an Act for the propagation of the Gospel
among the Indians.

The formation of the Corporation for the Propagation
of the Gospel in New England (see p. 56) was indirectly
due to the reports which had reached England concerning
the labours of John Eliot (1604-90), the "Apostle of the
Indians." After taking his degree at Jesus College,
Cambridge (1623), he acted for a time as an usher in a
school near Chelmsford, and, sailing for America in 1631,
was appointed as the Presbyterian pastor of Koxbury,

24

370 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

near Boston, in 1632. When he began his missionary
work there were about twenty tribes of Indians on the
plantations adjoining Massachusetts Bay, and for many
years Eliot combined the charge of the church at
Roxbury witli pioneer evangelistic work amongst the
Indians. His biographer remarks of him that his name
written backwards spells " toilc," and few missionaries
have toiled harder than he. His first attempt to
evangelize the Indians was made at the Falls of the
Grand River in 1646. His great desire was to establish
Indian settlements which should realize the Jewish
theocracy described in Exodus. His first baptisms were
at Natick, near Boston, where a settlement of Indians
was organized in 1651, in accordance with the directions
given to the Israelites in Exodus xviii. His work was
imitated by Mayhews, " a pious colonist," and others, and
ere long there had arisen in New England fourteen
"praying Indian villages," containing 3600 Christians.
Everything went well till 1675, when the war between
the English and the Indians brought about the destruction
of nearly all their settlements and put back the work
amongst Indians for many years. He was an indefatigable
student and translator, and in 1661 he published the
New Testament in the Indian (Mohican) language, and
two years later the Old Testament was also issued. He
published in addition Indian grammars and primers, and
translations of several English theological books. He
died at Roxbury at the age of eighty-six in 1690.
After witnessing the destruction of his Christian settle-
ments and the apparent ruin of his work, he wrote to
Robert Boyle, shortly before his death, " My understanding
leaves me, my memory fails me, my utterance fails me,
but I thank God my charity holds out still." His dying
words were, " Welcome joy."

The Scottish Society for the Propagation of Christian
Knowledge, which was founded in Edinburgh in 1701,
gave some occasional assistance to missionary work. It
helped to support David Brainerd, who was born in

AMERICA (U.S.A.) 371

Connecticut in 1718. For nearly four years lie worked
amongst Indians in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and
gathered some converted Indians at a settlement which he
named Bethel, where he attempted to teach them husbandry.
He died before he was thirty in 1747. His Journal,
which was published in 1746, and his Life, which was
afterwards written by his friend President Edwards, in-
fluenced many in later times to give their lives to the
work of Christian missions.

Anglican Missions to Indians and Negroes.

New York. — In 1704 Mr. Elias Neau, a Frenchman,
was appointed by the S.P.G. as a catechist to work amongst
negroes and in charge of a " catechising school," having
received a licence from the Governor of New York " to
catechize the negroes and Indians and the children of the
town." In exercising his office he found reason to com-
plain that " the generality " of the " inhabitants " were
" strangely prejudiced with a horrid notion, thinking the
Christian knowledge" would be "a means to make their
slaves more cunning and apter to wickedness." Later on
the Eev. S. Auchmuty (1747-64) reported that "not
one single Black " who had been " admitted by him to the
Holy Communion " had " turned out bad, or been in any
shape a disgrace to our holy profession," and that the masters
of the negroes had become " more desirous than they used
to be of having them instructed." In 1707 the Rev. W.
Barclay became minister at Albany and helped to prepare
for publication in the Iroquois language translations of the
Gospels and of the Book of Common Prayer which had
been made by Mr. Freeman, "a devout minister of the
Dutch Church." He and his successors started work
amongst the Mohawks. Towards the furnishing of the
first chapel for the Mohawks, Queen Anne contributed
" altar plate and linen."

In 1727 the S.P.G. appointed the Eev. J. Miln to
minister to the Indians at Fort Hunter near Albany. The

372 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

result of his labours was thus described by the officer
commanding the Fort Hunter garrison in 1735 :

" I have found the Mohawk Indians very much civilized,
which I take to be owing to the industry and pains taken
by the Rev. Mr. John Miln in teaching and instructing them
in the Christian religion. The number of communicants
increases daily. . . . The said Indians express the greatest
satisfaction with Mr. Miln. . . . They are become as
perempter in observing their rules as any society of
Christians commonly are. . . . They are very observing of
the Sabbath, conveneing by themselves and singing Psalms
on that day, and frequently applying to me that Mr. Miln
may be oftener among them." 1

By 1742 a missionary was able to report that only
two or three of the tribe remained unbaptized.

A mission to the Oneidas was opened in 1816 which made
good progress, but in 1823 the U.S.A. Government trans-
ferred the Indians to a new reserve in Wisconsin. All the
Indians on this new settlement are now baptized Christians.

South Carolina. — The first missionary sent out by the
S.P.G. for work amongst the heathen was the Rev.
S. Thomas. He was designed for a mission to the
Yammonsees and on his appointment £10 was voted by
the society " to be laid out in stuffs for the use of the
wild Indians." Mr. Thomas was so ill during his voyage
down the Channel that his life was despaired of at
Plymouth, but after a voyage of three months he reached
Charlestown on Christmas Day, 1702. As the Yam-
monsees were engaged in fighting at the time of his

o o o o

arrival, he devoted his attention to the negro and Indian
slaves in the Cooper Elver district, and at the same time
ministered to the English settlers, who " were making near
approach to that heathenism which is to be found among
negroes and Indians." Returning to England in 1705 in
the hope of securing additional fellow-workers, he died in
1706.

1 See Reports and Letters of the Society's Missionaries in Wisconsin, vol.
A., 26, p. 4.

AMERICA (U.S.A.) 373

In 1713 the Eev. G. Johnston of Charlestown brought
to England a Yammonsee prince, at the request of his
father and of the " Emperor of the Indians," in order that
he might be instructed in the Christian religion and in
English manners. He was " put to school and instructed
at the charge of the society," and was baptized by the
Bishop of London in the Eoyal Chapel of Somerset House
on Quinquagesima Sunday, 1715, at the age of nineteen,
Lord Carteret, one of the proprietors of South Carolina,
being one of his sponsors. After his baptism he was
presented to the King. On his return to America he
continued his education under Mr. Johnston, to whose care
the eldest son of the " Emperor of the Cherequois " was
also entrusted. A few months later a war broke out in
which the missionaries and the Indian Christians suffered
grievously.

In 1743, two negroes having been purchased and
trained as teachers at the cost of the S.P.G., a school was
opened at Charleston by Commissary Garden, with the
object of training the negroes as instructors of their
countrymen. The school was continued with success for
more than twenty years, many adult slaves also attending
in the evening for instruction. This school was maintained
in the face of many difficulties and at a time when the
Government had not one institution for the education of
the 50,000 slaves in the colony.1

North Carolina. — Attempts were made in several
districts by missionaries of the S.P.G. to evangelize the
negro slaves, but in many cases their efforts were frus-
trated by the opposition of the slave-owners.

Mr. Eainsford, who was stationed at Chowan in 1712,
baptized " upwards of forty negroes " in one year. As
the prejudices of the masters were overcome a missionary
would baptize sometimes fifteen to twenty-four negroes in
a month and as many as seventy in a year. The Eev.
C. Hall reported having baptized 355 in eight years.
Some of the missionaries received very little support from
1 Two Hundred Years of the S.P.G., p. 18,

374 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

the colonists, and suffered severe hardships in consequence.
Thus the Rev. J. Urmston reported in 1711 that he and
his family were " in manifest danger of perishing for want
of food." " We have," he said, " liv'd many a day only on
a dry crust and a draught of water out of the Sound."

Georgia was established as a colony in 1733. On the
return of Mr. Quincy, the society's first missionary in
Georgia, the Rev. John Wesley was appointed as his
successor. The meeting of the S.P.G. committee at which
he was appointed was held on January 16, 1736.
Amongst those who were present were the Bishops of
London, Lichfield, Rochester, and Gloucester. Wesley
sailed for Georgia in the hope that he might he able to
evangelize the heathen, but the claims of the settlers at
Savannah left him little time to preach to the Indians,
though he made several attempts to do so. He returned
to England after an absence of two years. During his
stay in Georgia he got into trouble with some of the
settlers owing to his refusal to read the Burial Service
over a Nonconformist, and by others he was accused of
being a Papist. The actual difficulty which caused his
abrupt departure from the colony arose in connection witli
his refusal to admit to Holy Communion a member of his
congregation. A little later missionary work was started
amongst the Chickasaw Indians and negroes.

There appears to be no account of missionary work
amongst the Indians and negroes in Pennsylvania sup-
ported by the S.P.G. until 1756, when the society granted
£100 per annum for the training of native teachers in the
college at Philadelphia under the Rev. Dr. Smith.

In New England the efforts of the missionaries to
evangelize the Indians and negroes were bitterly opposed
by the colonists. In 1730 the Rev. J. Usher reported
from Bristol that " sundry negroes " had made " applica-
tion for baptism that were able to render a very good
account of the hope that was in them," but he was
" not permitted to comply with their requests . . . being
forbid by their masters." In the same year, however, he

AMERICA (U.S.A.) 375

succeeded in baptizing three adult Indians, and later on
the Bristol congregation included " about thirty negroes
and Indians," most of whom joined " in the public service
very decently."

At Stratford Dr. Johnson " always had a catechetical
lecture during the summer months, attended by many
negroes and some Indians, as well as the whites, about
70 or 80 in all." At Naragansett, Dr. Macsparrau had
a class of 70 Indians and negroes, whom he frequently
catechised and instructed before Divine Service, and the
Rev. S. Honyman of Newport, Rhode Island, besides
baptizing some Indians, numbered among his congregation
"above 100 negroes who constantly attended the Publick
Worship." Among the Naragansett tribe in Rhode Island
Catechist Bennet of the Mohawk Mission, New York
Province, laboured for a short time on the invitation of
their king.1

New Jersey. — Attempts were made in several parts of
this province to do missionary work amongst negroes
between 1701 and 1750. Towards the end of this period
(1746-51) the Rev. Thomas Thompson laboured in New
Jersey. In 1751 he left America in order to go as a
missionary to the Gold Coast, being the first S.P.G.
missionary and probably the first Englishman to work as
a missionary in Africa.

The difficulties which the missionaries connected with
the S.P.G. had to face in America were the same as
those which confronted John Eliot and the Moravian
missionaries. These were created by the attitude of the
colonists towards the Indians and by the reluctance of
slave-owners to allow their slaves to receive any kind of
education. Again and again a promising community of
Christian Indians was established, only to be scattered or
massacred in one of the intermittent wars which were
waged between the non-Christian Indians and the colonists.
Had these Christian communities been allowed to develop,
it is inconceivable that the American people could have
1 See Ttcu Hundred Years of the S.P.G., p. -17.

376 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

incurred the disgrace of allowing the twentieth century to
dawn upon their country whilst a large proportion of
its Indian subjects still remained heathen. The diffi-
culties raised by the slave-owners in regard to the
evangelization of the negroes retarded but have not pre-
vented the nominal Christianization of the race. In
many cases these difficulties were not removed until the
emancipation of the negroes in 1863.

After the Declaration of Independence the Anglican
Christians in the U.S.A. were comparatively few in
number and were not in a position to develop mission
work amongst the Indians, but by the middle of the
nineteenth century the Protestant Episcopal Church
began to organize such work.

The first of a chain of Anglican missions was opened
at Gull Lake, Minnesota, for the Chippewas in 1852. In
1859 Henry Benjamin Whipple, who became the great
champion of the Indians in their dealings with the U.S.A.
Government, was consecrated as the first Bishop of
Minnesota. In 1860 Bishop Whipple opened a mission
amongst the Santee Sioux Indians. In 1872 William
Hobart Hare was consecrated as a missionary bishop
to the Indians. The Sioux Indians who lived in
South Dakota were his special charge. For thirty -seven
years Bishop Hare, who eventually became known
throughout the U.S.A. as the Apostle to the Indians,
shared the life and the privations of his beloved Indians,
and before his death in 1909 he had the satisfaction
of seeing a large Indian community which was Christian
in something more than name. He was " God's chief
human instrument in the transformation of a tribe of
murderous savages into gentle, worshipful citizens of the
Kingdom of Christ."1 Of the 25,000 Christians in South
Dakota 10,000 are baptized members of the Anglican
Church. At the present time the Anglican Church has
missions to Indians in twelve states and supports 23
white and 25 Indian clergy.

1 Handbook of the CJiurch's Mission to Indians, p. 139.

AMERICA (U.S.A.) 377

In the state of Oklahoma, which contains the largest
number of Indians, there are about 120,000 Indians or
people with Indian blood.

The greater part of the missionary work in this state
is carried on by the "Roman Catholics and the Presbyterians.

We have already referred to the attempts made by
the Moravians to work amongst Indians in Georgia and
New York during the first half of the eighteenth century.
Later on they started missions among the Delawares and
associated tribes in Ohio, and still later, in Ontario and
Kansas. Early in the nineteenth century the Friends
established missions in Indiana, and, at a later period,
in Oklahoma.

" The Presbyterians began their work among the
Wyandottes about the same time as the Friends, and later
among the Cherokees, Osages, and Pawnees. To the Con-
gregational missionaries we owe most of our knowledge of
the Sioux language, their work being almost entirely in the
Santee or Eastern dialect. . . . The Methodists were the
first to minister to the Flatheads in the mountains at the
head of the Missouri Eiver ; they also had missions among
the Chippewas. The Baptists laboured for the Weas, a
sub-tribe of the Miamis, in 1818-21. Later on missions
were established for the Pottawatomie, near South Bend,
Indiana, and among the Ottawas on Grand Eiver, Michigan.
This is but passing mention of work divinely inspired and
nobly done ; lack of space prevents more detailed description
of these the earliest missions among the Indians of the
Mississippi Eiver region." [

The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign

o

Missions, \vhich was organized in 1810 and is the oldest
missionary society having its origin in the U.S.A., worked
for many years amongst the Indians. Up to 1890 it had
supported 1600 missionaries, of whom 512 had been sent
to work amongst the Indians. The first missionary, the
Eev. Cyrus Kingsbury, was sent in 1815 to start work

1 A Handbook of the Church's Mission to the Indians (Christian Missions
Publishing Co., U.S.A.), p. 103.

378 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

amongst the Cherokees of Georgia. In 1818 a second
station was opened amongst the Choctaws on the Yazoo
Eiver. In 1825 a half-breed Cherokee invented the
Cherokee alphabet, with the result that within four years
half his nation had learned to read. The work of the
A.B.C.F.M. made rapid progress for several years, but was
eventually checked and interrupted by the ill-treatment
of the Cherokee, Sioux, and other Indians by American
settlers who took possession of their land.

In 1834 the Dutch Reformed Church handed over to
the A.B.C.F.M. their mission stations west of the Kocky
Mountains, and this work was extended amongst the
Spokanes and Cayuses. In 1848, in consequence of a
massacre, the missionaries had to be withdrawn, but seven
years later, when they were able to return, they found
that a large proportion of their converts had " lived con-
sistent Christian lives, having continued the reading of the
Scriptures in their own languages and also kept up regular
family worship." The Cayuses have now become extinct.

In 1846 the American Missionary Association for the
promotion of missionary work amongst the Indians was
established, and in 1883 the A.B.C.F.M. transferred to
this society the care of all its missions to American
Indians.

The Women's National Indian Association has done
much to influence public opinion in favour of the Indians,
and has started several missions amongst them which it
afterwards transferred to the charge of various missionary
societies.

The American Baptist Home Missionary Society, which
began its work in 1807, and the A.M.E.C. have work
amongst several different tribes. A missionary of the
latter body, John Stewart, who was called the " Apostle
to the Wyandottes," died in 1823.

The total number of Anglican and Protestant mission-
aries now at work amongst the American Indians is
about 200.

The societies which report the largest amount of

AMERICA (U.S.A.) 379

work amongst American Indians are the following (the
figures indicate the number of Christian adherents) :—

The Presbyterian Church Board of Home Missions,
18,108; the Protestant Episcopal Church, 12,900;
American Baptist Home Mission Society, 8156 ; the
Methodist Episcopal Church, 5000 ; the Methodist
Episcopal Church, South, 5000. Twenty -five American
societies report a total of 66,928 adherents and 28,092
baptized Christians. These figures do not include the
Indian Christians belonging to the E.G. Church.

R.C. Missions to Indians. - - Of the Indians in the
U.S.A. and Alaska 64,741 are attached to the E.G.
missions. Of these 3200 are in the diocese of Alaska,
9633 in the diocese of Santa Fe, 7344 in the diocese of
Lead, 3664 in the diocese of Crookstone, 3643 in the
diocese of Seattle, 4380 in the diocese of Helena, and
3890 in the diocese of Great Falls. During 1912 the
number of adults baptized was 1017. The number of
priests attached to the E.G. missions is 163. In 1874
the Bureau of Catholic Indian Missions, of which the E.G.
Archbishop of Baltimore was president, was established.
This Bureau helps to support the mission schools and
to maintain and develop the various missions. The Society
for the Preservation of the Faith among Indian children,
established in 1901, collects from each of its members, who
number about 50,000, an annual subscription of 25 cents
for the benefit of the missions.

The number of Indians in the U.S.A., according to
the census of 1910, was 265,683, and in Alaska, 25,331.
The largest number of Indians is found in Oklahoma,
namely, 74,825 ; while Arizona has 29,201 ; New Mexico,
20,573; South Dakota, 19,137; California, 16,371;
Washington, 10,997; Montana, 10,745; Wisconsin, 10,142,
etc. Indians are found in every state and territory, but
their number in Delaware, Vermont, New Hampshire,
and West Virginia is less than 50.

It is satisfactory to note that, after several fluctuations,
their number appears to be definitely increasing. Their

380 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

total number was 278,000 in 1870, 244,000 in 1880,
248,253 in 1890, and 237,196 in 1900. Thus, their
number decreased from 1870 to 1900, but it increased
considerably (28,487) during the decade between 1900
and 1910. The number of Indians in Alaska is on the
decrease, namely, from 32,996 in 1880 and 29,536 in
1900 to 25,331 in 1910.

The number of Indian tribes is large, but some have
very few members, six tribes being represented by a single
member each, and 30 having a membership under 10. The
Cherokees have 31,489 members; the Navajo, 32,455;
the Chippewa, 20,214; the Choctaw, 15,917; and the
Teton Sioux, 14,284. Of the remaining continental
United States tribes none has as many as 7000 members,
but there are 74 tribes represented by not less than
500 individuals. In Alaska the Kuswogmiut have 1480
members and the Aleutt 1451, but none of the other
tribes in the territory has as many as a thousand members.

Alaska.

Alaska contains a population of 65,000, which
includes about 15,000 Eskimo, 2000 Aleutians, 25,231
Indians, 2000 Chinese, and a steadily increasing number
of white immigrants and half-breeds. It was bought from
Eussia by the U.S.A. in 1867.

A mission was founded by the Eussian Orthodox
Church in the Aleutian Islands between Kamtchatka and
Alaska in 1793. We have referred elsewhere (see p. 276)
to the good work accomplished here by John Veniammoff,
afterwards Archbishop Innocent. The mission was
extended to Alaska in 1834, and is now superintended by
a bishop whose diocese is called " The Aleutian Islands
and North America " and whose cathedral is at San
Francisco. The members of the " orthodox " Church in his
diocese number between 40,000 and 50,000 and include
over 10,000 Indians, Aleutians, Creoles, and Eskimos.

The U.S.A. Presbyterians started a mission at Forb

AMERICA (U.S.A.) 381

Wrangel in 1877. This mission has now 8 stations
and 4000 Christians. The Moravians, who started in
1885 amongst the Eskimos in the south-west, have about
1400 baptized Christians attached to the mission.

Missionary work in Alaska was begun by the
Protestant Episcopal Church U.S.A. at Anvik in 1887,
and Bishop Eowe was consecrated as its first bishop in
1895. In addition to the bishop there are 12 clergy and
6 lay readers. There are 2 industrial schools, 6 mission
hospitals, 20 churches, and 20 mission rooms. At Point
Hope there are 3 Eskimos who conduct services for their
own people whom the bishop hopes to be able to ordain.

Mr. Duncan, who founded the C.M.S. Mission of
Metlakahtla, after separating from the C.M.S., migrated
with a large number of Indians to Annetta Island, which
is within the territory of Alaska.

Orientals in the U.S.A.

The Chinese number about 75,000, of whom the
greater part are on the Pacific Slope, most of the
remainder being in the Kocky Mountain districts. The
number and location of the Japanese are about the same.
The immigrants from India are probably fewer in number
and are widely scattered. Attempts to evangelize these
immigrants are being made by many local churches, and
organized missionary work is being carried on on a small
scale on the Pacific coast and in a few large cities in the
east. It is estimated that about 7000 Chinese and
about 5000 Japanese have been baptized. Very few
attempts are being made to reach the Indians except by
the agents of the American Bible Society.

XIV.
CANADA.

Canadian Indians.

THE first missionary to set foot in Canada was Father
Fleche, who in 1610 joined Champlain's settlement in the
Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia. Within a year of his arrival
the chief Membertou and all his tribe had become Chris-
tians. In the following year two Jesuit priests arrived to
assist in the missionary work which had been begun.

In 1633 Jesuit missionaries started work amongst the
Indian tribes in the neighbourhood of Quebec, but despite
the devotion and activity of the missionaries the progress
made during the first few years was slow. " On one
occasion Brebeuf appeared before the chiefs and elders at a
solemn national assembly council, described heaven and hell
with images suited to their comprehension, asked to which
they preferred to go after death, and then, in accordance
with the invariable Huron custom in affairs of importance,
presented a large and valuable belt of wampum, as an
invitation to take the path to Paradise." l

For forty years the Jesuits laboured hard, but in vain,
to reclaim the Indians from their wandering life and to
induce them to abandon their cruel customs. In individual
cases they attained some success, but, partly as a result of
fighting between them and the French, and partly as the
result of quarrels among themselves, their efforts proved
unavailing, and in 1675 the mission came to an end.

Of the deeds of heroism accomplished by these Jesuit
missionaries many instances might be given, but a single

1 The Jesuits in North America, by F. Parkman, p. 151.

382

CANADA

illustration must suffice. In 1G60 Father Rene, who was
then an old man, in response to an invitation brought by
a party of Ottawas, left the St. Lawrence and travelled
with them to their own district. After a while they left
him to starve on the shores of a lake, but eventually they
relented and carried him to the home of their tribe, a hundred
miles west of Sault Stc. Marie, where, living in a miserable
dug-out under a hollow tree, he began his missionary work.
Driven out of this, he was compelled to spend his first
winter in a little cabin built of fir-tree branches. The
following summer, while trying to reach another Indian
settlement, he was either murdered by hostile Indians, or
died of exposure. This story aptly illustrates the diffi-
culties under which the work of the Jesuit missionaries
was carried on. Many of the missionaries and of their Indian
converts suffered martyrdom, which was inflicted with the
most barbarous cruelty.

After the recall of the Jesuit missionaries in 1773 the
care of the Indians fell upon the Sulpicians and upon those
of the secular clergy who were able to assist them.
Sporadic attempts were made to evangelize the Indians in
different parts of Eastern Canada, and in 1842 Father
Thibault began to preach to the Crees and Blackfeet in
Alberta. In 1844 Jesuit missionaries inaugurated work
on Walpole Island in Lake Superior, and at several other
centres.

In 1860 Mr. J. G. Kohl, in a book describing his
travels on the shores of Lake Superior, refers thus to the
work of the K.C. missionaries :

"Everything I heard here daily of the pious courage,
patience, and self-devoting zeal of these missionaries on Lake
Superior caused me to feel intense admiration. They live
isolated and scattered in little log huts round the lake, often
no better off than the natives." l

Between 1850 and 1870 Oblates and other mission-
aries started work amongst several tribes in the north-
1 Wanderings round Lake Superior, xix. 306.

oS4 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

west. In 1847 work was started in Vancouver Island.
In 1875 Brother Alexis was killed and eaten by an
Iroquois Indian. Within recent years the work has been
developed and has been carried on with a fair amount of
visible success.

Anglican Missions.

In 1820 the Rev. S. West, the first chaplain of the
Hudson Bay Company, began work in the Red River
Colony near the site of the present town of Winnipeg.
He received a grant from the C.M.S. towards the education
of Indian boys, and two of his earliest pupils, H. Budd and
J. Settee, were eventually ordained. In 1831 an Indian
settlement was attempted and an effort was made to reclaim
the Indians from their wandering life ; but out of an encamp-
ment of 200 Indians only seven could be induced to take
part in cultivating the ground, and when the first harvest
was reaped, four of these consumed the whole produce at
a single feast, reserving nothing for the coming winter.
One of those who helped to establish the settlement had
previously eaten seven of his own relations. Notwith-
standing, however, the initial difficulties which were
experienced, the settlement proved a success, and a well-
ordered Christian community eventually came into existence.
A series of other stations were established, and in 1872 it
was reported that no heathen Indians were to be found in
this whole district. The work gradually spread towards the
west and towards the north. Budd was ordained by the
first Bishop of Rupertsland in 1850. In 1865 there were
in Rupertsland and the North- West Territories 5000 Indian
Christians and 1000 communicants.

In 1851 work amongst Indians was begun in what is
now the diocese of Moosonee, which includes the whole
coast-line of Hudson Bay. In this year a schoolmaster
named John Horden was sent out by the C.M.S. to Moose
Fort. In the following year he was ordained, and in 1872
he became the first Bishop of Moosonee. Before his death

CANADA 385

in 1893 he had seen successful missions established
amongst all the Indian tribes within the limits of his vast
diocese, and the beginnings of a Christian literature in the
Cree, Ojibbeway, Chipewyan, and Eskimo languages. All
the Crees, three-fourths of the Ojibbeways, and many of the
Chipewyans in the diocese have now been baptized. There
are several missionaries at work in connection with the
Indian reserves in Saskatchewan and Alberta, but the
results have not been as encouraging as they have been
farther north. It seems well-nigh impossible to induce
the Indians to work for more than a few weeks at a time,
or to acquire habits of thrift. The most hopeful features
of the work are the Indian boarding schools — e.g. the school
at Lytton, supported by the New England Company
(see p. 56), or the school at Battleford, which is supported
by the Government but is carried on under missionary
supervision.

In 1858 the C.M.S. began work amongst the Tukudh
Indians at Fort Simpson and a little later at Fort
MacPherson and across the Rocky Mountains at Fort Yukon.
Archdeacon M'Donald began his work amongst the Tukudh
Indians in 1862 and laboured for fifty years on their
behalf. In 1865 he was joined by the Rev. W. C. Bompas,
who afterwards became Bishop of Athabasca, and later on
Bishop of Selkirk (Yukon). Within a few years of the
opening of the mission these two missionaries baptized
over 1000 Indians.

In British Columbia and the islands on the Pacific
coast are found Indians belonging to several distinct tribes.
In 1856 William Duncan, a schoolmaster, was sent out by
the C.M.S. to Fort Simpson on the Pacific coast, and in
1862 he founded a settlement at Metlakahtla, seventeen
miles south of Fort Simpson, which rapidly developed into
a flourishing community. Difficulties arose between the
C.M.S. and Mr. Duncan, who refused to allow the Holy
Communion to be administered to Indians, and eventually,
in consequence of a dispute between him and the Canadian
Government, Mr. Duncan withdrew to American territory

25

386 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

in Alaska. Metlakahtla became, under Bishop Ridley, the
centre of a series of mission stations for work amongst
Indians. Other stations have been opened on the Skeena
River, on Queen Charlotte's Island, and in Vancouver Island.
The Anglican missions to Indians and to the Eskimos,
most of which were inaugurated and supported by the help
of the C.M.S., are now supported by organizations belonging
to the various dioceses in which they are situated, though
the C.M.S. still provides some financial assistance.

Distribution of the Indian population.

The Indian population of the Dominion of Canada in
1909 was 111,043, which represented an increase of
3406 on the return for 1905. Their distribution accord-
ing to provinces is as follows: Nova Scotia, 2103; New
Brunswick, 1871; Prince Edward Island, 274; Quebec,
11,523 ; Ontario, 23,898 ; Manitoba, 8327 ; Saskatchewan,
7971; Alberta, 5541; North-West Territories, 21,362;
British Columbia, 24,871; Yukon territory, 3302.
The religious census was as follows : Roman Catholics,
40,820; Anglicans, 16,590; Methodists, 16,776 ; other
denominations, 3460; pagans, 9622.

The largest number of converts connected with the R.C.
missions are found in British Columbia (11,470), Ontario
(6319), and Saskatchewan (2939).

The Anglican missions are strongest in Ontario, British
Columbia, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, the North-West, and
in the Yukon territories ; the Methodists work chiefly
in Alberta, Ontario, British Columbia, and Manitoba ; the
Presbyterians in British Columbia, Saskatchewan, and
Ontario ; and the Baptists in Ontario.

The missions receive a considerable amount of help
from the Canadian Government, especially in the upkeep
of their schools. There are altogether 20 industrial
schools, 57 boarding schools, and 231 day schools. Of
the total number of schools 109 are Roman Catholic,
86 Anglican, 44 Methodist, 16 Presbyterian, 51 un-

CANADA 387

denominational, and 2 belong to the Salvation Army.
There are 5323 boys and 5156 girls in these schools,
which contain about half the total number of Indian
children of school age.

o

The Eskimos.

r

The word Eskimo is a corruption of an Indian word
which means " eaters of raw meat." They number about
40,000 and are scattered over 3200 miles. They live on
the seacoast and are seldom found more than 20 miles
inland. Their language has but few dialectical variations.
Of the total number, 11,000 are found in Greenland and
13,000 in Alaska and the Behring Straits.

Greenland was discovered by Eed Erck and his Norse-
men in A.D. 986. Soon after the Norsemen had effected a
settlement, mention is made of twelve churches, several
cloisters, and one nunnery. We have already referred to
the good work done by the Moravians, which ended in
1900, when they handed over the care of their converts to
the Danish Government Mission. The Danish missionaries
have a seminary for the training of mission workers, and
the number of non-Christians is now small.

In Labrador the Eskimos number about 2000, and
mission work amongst them is chiefly carried on by the
Moravians, who, in addition to their spiritual work,
endeavour to organize trade. Dr. Grenfell's Labrador
Medical Mission work, both amongst the white fishermen
and amongst the Eskimos, and the hospitals which he has
established, have been a great help to the latter.

The first regular mission to Eskimos in the Canadian
Dominion was undertaken by Edmund Peck, formerly a
seaman in the Navy, who began at Little Whale Eiver on
the south-east shore of Hudson's Bay in 1876. After
fourteen years he started another mission among the
Eskimos on Blacklead Island in Cumberland Bay. The
church which he built at this station, and which was
made of whale-bone and seal-skins, was eaten by

388 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

dogs. His work, which was carried on under great
difficulties, has been most encouraging. In 1892 he
started work amongst Eskimos within the Arctic Circle to
the north of Cumberland Sound. In 1882 the Eev. T. H.
Canham started work in the Mackenzie Eiver district, and
Archdeacon Lofthouse made extensive missi&nary journeys
among the Eskimos on the western shores of Hudson
Bay. In the far north-west the names of Bishop
Bompas, Archdeacon Macdonald, and Bishop Stringer are
associated with successful work which has been established
amongst the widely scattered groups of Eskimos to be
found between Alaska and the Hudson Bay districts.

Orientals in Canada. — Of those living in Canada in
1909, who numbered in all 36,591, there were 21,122
Chinese, 12,003 Japanese, and 3466 from India. Most of
these are in British Columbia. A limited amount of
missionary work is carried on by the Anglican, Methodist,
and Presbyterian Churches. In Winnipeg, where there are
1000 Chinese, the Presbyterians and Methodists have a joint
mission.

XV.

THE WEST INDIES.

THE spread of the Christian faith in the West Indies has
been conditioned by their political history. The islands
which have been long under the control of Spain or France
have been chiefly influenced by E.G. missionaries, whilst
those which have been under the control of England or
Holland have been influenced by Anglican and Protestant
missionaries.

Spain secured Cuba, Porto Eico, the eastern part
of Hispaniola (San Domingo), and Trinidad. The French
secured the western part of Hispaniola (Hayti) and other
smaller islands, e.g. Martinique, Guadeloupe, Grenada,
St. Vincent, and St. Lucia. Great Britain at first occupied
Barbados, Antigua, St. Kitts, and Nevis, to which Cromwell
added Jamaica, which was captured from Spain. By the
close of the eighteenth century Great Britain had taken
Trinidad from Spain, and Grenada, St. Vincent, St. Lucia,
and Dominica from France. St. Vincent and Grenada,
which were acquired earlier than the others, are more
anglicized, but in Trinidad, Dominica, and St. Lucia Spanish
and French patois prevail and most of the inhabitants
belong to the E.G. Church.

The Spaniards made little effort to evangelize the
Caribs or other original inhabitants, and the massacres and
deportation of these peoples to work on the mainland
forms one of the blackest pages in history. The responsi-
bility for their disappearance rests chiefly with the Spaniards,
though the French and English are not free from blame.
In a few islands some of their descendants are still to be

found. Thus in St. Vincent there are about 200, in

389

390 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Dominica about 300, and there are a few in the Virgin
Islands. In other islands there are a certain number of
inhabitants of mixed Carib and negro descent.

Practically the whole population of the West Indies,
with the exception of the Chinese and East Indian
labourers, is, and has for a long time been, nominally
Christian.

The work of evangelizing the negro slaves was slow.
It was left almost entirely during the eighteenth century
to the Anglican clergy, who were not as a rule conspicuous
for missionary zeal : the Wesleyans and others who desired
to share in the work were in many cases prevented from
doing so by the opposition of the English colonists.
Despite, however, the hindrances which were placed in
the way of missionary enterprise, by the time that the
emancipation of the negroes took place a large proportion
of them had been deeply influenced by Christian teaching.
Professor Caldecott writes :

" It stands out as one of the most signal triumphs of
religion in human history that Emancipation was regarded
by the freed slaves themselves as a religious boon to be
received with pious gratitude and celebrated with religious
rites. The last hours of slavery and the first hours of
freedom were spent in churches and chapels. And the new
centres round which the emancipated rallied were neither
ignorant agitators nor firebrand orators holding out plunder
and rapine as now within reach, but the missionaries,
pastors, deacons, and class-leaders of Christian congrega-
tions." l

It is difficult to prevent contrasting what happened in
the islands in which English missionaries had been working
with the occurrences which took place in Hayti, when in
1791 the French ^Revolutionary Assembly decreed the
emancipation of the slaves. When the news reached
Hayti, 1000 plantations were wrecked by the slaves, and
in the conflict which ensued 2000 whites and 10,000
negroes were killed.

1 The Church in the West Indies, p. 98.

THE WEST INDIES 391

Reference has already been made to the work of the
Moravians in the West Indies during the first half of the
eighteenth century. Between 1732 and 1739 twenty-two
Brethren died in St. Thomas and St. Croix. In 1754 they
occupied St. Jan, and soon extended their work over the
Danish islands. From 1764 onwards they opened stations
in Jamaica, Antigua, St. Kitt's, Barbados, Tobago, and
Trinidad. They are now also represented in the Leeward
and Windward Islands.

The Methodists began work in 1786, and by the time
of Dr. Coke's death in 1813 they had obtained 11,000
negro converts.

English Baptists began work in Jamaica in 1831, and
by 1842 their church members numbered 24,000. They
have also missions in Trinidad, the Turk's Islands, San
Domingo, and the Bahamas.

The Scotch United Presbyterians took over in 1847
a mission which had been started in Jamaica in 1824.
They have also work in Trinidad.

The relative strength of the chief denominations in the
islands belonging to Great Britain may be gathered from
the following estimate, which was made in 1897 but which
may be taken as representing the relative numbers to-day
(the figures given represent communicants or full members) :
Anglicans, 127,000; Wesleyans, 52,000; Baptists, 42,000 ;
Presbyterians, 19,000; Moravians, 19,000.

It is not possible to do more than touch briefly upon
the missionary work which has been done in a few of the
more important islands. The story of one, however, is
with a few exceptions the story of all.

Jamaica was discovered by Columbus in 1494.
During the 150 years in which it remained in the pos-
session of the Spaniards they exterminated its native
population, destroying altogether 1,200,000 Arawaks in
it and the adjacent islands. When in 1655 it became a
British possession it contained about 1500 whites and the
same number of African negro slaves. That the E.G.
Church had endeavoured to minister to the slave population

392 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

is evidenced by the fact that when the English captured
the island they found there several negro priests
belonging to the II. C. Communion. By the end of
the eighteenth century the slaves had increased in
number to 300,000, and when slavery was abolished in
1833 the number of slaves who were set free in Jamaica
was 309,338.

The Jamaica Expedition organized by Cromwell was
provided with seven chaplains, whose instructions were
drawn up by John Milton. The Slave Code of Jamaica
(1696) contained the following injunctions, which, however,
were seldom carried into effect : " All masters, mistresses,
owners, and employers are to endeavour as much as
possible the instruction of their slaves in the principles of
the Christian religion, and to facilitate their conversion,
and do their utmost to fit them for baptism, and as soon
as convenient cause all such to be baptized as they can
make sensible of a Deity and the Christian faith."

In 1664 five parishes were constituted which were
served by five ministers, two of whom were Swiss. In
1703 the S.P.G. began to vote money for the support of
clergy, and in 1825 Dr. C. Lipscomb was appointed as the
first bishop. Prior to his appointment, the Anglican clergy,
both in Jamaica and in other parts of the West Indies,
had in many instances been men of unsatisfactory character,
who had but little influence with the white settlers and
were not interested in missionary work.1 Until the
negroes were set free obstacles were frequently placed
in ttie way of their becoming Christians, but their
emancipation was followed by the conversion of a large
number. In 1840 the bishop confirmed nearly 9000.
For many years the S.P.G. continued to support missionary
work in Jamaica, and it did not withdraw till 1865, when
practically the whole of the population had become nomin-
ally Christian.

In 1825 the C.M.S. sent out two catechists and their
wives, and by 1840 it had work at 21 stations with a staff

1 See The Church ill the West I-ndies, by Professor Caldecott, cli iii.

THE WEST INDIES 39 o

of 7 clerical and 1 1 lay missionaries. It finally withdrew
about 1848.

Moravian missionaries were sent to Jamaica in 1754
at the instigation of two absentee proprietors of estates,
who desired to benefit their slaves. At the outset some
success was attained, but during the first fifty years not
more than 1000 persons were baptized. The Moravian
missionaries themselves became the owners of slaves and
supported themselves in part by their labours.

The Wesleyan Methodists started work in 1789, but
were bitterly opposed by the Planters. At the close of
the eighteenth century they had 600 converts.

Baptists from Virginia began work in Kingston in
1814. This was transferred to the English Baptists in
1831. A Jamaican Baptist missionary society has stations
in Central America and in several of the West Indian
Islands. The unjust disabilities under which the Non-
conformist missionaries worked may be gathered from the
Ordinance passed in 1807 by the Corporation of Kingston
which provided that they were to conduct no services
except in open daylight and that no persons were to lend
their houses for worship. An Act passed at the same time
forbidding them to instruct slaves was disallowed at home.

The Bahama Islands are 500 in number and extend
over a line 700 miles in length, but of the whole number
only about 2 0 are inhabited. These include St. Salvador, the
first land in the New World sighted by Columbus in 1492.
Nearly the whole of the original inhabitants, i.e. about
40,000, were transported by the Spaniards to Hayti or to
the mines of Mexico and Peru, and the islands became
depopulated. They were annexed by England in 1578,
but were not settled by English immigrants till 1666.
During the two following centuries missionary work was
carried on amongst the negro slaves by the clergy who
were sent out to minister to the English population. In
1843 the Colonial Church Society (now the Colonial and
Continental Church Society) sent a lay-agent to work in
the Bahamas. It subsequently gave some assistance here

394 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

and in Jamaica. In 1861 a bishop was appointed, the
centre of the diocese being fixed at Nassau in the island
of New Providence. The diocese includes the Bahama
Islands, together with the Turk's and Caicos group. The
other chief islands are Andros, Harbour Islands, and Long
Cay.

The Wesleyan Methodists began work in 1825 and
eventually occupied five islands. The Baptists opened a
mission in 1833.

The Leeward Islands, which include Antigua, Mont-
serrat, St. Kitt's (or St. Christopher's), Nevis, Dominica,
Barbuda, Eedonda, and certain of the Virgin Islands, were
constituted a Federal Colony in 1871. The Leeward
Islands also include several islands belonging to France,
Holland, and Denmark. The islands contain a number of
Creoles, but 85 percent, of the population are descendants
of the negro slaves. The description of the inhabitants of
the Leeward Islands given by Bishop Mather, who was
formerly Bishop of Antigua, is true of nearly all the islands
in the West Indies. After referring to the people as
intensely impulsive, easily moved by religious emotions,
devoted to singing hymns, but deficient in their sense of
the meaning of morality, truth, and honesty, he wrote :

" This is only what their history leads us to expect . . .
the heritage and taint of slavery will not be eradicated for
many a generation yet to come. Marriage as a rule was
forbidden to the slave ; what wonder then that his grand-
children think lightly of that holy ordinance ? (Two-thirds
of the children in this diocese were of illegitimate birth.) . . .
It is a sad thought for Englishmen to remember that the
vices and faults of the negro are the direct product of the
slave trade. . . . We brought the negro to the West Indies,
we ill-treated him and ground him down. Surely we have
a long debt to make up to him if we do not wish him to rise
up in the Judgment against us."

The first serious attempts to evangelize the negroes in
Antigua were made by the Methodists. The Speaker of
the Assembly in Antigua having come into personal

THE WEST INDIES 395

contact with John Wesley in England, on his return to
Antigua began reading Wesley's sermons to his slaves. In
1789 Dr. Coke visited Antigua, and by 1793 there were
6570 Methodist members, most of whom were slaves.

The Moravians began work in 1756, and by 1812 had
reported 8994 members. The Anglican Church had
chaplains in Antigua as early as 1634, but comparatively
little was done by way of ministering to the spiritual wants
of the slaves. Mr. W. Dawes, formerly Governor of Sierra
Leone, acted as a catechist in connection with the C.M.S.
from 1813.

By the beginning of the nineteenth century efforts
were being made by several bodies to reach and benefit
the negroes. Thus between 1803 and 1815 the number
of persons baptized by the parochial clergy was 2700 ; by
Methodists, 2000; and by the Moravians, 1300.

The Anglican diocese of Antigua (Leeward Islands)
was formed in 1842. In 1844 a lay writer in Antigua
spoke of there being then in the island " an enlightened
and evangelical clergy."

Barbados. — The first batch of settlers in Barbados
(1625) were of "such a temper" that their first chaplain
is reported to have left them in despair. Later on it was
reported that the clergy who endeavoured to instruct their
negroes were exposed to " most barbarous usage " and the
slaves to worse treatment than before. That the opposi-
tion to teaching Christianity to the slaves was not
universal is shown by the wording of one of the earliest
Ordinances relating to the island, which reads : " That
Almighty God be served and glorified, and that He give a
blessing to our labours, it is hereby enacted that all masters
and overseers of families have prayers openly every morning
and evening with his family upon penalty of 40 Ib. of
sugar, the one half to the informer, the other to the public
treasury of the island." It is needless to say that the
enactment of this Ordinance did not result in the spread of
genuine religion in the island. An important date in the
missionary history of Barbados, and in that of the greater

396 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

part of the West Indies, is 1710, when, by the will of
General Codrington, the S.P.G. was enabled to establish a
missionary training college for the West Indies. The will,
which was dated 1703, reads:

" I give and bequeath my two plantations in the Island
of Barbados to the Society for the Propagation of the
Christian Keligion in foreign parts, erected and established
by my late good master King William the third, and my
desire is to have the plantations continued intire and 300
negroes at least always kept thereon and a convenient
number of Professors and scholars maintained there . . .
who shall be obliged to study and practise Phisick and
Chirurgery as well as Divinity, that by the apparent useful-
ness of the former to all mankind they may both endeavour
themselves to the people and have the better opportunities
of doing good to men's souls whilst they are taking care of
their bodys, but the particulars of the constitutions I leave
to the Society composed of wise and good men."

" The design of the Bequest," as explained in the
funeral sermon preached on the death of General Codrington,
" was the maintenance of ... missionaries to be employed
in the conversion of negroes and Indians."

Owing to insufficiency of funds, the first building to
serve the purpose of a college was not erected till 1742.

Meanwhile the society began a mission to the negroes
in Barbados, and in 1712 they sent out the Eev. Joseph
Holt, " who, being well approved of as to life and morals,
and appearing with due testimonials of his skill in Physic
and Surgery," was instructed to perform " the ordinary
duties of a missionary " and " to instruct in the Christian
religion the negroes and their children within the Society's
plantations in Barbados and to supervise the sick and
maimed negroes and servants."

These instructions were so far carried out by Mr. Holt
and his successors that the Pteport for 1740 states that
through their labours " some hundreds of negroes have been
brought to our Holy lieligion, and there are now not less
than seventy Christian negroes on those Plantations."
These last words imply that missionary work was by no

THE WEST INDIES 397

means confined to the negroes who were employed on the
Codrington Plantations. In the same year, 1740, the
society ordered that some of the negroes should be trained
to act as schoolmasters.

The college subsequently became a most important
centre for the training of missionaries, catechists, and
schoolmasters for work throughout the West Indies. It
has recently been expanded, and should exercise an
increasing influence for good in the years to come.

In 1824 William Hart Coleridge was consecrated as
the first Bishop of Barbados, and the seventeen years of his
episcopate witnessed a great advance of missionary work
amongst the negroes. Preferring to the service which he
conducted on the day of the emancipation of the slaves in
Barbados (1838), he wrote:

" It was my peculiar happiness on that memorable day
to address a congregation of nearly 4000 persons of whom
more than 3000 were negroes just emancipated. And such
were the order, deep attention, and perfect silence, that you
might have heard a pin drop. Among this mass were
thousands of my African brethren joining with their
European brothers in offering up their prayers and
thanksgivings to the Father, Eedeemer, and Sanctifier of all."

Preferring to the work of the S.P.G. in Barbados and
elsewhere in the West Indies, he added :

" It was chiefly owing to the Society for the Propagation
of the Gospel that that day not only passed in peace, but
was distinguished for the proper feeling that prevailed and
its perfect order."

The Moravians began work in Barbados in 1765, but
after thirty years' work they had only 40 communicant
members. Later on their work developed largely.

The Wesleyan Methodists have also done good work
amongst the negroes. According to the census return
of 1901 the members of the different Churches were
as follows: Anglicans, 156,000; Wesleyans, 14,400;
Moravians, 7000; Roman Catholics, 800; others, 4182.

398 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

The Windward Islands include St. Lucia, St. Vincent,
Grenada, and the chain of islands which lie between St.
Vincent and Grenada called the Grenadines. The total
population is about 200,000. In St. Vincent and the
Grenadines the majority of the population belong to the
Anglican Church, whilst in St. Lucia and Grenada, where
the population is largely French in descent and language,
the majority are Roman Catholics. The S.P.G. has sup-
ported missionary work in these islands since 1712.

The Wesleyans have also worked amongst the negroes
since the early part of the nineteenth century. The
Anglican diocese of the Windward Islands is under the
charge of the Bishop of Barbados.

Trinidad, which was in the possession of Spain for
300 years prior to its capture by England in 1797,
contains the descendants of many Spanish and French
settlers, and a large proportion of its inhabitants are
members of the R.C. Church. The S.P.G. began work in
1836, and a diocese of Trinidad was formed in 1872. The
Moravians, the United Free Church of Scotland, and the
Presbyterian Church of Canada have also work in the island.

A new missionary problem has been created within
recent years by the immigration of about 100,000 Hindus
and other non-Christians to work on the cocoa and sugar
plantations. In the Port of Spain and several other
centres missionary work is being carried on amongst these
immigrants with considerable success. The Anglican work
amongst the Hindus is superintended by the Rev. C.
Ragbir, himself a Hindu, who is assisted by others of his
fellow-countrymen.

Tobago, which is included in the diocese of Trinidad,
was the scene of Robinson Crusoe's adventures, and his
cave is shown in the island. His man " Friday " was an
Arawak, and his cannibal enemies were Caribs. Half the
inhabitants are members of the Anglican Church and a
large number of the remainder are Roman Catholics.
The population (20,000) includes East Indians, Chinese,
French-Creoles, and Spaniards.

THE WEST INDIES 399

Apart from that of the S.P.G., the principal missionary
work in the island is carried on by the Moravians, who
began work in 1790. The Wesleyans and Baptists are
also represented.

Hayti (or Haiti), as it was called by its original inhabit-
ants, was renamed Hispaniola by Columbus. Of its two
republics the western is now called Hayti and the eastern
San Domingo. At the time of its discovery it had a
population of about 2,000,000, but few of their descendants
remain, the population consisting chiefly of negroes. Of
the total population of about 700,000, about 525,000 are
of African descent. Of the mixed races about 125,000 are
of Spanish and 50,000 of French descent. The Spaniards
made little effort to convert either the original inhabitants
or their own African slaves to the Christian faith and were
content with a superficial profession of religion, the result
being that the greater part of the population remains
practically heathen. In 1861 an American negro, the
Eev. J. T. Holly, went to Haiti with a colony of 111
persons and established a centre of missionary work. A
few years later Mr. Holly was consecrated as an Anglican
bishop, and the work was placed under the Board of
Missions of the American Episcopal Church. In connection
with this mission there are 13 clergy and 22 organized
mission stations.

Cuba, at the time of its discovery by Columbus in 1492,
contained a population of about 350,000. By 1560 the
whole of this population had been killed or had disappeared.
The negro slaves who were introduced became nominal
Christians, but their Christianity has never been more than
nominal.

Bishop Whipple, who visited Havana in 1871, raised
money for the support of an American clergyman whose
primary duty was to hold services for Europeans. He,
however, succeeded during the nine years in which he
was in Cuba in establishing some missions to the negroes
on the plantations. Other centres of work were established
by refugees who had visited the U.S.A., and the American

400

HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Bible Society soon began to send colporteurs through the
island. In 1885 Bishop Young of Florida confirmed 325
candidates at six mission centres. In 1904, after the
Spanish government of the island had been overthrown,
Bishop Knight was consecrated as Anglican Bishop of
Cuba. The work which he superintends is carried on at
57 mission centres, and the work is gradually becoming
self-supporting. A new bishop was consecrated in 1915.

Several other American missionary societies are be-
ginning to organize work in the island.

The original inhabitants of Porto Rico, which was
discovered by Columbus in 1493, were soon exterminated
by the Spaniards. Of the negroes who were introduced
in their place, and who became nominal Christians, very
many are still virtually pagans. In 1899, when the
island was annexed by the U.S.A., a mission was started
by the American Episcopal Church, and a bishop was
consecrated in 1902. Work has already been started
in thirteen centres. Several other American missionary
societies have also begun to organize work in this island.

XVI.

CENTRAL AMERICA.

AMONG the missionaries who have laboured in the West
Indies and in Central America the Spanish missionary
Las Casas stands pre-eminent. His English biographer1
writes of him :

" At a period when brute force was universally appealed
to in all matters, but more especially in those that pertained
to religion, he contended before Juntas and royal Councils
that missionary enterprise is a thing that should stand
independent of all military support, that a missionary should
go forth with his life in his hand, relying only on the pro-
tection that God will vouchsafe him, and depending neither
upon civil nor military assistance."

The one great mistake of his life, which he acknow-
ledged afterwards with tears of repentance, was the advice
which he gave to the Spanish Government to introduce
African negroes into the West Indies as slaves. His
primary object was to secure the enfranchisement of the
native populations in the West Indies, which were being
reduced to slavery by the Spaniards ; but he soon realized
that in order to redress one evil he had countenanced the
perpetration of a far greater.

Born in 1474, he sailed under Columbus to the West
Indies in 1498.

He was the first priest ordained in the West Indies,
and worked at first amongst the Indians in the island of
Hispaniola (Haiti). He accompanied the Spanish troops
in their conquest of Cuba and laboured hard to protect

1 See The Life of Las Casas, by Sir Arthur Helps, p. vi.
26

402 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

the Indians from their cruelty. After the conquest he
himself settled in Cuba with a friend, and became the
possessor of Indians, whom he sent to work in the mines
for his advantage. After a while he came to realize
that the employment of Indians as slaves was wholly
inconsistent with the principles of the Christian faith,
and having set free his own Indians, he sailed for
Spain in the hope of persuading King Ferdinand to alter
the policy which he had adopted towards the Indians in
the West Indies. As a result of his mission he was
appointed " Protector of the Indians," and returned again
to Cuba. After vain attempts to secure the enfranchise-
ment of the Indians, he suggested, as a solution of what
appeared to be the insuperable difficulties with which he
was confronted, that each Spanish colonist should be
allowed to have twelve negro slaves. Such slaves had
already been imported by the Portuguese, but the sugges-
tion of Las Casas resulted in a great extension of the
slave trade. Owing to the incapacity of his fellow-workers,
his efforts to organize a Spanish colony on Christian lines
met with poor success. In 1522 he became a Dominican
monk, and devoted his time for eight years to the study
of literature in St. Domingo.

In 1536 Las Casas arrived in Guatemala, after spend-
ing some time in Nicaragua. He was invited by the
Spanish Governor of Guatemala to attempt the Christian-
ization of the neighbouring province of Tuzulutlan, the
conquest of which had been thrice unsuccessfully attempted
by Spanish troops. He agreed to do so on condition that
no Spaniard should be allowed to enter the province for
five years. As this missionary enterprise proved eminently
successful, and as a trustworthy account of the methods
which were followed has been preserved, it is worth while
describing it in some detail. Sir A. Helps writes :

"After the manner of pious men of those times, Las
Casas and his monks did not fail to commence their under-
taking by having recourse to the most fervent prayers,
severe fasts, and other mortifications. . . . The first thing

CENTRAL AMERICA 403

they did was to translate into verse in the Quichd language
the great doctrines of the Church. In these verses they
described the creation of the world, the fall of man, his
banishment from Paradise, and the mediation prepared for
him."1

As it appeared to be certain death for a Spaniard to
enter Tuzulutlan, which was popularly known as the Land
of War, they taught the poem which they had composed
to four Indian merchants who were in the habit of trading
in the country. Three months were spent in teaching the
Indian merchants to chant their poem to the accompaniment
of Indian musical instruments. When at length the
merchants were received by the chief of the country, they
were hailed by the assemblage to whom they chanted the
poem as ambassadors from new gods. When asked to
explain the meaning of the poem, they referred the chief
to the Dominican monks, whereupon he sent an embassage
to invite them to come to his country, having first made
large sacrifices to his idols in the hope of securing their
presence. The final result was that within a year the
chief and a large portion of his people embraced the
Christian faith. The story illustrates well the spirit in
which Las Casas pursued his missionary task and the
methods by which, when he could free himself from
Government interference, he loved to attempt its ac-
complishment.

Eeturning again to Spain, Las Casas wrote, and
eventually published, a treatise entitled The Destruction of
the Inches, in which he denounced in vigorous language
the treatment of the Indians by their Spanish conquerors.
In 1544, much against his own wish, he was consecrated
as Bishop of Chiapa, a province between Mexico and
Honduras. His efforts to secure the enforcement of the
new laws which had been promulgated in Spain in favour
of the Indians made him so unpopular in his own diocese
and in Mexico that in 1547 he returned to Spain, believing
that his influence with the king would help the Indians
1 Life of Las Casas, p. 19$f,

404 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

more than his actual presence in their midst. Though
residing in Spain, he continued to act as the protector of
the Indians, and at the age of ninety-two he pleaded the
cause of the people of Guatemala before the Ministers of
Philip ii. There were others, both statesmen and mission-
aries, who made repeated efforts to improve the lot of the
Indians and to mitigate their oppression by the Spaniards,
but the name of Las Casas occupies an unique position
amongst them. He did and suffered more on their behalf
than any others of his contemporaries, and his life helps
to light up one of the darkest pages of history, which is
filled with records of cruelty and crime.

Indians in Central America.

The population of the seven Central American States
— i.e. British Honduras, and the six republics : Honduras,
Costa Kica, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Panama, and Salvador —
is estimated at 4,270,000, and of these 1,700,000 are said
to be Indians. The RC. Church claims three-fourths of
these as Christians, but this is apparently an overestimate.
There are probably nearly 500,000 Indians who have not
been touched by Christian missions. These include whole
tribes amongst whom the RC. Church has no priests.

The Central American Mission — which in 1910 had
28 missionaries, about 70 churches, and 1100 members
— is endeavouring to send two missionaries to each non-
Christian tribe. The Moravians are working in Nicaragua
and in the Moskito Eeservation. They have 32 mission-
aries and about 1300 communicants.

The Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society has
work, chiefly amongst Eoman Catholics, in all the Central
American States.

The greater part of the missionary work which has
been done in the past amongst the Indians in Central
America other than that done by the early E.G. mission-
aries has been done by the S.P.G., but the total amount is
exceedingly small.

CENTRAL AMERICA 405

The Mosldto Shore, on the Bay of Honduras, which was
discovered by Columbus in 1502, was first settled by
British adventurers in company with Belixe. In 1741
George n. appointed English Commissioners for this
district, but in 1786 England relinquished it to Spain.
Before this latter event missionary work had been started
by members of the Anglican Church amongst the Indians
who lived on the Moskito Shore, and in 1742 the S.P.G.
contributed towards establishing a mission in response to
an appeal received from some of the Indians. The
English Governor of Jamaica, in supporting their appeal,
urged that " those Indians, besides the claim they have in
common with other savages to the charity of the society,
have a demand in justice upon the nation. As they have
learned most of their vices, particularly cheating and
drinking, from the English, they ought in recompense to
receive some good and learn some virtue and religion too."
In 1747 Nathan Price, a former Fellow of Harvard
College, New England, having been ordained by the Bishop
of London, began work amongst them, but he died in the
following year. Mr. Warren, who began work in 1769,
baptized about 100 Indians and Mestizos, who included
the Moskito king and queen and three or four of their sons.

Mr. Stanford, a few years later, baptized 120 Indians
and negroes. The Spaniards eventually ousted the mission-
aries and put an end to their work. In 1840 an applica-
tion for missionaries was received by the S.P.G., but it
proved impossible to make any response. In 1848 the
young king of the Moskitos was confirmed by the Bishop
of Jamaica. A large portion of the Moskito territory has
now been absorbed in the republic of Nicaragua, and some
missionary work has been done at Eama. The Anglican
Church is also represented at Greytown.

In British Honduras British adventurers from Jamaica
settled about 1638. In 1862 Belize, as the settlement
had hitherto been called, became the colony of British
Honduras. In 1776 the Rev. R. Shaw, a representative
of the S.P.G., started work amongst the English settlers,

406 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

but very little was done for the Indians till 1836, when
a school for their children was erected at Belize. In 1891
an Anglican Bishop of Honduras was appointed. In 1894
a mission to the Caribs was started at Stann Creek.

In Panama a large number of West Indian labourers
have been employed, who are all nominal Christians.

Guatemala was annexed to the Crown of Spain in 1523.
In 1536 Las Casas reached Guatemala from Nicaragua
and helped to organize missionary work amongst the
Indians.

Its subsequent religious history has been similar to
that of Mexico and of Central America. Protestant
Missions are carried on by American Presbyterians, by the
Central American Mission, and by the Pentecost Bauds.

In Costa Rica Protestant Missions are represented by
the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society, the Central
America Missionary Society, and the Jamaica Baptist
Missionary Society.

Mexico.

When Cortes, the conqueror of Mexico, interviewed the
Mexican ruler Montezuma, he declared that his object,
and that of his fellow-countrymen, was to spread the light
of Christianity far abroad and to open to the people a full
participation in the blessings which it would bring.
Eef erring to the siege of the city of Mexico, which took
place in 1521, his biographer writes:

" There can be no doubt that Cortes, with every other
man in his army, felt he was engaged in a holy crusade, and
that, independently of personal considerations, he could not
serve Heaven better than by planting the Cross on the
blood-stained towers of the heathen metropolis." 1

This belief, whilst it does not excuse the countless
atrocities and massacres which accompanied the conquest
and settlement of Mexico, enables us to acquit the con-
querors of conscious hypocrisy.

1 Conquest of Mexico, by W. H. Prescott, bk. vi. cli. iii.

CENTRAL AMERICA 407

The judgment which Prescott passes upon Cortes
might be passed upon many of the conquerors of South
America and the West Indies. He writes :

" When we see the hand red with the blood of the
wretched native raised to invoke the blessing of Heaven on
the cause which it maintains, we experience something like
a sensation of disgust at the act, and a doubt of its sincerity.
But this is unjust. We should throw ourselves back into
the age — the age of the Crusades. . . . Whoever has read
the correspondence of Cortes . . . will hardly doubt that
he would have been among the first to lay down his life for
the faith. He more than once perilled life and fortune and
the success of his whole enterprise by the premature and
most impolitic manner in which he would have forced con-
version on the natives. To the more rational spirit of the
present day it may seem difficult to reconcile gross devia-
tions from morals with such devotion to the cause of
religion. But the religion taught in that day was one of
form and elaborate ceremony."1

Throughout Mexico the work of conversion was as
rapid as it was superficial. Twelve Franciscan friars
arrived in 1524. Nine years later one of their number
declared that nine million converts had been received into
the Christian fold, a number which was probably in excess
of the total population.

Helps, referring to the success attained by the
Franciscan missionaries as described by the Bishop of
Mexico in 1531, wrote :

"Five hundred temples have been thrown down, and
20,000 idols broken in pieces or burnt. In place of these
temples have arisen churches, oratories, and hermitages.
But as the good bishop says, that which causes more
admiration is that whereas they were accustomed each year
in this city of Mexico to sacrifice to idols more than 20,000
hearts of young men and young women, now all those
hearts are offered up, with innumerable sacrifices of praise,
not to the Devil but to the Most High God." 2

1 Ibid. bk. vil ch. v.

3 The Spanish Conquests in America, vol. iii. p. 300.

408 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

The lapse of centuries has brought little or no im-
provement in the religious ideals or practices of the
Mexicans. Abbe Dominic, chaplain to the Emperor
Maximilian, said that Mexican Christianity was, and had
been from the beginning of the Spanish conquest, a baptized
heathenism.

The Presbyterian Church U.S.A. North, the A.M.E.C.,
the A.B.C.F.M., and several smaller missionary bodies
support work amongst people all of whom are nominally
Christian.

In 1869 the Eev. H. A. Kiley of the American Pro-
testant Episcopal Church arrived in Mexico. About this
time several Roman priests had seceded or been driven out
from their Church, and these, with the help of Mr. Riley,
formed a congregation and began to organize missionary
work in different parts of Mexico. Mr. Eiley was conse-
crated as Bishop in 1879, but resigned in 1884. The
Rev. H. D. Aves was consecrated in 1904. Work is
carried on at about 60 different centres, and the number
of baptized Christians is about 3500. The work is carried
on amongst English, Mexicans, and Indians.

XVII.
SOUTH AMERICA.

THE population of South America to-day is reckoned at
about 50,000,000, of whom 30,000,000 are aboriginals
or of mixed descent. The population of the several states
is as follows : Brazil, 20,515,000 ; Argentine, 6,989,023 ;
Peru, 4,500,000 ; Colombia, 4,320,000 ; Chili, 3,500,000 ;
Venezuela, 2,685,606; Bolivia, 2,267,935; Ecuador,
1,500,000 ; Uruguay, 1,112,000, and Paraguay, 800,000.

It is not possible within the limits of our space to
provide even an outline sketch of the conquest of South
America by Spain and Portugal in the sixteenth century,
nor to give in any detail an account of the nominal spread
of the Christian faith throughout the continent. A few
outstanding events connected with the latter will be
found under the different provinces.

To the student of missions the missionary work which
was attempted in South America during the sixteenth
century makes sad reading. Apart from that which was
done by the Jesuits, who were expelled in 1760, it was,
with few exceptions, founded upon physical force and of
a wholly superficial character, the result being that after
three centuries of nominal Christianity any conversion of
its peoples which will involve the practice of the elementary
teaching of Christianity lies still in the seemingly distant
future. The religious conditions which prevail in the
different states of South and Central America differ to a
certain degree, but what is true of one state is as a
general rule true of the country as a whole.

We realize and we thank God for the good work
which B.C. missions have done and are doing in many

409

410 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

parts of the world, but our appreciation of this cannot
blind our eyes to the fact that in Central and South
America the missions of the E.G. Church have proved an
almost complete failure. We will quote the words of a
few RC. writers, all of whom would presumably be pre-
judiced in favour of the work which is now being carried
on by their Church.

Cardinal Vaughan, after visiting South America, wrote
thus of what he saw in New Granada :

" The monks are in the lowest state of degradation, and
the suppression of them would be an act of Divine favour. . . .
Priests scandalize the people much by cock-fighting. I have
been several times told of priests taking their cocks into the
sacristy, hurrying disrespectfully through their mass, and
going straight off from the altar to the cock-pit. They are
great gamblers." L

The Archbishop of Caracas and Venezuela, in a pastoral
letter published in a leading newspaper of Caracas, writes :

" The clergy have fallen into profound contempt because
of events which have placed them on the declivity which
leads to all manner of failure. There are no calls for the
clergy, and this contempt for them, so general, is one cause
for this lack. Impotence, sterility, decadence, moral and
spiritual . . . these form the true and striking picture
presented to all who deign for a moment to contemplate
it. ... Why does ignorance of religion continue to brutalize
and degrade more and more these people ? Why exist so
many parishes which are true cemeteries of souls dead to
God ? " 2

Father Sherman, a RC. priest, sou of the famous
General Sherman of the U.S.A., said, after visiting Porto
Kico :

"Religion is dead on the island. Whether it can be
revived as a living influence is highly problematical. . . .
The non-observance of the sanctity of Sunday, the number of
illegitimate children exceeding that of the legitimate, the fact

1 Life of Cardinal Herbert Vaughan, by Cox, p. 125.

2 "El Constitucional," December 7, 1908, quoted in South American
Problems, by Speer, p. 162.

SOUTH AMERICA 41 1

that concubinage is said to be common and is not sufficiently
discountenanced, either legally or socially . . . the prevail-
ing distrust of the priesthood, among whom concubinage is
the rule and not the exception, the decreasing influence of
religion, the ethical status of the Roman Church, sunk lower
oftentimes than the atheism which surrounds it, such are
the dark lines which portray the condition of that portion
of America which is under undisputed Eoman sway." *

To the above witnesses we will add one more, whose
name will carry equal weight in England and America.
Sir James (now Lord) Bryce writes of South America as
a whole :

" Another fact strikes the traveller with surprise. Both
the intellectual and the ethical standards of conduct of these
countries seem to be entirely divorced from religion. The
women are almost universally the ' practising ' Catholics, and
so are the peasantry, though the Christianity of the Indians
bears only a distant resemblance to that of Europe. But
men of the upper or educated class appear wholly indifferent
to theology and to Christian worship. It has no interest for
them. They are seldom actively hostile to Christianity,
much less are they offensive when they speak of it, but they
think it does not concern them, and may be left to women
and peasants. ... In the more advanced parts of South
America it seems to be regarded merely as a harmless Old
World affair which belongs to a past order of things just
as much as does the rule of Spain, but which may, so long
as it does not interfere with politics, be treated with the
respect which its antiquity commands. In both cases the
undue stress laid upon the dogmatic side of theology and the
formal or external side of worship has resulted in the loss of
spiritual influence. In all the Spanish countries the Church
had trodden down the laity and had taken freedom and
responsibility from them more than befell anywhere else in
Christendom, making devotion consist in absolute submission.
Thus when at last her sway vanished, her moral influence
vanished with it. This absence of a religious foundation for
thought and conduct is a grave misfortune for Latin
America." 2

1 Quoted by Bishop Kinsolving in The East and The West, April 1903.

2 South America, Observations and Impressions, by Sir James Bryce, p.

582 f.

412 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

It would be easy to quote many similar testimonies,
but these will serve to indicate, what few who know South
America would attempt to deny, that the RC. Church is
less worthily represented there than it is in any other part
of the world. Even in cases — and thank God there are
many such — in which the priests are men of unblemished
character, the teaching which they are authorized by their
superiors to give to the people is far removed from the
teaching of the early Christian Church. It has been
said, and the statement is by no means unfounded, that
Mariolatry is the practical religion of South America. In
the wall of the ancient Jesuit church in Cuzco are cut the
words, " Come unto Mary, all ye who are burdened and
weary with your sins, and she will give you rest."

Bishop Kinsolving of the American Episcopal Church
in Brazil writes :

" In the interests of Mariolatry, or at least without the
protest of the dominant Church, there is in South America
an ethical status more detrimental to pure morals and more
dishonouring to Christ than is found in open paganism." 1

Our object in referring to the failure of the E.G.
Church in South America is in no sense controversial. We
do so partly in order to appraise the missionary methods
which were adopted three centuries ago and which to a
large extent are still followed, and partly in order to justify
the attempts which have been made within recent years
by Anglican (i.e. American Episcopal) and Protestant
missions to appeal to those who are already Christians in
name. It is distressing to note how largely the European
immigrants have drifted away from the E.G. Church of
which they were at least nominal members before leaving
Europe. The E.G. Church, moreover, appears to make but
little effort to minister to their spiritual wants. In the
whole of the Argentine there were in 1909 less than
1000 priests for a population of 5,000,000. In Buenos
Ayres one parish with a population of 130,000 had but
one priest and two assistants.

1 Missionary Review of the World, February 1914.

SOUTH AMERICA 413

Brazil.

The state of Bahia was first sighted by the Portuguese
explorer P. A. Cabral in 1500, but for thirty years
afterwards no attempt at settlement was made. In 1549
John in. of Portugal dispatched six Jesuit missionaries
who were the forerunners of the great army of Jesuits
that were to follow. The early missionaries had to
contend as much with the wickedness and immorality of
the Portuguese adventurers in Brazil as with the ignorance
and ferocity of the Indians. Amongst the hundreds, or
rather thousands, of Jesuit missionaries who have laboured
in Brazil have been very many who have lived heroic and
apostolic lives and who were privileged to see as the
results of their labours large tracts of country the degraded
or even cannibal inhabitants of which had adopted the
customs of civilized society and whose lives had been
transformed by the Christian faith.

Missionaries belonging to the Dominican and Fran-
ciscan Orders arrived later and shared in the difficulties
and perils which accompanied the prosecution of the
Church's work in Brazil, but the chief credit for the good
work which was accomplished belongs to the Jesuit Order.
One of the greatest of these missionaries was Joseph
Anchieta, who reached Brazil in 1553, and laboured for
forty-four years as a pioneer missionary amidst difficulties
aud hardships which have seldom been surpassed. At his
death in 1597 there were in Brazil alone 120 Jesuit
missionaries. The Jesuits were the only missionaries who
uniformly opposed the tyranny of the Portuguese and
strove to protect the Indians from their cruelty. They
became in consequence extremely unpopular with the
governing class, and after being twice previously expelled
from Brazil, were in 1760 finally deported. 428 members
of the Order were deported with every form of insult and
indignity. The number expelled from all the Spanish
Indies was 5677. This expulsion of the Jesuits was a
blow to the well-being of the native population of Brazil

414 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

from which it never recovered. Mr. Eobert Southey, in
his History of Brazil, published in 1817, says : " Decay and
desolation succeeded the prosperity which had prevailed
in the time of the missionaries ; houses falling to pieces ;
fields overgrown with wood ; grass in the market-places ;
the limekilns, the potteries, the manufactories of calico
introduced by the Jesuits in ruins." It was charged
against the Jesuits in South America generally that they
had been mining precious metals by slave labour without
giving the Government its share. " In the neighbourhood
of Lima alone, they owned 5000 negro slaves and property
to the value of 2,000,000 dollars."1

The number of Indians now left in Brazil is between
one and two million. A large number of these live in
remote parts of Brazil which have never been explored
by Europeans. The methods adopted by the Jesuits in
Brazil and in other parts of South America, and the results
which these methods produced, are well summarized by
the writer from whom we have just quoted :

" The Indians were easily induced to conform to the
externals of the Christian cult. Wherever the Jesuits
penetrated the aborigines soon adopted Christianity ; but to
hold the Indians to Christianity, the Fathers were obliged
to fix them to the soil. As soon as a tribe was converted,
a rude church building was erected, and a Jesuit installed,
who remained to teach agriculture and the arts as well as
ritual and morals. His moral and intellectual superiority
made him perforce an absolute ruler in miniature. Thus
that strange theocracy came into being which, starting on
the Brazilian coast, spread over most of Central South
America. In the early part of the seventeenth century the
theocratic seemed likely to become the dominant form of
government south of the Amazon and east of the Andes. . . .
The Jesuits gave the South American Indian the greatest
measure of peace and justice he ever enjoyed, but they
reduced him to blind obedience and made him a tenant and
a servant."2

1 South American Republics, by T. C. Dawson, ii. 71,
- Ibid. i. 326.

SOUTH AMERICA 415

Missionary work is now carried on amongst the
Bororos, the most widely distributed tribe in Brazil, by
E.G. Salesian priests. Bemuants of the Jesuit missions
are found at Villa Eica and elsewhere in North-West
Parana.

During the last century and a half the moral and
religious conditions prevailing generally in Brazil have
become worse and worse. A recent writer on Brazil says :

" Of the . . . educated only the smallest proportion ad-
here to any form of religion whatever. Statesmen, lawyers,
physicians, army and navy officials, have almost to a man
rejected the historic Christ, and have turned to infidelity
and Positivism. In one city with a population of 35,000,
after careful investigation less than 200 could be found in
full communion with the Eoman Church."

He quotes the E.G. Bishop of Sao Paulo as saying in
an official paper :

"Brazil has no longer any faith. Eeligion is almost
extinct here." l

Father Currier, writing in the American Catholic
Quarterly Review, after admitting the desolate condition
into which religion had fallen in Brazil, expresses the
belief that a revival of religion has already commenced.2

It is impossible to express in words how great is the
need of such a revival.

Protestant Missions in Brazil.

An unsuccessful attempt was made from Geneva to
start missionary work in Brazil in the middle of the
sixteenth century. The Protestant missionaries were at first
welcomed by a French adventurer, Nicholas Durand de
Villegagnon, who, however, turned against them after their
work had been begun. The missionaries were eventually
expelled by the Portuguese in 1567 (see p. 44).

1 " Rome in Many Lands," by Isaacson, p. 160. Quoted by R. E. Speer
in South American Problems, p. 185.
* July 1910.

416 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

In 1624 the Dutch conquered Bahia and Dutch
ministers commenced to do missionary work, which was
interrupted by the capture of the Dutch settlement by the
Portuguese in 1654.

In 1835 the A.M.E.C. sent a representative to Eio de
Janeiro and later on started a mission in the Amazon valley.

The Presbyterian Church (North) of the U.S.A. sent a
representative to Brazil in 1859. Its work is now carried
on in seven of the Brazilian states, the most important
centre being M'Kenzie College at Sao Paulo, which has 500
students. The Presbyterian Church (South) of the U.S.A.
started work in 1869. These two bodies amalgamated
in 1888, and there are now about 7000 communicants
attached to the United Mission.

The A.M.E.C. South and the Southern Baptist Con-
vention are also represented.

The Protestant Episcopal Church of America began
work in Eio Grande do Sul in 1889, and one of their first
missionaries (the Kev. L. Kinsolving) was consecrated as
Bishop in Brazil in 1898.

The Church of England supports chaplains in several
cities, but their chief duty is to minister to the English-
speaking inhabitants of these cities.

The total number of " Protestant communicants " in
Brazil is about 30,000.

Peru.

In 1532 Francisco Pizarro, a Spanish adventurer,
after several experimental expeditions, seized and eventually
murdered the Inca of Peru, and in the six following years
overran the whole country, seeking for gold and other
treasures. No women came with the early Spanish
settlers to South America, and a people of mixed blood
soon arose who now constitute the greater part of the
South American population. Priests accompanied and
followed the Spanish conquerors, and the acceptance of
Christianity was soon forced upon the inhabitants and
towns were baptized en masse. The description given by

SOUTH AMERICA 417

the Mexican historian, General Vicente Riva Palacio, of
the introduction of Christianity into Mexico applies
exactly to its establishment in Peru, and, with but little
modification, to its establishment in several other states of
South America. He wrote :

" The people conquered by the Spaniards in the Indies
did not have even a remote idea of Christian doctrine or
Catholic worship, but they looked upon their conversion to
that doctrine and worship as a necessary consequence of
their defeat in battle, as an indispensable requisite which
affirmed their vassalage and slavery to the Spanish
monarch." l

There is but little cause for wonder that countries
which were thus evangelized should remain, after the
lapse of more than three centuries, in a state of paganism
which is but partly concealed by a thin veneer of Christian
profession.

The Inca population in Peru at the time of its conquest
by the Spaniards has been reckoned at from 20 to 40
millions. Fifty years after its conquest its population
had been reduced to 8 millions. According to the last
census taken before the declaration of independence by
Peru in 1821, the Inca population was 608,999. The
decrease of population affords smie indication of the
cruelties practised by the Spaniards on the native popula-
tion during the long centuries of their misrule. One name
which shines out in the dark background of the conquest
and subjugation of Peru is that of St. Francis Solano, who
laboured as a missionary from 1589 to 1610. He is
said by his biographer (Courtot) to have converted 9000
persons in a single day, and was greatly beloved by the
Peruvians. More than half the population of Peru is of
pure aboriginal descent and retains the superstitions con-
nected with its ancient sun-worship.

The A.M.E.C. has work amongst the E.G. population
of Peru and a few stations amongst the aboriginal Indians,

1 Quoted in South American Problems, by Speer, p. 123.
27

418 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

but there are few states in which so little missionary work
is being attempted.

The Regions Beyond Missionary Union supports work
amongst Indians at Cuzco and an industrial farm in the
same district.

Until 1914 the Peruvian Government discountenanced
the starting of any Protestant mission. When the news
of the atrocities committed upon the Putumayo Indians
on the borders of Peru and Brazil reached England in
1912, an attempt was made by the Evangelical Union of
South America to start a mission amongst them, but the
attempt did not prove successful. A Franciscan mission
has also been attempted. As a result of the barbarous
treatment of the Putumayo Indians their numbers have
decreased during the past century from 100,000 to
10,000.

Chili.

Chili was subjugated to Spanish rule and Spanish
Christianity by Valdivia, one of Pizarro's lieutenants,
1540—45. Spanish priests accompanied Valdivia in his
campaign of conquest, one of whom was appointed Vicar
of Chili in 1546.

Its former population of Araucanian Indians has almost
become extinct, chiefly as a result of alcoholism, which
is also the curse of the whole population, especially in
the towns of Santiago and Valparaiso.

The total number of the Indians is about 100,000.
The American Presbyterian Church (North) and the
A.M.E.C. have organized missions amongst the people of
Chili, and the S.A.M.S. has stations at Cholchol and
Quepe amongst the Araucanian Indians. The well-known
Mapuche chief, Ambrosio Paillalef, is a strong supporter of
the S.A.M.S. Mission. This society has also a medical
mission at Temuco. At Quepe, which was opened as a
mission station in 1898, the Indians have been success-
fully taught farming and carpentering.

SOUTH AMERICA 410

Bolivia.

Bolivia was conquered by Pizarro and placed in
charge of his brother Hernando. According to the last
census, 903,126 of its inhabitants are indigenous, or
Indians; 485,293 Mestizos, or of mixed Indian and white
blood; and 231,088 white. The Jesuits established a
mission to the Indians on Lake Titicaca in 1577. They
introduced the printing press in order to provide their con-
verts with grammars and catechisms in their own language,
and did much to civilize and raise the Indians. They were
expelled from Bolivia, as from other parts of Soutli
America, in 1760. Of the Indians in Bolivia to-day, 9 per
cent, are " in a full state of barbarism," and cannibalism
is reported as prevailing amongst them. The Indian
population is steadily on the increase.

Of the total population rather more than half profess
to be Roman Catholics. The rest are pagans, with the
exception of about 4000 Protestants. The Baptist Con-
vention of Ontario and the Plymouth Brethren have
small educational missions.

Paraguay.

The first Spanish settlement which was made in 1536
was on the site of Asuncion, which is the present capital.
Its people were regarded by the Spaniards as the most
" irreclaimable " in South America. The most remarkable
among the earliest missionaries was the Jesuit Manuel de
Ortega, who died in 1622, after thirty years of laborious
and self-denying toil. Another missionary, Christoval de
Mendoza, who was martyred in 1632, was said to have
himself baptized 95,000 Indians. Yet another martyr,
Cyprian Baraza, is reported to have established fifteen
colonies of Christian Moxos and to have baptized with his
own hand 110,000 converts. To an Englishman, Father
Falconer, belongs a share in the honour which is due to
the pioneer missionaries in Paraguay. He was a Jesuit

420 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

" of great skill in medicine," and founded a mission in
the Pampas.

The Franciscans shared with the Jesuits the perilous
task of endeavouring to convert the Indians. Seldom did
a year pass for many decades after the work had been begun
without adding to the list of martyrdoms. One instance
may suffice to illustrate the heroic courage and faith of
these missionaries.

" Gaspard de Monroy, baffled in one of his journeys by
the obstinate ferocity of an Omagua chief, who not only
rejected the gospel himself but threatened the most horrible
death to the missionaries and to all who should embrace
their doctrine, ... set out alone and entered the hut of the
savage. ' You may kill me/ said the Father, with a tranquil
air, as soon as he stood in the presence of the barbarian,
' but you will gain little honour by slaying an unarmed
man. If, contrary to my expectation, you give me a hearing,
all the advantage will be for yourself. If I die by your
hand, an immortal crown awaits me in heaven.' Astonish-
ment disarmed the savage, and admiration kept him silent.
Then, with a kind of reluctant awe, he offered to his unmoved
visitor a drink from his own cup. A little later he and his
whole tribe were converted." l

The ruins of the buildings erected by the Jesuits and
their converts are still to be seen in Paraguay.

The Chaco Indians, amongst whom Anglican and
Protestant missionaries are now working, have maintained
their virtual independence ever since the first arrival of
the Spaniards.

The total Indian population of Paraguay is computed
at 100,000.

The Chaco Mission.

The most successful mission now being carried on in

South America is that to the Chaco Indians in Paraguay.

In the region known as the Grand Chaco, which is

situated in the republics of Argentina, Bolivia, and

1 Christian Missions, by T. W. Marshall (1863), p. 196.

SOUTH AMERICA 421

Paraguay, there are a large number of Indians who have
hardly as yet come into contact with Europeans. Captain
Gardiner travelled in their country, but was not himself
able to start a mission. In 1888 the South American
Missionary Society undertook work amongst the Chaco
Indians in Paraguay, and in the following year Mr. W. B.
Grubb, who was one of the first missionaries, commenced
a work amongst them which has been fruitful of mar-
vellous results. After twenty-one years' work he wrote :

"During these twenty -one years the average mission
staff has not numbered five men actually in the field.
Only four men have exceeded ten years' service, and yet, in
spite of small numbers and limited means, and the immense
and varied difficulties which had to be overcome, I leave
the reader to judge, from the results which I give, whether
or no we have laboured in vain, whether we were justified
in our belief that this degraded people could be elevated
and developed ; and (most important of all in our eyes)
whether the Lenguas are not only capable of receiving
Christianity, but of forming a Church which shall be self-
supporting and, in its turn, missionary.

" Where formerly it was dangerous for the white man to
go without an armed party, anyone can now wander alone
and unarmed, so far as any risk from the Indians may be
apprehended, over a district rather larger than Ireland. In
a country where fifteen years ago there weie no tracks other
than Indian footpaths, resembling sheep-tracks at home,
now about four hundred and fifty miles of cart-track have
been made in order that the mission bullock-carts might
readily traverse the country. Where formerly tribal war
was common, peace has reigned for many years over a
district as large as Ireland and Scotland combined. . . .

" Lastly I come to the Christian Church as the crowning
effort of all our work. From out of a chaotic mass of savage
heathenism we have now, by the aid of the Divine power,
the satisfaction of having admitted by baptism into the
Church of Christ 149 Lenguas, and of this number there
are no fewer than 38 communicants. There are, in addition,
at least an equal number of probationers or inquirers.
But these figures do not represent the total extent of
Christian progress. Over a large area the whole tone of
the people has been changed for a better, the gospel message

422 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

has been clearly delivered, and we can afford to wait in
patience until the Spirit of God moves them, as He has
done others. Our business is to plant and water diligently
and faithfully ; it is God who gives the increase. The
Church of England Prayer Book almost complete, together
with the four Gospels, portions of the Epistles and Genesis,
have been translated and printed in Lengua, and also a
small Hymnal set to familiar tunes." l

This mission is now advancing westwards and north-
wards from the river Paraguay and is starting work on
the western frontier in the Argentine republic among the
Tobas, Matacos, Chiriguanos, and other tribes who are
employed on the sugar plantations.

Uruguay.

Upper Uruguay and the far interior of Southern
Brazil were the scene of the best work accomplished by
the Jesuit missionaries. Their work was of a less arduous
nature than that which was accomplished in Paraguay, to
which reference has already been made.

The total population of the province is 1,112,000, of
whom one-fifth are foreigners. In 1900 there were
73,000 Italians and 38,000 Spaniards.

The Anglican Church, the A.M.E.C., and the Lutheran
Church minister to Europeans in Uruguay.

Argentina.

In the eighteenth century Argentina formed parb of
the Spanish viceroyalty which also included Paraguay and
Bolivia. Its present population of nearly 7,000,000
includes a large and increasing number of European
immigrants. Argentina was the first of the Spanish
colonies in South America to vindicate its independence.

The A.M.E.C., in addition to its work amongst English-
speaking people, has missions up the river Parana and in
several other districts. There are about 30,000 Indians,
1 See An Unknmvn People in an Unknown Land, by W. B. Gmbb, 1911.

SOUTH AMERICA 423

most of whom have come from Bolivia and the Paraguayan
Chaco to work in the sugar factories. The South American
Evangelical Mission and the Christian and Missionary
Alliance of New York are also represented.

A new mission has been started by the S.A.M.S. in the
Argentine Chaco with its headquarters at San Pedro de
Jujuy, a large sugar estate to which several thousands of
Indians come annually for the sugar harvest.

Tierra del Fueyo, which lies at the extreme south of
Argentina, was the scene of the most romantic mission
which has been established on the continent of South
America. Captain Allen Gardiner, an English naval
officer, in the course of a voyage in 1822 came into
contact with some of the aborigines of South America,
and after attempting missionary work in Zululand and
New Guinea (see p. 310) he succeeded in establishing,
in 1844, the " Patagonian Missionary Society," which
afterwards became the South American Missionary Society.
His two first attempts in Chili and Paraguay ended in
failure, but, undeterred by the hardships which he had
suffered, he and six companions sailed for Tierra del Fuego
in 1850. The whole party were left to die of starvation
by the hostile aborigines in the following year, and their
bodies were found in Spaniard Harbour in a cavern, the
search party having been directed to the spot by a hand
painted on the rocks on which Ps. Ixii. 5-8 was written:
" My soul, wait thou only upon God, for my expectation is
from him." Almost immediately on the reception of the
news in England a new missionary expedition started
which established a station in the Falkland Islands. In
1860, when the mission ship attempted to get into touch
with the Tierra del Fuegians, the whole crew with one
exception were murdered.

In 1868 Bishop Stirling, who was in charge of the
mission, succeeded in establishing a station at Ushuwaia
on the mainland, and in 1872 36 Tierra del Fuegians
were baptized. The station Tekenika, which was established
in 1888, was for many years the centre of the mainland

424 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

mission. This has now been moved to Douglas Kiver,
Navarin Island. Charles Darwin, who had visited Tierra
del Fuego and had tried to get into touch with its in-
habitants, had expressed the confident opinion that its
people were incapable of becoming civilized or of being
Christianized. After interviewing some of the Christian
converts, he wrote to the S.A.M.S. : " The success of the
Tierra del Fuego Mission is most wonderful, and charms
me, as I always prophesied utter failure. It is a grand
success. I shall feel proud if your committee think fit to
elect me an honorary member of your society."

British Guiana.

British Guiana was first colonized by the Dutch in
1580, the first English settlement taking place in 1663.
After being held in turn by Holland, France, and England,
it was finally ceded to England in 1814. In 1831 the
three counties named after the three rivers which traverse
them — Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice — were united into
the present British Guiana. Its total population is about
300,000. In this total are included about 100,000
Hindus, 10,000 Mohammedans, 40,000 pagans, and
130,000 Christians, of whom about 40,000 are Eoman
Catholics. The coast districts are inhabited chiefly by
negroes, the descendants of slaves who were imported from
Africa. There are also a large number of Indian and
Chinese immigrants.

In 1735 the Moravians began work amongst the
negroes in Berbice, and later on amongst the Arawaks.
Their mission was totally destroyed by revolted negroes in
1763. Another mission amongst the Arawaks, begun in
1757, was finally abandoned in 1812.

In 1807 the L.M.S. began work among the plantation
slaves on the invitation of a Dutch planter. The work
rapidly spread, but the antagonism of the slave owners,
which was accentuated by a rising of slaves that took
place in 18 23, greatly interfered with its progress. Never-

SOUTH AMERICA 425

theless, by 1829 there had been established seven stations
in Demerara and nine in Berbice, and in 1838 the number
of the Christians was reckoned at 18,000. The L.M.S.
eventually withdrew, and some of the Christians joined the
Anglican Church, whilst others formed themselves into a
Congregational Union.

In 1815 the Wesleyans started work amongst the
slaves and later on amongst the East Indian immigrants.
The " Brethren " have also a mission amongst both negroes
and East Indians which is carried on from Georgetown.

In 1829 the C.M.S. began work amongst the Indians on
the Essequibo and Potaro rivers. This work, which attained
considerable success, was, however, given up in 1856.

In 1835 the S.P.G. began work amongst the negroes,
and the Colonial Government contributed towards the
extension of the work, which was superintended by
Dr. Coleridge, the first Bishop of Barbados. In 1840
Mr. W. H. Brett, a young layman who had been sent out
by the S.P.G., began work amongst the Arawaks at the
junction of the rivers Pomeroon and Arapiaco. He was
ordained in 1842. His work, which was carried on under
great difficulties, proved at length most encouraging.
Mr. Brett acted as a pioneer missionary, and drew up a
grammar and vocabulary for four different languages—
Arawak, Acawaio, Caribi, and Warau. Owing to ill-health,
he was compelled to return to England for awhile, but
on his recovery he went back to Guiana, and after a long
service, extending altogether over forty years, he died in
1886. He was in a true sense the Apostle to the
aboriginals of British Guiana.

Bishop Austin, who was consecrated as the first
Bishop of British Guiana in 1842, was Bishop for fifty
years.

The centres of work amongst the aboriginal Indians
belonging to the Anglican Mission are at Mahaica Creek
and Demerara Paver in Demerara, Cabacaburi on the
Pomeroon River, Bartica and Kupununi in Essequibo, and
Orealla in Berbice.

426

HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

The E.G. missions are in charge of the Jesuits. The
number of " Catholics," including Europeans, is 22,000.

Work amongst the Chinese has been carried on with
such success that nearly all the Chinese immigrants have
become Christians. The work is chiefly supported by the
S.P.G. The Baptists have also two or three stations.

Archdeacon Josa writes :

" Ninety out of every hundred of our Chinese in British
Guiana are now Christians. What kind of Christians do
they make ? Not rice Christians. On the contrary, they
are most liberal contributors to all Church funds. They are
upright in their dealings, and a Chinese man's word is his
bond."

French Guiana.

In 1560 the Spanish missionary Sala, together with
another Dominican Father, entered French Guiana, but
both were immediately martyred. In 1643 French
Capuchins repeated the attempt, with a similar result. In
1639 the Jesuits entered the country at a different point
and evangelized the Galibis tribe. In 1674, the tribes on
the coast having been evangelized, three Jesuit missionaries
started from Cayenne for the interior, and fifteen years
later they erected a church on the river Kourou. In 1711
it was stated that five other tribes had become Christian.
When, however, the Jesuits were banished from South
America these missions collapsed. In 1852 the Jesuits
returned and recommenced their work near Cayenne.

The population, which is about 35,000, includes
10,000 French convicts.

Dutch Guiana.

In Dutch Guiana or Surinam there are about 17,000
" bush negroes," or aboriginal Indians, about 50,000 negroes
of African descent, and a number of imported Indian
coolies. Dutch Guiana was acquired by the Netherlands
in 1667 and its present population is about 86,000. The

SOUTH AMERICA 427

Moravians l began a mission in 1738 at the mouth of the
river Berbice in what was then Dutch but is now British
Guiana. By 1748, 41 Indians had been baptized; four
years later, chiefly as the result of the labours of T. S.
Schumann, " the Apostle of the Arawaks," the number had
risen to 266. Several mission stations were opened, but,
partly owing to the nomadic tendencies of the Indians, the
work failed to progress. In 1754 the Moravians started
work amongst the negro slaves in Paramaribo, which has
since made slow, but steady, progress. In 1765 two
missionaries left Paramaribo to start a mission in the
interior amongst the Saramaccas. By 1818, 9 missionaries
and 6 wives of missionaries had died at this station, and
the mission was eventually abandoned.

The Moravian Church at the present time has missions
amongst the bush negroes along the Coppename, the
Saramacca, the Surinam, and the Marowyne rivers. Work
is carried on at 31 stations and 25 out-stations. There
are 27 ordained European brethren, and 16 unordained, in
addition to 8 ordained and 10 unordaiued native brethren.
The Christian adherents number 30,000.

Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador.

In 1545 the Spaniards began to establish permanent
settlements in the interior of Venezuela. Ecuador was
conquered by one of Pizarro's officers, Benalcazar, in 1534,
soon after which Pizarro's brother Gonzalo was appointed
Governor of the province of Quito. In the eighteenth
century Venezuela formed part of the viceroyalty of New
Granada, which included also Colombia and Ecuador.
These three states were the first to assert their independence
of Spain in 1819. In these states there has been less
immigration from Europe than in most of the other
states, and their peoples are more backward and more
irreligious than any others. A former American Minister
to Colombia thus describes the attitude of the E.G. Church

1 See p. 53.

428 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

throughout South America generally during the eighteenth
century :

" It had prohibited the teaching of the arts and sciences,
restricted education to the Latin grammar and the catechism,
and limited the public libraries to the writings of the Fathers
and to works on civil and ecclesiastical jurisprudence. It
had even prohibited the study of modern geography and
astronomy and forbade the reading of books on travel . . .
it had placed under the ban Robinson Crusoe, and there had
never been a book or a magazine or a newspaper in the
whole country that was not conformed to the strictest rule
of the Eoman Index." 1

There is no state in which the E.G. Church to-day
has exercised, and still exercises, a more complete control
than it does in Colombia. In the Inquisition at Carthagena
it is stated that 400,000 have been condemned to death.

" The moral conditions are the same as elsewhere in
South America. The control of marriage by the E.G. Church,
and the use of this control by the priests as a source of
income to the Church, have resulted, as the priests themselves
admit, in the failure on the part of great masses of the
population to get married. Men and women live together
with no marriage ceremony." 2

In Colombia there are about 250,000 Indians. There
is a small E.G. mission amongst the Indians on the Goajira
peninsula between Colombia and Venezuela, which is under
the charge of the Capuchin Fathers in Barranquilla. In
Ecuador, the population of which is about 1,400,000, there
are about 400,000 of mixed blood and about 200,000
"civilized Indians." Amongst the remaining 800,000
Indians the E.G. Church has a few missions, but the
results are far from being encouraging.

" The Blessed Peter Claver " is regarded by the E.G.
Church as the Apostle of Carthageua and Colombia. He
left Seville in 1610 and laboured in South America for

1 The Colombian and Venezuela licjntblicfi, by AV. L. Scruggs, p. 128.
- South American Problems, by Speer, p. 58.

SOUTH AMERICA 429

thirty-nine years. According to his biographers, his life
was a constant succession of miracles. One of his reputed
labours was the conversion of 600 Englishmen who were
captured at sea and brought to Carthagena.1

American Presbyterians have started work amongst the
E.G. population at Barrauquilla at the mouth of the
Magdalena Eiver and several other centres.

In Venezuela the U.S.A. Presbyterians and the
" Brethren " have preaching centres and other work at
Caracas. The Christian and Missionary Alliance and the
South American Evangelical Mission are also represented.
Of the total population of Venezuela, which is reckoned
at 2,685,606, 90,000 are returned as pagans.

1 Christian Missions, their Agents and their Results, by T. W. Maishall
(1863), pp. 169-71.

XVIII.
AUSTRALIA.

The Australian Aborigines.

THE total number of Australian aborigines is reckoned
by the Government authorities at 74,000. Of these,
20,000 are found in Queensland, 27,000 in West
Australia, 16,000 in the Northern Territory, 7370 in
New South Wales, 3500 in South Australia, and 250 in
Victoria. The appalling rate at which they have decreased
may be gathered from the fact that less than one hundred
years ago the number in Queensland alone was 200,000.
In 1837 the number in Victoria was reckoned at 15,000.
The total number of those who are " living in contiguity to
the settlements of whites," according to the census of 1911,
is 19,939. Hardly more than 6000 have as yet been
reached by Christian missionaries. Efforts are now being
made by the various states to safeguard the interests of the
aboriginals, but it is doubtful whether a further decrease in
their number can be prevented. In 1911 the Government
grants amounted to £68,120, and in addition a distribu-
tion of 5000 blankets was made to the aboriginals in
Queensland.

Early in the nineteenth century, Samuel Marsden,
a chaplain at Sydney, helped by Governor Macquarie,
endeavoured to protect the aboriginals from the cruelties
that were being practised upon them by the early settlers
and convicts.

In 1823 the S.P.G. signified to Mr. Hill, a chaplain
at Sydney, its willingness to assist in establishing a mission

430

AUSTRALIA 431

to the aboriginals in New South Wales, but nothing was
actually accomplished. In 1820 Archdeacon (afterwards
Bishop) Broughton put before the clergy in Australia the
" appalling consideration that after an intercourse of nearly
half a century with a Christian people, these hapless
human beings continue ... in their original benighted
and degraded state."

In 1825 some L.M.S. missionaries who came from
Tahiti made several unsuccessful efforts to establish work
amongst the aboriginals in the neighbourhood of Sydney.
Mr. L. E. Threlkeld printed a spelling-book and translations
of some selections from Scripture for some tribes near Lake
Macquarie, but no permanent work resulted.

In 1830, in response to a request from the Home
Government, the C.M.S. sent out two clergy and a farmer,
and a mission station was opened at Wellington Bay, a
Government station 200 miles from Sydney. Some good
work was done, though apparently no aborigines were
baptized, and in 1842, in consequence of difficulties
which arose between the C.M.S. and the Government
authorities, the mission was discontinued.

The first successful attempt to start mission work
for their benefit was made, in connection with the
S.P.G., by Archdeacon Hale of South Australia, who
started an aboriginal settlement in 1851 at Poonindie
near Port Lincoln on the Spencer Gulf. Two years
later, when Bishop Short visited it, the settlement
consisted of 54 natives, including 11 married couples.
The Bishop during his visit baptized 10 men and 1
woman. A period of sickness (1856-58), during which 21
deaths occurred, was followed by financial difficulties, which
for several years interfered with the development of the
mission. By 1863 two natives were able to conduct the
Sunday morning service. In 1872 Bishop Short reported
that there was there "a well-ordered community of more than
80 aboriginals and half-castes . . . living in quietness,
sobriety, and godliness, employed in the various labours of
a sheep station and a cultivated farm of 260 acres."

432 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Many efforts were made from time to time by Anglican,
Presbyterian, and Wesleyan ministers working amongst
white people to get into touch with the aboriginals, with
varying success. Thus the Rev. G. King, whom the S.P.G.
sent out to Frernantle in West Australia, reported the
baptism of ten aboriginal children whom he had been
teaching for some years. Later on four of his aboriginal
girls were married by the Bishop of Adelaide to four
aboriginals who had been trained in the Wesleyan school
at Wonneroo. In 1850 the S.P.G. helped to establish an
aboriginal school near Albany which was removed to Perth
in 1859 and to the Swan Eiver in 1876.

In 1859 the Moravians started a mission to aboriginals
at Ebenezer in the Wimmera district of Victoria. The
mission received encouragement and financial support from
Bishop Perry of Melbourne, and in 1860 the first
convert was baptized. Encouraged by the success of the
mission, the Presbyterian Assembly of Australia offered to
supply funds for another station, if the Moravians would
supply the missionaries. A station was accordingly
opened at Kamahyuk, on a native reserve near Lake
Wellington. The first convert was baptized in 1866.
Much good work was done at this station, which, in
consequence of the steady decrease in the aboriginal
population in Victoria, was eventually abandoned.

The following are the principal mission stations now
in existence : —

Yarrabah, 15 miles south of Cairns in North
Queensland, founded in 1892; Trubanaman, or the
Mitchell Eiver Mission, on the Gulf of Carpentaria, founded
in 1905; the Roper River Mission, on the west coast of the
Gulf of Carpentaria, founded in 1907; the Forrest River
Mission, in North-West Australia, founded in 1913.
These four missions belong to the Anglican Church. The
New Norcia Mission in West Australia, 170 miles north-
east of Perth, is managed by Trappists belonging to the
K.C. Church. The Mapoon Mission, founded in 1891, is a
joint station of the Moravians and the Presbyterians ; and

AUSTRALIA 433

the Cape Bedford Mission, north of Cooktown, is supported
by the Lutherans.

In Victoria the Presbyterians have a station at
Coranderok.

The German Neuendettelsau Society has a station at
Elim-Hopc in Queensland and another at Bethesda in
South Australia. The Australian Imnmnuel Synod
(German) has also a station in South Australia at New
Hermannsburg.

To the above list should be added the Moa Island
Mission in the Torres Straits, belonging to the Anglican
Church, which was founded in 1907.

The inhabitants of Moa Island are of mixed aboriginal
and South Sea Island origin. Another Anglican mission
is in course of being established at Groot Island in the
Gulf of Carpentaria.

The mission at Yarrabah, which is in the diocese of
North Queensland, was started by the Eev. J. E. Gribble,
who had previously interested himself in the welfare of
the natives in West Australia. When he had been three
months at Yarrabah his health gave way, and his son
undertook the charge of the mission. After passing
through several vicissitudes, the mission is now firmly
established. The Bishop of Carpentaria, after visiting the
Mitchell Eiver Mission in 1913, wrote concerning it and
the Yarrabah Mission :

" There are practically no able-bodied men at the head
station, which consists of the children of school age, the
sick, and the aged. The rest are all living in one of the
eight or nine settlements, from 2 to 12 miles distant, under
the charge of a native teacher who holds daily service and
superintends the life of the community. Each family
cultivates an area of land of its own, planted with fruit
trees or vegetables, or has a share in a fishing-boat provided
by the mission on terms by which it becomes his own
property. The superintendent reports that the amount of
work done by the natives had enormously increased since
they have been working for themselves ; while the cost of
the mission has proportionally decreased. The same plan has
28

434 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

been followed with even greater success at the Presbyterian
mission at Mapoon, which was founded about the same time as
Yarrabah ; and the two form an encouraging ideal towards
which to work. Such results, however, are only possible
when a whole generation has been trained up under mission
influence; and that it should be possible even in a generation to
convert the aboriginal savage into a working, self-supporting
tiller of the soil is no small tribute to the missions.

" If one who was a sceptic in the aboriginal capacity for
regeneration really desired to be enlightened, a visit to
Yarrabah would remove the scales from his eyes. Standing
near a large tree quite close to the beach, he would see a
rough wooden cross to mark the spot where more than
twenty-one years ago the Kev. J. R Gribble landed with
three Christian blacks. To-day he would find a community
of about 300 Christian blacks, under the direction of six
white missionaries. He could not remain many hours in
the place without discovering that savage devil-worshipping
nomads had been converted into industrious, intelligent, and
reverent Christians. He would not find that one side of
their nature had been developed to the exclusion of the
others. He would acknowledge that the savage had been
taught to work as he surveyed the crops of maize, taro,
bananas, casava, and pineapple which he would see at the
settlements, where neat matting and grass cottages, with
bright gardens, well-swept paths, and decorated inside with
gay pictures, show that they have learnt to care for their
homes." :

"Work on the plantations," says the Eeport for 1912,
" has gone on steadily throughout the year. Bananas have
been sent to Sydney and Brisbane, while sweet potatoes,
mangrove bark, and fish were sold in Cairns. Quite an
industry in native weapons and curios has been developed.
An effort is being made to make the adult natives materially
independent. Plots of land have been taken up by some,
others are working on boats. Full market price is given to
them for produce and fish. Only a few natives in Yarrabah
itself are now paid wages and given rations. The remainder
buy their rations and other necessaries by their own
exertions."

This description of the Yarrabah Mission applies with-

1 Australia's Great Need, by C. Toinlin, p. 220 f.

AUSTRALIA 435

out any modification to that at Mapoon. This mission,
which was started in 1890, was staffed by Moravian
missionaries but is supported financially by the Federated
Presbyterian Churches of Australia. It is situated on the
west shore of the Cape York Peninsula in North
Queensland. James Ward, the first missionary, went
alone among the natives, knowing that during the previous
two months they had killed and eaten two white men.
Again and again he quelled fierce quarrels and restored
peace in the native camp by fearlessly placing himself
between the infuriated combatants, taking the spears from
their hands, and reasoning with them in such English as
they could understand. Before Ward died, in 1895, the
mission had been securely established, and is now as
successful as any aboriginal mission in Australia. The
number of aboriginals reached by the mission is about 400.
In the year 1905—6 the aboriginals at Mapoon con-
tributed £4 towards the support of foreign missions. The
Presbyterian Church also supports stations at Weipa
(1898) and Aurukun (1903), which are chiefly staffed by
Moravian missionaries, and are situated in the same
native reserve as Mapoon. There are 3 " ordained
brethren," 3 missionaries' wives, and 3 native helpers
connected with the 3 stations.1

In the last annual report (1914) issued by the
Moravian Church the writer deplores, in common with
other authorities, the decrease in the aboriginal population.
He writes :

" In spite of all the care and medical aid of their mission-
aries, the sad fact remains that the blacks of North Queens-
land are a dying race. At our stations too the deaths out-
numbered the births last year. Consumption is among the
diseases formerly unknown but now brought in by contact
with the whites. This has taken several of our most
promising young people."

The missions on the Mitchell River and the Roper River,

1 For an account of the Mapoon Mission see The Romantic Story of
Mapoon, by A. Ward.

436 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

which were founded in 1905 and 1907, are still in the
pioneer stage, but there seems every prospect that they
will develop satisfactorily. A church has been built in
the Mitchell Kiver Mission district and one aboriginal has
been confirmed. The mission boat Francis Pritt is worked
by a crew of Mitchell Eiver natives. The influence of
the mission on the people is steadily growing. They
are learning the dignity of work and learning also
that Christianity means character and righteousness of
life.

The Archbishop of Brisbane, after visiting the Mitchell
Eiver Mission in 1906, wrote — and his words are applic-
able to nearly all the missions to the Australian aboriginals :

" These missions are refuting in fact and experience the
oft-repeated formula that it is impossible to raise the
Australian aboriginal. The moral of Yarrabah, of Mapoon,
of Mitchell Eiver is that, given favourable circumstances
(especially isolation from contact with the whites), the
Queensland aboriginal is docile, law-abiding, and even quick
to learn. . . . We wonder whether, if their natural habits
and characteristics are wisely dealt with, and they are pre-
served from the contamination of the white man's drink
and the white man's lust, the extermination of the race is
after all so near." l

The Forrest River Mission, which is situated 70 miles
down the west shore of Cambridge Gulf in the diocese of
North-West Australia, was established in 1913. It was
the renewal of an attempt made twelve years earlier to
start a mission at this place. The staff consists of one
clergyman and three laymen. It is hoped that it may
prove possible to open several other stations in this part
of North-West Australia.

The mission on Moa Island, which is in the Torres
Straits, 30 miles north of Thursday Island, was superin-
tended and developed (1908—11) by the late Deaconess
Buchanan, who, though crippled with illness, did a wonder-

1 "A New Mission to Australian Aboriginals," The East and The West,
April 1907.

AUSTRALIA 437

ful work both amongst the aboriginals and amongst the
Japanese immigrants.

" ' Teassher,' as the Moa natives called her, was the only
white person in the South Sea Island community at Moa.
There, in her two-roomed grass house, she carried on all
her work as teacher, priestess, doctor, councillor, and friend.
The Moa Island Mission will always remain the chief
monument of her devoted life. In 1910 the Government
showed their appreciation of the work which she initiated
by giving a grant of £120 towards the educational work of
the mission, and by extending the reserve in acknowledg-
ment of the industry shown by the mission ' boys ' in
planting gardens. A year or two ago a church, largely
subscribed for by the contributions of the islanders, was
opened, and the mission still nourishes under the able
direction of the present superintendent." L

The E.G. Church has a mission to aboriginals the
centre of which is New Norcia, 82 miles from Perth.
The Benedictine abbey of New Norcia was founded in
1846 by a Spaniard, Eudesindus Salvado, for the purpose
of evangelizing the Australian natives. For three years
its founder lived a nomadic life and ate the same food as
the savages whom he hoped to influence. In 1849 he
started for Eome, where he was consecrated as Bishop of
Port Victoria in North Australia ; but his destination was
eventually altered, and having obtained forty volunteers
in Spain, he reached New Norcia again in 1852. With
their help he built a monastery, a school, and a village, in
which many of the aboriginals were induced to live, some of
whom became Christians. Bishop Salvado died in 19 00, in
the eighty-seventh year of his age and the fifty-first of his
episcopate. His successor, Abbot Torres, brought out many
priests to minister both to the aboriginals and to the white
settlers who had begun to settle in the neighbourhood. In
1908 he opened a branch mission 2000 miles away in
the extreme north-west of Australia, which is called the
Drysdale River Aborigines Mission. This mission was

1 See Australia's Greatest Need, p. 219 f.

438 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

opened with a party of 15 in charge of 2 priests.
In 1910 Abbot Torres was consecrated as a bishop.

An inter-denoininational society called " The New
South Wales Aborigines' Mission" employs 27 workers
who labour chiefly in New South Wales but also work
in West Australia and in the north-west.

Other non-Christian peoples in Australia include, accord-
ing to the census of 1 9 1 1 : Chinese, 2 3,000; Hindus, 3000;
Japanese, 3000; Malays, 1000; and South Sea Islanders,
2500. As these are widely scattered throughout the
different states, missionary work amongst them is difficult
to organize. Good work has been done amongst the
Chinese immigrants by the Anglicans, Presbyterians, and
Wesleyans. The writer of this volume was present on
one occasion when eight Chinese who had been pre-
pared by a Chinese catechist were baptized in Sydney
Cathedral. As a result of the Immigration Restriction Act
of 1901, the number of coloured aliens in Australia fell in
the course of a decade from 55,000 to 38,000.

A large amount of good work had been done amongst
the Kanakas — i.e. the immigrant labourers from the
South Sea Islands — before they were excluded by law from
Australia. Many who have become Christians in Australia
have returned as supporters of Christian missions to the
islands from which they came. At the mission which the
S.P.G. helped to support at Bundaberg in Queensland there
were in 1891 10,000 men from fifty different islands
under Christian instruction.

TASMANIA.

It is a disgrace to the Christian Church that the
aboriginal population of Tasmania was exterminated, or
allowed to die out, before any missionary work had been
started amongst them. After their numbers had been
greatly reduced by fighting with the English immigrants,
they were removed to Flinders Island in the Bass Straits

AUSTRALIA 439

in 1835. Here, despite the fact that they were kindly
treated, they rapidly dwindled in numbers. When Bishop
Nixon visited them in 1843 there were only 54, and
four years later they were reduced to 16. The last died
in 1876.

XIX.

NEW ZEALAND.

THE first missionary to set foot on New Zealand was
Mr. Wilson of the L.M.S., who spent one night on shore
there, in 1800, on his way to the Society Islands. The
Rev. Samuel Marsden, the senior Anglican chaplain at
Sydney, having made friends with two chiefs who had
come from New Zealand, appealed to the C.M.S. to start a
mission there. In 1809 this society sent out a school-
master, a carpenter, and a shoemaker ; but such was the
evil reputation for cannibalism of the New Zealanders
that they had to wait two years before they could get a
boat to take them there. After a preliminary visit to the
coast had been made, Mr. Marsden, accompanied by the
C.M.S. missionaries and the New Zealand chiefs, sailed from
Port Jackson in 1814, and on Christmas Day of this year
the first Christian service was held at Rangihona (Bay of
Islands). Mr. Marsden returned to his work in Sydney
in the following March. In 1822 the C.M.S. sent out the
Rev. Henry Williams, and in 1825 his brother William,
who became the first Bishop of Waiapu. These two brothers
did much to promote the evangelization of the Maoris in
the early days of the mission. In 1825 the first convert was
baptized. Nearly five years passed before a second baptism
took place. In 1830 an industrial mission was started at
Waimate, and from this date the mission made rapid
progress. In 1837 Mr. Marsden paid his seventh and
last visit to New Zealand, and in 1838 he died. During
this year the New Testament and the Prayer Book were
printed in Maori, and the mission was visited for the first
time by Bishop Broughton of Sydney. In 1839 the New

440

NEW ZEALAND 441

Zealand Land Company, which had been formed in
England, having bought large tracts of land from the
local chiefs, founded the town of Wellington. In 1840
the islands became a British colony.

In 1842 Bishop George Selwyn, the first Bishop of
New Zealand, was able to say in a sermon preached at
Paihia : " We see here a whole nation of pagans converted
to the faith."

Charles Darwin, after visiting the Anglican mission
station at Waimate in 1835, wrote: "All this is very
surprising when it is considered that five years ago nothing
but the fern flourished here. . . . The lesson of the mis-
sionary is the enchanter's wand."

In the course, and as a result, of the second Maori
war, which lasted with short intermissions from 1860
to 1870, a great apostasy occurred. In 1864 the Pai
Marire, or Hau Hau fanaticism, swept over the country.
It originated in the delusions of a half-witted man who
declared that the angel Gabriel and the Virgin Mary
had appeared to him and had promised that the Maoris
uttering a dog-like cry (Hau Hau) should drive the white
man into the sea. The new religion was a strange medley
of Christianity and paganism and contained many con-
tradictions.

" The abiding presence of the Virgin Mary was promised,
and the religion of England as taught by Scripture was
declared to be false and the Scriptures were to be burnt. Yet
the creed and form of worship adopted included not only
Romanism but articles from Judaism and the Old Testament,
to which were added a mixture of Mormoiiism, mesmerism,
spiritualism, ventriloquism, and some of the worst features
of the old Maori usage and the days of cannibalism. The
rites which accompanied these doctrines were bloody,
sensual, foul, and devilish." :

During one of the outbreaks which accompanied the
establishment of this new religion the Eev. C. S. Volkner,
a C.M.S. missionary, was martyred in 1865. Two-thirds

1 See Two Hundred Years of the S,P,G., p. 441 f.

442 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

of the Maori Christians abandoned their faith and adopted
the Hau Hau religion, but their number did not include
any of the Maori clergy.

In 1882 the C.M.S. began to withdraw from New
Zealand and to hand over its work to a special Maori
Board appointed by the Church of the Province of New
Zealand. Its grants in support of the work ceased
altogether in 1903.

Wesleyan Missions.

In 1822 the first Wesleyan missionary, the Rev.
S. Leigh, arrived and started work at Kaeo in the Auckland
district. Mr. Leigh had previously visited New Zealand
in 1818 at the request of Mr. Marsden, who desired to
interest him in missionary work amongst the Maoris. In
1827 this mission station was destroyed by the chief
Hongi Hika, and the missionaries retired to Australia.
Returning in the course of a few months, they established
a new station at Hokianga. In 1831 they obtained their
first converts, and in 1834 81 converts were baptized in
the mission chapel at Mangungu. By 1838 the wor-
shippers at Mangungu had increased to 1000. In 1844
a training college was established at Auckland. In 1855,
when the Australian Wesleyan Conference undertook the
charge of the mission, the Maori " members " numbered
3070 and the adherents 7590. The churches used by
the Maoris numbered 74. When the Hau Hau fanaticism
spread, the Rev. John Whiteley, who had come out as a
missionary in 1833, was murdered in 1869 by men on
behalf of whom he had laboured for so many years. In
1874 a New Zealand Conference was formed. The work
amongst the Maoris, which had been seriously interrupted
by the spread of the Hau Hau superstition, has gradually
recovered, but the number of Maori Christians connected
with the missions never attained to its former totals.
There are now a considerable number of Maoris connected
with Wesleyan congregations in different parts of New

NEW ZEALAND 443

Zealand, but there appear to be no definite mission
stations.

In 1844 the Rev. J. Duncan of the Reformed Church
of Scotland started a Presbyterian Mission in the Manawatu
district in the North Island. He lived to be ninety-four,
and died in 1908. Since 1871 the Presbyterian Church
of New Zealand has been carrying on this work amongst
the Maoris. At its principal station, Turakina, in North
Island, it had in 1910 53 Christian adherents and 13
communicants.

The total number of Maoris in New Zealand is about
47,000. About half of these live in the north-west part
of the North Island, which forms the diocese of Auckland.
In this diocese there are 51 Maori churches and 221
Maori lay-readers. Of the Maoris living in this area about
8000 belong to the Anglican Church, about 3000 are
Roman Catholics, 2000 or 3000 are Presbyterians or
Wesleyans, and the rest are heathen or apostates.

In the diocese of Waiapu, which occupies the eastern
part of North Island and contains a population of 17,000
Maoris, there is an Anglican college for Maoris at Gisborne.
In this diocese there are 27 Maori and 4 English clergy
working amongst Maoris. The Maori clergy receive
stipends from funds which have been raised by their own
people supplemented by grants from the Waiapu Maori
Mission. The Maoris in this diocese belonging to the
Anglican Church number about 8000. In the diocese
of Wellington, which contains 6000 Maoris, 3500 belong
to the Anglican Church. In the South Island there are
2500 Maoris, the majority of whom belong to the Anglican
Church. In the South Island the work amongst Maoris
is carried on as a rule by the European clergy in con-
junction with their ordinary parochial work amongst white
people. There are 43 Maori clergy, who are members of
the General Synod and have the same status as European
clergy.

The Mormons claim 5000 Maori adherents.

444 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Roman Catholic Missions to the Maoris.

In 1836 seven members of the Marist Brothers
landed in the north-west part of the North Island, and they
aud their successors began work both amongst the
colonists and the Maoris. By 1850 the number of Maori
"neophytes" had risen to 5044. In 1853 there were about
1000 native Christians in the diocese of Wellington. When
the Hau Hau fanaticism spread in 1860 and the following
years the R.C. missions were almost completely obliterated.
The work has been re-started, and steady progress has been
made within the last thirty years. In the dioceses of
Wellino-ton and Christchurch there are 19 churches

O

served by 7 priests and the number of Christians is about
2000. In the diocese of Auckland there are about 4000
Christians, 22 churches, and 16 priests.

One of the most successful missions to the Maoris in
New Zealand is that of the E.G. Church on the Wanganui

River.

The following figures will show the fluctuations of the

O ™

Maori population (the figures include about 3000 half-
caste Maoris) : —

1891 41,993

1896 39,854

1901 43,143

1906 47,731

1911 ... . 49,844

The Government spends about £32,000 per annum
on the education of the Maoris and its 99 schools are
attended by 4735 children.

XX.

ISLES OF THE PACIFIC.

THE Islands of the Pacific may be classified under three
-heads : Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia}- Polynesia
includes the islands south of the Sandwich Islands and
east of 170° W. ; Melanesia includes most of the western
islands of the South Pacific west of Fiji ; Micronesia
lies to the north and north-east of Melanesia. The
population of the South Pacific Islands is probably under
2,000,000. The total Christian population is about
400,000, of whom about 80,000 are connected with the
K.C. Church.

Ninety years ago the South Pacific Islands were almost
entirely heathen and were the home of cannibalism and
every form of cruelty. To-day, more than 350 are pro-
fessedly Christian.

POLYNESIA.

The Hawaii or Sandwich Islands, which were the scene
of Captain Cook's murder in 1779, contain a population of
about 170,000.

The capital of the islands is Honolulu, which is in
Oahu, one of the four largest islands of the group. In
1794 the king, Kamehameha, sent a request to England
begging for Christian teachers, but no response was made.
The A.B.C.F.M. began work in 1820, which received
support from the local chiefs and attained such rapid
success that within fifty years the Christianization of
the islands was completed. This society, having helped

1 The three words respectively denote many islands, black islands, and
small islands.

445

446 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

to constitute a local Church, withdrew its supervision
prematurely, with the result that many of the converts
lapsed and the moral tone of the Christians became
very unsatisfactory. In 1827 some French RC. priests
endeavoured to start a mission, but they were banished
in 1831. In 1839 a E.G. mission was established. A
large number of the Christians connected with the
Hawaiian Evangelical Association, which the A.B.C.F.M.
had established, eventually joined this mission.

In 1861, as the result of a direct appeal of Kameha-
meha IV. to Queen Victoria, an Anglican bishop and two
missionaries supported by the S.P.G. were sent to Honolulu.
The first person to receive baptism from the Anglican
missionaries was the queen, who was baptized in 1862.
At the time when the request for an Anglican mission
was made by the king, there were 25,000 persons in
the islands " unconnected with any creed." Work was
also undertaken by this mission amongst the Chinese
immigrants.

In 1902 the charge of the diocese and the mission was
transferred to the American Protestant Episcopal Church.

The Hawaiian group includes the island of MbloJcai,
where the E.G. missionary Damien and a Protestant
minister Hanaloa, after ministering to the lepers, both
died of leprosy.

The mixed character of the population of the Hawaiian
Islands adds greatly to the difficulties with which the
Christian missionary has to contend. The population
includes 21,666 Chinese, 79,520 Japanese, 4500 Coreans,
22,701 Portuguese, 2031 Spaniards, 4896 Porto Eicans,
14,409 of American, British, and German birth, 26,108
pure Hawaiians and 11,912 part Hawaiians. There are
5000 Mormons and 44,000 Buddhists.

The American Episcopal Mission, besides carrying on
work amongst the Hawaiians in several of the islands, has
missions to the Chinese, Japanese, and Corean immigrants.
The mission to the Chinese, which was begun in 1887, has
resulted in the ordination of several Chinese clergy, one

ISLES OF THE PACIFIC 447

of whom now ministers to the Chinese immigrants in
Tonga. Japanese work is carried on at Hilo, and is super-
intended by a Japanese missionary who has been ordained.
As a result of work amongst the Coreans, over 100 have
been baptized during the last few years. There are 20
clergy belonging to the American Episcopal Mission who
work at 27 centres.

The missionary enthusiasm of the Hawaiian people
may be illustrated by the fact that 30 per cent, of its
native ministry are foreign missionaries and 22 per cent,
of the Christian contributions in the islands are devoted to
foreign missions.

In the Marquesas and Paumotu islands, which lie to
the south-east of Hawaii, Protestant missions are re-
presented by the Paris Missionary Society and by the
Hawaiian Evangelical Association. The E.G. mission,
which began work in 1848, has 9 priests and about
2500 Christians.

The Society Islands. — The Tahiti Archipelago, or Society
Islands, consists of eleven islands, of which Tahiti is the
largest. The total population is about 30,000.

When the discovery of Tahiti by Captain Cook became
known, the Viceroy of Peru sent two RC. priests to start
a mission there. They remained only ten months, and
returned to South America in the ship which brought them.
In 1777, when Captain Cook revisited Tahiti, he saw the
house which had been erected for them, with a cross
bearing this inscription, " Christus vincit, et Carolus imperat.
1776." After seeing this, he wrote in his journal :

" It is very unlikely that any measure of this kind should
ever be seriously thought of, as it can neither serve the
purpose of public ambition nor private avarice, and without
such inducements I may pronounce that it will never be
undertaken."

Despite the pessimistic attitude of Captain Cook, the
reading of his Voyages inspired several Englishmen to
attempt missionary work in Polynesia and elsewhere.

448 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

The first successful attempt to introduce Christianity
was made in 1796 by the L.M.S. In this year the mission
ship Duff landed 18 missionaries, most of whom were
artisans or mechanics. After enduring many hardships,
the majority of them retired to Sydney in 1798. Later
on, when King Pomare, who favoured the Christians, gained
a victory over his opponents, several of these returned, and
rapid progress began to be made.

In the early decades of the nineteenth century many of
the supporters of missionary enterprise believed that it
would be difficult, if not impossible, to evangelize savages
until they had become to a considerable extent civilized.
In accordance with this belief, the majority of the mission
workers first sent out by the L.M.S. were mechanics. When
the L.M.S. ship Duff sailed from London on its first voyage
the mission party included 4 ministers, 6 carpenters,

2 shoemakers, 2 bricklayers, 2 tailors, 2 smiths, 2 weavers,
a surgeon, a hatter, a shopkeeper, a cotton manufacturer,
a cabinetmaker, a draper, a harness maker, a gentleman's
servant who had become a tinvvorker, a cooper, and a
butcher. There were also 3 children. When the Duff
first visited Tongatabu in the Friendly Islands, it dis-
embarked 1 0 mechanics, to begin a " mission of civilization,"
and so prepare the way for missionary work. The C.M.S.
also began their work in New Zealand by sending out

3 mechanics (at the suggestion of Mr. Marsden), and several
years were allowed to elapse before a missionary teacher was
sent. Subsequent experience has shown that the Christian
teacher is the best pioneer of civilization, and that civiliza-
tion which is not the outcome of the acceptance of Christian
teaching will seldom prepare the way for the latter.

James Chalmers, who possessed unique experience of
the iuiluence exerted by the advent of Western civilization
apart from religious teaching and of the influence exerted
by Christian missionaries in the South Sea Islands and
afterwards in New Guinea, once said : " Nowhere have I
seen our boasted civilization civilizing, but everywhere have
I seen Christianity acting as the true civilizer."

ISLES OF THE PACIFIC 449

How great was the civilizing influence which was
exerted by the L.M.S. missionaries in the early years of the
nineteenth century may be gathered from the statement
made by Commander Duperry, who wrote in 1823 :

" The missionaries of the Society of London have entirely
changed the manners and customs of the inhabitants.
Idolatry no longer exists . . . the bloody wars in which the
people engaged and human sacrifices have entirely ceased
since 1816. All the natives can read and write."

The most renowned missionary in the South Seas was
John Williams, who began work at Raiatea and made this
island the starting-point for his extensive missionary
journeys.

The E.G. Church started a mission in 1837, and
partly in consequence of the difficulties which resulted
from this mission the French Government proclaimed a
protectorate over the islands in 1842, and finally annexed
them in 1880. After the annexation the L.M.S. handed
over its missionary work to the Paris Missionary Society.

In French Polynesia, i.e. in the Society Islands, the
Leeward Islands, the Paumotu Islands, the Austral Islands,
the Ganibier Islands, and the Marquesas, the total
population of which is about 30,000, there are about
20,000 Roman Catholics and about 10,000 Protestants.
The E.C. missionaries, who belong to the Order of the
Sacred Heart of Jesus and Mary, number 18 and have
52 schools. The Protestant missions are supported by
the Paris Society, which has 58 stations, 10 European
and 44 local workers. The Mormons are active in these
islands.

The Cook Islands lie midway between Tahiti and Samoa.
The largest, Raratonga, has a population of 7000. Niue,
or Savage Island, which lies a little to the west, has
a population of 4000. John Williams, helped by some
Tahitian teachers, acted as a pioneer missionary in Raratonga.
The whole group has been evangelized by L.M.S. missionaries
and many converts from these islands have acted as
29

450 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

evangelists to other islands. One instance, which is typical
of many, deserves special mention. Pao, who was born in
Earatonga, became a Christian as a result of his association
with a sailor on an American whaler. Leaving Raratouga,
he landed at Lifu in the Loyalty Islands, 3000 miles dis-
tant, and springing ashore from a canoe amidst a crowd of
cannibal savages he called out to them, " Go tell the king
I am a friend, and have brought him a message from the
Great Spirit." l When brought before the king, he was asked,
" Have you seen the Great Spirit ? " " No," replied Pao,
" you cannot see a spirit." " Then how did you get the
message ? " inquired the king. " By letter," said Pao, " and
here it is" —producing his New Testament. The king
received him kindly, but later on Pao was forced to flee
from the island. However, he was eventually recalled by
the people, and in the course of a few years the inhabitants
of Lifu had become Christians.

The population of the Cook Islands and Niue is
12,000. In 1909 there were 4407 Church members,
6885 other adherents, and 32 ordained teachers. Much,
however, remains to be done, as the moral stamina of
the population is low even by comparison with that of the
inhabitants of other islands. Since 1823 the population
of these islands has decreased by half.

Tonga. — The Tongan group, or Friendly Islands, con-
sists of about 150 islands, most of which are very small.
The population forty years ago was about 50,000 ; to-day
it is about 22,000. In 1797 the L.M.S. ship Duff
visited Tongatabu. The efforts of the mechanics which it
disembarked proved unsuccessful, and in 1800 they with-
drew to Sydney. In 1822 the Wesleyan Methodists
established a mission which after several vicissitudes became
firmly established. A great revival in 1834 resulted in the
general acceptance of Christianity and led to the attempt
to send the gospel to Fiji. The spread of the Christian
faith was largely due to the support of the chief Taufaahau
(afterwards known as King George), who died in 1893,
1 "Pao, the Apostle of Lifu," The Pacific Islanders, pp. 29-54,

ISLES OF THE PACIFIC 451

aged 100. Eventually, however, a " Free Church of Tonga "
under the patronage of the king was established as a
rival to the Wesleyan Church, and the majority of the
people now belong to this Church.

The E.C. Mission, which was established in 1851, has
about 2000 members.

There is also a small Anglican mission which is under
the charge of Bishop Willis, formerly Bishop of Honolulu.

Of the Samoan group, three small islands, including
Tutuila, form a protectorate of the U.S.A. ; the rest
belonged to Germany until the war of 1914, when
they were taken over by Great Britain. The population,
which is now about 35,000, has been steadily decreasing.
Christianity was first preached in the islands by some
converted Tongans who had married into Samoan families.
The first European missionary to visit the islands was
the Eev. John Williams of the L.M.S., who in 1830 left
8 Tahitian teachers. In 1836 European missionaries
were introduced by the L.M.S., and the work rapidly
developed. In 1835 the first Wesleyan missionaries
arrived. For some years there was a certain amount of
misunderstanding between the converts connected with the
two missions, but the rivalry and disputes have practically
died out. Samoa is now nominally Christian. The
L.M.S. returns 8861 members and 28,000 attendants;
the Wesleyans return 2359 members and 6500 " hearers."

At the Malua school, which is under the charge of
the L.M.S. Mission, 1300 men have been trained as
preachers who have acted as mission agents over a wide
area. The mission industrial schools are exerting a
beneficial influence throughout the island. There are
a large number of Chinese coolies, for whom but little
has as yet been done by the Christian missionaries. Eobert
Louis Stevenson is buried at Vailima in Samoa. " Since
he died, the chiefs of the district have forbidden the use
of firearms on the hillside, that the birds may sing un-
disturbed the songs he so loved in life." l

1 The Call of the Pacific, by J. W. Burton, p. 48.

452 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

The E.G. Mission, which was begun in 1845
and is under the charge of the Marist Fathers, returns
7500 Catholics. There are 21 priests, of whom several
are natives. The Mormons number 300.

The Fiji Islands, 2 3 0 in number, have rapidly decreased
in population since the people came in contact with
Europeans. In 1850 the population, which is now about
87,000, was reckoned at 200,000. The people "are of a
lower grade than the Tongans, Samoans, Tahitians, and
Maoris. They have not nearly the same intellectual
development and their civilization is of a coarser order.
They are in turn superior to the western peoples of New
Hebrides, New Britain, and New Guinea. . . . Cannibalism
was an integral part of Fijian life, and the worst forms
of barbarity found constant expression. This has affected
not only the mental and moral development of the people,
but it has weakened and poisoned their physical strength." l

Christianity was first introduced into Fiji by two
islanders sent by John Williams from Tahiti. In 1834
two English Wesleyan ministers from Tonga, together
with a number of Tongan preachers, arrived. At first all
went well, but " bloodshed, cannibalism, licentiousness, and
cruelty were entrenched behind stubborn customs," and a
series of persecutions followed. One of the first missionaries
who set foot in Fiji began his work by burying the hands,
feet, and heads of eighty victims whose bodies had been
roasted and eaten at a cannibal feast. Gradually, however,
the new faith spread from island to island, and before 1850
at least a third of the population had been influenced by
the teaching of the missionaries.

At this period the work progressed so rapidly that it
became almost necessarily superficial. Whole tribes re-
nounced idolatry in a day, and so great was the number
of those who became nominal Christians that it was im-
possible to give them any adequate instruction. Churches
and mission schools have now been built all over the
islands, and the vast majority of the people attend church

1 The Call of the Pacific, p. 8.

ISLES OF THE PACIFIC 453

on Sundays and have family worship in their own houses.
The people are with few exceptions adherents of the
Wesleyan or of the KG. Church. The adherents of the
latter number 10,824, but this includes many Europeans,
Indians, and other South Sea Islanders.

The E.G. Mission, which was begun in 1863, is staffed
by 33 priests.

Many of the Fijian converts connected with the
Wesleyan Mission have gone as Christian evangelists to
New Guinea, New Britain, and the Solomon Islands.

Indians in Fiji. — The rapid increase of Indian coolies
in Fiji, combined with the steady decrease in the native
population, threatens to result in re-establishing heathenism
in these islands. The Indians number over 40,000, and
increase year by year. The immorality and drunkenness
which in many instances prevail among these coolies render
it most difficult to prosecute successful missionary work on
their behalf. In 1897 the Wesleyans made a first attempt
to work amongst the Indians in Suva, and the Methodist
Missionary Society of Australasia now supports three
missionaries amongst them. In 1902 the Eev. H. Lateward,
who had worked for many years in India in connection
with the S.P.G., began work amongst the Indians at Labasa.
In 1908 an Anglican bishop was appointed to superintend
work amongst the English settlers in Polynesia and to
develop the mission to the Indian coolies in Fiji. This
mission is supported by the S.P.G., and work is carried on
at Labasa and Suva.

The E.C. Church reaches some of the Indians who
have settled in Fiji through its schools.

The Tokelmi or Union Islands, which lie north-west of
Samoa, were evangelized by L.M.S. missionaries. They
include the islands of Fakaafo, Nukunono, and Atafu.

MELANESIA.

Melanesia, which lies to the west of Polynesia and
south and west of Micronesia, includes about 250 islands,

454 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

of which the largest are in the Bismarck Archipelago and
in the Solomon group. The population is reckoned at
475,000, of whom 141,000 are Christians. Of these
latter ahout 30,000 are Roman Catholics.

The Anglican Melanesian Mission has as its sphere of
work the western islands of the South Pacific from the
northern New Hebrides to the Solomon Islands inclusive.

Bishop Selwyn of New Zealand, having visited in 1848
the islands which now form the diocese of Melanesia,
decided to open a training school at Auckland, N.Z., and
to bring to it boys from the various islands which he
desired to evangelize, who after being taught the Christian
faith might go back to their homes as evangelists and
teachers. The method inaugurated by Selwyn has been
followed by the mission ever since. The first five native
scholars reached Auckland in 1849, and their number
rapidly increased. By 1852 the bishop had visited fifty
islands and had collected forty scholars who spoke ten
different languages. The island of Mai in the New
Hebrides sent its chief as one of the scholars. The
school was for some years held at Auckland during
the summer and at one of the Melanesian islands during
the winter. In 1861 John Coleridge Patteson, a Fellow
of Merton College, Oxford, who had joined the mission in
1855, was consecrated as Bishop of Melanesia. In 1867
the school and the centre of the mission were transferred
to Norfolk Island, its situation rendering it possible to
maintain the school throughout the whole year. In 1868
George Sarawia was ordained as the first native deacon
and stationed on Mota Island. In 1871 the mission
suffered a serious loss by the murder of Bishop Patteson
at Nukapu Island, cne of the Santa Cruz group. The
bishop had visited the island before and had been well
received, but previous to his last visit a " labour ship "
had visited the island and had apparently carried off
forcibly five of the inhabitants. When the bishop landed
he was murdered and several islanders who accompanied
him were wounded in revenge for the wrong which had

ISLES OF THE PACIFIC 455

been clone by the " labour ship." When his body was
recovered, a palm frond with five knots tied in its foliage
lay across the breast.1

On the reception of the news in England, great
enthusiasm on behalf of the mission was called forth. The
mission was referred to in the Queen's Speech at the open-
ing of Parliament in 1872. Max Mliller, writing to the
Times, said : " To have known such a man is one of life's
greatest blessings " ; the name of Patteson will "live in

O O *

every cottage, in every school and church in Melanesia,
not as the name of a fabulous saint or martyr, but as the
never-to-be-forgotten name of a good, brave, God-fearing,
and God-loving man. His bones will not work childish
miracles, but his spirit will work signs and wonders by
revealing even among the lowest of Melanesian savages the
indelible God-like stamp of human nature, and by up-
holding among future generations a true faith in God,
founded on a true faith in man."

Amongst other qualifications which Bishop Patteson
possessed was a marvellous capacity for learning the
Melanesian dialects. He was credited with being able to
speak forty. The multiplicity of these dialects adds greatly
to the difficulties with which the missionaries working in
these islands are confronted.

The S.P.G. issued an appeal for a memorial to Bishop
Patteson which should endow the bishopric, build a church
at Norfolk Island, and provide a new mission ship, in
response to which more than £6000 was subscribed.

In 1877 John Selwyn, a son of the first Bishop of
New Zealand, was consecrated as successor to Patteson.
In 1880 Bishop Selwyn was able to visit Santa Cruz, and
eventually mission work was established at Nukapu. In
consequence of ill-health, brought on by his arduous work,
he was compelled to resign in 1890.

In 1895, when Bishop Montgomery (then Bishop of
Tasmania) visited the mission, there were 1 2 European and

1 This palm frond is now preserved in the chapel of the S.P.G. Mission
House.

456 HISTORY OP CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

9 native clergy, 8929 baptized Christians, 12,183 scholars,
122 schools, and 381 teachers.

In 1912 one of the European missionaries, the Eev.
C. C. Godclen, was murdered by a native at Opa in the
New Hebrides.

In addition to the school on Norfolk Island the
Melanesian Mission has opened a training centre in the
Solomon Islands. It is endeavouring to place a resident
missionary on each of the islands within its sphere of
influence.

The three islands in the Northern Hebrides which are
under the charge of the mission have in them 2286
baptized Christians and about 1000 more in the schools.
In the Banks Islands, where there are but few heathen left,
there are 3135 baptized and 600 hearers. The last of
the four Torres Islands has lately accepted Christianity.
In these islands there are 470 baptized and 100 hearers.
In Santa Cruz and the Eeef Islands there are only 106
baptized and 106 hearers. In the Solomon Islands great
progress has been made, and there are 8415 baptized and
3000 hearers.

The present staff of the mission includes 20 European
and 16 local clergy, 6 laymen and 12 women missionaries.
There are 350 schools and 760 teachers.

The population of English-speaking people in the
islands which are included in the diocese is about 700,
and the islanders number about 300,000.

We have so far only referred to the work of the
Anglican Mission to Melanesia, but the work done by other
missions has been at least equally productive of results.
In 1839 John Williams, the well-known L.M.S. missionary,
to whose work we have already referred, landed in
Erromanga in the New Hebrides, but he and his companion
were almost immediately murdered. For many years the
task of evangelizing these islands proved exceptionally
difficult, and up to 1856 over 50 missionaries white or
coloured had died or had been murdered by their in-
habitants. In 1848 a Presbyterian missionary, the

ISLES OF THE PACIFIC 457

Kev. J. Geddie, succeeded in starting work at Aneityum,
and within ten years this island had not only become
Christian but had begun to send out native evangelists to
other islands farther to the north. In 1858 the Eev.
J. G. Paton of the United Presbyterian Mission started
work at Tanna, from which he shortly afterwards moved
to Aniwa, which he lived to see completely evangelized.

His name is connected with some of the noblest and
most heroic work that has been accomplished in the
South Seas, and the record of his life's work has been
an inspiration to many. In 1906 he wrote :

"As the results of the missionary work in the New
Hebrides our dear Lord has given our missionaries about
20,000 converts, and the blessed work is extending among
the other cannibals. ... In one year 1120 savages re-
nounced idolatry and embraced the worship and service of
Christ. . . . We never baptize and teach afterward, but
educate and wait till they give real evidence of consecration
to Jesus Christ, and then, at their desire, baptize and
continue teaching them to observe in their life and conduct
all things Jesus has commanded. . . . All of the converts
attend church regularly. They contributed last year over
£1300 in money and arrowroot, and a number of the islands
now support their own native teachers." l

In addition to the islands in the New Hebrides to
which we have already referred, Erromanga, Efatc Nguna,
and Tongoa have now become entirely Christian, while
Futuna, Epi, and Paama are fast becoming Christian.
In Tanna, Ambrim, Malekula, and Santo the majority of
the inhabitants are still heathen.

A Eoman Catholic mission was begun in the French
New Hebrides in 1887, and a bishop resides at Port-Vil;i.
The staff of the mission consists of 26 priests and 3 lay
brothers of the Lyons Society of Mary. The number of
converts is about 1000.

The Solomon Islands include several islands of consider-
able size, namely, Malaita, Guadalcanar, San Cristoval,
1 The Pacific Islanders, p. 138 f.

458 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Bougainville, and Bugotu. The first attempt to evangelize
their inhabitants, who were notorious " head-hunters," was
made by K.C. missionaries belonging to the Society of Mary.

In 1845 eighteen missionaries under Bishop Epalle
tried to evangelize the Solomon group. On December 12,
the bishop, three priests, and some sailors landed on
Ysabel, but were suddenly attacked. The bishop was
killed and one priest and one seaman were dangerously
wounded. Soon afterwards three priests were killed and
eaten in San Cristoval, and the work was eventually
abandoned. It was resumed in 1898, when three priests
landed at Eua Sura, near Guadalcanal*. There are now
17 priests and 10 sisters at work in the Solomon group.

Later on the Solomon Islands became one of the chief
spheres of work of the Anglican Melanesian Mission. The
proposed transfer of the centre of this mission from Norfolk
Island to the Solomon group should do much to strengthen
and develop its work. The Methodist Missionary
Society has had work in the island of New Georgia since
1902, and the South Sea Evangelical Mission, which is
chiefly supported by the " Brethren," has work amongst
the Kanakas who have been repatriated from Australia.
Comparatively little work, however, has been done in
the Solomon group, and of the total population of about
180,000 only 10,000 have as yet been influenced
by Christian missionaries. In Mala, the most populous
island, the majority of the inhabitants are still cannibals.
Guadalcanal and San Cristoval are also heathen. Bugotu
is mainly Christian and Gela is at least nominally Christian.
Many of the Kanaka labourers who had been evangelized
whilst working in Queensland have helped to spread the
Christian faith in the islands to which they have returned.

MICRONESIA.

The principal groups of islands which are included in
Micronesia are the Gilbert, Ellice, Marshall, Caroline, and
Ladronc or Marianne Islands. The first two groups are

ISLES OF THE PACIFIC 459

British and the last three were German prior to 1914.
Guam, in the last group, belongs to the U.S.A.

The Protestant missions throughout Micronesia are
carried on by the A.B.C.F.M. at 67 stations. This society
employs 25 American and 200 native missionaries.
There are altogether about 20,000 professed Christians,
rather less than half being communicants. The L.M.S.
has a station in the Ellice Islands.

The E.G. missions are carried on by the Order of the
Sacred Heart.

Of the 30,000 Christians in Micronesia about 18,000
are Protestants and 12,000 Eoman Catholics.

Since 1852 missionary work has been carried on
throughout a great part of Micronesia (with the exception
of the Ladrones) by the Hawaiian Evangelical Association,
which is under the superintendence of the American
Board. The work is mainly conducted by local teachers,
of whom about 30 are ordained. They are superintended
by 9 American missionaries.

The Gilbert Islands, which lie across the Equator, contain
a population of 25,000. The islands north of the Equator
were evangelized by the A.B.C.F.M., the first of whose mission-
aries began work in 1857. Christianity was first preached
in the Ellice Islands, which lie to the south of the Gilbert
Islands, by a native, Elikana, in the employ of the L.M.S.,
who, after drifting in a canoe for eight weeks a distance of
1800 miles from the Cook Islands, landed with four others
at Nukulaelae. He was kindly received by the inhabitants,
to whom he preached the Christian faith with great success.

All the islands in these two groups have now been
evangelized. On Ocean Island the A.B.C.F.M. has started
a training school for native teachers. The Marshall
Islands include 24 lagoon islands, of which the most
important are Ebon and Joint, and have a population of
about 15,000. The centre from which the missionary
work in the Gilbert and Marshall Islands is superintended
is Kusaie in the Carolines.

The Caroline Islands number about 500 and contain a

460 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

population of about 140,000. They were annexed by Spain
in 1686, but practically abandoned by her until 188 5, when
Protestant missionary work had been established in them.
The first Protestant missionaries sent by the A.B.C.F.M.
arrived in 1852. A large amount of good work had been
accomplished in Kusaie, Ponape, and other islands, but on the
arrival of the representatives of the Spanish Government
the mission schools were closed, the church services were dis-
continued, and the people were encouraged to manufacture
intoxicating drinks. In 1890 the mission buildings were
destroyed and the missionaries were banished. In 1900,
when the islands were ceded to Germany, the Protestant
missionaries were allowed to return, and since then the work
has made good progress.

In the Ladrone Islands, which contain a population of
about 2000, the only missions are those of the K.C.
Church, except in the island of Guam.

In 1668 the Queen Regent of Spain sent missionaries
to evangelize the Ladrones. The seven missionaries who
reached Guam in 1669 " taught and baptized 6000 persons
during the first year." Their leader was killed after three
years for baptizing the chief's child without his consent.
The Ladrone Islands eventually became nominally Christian,
but the conversion of its peoples was of a superficial
character, and many heathen superstitions survived. More-
over, the acceptance of Christianity failed to effect any
great improvement in the moral character of the people.
On June 24, 1908, the U.S.A. took possession of Guam, and
in 1900 missionaries sent by the A.B.C.F.M. arrived. The
work which they have initiated has already met with
considerable success, and although it has been bitterly
opposed by the representatives of the E.G. Church, it has
reacted beneficially upon the E.G. Mission. More instruc-
tion is now being given to the people by the E.G. mission-
aries and a higher standard of conduct is being inculcated.
The population of Guam is about 10,000, of whom 7000
live in the capital, Agana. A large number of the
inhabitants are of mixed Spanish descent.

ISLES OF THE PACIFIC 40 1

New Caledonia, which is the largest island in the
South Seas, with the exception of New Guinea, has for
many years been used by the French as a convict settle-
ment. Its population includes 16,000 aboriginal in-
habitants and about 3000 Japanese. The French E.G.
Mission is under the charge of the Marist Fathers. There
are 48 missionary priests who minister to 11,500 non-
European Catholics.

There are also a French Protestant mission and a small
Baptist mission.

The Bismarck Archipelago, which lies to the east of
New Guinea, became a German protectorate in 1884.
The largest island in the archipelago is New Britain
(re-named by the Germans New Pomerania), which has a
population of about 190,000, of whom about 500 are
Europeans. Since 1875 the Australian Wesleyans have
carried on missions, chiefly staffed by evangelists from
Fiji and Tonga, in the islands of New Pomerania, New
Lauenburg, and New Mecklenburg. The pioneer of the
mission was Dr. George Brown, who, with his baud of
Christians, landed on the Duke of York Island, which
was inhabited by cannibals. Three of the Fiji Christians
were killed and eaten, but their places were immediately
filled by eager volunteers. After less than forty years'
work the mission was able to report 189 churches,
200 catechists and teachers, 3600 full members, and
21,000 adherents or hearers. The Christians, who are
extremely poor, contribute nearly £2000 per annum
towards the support of the mission work. At the George
Brown College at Ulu 80 students are being trained
to become preachers or teachers. In the mission schools
instruction is also given in various forms of industrial
work.

A E.G. mission was started in 1889 and entrusted to
the missionaries of the Sacred Heart of Issoudun. There
are 28 missionaries, 40 brothers, 27 sisters, and about
15,000 Roman Catholics.

Of the total population of the archipelago, about

462

HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

210,000, only 40,000 are at present reached by the
Wesleyan and E.G. missions.

E.G. Missions. — The following table shows the number
of E.G. dioceses or bishoprics in the South Seas : —

Year.

Priests.

Christians.

Marianne and Caroline Islands

1886

16

4,730

Guam ....

1911

6

12,000

New Pomerania .

1889

37

20,417

North Soloinan Islands

1898

12

480

South Solomon Islands

1897

16

3,000

New Hebrides

1901

26

1,500

New Caledonia

1847

57

10,783

Marshall Islands .

1905

6

730

Gilbert Islands

1897

23

14,037

Fiji ...

1863

33

12,000

Oceania, Central .

1842

28 1

9,940

Samoa ...

1851

24 1

7,854

Sandwich Islands

1848

37

15,000

Marquesas Islands

1848

9

2,488

Tahiti ...

1833

30

5,800

Including four native priests.

NEW GUINEA.

New Guinea, or Papua, as. it is now commonly called,
was discovered by the Dutch in the fourteenth century.
In 1848 they took possession of its western half. In
1884 the eastern part was divided between Great Britain
and Germany, and in 1906 the British portion was
transferred to the Commonwealth of Australia.

In British New Guinea missionary work was begun
by the L.M.S. in 1871. In the first instance, native
Christians who had volunteered for this hazardous enter-
prise from Lifu, Samoa, Niue, and Earatonga were stationed
at selected points.

The heroic deeds done by the native Christians would
take long to recount. When an invitation was given to
the Christians in Lifu to take part in the mission, every
student in the missionary college and every teacher in

ISLES OF THE PACIFIC 40 3

the island volunteered. During the first twenty years
of the mission 120 Polynesian teachers died of fever, or
were poisoned, or murdered. It would be hard to find a
parallel to their self-sacrifice in the whole history of
Christian missions.

In 1874 the Rev. W. G. Lawes, the pioneer of the
L.M.S. Mission, settled at Port Moresby, where he was
joined by the Eev. James Chalmers in 1877. Chalmers, or
" Tamate," as the islanders called him, had already worked
for ten years on Raratonga Island before coming to New
Guinea. Here he acted as a pioneer and organizer, and
soon gained a marvellous influence over the fiercest and
least approachable of the local tribes. "No white man
had ever had a more wide and varied knowledge of the
mainland of New Guinea, or visited more tribes, or made
more friends, or endured more hardships, or faced more
perils." :

On April 7, 1901, he landed at the Aird River with
a colleague, the Rev. Oliver Tomkius, and twelve students,
when the whole party were killed and eaten by the in-
habitants. R. L. Stevenson had written to Chalmers'
mother : " I shall meet Tamate once more before he
disappears up the Fly River, perhaps to be one of the
unreturned brave : he is a man nobody can see and not
love. He has plenty of faults like the rest of us, but he
is as big as a church."

In 1881 the first converts of the L.M.S. Mission were
baptized, and since then steady progress has been main-
tained. The sphere of the L.M.S. Mission is the south
coast of British New Guinea. There are 15 English
missionaries and 148 local preachers, 1355 church
members, and about 7000 adherents. At Kwato a suc-
cessful industrial mission has been established.

An Anglican mission was established on the north
coast in 1881, the pioneer missionaries being the Rev.
A. A. Maclaren and the Rev. Copland King. The first

1 "James Chalmers, the ' Greatheart ' of New Guinea," by George
RobsoB, The Pacific Islanders, p. 292.

464 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

station occupied was at Dogura in Bartle Bay. In 1891
Maclaren died, worn out by his hard and unremitting
labours. A bishop was appointed in 1897, and the work
has since steadily expanded. There are 22 European
missionaries and 29 Papuan teachers, 650 persons have
been baptized, and there are about 5000 hearers or
adherents. Two Papuans have been ordained.

A Wesleyan mission was commenced in 1881 on the
islands off the south-east coast, the first island to be
occupied being Dobu. Several of the missionaries had
already had experience of missionary work in Polynesia.
The work has made steady progress, and there are now
6 missionaries, 7 lay missionaries, 74 Papuan preachers,
909 church members, and 22,000 attendants at public
worship.

A E.G. mission was begun in New Guinea in
1889, when a Vicar Apostolic was appointed. He was
assisted by priests, brothers, and sisters belonging to the
Order of the Sacred Heart of Issoudun. In British New
Guinea there are 26 missionaries, 21 brothers, 38 sisters,
and 1500 Catholics.

In German New Guinea a mission which was started
by the Lutheran Church in 1880 has a staff of 18 clergy
and one medical missionary. It reports 850 members
and 300 scholars in its nine schools.

In Dutch New Guinea, the E.G. Mission, which was
started in 1889, became a separate vicariate in 1902. Its
staff consists of 20 Fathers and 15 lay brothers belonging
to the Order of the Sacred Heart, and 10 sisters belonging
to Our Lady of the Sacred Heart. The Eoman Catholics
number about 3500.

Some Dutch Protestant ministers have endeavoured to
evangelize the inhabitants at three or four places on the
coast.

XXL

MISSIONS TO MOSLEMS.

REFERENCE has already been made to the missions to
Moslems which are being carried on in different parts of
the mission field, but it may be well to add a few notes
dealing with these missions as a whole.

Distribution of the Moslem population.

According to the latest estimates made by Dr. S. M.
Zwemer and Professor D. Westermann, the total population
of the Moslem world is about 200,000,000, and is distri-
buted as follows :

In Europe there are 2,373,676, most of whom are to
be found in Turkey, Austria-Hungary, and the Balkan
States.

In the Russian Empire there are about 20,000.

In South America there are 159,511, principally in
Brazil, British and Dutch Guiana, and Trinidad.

In Africa there are 42,000,000. About half of these
are north of the twentieth parallel of latitude, but Islam
is encroaching upon the pagan tribes, and in South Africa
has already 53,000 adherents.

In Asia the following countries are wholly Moham-
medan : Arabia, Persia, Afghanistan, Bokhara, Khiva,
Baluchistan.

The number in China is uncertain, and is somewhere
between 5,000,000 and 8,500,000.

In India there are 66,577,247; in Malaysia,
35,308,996.
30

466 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

In Australia there are 19,500 ; and in the Philippine
Islands, 277,547.

Of the total Moslem population over 167,000,000
were under Christian rule at the outbreak of the
European War. The estimated total (200,000,000) is
nearly 30,000,000 less than that given at the Cairo Con-
ference, and is 100,000,000 less than that given by the
Moslem press of Cairo, but it is based for the most part
on official government statistics, and is a more accurate
estimate than either of the latter.1

Early missionaries to Moslems.

John Damascene (d. 754), who held office under the
Caliph of Damascus, wrote a book entitled The Superstition
of the Ishmaelitcs. Al Kindi wrote (circ. 830) an Apology
for Christianity, which has often been translated and circu-
lated by Christian missionaries. Petrus Yeuerabilis, a
Benedictine abbot of Clugny (d. 1157), translated the
Koran and pleaded for a translation of the Bible into
Arabic. He condemned the Crusades, and wrote : " I come
to win the Moslem, not as people oft do with arms, but
with words ; not by force, but by reason ; not in hatred,
but in love."2 St. Francis d'Assisi (d. 1226) sailed to
Egypt in 1219 and endeavoured to preach the Gospel to
the Sultan, El Kamil, but with no apparent success.
Eaymoud Lull, who was born in Majorca in 1235, was
inspired by the example of Francis d'Assisi to become a
missionary to Moslems. For many years he laboured in
vain to persuade the representatives of the Church, the
Pope included, that the policy of the Crusades was anti-
Christian, and to interest them in schemes for developing
missions to Moslems. Having purchased a Moslem slave,
he studied Arabic with his assistance for nine years. He
afterwards preached for two years in Tunis, where he was
imprisoned, sentenced to death, and finally banished.

1 See The Moslem World, April 1914.

• See The Reproach of Islam, by W. H. T. Gairdner, p. 224.

MISSIONS TO MOSLEMS 467

Later on he spent a year and a half at Bugia in Algeria,
where he made several converts. Here he was again
imprisoned, and eventually deported to Italy. Returning
again to Bugia when eighty years of age, he encouraged
his converts for a year, but was eventually stoned to death
by a mob in 1315. l

We have already referred to the attempt made by
Ignatius Loyola to preach to Moslems in Jerusalem (p. 69),
and to the work of Geronimo Xavier at the court of Akbar
in North India at the beginning of the seventeenth
century (p. 77).

Modern Missions to Moslems.

Early in the nineteenth century Henry Martyn en-
deavoured to preach to Moslems in India and in Persia
(p. 84). His work in Persia was eventually taken up and
continued by Pfander and others (p. 273).

References to the missions to Moslems which are being
carried on in Persia, Asia Minor, North, East, and West
Africa, India, Arabia, and Malaysia will be found under
these several countries. Judged by visible results, the
missions in Java and Sumatra, where there are now over
40,000 converts from Islam, have been the most successful.
The most important mission from a strategic standpoint is
perhaps the C.M.S. mission at Cairo. The missionaries
here are brought into touch with Moslem students, who
come from many lands to attend the great Al Azhar
University. " There," writes Mr. Gairdner, " you see black
Sudanese from Hausaland or the Gambia river, browny-
yellow skinned Maghrabis from Morocco, fair piuk-and-
white Turks from Stamboul, almond-eyed Mongoloids from
far Russian Siberia and Turkestan, and many more. In the
memory of living men no Christian could do so much as
enter that place ; now they enter unmolested. Students

1 For a sketch of his life and writings see Raymond Lull, First Missionanj
to the Moslems, by S. M. Zwemer, 1902, and Raymond Lull, the Illuminated
Doctor, by W. T. Barber, 1903.

468 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

and ex-students have been converted to Christ, and not a
few students have, as they paced or sat apart, studied there,
not the Koran, but the Injil Yasu' al Masih." l

The American United Presbyterian Mission has for
some time past been trying to promote the establishment
of a Christian university in Cairo, the establishment of
which would be a great boon to the Christian community
in Egypt and eventually to the cause of missions.

An American professor who has made a special study
of the religion of the Egyptian dervishes has maintained
that Sufi mysticism, by which many of them have been
deeply influenced, " has come to be really the ultimate, the
final basis for all thoughtful religion in Islam." 2 Even if
this statement be correct, it does not indicate that the
task of the Christian missionary is likely on this account
to become less arduous than it has been in the past.

It has, indeed, been suggested that inasmuch as love
occupies the central place in Sufi mysticism, this form of
Mohammedan teaching may eventually serve as a bridge
between Islam and Christianity. This might be the case
were it not for the pantheistic tendencies of Sufi mysticism.
The Sufi mystic seeks God within himself and finds Him
everywhere, and God ceases to be a personality. Although
he acknowledges an obligation to love his neighbour
because God is present in him, he loves himself because he,
too, is part of the divine being. The most unsatisfactory
outcome of the teaching of Sufi mysticism is that the
mystic regards himself as not only above all ceremonial but
above all moral law. It is obvious, therefore, that although
in individual cases the constant contemplation of the love
of God may help to render intelligible the doctrine of the
love of God revealed in Christ, it is not likely that the
spread of Sufi doctrines, whether in Egypt or India, will
pave the way for the spread of Christian missions.

In view of the close connection between politics and
religion which exists in the minds of Moslems, the loss of

1 The Reproach of Islam, p. 268 f.

3 Aspects of Islam, by D. B. Macdonald, 1911, p. 149.

MISSIONS TO MOSLEMS 409

political power by Moslem rulers which has recently
occurred is likely to have a profound influence upon the
prestige of Islam. The French occupation of Morocco,
the Italian conquest of Tripoli, the Anglo-Eussian agree-
ment in regard to Persia, the defeat of Turkey by the
Balkan States, and, lastly, its suicidal participation in the
European War, followed by the dethronement of the Khe-
dive, constitute a series of events without parallel in the
history of Islam. The Amir of Afghanistan is now the
only really independent Moslem ruler in the world, and
the population over which he rules is probably less than
5,000,000.

During the greater part of the time which has elapsed
since the establishment of modern Christian missions,
India and the Dutch East Indies have been practically
the only countries in which it has been possible for a
Moslem to acknowledge himself a Christian without facing

o o

the almost certain prospect of being murdered. Even in
India the converts from Islam have, as a general rule, had
to submit to the loss of all their property and of their
wives and children. The mere fact, therefore, that it is
not possible to point to the conversion of large numbers of
Moslems affords no argument that the contest between
Christianity and Islam has been decided and that Chris-
tianity has sustained a defeat. We should have much
less respect for the Mohammedan faith than we now have
if, with the slight knowledge of Christianity which most
of its adherents at present possess, any number of them
were prepared to forsake their ancestral faith in order to
embrace its rival. That which is calculated to create
surprise is the measure of success which Christian mission-
aries have attained in India, and the encouraging prospect
which is opened before them both there and elsewhere.

Referring to the prospects of Moslem missions in
India, Dr. Wherry writes :

" The accessions from Islam, especially in Northern
India, have been continuous during all the years since the
death of Henry Martyn. One here and another there has

470 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

been added to the Christian Church, so that now, as one
looks over the rolls of Church membership, he is surprised
to find so many converts from Islam, or the children and
children's children of such converts. In the North, especially
in the Punjab and the North-West Province, every congre-
gation has a representative from the Moslem ranks. Some
of the Churches have a majority of their membership
gathered from amongst the Mussulmans. In a few cases
there has been something like a movement towards Chris-
tianity, and a considerable number have come out at one
time. But perhaps the fact which tells most clearly the story
of the advance of Christianity among Moslems in India, is
this, that among the native pastors and Christian preachers
and teachers in North India there are at least two hundred
who were once followers of Islam." l

From the returns of the last Indian census it appears
that the increase in the Mohammedan population through-
out the Indian Empire during the decade 1901—11 did
not quite keep pace with the ordinary increase of the
whole population.

Dr. Imad-ud-din, in the course of a paper sent to be
read at the religious conference held at Chicago, wrote :
" There was a time when the conversion of a Mohammedan
to Christianity was looked on as a wonder. Now they
have come and are corning in their thousands." At the
end of his paper he appended a list of 1 1 7 converts from
Islam to Christianity who at that time were occupying
influential positions in the State or in the Church in India. 2

The prospect of commending the Christian faith to
Moslems was never so bright as it is at the present time.
Dr. Zweiner, one of the best known missionaries to
Moslems, who is in touch with work amongst them in all
parts of the world, recently wrote :

" Without in any way underestimating the new anti-
Christian attitude of some educated Moslems and the pan-

1 India and Christianity in India and the Far East, by E. M. Wherry,
p. 145 f.

2 A reprint of this paper and of its appendix is given in the C.M.S.
Intelligencer for August 1893. The author himself belonged to one of the
most illustrious Mohammedan families in the world.

MISSIONS TO MOSLEMS 471

Islamic efforts of others to oppose Christian missions by
every modern method of attack or defence, it yet remains
true that the whole situation is hopeful to the last degree.
The light is breaking everywhere. There never was so
much friendliness, such willingness to discuss the question
at issue, such a large attendance of Moslems at Christian
schools, hospitals, public meetings, and even preaching
services as there is to-day. . . . What is true of Egypt is
true, mutatis mutandis, of Turkey, Persia, India, Algeria,
and Java, as abundant testimony and recent missionary
correspondence could show. And what does it all mean ?
It means that we should press forward with all our might
plans for the immediate evangelization of these educated
classes. They are adrift, and the Gospel alone can give
them new anchorage. . . . They have lost faith in the old
Islam and reach out to new ideals in ethics. Who can
satisfy them but Christ ? This is the missionary's supreme
opportunity. If we can win the leaders of Moslem thought
now, ' reformed Islam will be Islam no longer,' but an open
door into Christianity." l

In support of the above statement, we may note that
during the year preceding the outbreak of the European
War, the increase in the number of Moslems attending
American missionary colleges was 20 per cent, and of
those attending high schools 40 per cent.

If it be true, as Dr. Zwerner asserts, that the religious
influence of Mohammedanism is on the decline, the inference
is obvious. The declining power of Islam involves the
increasing responsibility of Christendom. God forbid that
any one should regard with satisfaction the waning power
of Islam as a religious factor in the world, or should do
anything to weaken the faith of a single Moslem in his
Prophet, who is not himself prepared to offer him what he
believes to be a truer faith in its place. The task of con-
verting the Mohammedan world to Christ is indeed a hard
task but it is not an impossible one. Eight centuries have
passed since Pope Urban II. stood in the market-place at
Clermont and explained to the vast assemblage there
collected the proposal which was then under consideration

1 See International Review of Missions, October 1914.

472 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

for attempting to crush by force of arms the Mohammedan
power of the East. As those present listened to his im-
passioned appeal and to his demand to sacrifice, if need be,
their lives in the campaign to which he invited them, the
whole assemblage exclaimed with one voice, " It is the will
of God." " It is indeed the will of God," said the Pope ;
" take, then, this word as your battle-cry, and go forth to
victory in the name of Christ." To those who have ears
to hear, a call comes not unsimilar to that which shook
Christendom eight centuries ago, but it is a call to a nobler
and more difficult crusade than any which the Middle
Ages conceived, to one, too, which requires no less courage
and no less perseverance than those which the Crusaders
displayed, but in the prosecution of which we too may take
as our watchword with unfailing confidence, " It is the will
of God."

In responding to this call and in trying to preach the
Gospel to Moslems and to explain the half truths of Islam
in the light of the Christian revelation, we may claim to be
following in the steps of their own Prophet and to be acting
in accordance with the spirit by which, at any rate, the
earlier part of his life was inspired. Voiced by the un-
conscious needs of the Moslem world comes to the Christian
Church the appeal to impart to it the knowledge of the
Christian faith, whicli Mohammed himself never possessed,
but which, had he possessed it, he would have spent his life
in proclaiming.

XXII.

MISSIONS TO THE JEWS.

THE Jewish population of the world is approximately
12,000,000. Of these over 9,000,000 live in Europe
(5,000,000 in Eussia, 250,000 in Great Britain) and
2,211,000 in America. Palestine contains 100,000, New
York City 1,000,000, London 140,000, Berlin 100,000,
Chicago 185,000. There are a certain number of Jews
who are Jews by faith but not by race. The Beni-Israel
who settled in India in the first century A.D. gained a
number of converts the descendants of whom are the
"Black Jews" of Cochin. There are 3000 Karaite Jews
in the Crimea who are of Tartar origin and a number of
negro Jews at Loango in West Africa.

It has often been asserted that no missionary work
has been less fruitful in result than that which has been
carried on amongst the Jews. This statement is not,
however, supported by statistics. Dr. E. Stock writes :

" Eelatively to the numbers of the Jewish race the con-
verts are as numerous as those from the heathen and much
more than those from the Mohammedans. It is estimated
that quite 250 Anglican clergymen are converted Jews
or the sons of converted Jews. The London Jews Society
alone has 93 on its missionary staff. . . . Professor Delitzsch
estimated that 100,000 Jews had been baptized in the first
three-quarters of the nineteenth century, and Dr. Dalman of
Leipsic has remarked that 'if all the Jews who have
embraced Christianity had remained a distinct people,
instead of being absorbed by the nations among whom they

473

474 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

dwelt, their descendants would now be counted by
millions.' " l

The chief British societies working amongst Jews are
the London Society for promoting Christianity among the
Jews (1809), which supports work in Great Britain,
the continent of Europe, North Africa, Turkey, Syria,
Palestine, and Persia ; the Parochial Mission to the Jews
(18 7 5) and the Barbican Mission, working in East London;
the Mildmay Mission to the Jews (1876), which works in
London and abroad ; and the Jerusalem and the East Mission
Fund (1890), which helps to support the work which is
superintended by the Anglican Bishop in Jerusalem. The
above are connected with the Anglican Church. The
British Society for the Propagation of the Gospel among the
Jews (1842) is undenominational. There are also four
societies supported by English, Scotch, and Irish Presby-
terians, besides a number of very small societies. Some of
the most fruitful work which is being done amongst Jews
in England is that carried on as part of the ordinary
parochial machinery of the many parishes in East London
which contain a large Jewish population. In the parish
of Spitalfields, for example, which contains a population of
19,000, 14,000 are Jews. In this parish and in a
number of other parishes which contain a similar pro-
portion of Jews, the " East London Fund for the Jews "
supports assistant curates, lay workers, both men and
women, and nurses, many of whom are converted Jews.
Although the number of conversions is small, the agents
employed in these parishes can point to a change of
attitude towards Christianity and a willingness to read the
New Testament and to attempts to practise its teaching
which afford solid grounds for encouragement. In the
U.S.A. and Canada there are 44 societies, but these only
support 51 stations between them. There are 16 small
continental societies. The total number of missionaries
supported by 95 societies throughout the world are about
500 men and .350 women.

1 A Short Handbook of Missions, p. ].r>f>.

MISSIONS TO THE JEWS 475

The work accomplished cannot be gauged by statistics.
Very many Jews on the continent of Europe become con-
vinced of the truth of Christianity after studying the New
Testament or as the result of personal intercourse with
Christian missionaries, but are not baptized until they have
left their neighbourhood or country. Thus in six years
(1895—1901) 582 Jews were baptized in various American
churches who stated that they had been brought to believe
in Christ as their Saviour as the result of their intercourse
with Christian missionaries in Europe.

Missionary work amongst the Jews is in urgent need
of expansion. In Eussia and other countries there are
millions of Jews for whom nothing has been done by
Christian missionaries.

Amongst the number of Christian Jews whose names
have become more or less famous, we may notice Neauder,
the German theologian and historian (his original name
was Mende, but on the occasion of his baptism he adopted
the name Neander, i.e. new man) ; Dr. Edersheim, the
author of the Life and Times of the Messiah ; Bishop
Schereschewsky, Bishop of Shanghai, a great missionary
and translator of the Bible into Chinese ; Hellmuth,
Bishop of Huron ; Alexander, Bishop in Jerusalem (1841-
45) ; Eelix Mendelssohn ; Sir William Herschel, the
astronomer; Sir Francis Palgrave, a poet; Benjamin
Disraeli ; Sir Arthur Sullivan.1

How sadly the Christian Church has failed to recognize
its responsibility towards the Jews may be inferred from
the fact that nearly eighteen hundred years were allowed
to pass before the New Testament was translated into their
language. It was first published in Hebrew by the
London Jews Society in 1817.

Baptisms during the Nineteenth Century. — During the
nineteenth century the number of recorded baptisms was
as follows : by the Eussian and Oriental Churches,
74,500 ; by the Eomaii Church, 57,300 ; by the Anglican
Church, 28,830 ; and by other Christian Churches, 72,740.
* See Some Great Christian Jews, by Dr. Jas. Littell, Keene, U.S.A.

476 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

The following figures are quoted in Missions to Jews,1 by
W. T. Gidney. They relate to baptisms in connection
with Anglican or Protestant Churches : Germany, Jewish
population, 560,000 — baptisms, 17,520. Great Britain,
population in 1800, 14,000; in 1900, 250,000 — bap-
tisms, 28,830. Holland, 98,00 0 — baptisms, 1800. France,
72,000 — baptisms, 600. Austria and Hungary,
1,800,000 -- baptisms, about 9000. Russia, baptisms,
4136. North America: the Jewish population increased
from 1000 in 1812 to 2,211,000 at the present time
-baptisms, 12,000.

Converts to the E.G. Church. — In Germany, 5000;
Austria and Hungary, 3 6, 200, apart from children of mixed
marriages; Russia, 12,000; Italy, 300: estimated total
number of converts, 57,300.

Converts to the Greek Church — In Russia, 69,400 ;
Austria and Hungary, 200; Roumania, 1500; Turkey,
3300 : total number of converts received into the Greek
Church, 74,500. Of this total a very large proportion of
the conversions were due to political and social pressure
rather than to any direct religious influences.

The number of conversions which have taken place as a
result of Anglican and Protestant missions is much smaller,
but nearly all have taken place as a result of deep religious
conviction and in most instances the converts have been
exposed to serious persecution at the hands of their fellow-
countrymen. In connection with the work of the L.J.S.
2150 baptisms have taken place in London between 1809
and 1910. Over 700 Jews have been baptized in the L.J.S.
church in Jerusalem. In Persia the rate of conversion
has been steadily increasing : 1 3 baptisms occurred between
1880 and 1889, 31 between 1890 and 1899, 55 between
1900 and 1909. In Teheran 56 were prepared for
baptism in 1910, of whom 12 were actually baptized.
1 Tenth edition, pp. 143-46.

XXIII.

MISSIONARY SOCIETIES.

IN the sketch that has been given of the missionary work
which is being carried on in different countries, attention
has been drawn to the work and organization of the chief
missionary societies. In the present chapter we shall
endeavour to give a list of the largest societies, together
with a few notes relating to their origin and activities.
For a further account of the work of any particular society,
reference must be made to the index under the headings
relating to the various societies.

References to societies whose work is confined to a
particular country, e.g. The China Inland Mission or The
Universities' Mission to Central Africa, will be found in
the chapters dealing with the countries in which they are
at work. An account of the Moravian Missionary Society,
the New England Company, and the early Danish and
Dutch Missions is given in the chapter on the " Dawn of
Modern Missions" (p. 42 ff).

The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign
Parts was founded by Eoyal Charter in 1701 with the
twofold object of ministering to English colonists and of
converting the heathen to the Christian faith (see p. 58).
The following are some of its chief centres of work amongst
non-Christian populations: West Indies (1710), West
Africa (1751), British Guiana (1835), South Africa
(1819), India (1820), Borneo (1848), Burma (1859),
Madagascar (1864), Japan (1873), North China (1880).

There are (1914) 1291 missionaries on the Society's
list, of whom 941 (750 Europeans and 241 natives) are

477

478 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

ordained. Of the ordained missionaries about 300 are
engaged wholly or in part in ministering to Europeans.
Its annual income is about £250,000.

The Church Missionary Society, formerly called The
Society for Missions to Africa and the East, was formed
on April 12, 1799. Its first missionaries were sent to
Eio Pongas in West Africa, the headquarters of this
mission being subsequently moved to Sierra Leone. The
following have been the chief centres of the society's work :
New Zealand (1814), India (1814), Ceylon (1817), Mid-
China (1844), South China (1862), Japan (1869), Persia
(1875), West Africa (1845), Uganda (1876), Palestine
(1851), Egypt (1882), North-West Canada (1822).

Its medical missions are more extensive than those of
any other society. Its staff includes 407 English and
454 other ordained missionaries. Its income is about
£400,000, It has 65 men and 21 women medical
missionaries.

The Baptist Missionary Society, which was founded on
October 2, 1792, was the outcome of appeals made
to his fellow Baptists by William Carey, the converted
Northamptonshire cobbler, who became its first mission-
ary. The twelve ministers who were present at its first
meeting subscribed £13 and drew up its constitution. In
his account of a subsequent meeting called to consider the
question of starting missionary work in India, Andrew
Fuller, its secretary, wrote : " We saw plainly that there
was a gold mine in India, but it was as deep as the centre
of the earth. Who would venture to explore it ? 'I will
go down,' said Carey, ' but you must hold the ropes.' ' The
chief centres of work are in India (1793), Ceylon (1812),
China (1877), the Belgian Congo (1877), and the West
Indies (18 13).

Its staff includes 191 European and 41 other
ordained missionaries. Its annual income is about
£90,000. To this should be added the income of the
Baptist Zenana Society (£18,000).

The London Missionary Society was founded in 1795.

MISSIONARY SOCIETIES 470

Amongst its founders and early supporters were many
Anglican and Presbyterian clergy, but it is now, and has
for a long time been, chiefly supported by members of
Congregational or Independent Churches. One of its
earliest and best known missionaries was the Eev. Eobert
Morrison, who sailed for Canton in January 1807, and was
the inaugurator of modern missions in China. Its first
sphere of work was in the islands of the South Seas (1797).
Its other chief centres of work are in India (1798), South
Africa (1799), Central Africa (1877), Madagascar (1818),
and New Guinea (1871).

Its staff includes 167 European and 966 other
ordained missionaries. Its annual income (1914) is
£121,000.

The Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society was founded
in 1813. As early as 1760, Gilbert, a slave-owner in
Antigua, had formed a Methodist society of West Indian
slaves, which by 1786 had increased to 2000. The Eev.
Thomas Coke, an Anglican clergyman who had joined the
Methodists, organized and carried on missionary work in
the West Indies, and helped to send missionaries to West
Africa for thirty years before the formation of a mission-
ary society. At the age of seventy-six he left England
with 7 missionaries — 3 for Ceylon, 2 for India, 1 for Java,
and 1 for South Africa. He died, and was buried at sea
on June 1, 1814. On October 6, 1813, the missionary
society was organized at Leeds. In 1817 work was begun
in Madras, in 1821 in Mysore, in 1860 in Bengal, in
1822 in New Zealand, and in the Friendly Islands. In
1836 was begun the work in Fiji which, after the conver-
sion of King Thakombau, transformed the whole character
and appearance of these islands (see p. 452). A number
of missions have been originated by this society in different
parts of the world which are now under the direction of
local or colonial Methodist Conferences. In its missions in
India and other countries where Europeans reside, the atten-
tion of its missionaries is divided between the inhabitants
of the country and the European population. The chief

480 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

fields in which the society labours or has laboured are the
West Indies, India (1817), Ceylon (1813), New Zealand
(1818), South Sea Islands (1822), South Africa (1815),
West Africa (1845), China (1852), and America. The
affiliated Women's Auxiliary supports women missionaries
in many of these fields.

The society has 385 British missionaries (not including
wives) and 94 unmarried women workers. The number of
"members "is 129,000, and of baptized adults, 287,000.
Its staff includes 319 European and 336 other ministers.
Its annual income is about £160,000, to which should
be added the income raised by the Women's Auxiliary,
£22,000. It has recently raised a centenary fund of
£250,000.

Amongst other smaller British Societies the following
should be mentioned. (In each case the income given in
brackets is for 1913) : —

Presbyterian Church of England (£43,025), Presbyterian
Church in Ireland (£31,782), Welsh Calvinistic Methodists
(£18,283), Primitive Methodist Missionary Society (£26,610),
United Methodist Church Missionary Society (£13,519),
Friends' Foreign Missionary Association (£33,000), Sudan
United Mission (£12,223), and the North Africa Mission
(£7068).

The total raised by British and Irish Societies in 1913
was £2,046,126. Of this amount, £1,041,543 was
contributed by the Church of England, £834,509 by
the Free Churches, £29,205 by the Church of Scotland,
and £140,869 by the supporters of interdenominational
societies.

In considering the development of missionary work in
recent times, special reference should be made to the help
which has been afforded to nearly all missionary societies
by the Student Volunteer Missionary Union. The British
branch of this Union was founded in 1892, and afterwards
became a department of the Student Christian Movement,
the membership of which consists of about 10,000 students.
The S.V.M.U. is not a missionary society, but aims at

MISSIONARY SOCIETIES 481

creating interest in missions amongst college and university
students. Its members, who sign a declaration, " It is my
purpose, if God permit, to become a foreign missionary," are
encouraged to connect themselves with some existing
society and to go abroad as its representatives.

It is hard to estimate the help which this organization
has afforded in promoting intelligent interest in Christian
missions at home and in recruiting for the work abroad.
The number of members of the British section of the
S.V.M.U. who have already (December 1914) sailed for
work abroad is 2048.

The missionary societies in connection with which they
are working are as follows: Anglican, 487; Wesleyan
Methodist, 367 ; London Missionary Society, 181 ; United
Free Church of Scotland, 174; Baptist, 148; Irish
Presbyterian, 53; Church of Scotland, 55 ; other societies,
583. A recent publication of the Student Christian
Movement states :

" The Movement is seeking to interest in foreign missions
those who intend to work at home, as, e.g., clergy and
ministers, business men, doctors, lawyers, engineers, school-
masters, schoolmistresses, etc. This it does by having
missionary addresses frequently delivered at its conferences
and meetings of the Christian Unions, and also by the
promotion of missionary study. The Movement was the
pioneer of missionary study in Great Britain, being the first
organization to appoint a missionary study secretary and to
publish a missionary study text-book. Its example has now
been followed by most of the larger missionary societies.

" Last year there were over 356 missionary study circles
in the colleges, with a membership of about 2345 students."

Work of a similar character and on a still larger scale
is being carried on by the same movement in America.

Scottish Missionary Societies.

We have already referred (p. 369) to the Confession
of John Knox, in which he declared his belief that the
31

482 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

gospel should be preached throughout the whole world. No
missionary enterprise, however, was attempted for upwards
of a century. In 1647 the Scottish General Assembly
recorded a desire for " a more firm consociation for pro-
pagating it (the Gospel) to those who are without, especially
the Jews," and in 1699 it counselled the ministers who
went with the expedition to Darien to labour among the
heathen. In 1796 the Scottish (afterwards called the
Edinburgh) and the Glasgow Societies were organized.
The former society sent out Peter Greig, a gardener, and a
member of the Secession Church of Donibristle, who was
murdered in the Fulah country in West Africa, and was
perhaps the first Protestant missionary martyr. This society
started missions in India and the West Indies. The Glasgow
Society started a mission in Kaffraria in 1821.

In 1825 the Church of Scotland Foreign Missions
Committee was formed, which in 1829 sent Dr. Duff to
India. In 1835 this Committee took over the mission
in India which had been organized by the Edinburgh
Society. Its chief centres of work are India (1829),
Blantyre (1874), and China (1878). Its annual income
is about £30,000. Its staff includes 32 foreign and 15
other ordained missionaries.

The Foreign Missions Committee of the United Free
Church dates from 1843. At the Disruption, Dr. Duff and
the other missionaries in India became members of the
Free Church. The Disruption movement served to increase
interest in foreign missions to such an extent, that in the
year which followed it the contributions of the members of
the Free Church alone exceeded those of the entire Church
before the Disruption by £3600. The chief centres of work
of this Church at the present time are India, Manchuria
(1873), Calabar (1846), Kaffraria (1821), Livingstonia
(1875), New Hebrides (1876), and West Indies. The
work in the West Indies was taken over from the Edinburgh
Society in 1847, and that in Kaffraria from the Glasgow
Society in the same year. (For an account of the Lovedale
Institution which forms part of this mission, see p. 324.)

MISSIONARY SOCIETIES 483

The annual income of this society is about £125,000.
Its staff includes 117 foreign and 68 other ordained
missionaries.

The Episcopal Church in Scotland supports missions in
Kaffraria, and at Chanda in the diocese of Nagpur, North
Central India. The work in Kaffraria was undertaken at
the instigation of Bishop Cotterill, who was Bishop of
St. John's, Kaffraria, and afterwards became Bishop of
Edinburgh in 1872.

Other Scottish societies include the Edinburgh Medical
Missionary Society (1841), which supports work in India
and Syria, and the Mission to Lepers in India and the East
(1874), which endeavours to support missions in all lands
where leprosy is found.

American Missionary Societies.

Missions supported in America may be said to date
back to 1806, when three students — Mills, Hall, and
Eichards — held the " Haystack prayer-meeting," and re-
solved to form a society the object of which should be " to
effect a mission to the heathen in the person of its
members." 1 Their desire to be sent out as missionaries
led to the formation of the American Board of Com-
missioners for Foreign Missions in 1810, and, later on, to
the American Baptist Missionary Union in 1814.

The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign
Missions (A.B.C.F.M.) was organized in 1810 by the
General Association of Congregational Churches of
Massachusetts. In the following year Judson was sent to
England to confer with the L.M.S. with regard to mutual
co-operation, but this was not found to be feasible. In
1812 its first five missionaries, of whom Judson was one,
sailed for Calcutta. In 1812 the Presbyterians decided to
support the A.B.C.F.M., and in 1826 they entrusted to the
Board their work amongst American Indians. In 1837,
however, they formed a separate organization for work

1 See p. 377.

484 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

amongst the Indians, but in 1870 a Board of Foreign
Missions of the re-united Presbyterian Churches was formed,
and the Board since then has represented Congregationalists
alone.

Its chief centres of work are : The Marathi Mission
(1812), the Mission to Tamils in Ceylon (1813), and
Madura (1834), Micronesia (1852), Asiatic Turkey (1831),
China (1847), Zululand (1835), Portuguese West Africa
(1880), Japan (1869). It also supports a number of
missionaries who work amongst those who are nominally
Christians in South America, Mexico, Spain, and Austria.

Its staff of ordained missionaries includes 165
Americans and 322 others. Its annual income is about
£200,000.

The American Baptist Missionary Union dates from
May 18, 1814, and was founded in order to support
Judson, who had sailed for India as a Congregationalist,
but prior to starting work in Burma had become a Baptist.
It received the general support of Baptists in America
till 1845, when, in consequence of the refusal of the
Northern Baptists to allow the appointment of slave-
owning missionaries, the Southern Baptist Convention
was formed.

Its chief centres of work are Burma (1813). Assam
(1836), the Telugu country (1836), China (1842), Japan
(I860), Congo (1878).

Its annual income is about £220,000, and its staff of
ordained missionaries includes 211 American missionaries.
The society also carries on work amongst Christians in
Europe and in the Philippine Islands.

The Southern Baptist Convention supports work in
China, Africa, and Japan. Its income is about £117,000,
and its staff of ordained missionaries includes 109 Americans
and 112 others.

The missionary organization of the Methodist Episcopal
Church in the United States dates from 1819, but its foreign
work was only started in 1833. In all countries in which
there is a Christian population its work is carried on

MISSIONARY SOCIETIES 485

simultaneously amongst the white and coloured population,
and in its returns the two kinds of work are not dis-
tinguished. Its principal work amongst non-Christians is
in Liberia (1833), Angola and the Congo district (1885),
East Central Africa (1901), China (1847), India (1856),
Japan (1873), Corea(1884).

A women's auxiliary was formed as early as 1819, but
did not take any active part in the work of the society till
1869. Its annual income is about £540,000, but this
includes a large number of contributions towards the
support of work amongst European Christians.

A Board of Missions connected with the Methodist
Episcopal Church (South) was organized in 1846. It started
work in China in 1848. One of its missionaries has been
Dr. A. P. Parker, afterwards President of the Anglo-
Chinese College in Shanghai. It began work in Japan in
1886 and in Corea in 1895. Its annual income is about
£150,000.

The Protestant Episcopal Church in the U.S.A. in 1817
offered, through Bishop Griswold, to co-operate with the
C.M.S. of England in sending out missionaries to the
foreign field, but was urged by this society to organize
independent work. In 1820 the Domestic and Foreign
Missionary Society was formed, and in 1835 the Protestant
Episcopal Church took over the work and became its
own missionary society. In 1830 work was started in
Liberia, and in 1850 a bishop of Cape Palmas was
appointed. Its work was extended to Batavia in 1835,
and to China in 1837, to Japan in 1859, and to the
Philippines in 1901.

Its annual expenditure on work outside the United
States is about £130,000. It helps to support 11 bishops
(Cape Palmas, Shanghai, Hankow, Anking, Tokyo, Kyoto,
Brazil, Cuba, Mexico, Philippine Islands, and Porto
Eico).

Its missionary staff includes 60 American and 114
other clergy. In its mission hospitals 250,000 cases were
treated in 1913.

486 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

The Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions (North) was
constituted in 1837, but missionary work had been sup-
ported by Presbyterians in America at a much earlier date.
Thus in 1741 the Kev. Azariah Horton was appointed by
the Presbytery of New York to labour among Indians in
Long Island, and in 1744 David Brainerd was ordained
by the same Presbytery (see p. 370). Several other efforts
were also made to organize work amongst the Indians. In
1818 the United Foreign Missionary Society was formed,
the work of which was transferred to the A.B.C.F.M. in
1826. When the Board was formed in 1837 it received
support from the Presbyterians who belonged to the " old
school," whilst the " new school " continued to support the
A.B.C.F.M. till 1870, when the Board received the united
support of both sections. The Board is a permanent com-
mittee of the General Assembly, which supervises and
controls the missions. It began its work in India, where
it took over a mission at Ludhiana which had been started
in 1833. Its chief centres of work at the present time
are in the Punjab (1846), the United Provinces (1836),
Western India (1870), Central China (1844), Canton
(1845), Peking (1863), Shantung (1861), Siam (1847),
Japan (1859), West Africa (1850), Persia (1870), and
Corea (1884).

Its annual income is about £470,000, and its staff
of ordained missionaries includes 365 foreign and 277
others. These figures include the support of work carried
on amongst Christians in South America, Syria, etc.

The Presbyterian Church in the Southern States formed
a separate missionary organization on the outbreak of the
war (1861). Its chief centres of work are in China (1867),
Japan (1885), Congo (1890), and Corea (1892). Its
annual income is about £100,000, and its staff of
ordained missionaries includes 100 Americans and 35
others.

Amongst other smaller American societies should be
mentioned the Dutch Reformed Church (1832), which
supports work in China, Japan, India, and Arabia ; the

MISSIONARY SOCIETIES 487

American Friends' Board of Foreign Missions (1871), which
supports work in Japan and China ; the General Missionary
Board of the Church of the Brethren (1884), which supports
work in China and India ; the United Brethren in Christ
(1853), which supports work in West Africa, China, and
Japan; the Swedish Missionary Covenant (1885), which
supports work in China and Alaska ; and the Christian
and Missionary Alliance, which supports work in West
Africa, India, China, and Japan.

Missionary Societies on the Continent of Europe.

The Berlin Missionary Society, which was founded in
1824, was the outcome of a missionary training school
founded by Janicke in 1800. The appeal for funds
wherewith to found the society was signed by Neander,
Tholuck, and other well-known writers. It began by
supporting the Moravian and Basel Missions, but in 1834
sent out missionaries on its own account. This society
has kept constantly in view the design of making its
missions self-supporting by the opening of stores, mills,
and other enterprises in connection with its mission
stations. Its chief centres of work are South Africa (1834),
German East Africa (1891), and China (1846).

The Leipzig Evangelical Lutheran Mission Society was
founded in Dresden in 1836, but its centre of organization
was removed to Leipzig in 1846. Its chief centres of
work are in India (1840) and East Africa (1902).

The Rhenish Missionary Society was the outcome of a
missionary union organized by twelve laymen in Elberfeld
in 1799. It was formed in 1828 at Barmen. Its chief
centres of work are South Africa (1829), Dutch East
Indies (1842), China (1846), and German New Guinea
(1887).

The Hermannsburg Missionary Society was founded by
Louis Harms as a private society in 1849, but after his
death in 1865 it came under the direction of the Lutheran
" Free Church of Hanover." In the early days of this

488 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

mission efforts were made to establish self-supporting farms
in connection with the mission stations, but this policy has
been gradually abandoned. Its chief centres of work are
in South Africa (1857) and the Telugu country in India
(1866).

The Basel Evangelical Missionary Society. In 1730
the German Christian Society was founded at Basel in
order " to collect and impart information concerning the
kingdom of God." Later on it corresponded with the
L.M.S. In 1815 members of this society and others
founded a missionary training home in Basel with the in-
tention of supplying missionaries to some of the English
missionary societies. In 1821 it sent out its first mis-
sionaries. The society is undenominational and has re-
lations with nearly all the Protestant Churches of Central
Europe. Its chief centres of work are West Africa (1827),
Western India (1834), and China (1846).

The Paris Evangelical Mission Society was founded in
November 1822. After the Eevolution in 1848 the
support which it received became so small that it had for
a time to close its missionary training institution, but soon
afterwards' its work greatly expanded. Its chief centres of
work are Basutoland (1833), Senegal (1862), the Zambesi
(1877), French Congo (1887), Tahiti and French Poly-
nesia (1845), and Madagascar (1902).

Some particulars in regard to the above missions and
in regard to the chief missionary societies supported in the
Netherlands, Scandinavia, and Finland are given in the
table on the opposite page : —

[TABLE

MISSIONARY SOCIETIES

480

Ordained

'5

tt

60

Home
Income.

Missionaries.

a 05

Z2 -*-1

z$

Field of Labour.

J-T

O

O

Foreign.

sative.

Germany —

Berlin

1824

£76,000

118

31

39,000

China, East and

South Africa

Rhenish

1828

62,000

171

40

102,000

South Africa, Dutch

East Indies, China

Gossner

1836

19,000

47

43

34,000

India

Leipsic

1836

45,000

56

23

11,000

India, East Africa

Hermaunsburg .

1849

26,000

61

4

34,000

South Africa, India,

Persia

France —

Paris Society

1822

40,000

58

106

10,000

Africa, Melanesia,

Polynesia

Switzerland —

Basel Society

1815

96,000

214

57

41,000

India, China, West

Africa

Mission Romande

1875

13,000

18

•>•

2,500

South Africa, East

Africa

Netherlands —

Neth. Society

1797

16,000

19

...

17,000

Dutch East Indies

Utrecht Union .

1859

10,000

18

Dutch East Indies,

Dutch N. Guinea

Scandinavia —

Danish Society .

1821

24,000

32

7

1,000

India, China

Norwegian Mis-

1842

19,000

68

101

30,000

South Africa, Mada-

sionary Society

gascar, China

Swedish Mission-

1878

24,000

56

> • *

3,000

Congo, China, Chin-

ary Union

ese Turkestan

Church of Sweden

1874

17,000

24

5

3,000

South Africa, India,

Mission

Ceylon

Swedish Evangeli-

1856

10,000

29

5

1,700

East Africa, India

cal National

Society

Finnish Mission-

1859

15,000

27

...

1,800

German South- West

ary Society

Africa, China

Total for all Continental \
Protestant Societies 1 j

£900,000

1508

488

371,000

1 1914 Reports.

Roman Catholic Missionary Societies and Associations.

A considerable extension of the missions connected
with the E.G. Church dates from the early years of the
nineteenth century, the missionary activities of the Church
having been practically dormant during a great part of the
eighteenth century. The revival of interest in missions
was greatly assisted by the formation of the Lyons
Missionary Society. In 1822 "a few humble and obscure

490 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

Catholics " (as they described themselves) founded at
Lyons an Institution for the Propagation of the Faith,
their object being not to send out missionaries but to
collect money to hand to various religious Orders and
societies. The earliest members of this society were some
of the women engaged in the silk factories at Lyons. At
its first meeting twelve persons were present, when a
priest proposed a resolution to found an association to help
Roman Catholic missions all over the world. In the
recent report of the society it is stated : " that the root-
idea of the organization is due to Pauline Marie Jaricot,
who formed the girls working in the silk factories of that
city into groups of apostolic workers for the missionary
cause. Each group of ten was headed by a promoter who
collected the halfpenny subscribed by each associate per
week and in return circulated the news that came from
the missionaries in response to their zeal and generosity.

The society was founded by laity, and the administration
of its funds is almost entirely in their hands. The Pope
blessed the society in 1823, and by 1843 its income had
reached £141,000. It then claimed to be assisting 130
bishops and 4000 priests. The receipts of the society in
1914 were £324,000. Of the sum received £30,000 was
contributed towards the support of Jesuit missions.

As the other societies and Orders which support foreign
missions do not publish statements of accounts, it is
difficult to form any estimate of the whole amount con-
tributed annually by Roman Catholics towards the support
of missionary work.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century the number
of the Roman Catholic missionaries hardly amounted to
1000. To-day there are in non-Christian countries 6000
European priests, 2400 teaching brothers, and about
8500 sisters, apart from native workers.1 The Roman
Catholic missions are carried on partly by missionary
societies and partly by religious Orders, and have been,

1 From these figures at least 10 per cent, ought apparently to be deducted
(see p. 492).

MISSIONARY SOCIETIES 401

to a greater or less extent, under the supervision of the
Congregation de propaganda Fide at Borne since its founda-
tion in 1622. The congregation of Lazarists was founded
by St. Vincent de Paul in 1632 and the Socie'te' des
Missions Etrangeres in 1663. This latter, which is one
of the most important of the E.G. missionary societies,
supports work in Japan, Corea, Indo-China, Burma, and
South India. The headquarters of both are at Paris.
Other smaller societies have their headquarters in Italy,
Belgium, England, and Ireland. Of the religious Orders
the Anglican Benedictines work in several of the English
colonies or dominions ; the Capuchins in the Levant,
Western Asia, North Africa, and South America ; the
Carmelites in India ; the Dominicans in Turkey and Indo-
China ; the Lazarists in China, the Levant, Persia,
Madagascar, and South America ; the Franciscans in
China, in the Philippines, the Pacific Islands, Egypt, and
North Africa ; and the Jesuits in all parts of the mission
field. An English organization entitled St. Joseph's
Foreign Missionary Society, established in 1870, works in
Uganda, India, and Borneo.

The Jesuit Order numbers altogether (1914) 16,735,
of whom 3619 are serving in foreign missions. Of the
720 members in the "English Provinces" 110 are serv-
ing in British Guiana and Zambesiland.

Among other smaller societies or associations should be
mentioned the Congregation of the Holy Ghost and the
Immaculate Heart of Mary, the Oblates of Mary Immacu-
late, the Society of Mary, the Oratorians and Oblates of
St. Francis de Sales, the Eedemptionists, the Paulists, and
the Congregation of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary.

Roman Catholic Missionary Statistics.

The following statistics relating to Roman Catholic
missions in non-Christian countries have been condensed
from the Atlas Hierarchichus issued in 1913 : —

492

HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

MISSIONARY FORCE.

NATIVE MEMBERSHIP.

f *<"*TT WFT3 TVQ

V^OUriTKIES.

European
Priests.

Native
Priests.

European
Lay
Brothers.

European

Sisters.

Baptized.

Catechumens.

Japan

162

33

99

100

66,134

16,4521

Corea

40

15

7

10

78,850

8,220i

Chinese Empire

1,305

721

247

1,429

1,406,659

613,402

Further India .

517

689

1301

120

986,597

22.5761

East India Islands

101

2

41

20Qi

37^07

815

Oceania .

427

8

227

418

131,436

11,598

India and Ceylon2

1,268

1,230

40Qi

2,000 ]

2,146,854s

55,443i

North Africa (East) 4

266

80

300i

900

30,000

1,600

North Africa (West)

497

5

141

339

120,000

43,245

South Africa .

387

4

360

1,672

50,000 i

5,866

Central Africa

810

3

311

466

332,676

352,763

African Islands

188

2

1281

467 l

223,504

253,015

United States (Indians)

163

551

391i

64,741

Totals .

6,131

2,792

2,446

8,512

5,675,158

1,384,995

1 These figures are not given in the Atlas Hierarchichus, but are estimates
taken from other sources.

2 The Christians in Ceylon connected with Roman Catholic missions
number about 350,000.

3 According to Indian Census Returns.

4 Including work amongst Europeans in Egypt and Tripoli.

The figures given above include many priests and other
workers who are engaged in ministering to Europeans or
Eurasians in India, South and North Africa, and Oceania.
These workers constitute from 10 to 15 per cent, of the
totals given. In the E.G. returns no distinction is made
between these workers and those who are working amongst
non-Christians.

The amount contributed towards the support of
E.G. missions in the U.S.A. has increased during the last
ten years from £9000 to £88,000. During the same
period the amount contributed in France has fallen from
£163,000 to £118,000.

XXIV.
THE OUTLOOK.

IN the preceding pages we have tried to avoid giving any
missionary statistics which were not necessary in order to
elucidate the progress of Christian missions. Students of
missions have learnt by experience how easily statistics
can mislead, and how poor a test they afford of the depth
or stability of the work in any given place. Whilst, how-
ever, the student has need to sift the missionary statistics
which are available with the utmost care, he cannot afford
to neglect them altogether, as in many cases they afford
the only means of estimating the progress of missions over
a wide area and within any given period. In order that
we may form some estimate of the missionary prospect
throughout the world at the present moment, it will be
well to take note of the latest available statistics which
relate to the mission field as a whole. Surveying the
whole field of Anglican and Protestant missions, we note
that the total sum raised by missionary societies in
1914 was about £7,000,000. Of this amount, roughly
speaking, £3,200,000 was contributed in the United
States, £2,400,000 in Great Britain and Ireland, £900,000
on the continent of Europe, £250,000 in Canada, £100,000
in Australia, and the rest in Africa and Asia. To this
total should be added about £1,500,000 raised in the
mission field for the support of Christian Churches or for
the evangelization of non-Christians. The most encourag-
ing fact revealed by the statistics is the rapid expansion
of Christian missionary organizations. During the twelve
years between 1901 and 1913 the contributions more
than doubled. The increase in the American coutribu-

493

494 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

tions was greater than it has been in England, but in both
countries it has been remarkable. Moreover, the increase
during the five years 1909—14 has been much more rapid
than during the earlier years of this period. During these
five years the total increase was roughly from £5,100,000
to £7,000,000, i.e. 37'2 per cent., or 7*4 per cent, per
annum.

If we extend our survey of Protestant and Anglican
missions and take in the whole of the century ending in
1910, we should find that the contributions towards the
support of foreign missions increased during this period
three-hundredfold.

During the period 1900-14 the number of European
and American missionaries connected with the various
societies increased from 16,218 to 24,871, and the
number of local missionaries and mission helpers from
62,366 to 129,527. Although the contributions raised
in America exceed those raised in Great Britain by nearly
50 per cent., the number of European missionaries
supported by British societies is greater than the number
of American (U.S.A.) missionaries, i.e. 10,871 as compared
with 9000, the expenditure in connection with each
missionary being considerably greater in America than it
is in England. The following statistics relating to Foreign
Missions supported in the United States and Canada were
issued in January 1915 by the Committee on Home Base
representing the Foreign Missions Conference of North
America. The total income of American (U.S.A.) Foreign
Mission Boards during 1914 was $15,449,990, and of
Canadian missionary organizations $1,250,075. To these
totals should be added $468,545 contributed for educa-
tional and medical work in America, and $4,243,967
contributed in the foreign mission field. In connection
with the missions supported in the United States and
Canada, 159,286 persons were baptized during 1914 as
compared with 121,811 during 1913; there are 606
colleges, theological seminaries, and training schools, and
12,969 other schools, with a total attendance of 547,730.

THE OUTLOOK 495

The foregoing statistics make it clear that, whatever
criticism may be passed upon the work which is now
being done by Christian missionaries, it can no longer be
said that it is being carried on on such a small scale that
the student of modern history can afford to pass it by.
To the Christian who contemplates his obligations in the
spirit of Christ's teaching, the work which is being done
will appear pitifully minute, but if the influence which it
is exerting be compared with the other influences which
are shaping the destinies of nations, it will be seen to be
both large and intense.

If we include the missionaries of the Eoman and Greek
communions, the number of European and American
workers in the mission field to-day exceeds 50,000 ;
whilst the number of communicants, or full members of
the Christian Church, exceeds 7,000,000. Each year,
moreover, sees the addition by baptism of more than half
a million members, whilst the number of Christian ad-
herents in the non- Christian countries which constitute
the mission field is not far short of 10,000,000. We
should be the first to deprecate the thought that the
work of Christian missions can be estimated by figures,
but in view of the comparative neglect with which such
work has often been treated, it is helpful to recall the fact
that if they are gauged by the standards of business life
they cannot justly be described as devoid of visible results.

It would be impossible to name any subject other
than that of foreign missions which so few persons have
carefully studied, but on which, nevertheless, so many are
prepared to pass judgment. Careful study may be defined
as study continued for a space of at least ten years. If
it be objected that this is a long period to expect a student
of foreign missions to devote to his subject before we are
prepared to listen with respect to the conclusions which
he has to report, we have only to consider the length of
time which is regarded as necessary to qualify one who
aspires to be an expert in any other branch of knowledge
in order to establish the justice of our demand. We

496 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

should listen with undisguised impatience to anyone who
presumed to criticize and reject the conclusions of his
predecessors if the subject with which he was dealing
were the cure of disease, the motions of the stars, or the
results of historical investigation, or metaphysical specula-
tion, if he had spent any shorter period in preparing
himself for his task ; but the globe-trotter, who has
spent a few days or weeks in examining the methods and
results of Christian missions, is usually sure of a sympa-
thetic audience when, on returning from his travels, he
communicates his discoveries to the world. With what a
different reception would he meet if, after spending the same
number of days in examining hospitals, in visiting observ-
atories, in skimming historical works, or in studying
metaphysics, he were to presume to speak with authority
on the results of his investigations !

The majority of the missionaries who are in the field
to-day would welcome an examination of their work at
the hands of intelligent investigators who possessed some
knowledge of the history of missions, but, conscious of
the fact that their methods are the outcome of eighteen
centuries of experience and that the task on which they
are engaged, whether viewed from a spiritual, a moral,
or an educational standpoint, is the greatest which men
have ever essayed to undertake, they find it hard to be
patient when the superficial critic presumes to pass judg-
ment upon their methods or their results.

What may be termed the sociological results which
have been achieved by missionaries in non-Christian lands
have been well summarized by Dr. Capen, a well-known
student of missions in America. He writes :

"Missionaries have done much to remove the evil of
ignorance. They have introduced into the East modern
medicine, and are treating yearly millions of patients who
would otherwise be beyond the possibility of relief. Where
the need is the greatest, they have undertaken to increase
the industrial efficiency of the Christian community, and
to prepare Christian leaders for the new industry. In

THE OUTLOOK 497

various ways they have raised the standard of living among
the native Christians and those who are under Christian
influence. Under the impulse of Christianity, woman has
been coming to her own. Education has provided for her,
and in Christian homes the wife is becoming the companion
and helpmeet of her husband, and the intelligent guide and
teacher of her children. Christianity has emphasized the
infinite worth of the individual before God, and the Christian
has come to have a new sense of self-respect, and he stands
before the community as a free man in Christ. The
missionary has ever preached and exemplified new standards
of justice, honour, truthfulness, and purity, and thus person-
ally, and through those whom he has influenced and trained,
he has helped to solve both the political and the ethical
problems of the people among whom he has lived." 1

In the course of this volume we have referred to
and endeavoured to illustrate many different methods of
missionary enterprise, but we can never allow ourselves
to forget that the supremely important method of missionary
work is the method of the Incarnation. As Jesus Christ
revealed God by being what He was, so in a true sense
the aim of the Christian missionary must be to reveal
God made manifest in Christ by living over again the
Christ-life. The secret of St. Paul's missionary success
was contained in the statement, " To me to live is Christ."

For the successful prosecution of the missionary campaign
character is of greater importance than method. Many
a missionary whose intellectual and other qualifications
have been small, has exerted what to onlookers has appeared
to be a miraculous influence by the life which he has lived
in a non-Christian land. Many a mission which has
adopted physical methods of propagating Christianity which
appear to be wholly inconsistent with the Spirit of Christ,
has achieved spiritual results which other missions that
have been conducted upon the most approved lines have
failed to accomplish. In both instances the influence
exerted by the personal character of the individual
missionary has been so strong that the wisdom or un-

1 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands, by E. W. Capon, p. 397 f.
32

498 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS

wisdom of the methods which he has adopted has become
a matter of secondary importance. It is St. Paul's character
even more than his missionary methods which the missionary
of to-day needs to imitate and to make his own.

The task of compiling this sketch of Christian missions
has been completed in the midst of the greatest war
which this earth has witnessed, and the issues of which
must profoundly affect the influence which Christian
principles will hereafter exert both in Europe and in the
remotest part of the mission field. It is impossible to
forecast what the future has in store, or to predict the
effects which the war will have upon the future of
Christianity at home and abroad. But though all else
be enshrouded in uncertainty, which nothing but the
march of time can dispel, there is one occurrence which
we can predict with completest confidence. Though upon
the earth there be now distress of nations with perplexity,
the sea and the \vaves roaring, men's hearts failing them
for fear and for looking after those things which are
coming upon the earth, though the powers of heaven be
shaken and the stars fall from heaven, one thing in the
future is certain. Of its details we may not be sure, but
of the fact itself there can be no doubt, the fact which
all history demands and which all revelation asserts.
Earth's greatest kingdoms may have their clay and cease
to be, but the establishment of the kingdom of heaven is
drawing nigh, and of this kingdom there shall be no end.
Other suns may fail to rise or fade for ever from our
view, but the Sun of Kighteousness shall eventually arise
and the day which it will usher in will know no evening.
For it is no mere possibility, no considerable probability,
but a glorious and complete certainty, independent of
human belief and unalterable by human incredulity that
the petition which has formed the age-long prayer of the
Christian Church — " Thy kingdom come " — will receive its
fulfilment, and that this fulfilment will exceed the highest
hopes which any who have offered it have dared to entertain.

APPENDIX.

CHRISTIAN REUNION IN THE MISSION FIELD.

AMONGST the many subjects with which a history of
Christian missions would naturally deal, but which it
has been necessary to leave untouched through lack of
space, one of the most important is the development
of Christian Unity in the Mission Field. On this the
writer of this volume would like to say a very few words.
If, or rather when, Christian unity is achieved throughout
Christendom it will probably be a direct result of foreign
missions. From the point of view, therefore, of the Church
at home, no less than from that of the Church in the
mission field, the subject is one of the greatest importance.

On the need for unity, or at least for some form
of combined action in the mission field, there is no need
to dwell.

Dr. Mott, in presenting the Report of the Commission
for Carrying the Gospel to all the non-Christian World at
the Edinburgh Conference, said :

" It is our deep conviction that a well-considered plan of
co-operation in the missionary work of the societies re-
presented in this hall, entered into and carried out with a
sense of our oneness in Christ, would be more than equivalent
to doubling the present missionary staff."

The need for securing united action in the mission
field which the Edinburgh Conference emphasized, must
not, however, blind our eyes to the fact that any union
which might conceivably be secured by a willingness on
the part of Christian Churches to sink their differences

499

500 APPENDIX

and to insist only on the few doctrinal points on which
they were all agreed, would not be worth securing and
could not endure. Any action is to be deprecated which
will tend to obliterate the distinctive message which the
various representatives of the Christian Churches in the
mission field have to give. We believe that the distinctive
doctrines, or the distinctive emphasis wrhich is laid upon
the same doctrine by different Churches, or by different
missionary societies acting as the agents of these Churches,
is of priceless value, if the mind of Christ is to be fully
made known to the peoples to whom they are trying to
appeal.

The Eoman Catholic missionary, in the conscientious
carrying out of his missionary obligation, lays emphasis
upon the importance of submitting his will and his
judgment to an external authority which for him is
embodied in Christ's " Vicar on earth." He believes, too,
that by confession to and absolution received from a human
priest, man's character can best be strengthened and
purified, and that by the reception of sacraments ministered
by a duly ordained priest, vital union with God can be
established and maintained. On the other hand, the
Protestant (as distinguished from the Eoman, Greek and
Anglican) Churches emphasize in the presence of the
non-Christian world the reality of man's individual re-
sponsibility alike for his opinions and his actions and the
possibility of his enjoying close communion with God apart
from the practice of specified religious rites, and without
the help which might be afforded by a priesthood that
claimed a direct succession from the Apostles.

Lastly, the representatives of Anglican missions,
who hold a position intermediate between the Eoman
Catholics and the Protestants, endeavour to combine the
teaching of both, and, whilst emphasizing the value of
external authority and of sacramental grace, strive to
inculcate man's complete responsibility as an individual.
It is in the mission field that the representatives of the
Churches can least afford to lose sight of the distinctive

APPENDIX 501

doctrines to which their branch of the Christian Church
has borne witness in the past. Unity, therefore, when it
comes, can involve no compromise of principles, but it will
involve the thankful recognition that God has worked in
the past and will work in the future through men and
women whose instincts and environment have led them
to interpret the Divine Eevelation in very different ways,
but who are united by a true devotion to their common
Lord. It is not compromise, but comprehension, on which
our eyes are fixed.

The difficulty which, more than any other, at the
present time stands in the way of any progress in the
direction of reunion as between the Anglican and Protestant
Churches, is the insistence which is laid by the former on
the " historic episcopate."

As this difficulty has within recent years been much
discussed in India, it may be well to refer in further detail
to the questions which have there been raised.

As far as the Anglican Church throughout the world
is concerned, the successful carrying out of any scheme of
reunion depends upon the willingness of other churches to
accept as the basis of reunion what is popularly known
as the Lambeth Quadrilateral, which was adopted by the
Lambeth Conference in 1888, and which reads as follows :

" 1. The Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments,
as containing all things necessary to salvation, and being
the rule and ultimate standard of faith.

" 2. The Apostles' Creed as the Baptismal symbol, and
the Nicene Creed as the sufficient statement of the Christian
faith.

" 3. The two Sacraments ordained by Christ Himself —
Baptism and the Supper of the Lord — ministered with un-
failing use of Christ's words of institution, and of the
elements ordained by Him.

"4. The historic episcopate, locally adapted in the methods
of its administration to the varying needs of the nations
and peoples called of God into the Unity of His Church."

Whilst nearly all the Churches now at work in the

502 APPENDIX

mission field would be prepared to accept the first three
of these conditions, the acceptance of the fourth by
any of the representatives of the Free Churches in Great
Britain or the non-Episcopal Churches in America, will
depend upon their interpretation of the words " the
historic episcopate." If by these words be implied the
doctrine of apostolical succession, the validity of which is
to depend upon the uninterrupted and mechanical trans-
mission of grace by the laying on of hands, it is most
unlikely that any large scheme of reunion will ever be
accomplished. There are, however, many representatives
of Anglican Churchmen both at home and abroad who
place upon these words a meaning which would render
the acceptance of this clause acceptable to very many
who are at present outside the Anglican Church.

The Bishop of Madras (Dr. Whitehead) in a speech
on the subject of Christian reunion delivered to the
members of the National Conference of Missionaries at
Calcutta on December 20, 1912, quoted and endorsed
the article by Dr. A. Headlam in The Prayer-Book Diction-
ary (p. 42). In the course of which he wrote :

" The idea of apostolic succession ... is really a deduc-
tion from the right theory of Orders, and the mistake has
been to make Orders depend upon apostolic succession and
transmission. . . . The authority to consecrate and ordain,
or to perform all spiritual offices, resides in and comes from
the Church to which God gives His Holy Spirit. . . . The
idea of transmission is an additional and late conception
which, instead of expressing the idea of succession, has by
its exaggeration of it led to a rigid and mechanical theory
of the ministry. ... As the grace of Orders depends upon
the authority of the Church and not upon a mechanical
transmission, all objections from supposed irregularities of
ordination are beside the point, and the opinions of Church-
men and others who have maintained that in certain circum-
stances a presbyter may ordain, are explained. Ordination
depends upon the authority of the Church, and not the
Church upon ordination."

As the views which have been expressed by the Bishop

APPENDIX 503

of Madras form a distinct contribution to the discussion
of the question of reunion in the mission field, it is worth
while giving in his own words his plea for the acceptance
of the doctrine of episcopacy as defined by Dr. Headlam.
Speaking in Calcutta, the Bishop of Madras said :

" I believe myself that whatever the reason for its adop-
tion, the ultimate ground for the principle (of episcopacy)
lay in the fact that it was imperatively needed as a safe-
guard to unity ; and I believe also that it is as much needed
for that purpose to-day as it was then, and that it is far
more needed in India than it was in the early Church. When
I ask, ' If I give up this, what principle should I adopt ? '
I find it can only be this, that any body of Christian men
and women are at liberty to make their own arrangements
for their own ministry. Now I have often thought of this
alternative principle, and it seems to me that not only does it
everywhere throw open the door to division and schism, but,
if we were to proclaim it in India, the necessary and in-
evitable result would be the creation of caste churches.
When the Indian community is freed from the restraints
of foreign missionary societies, if it accepts this principle,
it will necessarily and inevitably take the line of least
resistance, and then we shall see in India divisions based
on caste, far more numerous and infinitely worse than any-
thing that the Church has yet seen in East or West." l

The words of the Bishop of Madras may help to explain
to those who are not members of the Anglican Church
why the representatives of this Church in India and else-
where, in their anxiety to " safeguard unity," lay what
appears to them to be undue emphasis upon the necessity
of the historic episcopate. The plea which they put
forward does not unchurch other Churches, but represents
an attempt to secure an increase of mutual fellowship,
without sacrifice of principle on either side. If this were
not so, or if the proposals put forward by the Bishop of
Madras were equivalent to a proposal to absorb and re-
mould on Anglican lines all other Churches, the prospect
of reunion would be far less bright than it now is.

1 The next Step tmrards Unity, p. 6.

504 APPENDIX

One scheme for practical co-operation and federation
which was drawn up by the representatives of a number
of missionary societies working in East Africa has attracted
special attention, as it appears to some to indicate the
lines on which co-operation in other parts of the mission
field might be attained. The scheme was drawn up at
a conference of missionaries which was held at Kikuyu,
in British East Africa, in June 1913, and which was
attended by representatives of all missionary societies in
that district other than those connected with the Eoman
Church. The basis of the federation was to be the accept-
ance of the Bible and of the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds.
The same rules relating to the admission of catechumens
were to be adopted by all missions and Baptism was to
be administered, whether by sprinkling or immersion, in
the name of the Holy Trinity. It was further suggested
that any minister recognized by his own Church might
be allowed to preach, but not to administer the sacraments
in a mission Church belonging to other churches. The
proposed scheme has since been ratified by the Church of
Scotland Foreign Mission Committee. The conference
was followed by a Service of Holy Communion, at which
the Bishop of Uganda administered the Holy Communion
to the missionaries of various denominations who were
present.

No proposals for reunion in the mission field can be
regarded otherwise than as sadly incomplete which do not
include reunion with the branches of the Church estab-
lished by the Eoman Catholic missions. What answer,
then, can be given to the question — Is there any prospect
that the Church of Eome can ever be included in any
scheme of reunion which could commend itself to other
Christian Churches ? Whilst on the one hand it would be
unwise to under-estimate the difficulties which will have
to be surmounted before such a reunion could be effected,1

1 How great these difficulties are, may be gathered from a quotation from
a catechism expressly authorized by Pope Pius x. in 1906 and published by
the Vatican Press. On page 119 we read: "Can anyone outside the

APPENDIX 505

on the other hand, it would imply a lack of faith in
the destiny of the Christian Church and in the power of
the Divine Spirit to guide and direct its members
if we could bring ourselves to believe that the prospect
is hopeless and that the attitude of the Church of Borne
will ever remain what it is to-day. Bishop Brent, the
Bishop of the Philippines, \vho was one of the delegates
to the Edinburgh Missionary Conference in 1910, referring
to the letter of sympathy which was read to the Conference
from the Roman Bishop of Cremona, wrote :

" The letter of the Italian ecclesiastic which was written
for the Conference was the little cloud not larger than a
man's hand to-day, destined to-morrow to cover the Eoman
heavens. A major law may temporarily be held in suspense
by a minor law. When this happens we need not be over-
anxious. The issue is certain. Already the true greatness,
that is to say the Catholicism, of the Eoman Catholic Church
is busy at her heart, and the secondary power of the Roman
curia can do no more than delay its triumph. The Bishop
of Cremona did not speak of himself or for himself, but
consciously, or unconsciously, voiced the mind of a growing
minority who are the soul of his communion. It may not
be to-morrow, or a century hence — Christianity, be it re-
membered, is very young — but ultimate victory is as sure
as Christ is real."

The need to promote reunion in the mission field has
become increasingly urgent in recent years in view of the
fact that in India, China, and elsewhere local Churches are
beginning to spring up, the members of which know nothing
of the past history of the Christian Church. The danger

Catholic Apostolic Roman Church be saved?— A. No." On page 130:
"Who are they who do not belong to the Communion of Saints? — A. The
damned, and those who belong neither to the soul nor to the body of the
Church — that is, those in mortal sin and those outside the true Church."
On page 131: "Who are outside the true Church? — A. Infidels, Jews,
Heretics, Apostates, Schismatics, and the Excommunicate." "Who are
Heretics? — A. . . . The various sects of Protestants." On page 398:
"Protestantism . . . is the sum of all Heresies. . . . The most monstrous
congeries of errors, both private ami individual, and enfolds all Heresies."

506 APPENDIX

which is involved in the creation of such local Churches is
well described by Dr. Mott, who writes :

" Everything practicable should be done to strengthen
the bonds of union between the new Churches in non-
Christian lands and the Church Universal. This point is one
of cardinal importance just now, when independent Churches
are springing up on every hand, and when, owing to the
growing national spirit, there is danger of the development
of Churches in the East which will be separate in aims and
sympathies, as well as in activities, from the Church in the
West. In this connection the importance of the study
of Church history should be emphasized among both the
missionaries and the native leaders, as well as among the
students in theological colleges and Bible schools. . . . The
fact that many of the native Christian leaders have such a
poor historical sense makes it all the more important and
necessary that in this and other ways we seek to keep the
growing native Churches in closer touch with the great con-

o O

sensus of the continuous Church of all the ages. There
could be no greater danger than for native Christianity to
become separate from historical, credal, oecumenical, living
Christianity." l

In the course of this volume we have referred to efforts
which have been made in particular sections of the mission
field to promote union or reunion between different churches
or organizations (see pp. 142, 203, 232, 504). The success
which has already been achieved justifies the hope that
schemes of a bolder and more far-reaching character may
meet hereafter with a like success.

The Continuation Committee Conferences, presided over
by Dr. Mott, which were held in India, China, and Japan,
1912— 13, and which were an outcome of the Edinburgh
Missionary Conference (1910), helped to focus the atten-
tion of missionaries in the field upon their common needs
and problems, and by facilitating joint counsels and joint
action prepared the way for a closer union than is at the
present moment within sight.

1 The Present World Situation, by J. R. Mott, p. 193f.

INDEX.

References to missionary societies and organisations are given
under the word " Societies."

Abeokuta, 294.

Abyssinia, 356 f.

Accra, 292.

Aden, 132, 272.

Afghanistan, 274 f., 469.

Africa, 276-365 ; German East,346 f. ;

German South -West, 334 ; Moslem

population of, 465 ; North-West,

283-6 ; Portuguese East, 338 ;

South, general statistics, 334 f. ;

South, Native Affairs Commission.

335 f.

African Lakes Corporation, 339.
Aglipay, Gregorio, 266.
Agra, 82, 110 f., 129, 133.
Ahmadnagar, 90, 104, 131.
Aird, R., New Guinea, 463.
Ajmer, 104, 131.

Akbar, Mission to the Court of, 77.
Ako, Tsai, a Chinese Christian, 182.
Al Azhar University, Cairo, 282,

467 f.
Al Kindi, author of apology for

Christianity, 466.
Alaska, 379-81 ; Moravian Mission

in, 55.

Alberta, Indians in, 385 f.
Aleutian Islands. 380.
Alexis, Brother, 384.
Alfred, King, votive otferings sent to

India by, 65.
Algeria, 204 f.
Ali, Safdar, 133.
AH, Wilayat, of Delhi, 92.
Alifurs in Celebes, 263 f.
All Saints' sisterhood, work of, in

Poona, 104.
All Saints' Sisters of the Poor in South

Africa, 311.

Allahabad, 90, 112, 129, 132.
Allen, Dr. H. N., in Corea, 31, 252.
Allepey, 133.

Almaheira Island, 264.

Almora, 89, 129, 132.

Alopen, Ncstorhm monk, 166f.

Altai Mission in Siberia, 276.

Alu, Chinese bishop, 174.

Ambala, 90, 132.

Amboina, Dutch Mission in, 47.

Ambon Island, 264.

Ambrim Island, 457.

America, U.S.A., 366-81 ; Canada,
382-S ; Central, 401-8 ; South,
409-29 ; missionary contributions
of, 494.

Amida, sects of, in Japan, 161 f. ,
219 f.

Amoy, 183, 185, 193, 195.

Amritsar, 93, 129, 131.

Anand, India, 132.

Ananzimtote seminary, 328.

Ancestor worship in China, 174, 178,
207.

Anchieta, Joseph, in Brazil, 413.

Anda, Governor of the Philippines,
265.

Andaman Islands, 156.

Andrews, C. F., author of The Re-
naissance in India, 62.

Andros Island, West Indies, 394.

Aneityum, New Hebrides, 457.

Angelo, Father, in Burma, 151.

Angola, 306.

Anhwei, 191, 195, 306.

Ani, India, 132.

Anking, 191.

Ankole, 353.

Anne, Queen, gilt l>y, to Mohawk
Christians, o7 1 .

Annetta Island, 381.

Anno Bon Island, 300.

Antigua, 391, 394.

Antioch, 269.

Antsirabtj leper asylum, 362.

607

508

INDEX

Anvik, Alaska, 381.

Appelsbosch, 331.

Arabia, 271 f.

Araucanian Indians, 271 f., 419.

Arawaks, 391, 398, 424 f., 427.

Arayer, Cochin, 95.

Arcot, 90 ; medical mission at, 33.

Argentine, 409, 412, 422-4.

Arima, Japan, 223.

Arizona, Indians in, 379.

Armenia, 268 f.

Armstrong, Bishop, of Grahamstown,
311.

Arnobius, re early missions to the
Chinese, 164.

Arnold, a Franciscan missionary to
China, 170.

Arnot, P. S., 303.

Asaba, river Niger, 298.

Ashanti, 292.

Asia Minor, the seven cliurches of,
17 ; spread of Christianity in,
268 f.

Aspland, Dr., in China, 29.

Assam, 91, 117 f., 120, 124.

Assema.ni,J3ibliotheca Orientalis,"i65n.

Astrup, Bishop Nils, 331.

Asuncion, Paraguay, 419.

Atafu Island, 453.

Athelstan sent to India by King
Alfred, 65.

Attabari, Assam, 117.

Auchmuty, Rev. S., 371.

Auckland, N.Z., 442 f., 454.

Augustine of Hippo, 283 ; re employ-
ment of force as a missionary
agency, 18.

Augustine, St., a city in Florida, 366.

Aurukun, Australian aborigines at,
435.

Austin, Bishop, of British Guiana,
425.

Austral Islands, 449.

Australia, aborigines in, 430-8 ;
Moslems in, 466 ; other non-
Christian peoples in, 438.

Ava, Burma, 151.

Aves, Bishop H. D., of Mexico, 408.

Awakening of Faith, The, 161.

Azariah, Bishop. See Dornakal.

Bacon, L. W., re Spanish Missions

in North America, 366 f.
Badagry, West Africa, 294.
Bagabos, Philippines, 266.
Bagamoyo, 347.
Baghavad Gita and the Christian

Scriptures, 61 f.
Bahamas, 391, 393 f.

Bahia, state of, 413, 416.

Bahrein, 272.

Bahr-el-Ghazal, 283, 304.

Ballagh, Rev. J. H., 226.

Balolo tribe, 303.

Baluchistan, 273 f.

Banda, 111.

Bandawe, Nyasaland, 340.

Banerjea, Krishna Mohan, 89.

Bangalore, 102, 131, 133.

Bangkok, 258.

Bangweolo, Lake, 341.

Banks Islands, 456.

Bankura, Wesleyan College at, 129.

Bannu, 108, 274.

Baptisms of Jews during nineteenth

century, 475.
Baptists in India, 123.
Bara, Madagascar, 362.
Baralong, 322

Baraza, Cyprian, in Paraguay, 419.
Barbados, 35, 391, 395-7.
Barbuda Island, 394.
Barclay, Rev. W., 371.
Bareilly, 131 f.
Barisal, 82, 116.
Baroda, 124 f. ; primary education in,

103.

Barotsi, the, 323.
Barotsiland, 333.
Barranquilla, Colombia, 428 f.
Barripore, Bengal, 85.
Bartica, British Guiana, 425.
Bartle Bay, New Guinea, 464.
Barton, Dr. S. L., re missions in

Turkey, 270.

Basutoland, 313, 322 f., 333.
Bataks, 259 f.
Batanga Land, 300.
Batavia, 261, 264.
Bateman, Rev. R., 133.
Batetela tribe, River Congo, 303.
Batticaloa, Ceylon, 146.
Battleford, Indian school at, 385.
Bavianskloof, G. Schmidt at, 54,

309.

Bechuanaland, 314, 316, 321 f.
Behar, number of Christians in,

115n. ; R.C. Christians in, 122.
Beira, 322 if.
Belgian missionaries in ChotaNagpur,

114.

Belize, 405 f.

Bellary, L.M.S. College at, 129.
Bembezi, 315.
Benares, 82, 112, 132, 140 ; Victoria

hospital at, 37.

Bengal, 115-7 ; number of Chris-
tians in, 120.

INDEX

509

Benin, 299.

Bennet, catecliist, of the Mohawk

Mission, 375.
Bensley, speech of, at East India

House, 85.
Benue" River, 299.
Berbice, 424 f.
Betgeri-Gadag, 132.
Bethel, New jersey, 37.
Bethelsdorp, 316.
Bethesila, South Australia, 433.
Betsileo tribe, Madagascar, 362.
Beyrout, 270.
Beza, Theodore, re the missionary

command, 43.
Bezwada, 98, 133.
Bhakti, doctrine of, 62.
Bhandara, 131.
Bhils, missions to, 110.
Bhot, 132.
Bible societies in India, 140 f. See

under Societies.
Bickersteth, Bishop E., of Japan,

109.

Bigandet, Father, 151.
Bihe, 303, 306.
Biscoe, Rev. C. Tyndale, 108.
Bishop, Mrs., re degradation of

women in non-Christian lands, 40.
Bishop's College, Calcutta, 85. 131.
Bismarck Archipelago, 454, 461.
Bisrampur, 110.
Blackfeet Indians, 383.
Blacklead Island, 387.
Blantyre, 339-41.
Bloemfontein, 313 f.
Blunt, Mr., re condition of Indian

Christians, 125.
Blythswood, Transkei, 324 f.
Boardman, Rev. G. D., 153.
Boehm, A. W., 48.
Boemish, Moravian missionary to

Greenland, 51.
Bolivia, 409, 419.
Bombay, 82, 104.
Bompas, Bishop W. C., 385, 388.
Hook of Governors, The, 164 n.
Boone, Bishop W. S., of Shanghai,

4, 191.

Boone University College, 191, 201 f.
Borghese, Xavier, 78.
Boric, Bishop, in China, 209.
Borneo, 261-3 ; Dutch, 259, 263 f.
Bororos in Brazil, 415.
Botshabelo, Transvaal, 326.
Bougainville Island, 458.
Bowen, Bishop, of Sierra Leone, 288.
Boxers, insurrection of, in China,

210 f., 213 ; number of Christians

massacred by, 198 f. ; their respect
for medical missions, 31 f.

Boyle, Hon. Robert, 56 f., 370.

Brainerd, Rev. David, 370 f., 486.

Brantford, Mohawk Institution at,
57.

Brazil, 409, 413-6.

Brazzaville, 306.

Brebeuf, Father, 382.

Brent, Bishop C. H., re the condi-
tion of the R.C. Church in the
Philippines, 265 f. ; re reunion
with the R.C. Church, 505.

Brett, W. H., in British Guiana, 425.

Brindabun, India, 132.

Brisbane, Archbishop of, re missions
to aborigines, 436.

Bristol, New England, 375.

British East Africa Protectorate,
342 f.

British Guiana, 424-6.

Britisli Honduras, 405 f.

Brito, Felipe de, 151.

Brito, Juan de, 77 f.

Brooke, G. Wilmot, 298.

Brooke, Rajah James, 261.

Brooks, Rev. S. M. W., a martyr in
China, 190.

Broomhall, Marshall, re Kublai
Khan, 172.

Bronghton, Bishop, of Australia,
431, 440.

Brown, Rev. D., in Calcutta, 84.

Brown, Dr. Edith, 30.

Brown, Dr. George, 461.

Brownrigg, Sir R., 146.

Bruce, Rev. Dr. R., 273.

Bruguiere, Bishop, in Corea, 249.

Brunei, Borneo, 261.

Bryce, Lord, re religion in South
America, 411.

Buchanan, Rev. Claudius, in Cal-
cutta, 84.

Buchanan, Deaconess, 436 f.

Budd, Rev. H., 384.

Buddhism, in Burma, 156 f. ; in
China, 160-3 ; in Ceylon, 149.

Budu, Uganda, 350.

Buenos Ayres, 412.

Bugia, Raymond Lull in, 467.

Bugotu Islands, 458.

Buluwayo, 315.

Bundaberg, Queensland, 438.

Bunyoro, 353.

Bureau of Catholic Indian Missions,
379.

Burma, missions in, 151-9 ; number
of Christians in, 120f. ; R.C.
Christians in, 122.

510

INDEX

Burns, Rev. W. C., in China, 183,

195.

Bum Island, 264.
Busoga, 353.
Bussorali, 272.
Butler, Dr. Fanny, 37.
Byu, Ko Tha, in Burma, 153.

Cabacaburi, British Guiana, 425.

Cabral, P. A., 68, 413.

Cabul, 165.

Cachar, Assam, 117.

Caico Islands, West Indies, 394.

Cairo, 281, 467.

Calabar, Old, 299.

Calamina, traditional site of St.

Thomas' martyrdom, 64.
Calcutta, 115 f. ; missionary colleges

in, 129-31.
Caldecott, Professor, re negroes in

the West Indies, 390.
Caldwell, Bishop R., 94, 99 ; re R.C.

converts in Tinnevelly, 74.
Calicut, 132 ; discovery of coins at,

62.
California, Indians in, 379 ; Moravian

missions in, 55.

Callaway, Bishop H. , of Grahams-
town, 36, 311.
Callaway, Rev. R. F. , re colour

antipathy in Africa, 336 f.
Calvin, re foreign missions, 43.
Cambaluc, 170 n. See Peking.
Cambridge University Mission to

Delhi, 109.
Cameroons, 300.
Campbell, Rev. D. E., of Cawnpore,

92.
Canada, Indians in, 382-7 ; Eskimos

in, 387 f.

Candida, a Chinese Christian, 176.
Canham, Rev. T. H., 388.
Canton, 183, 185, 189, 193.
Cape Bedford Mission, 433.
Cape Coast Castle, 291 f.
Capen, Dr. E. W., re Basel industrial

missions. 101 f. ; re sociological re-
sults of missions, 496 f.
Capetown, 309, 326.
Caracas, 429 ; Archbishop of, re

religion in Caracas and Venezuela,

410.

Carey, William, 14, 81-3, 478.
Caribs, 390, 398, 406.
Carnarvon, South Africa, 325.
Carolina, South, Indians in, 372 ;

ne<rro slaves in, 373.
Caroline Islands, -158 f., 462.

Carpentaria, Bishop of; re missions
to aborigines, 433 f.

Carthage, 283.

Carthagena, South America, 428.

Gary, Dr. Otis, re secret Christians
in Japan, 228 ; re Christianity and
patriotism, 243 ; re R.C. Christians
in Japan, 221, 225.

Casas, Las, 401-4; his protest against
employment of physical force, 19.

Cassels, Bishop, of Western China,
193.

Caste, in the Christian Church,
86-8 ; influence of, 127.

Cathay and the Way Thither, quota-
tion from, 169.

Cawnpore, 111, 129.

Cayenne, French Guiana, 426.

Cayuses, 378.

Celebes, 263.

Central America, 401-6.

Central Provinces of India, 110.

Ceram Island, 264.

Cerqueira, Bishop, re number of
Christians in Japan, 221 n.

Ceylon, 145-50 ; Dutch missions in,
20, 46.

Chaco Indians, South America, 420-2.

Chalmers, James, 448, 463.

Charnan, Baluchistan, 274.

Chanda, 110.

Chapman, Bishop, of Colombo, 147.

Charlestown, school for negroes in,
373.

Chater, James, 146.

Chavannes, M., 163.

Cheetham, Bishop, of Sierra Leoue,
294.

Chefoo, 190.

Chekiang, 189, 195.

Chemulpo, 254.

Chenab colony, Punjab, 106.

Chengtu, 168, 189, 197, 202.

Cherequois, Emperor of the, 373.

Cherokees, 377 f., 380.

Chiapa, Las Cnsas, Bishop of, 403.

Chickasaw Indians, 374.

Chieng Mai, 258.

Chienlung, Emperor of China. 180.

Chihli, 195, 201.

Chikore, Rhodesia, 328.

Chili, 409, 418 f.

China, 160-218 : Nestorian missions
in, 164-9 ; Franciscan missions in,
170-5 ; Jesuit missions in, 175-81 ;
Moslems in, 465 ; table showing
increase of Christians in, 199 f.;
medical missions in, 203 ; schools
for blind in, 204 ; work amongst

INDEX

511

women in, 204 f. ; Student Volun-
teer Movement in, 205 ; missionary
workers in, 205.

Chinanfu, 190, 195 f.

Chinchun, 254.

Chinese, in Alaska, 380 ; in Austra-
lia, 438 ; in Burma, 156 ; in
Borneo, 262 ; in British Guiana,
424, 426 ; in Canada, 388 ; in
Hawaii, 446 ; in Manila, 266 ;
in Samoa, 451 ; in Siam, 183 ;
in Singapore, 257.

Chinese bishop, consecration of a,
174.

Chinese character, features of, 207 f.

Chingching, author of inscription at
Hsianfu, 165 f.

Chingclioufu, 196.

Chinkoni, North-West Rhodesia, 333.

Chins, Burma, 153, 156.

Chippewa Indians, 367 f., 377, 380,
385.

Chiriguanos, Argentine, 422.

Chishwasha, Mashoualand, 333.

Chitagong, 82.

Choctaws, 378, 380.

Chofa, River Congo, 303.

Cholchol, Chili, 419.

Chopihnd, 315.

Chota Nagpur, 112-5 ; methods of
R.C. missionaries in, 20.

Chowan, North Carolina, 373.

Christaller, Rev. J. G., Gold Coast,
292.

Christian College, Madras, 89, 96.

Christian Faith Society, 57 f.

Christian Literature Society for China,
197.

Christian Literature Society in India,
143 ; in Japan, 232.

Christie, Dr. D.,of Moukden, 29, 213.

Chuhras, Indian caste of, 106.

Chuki, 189.

Chuma, Livingstone's servant, 319.

Chunder, Ram, of Delhi, 109.

Chung Hua Sheng Rung Hui
(Anglican Church in China), 188,
203.

Church Missionary Society, history
of, 186 n.

Clark, Rev. Robert, 133.

Clarkabad, 105.

Clarke, Dr. G., 36.

Claver, Blessed Peter, 428 f.

Clay, Rev. J., at Cuddapah, 99.

Clement of Alexandria re death of St.
Thomas, 63.

Clement XL, his decree relating to
Jesuit missionaries, 76.

Cobbold, Rev. R., 183.

Cochin, State of, 95 ; number of

Christians in, 120 f. ; Black Jews

in, 473.
Cockey, Rev. H. E., of Cawnpore,

92.
Codrington, General, of Barbados, 35,

396 f.
Coillard, Francois, 322 f. ; re mission

to the Matabele, 320.
Coke, Rev. Dr., 391, 395.
Colbeck, Rev. James, 155.
Coleuso, Bishop J. W., Natal, 312.
Coleridge, Bishop, of Barbados, 397 ;

in British Guiana, 425.
Colombia, 409, 427-9.
Colombo, 146-8.
Colonial and Continental Church

Society in the Bahamas, 393.
Colour antipathy in South Africa,

336 f.

Columbia, British, Indians in, 385 f.
Columbus, 401.

Compromise v. comprehension, 501.
Congo River, 301-6 ; R.C. missions

on, 301 f. ; French, 305 f.
Congregational missionary societies.

See under Societies, L.M.S. and

A. B.C. P.M.
Congregationalists, number of, in

India, 121, 125.
Conjevaram, 132 f.
Constantinople, 270.
Continuation Committees, 506.
Cook, Captain, in Tahiti, 447.
Cook Islands, 449 f., 459.
Cooper River District, 372.
Coorg, 136.

Copeland, Rev. Patrick, 79.
Copenhagen, Missionary College at,

48.

Coptic Christians, 281 f.
Coranderok, Victoria, 433.
Corea, 247-55 ; medical missions in,

31.

Corfe, Bishop, of Corea, 249, 254.
Corisco Islands, 300.
Cornish, Bishop Kestell, of Mada-
gascar, 361.
Corporation for the Propagation of

the Gospel in New England, 56,

369.

Corrie, Bishop D., of Madras, 84, 86.
Cortes, in Mexico, 406 f.
Cosmas Indicopleustes, his visit to

India, 65 ; re Christians in Sumatra,

260.

Costa Rica, 406.
Cottayam, cross discovered at, 65.

512

INDEX

Cotterill, Bishop, of Grahamstown,

311.

Cowan, Dr. B. S., 272.
Cowley Fathers in Poona, 104 ; in

Madras, 311.
Crees, 383, 385.
Crimea, Karaite Jews in, 473.
Cromwell, his support of the New

England Company, 56 ; expedition

to Jamaica organized by, 392.
Crowther, Bishop, 294-8.
Crusades and missions to Moslems,

466.

Cuarteron, Father, in Labuan, 263.
Cuba, 399, 401 f.
Cuddalore, 79.
Cuddapah, 97, 99.
Currier, Father, re religion in Brazil,

415.

dishing, Dr., of Burma, 154.
Cushman, Robert, of Massachusetts,

369.

Cuzco, Peru, 418.
Cyprian, of Carthage, 283.

Dacca, 82, 115 ; university at, 130.
Dahne, G., missionary in Dutch

Guiana, 53.
Dahomey, 293 f.

Dakota, South, Indians in, 376, 379.
Dalinan, Dr., re number of Jewish

converts, 473.

Dalton, Dr. G., in Jerusalem, 36.
Damaraland, 325, 333.
Damascene, John, author of The

Superstition of the IslimaeKtes, 466.
Damascus, statement by Pasha of,

38 n.

Damien, Father, 446.
Daniel, Rev. E., 146.
Danish Church in Greenland, 52.
Danish-Halle Mission, 47-9.
Dar-es-Salaam, 346 f.
Darien expedition, 369.
Darjeeling, 117.
Darwin, Charles, in Tierra del Fuego,

424 ; in New Zealand, 431.
Darwin, Mount, 307
Daveluy, M., in Corea, 249.
David, Rev. Christian, in Ceylon, 84.
Davies, Rev. V., at Cuddapah, 99.
Dawes, "W., in Antigua, 395.
Dawson, T. C., re Indians in Brazil,

414.

tie Maila, Jesuit missionary, 254 f.
Dearing, Dr. J. D., re cordiality

among Christians in Japan, 232.
Delagoa Bay, 315.
Delawares, 377.

Delhi, missions at, 82, 109 ; mutiny

at, 92 ; St. Stephen's College, 129.
Delitzsch, Dr., re number of Jewish

converts, 473.
Demerara, 55, 424 f.
Dera Ghasi Khan, 108.
Dera Ismail Khan, 93, 108, 131.
Dhar, 132.

Dibrugarh, Assam, 117.
Diego Suarez, 363.
Dinajpur, 82.
Dindings, Malaysia, 256.
Dingaan, chief, 310.
Disruption in Scotland, its effect on

missions, 482.
Dober, Leonard, Moravian missionary,

50.

Dobu Island, 464.
Dogura, New Guinea, 464.
Doherty, West African catechist, 294.
Dominic, Abbe, re Mexican Christi-
anity, 408.
Dominica, 390, 394.
Dornakal, mission at, 101 ; Bishop

of, 100 f., 135.

Dorville, Father, in Tibet, 217.
Doshisha College, Japan, 231, 233.
Drysdale, R., aborigines mission at,

437.
Du Plessis, J., 307 n.; re Scottish

missions in South Africa, 325.
Dublin University mission to Chota

Nagpur, 114, 131 ; to China, 190.
Dubois, Abbe, re Christians in South

India, 76, 78.

Duff, Dr. Alexander, 88-90.
Duff mission ship, 448, 450.
Dufresse, Bishop, in China, 209.
Duke of York Islands, 461.
Dun, Maung Tha, Burmese hermit,

158 f.

Duncan, Rev. J., of New Zeuland,443.
Duncan, W., of .Metlakahtla, 381,

385 f.

Dundee, South Africa, 331.
Duperry, Commander, re work of the

L.M.S. in the Pacific, 449.
Dutch East India Company, 46.
Dutch East Indies, 119.
Dutch missions in Ceylon, 20, 45,

46 ; in Formosa, 47.
Dutch Reformed Church missions,

328-30.

Dvvane, Rev. J. M., 312, 338.
Dyaks, 262-4.

Eales, re Burmese Buddhism, 157.
East India Company, its attitude
towards missions, 79, 81, 85.

INDEX

51:3

East Indies, Dutch, 259-61.

Ebcncxcr, Bengal, 117.

Ebon Islands, 459.

Ecuador, 400, 427-9.

Eddy, Sherwood, in China, 201.

Edendale, Swaziland, 322.

Edessa, 164 f., 268.

Edinburgh Conference, 499 ; quota-
tion from Reports of, 208 n.

Education, missionary, in India,
128-31.

Educational missions, 22-7.

Edxvavdes, Sir Herbert, 93, 105.

Efate Nguna Islands, 457.

Egba, 294.

Egede, Hans, missionary to Green-
land, 49.

Egypt, 280-2.

Egypt General Mission, 282.

Ekanayake, Rev. G. B., re Buddhist
revival in Ceylon, 149 f.

Ekukuleni, 331.

Elikana, a South Sea Island mission-
ary, 459.

Elim-Hope, Queensland, 433.

Eliot, John, missionary to the
Indians, 56, 369 f., 375 f.

Ellice Islands, 458 f.

Ellis, Rev. T., of Burma, 158.

Ellore, 133.

Elmslie, Dr., in Kashmir, 32, 108.

Elphinstone, re Mission to Court
of Akbar, 77.

Elton, Rev. W. H., of Borneo, 262.

Embu, East Africa, 342.

Emgwali River, 325.

Empandeni, Mashonaland, 333.

Engcobo, 312.

Enhlonhlweni, 313.

Ensor, Rev. G. E., of Japan, 227.

Epalle, Bishop, in Solomon Islands,
458.

Epi Island, 457.

Episcopate, the historic, 501-3.

Erasmus, re obligation to evangelize
the world, 43.

Eritrea, 356.

Erromanga, New Hebrides, 456 f.

Eskimos, 387 f. ; in Alaska, 380.

Essequibo, 424 f.

Estcourt, 312.

Ethiopian Movement in South Africa,
337 f.

Ethiopian Order, 338.

Eubank, R., re R. C. missions in China,
209.

Eusebius, re visit of Pantsenus
to India, 63 ; re St. Mark's
preaching in Egypt, 280.

33

Evangelical Union of South America,
418, 423.

Fabricius, of the Danish - Halle

Mission, 49.
Fakaafo Islands, 453.
Falconer, Father, in Paraguay, 419.
Falkland Islands, 423.
Farad j, Abou'l, re Christians in

China, 168.
Farquhar, J. N., author of The

Crown of Hinduism, 62.
FaiTukhabad, 93.
Fatehgarh, 90, 92, 132.
Fatshan, China, 195.
Ferdinand, King of Spain, 402.
Fernandez, Brother Juan, 220 f.
Fernando Po, 300 f.
Ferreol, Bishop J., in Corea, 249.
Ferozepore, 132.
Fiji Islands, 450, 452 f., 461 f.
Fingoes, 325.
Flatheads, Indians, 377.
Fleche, Father, 382.
Florida, missions in, 366.
Fly River, New Guinea, 463.
Foochow, 185, 187, 189 f. ; Christian

University at, 202.
Fornian College, Lahore, 89, 106,

129.

Formosa, 195, 245 f. ; Dutch mis-
sions in, 46 f.
Forrest River Mission, Australia.

432, 436.

Fort Hunter, Indians at, 371 f.
Fort MacPherson, 385.
Fort Simpson, 385.
Fort Wrangel, Alaska, 380.
Fort Yukon, 385.
Foundling hospitals in China, 176.
Fourah Bay College, 289.
Fox, George, re obligation to preach

the Gospel, 45.

Fox, H. W., of Masulipatam, 98.
Foxes, Indians, 368.
Francis d'Assisi, as a missionary to

Moslems, 466.

Franciscan missions to China, 170-5.
Francistown, Mashonaland, 315.
Fraser, Rev. A. G., of Ceylon, 147.
Fraser, Rev. Donald, re Islam and

Christian missions in Nyasalancl,

339 f.
Free Methodist Church in South

Africa, 322.
Freeman, Rev. J. E., of Cawnpore,

92.
Freeman, Mr., Dutch missionary to

Indians, 371.

514

INDEX

Freetown, 288.

French, Bishop, of Lahore, 133, 272.

Frere, Sir Bartle, 93.

Frere Town, East Africa, P.42.

Friendly Islands, 448, 450.

Froez, Father, in Japan, 220.

Frumenthis, Bishop, 356 ; his visit

to India, 64.
Fullerton, Colonel, re influence of

Schwartz, 80.
Fusan, Corea, 252, 254.
Futuna Islands, 457.
Fyffe, Bishop E. S., of Rangoon,

156.
Fyzabad, 93.

Gaboon River, 300.

Gairdner, Rev. W. H. T., re Al
Azhar University, 467.

Galatians, St. Paul's work amongst
the, 10-12.

Galle, Ceylon, 146, 148.

Gambia, 287 ; Moslems from, 467.

Gambier Islands, 440.

Gangpur, R.C. Christians in, 122.

Gardiner, Captain Allen, U10, 421.
423.

Garenganze, 303.

Gauld, Dr. W., in Chinn. 35.

Gaza, C.M.S. work in. 271.

Geddie, Rev. J., in New Hebrides.
457.

Gela Islands, 4.^8.

Genghis Khan, 273.

George I., letter from. 48.

George, Diocese of, S12.

Georgetown, Brit'sh Gui;n>a, 428.

Gobat, Bishop, of Jerusalem, 357.

Goblc, Mr., in Japan, 244.

Godden, Rev. C. C., in New
Hebrides, 456.

Gokhale, Mr., 140.

Gold Coast, 290-3; Moravian mis-
sion on the, 54.

Gollmer, Rev. C. A., 294.

Gomes, Rev. W. H., 256.

Gondia, 110.

Gondokoro, G04.

Gondophares, a Parthian chief, 63.

Gonds, missions to, 110.

Gonin, a missionary in the Trans-
vaal, 329.

Gordon, Captain, in Assam, 117.

Gordon, General, 348.

Goreh, Nehemiah, re significance of
caste, 87.

Gossner, Pastor J. E., 92, 112.

Graaf Reinet, 316.

Grahamstown, Diocese of, 312.

Gray, Bishop, of Capetown, 310.
Greek Church Missions. See under

Russia.

Green Bay, U.S.A., 368.
Greene, Dr. 1). C., re educated

Christians in Japan, 229.
Georgia, Moravian mission to, 53 ;

Indians and negroes in, 374.
Gerhard, Johann, re the missionary

obligation, 43 f.
Gericke, Rev. C. \V., missionary in

South India, 80, 86.
German East Africa, 346.
German South- West Africa, 306 f.
Germiston, Transvaal, 322.
Geronimo, an Arab Christian in

Algiers, 285.

Ghose, Mohesh Olnmder, 89.
Gidney, l!ev. W. T., re number of

Jewish converts, 470.
Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 368.
Gilbert Islands, 458 f., 462.
Gilmour, Rev. James, 215 f.
Girard, M., 225.
Gisborne, New Zealand, 443.
Glasgow Missionary Society, 324.
Gnaclenhutten, New York State, 54.
Gnosticism, its influence on Chinese

Buddhism, 162.
Goa, 68, 70, 75.
Goajira, Indians in, 423.
Goanese Christians in East Africa,

346.

Greenfield, Miss, at Ludhiana, 30.
Greenland, 387 ; Moravian Missions

in, 50-3.
Greifr, Peter, a martyr in Wist

Africa, 482.

Grenada Island, West Indies, 398.
Greytown, Nicaragua, 405.
Gribble, Rev. J. R., 433f.
Grierson, Dr. G. A., re doctrine of

bhakti, 62.

Griqualand, 314, 316, 325 f.
Griswold, Professor, re missions in

the Punjab, 107 f.
Groot Island, 433.
Grnbb, W. B. , re Chaco Indians,

421.

Griiber, Father, in Tibet, 217.
Griit/cner, a missionary in Kafiraria,.

326.

Guadalcanal- Island, 457 f.
Guam Island, 459 f., 4IV2.
Guatemala, 40-2-4, 406.
Guiana, British, 424-6 ; Dutch, 53,

426 f. ; French, 426.
Guinea, French, 286 ; Portuguese,

286.

INDEX

515

Guinness, Grattan, 303.

Gujcrat, 104, 132.

Gu'jranwala, 123.

Gulu, Sudan, 283.

Guntur, India, 123, 133, 137.

Gutzlail', Mr., in Japan, 244, 250.

Hadji pore, 92.

Hainan, 195.

Hakodate, 225.

Hale, Archdeacon, South Australia,

431.
Hall, Rev. C. , in North Carolina,

373.
Hall, Fielding, author of The Soul

of a People, 156 f.
Halle, missionary organization at,

47 f.
Hanaloa, missionary in Molokai,

446.

Hangchow, 189.
Hankow, 191, 196.
Hanlon, Mgr., 354.
Hannington, Bishop, of Uganda, 349.
Harbour Islands, West Indies, 394.
Hare, Bishop, Apostle to the

Indians, 376.
Harms, Pastor L., 32(1.
Harnac'k, Dr., re spread of Christi-
anity in Asia Minor, 268 ; re

Christianity in North-West Africa,

284.

Harpur, Dr., in Egypt, 281.
Harris school, Madras, 133.
Hart, Dr. S. L., of Tientsin, 27,

194.

Hassan, India, 132.
Hau Hau fanaticism, 441 f.
Hansaland, Moslems from, 4G7.
Hausas, missions to, 298 f.
Havana, 399.
Hawaii Islands, 445-7.
Hawaiian Evangelical Association,

459.
Haycock, Rev. W. H., of Cawnporc,

92.

Hayti, 390, 399.
Ilazaribagh College, 129.
Headlam, Dr. A., re apostolic suc-
cession, 502.
Hebrides, New, 456 f.
Hedley, J., re II. C. missions in

Mongolia, 214 f.
Hehe, East Africa, 346.
Hellendoorn, a missionary in Celebes,

263.
Helps, Sir A., re work of Las Casas,

401-3 ; re Franciscan missionaries

in Mexico, 407.

Hengchow, 190.

Hepburn, Dr., in Japan, 225.

Heracleon, re death of St. Thomas,

63.

Herat, Bishop of, 274.
Hcrbertsdale, South Africa, 326.
Heriot, Thomas, in Virginia, 368.
Hideyoshi, Japanese general, 222,

248.
Hill, Bishop (of the Niger), 295,

298.

Hill, Rev. David, of China, 196.
Hill, Rev. R., in Sydney, 430 f.
Hilo, Hawaii, 447.
Himalayas, West, Moravian mission

in, 55.

Hine, Bishop, of Nyasa, 36.
Hispaniola (Hayti), 399, 401.
History, Church, Dr. Mott on the

need to study, 506.
Hobson, Dr., at Macao, 35.
Hokianga, New Zealand, 442.
Holland, Rev. W. E. S., re Calcutta

University students, 130.
Holly, Bishop J. T., of Hayti,

399.
Holmes, J., re Moravian missions,

52.

Holt, Rev. J., in Barbados, 35, 396.
Honan, 192.
Hongi Hika, New Zealand chief,

442.

Hong-Kong, 183-5, 189.
Honolulu, 445 f.
Honyman, Rev. S., of Rhode Islands,

375.
Hope, Christian, compared with that

of other religions, 6.
Hopkins, Dr. E. W., re Bagliamd

Gita, 61.
Hordcn, Bishop J., of Moosoncc,

384.
Home, Rev. Silvester, re Malagasy

Christians, 359.

Horton, Rev. Azariah, in Long Is-
land, 486.
Hsi, Pastor, 196.
Ilsianf'u monument, 163, 165 f.
Hsiuch'iian, Hung, instigator of

Taipiug revolt, 185.
Hubbard, Rev. A. R., of Delhi, 92.
HuckotF, a Moravian missionary in

West Africa, 54.
Hudson Bay, 384, 388.
Hudson Bay Company, 384.
Hughes, Rev. T. P., 133.
Huilla, 306.
Hunan, 191, 195 f.
Hunch, 191.

516

INDEX

Hutton, J. E. , re Moravian missions,

50 ff.
Hyderabad, 101, 124, 133, 139.

Ibadan, West Africa, 294.
leyasu, a Japanese general, 222 f.
Igorrotes in the Philippines, 266.
Ikebukuro, theological college at,

234.

Ikkadu, India, 132.
Ilala, 319.

Illinois Indians, 368.
Ilminsky, Professor, N. I., 276.
Imad-ud-din, Dr., 133 ; reconversion

of Indian Moslems, 470.
Irnbert, Bishop, in Corea, 249.
Imerina, Madagascar, 362.
Incas in Peru, 417.
India, 61-144 ; census returns of,

118-27 ; missionary societies in,

134 ; number of missionaries in,

143 ; number of students in, 129 f. ;
medical missions in, 131-3 ; mis-
sionary education in, 128-31 ; sem-
inaries in, 131 ; female education
in, 131 ; widows in, 39 ; leper
hospitals in, 144 ; orphanages in,

144 ; institutions for the blind in,
144 ; Anglican bishops in, 135.

Indian Home Mission, 116.

Indian National Missionary Society,

139.
Indians, American, 366-80 : in

Alaska, 380 ; Canadian, 382-7.
Indians, in Australia, 438 ; in British

Cuiana, 424; in Fiji, 453; in

Trinidad, 398.
Indo-China, French, 258 f.
Indore, 129, 132, 138.
Industrial missions, 27 ; of Basel

Society, 101 f. ; in Nyasaland,

340 f.
Inhambane, East Africa, 307, 315,

322.

Insein, Burma, 131.
Iramba, East Africa, 347.
Iroquois, translations in language of,

371.

Ispahan, 273.
Ivory Coast, 290.

Jablouski, Dr., 46.

Jackson, Dr. A. F., of Manchuria,

29.

Jaffa, 271.
Jaffna, Ceylon, 139, 14G f., 148;

Francis Xavier at, 73.
Jagdalpur, 110.
Jalut Islands, 459.

Jamaica, 391-3 ; Moravian mission

in, 51, 55; Baptist Missionary

Society of, 406.
James of Florence, a martyr in China,

172.

Jameson, Fort, 341.
Jammalamadugu, India, 132.
Janicke, missionary in South India,

86.
Jansen, missionary in Sierra Leone,

287.
Japan, 219-46; moral standards in,

242 ; agnostics m, 243 ; the Bible

in, 244.
Japanese, in Australia, 438 ; in

Canada, 388 ; in Hawaii, 446 ; in

New Caledonia, 461; in U.S A.,

381.
Jashpur State, 115; R.C. Christians

in, 122.
Java, 82, 259-61 ; Dutch missions

in, 47 ; converts from Islam in,

467.
Jerusalem, 271 ; Ignatius Loyola in,

69 ; Jews baptized in, 476.
Jerusalem and the East Mission,

474.

Jesselton, Borneo, 262.
Jesuit Order, 491. See R.C. missions.
Jews, missions to the, 473-6 ; their

diffusion throughout the Roman

Empire, 15 ; distribution through-
out the world, 473 ; Black Jews in

Cochin, 473 ; Beni-Israel in India,

473 ; Karaite Jews in the Crimea,

473 ; negro Jews in Loango, 473 ;

society for, founded by Loyola, 69 ;

societies working amongst, 474.
Jeypore, 32, 136.
Jhelum, 132.
Jiaganj, 132.
Jodhpur, 131.
Johannesburg, 314, 331 f.
John, Dr. Griffith, 194.
John of Marignola in India, 66.
John of Monte Corvino in South

India, 65 ; in China, 170 f., 175.
John of Persia at Council of Nicsea,

63.
Johnson, Archdeacon, of Zululand,

313.
Johnson, Rev. A. D., of Cawnpore,

92.
Johnson, Bishop James, of West

Africa, 295, 298.
Johnson, Dr. S., of New England,

375.
Johnston, Rev. G., of Charlestown,

373.

INDEX

517

Josa, Archdeacon, re Chinese in

British Guiana, 426.
Jubbnlpore, 110.

Jinlson, Adoniram, of Burma, 152 f.
Julia, 273.
Jullundur, 90.

Kabul, 274 f.

Kachins, Burma, 153.

Kacluva, India, 132.

Kaeo, New Zealand, 442.

Kaffraria, 311, 321, 324, 326, 332,

482 ; diocese of St. John's, 312.
Kagoshima, 220.

Kagwa, Sir Apolo, of Uganda, 352.
Kahia, East Africa, 342.
Kaiteng, 192.
Kajarnak, first Christian convert in

Greenland, 51 f.
Kalasapad, 99.
Kalat State, 274.
Kalema, son of Mtesa, 350.
Kali Yuga, 6.
Kaliana, Bishop of, 65.
Kalimpong, 117.

Kambole, Northern Rhodesia, 341.
Kamehameha, King, 445 f.
Kamiesbcrgen, Namaqualand, 321.
Kamtchatka, 276.
Kanakas, 438, 458.
Kandahar, 275.
Kandy, 146-8.
Kanglnva, Corea, 254.
Kang-kei, Corea, 252.
Kangshi, Emperor of China, 177 f. ,

180.

Kansas, Indians in, 377.
Kansu, 165, 192, 205.
Kanye, 321.

Karens, Burma, 153, 155 f.
Karjat-Karmala, 140.
Kanvar, missionary work at, 68.
Kasai River, 303.
Kashgar, 212.
Kashmir, 93, 108.
Kasur, 132.
Katanga, 303.
Kataska, Mr., 234.
Katwa, 82.
Kavirondo, 353.
Kawimbe, Rhodesia, 311.
Keiskama Hoek, 311 f.
Keith-Falconer, Ion, 271.
Kemp, Van der, 316.
Kenia province, 342.
Kennedy, S., re St. Thomas in

India, 63.
Kerman, 273.
Kerr, Dr. J. G., in China, 195.

Kervyn, R. P. L., rv-R.C. missionary

methods in China, 21, 208.
Khama, chief, 3'J1.
Khammamctt, 133.
Khand\va, 110.
Khartoum, 282.
Khasia tribes in Assam, 82.
Khcdgaon, orphanage at, 104.
Kiangsu, 191, 195.
Kiating, 191.
Kidd, Dudley, re education in South

Africa, 25.

Kikuyu, 342 f. ; conference at, 504.
Kilima Njaro, 346 f.
Kimberley and Kuruman, diocese of,

314.
King, Rev. Copland, of New Guinea,

463.
King, Bishop G. L., of Madagascar,

361.

King, Rev. G., West Australia, 432.
Kingsbury, Rev. Cyrus, 377.
Kinsolving, Bishop L., of Brazil,

412, 416.

Kistna, India, 123.
Kiukiang, 191.
Kiungani, Zanzibar, 345.
Knight, Bishop, of Cuba, 400.
Knight, Bishop A. M., of Rangoon,

156.
Knox, John, re spread of Christian

missions, 369.
Kodoli, 132.
Kohl, J. G., re Jesuit missionaries

in Canada, 383.
Kohlhoff, J. C. and J. B. V.,

missionaries in South India, 81.
Kolar, 102, 133.
Kolhapur, 132, 138.
Kols, India, 113, 118.
Komyo, Empress of Japan, 219.
Konde, East Africa, 346.
Koranna, the, 325.
Kota-Kota, 339.
Kottayam, 95 ; C.M.S. college at,

129.

Kourou River in French Guiana, 426.
Koweyt, Persian Gulf, 272.
Krapf, Dr., 342.
Krishna, characteristics of, 61.
Krishnagar, Bengal, 116.
Kuansa, 306.

Kublai Khan, his request for mis-
sionaries, 170-2.
Kuching, 262 f.
Kudat, 262.
Kudlinfu, 190.
Kugler, Christian, in Abyssinia,

357.

518

INDEX

Kumasi, 292.
Kumiai Kyokwai, 230 f.
Kunnankulam, 95.
Kurdistan, 270.
Kurnool, 97, 123.
Kurseong, 141.

Kurunian, Bechuanaland, 317, 321.
Kusaie Island, 459 f.
Kuswogmiut Indians, 380.
Kwa Magwaza, 313.
Kwangsi, 205.

Kwangsi and Hunan, diocese of, 190.
Kwangtung, 195 f.
Kweichow, 192, 195, 205.
Kyoto, 220, 233 ; Imperial university
at, 234.

Labasa, Fiji, 453.

Labrador, 52, 387.

Labuan, 261-3.

Labuan and Sarawak, diocese of, 256.

Ladrone Islands, 458, 460.

Ladysmith, 326.

Lagos, 294 f.

Lahore, 90, 93, 105-7 ; Forman

college at, 129.
Laingsburg, 326.
Lambarene, French Congo, 306.
Lambeth Quadrilateral, the, 501-3.
Lambuth, Bishop, 303.
Laos, 258.

Las Casas, 401-4, 406.
Lateward, Rev. H., in Fiji, 453.
Lavigerie, Cardinal, 354.
Lawes, Rev. W. G., New Guinea.

463.
Lawrence, Emily, in Madagascar,

361.

Lawrence, Sir John, 93.
Laws, Dr., Livingstonia Mission,

339 f.

Lazarists, congregation of, 491.
Lebombo, diocese of, 315.
Leeward Islands, 394 f., 449.
Lefroy, Bishop G. A., of Lahore and

Calcutta, 109.
Legge, Dr. James, 194.
Leh, Tibet, 217.
Leibnitz, Baron von, his advocacy

of foreign missions, 45.
Leigh, Rev. S., of New Zealand, 442.
Leitch, Dr., in South India, 36.
Leper asylums in Japan, 233 ;

Madagascar, 362; Zan/.ibar, 346.
Lewis, C. , re Burmese Buddhism,

157.

Lhasa, 217.
Liberia, 289 f.
Li fu Island, 450, 4621.

Liggins, Rev. J., 225.
Likoma Island, 338 f., 345.
Lima, Brazil, Jesuits in, 414.
Lipscomb, Bishop C., of Jamaica,

392.

Livingstone, Dr. David, 317-20, 343.
Livingstone, Dr., of China, 34.
Livingstone, Victoria Falls, 341 f.
Livingstonia Mission, 339 f.
Lloyd, Rev. A., 219 f. ; re teaching

of Amida sects, 162 f.
Loanda, 306, 318.
Loango, negro Jews in, 473.
Lobengula, 321.

Lockhart, Dr., in China, 35, 182.
Lofthonse, Archdeacon, 388.
Long Cay, West Indies, 394.
Longford, S. II., re Corcan civiliza-
tion, 247.

Lopez, Gregory. See Alu.
Lotus Scripture, The, 161.
Loudon, Nyasaland, 340.
LoureiK'o Marques, 315, 338.
Lovedale, 324 f., 337.
Loyalty Islands, 450.
Loyola, Ignatius, in Jerusalem, 68 f.,

467.

Lualaba River, 303.
Lucknow, 93, 111, 132; Memorial

Hospital at, 37 ; diocese of, 110 ;

A.M.E.C. College at, 129.
Ludhiana, 90, 133, 140; School of

Medicine at, 30.

Lugard, Sir F., in Uganda, 350.
Lull, Raymond, 19, 285 f., 466 f.
Lulua River, 303.
Lushai Hills, Assam, 117.
Luther, re uselessness of foreign

missions, 42.
Lutheran missions in India, 92, 121,

124, 136 f.
Liitkens, Dr., Danish Court chaplain,

47.

Luzon Island, 264, 267.
Lyoiis Missionary Society, 489 f.
Lytton, Indian school at, 57, 385.

Mabondo, 303.

Mabotsa, 318.

Macao, 209.

Macarius, Russian Orthodox mission-
ary, 276.

Macdonald, I). B. , re Sufi mysticism,
468.

Macedonia, 270.

Mackay, Alexander, 348 f.

Mackay, J., of Delhi, 92.

Mackenzie, Bishop Charles, 313,
343 f.

INDEX

519

Mackenzie Memorial Mission to

Zuhiliinc], 313.

Markeuxie River district, 388.
Mackinaw, 368.
Maelaren, Rev. A. A., ol New

Guinea, 463.

Mac([iiarie, Governor, 430.
Macsparran, Rev. Dr. J., of Nara-

gansett, 375.
Madagascar, 358-64.
Madras, 96 ; number of Christians

in Presidency of, 120f. ; C.M.S.

College in, 129.
Madras, Bishop of (Dr. Whitehead),

re missions in Punjab, 100 ; re

Christian reunion and the episco-
pate, 502 f.
Madura, 99, 131 f. ; Robert di

Nobili at, 75.
Magdalena River, South Ameiiea,

429.
Magdalene Asylum founded by

Loyola, 69.
Magomero, 343.
Mahagi, West Africa, 304.
M'lhaica Creek, British Guiana, 425.
Mai Island, New Hebrides, 454.
Maigrot, Vicar of Fukien, 178.
Maistre, Father, in Corea, 249.
Mala Island, 458.
Malabar, 101 f.

Malacca, 256 f. ; college at, 182.
Malagasy Bible, 363.
Malaita Island, 457.
Malay peninsula, 256 f.
Malay, translation of the Bible into,

56.
Malays in Capetown, 311 ; in

Australia, 438.
Malaysia, Moslems in, 465.
Malek, River Nile, 283, 304.
Malekula Island, 457.
Malua Island, 451.
Manaar, Ceylon, 145.
Manargudi, Wesleyan College at, 129.
Manawatu district, 443.
Manchuria, 21 2 f.
Mandalay, 151, 155 f.
Mandeville, Sir J., re tomb of St.

Thomas, 66.

Mangungu, New Zealand, 442.
Manichean temples in China, 163 n.
Manichees in China, 162 f., 168.
Manila, 264.

Manteo, American Indian, 368.
Manu, teaching of, in regard to

women, 40.

Maoris, mis-dons to, 440-4.
Mapanza, Rhodesia, 341.

Maples, Bishop, of Nyasaland, 309.

Mapoon Mission, 432, 135.

Mar Dionysius, 66.

Mar Elia iv., Nestorian Patriarch,

66.

Mar Timothcus, 67.
Mar Titus Thomas, 67.
Marchini's map of missions, 180 f.
Miirco Polo. See Polo.
Marianne Islands, 458, 462.
Mariolatry in South America, 412.
Maritzburg, 313.
Marks, Dr. J. E., 154 f.
Marquesas Islands, 4-17, 449, 462.
Marquette, Pere, 368.
Marsden, Rev. Samuel, 430, 440,

448.

Marshall Islands, 458 f., 462.
Marshman, missionary at Serampore,

81.
Martin, Dr. W. A. P., in China,

195.

Martyn, Rev. Henry, 84, 273, 467.
Marval, Dr. Alice, of Cawnpore, 29,

111.
Masai country, 349.

Mascoutin Indians, 368.
Maseru, 314.

Mashonaland, 326, 329 f., 332 f. ;
diocese of, 315.

Masih, Rev. Abdul, 84, 112.

Masiza, Canon, 312.

Massachusetts, Charter of, 369.

Masulipatam, 79, 98, 129, 13:J.

Matabele, 320, 332 f.

Matacos, Argentine, 422.

Matara, 146.

Mateer, C. W., 195.

Mather, Bishop, re character of West
Indian negroes, 394.

Maubant, P., in Corea, 249.

Maulmein, Burma, 152, 156.

Mauritius, 359, 364 f.

Maxwell, Dr. James, in China, .">.".

Mayhew, missionary to Indians, 370.

Mbereshi, Rhodesia, 341.

M'Clatchie, Rev. T., 183.

M 'Donald, Archdeacon, 385, 388.

McDougall, Bishop F. T., of Singa-
pore and Sarawak, 36, 262.

M'intyre, Mr., of Manchuria, 2^50.

M'Kidd, missionary in the Trans-
vaal, 329.

M'Lcod, Sir Donald, 93.

McMahon, Archdeacon, re Malagasy
Christians, 361-4.

M'Mullen, Rev. R. M., of Cawnpore,
92.

Medak, India. 132.

520

INDEX

Medcs, early missions to, 164.

Medhnrst, W. H., rework of Candida
in Cliina, 176.

Medical missions, 28-38.

Medical missionaries, aims of, 28.

Melanesia, 453-58.

Melanesian Mission, 454-6.

Memberton, Chief, 382.

Mendoza, Christoval de, in Paraguay,
419.

Menendez in Florida, 366.

Menentillus in South India, 66.

Menominees of Wisconsin, 368.

Mermet, M., in Japan, 225.

Meru, East Africa, 346.

Mestizos in Central America, 405,
419.

Methodist missions. See under
Societies.

Methods of missionary work, 8-41.

Metlakalitla, 381, 385.

Mexico, New, Indians in, 366, 379.

Miami's, Indians, 377.

Michigan, Indians in, 377.

Micronesia, 458-64.

Middleton, Bishop, of Calcutta, 85.

Mienchu, 189.

Milan, Edict of, 22.

Milan, Society for Foreign Missions
of, 152.

Milapur, tomb of St. Thomas at,
63, 76 ; cross discovered at, 65.

Mill, Rev. W. H., at Calcutta, 85.

Mill Hill missionary college, 354.

Miller, Dr. W., in Nigeria, 37, 299.

Miln, Rev. J., minister to Indians,
371.

Milne, Rev. Dr. R., in Cliina, 182,
256.

Milton, John, and Jamaica expedi-
tion, 392.

Mindano Island, 264 f.

Mindon, King, 151, 155.

Minnesota, Indians in, 368.

Miraj, India, 132.

Missionaries, number of, 494.

Missionary societies, 477-92. See
Societies.

Mitchell River Mission, 432-6.

Mityana, Uganda, 353.

Moa Island, 433.

Modderpoort, 314.

Moffat, Robert, 317.

Mohammed, the spirit by which he
was inspired, 472.

Mohammedans, early missionaries
to, 68 ; missions to, 465-72 ; dis-
tribution of, in the world, 465 ;
political influence of, 469 ; work

amongst, in India, 77, 133 f. ; in
Uganda, 350 ; in Nyasalnnd, 340 ;
in Madagascar, 363 ; in Mauritius,
365 ; in Sumatra, 260 ; in Russia,
276 ; in Dutch East Indies, 119.

Mohawk Institution, 57.

Mohawks, 371.

Mohican language, New Testament
in, 370.

Molokai Island, 446.

Molopolole, South Africa, 321.

Molucca Islands, 82, 264.

Mombasa, 342, 353.

Mongolia, 214-6.

Monroy, Gaspard de, in Paraguay,
420.

Montana, Indians in, 379.

Montessori, Dr., re methods of
educating children, 24 f.

Montezuma, ruler of Mexico, 406.

Montgomery, Bishop H., in Mela-
nesia, 455.

Montgomery, Sir Robert, 93.

Montserrat Island, 394.

Moose Fort, 384.

Moosonee, Indians in, 384.

Moradabad, 132.

Morales, a Dominican missionary,
178.

Moravian missions, 49-55. See
Societies.

Morgentcr, Mashonaland, 330.

Mormons, in New Zealand, 443 ; in
Pacific, 446, 449, 452.

Morocco, 286 f.

Moros, Philippines, 266.

Morrison, Rev. Robert, in China,
181-3, 185.

Mosega, South Africa, 310.

Moskito Shore, 405.

Moslem. See Mohammedan.

Mossel Bay, 326.

Mosul, 270.

Mota Island, 454.

Motito, South Africa, 322.

Mott, Dr. J., in China, 201, 203 f. ;
re co-operation in missionary work,
499 ; re need to study Church
history, 506.

Moukden, 212 f.

Moule, Rev. A. C., 163 n., 168 n.,
173, 175 n. ; re failure of Nestorian
and Franciscan missions in China,
173.

Moule, Bishop George E., of Mid-
China, 190.

Mozambique province, 346.

Mozumdar, Anando Chunder, 89.

Mpolokoso, Northern Rhodesia, 341.

INDEX

521

Mtesa, King of Uganda, 247 f.

Miiller, Max, re work of Bishop
Pattcson, 45 5.

Multan, 93, 105.

Murata, Wakasa, 244 f.

Mtirhu, Chota Nagpur, 131.

Muruts, Borneo, 202.

Muscat, 272.

Mutiny, Indian, 92-4.

Mutyalapad, 99.

Mwanga, King of Uganda, 348-51.

Mwcru, Lake, 303.

Myera, South Africa, 330.

Myladi, Kingeltaube at, 83.

Mylne, Bishop, of Bombay, re St.
Paul's missionary methods, 11-3 ;
re work of Carey, 83.

Mysore, 102, 120, 126, 132; Govern-
ment educational policy in, 102.

Nablous, 271.

Nabunaga, Oda, of Japan, 34, 222.

Nadia, Bengal, 115 f.

Nagari, India, 132.

Nagasaki, 222, 224 f., 227, 245.

Nagereoil, 129, 132.

Nagoka, Dr., re Christian missions

in Japan, 226.
Nagpur, 110, 129, 131.
Nairobi, 342.
Namaqaaland, 325, 333.
Namaquas, 316 f.
Namasudras in Bengal, 115.
Nanchang, 191.
Nandyal, 99.
Nanking, 185 f., 195, 197 ; university

at, 202.

Naragansett, New England, 375.
Nasik, 132.
Nasirabad, 131.
Nassau, 394.

Natal, 326, 331 f. ; diocese of, 312.
Natick, baptism of Indians at, 370.
Navajo Indians, 380.
Navarin Island, 424.
Nazareth, Palestine, 271.
Nazareth, Tinnevelly, 94, 131.
Neale, Dr., re activities of Nestorian

missionaries, 64.
Neau, Elias, 371.
Neemuch, 132.

Neesima, Dr. Joseph, 231, 233.
Negapatam, 139.
Negri Sembilan, 256.
Negritos, 264.
Nellore, India, 07, 123.
Nestorian missions in China, 64,

164-9 ; monument at Hsiantu,

165 f.

Nestorius, 164.

Neve, Drs. A. and E. , in Kashmir,

108.

Nevis Island, 394.
Nevius, Dr. J. L., 195.
New Britain Island, 453, 461.
New Brunswick, Indians in, 56

386.

New Caledonia, 461 f.
New England, Indians and negroes

in, 374.

New England Company, 56 f., 385.
New Georgia Island, 458.
New Granada, 427.
New Guinea (Papua), 310, 462-4.
New Guinea, Dutch, 259, 464.
New Guinea, German, 464.
New Hebrides, 454, 456, 462;

French, 457.
New Hermannsburg, South Australia,

433.
New Jersey, Indians and negroes in,

371, 375.

New Lauenburg, 461.
New Mecklenburg, 461.
New Norcia Mission, West Australia,

432, 437.

New Pomerania, 461 f.
New Providence, West Indies, 394.
New South Wales Aborigines' Mis-
sion, 438.

New York State, missions in, 371 f.
New Zealand, 440-4.
Ncyoor, South India, 36, 132.
Niam-Niams, 304.
Nias Island, 259.
Nicaragua, 406 ; Moravian mission

in, 55.
Nicolai, Archbishop, in Japan, 236 f.,

244.

Nicolo de Conti, re Ni-storian Chris-
tians in India, 68.
Niger, the, Mission, 296-9.
Nigeria, 279.

Nihon Kiiisuto Kyokwai, 230 f.
Ningpo, 183, 185, 189.
Nippon Methodist Sei Kyokwai,

230 f.

Nippon Sei Kokwai, 230.
Nitschmann, David, a Moravian

missionary, 50.
Nine Island", 449 f., 462.
Nixon, Bishop, of Tasmania, 439.
Nizamabad, 132.
Nobili, Robert di, 75-7.
Noble, R. T., at Masulipatam, 98.
Norfolk Island, 454-6.
Norman, Rev. H. V., a martyr in

China, 190.

522

INDEX

Norris, Bishop F. L., of North China,
190 ; re Taiping revolt, 186.

Nova Scotia, Indians in, 2S7, 386.

Nukapu Island, 454 f.

Nukulaelae Island, 459.

Nukunono Island, 453.

Nundy, Gopinath, 89.

Nyasaland, 329 f., 338-40, 344.

Ny lander, missionary in Sierra Leone,
287.

Olmsi, West Africa, 298.

Ocean IsLmd, 459.

Odoric, Friar, in Tibet, 217.

Ogowe River, West Africa, 305.

Ohio, Indians in, 377.

Ojibbeway Indians, 385.

Oklahoma, Indians in, 377, 379.

Okuma, Count Shigenobu, re Chris-
tian influence in Japan, 241.

Oluwole, Bishop, in West Africa,
295, 298.

Ondonga, South Africa, 331.

Orieidas Indians, 372.

Ongole, 97, 129.

Ouitsha, River Niger, 296, 298.

Ontario, Indians in, 377, 386.

Opa Island, New Hebrides, 456.

Opium, abolition of importation into
China, 206 n.

Orange Free State, 313, 334.

Oraons, North India, 115.

Orders, R.C. religious, 491.

Orealla, British Guiana, 425.

Orientalsin U.S.A., 381 ; in Canada,
388.

Orissa, Christians in, 115 n., 122.

Ortega, Manuel de, in Paraguay, 419.

Orthodox (Russian) Missionary
Society, 276.

Osagcs Indians, 377.

Ottawas Indians, 367, 377.

Outlook, the missionary, 493-8.

Ovamboland, 331.

Owen, Rev. F., in Natal, 310.

Oxford University Mission to Cal-
cutta, 116, 130.

Paama Island, 457.

Pacific Coast, Spanish missions on

the, 367.

Pacific, Isles of the, 445-64.
Paihia, New Zealand, 441.
Paillalef, Ambrosio, Mapuche chief,

418.

Pakoi, 189.
Palacio, General, re Christianity in

Mexico, 417.
Palamcottah, 86, 94.

[ Palestine, 268, 271.
! Palmas, Cape, 290.

Pampas, the, 420.

Panama, 406.

Pankor, 256.

Pantffiiuis, 63.

Pao, missionary in Lifu Island, 450.

Farming, 189.

Papua (New Guinea), 462-4.

Paraguay, 409, 419-22.

Paramaribo, 427.

Paramaitha, a Buddhist missionary,
161.

Parana, 415, 422.

Paravas, Xavier's work amongst,
71 f.

Pare-gebirge, East Africa, 346.

Parker, Bishop H., of Uganda, 350.

Parker, Dr. Peter, in China, 35, 194.

Parshad, Ghokal, 93.

Parthia, St. Thomas' missionary
work in, 65.

Paterson, Dr. David, in Madras, 37.

Patna, 132 ; hospital at, 37 ; uni-
versity of, 130.

Paton, Rev. J. G., re results of work
in the New Hebrides, 457.

Patteson, Bishop C., of Melanesia,
454 f.

Paul, St., his missionary methods,
10-12.

Paul, a Chinese mandarin, 176.

Paumotu Islands, 447, 449.

Pawnees, Indians, 377.

Peo.k, Kev. Edmund, missionary
to Eskimos, 387 f.

Pegu, 151.

Peking, 190, 193-5 ; a Ncstorian
metropolitical see, 165 ; University
College in, 202 ; Union Medical
College in, 30.

Pelison, Pere, re Jesuit missions in
China, 178.

Pella, South Africa, 333.

Pelliot, P., 163, 168 n.

Pemba IslanJ, 345 f.

Penang, 256 f.

Penhalonga, 315.

Penna, F. della, in Tibet, 217.

Pennell, Dr., of Ban mi, 37, 274.

Pennsylvania, Indians and negroes
in, 371, 374.

Perak, 256 f.

Perry, Bishop, of Melbourne, 432.

Persia, 268, 270, 272 f., 469 ; early
missions in, 164 ; Nestorian bishop-
rics in, 165 ; Jewish converts in,
476.

Peru, 409, 416-8.

INDEX

523

Peshawar, 3, 105, 108, 129.

Peter, an early convert in India, 79.

Petrus Venerabilis, re missions to

Moslems, 406.
Pfander, Dr. C. G., in Persia, 133,

273.

Phalera, 104.
Philippine Islands, 264-7 ; Moslems

in, 466.
Phillips, Bishop C., of West Africa.

205.

Phokoane, South Africa, 314.
Phyong An, 253.
Piet lletief, 313.
Pilgrim Fathers, 369.
Pilkington, G. L., of Uganda, 351.
Pinetown, Natal, 333.
Pingyin, 190.

Pistis Sophia, a Gnostic Gospel, 162.
Pizarro, Francisco, 416, 419.
Plague in China, the, 29.
Pliitschau, Henry, 47 f.
Pocahontas of Virginia, 369.
Point Hope, Alaska, 381.
Political methods of evangelization,

18-22.
Polo, Marco, re Christians in South

India, 65.

Polynesia, 445-53 ; French, 449.
Pomarc, King of Tahiti, 448.
Ponape Island, 4CO.
Pondicherry, 141.
Poona, 104, 131 f.
Poonindie, Australian aborigines at,

431.

Popo, Little, Togoland, 293.
Porro, a martyr in Japan, 223.
Port of Spain, 398.
Port Moresby, New Guinea, 463.
Port-Villa, New Hebrides, 457.
Portal, Sir Gerald, in Uganda, 350,

354.

Porto Novo, Togoland, 293.
Porto Rico, 400, 410 f.
Potaro River, New Guiana, 425.
Pottawatomie Indians, 377.
Powhatan, Indian chief, 369.
Presbyterians, number of, in India,

121, 124.
Prescott, W. H., re character ol

Cortes, 406 f.
Pretoria, diocese of, 314.
Price, Nathan, of Harvard College,

405.
Protestantsche Kerk in Dutch East

Indies, 259-61.
Province Wellesley, 256 f.
Punjab, missions 'in, 91, 93, 104-9 ;

Christians in, 120.

Purser, Rev. W. C., re R.C. minions

in Burma, 152.
Putumayo Indians, 418.
Pyongyang, 253.

Quaque, Rev. P., Gold Coast, 291.
Quebec, Indians at, 382, 386.
Queen Charlotte's Island, 386.
Queensland, North, missions to abor-
igines in, 432-6.
Quepe, Chili, 419.
Quetta, 131, 273 f., 419.
Quilimane, East Africa, 318.
Quincy, Rev. S., in Georgia, 374.

Radama, King, 358.

Ragbir, Rev. C., in Trinidad, 398.

Rainsford, Rev. G., of Chowan, 373.

Raipur, 110.

Rajputana, 110, 137.

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 368.

Ram, Sita, of Cawnpore, 111.

Rama, Nicaragua, 405.

Ramabai, Pandita, 104.

Ramahyuk, Australian aborigines at,

432.

Ramakrishna Home of Service, 140.
Ramayana, influence of Christian

teaching on, 62 ; edited by Carey,

82.

Ramnad, India, 131.
Ramsay, Archibald, in Travancore,

36.

Ranavalona, Queen, 358 f.
Ranchi, Chota Nagpur, 112.
Rand at Johannesburg, 314, 328,

332.

Rangihona, New Zealand, 440.
Rangoon, 152-4, 156.
Raratonga Island, 449, 462 f.
Ratnapura, Ceylon, 146.
Ranch, a Moravian missionary in

New York State, 54.
Rawal Pindi, 131.
Rebmann, Rev. J., in East Africa/

342.

Red River Colony, 384.
Redonda Island, 394.
Reef Islands, 456.
Regions beyond Missionary Union in

Peru, 418.
Reid Christian College in Lucknow,

111.

Rene, Father, 383.
Resurrection, Community of the, in

the Transvaal, 315.
Reunion in the mission iield, 499-

500.

524

INDEX

Rhenius, Rev. C. T., in Tinnevelly.

86 f.

Rliodes, Bernard, in China, 34.
Rhodesia, Northern, 341 f . ; Southern,

322, 331.

Rhymilyk, missionary in Timor, 47.
Ricards, Bishop, in' Cape Colony,

333.

Ricci, Matteo, in China, 176-9.
Richard, Dr. Timothy, re Chinese

Buddhism, 163 n., 196 f.
Richter, Dr., re E.G. missionaries

in India, 75 ; re missions at Pesha-
war, 105.

Ridley, Bishop, of Caledonia, 386.
Riley, Bishop H. A., of Mexico,

408.
Rimitsu, a Nestorian physician in

Japan, 219.
Ringeltaube, Rev. W. T. , in Travan-

core, 83 f., 86.
Rio de Janeiro, 416.
Rio de Oro, 286.
Rio Grande do Sul, 416.
Rio Muni, 300.
Rio Pongo Mission, 286.
Riuzan, Yano, in Japan, 226.
Riversdale, South Africa, 326.
Ronnoke, Virginia, 368.
Robben Island, 328.
Robert Noble College, Masulipatam,

89, 270.

Robertson, Rev. R., Zululand, 3] 3.
Robinson, Rev. C., a martyr iu

China, 190.
Robinson, John, pastor to the Pilgrim

Fathers, 369.
Robinson, Rev. John Alfred, on the

River Niger, 298.
Rogers, Michael, in China, 176.
Romo-Syrians in South India, 66 f.,

121 f.

Roorkee, North India, 111.
Roper River Mission, 432, 435 f.
Rorke's Drift, 313.
Rosario, Nicolau do, 308.
Ross, Rev. J., of Moukden, 250.
Rovuma, East Africa, 344 f.
Rowc, Bishop, of Alaska, 381.
Roxbury, near Boston, 369 f.
Roy, Ram Mohan, 88.
Royal Society of Prussia, foundation

of, 45 f.

Royapuram, 132.
Rua Sura Island, 458.
Rudra, Principal, at Delhi, 109.
Rupertsland, Indians in, 384.
Rupununi, British Guiana, 425.
Rusape, Mashonaland, 315.

Russell, Bishop W. A., of North

China, 183.
Russian Orthodox Missions, in China,

211 f.; in Japan, 236 f., 254; in

Central Asia 275 f. ; in Alaska,

380.
Ryan, Bishop, of Mauritius, 364.

Sabatha, India, 132.

Sagar. India, 110.

Sahara Desert, its influence upon
human history, 277 f.

Saharanpur, 140.

St. Croix Island, West Indies, 51,
390.

St. Jan Island, 391.

St. Kitts Island, 391, 394.

St. Lucia Island, 398.

St. Salvador Island, 393.

St. Thomas Island, 50 f., 391.

St. Vincent, 389, 398.

Sakalava, Madagascar, 361-3.

Saker, Alfred, a missionary in the
Cameroons, 300.

Sala, Father, in French Guiana, 426.

Salem, India, 140.

Salisbury, Mashonaland, 315.

Salt, Syria, 271.

Salvadc, Bishop Rudesindns, 437.

Samarcand, Nestorian bishoprics in,
165.

Samoa, 451, 462.

San Cristoval Island, 457 f.

San Diego, California, 367.

San Domingo Island, 391, 399, 402.

San Francisco, Russian cathedral in,
380.

San Pedro de Jujuy, Argentina, 423.

San Salvador, West Africa, 301, 306 ;
Bishop of, 302.

Sandakan, 262.

Sandwich Islands, 445-7, 462.

Sangir Islands, 264.

Santa Cruz Islands, 454-6.

Santalia, 137.

Santals, work amongst, 116, 118,
131.

Santee Sioux Indians, 376.

Santo Island, 457.

Sao Paulo, 416 ; Bishop of, re religion
in Brazil, 415.

Saramaccas, Dutch Guiana, 427.

Saravia, Adrianus, re duty of evan-
gelizing the world, 43.

Sarawak, Borneo, 261, 263.

Sargent, Bishop E., 94.

Saskatchewan, Indians in, 385 f.

Satthianadan, missionary in Tinne-
velly, 86.

INDEX

525

Sault, Ste. Marie, Canada, 368, 383.

Savage Island, 449.

Sawabe, Rev. — , in Japan, 237.

Sawn Island, 264.

Scandinavian Independent Baptist

Union in South Africa, 331.
Schall, Adam, missionary in China,

177.
Schereschewsky, Bishop, in China,

191 f.
Scheuer, Rev. A., re Basel industrial

missions, 136 f.
Schmidt, George, in South Africa,

54 f., 309.

Schon, Dr., on river Niger, 296.
Schreuder, Hans, in Zululand, 331.
Schumann, T. S., Apostle to the

Arawaks, 427.
Schwartz, C. F., 49, 79-81 ; his

methods of work, 13 f.
Schweitzer, Dr. Albert, in West

Africa, 306.
Scott, Bishop C. P., of North China,

180.

Scottish Mission Industries, 104.
Scottish Society for the Propagation

of Christian Knowledge, 370.
Scruggs, W. L., re R.C. Church in

Colombia, 427 f.

Scudder, Dr. J., in India, 37, 96.
Sechele, Chief, 318.
Sechuana Bible, 317.
Seeker, Archbishop, re early work of

the S. P.O., 59.
Sedijiram, 203.
Sekondi, 292.
Selangor, 256 f.
Seleucia, Council of, 274.
Selkirk, 385.

Selwyn, Bishop George, of New Zea-
land, 441, 454 ; his description of

New Zealand savages, 5.
Selwyn, Bishop John, of Melanesia,

455.

Senegal River, 286.
Senegambia, 286.
Seoul, Corea, 249, 252-5.
Serampore, 81-3, 131.
Sergius, Bishop, in Japan, 237.
Serowe, South Africa, 321.
Settee, Rev. J., Canadian Indian,

384.

Seva Sadan, "Sisters of India," 140.
Severance hospital at Seoul, 30, 253,

255.

Seychelles Islands, 304.
Shang Ti, use of, in China, 177-9.
Shanghai, 185, 191, 193, 197.
Shans, Burma, 153.

Shansi, 192, 194 f. ; university in,

202.
Shantung, 195 f. ; Christian university

in, 202; diocese of, 190.
Shaohing, 189.
Sharon, South Africa, 325.
Sharrocks, Dr. A. M., re Presbyterian

missions in Corca, 251 f.
Shaw, Rev. B., in South Africa,

321.
Shaw, Rev. R., in British Honduras,

405 f.

Shears, Rev. A., 154.
Shekomeko, missionary station in

New York State, 54.
Shembagamur, India, 141.
Shen, use of, in China, 179.
Shensi, 192, 195, 206.
Sherbro, West Africa, 289.
Sherman, Father, re religion in

Porto Rico, 410.
Shillong, Assam, 117.
Shiloh, South Africa, 328.
Shimabara, Japan, 223.
Shintoism, 238 f.
Shiraz, 84, 273.
Shire" district, 338-40.
Sholinghur, 132.
Short, Bishop, of Adelaide. 431.
Shoshong, South Africa, 321, 326.
Shuck, Rev. Jehu, in China, 183.
Shupanga, South Africa, 333.
Si Lidung, 260.
Sialkot, 92, 123, 129, 132.
Siam, 257 f. ; Nestorian bishoprics in,

165 ; Chinese in, 183.
Siangtan, 190.

Siberia, 275 f. ; Moslems from, 467.
Sibi, Baluchistan, L'74.
Sidotti, Father, in Japan, 224.
Sierra Leone, 287-9.
Sighelm sent to India by King

Alfred, 65.

Silinda, Mount, in Rhodesia, 328.
Silveira, Gonzalo da, 307.
Sindh, missions in, 104.
Singanfu. See Hsianl'u.
Singapore, 256.
Singh, Rev. David, 113.
Singkawang, Dutch Borneo, 263.
Sioux Indians, 376.
Sisters of India SoL-u-ty, 140.
Six nations of the Indians, 59.
Skeena River, 386.
Skelton, Rev. T., 109.
Smirnoff, E., re Russian mi^iuns,

275 n., 276.

Smith, Captain, of Virginia, 369.
Smith, Dr. F. Porter, in China, 35.

526

INDEX

Smith, Bishop G., of Kong-Kong,

183, 185.
Smith, Stanley, in China, 177 n.,

192.
Smith, Rev. Dr. W., in Pennsylvania,

374.

Smyth, Bishop, of Lebombo, 36, 315.
Smythies, Bishop, of Zanzibar, 344.

SOCIETIES : —
British Empire —
Africa, Inland Mission, 304, 342.
Africa, North, Mission, '282, 285,

'480.
Africa, South, General Mission,

332.
Africa, South, Reformed Ministers'

Union, 338.
Africa, South, Baptist Missionary

Society, 332.
Africa, South, Presbyterian Church

of, 332.
A ustralian Presbyterian Church,

in Corea, 253.
Baptist Convention of Ontario, in

Bolivia, 419.
Baptist Industrial Mission, at

Blantyro, 341.
Baptist Missionary Society ( B. M. S. ),

478; in India, 82, 109, 111, 116,

135 f. ; in Ceylon, 146 ; in China,

196 f. ; in West Africa, 300, 306 ;

in West Indies, 391, 393, 399.
Baptist Zenana, Mission, 136.
Baptists, English General, in China,

185 ; Canadian in India, 100.
Bible Societies, in India, 140 ; in

China, 197 ; in Japan, 214 ; in

Manchuria, 212 ; in Mongolia,

215.
Brethren, Plymouth, in Mongolia,

216 ; in West Africa, 203 ; in

South America, 419, 429.
Canada, Anglican Church in,

mission to China, 192 ; to Japan,

230 ; Methodist Church of, in

Japan, 231.
Canadian Pentecostal Movement,

in Mongolia, 216.
Canadian Presbyterian Missions, in

India, 132, 138; in China, 197 ;

in Formosa, 246 ; in Corea, 253.
Cap? General Mission, 332.
China Inland Mission (C.I.M.),

187 f., 189, 192 f., 212, 217.
Church Missionary Society

(C.M.S.), 478 ; in India. 90, 93-

5, 97-9, 101-6, HO, 112, 115f.,

120, 129, 133-5; in Ceylon,

146 f. ; in China, 183, 189 f. ; in
Japan, 227, 230 ; in Turkish
Empire, 270 f. ; in Persia, 273;
in Kcypt, 281 f., 467 : in West
Africa, 287 f., 296-9; in Natal,
310 ; in East Africa, 342, 347-
56 ; in Mauritius, 364 ; in
Canada, 381, 385-8 ; in West
Indies, 392 f. ; in South America,
425 ; in Australia, 431 ; in New
Zealand, 440-3.

Church, of England Zenana Mission-
ary Society (C. K. Z.M.S.), in
India, 110, 131, 133-5.

Congo Inland Mission, 303.

Edinburgh Medical Missionary
Society, 111, 483.

Edinburgh Missionary Society, 482.

Evangelical Union, of South
America, 418, 423.

Friends' Foreign Missionary Asso-
ciation, 480; in India, 110; in
Ceylon, 148 ; in Pemba, 345 ; in
Madagascar, 362.

Glasgow Missionary Society, 482.

Jcics, London Society for Promoting
Christianity amongst, 474-6 ;
British Society for the Propaga-
tion of the Gospel among, 474 ;
Barbican Mission to, 474 ; East
London Fund for, 474 ; Mildmay
Mission to the, 474.

Lepers, Mission to, in India and
the East, 483. ,

London Missionary Society
(L.M.S.), 478 f. ; in India, 88,
95, 97, 102, 112, 116, 129, 132,
139; in China, 181 f., 193f. ; in
Corea, 250 ; in Mongolia, 215 f. ;
in South Africa, 316-21 ; in
Madagascar, 358-61 ; in Maur-
itius, 365 ; in British Guiana,
424 f. ; in Australia, 431 ; in
Polynesia, 448-51, 453; in
Melanesia, 456, 459 ; in New
Guinea, 463.

Presbyterian Church of England
Missions, 480 ; in China, 183,
195 ; in Formosa, 246 ; in
Singapore, 257.

Presbyterian Church , of Ireland
Missions, 480 ; in India, 132 ; in
China, 197 ; in Manchuria, 212 ;
in Mongolia, 216.

Primitive Methodist Missionary
Society, 480 ; in West Africa,
300 ; in Northern Rhodesia, 342.

Salvation Army, in Indin, 107,
120, 131, 139 ; in Ceylon, 148 ;

INDEX

527

in Corea, 251 ; in Java, 261 ; in
South Africa, 232; iu Canada,
387.

Scotland, Church of, 482 ; in India,
116 f., 129, 137 ; in China, 137 ;
in Tibet, 217 ; in East Africa,
339-42.

Scotland, Episcopal Church of, 483;
in India, 110 ; in KaflYaria, 312.

Scotland, United Free Church of,
482 f. ; in India, 96, 104, 110,
116 f., 129, 131, 133, 137; in
China, 187 ; in Manchuria, 212 ;
in Palestine, 271 ; in Arabia,
272 ; in West Africa, 299 ; in
East Africa, 338-42; in West
Indies, 391 ; in Melanesia, 457.

Society for Promoting Christian
Knowledge (S.P.C.K.), 58, 83.

Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel in Foreign Parts (S. P. G. ),
58-60, 477 f. ; in India, SO, 86,
94, 99, 104, 109-11, 113-18, 129,
131, 133-5 ; in Ceylon, 147 ; in
Burma, 154-9 ; iu China, 187,
189 f. ; in Japan, 228, 230 ; in
Corea, 254 ; iu Malaysia, 257 ; in
Borneo, 261 f. ; in West Africa,
290-2 ; in South Africa, 311-5 ;
in East Africa, 338 ; in Mada-
gascar, 360-4 ; in Mauritius,
364 ; in North America, 371-5 ;
in West Indies, 391 - 400 ;
in Central America, 404-6 ;
in South America, 425 f. ; in
Australia, 430, 432-6, 438 ; in
Polynesia, 446, 451, 453; in
Melanesia, 455.

South American Missionary Society
(S.A.M.S.), 418, 420-4.

Student I'dfinilrer Missionary
r,/;Vm(S.V.M.U.), 205, 481.

Sudan Pioneer Mission, 282.

Sudan United Mission, 282, 299,
480.

United Methodist Missionary
Society, 480.

Universities' Mission to Central
Africa, 319, 338, 343-6.

Welsh Calvinistic Methodists, 480 ;
in Assam, 117, 124.

Wesleyan Methodist Missionary
Society (W.'&LS.), 429 ; in India',
101 f., 112, 116, 129, 132, 138 f. ;
in Ceylon, 146 ; in Burma, 154 ;
in China, 187 ; in West Africa,
287, 292 f., 296 ; in South Africa,
321 f. ; in East Africa, 338 f. ; in
West Indies, 391-8 ; in Central

America, 401, 406 ; in South
America, 4%J5 ; in Polynesia,
450-3.

Wcnlcyans, Australian, in South
Sea Islands, 458, 4(31 ; in New
Guinea, 404.

Young Men's Christian Association
(Y.M.C.A.), in India, 143; in
Burma, 154 ; iu China, 197 ; in
Corea, 254.

Zenana Bible and Medical Mission

(Z.B.M.), in India, 112, 132.
American —

Adventists, in Rhodesia, 342.

Baptist Missionary Union

(A.B.M.U.), 483 f. ; in India,
91, 97, 101, 117, 129, 131 f.,
136 ; in Burma, 152-4 ; in
China, 183 ; in the Philippines,
267 ; in West Africa, 303.

Baptist Home Missionary Society,
378.

Bible Society, 381.

Board of Commissioners fur
Foreign Missions (A. B.C.F.M.),
483 f. ; in India, 91, 95, 104,
131 f., 139 ; in Ceylon, 146; in
China, 18S, 194 ; in Japan, 230 ;
in Turkish Empire, 269 ; in
Persia, 273 ; in West Africa,
306 ; in South Africa, 327 f. ;
in East Africa, 338 ; in North
America, 377 f. ; in Ccutral
America, 408 ; in the Pacific,
445 f., 459 f.

Central American Mission, 404,
406.

Christian and Missionary Alliance,
487 ; in China, 197 f in Tibet,
217 ; in South America, 423.

Foreign Christian Missionary
Society, in China, 202.

Friends' Board of Foreign Missions,
487 ; in East Africa, 342.

General Miss>o/iary Board of the
Church of the Brethren, 487.

Lutherans, in India, ]00.

Methodist Episcopal <"n <//•:!•.
(A.M.E.C.), 484 f. ; in India, 94,
97, 101 f., 104, 106-8, 110-12,
124, 131-3, 138 f. ; in I'.nrmn,
154; in China, 184 ; in Japan,
231; in Corea, 253; iu Singa-
pore, 257 ; in Sumaiia, 2(10; in
Borneo, 261, 263 ; in the Philip-
pines, 267 ; in West Africa, 290,
304, 306 ; in South Africa, 322 ;
in East Africa, 338, 342; in
North America, 37'.\

528

INDEX

SOCIETIES, American (cont.) —

Methodist Episcopal Church, South,
485; in China, 184; in Japan,
231 ; in Corea, 253 ; in West
Africa, 303 ; in North America,
379.

Methodists, Free, in South Africa,
338.

Norwegian Lutheran Mission, in
Madagascar, 362.

Presbyterian Church, 486 ; in
India, 91, 111 f., 120, 131 f.,
138; in China, 184, 188, 195;
in Japan, 225, 230 ; in Corea,
251-3 ; in Siani, 258 ; in Syria,
270 ; in West Africa, 290, 300,
305 ; in North America, 377,
380 f. ; in Central America, 405,
408 ; in South America, 416,
418, 429.

Presbyterian Church, South, 486 ;
in China, 197 ; in Corea, 253 ;
in West Africa, 303 ; in South
America, 416.

Presbyterian Church, United, 468 ;
in India, 91, 106, 131 ; in
North Africa, 282, 468.

Protestant Episcopal Church,
485 f. ; in China, 191 f. ; in
Japan, 225, 230 ; in the Philip-
pines, 266 ; in Liberia, 290 ; in
North America, 376, 379-81 ;
in West Indies, 399 f. ; in South
America, 416 ; in the Pacific,
446 f.

Reformed Dutch, Church, 486 ; in
India, 96, 131 ; in China, 184 ;
in Japan. 225-7, 230 ; in
Arabia, 272 ; in Rhodesia, 341 ;
in North America, 378.

Southern Baptist Convention, 484 ;
in China, 183, 197 ; in West
Africa, 296 ; in South America,
416.

United Brethren, 487, 289.

United Foreign Missionary Society,

486.

Women's Union Missionary
Society, 111.

French —

Paris Evangelical Mission Society,
488 f. ; in West Africa, 305 ; in
Rhodesia, 341 ; in Madagascar,
362 f. ; in Polynesia, 447,
449.

German—

Berlin Missionary Society, 487 ;
in China, 197 ; in South Africa,
325 ; in East Africa, 346.

Side field Mission, in East Africa,

346.
Evangelical Synod of North

America, 110.
Gossner Mission, 489 ; in India,

136 ; in the Cameroons, 300.
Hanoverian Free Church Mission,

in South Africa, 327.
Hcrmannsburri Mission, 487-9 ;

in South Africa, 326.
Leipzig Missionary Society, 482-9 ;
its attitude towards caste, 88,
92, 95 f. ; in East Africa, 346.
Methodists, German, in Togoland,

293.

Moravian Missions, 49-55, 217,
309, 328 ; in Tibet, 110 ; in
East Africa, 346 ; in North
America, 375, 381 ; in South
America, 391, 393-9, 424, 427.
NeuendcttcJ.sau Society, in Aus-
tralia, 433.

Ncukirchen Mission Institute, in
Java, 261 ; in East Africa, 342.
North German (Bremen) Mission,

in West Africa, 293.
Rhenish Mission, 487-9 ; in
China, 184 ; in Dutch East
Indies, 259-61, 263 f. ; in
German South - West Africa,
307 ; in South Africa, 325.
Schleswig - Holstein Evangelical

Lutheran Mission, 1 36.
Netherlands —
Dutch Reformed Church, in Dutch

East Indies, 259, 264.
Dutch State Church, 259, 264.
Netherlands Missionary Society,

489, 259, 263 f.
Societe Beige de Missions Pro-

tcstantes au Congo, 303.
Utrecht Association, in Dutch East

Indies, 259.
Utrecht Union, 489.
Roman Catholic Missions, 489-92 ;
in India, 66-78, 114 f., 118,
121-3, 141 f. ; in Ceylon, 148 ;
in China, 21. 170-84, 208-11 ;
in Manchuria, 213; in Japan,
220-4, 235 f. ; in Formosa, 246;
in Corea, 248 f., 251; in Mon-
golia, 214 f. ; in Tibet, 217 f. ;
in Malay States, 257 ; in
Borneo, 263 : in the Philippines,
265 f. ; in North Africa, 282-6 ;
in West Africa, 289 f., 293,
296, 299, 305-7 ; in South
Africa, 332-4 ; in East Africa,
338, 343, 346 f., 350, 354-7 ;

INDEX

529

in Madagascar, 362 ; in Mauri-
tius, 365 ; in North America,
377, 379 ; in Canada, 382-4 ;
in West Indies, 389, 397-400 ;
in Central America, 401-8 ; in
South America, 409-29 ; in
Australia, 437 f. ; in New
Zealand, 444 ; in Polynesia,
446 f., 449, 451-3; Melanesia,
457-62 ; in New Guinea, 464.
Russia —

Orthodox Missions, 276 ; in China,
211 f. ; in Japan, 236 f., 254;
in Central Asia, 275 f. ; in
Alaska, 380.
Scandinavia —

Church of Norway Mission, in
South Africa, 331.

Danish Evangelical Lutheran Mis-
sionary Society, 489 ; in India,
137 ; in Manchuria, 212.

Finnish Missionary Society, 489 ;
in German South-West Africa,
307 ; in South Africa, 331.

Norwegian Missionary Society, in
South Africa, 331.

Scandinavian Missionary Alli-
ance, in Japan, 232 ; in Mon-
golia, 216; in Tibet, 217; in
South Africa, 331 ; in East
Africa, 342.

Sweden, Church of, 489, 331.

Swedish Evangelical National Mis-
sionary Society, 489, 136, 356,
357.

Swedish Fatherland Institution,
110.

Sicedish Holiness Union, in South
Africa, 331.

Sircdish Missionary Covenant,
487.

Sivedish Missionary Society, 489 ;
in China, 197, 212; in Mon-
golia. 216 ; in West Africa, 306.

Swedish Missionary Union, 489.
Switzerland —

Basel Missionary Society, 488 f. ;
in India, 92, 101, 132, 136 f.,
142 ; in China, 197 ; in Borneo,
261 ; in West Africa, 292 f., 300.

Mission Roinande, 338, 489.
Society Islands, 447.
Society of the Servants of India, 140.
Sociological results of missions, 496 f.
Sofala, West Africa, 307.
Solano, St. Francis, in Peru, 417.
Solomon Islands, 456, 462.
Somaliland, Italian, 356 ; British,

356.

34

Song Do, Corea, 254.

Soochow, 191.

South Africa, 307-38.

South African Mission Society, 325.

South African Society for Promoting

the Extension of Christ's Kingdom,

316, 329.
South America, 409-29 ; population

of its States, 409.
South India United Church, 142.
South Sea Evangelical Mission, -158.
South Sea Islanders in Australia,

438.
Southey, Robert, re condition of

Brazil, 414.
Spaniard Harbour, South America,

423.
Speer, Dr. R. E., quotations by, 415,

417.

Spener, re missionary obligation, 45.
Spokanes, Indians, 378.
Squire, E. B., in China, 183.
Srinagar, 93, 108 ; medical mission

at, 32.
Stach, Moravian missionary to-

Greenland, 51.
Stanford, Rev. W., in Central

America, 405.
Stanley, H., on the Congo, 302, 319 ;

in Uganda, 347 f.
Staun Creek, British Honduras.

406.

Statistics, recent missionary, 493 f.
Steere, Bishop, of Zanzibar, 344.
Steinkop, 325.
Stellenbosch, 325.
Stern, Dr., in Abyssinia, 357.
Stevenson, R. L., in Samoa, 451 ;

re character of J. Chalmers, 463.
Stewart, Dr. James, of Lovedale, 27,

324.
Stewart, John, Apostle to the Wyan-

dottes, 378.
Stirling, Bishop, of Falkland Islands,

423.
Stock, Dr. Eugene, re missions in

Sierra Leone, 288 ; re number of

Jewish converts, 473.
Strachan, Bishop, of Rangoon, 36 f.,

156.

Straits Settlements, 256 f.
Stratford, New England, 375.
Stringer, Bishop, of the Yukon, 388.
Studd, C. T., 192.
Student Volunteer Movement. See

Societies.

Study of missions, need of, 495 t.
Sudan, Egyptian, 282 f.
Suh mysticism, 468.

530

INDEX

Sumatra, 259 f. ; converts from

Islam in, 467.
Snmba Island, 259, 264.
Sunda Islands, 264.
Surinam. See Guiana.
Susi, Livingstone's servant, 319.
Suva, Fiji, 453.
Suwon, 254.
Swain, Miss, first woman medical

missionary, 41.
Swatow, 195.
Swaziland, 313, 317. 332.
Sykes, T., in South Rhodesia, 320.
Sylhet, Assam, 117.
Syria, missions in, 270 f.
Syrian Christians in South India,

66-8, 95 f., 121, 124.
Syro-Chaldeans in South India, 67.
Szechwan, 180, 189, 192, 209.

Tahiti, 447, 462.

Tai Tsung, a Chinese emperor, 166.

Taianfu, 190.

Taichow, 189.

Tainau, Formosa, 195.

Taiping revolt, 185 f.

Takings, in Burma, 154.

Talaut Islands, 264.

Taljhari, Bengal, 116.

Tainatave, Madagascar, 360, 363.

Tamils, in Burma, 154, 156 ; in
Ceylon, 149 ; in Singapore, 257.

Tananarive, Madagascar, 361.

Tanganyika, Lake^ 339, 341, 347.

Tanjore, Schwartz at, 80 f.

Tanket, China, Nestorian bishoprics
in, 165.

Tanna Island, Melanesia, 457.

Taochow, 217.

Tarn Taran, 131.

Tartary, 209, 275.

Tasmania, 438 f.

Tatsienlu, 217.

Taufaahan, King of Tonga, 450.

Taylor, Dr. J. Hudson, 35, 187,
192 f.

Taylor, General Reynell, 93.

Taylor, Bishop W., in West Africa,
304.

Teheran, Jews baptized in, 476.

Tekenika, South America, 423.

Telugu country, 96-101.

Teso country, 353.

Tete, East Africa, 308.

Teton Sioux Indians, 380.

Tetsujiro, Professor Inoue, re Chris-
tianity and patriotism, 242 f.

Texas, Indians in, 367.

Tezpur, Assam, 117.

Thaba Bosiu, 322 f.

Thaba Nchu, 313, 322.

Theal, Dr., re Jesuit missions in

East Africa, 308.
Theatins, mission of the, 69.
Theophilus the Indian, 64.
Thibault. Father, in Canada, 383.
Thibaw, King, 155.
Thlotse Heights, 314.
Thoburn, Bishop, 94.
Thomas, a bishop from Edessa, 64.
Thomas, Dr. John, in India, 84.
Thomas, Rev. R. J., in Corea, 250.
Thomas, Rev. S., missionary to

Indians, 372.
Thomas, St., in India, 63-6, 68; in

China, 164.
Thompson, Rev. Thomas, on the

Gold Coast, 290 f., 375.
Thomson, Rev. W. F. R., in Kaf-

fraria, 324.

Thornton, Rev. D., in Egypt, 281.
Threlkeld, L. E., in Australia, 431.
Tiberias, medical mission at, 271.
Tibet, 216-8.

Tien, use of, in China, 177 f.
Tien Chu, 178.
Tientsin, 194 ; college at, 27.
Tierra del Fuego, 423 f.
Tiger Kloof, South Africa, 317, 321.
Til lie, Dr., re Burmese Buddhism,

157.

Timbuctoo, 286.
Timur, 274.
Tinkowski, re persecution of Chinese

Christians, 209.
Tinnevelly, missions in, 86 ; Indian

Missionary Society of, 100.
Titicaca, Lake, Bolivia, 419.
Toba, Lake, Sumatra, 260.
Tobago Island, 391, 398.
Tobas, Argentina, 422.
Togoland, 293.
Tokelau Islands, 453.
Tokonami, Mr., re religion in Japan,

239 f.
Tokyo, Imperial university in, 243 ;

Jesuit college in, 236.
Tokyo, South, Bishop in, re self-
support in Japan, 234.
Tollygunge, Bengal, 85.
Tomlin, Rev. C., re missions to

Australian aborigines, 434, 437.
Tonga Islands, 450 f., 461.
Tongaland, 313, 332.
Tongatabu Island, 448.
Tongoa Island, 457.
Tonking, missions in, 180, 211.
Toro, kingdom of, 353.

INDEX

531

Torres, Abbot, 437 f.

Toungoo, Burma, 155 f.

Tournon, papal delegate, to India,
76 ; to China, 178.

Townsend, Rev. H., 294.

Tranquebar, Ziegenbalg at, 48 ;
Schwartz at, 79 f. ; Lutheran
mission at, 131.

Transvaal, 314 f., 326, 329 f.

Trappists in Natal, 333.

Travaucore, 65, 83, 86 ; burning of
Metropolitan of, 74; L.M.S. mis-
sions in, 123 ; primary education
in, 123 ; number of Christians in,
120 f.

Tiv\v, Rev, J. , in Burma, 155.

Trichinopoly, Schwartz at, 79 f. ;
college at, 89, 96, 129,

Trichur, 95.

Trigault, Nicholas, re, St. Thomas's
visit to China, 164 ; re Nestorian
Christians in China, 175 n.

Trincomalee, Ceylon, 148.

Trinidad Island, 391, 398.

Tripoli, 285, 469.

Trivandrum, 133.

Trubanaman, Queensland, 432,

Truchsees, Count, 44.

Tsiou, a Chinese missionary in Corea,
248.

Tucker, Bishop, of Uganda, 351-8.

Tugwell, Bishop, in West Africa,
295, 297 f.

Tukudh Indians, 385.

Tulsi Das, influence of Christian
teaching on, 62.

Tunhuang, China, 163.

Tunis, 284 f. ; R. Lull in, 466.

Turakina, New Zealand, 443.

Turkestan, 275 ; Chinese, 192, 212.

Turkish Empire, missions in, 269 f.

Turk's Islands, 391, 394.

Turner, Bishop, of Corea, 254,

Tutuila Island. 451.

Tuzulutlan, Central America, 402 f.

Udaipur, 131.

Uganda, 347-56.

Ugogo, 342, 346.

Ukaguru, 342.

Ulu Island, 461.

Umpumulo, Zululand, 331.

Umtali, Old, 322.

Umtata, Kaffraria, 312.

Unangu, East Africa, 338.

Underwood, Rev. H. G., in Corea,

252.

Union Islands, 453.
Unitarian Mission in Japan, 232.

United Provinces, India, 110-2, 120.

Unity, movements towards, 499 ; in

India, 142.

Universities, Indian, 90.
University colleges, in India, 128-30 ;

in China, 201-3.
University, proposed Christi;m, in

Japan, 234 ; in Cairo, 468.
Unyamwezi, 346.
Unyamyembe, 347.
Urban n. and the Crusades, 471.
Urban v. sends a mission to China,

172.
Urdaneta, Friar, in the Philippines,

265.
Urmston, Rev. J., in North Carolina,

374.

Uruguay, 409, 422.
Urumchi, Turkestan, 212,
Usagara, 346.
Usambara, 344 f.
Usaramo, 346.
Usher, Rev. J., in New England,

374.

Ushuwaia, South America, 423.
Utrecht, Zululand, 313.

Valdivia, in Chili, 419.

Valentine, Dr., at Jeypore, 32.

Van Riebeek, 309 ; his method of

teaching slaves, 19.
Vancouver Island, Indians in, 384.
Vasco da Gama, his visit to India,

68.
Vaughan, Cardinal, re religion in

New Granada, 410.
Veddahs, work amongst the, 146.
Venezuela, 409, 427-9.
Vengurla, India, 132.
Veniaminoff, Archbishop John, 276,

380.

Venkayya, Pagolu, a Telngu Chris-
tian, 98.

Ventimiglia, Father, in Borneo, 263.
Verapoly, 141.
Verbeck, Dr. G. F., in Japan, 225.

227.

Victoria, Mashonaland, 315.
Vidal, Bishop, of Sierra Leone, 287.
Villa Rica, Brazil, 415.
Villegaignon, Nicholas Durand cle, in

Brazil. 44, 415.
Virgin Islands, 390, 394.
Virginia, 368 ; college for Indians in,

57.

Vizagapatam, 97, 136.
Vohimare, Madagascar, 360.
Volkner, Rev. C. S., in New Zealand,

441.

532

INDEX

Vos, Rev. M. C., Cape Colony, 316.
Vryburg, 321.
Vryheid, 313.

Waiapu, diocese of, 443.

Waimate, industrial mission at, 440.

Walfisch Bay, 331.

Walpole Island, Lake Superior, 383.

Wanganui River, New Zealand, 444.

Wantage Sisterhood in Poona, 104.

War, European, its effect upon
missions, 498.

Ward, A., re Mapoon Mission, 435.

Ward, James, at Mapoon, Queens-
land, 435.

Ward, missionary at Serampore, 81.

Wsirdha, India, 131.

Warneck, Dr., re Dutch missions,
46 ; re Danish-Halle missions, 49 ;
re Christians in Sierra Leone, 288.

Warren, George, in Sierra Leone,
287.

Warren, Rev. T., in Central America,
405.

Washington State, Indians in, 379.

Wayika, West Africa, 303.

Weeks, Bishop, of Sierra Leone, 288.

Weihsien, 190, 196.

Weipa, Australian aborigines at,
435.

Weithaga, East Africa, 342.

Wellington, New Zealand, 443 f.

Wellington, South Africa, 322.

Wellington Bay, N.S.W., aborigines
at, 431.

Weltz, Baron Justinian von, a mis-
sionary in Dutch Guiana, 45.

Wesley, Rev. John, as an S.P.G.
missionary in Georgia, 374.

Wesleyan Conference, Australian, its
work in New Zealand, 442.

West, Rev. S., in Canada, 384, 386.

West China Union University, 20 n.

West Indies, 389-400.

Westcott, Bishop Foss, of Chota
Nagpur, 110.

Westcott, Bishop George, of Luck-
now, 110.

Westermann, Professor D., re dis-
tribution of Mohammedan peoples,
465.

Wherry, Rev. Dr., re missions to
Moslems in India, 469 f.

Whipple, Bishop, of Minnesota, 376.

Whitehead, Bishop, of Madras, re
Christian reunion and the episco-
pate, 502 f.

Whitehead, Rev. G., re a Christian
hermit in Burma, 153 f.

Whiteley, Rev. J., of New Zealand,

442.
Whitley, Bishop S. C., of Chota

Nagpur, 114.
Widdicombe, Canon, re missions in

Basutoland, 314.
William, King Frederick, his letter

to Buusen, 184.
Williams, Bishop C. M., in Japan,

225.

Williams, Dr. Daniel, 57.
Williams, Rev. H., in New Zealand,

440.
Williams, Rev. John, in South Sea

Islands, 449, 451 f.
Williams, Bishop W., of Waiapu,

New Zealand, 440.
Willis, Bishop, of Honolulu, 451.
Willis, Bishop, of Uganda, 351 f. ;

re moral outlook in Uganda, 355.
Wilson, Bishop, of Calcutta, 87,

104.
Wilson, C., missionary in New

Zealand, 440.

Wilson College, Bombay, 89.
Windward Islands, 398.
Winnebagos Indians, 368.
Winnimera district, Victoria, 432.
Winnipeg, Chinese in, 388.
Winter, Rev. R., in Delhi, 109.
Winter, Mrs., 37.
Wisconsin, Indians in, 372, 379.
Wittenberg, a document issued by

faculty of, 44.

Wolfe, Rev. J. R., in China, 190.
Wolferstan, Father, re Christians

in Mongolia, 214.
Wolff, Dr. Joseph, in Persia, 273.
Women, colleges for, in India, 128 ;

Hindu testimony in regard to

status of, 39 f.
Women, work of, in the mission

field, 38-41 ; National Indian As-
sociation, U.S.A., 378.
Won San, Corea, 454.
Wonneroo, Australian aborigines at,

432.

Wood, Rev. J. B., of Lagos, 295.
Worcester, South Africa, 325.
Wreningham, Mashonaland, 315.
Wright, Rev. W., in South Africa,

310.

Wuchang, 191, 196.
Wuchow, 196.
Wuhu, 191.

Wupperthal, South Africa, 325.
Wuras, a missionary in Kaffraria,

326.
Wusih, 191.

INDHX

53

3

Wyandottes, Indians, 377 f.
Wynberg, 310.

Xavier, St. Francis, in India, 13,
69-74 ; in China, 175 ; in Japan,
220 f.

Xavier, Geronimo, in North India,
77, 133.

Yammonsee Indians, 372 ; prince of,
baptized in London, 373.

Yangchow, 191.

Yao tribes, 339.

Yarkand, 212.

Yarrabah, mission to aborigines at,
432-4.

Yedo, Japan, 225.

Yenchowfu, 190.

Yente, Yang, a Chinese traveller,
163 n.

Yezd, Persia, hospital at, 273.

Yorubaland, 294-6.

Young, Bishop, in Cuba, 400.

Young Men's Christian Association
in India, 143 ; in Japan, 232 ; in
Corea, 254.

Young Women's Christian Associa-
tion in Japan, 233.

Ysahcl Island, 458.

Yuan Shihkai, President of China

198, 201.

Yukon territory, Indians in, 385 f.
Yungchen, Chinese Emperor, 180.
Ynngchow, 190.
Yunnan, 192, 195, 258.

Zaitun, China, 172.

Zambesi River, 307 f. ; Industrial

Mission, 339, 341.
Zangzok, China, 191.
Zanzibar, 343-6.
Zaria, Nigeria, 299.
Ziegenbalg, Bartholomew, 47-9.
Zigua, East Africa, 345.
Zinzendorf, Count von, 50, 54.
Zonnebloem College, Capetown, 311.
Zoroastrians in China, 168.
Zucchelli, a missionary on the Congo,

302.

Zulu Bible, 328.
Zululand, 313.
Zwemer, Dr. S. M., re Moslem

population of the world, 465 ; re

prospects of missions to Moslems,

470 f.
Zwingli, his teaching in regard to

pious heathen, 43.

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CRITICAL COMMENTARY

ON THE HOLY SCRIPTURES OF
THE OLD & NEW TESTAMENTS

Some of the Scholars who
have contributed volumes :

DRIVER

SAN DAY

HEADLAM

SKINNER

EXETER

PLUMMER

GRAY

ALLEN

BIGG

BROOKE

&c.

Prof. S. R.
Prof. Wm.
Dr. A. C.
Principal J.
The Bishop of
Dr. Alfred
Prof. G. B.
Principal W. C.
Prof. Charles
Dr. A. E.
&c.

A LIST OF THE VOLUMES
NOW READY WILL BE FOUND
IN THE FOLLOWING PAGES

T. BL T. CLARK

EDINBURGH AND LONDON

VI. 14

' It is impossible to speak too highly of the
industry and learning which are shown in the
carrying out of this great work.' — Spectator

' The publication of this series marks an epoch
in English exegesis.'— British Weekly

GENESIS

By Principal JOHN SKINNER,
D.D.

12/6

NUMBERS

By Prof. GEO. BUCHANAN
GRAY, D.D., D.Litt.

DEUTERONOMY

By Prof. S. R. DRIVER,
D.D.

Third Edition, I2/-

JUDQES

By Prof. G. F. MOORE,
D.D.

Second Edition, I2-/-

SAMUEL I. & II.

By Prof. H. P. SMITH,
D.D.

CHRONICLES I. & II. By Prof. E. L. CURTIS,

Ph.D., D.D.

EZRA and
NEHEMIAH

By Prof. L. \V. BATTEN,
Ph.D., S.T.D.

10/6

ESTHER

By Prof. L. B. PATON,
Ph.D.

10/6

PSALMS

By Prof. CHAS. A. BRIGGS,
D.D., D.Litt.

Two Volumes, each IO/6

[Continued on next page

' So far as it has gone the Series satisfies the
highest expectations and requirements.'

Bookman

' Its thorough scholarly exegesis and intro-
duction has made the " International Critical
Commentary" famous in all the world.'

Expository Times

PROVERBS

By Prof. C. H. TOY, D.D.

ECCLESIASTES

By Prof. G. A. BARTON,
Ph.D.

8/6

ISAIAH

AMOS and HOSEA

Introduction, and Comment-
ary on Chapters I to 27
By Prof. G. BUCHANAN
GRAY, D.D., D.Litt.

I a/-
By President W. R. HARPER,
Ph.D.

•a/-

MICAH, ZEPHANIAH, By Profs. J. M. P. SMITH,
NAHUM,HABAKKUK, Ph.D.; W. H. WARD,
OBADIAH, and JOEL LL.D.;and J. A. BEWER,

Ph.D. 12/6

HAQQAI,ZECHARIAH By Prof. H. G. MITCHELL,
MALACHI, & JONAH D.D. ; J. M. P. SMITH,

Ph.D.; and J. A. BEWEK,
Ph.D. I a/-

ST. MATTHEW

ST. MARK
ST. LUKE

By Principal W. C. ALLEN,
M.A.

Third Edition, I2/-

By Prof. E. P. GOULD, D.D.
10/6

By ALFRED PLUMMER,D.D.
Fourth Edition, I 2/-

[Coatiaued on next page

ROMANS

"The International Critical ' Commentary "
has vindicated its claim to stand in the front
rank of modern English exegesis. Every
volume that has hitherto appeared has ranked
with the foremost on the book expounded."

Methodist Recorder

By Prof. WM. SAN DAY,

D.D., LL.D. ; and
A. C. HEADLAM, D.D.
Fifth Edition, 1 2/-

I. CORINTHIANS

II. CORINTHIANS

By the Right Rev. A. ROBERT-
SON, LL.D. ,Bishopof Exeter ;
and ALFRED PLUMMER. D.D.

I2/-

By ALFRED PI.UMMER,D.D.

EPHESIANS and
COLOSSIANS

By Prof. T. K. ABBOTT,
D.Litt. 10/6

PHILIPPIANS and
PHILEMON

By Prof. M. R. VINCENT,
D.D. 8/6

THESSALONIANS

By Prof. J. E. FRAME, M. A.
10/6

ST. PETER and
ST. JUDE

By Prof. CHAS. BIGG, D.D.
Second Edition, IO/6

By ALAN E. BROOKE, D.D.
10/6

JOHANNINE
EPISTLES

Messrs. CLARK will be pleased to forward
a full prospectus of the 'International Critical
Commentary ' (including a list of volumes
in preparation) to anyladdress on application

Jt

TO T* /""•¥ A "D IT 38 George St., Edinburgh
. OZ 1 • V-li-i/\.r\J.\., Stationers' Hall, London

London Agents: Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent, & Co. Ltd.

For the encouragement of
attractive and accurate preaching

The Greater Men
and Women
of the Bible

EDITED BY

James Hastings, D.D.

COMPLETE IN
SIX VOLUMES

'The interest of these Bible lives is inex-
haustible, and this volume will enrich every
sermon upon them.'

London Quarterly Review.

T£f T C\ A Ok" EDINBURGH
.(XI. V/L,^\.iV.IV AND LONDON

VI. 14

The Greater Men and

*THE proper study of mankind is man.' It is also
the most interesting study. See how biographies
pour from the press, and how eagerly they are read
and discussed.

Where is the man or woman to be found so
human or so everlastingly interesting as in the Bible ?
The preacher who announces a course of sermons
on the men and women of the Bible is sure of good
attendance as well as earnest attention. If he takes
the trouble to be accurate with his statements and
to show how the character of each person is de-
veloped, he leaves an impression, especially on the
young, which will never be effaced.

Dr. Hastings has prepared a series of volumes in
which all the Greater Men and Women of the Bible
will be dealt with. The character of each individual
will be carefully drawn, the leading events in their
lives described, and every feature and event will be
illustrated from modern literature. Thus the past
and the present will illustrate one another, and the
great principles of life and conduct will be enforced,
while at the same time care will be taken that the
historical facts are in accordance with the latest and
most reliable sources.

Women of the Bible

<§ix Volumes will cover the whole Bible—

Vol. I. Adam to Joseph Ready

Vol. II. Moses to Samson Ready

Vol. III. Ruth to Naaman Ready

Vol. IV. Hezekiah to Malachi Ready

Vol. V. Mary to Simon Autumn 1915

Vol. VI. Luke to Titus Spring 1916

SUBSCRIPTION TERMS
FOR THE SERIES

If the Complete Series of Six Volumes is sub-
scribed for, the set will be supplied at the low
Subscription price of Thirty-six Shillings net.

SINGLE VOLUMES

Any volume may be had separately at the
published price of Ten Shillings (subject to the
usual discount given for cash).

' This is an excellent book of its kind. The illustrations are
fresh, and they are well chosen. All Dr. Hastings' work is done
to perfection, and we wish him success in this effort to make
present-day preaching both attractive and accurate. ... If the
series maintains this high level its value to Bible-class teachers,
as well as preachers, will be great, and its success assured.'

Church Family Newspaper.

THE VALUE OF THE WORK

—GUARDIAN—

' This book is intended for preachers, but may certainly be
read by others with pleasure and profit. Beside the direct
instruction given in the text, the literature of interpretation,
criticism, and archaeology which a preacher ought to know is
referred to systematically, and the references are the right ones.
The book is workmanlike.'

-BRITISH WEEKLY—

' The book is a treasury of homiletic help, and contains
material for many sermons. We shall look with much pleasure
for its successors.'

—RECORD—

' The men and women are made to live before us, and,
although modern criticism is not ignored, it is not allowed to run
riot with the history. . . . The volumes are not to take the place
of clerical study and to dispense with sermon preparation. They
are to help preparation, and of their kind they are the best helps
we know.'

—PREACHER'S MAGAZINE—

'The chief characters of the Bible are described with such
fulness that no sermon upon them need lack apt quotation and
illustration, or sound exegesis.'

-BRITISH CONGREGATIONALIST—

' This work is sure to have a welcome from preachers and
students, as it brings much that is vital to the proper under-
standing and "perspective" of character of Bible men and
women.'

A Complete Prospectus with
Specimen Pages may be bad
:: on application ::

To ' ^'T A R \£ ^S George St., Edinburgh

• ** JL • V> J__i/~\l\.f^.j Stationers' Hall, London

London Agents : Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent, & Co. Ltd.

oi

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