/ HISTORY OF CLASSICAL
SCHOLARSHIP
FROM THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING
i 'W; FRANCE, ENGLAND AND NETHERLANDS
THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
EX LIBRIS
ERNEST CARROLL MOORE
A HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIP
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[All Rights reserved.]
FRANCESCO PETRARCA.
From a MS of Petrarch, De viris illitslribits (1379), m tlle Bibliotheque
Natioiiale, Paris. Reproduced (by permission) from M. Pierre de
Nolhac's Petrarque et /' ffiitnanisme, 1892 ; ed. i, 1907.
^Frontispiece to Vol. II.
A HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIP
VOL. II
FROM THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING
TO THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
(IN ITALY, FRANCE, ENGLAND, AND THE
NETHERLANDS}
BY
JOHN EDWIN SANDYS, Lnr.D.
FELLOW OF ST JOHN'S COLLEGE,
AND PUBLIC ORATOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE,
HON. LITT.D. DUBLIN
CAMBRIDGE
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
1908
A just story of learning, containing the antiquities and originals
of knowledges and their sects, their inventions, their traditions, their
diverse administrations and managings, their floiirishings, their
oppositions, decays, depressions, oblivions, removes, with the caitses
and occasions of them, and all other events concerning learning,
throughout the ages of the world, I may truly affirm to be wanting.
BACON'S Advancement of Learning, 1605, Book n, i 2.
Education
Library
B'l
PREFACE.
THE publication of the second and third volumes of the
present History of Classical Scholarship brings to a close
a work that was begun on New Year's day in 1900. The first
volume, extending from the sixth century B.C. to the end of the
Middle Ages, had only recently appeared, in October, 1903,
when I had the honour of being invited to deliver the Lane
lectures at Harvard in the spring of 1905, and the result was
published in the same year under the title of Harvard Lectures on
the Revival of Learning. The kindly reception accorded to the
first volume of the History in the United States of America, as
well as in England and on the continent of Europe, led to the
publication of a second edition in October, 1906.
The volumes now published begin with the Revival of Learning
and end with the present day. They include a survey of the lives
and works of the leading scholars from the fourteenth to the
nineteenth century. Each of the periods embraced in these
volumes opens with a chronological conspectus of the scholars of
that period, giving the dates of their births and deaths, and, in
the last four centuries, grouping them under the nations to which
they belong. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the
nations are arranged in the following order, — Italy, France, the
Netherlands, England, and Germany. This order has, however,
been abandoned in the eighteenth, in which the influence of
Bentley on Greek scholarship in Holland makes it historically
necessary to place England immediately before the Netherlands.
It has also, for still more obvious reasons, been abandoned in the
nineteenth century in the case of Germany. Hence, in the first
part of the third volume, the history of the eighteenth century in
Germany is immediately followed by that of the nineteenth in the
same country. There is good precedent for treating German
882516
VI PREFACE.
Switzerland in connexion with Germany, and French Switzerland
in connexion with France. Spain and Portugal concern us mainly
in the sixteenth century ; Belgium and Holland are treated
separately after the establishment of the Belgian kingdom in
1830. Under the same century, room has been found for a
retrospect of the history of classical learning in Denmark, Norway
and Sweden, in Greece and in Russia, and also for a brief notice
of its recent fortunes in Hungary. The history of the nineteenth
century in England is immediately followed by that of the United
States in the last chapter of the work.
The bibliography prefixed to the second volume indicates
most of the sources of information used in preparing the second
and third volumes. It may possibly give the impression that the
present work has had more precursors than is actually the case.
At Gottingen, Ernst Curtius attempted in vain to induce Sauppe,
and, failing him, Dittenberger, to write a general history of
classical philology. Brief and suggestive outlines of the subject
have appeared from time to time, but the present is the sole
attempt to cover the whole ground with any fulness of detail. It
is only the first century of the Revival of Learning in Italy that
has been treated in the admirable work of Voigt. Bursian's
valuable ' History of Classical Philology in Germany ' is almost
exclusively confined to that country ; a handy volume on classical
learning in Holland was written by Lucian Miiller ; and a very
brief sketch of its fortunes in Belgium was buried by Roersch in
a Belgian encyclopaedia. In the case of all the other countries
of Europe, and in that of the United States of America, there has
been no separate history; so that, in the present volumes, the
work has been done for the first time, not for England alone, but
also for Italy, France, Scandinavia, Greece and Russia, and for
the United States, while the history of scholarship in Holland,
Belgium, and Germany has been studied anew, and has been
brought down to the present date. The scholars whose lives and
works are reviewed in the present volumes are almost exclusively
those who have already passed away. It is only in a very few
cases, where complete silence would have been unnatural, that
I have mentioned the names of living scholars, such as Weil and
Comparetti.
PREFACE. Vll
In endeavouring to sketch the leading characteristics of a long
series of representatives of classical studies from the age of
Petrarch to the present time, I have repeatedly been reminded of
a custom of the ancient Romans, who placed in the niches of the
atrium the painted masks of their ancestors and connected their
portraits by means of the lines of the family tree. Those portraits
were regarded as the chief adornment of the home, and were
never removed except on the occasion of a death in the family,
when each of the masks was assumed by a living representative,
who was robed in the semblance of the departed, and took his
place in the funeral procession that ended at the Rostra in the
Forum. There the ' ancestors ' descended from their chariots,
and seated themselves in their curule chairs, while the next of kin
arose and rehearsed the names and deeds of the men enthroned
around, and finally those of him who had been the last to die1.
To the scholars of the present day these pages present a series of
their own imagines maiorum, each set apart in his several niche,
and grouped in order of time and place according to the centuries
and the nations to which they belong. They pass before us in a
long procession, and it is the author's privilege to come into the
mart of the world and to announce the names and the achieve-
ments of each to all who care to listen.
Portraits of nearly sixty scholars have been selected for re-
production in the present volumes. For the original engravings
or lithographs of seventeen of these2 I am indebted to Professor
Gudeman, formerly of Cornell and now of Munich, who generously
placed the whole of his collection at my disposal. M. Pierre de
Nolhac has kindly permitted me to copy the portrait of Petrarch
which forms the frontispiece of his classic work on ' Petrarch and
Humanism '. M. Henri Omont has readily allowed me to repro-
duce the portrait of Guarino, first published by himself from a MS
in England. Mr G. F. Hill, of the British Museum, has supplied
1 Polybius, vi 53; Pliny, N. If. xxxv 6; Mommsen's History of Koine,
book III, chap, xiii /////.
- liurman, Ernesti, Fabricius, Gronovius, Ilemsterhuys, Ileyne, Lachmann,
Lambimis, Meineke, Montfaucon, K. O. Miiller, Muretus, Niebuhr, Kitsclil,
Ruhnken, Salmasius, Vossius. The sources, from which these and all the
other portraits are ultimately derived, are indicated in the List of Illustrations.
Vlll PREFACE.
me with the cast of the medallion of Boccaccio. M. Salomon
Reinach has been good enough to select the engravings of Robert
Estienne, Casaubon, Du Cange, and Mabillon, photographed on
my behalf in the National Library of France, and also to facilitate
the reproduction of the portrait of Boissonade. The Rev. E. S.
Roberts, Master of Gonville and Caius College, now Vice-Chan-
cellor of Cambridge, has lent me an excellent photograph of the
Heidelberg portrait of Janus Gruter. Professor Hartman, now
Rector of the University of Leyden, has entrusted to me his
own lithographed copy of the presentation portrait of Cobet.
Messrs Teubner of Leipzig have readily permitted the reproduc-
tion of the particular portrait of Boeckh which, his son assured
me, was, in his judgement, the best. Professor von Wilamowitz-
Moellendorff, the distinguished son-in-law of Mommsen, has lent
me an admirable portrait of his father-in-law, drawn by Sir William
Richmond. Mr John Murray has given me a fine engraving of
the portrait of Grote, now in his own possession, and has allowed
me to reprint the copy of that portrait which is prefixed to the
Life of the historian. Messrs Alinari of Florence have permitted
the reproduction of Ghirlandaio's group of portraits of Ficino,
Landino, Politian and Chalcondyles ; photographers in London
have given similar leave in the case of the portraits of Erasmus
and of the late Sir Richard Jebb, while Messrs Ryman of Oxford
have enabled me to include in my list a portrait of Gaisford.
Lastly, Professor J. R. Wheeler of New York has sent me the
medallion of the American Sehool at Athens for reproduction
at the close of the present work.
Among those who have kindly supplied me with items of
biographical or bibliographical information I may mention, in
addition to M. Salomon Reinach, Mr John Gennadios, formerly
Greek Minister in London ; Professor Zielinski of St Petersburg,
who prompted his colleague Professor Maleyn to write on my
behalf a brief memoir on the native scholarship of Russia ;
Professor Sabbadini of Milan ; Professor Gertz of Copenhagen ;
Professors Schiick and Wide of Upsala and Dr Bygden, Librarian
of that University ; Dr V. van der Haeghen, Librarian of Ghent,
and J. Wits, assistant Librarian of Louvain, who presented me
with several memoirs of his fellow-countrymen ; Professors J. W.
PREFACE. ix
White and M. H. Morgan of Harvard, Professor E. G. Sihler of
New York, Professor Mustard of Baltimore, and the late Professor
Seymour of Yale ; Mr P. S. Allen, Fellow of Merton College,
Oxford ; Dr Karl Hermann Breul, of King's College, and
Mr Giles, Fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge. In the
transliteration of Russian names, I have followed the advice of
Professor Bury. My study of the original Danish, Norwegian,
and Swedish authorities on the lives of Scandinavian scholars has
been facilitated by Mr Magniisson, of the University Library,
while, in revising part of my chronological conspectus of editiones
principeS) I have had the benefit of some suggestions from
Mr Charles Sayle, M.A., of St John's College. Mr W. F. Smith,
Fellow of St John's, and translator of Rabelais, has supplied me
with a notice of that humanist. I have not invited criticisms
from my friends, but, when Mr Arthur Tilley, Fellow of King's,
offered to glance at that part of my pages which falls within
the province of his Literature of the French Renaissance, I gladly
accepted his offer. The few mistakes in other parts of the work
that had escaped my notice, and that of the careful readers at
the University Press, have been recorded in the Corrigenda.
The INDEX at the end of each volume is not confined to the
contents of the volume. In the case of the third volume, in
particular, it includes references to selected portions of the
general literature of the subject.
J. E. SANDYS.
MERTON HOUSE,
CAMBRIDGE,
July, 1908.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xii
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY xv
OUTLINE OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS OF PP. 1—466 . . xxiv
INDEX 467
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES.
page
History of Scholarship in Italy, 1321 — 1527 .... facing p. \
Edit tones Principes of Latin Authors . . . . . .103
Editiones Principes of Greek Authors ..... 104, 105
History of Scholarship, 1500 — 1600 . . . . . . .124
,, ,, 1600 — 1700 ....... 278
,, ,, 1700—1800 372
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
(1) FRANCESCO PETRARCA. From a MS of Petrarch, De viris illustribzts,
completed in January, 1379, for Francesco of Carrara, Duke of Padua, to
whom the volume is dedicated (Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, 6069 F).
Reproduced (by permission) from the frontispiece of M. Pierre de Nolhac's
Petrarque et I' Httmanisme, 1892. See M. de Nolhac's Excursus on the Ico-
nography of Petrarch, in vol. ii 245 — 257, ed. 1907 . . Frontispiece
(2) GIOVANNI BOCCACCIO. From a medallion in the British Museum,
inscribed IOHES • BOCATIVS • FLORE(NTINVS). Cp. Alois Heiss, Les Medail-
leurs de la Renaissance (1891), i 140 ...... 16
(3) VALERIUS FLACCUS, iv 307—317, with colophon and with Poggio's
signature. Facsimile from Codex Matritensis, x 81, Poggio's autograph copy
of the MS discovered by him at St Gallen in 1416. From a photograph sup-
plied by Mr A. C. Clark, Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford . . 24
(4) GUARINO DA VERONA. Reduced (by permission) from M. Henri
Omont's Portrait de Guarino de Verone (1905), the frontispiece of which is
derived from a photograph of the portrait painted in life-size at the end of the
MS of Guarino's translation of Strabo in the Phillipps library at Cheltenham
5*
(5) VITTORINO DA FELTRE. From a medallion by Pisanello in the
British Museum, inscribed VICTORINVS • FELTRENSIS • SVMMVS • MATHEMATI.
CVS • ET • OMNIS • HVMANITATIS • PATER • OPVS • PISANI • PICTORIS. Repro-
duced from the block prepared for the frontispiece to Woodward's Vittorino
(Cambridge, 1897); cp. G. F. Hill's Pisanello, pi. 54 . . . . 54
(6) MARSILIO FICINO, CRISTOFORO LANDING, ANGELO POUZIANO, and
DEMETRIUS CHALCONDYLES. Reproduced (by permission) from part of
Alinari's photograph of Ghirlandaio's fresco on the south wall of the choir in
Santa Maria Novella, Florence (cp. p. 64 n. 6) . . . . • 58
(7) ALDUS MANUTIUS. From a contemporary print in the Library of
San Marco, Venice, reproduced as frontispiece to Didot's Aide Manuce 94
(8) PIETRO BEMBO. From Bartolozzi's engraving (in the Print Room,
British Museum) of a portrait by Titian (1539) ..... 106
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Xlll
(9) ERASMUS (1523). From the portrait by Holbein in the Louvre;
reproduced (by permission) from a photograph by Messrs Mansell. Cp. p. 132,
n. i) 114
(10) VlCTORlUS. From the portrait by Titian, engraved by Ant. Zaballi
for the Ritratti Toscani, vol. I, no. xxxix (Allegrini, Firenze, 1/66) . 136
(ri) MURETUS. From Joannes Imperialis, Museum Historicum (Venice,
1640), p. no 148
(12) BUDAEUS. From the engraving in Andre Thevet, Portraits et vies
des homines illnstres (Paris, 1584), p. 551 .164
(13) CONCLUSION OF THE EPISTOLAE GASPARINI, the first book printed
in France (1470). From part of \\\e facsimile in the British Museum Guide to
the King's Library (1901), p. 40 ....... 168
(14) ROBERT ESTIENNE. From a photograph taken in the Cabinet des
Estampes, Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, from one of Croler's reproductions
of the original engraving by Leonard Gaultier (copied in Renouard's Anna/es,
P- 24) J 74
(15) TURNEBUS. From no. 127 of De Leu's Ponrtraictz (c. 1600), in the
Print Room of the British Museum . . . . . . .185
(16) DORAT. From no. 108 of De Leu's Potirtraiclz (c. 1600), in the
Print Room of the British Museum ....... 187
(17) LAMKINUS. From no. 2 in the first row of the frontispiece to
Part ii of Adolphus Clarmundus, Vitae darissitiioruiii in re literaria viromm
(Wittenberg, 1704) 188
(18) JOSEPH JUSTUS SCALICER. From the frontispiece of the monograph
by Bernays ; portrait copied from the oil-painting in the Senate-House,
Leyden ; autograph signature from Appendix ad Cyclomelrica in the Royal
Library, Berlin ........... 200
(19) CASAUBON. From a photograph of an engraving in the Cabinet des
Estampes, Bibliothuque Nationale, Paris ...... 206
(20) LINACRE. From a drawing in the Cracherode collection, in the
Print Room of the British Museum. Cp. p. 228 n. 3 . . . .234
(21) BUCHANAN. From Boissard's Icoius, in iv -22 (Frankfurt,
1598) 244
(22) MKLANCHTHON. From a print of Albert Diirer's engraving of 1*26
in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. Cp. p. 266 n. 2 . . . 264
(23) SALMASIUS. From the engraving by Boulonnois in Bullart's Aca-
demie (1682), ii 226 .......... 284
(24) Du CANGE. From a print in the Cabinet des Estampes, Bililio-
theque Nationale, Paris ......... 288
(25) MABILLON. P>om an engraving by Simonneau in the Cabinet des
Estampes, Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris ...... 295
(26) LIPSIUS. From the portrait by Abraham Janssens (1605), engraved
for Jan van der \Vouwcr by Pierre de Jode. Reduced from the large copy
in Max Rooses, Christophe Plantin (1882), p. 342 f. Cp. p. 306 and p. 304
"• 7 302
XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
(27) G. J. VossiUS. From Bloteling's engraving of the portrait by
Sandrart 308
(28) MEURSIUS. From the engraving in Meursius, Athenae Batavae
(1625), p. 191 310
(29) DANIEL HEINSIUS. From a photograph taken in the Print Room
of the British Museum from Snyderhuis' engraving of the portrait by
S. Merck . . . . . . . . . . . .312
(30) J. F. GRONOVIUS. From an engraving by J. Munnickhuysen 32 r
(He is represented with 25 unnamed contemporaries in the frontispiece of
his work De Sestertiis, L. B. 1691.)
(31) N. HEINSIUS. From the frontispiece of the posthumous edition of
his Adversaria (1742) ......... 324
(32) JANUS GRUTER. From a photograph in the possession of the Rev.
E. S. Roberts, Master of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, taken for
Dr A. S. Lea from the portrait in the University Library, Heidelberg . 360
(33) FORCELLINI. From part of the frontispiece to the London edition
of 1825 377
(34) MONTFAUCON. From a portrait by ' Paulus Abbas Genbacensis '
(1739), engraved by Tardieu fils, and reproduced by Odieuvre in Dreux du
Radier's L? Europe Illustre (1777), vol. v 386
(35) RICHARD BENTLEY. From Dean's engraving of the portrait by
Thornhill (1710) in the Master's Lodge, Trinity College, Cambridge (frontis-
piece of Monk's Life of Bentley, ed. 2, 1833) ..... 400
(36) RICHARD PORSON. Reduced from Sharpe's engraving of the por-
trait by Hoppner in the University Library, Cambridge . . . 426
(37) PIETER BUR MAN I. From an engraving .... 445
(38) HEMSTERHUYS. From an engraving by Schellhorn, published by
Schumann, Zwickau ... .... ... 448
(39) RUHNKEN. From a portrait by H. Pothoven (1791)' engraved by
P. H. Jonxis (1792), and lithographed by Oehme and Mtiller (Brunsv.
1827) . 458
(40) WYTTENBAC;I. From a photograph of the portrait in the Aula of
the University of Leyden . . . . . • • • .462
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY.
HiJBNER, E. Bibliographie der klassischen Alterthiimswissenschaft ;
Grundriss zu Vorlesungen iiber die Gesckichte und Encyklopiidie der klassi-
schen Philologie, ed. 2, 434 pp. 8vo, Berlin, 1889.
HALLAM, H. Introduction to the Literature of Europe, in centuries xv,
xvi, xvii ; chapters ii — v in Part I, and chapter i in Parts II, in, IV, 1837-9;
ed. 4, 8vo, London, 1854.
WiLAMOWlTZ-MoELi.ENDORFF, ULRICH VON. (i) Gescldchte des Tragi-
kertextes, in Euripides Herakles, ed. i, i 120 — 257, 8vo, Berlin, 1889; (2) Gr.
Unterricht, in Lexis, Reform des hoheren Schulivestns, 163 — 175, large 8vo,
Berlin, 1902.
CARTAUI.T, A. A propos du Corpus Tibullianntn ; un siecle de philologie
Latine classique, 569 pp. large 8vo, Paris, 1906.
CREUZER, F. Zur Geschichte der classischen Philologie, brief biographical
notices, with lists of later names, 238 pp. in Part v, vol. ii, of Deutsche
Schriften, Frankfurt, 1854.
FREUND, W. Triennium Philologicum ; Geschichte der Philologie, vol. i
pp. 20 — 112, ed. 1874; pp. 22 — 142, ed. 3, 8vo (with 379 brief biographical
notices, including no English scholars born since 1794), Leipzig, 1905.
REINACH, S. Manuel de Philologie Classiqne (1879), vol. i, i — 22 ;
ii i — 14 (Objet et Histoire de la Philologie], ed. 2, 8vo, 1883-4; Noi4veau
Tirage with bibliography of 1884 — 1906 on pp. ix — xxvi, Paris, 1907.
URLICHS, C. L. Geschichte der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft (1886),
in I wan Miiller's Haii'lbuch, vol. i 45 — 145, ed. 2, large 8vo, Miinchen, 1891.
PEZZI, D. Cenni storico-critici intorno allo studio della grecita, pp. 3 — 80
of La Lingua Greca Antica, large 8vo, Torino, 1888.
GUDEMAN, ALFRED. Grundriss tier Geschichte Jer klassischen Philologie,
224 pp. ; modern period, pp. 150 — 219, 8vo, Leipzig and Berlin, 1907.
KROLL, W. Geschichte der klassischen Philologie, 152 pp. 121110, Leipzig,
1908.
STARK, C. B. Handbuch der Archdologie der Kunst, (i) Systemalik und
Geschichte, 400 pp. large 8vo, Leipzig, 1880.
MICHAELIS, A. Die archiiologischen Entdeckungen des xi*. Jahrhun-
derts, 325 pp. 8vo, Leipzig, 1906.
S. II, b
XVI SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY.
CHABERT. Histoire des etudes d* epi graphic grecque en Europe, Paris, 1907;
R. DE LA BI.ANCHERE, Histoire de fepigraphie romaine, 63 pp., Paris 1887.
LARFELD, W. Geschichte der griechischen Epigraphik, in vol. I, A ii, of
Handbuch, large 8vo, Leipzig, 1908.
BURSIAN, C. (i) Jahresbericht iiber die Fortschritte der classischen Alter-
thums-wissenschaft; (2) Bibliotheca Philologica Classica; (3) Biographisches
Jahrbuch ; Berlin, 1875 f ; now edited by W. KROLL (Reisland), Leipzig.
KROI.L, W. Die AltertumsT.uissensch.aft im letzten Vierteljahrhunderl,
547 pp. 8vo, Leipzig, 1905.
ROUSE, W. H. D. The Year's Work in Classical Studies, 8vo, ioo6f
(Murray), London.
JOCHER, Allgemeines Gelehrtenlexicon, 1750 etc.; SAXIUS, Onotnasticon
Litterarium, 1775 — 1803 ; BAYLE, Diet. Historique, ed. Beuchot, 1820-24 ;
MICHAUD, Biographie Universelle, Ancienne et Moderne, nouvelle ed., 45 vols.
imp. 8vo, Paris, 1843-65; DIDOT, Nouvelle Biographie Generate, ed. Hoefer,
46 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1852—66; La Grande Encyclopedie, 31 vols. (Lamirault),
Paris; etc.; ECKSTEIN, F. A., Nomenclator Philologorum, 656 pp. small 8vo,
Leipzig, 1871 ; POKEL, W., Philologisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon, 328 pp. 8vo,
Leipzig, 1882.
Portraits of Scholars, etc.
Jovius, PAULUS (Paolo Giovio). Elogia virorum literis illustrium...ex
eiusdem Musaeo...ad vivuni expresses imaginibus exornata, 234 pp. folio,
Basileae, 1577.
THEVET, ANDRE. Portraits et vies des hommes illustres, Paris, 1584.
See portrait of Budaeus, p. 164 infra.
BOISSARD, J. J. (1528 — 1602). Icones virorum illustrium doctrina et
eruditione praeslantium, in four parts with 50 portraits in each part, 410,
Francofurti, 1597-99 ; all the portraits engraved by Theodore de Bry (1528 —
1598); with letterpress, in parts i, ii, by Boissard ; and, in parts iii, iv, by
T. A. Lonicerus. Half-a-century later the series was continued in the Biblio-
theca Chalcographica (1645-52), — part v reproducing the portraits in parts i — iv,
with about 40 new portraits; part vi containing 50 portraits by Seb. Furck, and
parts vii, viii, ix, 50 each by Clemens Ammonius. See portrait of Buchanan,
p. 244 infra.
DE LEU (1562 — 1620). Pourtraictz de plusieurs hommes illustres; broad-
sheet containing 144 portraits, Paris, c. 1600. See portraits of Turnebus and
Dorat, pp. 185, 187 infra.
MEURSIUS. Athenae Batavae, small 410, Leyden, 1625. See portrait of
Meursius, p. 310 infra.
IOANNES IMPERIALIS (Giovanni Imperiale). Museum Historicum, Venice,
1640. See portrait of Muretus, p. 148 infra.
BUI.LART, ISAAC. Academic des Sciences et des Arts, 2 vols. folio, Brux-
elles and Amsterdam, 1682. See portrait of Salmasius, p. 284 infra.
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY. XV11
CLARMUNDUS, ADOLPHUS (i.e. Johann Christian Ruediger). Vitae claris-
simorum in re literaria virorum, in eleven parts, i2mo, Wittenberg, 1704-14.
Thirty small portraits in the frontispieces of parts i and ii, and 20 in those of
parts iii and iv. See ' Lambinus', p. 188 infra.
SCHROCKH, J. M. Abbildungen...beruhmter Gelehrten, 3 vols. i2mo,
Leipzig, 1764-9. See portrait of Fabricius, frontispiece to vol. iii.
ALLEGRINI, GIUSEPPE. Ritratti a" tiomini illustri Toscani con git elogi
istorici, 3 vols. folio, Firenze, 1766-70. See portrait of Victorius, p. 136
infra.
DREUX DU RADIER. D Europe Illustre, 5 vols. folio, Paris, 1777. See
portrait of Montfaucon, p. 386 infra.
HOFLINGER, L. (photographer). Philologen des (i) xiv — xvi, (2) xvii —
xviii, (3) xix Jakrhunderts : 34 + 34 + 29 small medallion portraits reproduced
on three plates, Dorpat, 1871 ; now out of print ; list on cover of Eckstein's
Nomendator Philologorum.
The Revival of Learning and the early History of
Scholarship in Italy.
GALLETTT, G. C. Philippi Villani liber de civitatis Florentines fatnosis
civibus...ntinc primum cditus, et de Florentinontm Liiteratura principes fere
synckroni scripiores [Manetti, Cortesius etc.], 4to, Florence, 1847.
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* ,* For further bibliographical details, see the footnotes.
OUTLINE OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS.
BOOK I. THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING IN ITALY,
c. 1321 — c. 1527 A.D. . . . 1^123
Chronological Table, 1321 — 1527 A.D. . facing p. i
CHAPTER I. Introduction. The four principal periods in the modern
History of Scholarship, (i) Italian, (2) French, (3) English and Dutch,
(4) German. The Renaissance. Petrarch and Boccaccio . i — 16
CHAPTER II. The Villa Paradise and San Spirito. Coluccio Salutati.
Chrysoloras. Giovanni di Conversino. Giovanni Malpaghini. Gasparino
da Barzizza 17 — 23
CHAPTER III. The Recovery of the Latin Classics by Poggio, Lan-
driani, Francesco Pizzolpasso, Enoch of Ascoli, Sannazaro, Politian, Giorgio
Galhiate, Parrasio, and Fra Giocondo ; and of the Greek Classics by Guarino,
Aurispa and Filelfo, Bessarion, Constantine and Janus Lascaris. The study
of classical archaeology by Poggio, Ciriaco, Flavio Biondo, Andrea Mantegna,
Felix Felicianus, Giuliano da San Gallo, and Fra Giocondo . 24 — 42
CHAPTER IV. The early Medicean age in Florence. Roberto de'
Rossi. Palla Strozzi. Cosimo dei Medici. Niccolo de' Niccoli. Traversari.
Manetti. Leonardo Bruni. Marsuppini. Vergerio. Guarino. Vittorino.
Filelfo 43—57
CHAPTER V. The earlier Greek Immigrants. Gemistos Plethon.
Bessarion. Theodorus Gaza. Georgius Trapezuntius. Joannes Argyropulos.
Demetrius Chalcondyles. Nicolas V and the translations of the Greek
Classics. Valla, Decembrio and Perotti. Pius II, and Campano 59 — 73
CHAPTER VI. The later Greek immigrants. Michael Apostolius. An-
dronicus Callistus. Constantine Lascaris. Janus Lascaris. Marcus Musurus.
Zacharias Callierges ........ 74 — 80
CHAPTER VII. The Academy of Florence; Landino, Ficino, Pico,
Politian. Marullus. Savonarola. Machiavelli. The Academy of Naples ;
Beccadelli, Pontano, Sannazaro. The Academy of Rome; Pomponius
Laetus, Platina and Sabellicus, Betnbo and Sadoleto, Paolo Giovio and
Castiglione 81 — 9;,
CHAPTER VIII. The Printing of the Classics in Italy. Sweynheym
and Pannartz. Philip de Lignamine. Ulrich Hahn. Georg Lauer. John of
Spiies. Bernardo Cennini. Aldus and Paul us Manutius : Aldus II 95 — 101
OUTLINE OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. XXV
Chronological Conspectus of Editiones Principes . . . 102 — 105
CHAPTER IX. Leo X and his patronage of learning : Janus Lascaris
and Marcus Musurus ; Guarino of Favera ; Filippo Beroaldo the younger.
The study of Aristotle ; Pietro Pomponazzi, Leonico Tomeo, Alessandro
Achillini. Poets : — Bembo, Sadoleto, Calcagnini, Vida, Navagero, Fracastoro,
Flaminio. Archaeologists : — Fra Giocondo, Francesco Albertini, Andrea
Fulvio, Fabio Calvi and Raphael. Piero Valeriano, Clement VII and the
Sack of Rome (1527) ........ 107 — 123
BOOK II. THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. T24— 276
Chronological Table, 1500 — 1600 A.D. . 124
CHAPTER X. Erasmus 127—132
CHAPTER XI. Italy from 1527 to 1600. Literary Criticism, Vida;
influence of Aristotle's treatise On the Art of Poetry. Victorius. Robortelli.
Sigonius. Pantagato. Panvinio. Nizolius. Majoragius. Faernus. Muretus.
Francesco Patrizzi. Fulvio Orsini. Archaeologists; — Marliani, Ligorio,
Panciroli, Aldrovandi, J. B. de Cavaleriis, Lafreri, Flaminio Vacca. Aonio
Paleario. Classical influence in Italian literature . . . 133 — 156
CHAPTER XII. Spain. Nugno Gusmano, Arias Barbosa, Antonio of
Lebrixa, Cardinal Ximenes, Sepulveda, Andrea Laguna, Nonius Pincianus,
Clenardus, Vergara, Sanctius, Nunnesius, Agostino, Ciacconius, Cerda.
Madrid, and the Escurial
Portugal. Resende, Achilles Statins, Osorio, Alvarez . 157 — 163
CEIAPTER XIII. France from 1360 to 1600. Bersuire, Oresme, Jean
de Montreuil. The printers of the Sorbonne. Teachers of Greek : — Gregorio
Tife.nas, Ilermonymus of Sparta, Aleander. Gourmont and the first Greek
press in Paris. Budaeus. Corderius. Robert and Henri Estienne. The
elder Scaliger. Etienne Dolet. The College de France ; Danes and Tous-
sain ; Rabelais ; Ramus, Turnebus, Dorat. Translators and literary critics.
Lambinus. Passerat. Daniel, Pierre Pithou, and Bongars. Jurists : — De
Grouchy, Cujas, Hotmail, Doneau, Brisson, Godefroy. Translators : — Amyot
and Le Roy. Montaigne, La Boetie, Pasquier, Sainte Marthe. Scaliger.
Casaubon. Mercier ........ 165 — 210
CHAPTER XIV. The Netherlands from 1400 to the foundation of the
university of Leyden, 1575. The Schools of the Brethren of the Common Life.
Nicolaus Cusanus and Johann Wessel. Erasmus. Despauterius. Busleiden.
Printers : — John of Westphalia, Martens, Plantin. Vives. Goclenius, Nan-
nius. Torrentius, Pulmannus, Joannes Secundus, Hadrianus Junius, \V. Canter
(Pighius, Modius, Delrio, Cruquius) . . - . . 211 — 218
CHAPTER XV. England from 1370 to 1600. Chaucer, Lydgate,
'Thomas of England'. Visits of Poggio and Aeneas Sylvius. Adam de
Molyneux ; Humphrey duke of Gloucester. John Tiptoft, Andrew Holes,
William Grey, John Free, Robert Flemming and John Gunthorpe.
XXVI OUTLINE OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS.
The Study of Greek. Selling, Linacre, Grocyn, W. Latimer, Lily,
Colet, More. Greek at Oxford. Greek at Cambridge :— Bullock, Croke, Sir
Thomas Smith, Sir John Cheke. Pronunciation of Greek and Latin. Ascham.
Sir Thomas Wilson. Classical metres. Gabriel Harvey. Colleges and
Schools. Translators. Latin poets of Italy studied in England.
Scotland : — Buchanan, Volusenus, Melville, Johnston, Drummond. —
Wales: — John Owen ........ 219 — 250
CHAPTER XVI. Germany from 1350 to 1616. Petrarch and Charles IV.
Vergerio and Sigismund. Aeneas Sylvius in Vienna. Peuerbach and Regio-
montanus. Peter Luder and Hartman Schedel. Agricola. Hegius. Langen.
Wimpheling. Brant. Reuchlin. Mutianus. Celtes. Trithemius and Pirk-
heimer. Peutinger. Cuspinianus. Vadianus. Busche. Bebel. Eobanus
Hessus. The printers of Basel. Beatus Rhenanus. Glareanus, Grynaeus,
Gelenius, Petrus Mosellanus. Melanchthon. Camerarius. Micyllus. Sturm.
Rivius. F. Fabricius. H. Wolf. M. Neander. B. Faber. C. Gesner. M.
Crusius. Frischlin. Xylander. Sylburg. Aem. Portus. Rhodomann.
Hoesehel. Erasmus Schmied. Janus Guilielmus. Acidalius. Taubmann.
Hungary :— Aeneas Sylvius and Ladislas. Vitez and Janus Paunonius.
Matthias Corvinus.
Poland: — Olesnicky. Dlugosz. Gregor of Sanok . . 251 — 276
BOOK III. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 277-370
Chronological Table, 1600 — 1700 A.D. . 278
CHAPTER XVII. Italy in the Seventeenth Century. Archaeologists:—
Cassiano del Pozzo, Donati, Nardini, Doni, Bellori and Bartoli, Raphael
Fabretti. Composers of Latin verse : — Strada, Ceva, Sergardi. Imitators of
Pindar and Horace 279 — 282
CHAPTER XVIII. France in the Seventeenth Century. Sirmond,
Petavius, Guyet, Peiresc. Salmasius. Heraldus, Palmerius, Seguier, Vigerus,
Maussac, Valesius ; C. and P. Labbe. Du Cange. The Jesuits and Port-
Royal. Menage. The French Academy and the 'Three Unities'. Tanaquil
Faber, Andre and Anne Dacier. Huet and the Delphin Classics. Mabillon.
Hardouin. Spon 283 — 299
CHAPTER XIX. The Netherlands from the foundation of the university
of Leyden (1575) to 1700. Janus Dousa and his sons. Petreius Tiara,
Vulcanius. Lipsius. Andreas Schott. Puteanus. Scaliger. Wowerius. P.
Merula. Baudius. Scriverius. G. J. Vossius. Franciscus Junius. Salma-
sius. Meursius. Putschius. Cluverius. Daniel Heinsius. Grotius. J. F.
Gronovius. Isaac Vossius. N. Heinsius. Meibomius. (Spanheim.) Grae-
vius. Rycke. J. and A. Gronovius. Broukhusius. Francius. Perizonius.
Cuypers. The Elzeviers ........ 300 — 332
OUTLINE OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. XXV11
CHAPTER XX. England in the Seventeenth Century. Savile. Downes.
Bacon. Robert Burton. Dempster. Barclay. Gataker. Selden. Milton.
May. Cowley. Duport. Barrow. Pearson. Stanley. P'alkland, Hales,
Jeremy Taylor. The Cambridge Platonists : — More and Cudworth. Theo-
philus and Thomas Gale. Translators of Lucretius : — Evelyn, Lucy
Hutchinson, and Creech. Baxter. Hudson. Potter. Dryden. Dodwell.
Barnes 332— 358
CHAPTER XXI. Germany in the Seventeenth Century. Gruter. Pareiis.
Scioppius, Earth, and Reinesius. Seber and Weller. Lindenbrog ; Hol-
stenius and Kircher. Vorst, Jonsen, Lambeck. Morhof. Gude. Bernegger,
Freinsheim, Boekler, Obrecht, Scheffer. Conring. Spanheim. Beger. Cel-
larius 358—369
BOOK IV. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 371—466
Chronological Table, 1700 — 1800 A.D. . 372
CHAPTER XXII. Italy in the Eighteenth Century. Facciolati, For-
cellini. Ferracci, Lagomarsini. Garatoni. Rezzonico. Corsini. Bandini,
Mingarelli, Morelli. Archaeologists : — Ficoroni, Piranesi, Gori. Muratori,
Maffei. Paciaudi, Morcelli, Marini. E. Q. Visconti. Fea . 373 — 384
CHAPTER XXIII. France in the Eighteenth Century. Montfaucon.
Capperonnier. Bouhier. Sanadon. Olivetus. Archaeologists: — Banduri,
Fourmont, Burette, Freret, Comte de Caylus, Patin, Vaillant, Pellerin,
Mariette, D'Anville. Barthelemy, Seroux d'Agincourt, Guys, Choiseul-
Gouffier, Brotier, Larcher. Alsace (Brunck, Oberlin, Schweighauser, Bast)
and the Editioties Bipontinae. Levesque, and Sainte-Croix. Villoison
385—398
CHAPTER XXIV. England in the Eighteenth Century. Bentley. Addi-
son. Pope. Spence. Maittaire. Ruddiman. \Vasse, Davies, Whiston,
Middleton, S. Clarke, Needham. Markland, John Taylor, Dawes. Chr. Pitt,
Vincent Bourne, Gray, Sydenham. Heath, Toup and Musgrave. Shaw,
Joddrell. Tyrwhitt and Twining. Parr and II. Homer. Porson. Wakerleld,
Home Tooke, Burgess. The Dilettanti Society; Sluart and Revett, R.
Wood. Scholarly Statesmen : — Chatham, Burke, Fox, Pitt. Archaeolo-
gists:— -Sir \Vm Hamilton, Townley, R. Chandler, Payne Knight. A.
Adam. Gibbon. Mitford. Sir Wm Jones .... 400 — 439
CHAPTER XXV. The Netherlands in the Eighteenth Century. Le
Clerc. Burman. KiAster. Bos. Duker and Drakenborch. Havercamp.
Hemsterhuys. J. F. Reitz. Wesseling. D'Orville. Oudendorp. Burman II.
Schrader. Valckenaer. Ruhnken. Pierson, Koen, Santen, Luzac. Wyt-
tenbach 441—466
xxvill CORRIGENDA.
CORRIGENDA.
P- 35 !• 3 > f°r Pizzopasso, read Pizzolpasso.
p. 105; Stobaeus (1535), add Florilegium ; (1575) add Eclogae.
Aretaeus (1554), for Andr. read Adr. Turnebus.
Polyaenus (1589), for Leyden, read Lyon.
p. 118 1. 8; for 1514 (Didot's date for the editio princeps of Pindar), read
(as on p. 104) 1513 (with Christie's Essays, p. 243).
p. 124; Italy, Pomponazzi ; for 1462 — 1565, read 1462 — 1525.
p. 126; for salon carre, read salon carre.
p. 1 58 n. i ; for des fonds grecs, read du fonds grec.
p. 161
p. 196
p. 2OI
P- 243
p. 271
p. 285
p. 287
p. 301 n. 5; for 332 f, read 362^
p. 368 11. 12, 15; for Helmstadt, read Helmstadt or Helmstedt.
p. 372; England, after Spence (1699 — 1768), add Martyn (1699 — 1768).
p. 378 1. 9 (inset); for Ferrati (Ftrratius), read Ferracci.
p. 391 1. 28; for Vaillant, 1655, read 1665.
2; for Constantius, read Constantinus.
16; for Florio, read North.
27; for Festus (1575), read (with Bernays, Scaligcr, 275) 1576.
28; for 1559, read (with Hume Brown's Buchanan, 160) 1561.
33; for 1608, read at Leipzig (1577) and at Hanover (1604).
6; for Saville, read Savile.
26; for Labbe (Labbaeus), read Labbe.
BOOK I.
THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING AND THE
HISTOR Y OF SCHOLARSHIP IN ITAL Y.
Le moyen age, si profond, si original, si pottique dans I' i'lan de
son enthusiasme religieux, rfest, sous le rapport de la culture intel-
lectuelle, qu'un long tatonnement pour rcvenir a la grande ecole de la
noble pensce, e'est-a-dire a rantiquite. La renaissance, loin d'etre,
comme on I' a dit, un egaretnent de V esprit nwderne, fonrvoye apres
un ideal etranger, n'est que le retour a la vraie tradition de r/iuma-
nite civilisce.
RENAN, Averrocs (1852), Pref. p. viii, ed. 4, 1882.
DaW Italia sol tan to il classicisnw poteva sperare il suo rinasci-
mento, dall' unica terra dove il vecchio mondo classico in rovine,
superava in grandezza e maesta il giovane media evo.
HORTIS, Studi sulle Opere Latine del Boccaccio,
p. 210, Trieste, 1879.
History of Scholarship in Italy between 1321 and 1527.
BORN DIED
1304-1374 Petrarch discovers Cicero, pro Archia, 1333, and ad Atticum 1345
1313-1375 Boccaccio discovers Martial, Ausonius etc., and studies Greek 1360-63
1330-1406 Salutati discovers Cicero, ad Familiares 1392
1350-1415 Chrysoloras teaches Greek in Florence 1396-1400
1356-1450 Plethon disputes on Plato and Aristotle '439
'363-1437 Niccoli leaves 800 MSS to Medicean Library '437
1369-1444 Leonardo. Bruni translates Aristotle's Ethics, 1414, and Politics 1437
1370-1431 Barzizza, Epistolarum Liber, printed, Paris 1470
1370-1459 Aurispa brings 238 MSS from Constantinople 1423 .
1374-1460 Guarino da Verona teaches at Ferrara 1429-60
1378-1446 Vittorino da Feltre teaches at Mantua 1423-46
1380-1459 Poggio discovers Latin MSS at Cluni, St Gallen, Langres etc... 1415-17
1385-1458 Alfonso I, king of Naples 1442-58
1386-1439 Traversari discovers Cornelius Nepos '434
1388-1463 Flavio Biondo, Italia llhistrata 1453
1389-1464 Cpsimo de' Medici in power in Florence 1434-64
1391-1450 Ciriaco d' Ancona, collector of inscriptions 1424, 1433, 1435-47
1395-1484 Georg. Trapezuntiustr. A.r. Rhet., Hist. An. ,1450; Plato, Lams 1451
1396-1459 Manetti translates Aristotle's Ethics etc 1456-9
1397-1455 Tommaso Parentucelli, Pope Nicolas V M47~55
1398-1481 Filelfo brings 40 MSS from Constantinople 1427
1399-1477 Decembrio translates Plato's Republic 1440
1400-1475 Theodoras Gaza, professor of philosophy in Rome 1451
1403-1472 Bessarion presents his Greek MSS to Venice 1468
1405-1464 Aeneas Sylvius, De Lib. Educ. 1450. Pope Pius II 1458-64
1407-1457 Laurentius Valla, Elegantiae Latini Sennonis 1440-50
1416-1486 Argyropulos lectures in Florence, 1456-71, and Rome 1471-86
1417-1475 Giov. Andrea de' Bussi, Bp of Aleria, 8 editione s principes ... 1469-71
1421-1498 Vespasiano, Vite di Uomini Illustri c. 1493
1422-1482 Federigo di Montefeltro, Duke of Urbino 1474-82
1424-1504 Cristoforo I.andino, Quaestiones Camaldulenses 1480
1424-1511 Chalcondyles, ed. pr. Homer, 1488; Isocrates, 1493; Suldas... 1499
1425-1498 Pomponius Laetus, ed. Curtius, Virgil, Pliny, Sallust 1470-90
1426-1503 Pontano and Marullus (d. 1500) correct text of Lucr., ed. Flor. 1512
1427-1477 Campano translates Plutarch's Lives 1470
1430-1480 Perotti, Rudimenta Graininatices 1468
1433-1499 Ficino translates Plato, 1482, and Plotinus 1492
1434-1501 Constantine Lascaris, Grammatica Graeca '476
1445-1535 Janus Lascaris, 5 ediiione s principes 1494-6
1448-1492 Lorenzo de' Medici in power in Florence 1469-92
1449-1515 Aldus Manutius, 27 Greek editiancs principes 1494-1515
1453-1505 Beroaldus edits Propertius, 1487, and Plautus 1500
1454-1494 Politian, Sylvae, 1482-6; Miscellanea 1489
1458-1530 Sannazaro discovers Ovid, Halieut., Grattius and Nemesianus 1501-4
1461-1510 Paolo Cortesi, De Hominibits Doctis 1490
1462-1525 Pomponazzi, De Imtnortalitate A nimae 1516
1463-1494 Pico delta Mirandola, .Apologia, 1484; Adv. Astrologiani ... 1495
1469-1527 Machiavelli, Discorsi on Livy i-x 1516-9
1470-1517 Muslims edits 7 editiones principes 1498-1516
1470-1547 Bembo, On Terence, 1530; Epistolae Leonis X '535
1475-1521 Giovanni de' Medici, Pope Leo X 1513-21
1477-1547 Sadoleto, Laocoon, 1506; De Liberis Recte Instituendis 1534
1477-1558 Valeriano, De Literatorum Infelicitate, written after 1527
1478-1529 Baldassare Castiglione, // Cortegiano 1528
1479-1552 Lilio Giraldi, De Poetis Nostrnruin Temporum 1551
1483-1529 Navagero ed. Quint., Virg., Lucr., ()v.,Ter., Hor., Cic. Speeches 1514-9
1483-1552 Paolo Giovio, Elogia Doctaruin Virorum 1556
1488-1522 Longolius, Orationes et Epistolae, Florence 1524
1499-1566 Vida, De Arte Poetica, 1527 ; Christias 1535
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION. PETRARCH AND BOCCACCIO.
THE History of Scholarship during the six centuries that have
elapsed since the birth of Petrarch falls into four principal periods,
which may be distinguished by the names of the nations that have
been most prominent in each: — (i) the Italian, (2) the French,
(3) the English and Dutch ; and (4) the German.
The first is the age of the Revival of Learning in Italy,
including the two centuries between the death of Dante in 1321
and the death of Leo X in 1521, and ending with the Sack of
Rome in 1527. It begins with Petrarch (1304 — 1374) and it
ends with the contemporaries of Erasmus (1466 — 1536). It is
the age of the Humanists, and its principal aim is the imitation
and reproduction of classical models of style and of life.
The second, or French, period is mainly marked by a many-
sided knowledge of the subject-matter of the Classics, by in-
dustrious erudition rather than by any special cult of the form of
the classical languages. It begins with the foundation of the
College de France by Francis I at the prompting of Budaeus in
1530, and it ends with the close of the seventeenth century.
It is the period of the great Polyhistors of France and of the
Netherlands. Its foremost names are those of Scaliger (1540 —
1609) and Casaubon (1559 — 1614), and Lipsius (1547 — 1606)
and Salmasius (1588 — 1653). Of these, Casaubon ended his
days in England, while Scaliger passed the last sixteen years of
his life at Leyden, which was also one of the principal scenes of
the learned labours of Lipsius and Salmasius.
The third, or English and Dutch, period begins towards the
end of the seventeenth century with Bentley (1662—1742). It
s. II. i
FOUR PERIODS OF SCHOLARSHIP.
is represented in Holland by Bentley's younger contemporary and
correspondent, Hemsterhuys (1685 — 1766), and Hemsterhuys'
famous pupil, Ruhnken (1723 — 1798). It is the age of historical
and literary, as well as verbal, criticism. Both were represented
by Bentley during the half century of his literary activity from
1691 to 1742, while, in the twenty years between 1782 and 1803,
verbal criticism was the peculiar province of Person (1759 — 1808),
who was born in the same year as Friedrich Augustus Wolf.
The fourth, or German, period begins with Wolf (1759 — 1.824),
whose celebrated Prolegomena appeared, in 1795. Wolf is the
founder of the systematic or encyclopaedic type of scholarship,
embodied in the comprehensive term Alterthumswissenschaft. The
tradition of Wolf was ably represented by his great pupil, Boeckh
(1785 — 1867), one of the leaders of the historical and antiquarian
school, as contrasted with the critical and grammatical school of
Hermann (1772 — 1848). During this last period, while Germany
remains the most productive of the nations, scholarship has
become more and more international and cosmopolitan in its
character. In the torch-race of the nations, the light of learning
has been transmitted from Italy to France and England, to the
Netherlands and Germany, to Scandinavia, and to the lands across
the seas.
The age of the Renaissance was the time of transition from
the ancient to the modern world. The Renaissance
The Renais- nag been described by one eloquent writer as ' the
sance *
discovery of the world and of man"; by another,
as producing a 'love of the things of the intellect and the
imagination for their own sake'2; and by a third, as the move-
ment by which the nations of Western Europe passed from the
mediaeval to modern modes of thought and life3. The metaphor
of a new birth was first associated with a revival of learning by
an Englishman, Modoin, bishop of Autun, who hailed the revival
under Charles the Great in a line that recalls the poets of Rome :—
1 Michelet, Histoire de la France, VII p. ii, la decouverte du monde, la de-
couverle de I'homme ; cp. Burckhardt, Renaissance, part iv.
3 W. Pater, The Renaissance, p. i.
3 Cp., in general, J. A. Symonds, s.v. Renaissance in Enc. Brit. ed. 9; and
Renaissance in Italy, i I — 28.
CHAP. I.] THE RENAISSANCE. 3
'aurea Roma iterum renovata renascitur orbi'1. The old Italian
rinascita was probably first applied to the arts by Vasari2. The
modern Italian Rinascimento is simply a translation of the French
Renaissance, found as early as 1708 in the French Dictionary of
Furetiere3, but not recognised by the Academy until ij624.
Among our own countrymen, William Collins (d. 1759)® and
Thomas Warton (d. i8oc>)6 proposed to write a history of the
' Revival of Learning ', or of ' Letters ', but the proposal remained
unfulfilled. Both of these designs owed their inspiration to the
age of Leo X. Similarly, in France, the Abbe Barthelemy,
travelling in Italy in 1755, describes the age of Leo as la
naissance d'un nouveau genre humain"1. But it has since been
recognised that for the beginning of the Renaissance we must go
back at least as far as Petrarch, who died in 1374, — a full century
before the birth of Leo.
The Revival of Learning in Italy was practically completed
within the period of exactly two centuries which separates the
death of Dante from the death of Leo X. At the death of the
first Pope of the Medicean house, humanism had well nigh run
its course in Italy ; and, when the exiled poet of Florence died at
Ravenna, Petrarch, the first of the humanists, was still a young
student at Montpellier. But he was already enraptured with the
style of Cicero and of Virgil. From his father,
Pietro or Petracco, a notary of Florence, he had
derived the name of Francesco di Petracco, which his sense of
euphony, or his fancy for a name of Latin form, afterwards
changed into Francesco or Franciscus Petrarca. Born in exile
at Arezzo, he was taken at the age of eight to Avignon, — the
seat of the Papacy during the more than seventy years of the
1 Diimmler, Poetae Lat. Aevi Car. i 385.
2 Vite, Parte II, par. 3, rinascita di queste arti.
3 Noticed as used in a figurative sense alone, e.g. '/# renaissance des beaiix-
arts.'
4 e.g. ' la renaissance des letlres '.
5 Johnson's Lives, iii 282.
6 Roscoe's Leo X, p. x, ed. 1846.
7 A. Holm, II Rinascimento Italiano e la Grecia Antica (Palermo, 1880),
excursus on pp. 35 — 40. Matthew Arnold, in Culture and Anarchy (1869),
c. iv, introduced the form Renascence.
I — 2
4 ITALY. [CENT. xiv.
'Babylonian Captivity', which closely corresponded to the seventy
years of his life (1304 — 1374). Educated mainly at Montpellier
and Bologna, he spent sixteen years in the seclusion of Vaucluse.
His early travels in France and Germany were followed by
repeated visits to Rome, where, in recognition of his powers as
a Latin rather than as an Italian poet, he was crowned with the
laurel on the Capitol in 1341. While he was familiar with Parma,
and Verona, and Vicenza, he hardly ever saw his ancestral city of
Florence. He spent eight years in Milan, stayed for a time at
Venice and Padua, and, twelve miles south of that place, passed
the last four years of his life at the quiet village of Arqua. His
Letter to Posterity tells us that he had a clear complexion,
between light and dark, lively eyes and, for many years, a keen-
ness of sight that did not require the aid of glasses1. Of his
numerous portraits, probably the most authentic is that in a
Paris manuscript of his own Lives of Illustrious Men, a portrait
executed for an intimate friend in Padua less than five years after
his death2.
Petrarch was fully conscious of belonging in a peculiar sense
to a transitional time3. He gives proof of his modern spirit when
he resolves on making the ascent of Mont Ventoux, but he no
sooner reaches the summit than he reverts to the mediaeval
mood inspired by his copy of the Confessions of St Augustine4.
Yet he has rightly been regarded as the ' first modern man '5. In
a new age he was the first to recognise the supreme importance
of the old classical literature, to regard that literature with a fresh
and intelligent and critical interest, to appreciate its value as a
means of self-culture, and as an exercise for some of the highest
of human faculties. In his Latin style he is no slavish imitator
of ancient models. In prose he is mainly inspired by the philo-
sophical works of Cicero, and by the moral letters of Seneca. In
1 Epp. Fam. i i f, ed. Fracassetti.
2 See Frontispiece, and cp. De Nolhac, Pttrarque et V Humanisms (1892),
Appendix pp. 375 — 384, I ' iconographie de Petrarque.
3 Rerum Memorandarum, Liber i 2, p. 398, ed. 1581, 'velut in confinio
duorum populorum constitutus, ac simul ante retroque prospiciens '.
4 Cp. author's Harvard Lectures on the Revival of Learning (1905), p. 9f.
5 Renan, Averroes, p. 328, ed. 1882.
CHAP. I.] PETRARCH AND VIRGIL. 5
verse his model is Virgil, but he keenly realises the importance of
catching the spirit of the ancient poet without appropriating his
actual language1. He collects classical manuscripts, as well as
coins and inscriptions ; he is inspired with an interest in history
and archaeology by the sight of the ruins of Rome. As a loyal
Churchman, he regards the study of the Classics as the handmaid
of Christianity, and not as hostile to its teaching.
His mind was mainly moulded by the study of the Latin
Classics, to which he was attracted by their perfection of form.
Even in his earliest youth, he had a keen ear for the melodies of
Latin verse and rhetorical prose. As a student at Montpellier,
he was spending on the perusal of his favourite Latin authors the
time that he was supposed to be devoting to the study of law,
when his father suddenly appeared on the scene, tore his son's
treasures from their place of concealment, and flung them into
the fire. When the son burst into tears at the grievous sight, the
father relented so far as to snatch from the flames two volumes
only ; the one was a copy of Virgil ; the other was the ' Rhetoric '
of Cicero2. Cicero and Virgil became the principal text-books of
the Revival of Learning. Petrarch describes them in one of his
poems as the 'two eyes' of his discourse3. Even in his old age,
he was still haunted by the mediaeval tradition of the allegorical
significance of the Aeneid; but, unlike the mediaeval admirers of
Virgil, he does not regard the Latin poet as a mysteriously distant
and supernatural being ; he finds in him a friend, and he is even
candid enough to criticise him. In his 'Familiar Letters' he
quotes Virgil about 120 times; his carefully annotated copy is
preserved in the Ambrosian Library4; and, under his influence,
the Aeneid was accepted as the sole model for the epic poetry of
the succeeding age. It is the model of his own Africa.
In his appreciation of the lyrics of Horace, he marks a distinct
advance on the mediaeval view. Of the quotations from Horace
in the Middle Ages, less than one-fifth are from the lyrics and
1 Epp. Fam. xxiii 19 (cp. Harvard Lectures, n f).
2 Epp. Rerum Seniliiim, xv i, p. 947.
3 Trionfo della fama, iii 21.
4 De Nolhac, 118 — 135 ; Facsimile of frontispiece in Miintz, Gazette Arch.
1887, and Pctrarque (1902), opp. p. 12.
6 ITALY. [CENT. xiv.
more than four-fifths from the hexameter poems1; but the balance
is happily redressed by Petrarch, who quotes with equal interest
from both. His copy of Horace is in the Laurentian Library2.
Ovid is too frivolous for his taste3. With the epics of Lucan,
Statius, and Claudian he is well acquainted ; and the same is true
of Persius, Juvenal, and Martial, with parts of Ausonius4. Of the
plays of Plautus only eight were then known ; Petrarch quotes
from two of them5, and gives an outline of a third6 as a proof of
the poet's skill in the delineation of character. He is familiar
with the comedies of Terence, and the tragedies of Seneca; he
rarely refers to Catullus7 or Propertius8; it is apparently only in
excerpts that he knows Tibullus9. All his quotations from
Lucretius are clearly derived second-hand from Macrobius10.
In his boyhood, he found himself impelled to study Cicero,
and, although he was only imperfectly conscious of the sense, he
was charmed by the marvellous harmonies of sound11. In his old
age he declared that the 'eloquence of this heavenly being was
absolutely inimitable'12. Virgil had been the favourite author of
the Middle Ages ; it was the influence of Petrarch that restored
Cicero to a position of prominence in the Revival of Learning13.
Petrarch was familiar with all the philosophical books of Cicero
then extant, with the mutilated text of the principal rhetorical
works, and with many of the Speeches14.
The lost writings of Cicero were the constant theme of his
eager quest. Whenever, in his travels in foreign lands, he caught
1 Moore's Studies in Dante, i 201.
2 Foes, in Chatelain's Pattographie, pi. 87, 2; De Nolhac, 148 — 153.
3 De Vita Sol. ii 7, 2.
4 De Nolhac, 153, 160-7, X73-
6 Curculio and Cistellaria, in Fam. ix 4.
6 Casina, in Fam. v 14.
7 De Nolhac, 138—140.
8 iii 32, 49 f, apparently imitated in Canzoni, xii str. 7; De Nolhac, 142 f ;
for imitations of Propertius in Petrarch's Africa, see Prof. Phillimore in
R. Ellis, Catullus in the xivth century (1905), 29.
9 De Nolhac, 145. 10 it. 134.
11 Epp. Rerum Senilium, xv i, p. 946. 12 ib. p. 948.
13 Zielinski, Cicero im Wandel der Jahrhunderte, 1897, p. 26; Harvard
Lectures, 149.
14 De Nolhac, 176 — 223.
CHAP. I.] PETRARCH AND CICERO. 7
a distant glimpse of some secluded monastery, he hastened to the
spot in the hope of finding the object of his search1. In 1333 he
had his first experience of the joys of discovery, when he found
two Speeches of Cicero at Liege. One of them was copied
promptly by his companion, and the other by himself2. The
second of these was certainly the Speech pro Archia'A. A far
greater joy was awaiting him. The Letters of Cicero had for ages
been lost to view; but at Verona, in 1345, he found a manuscript
containing all the Letters to Atticus and Quintus, and the corre-
spondence with Brutus. He immediately transcribed the whole,
but his transcript has been unhappily lost. The copy in the
Laurentian Library at Florence4, long supposed to be Petrarch's,
was really transcribed, eighteen years after Petrarch's death, for a
Latin Secretary of Florence, Coluccio Salutati, who was the first
in modern times to possess copies of both of the great collections
of Cicero's Letters. The Epistolae ad Familiares were completely
unknown to Petrarch. No sooner had he discovered the manu-
script of the Letters to Atticus than he at once indited a letter to
Cicero himself apprising him of the fact5. This was the first of
Petrarch's Letters to Dead Authors, the remainder (including a
second letter to Cicero) being addressed to Homer, Virgil, and
Horace, and to Livy, Seneca, and Quintilian.
Before discovering Cicero's Letters he had already formed his
style on that of Cicero's philosophical works; after the discovery
of the Letters, he makes them the model of his own, and, in the
preface to his Epistolae de Rebus Familiar ibus*, declares that he
will follow Cicero rather than Seneca. Nevertheless, in those
letters, he has as many as sixty citations from Seneca, and this is
far from the only proof of his familiarity with that author7. His
favourite Roman historian is Livy ; he bitterly regrets the loss of
the books of the second decade8, and, writing to the historian
1 Epp. Rerum Senilium, xv i, p. 948. 2 ibid.
3 Fam. xiii 6 (ll 238 Fracassetti). 4 xlix 18.
5 Fam. xxiv 3; cp. xxi 10 (n 87 Fr.) and Var. 25 (II 367 Fr.). Cp.
Viertel, Die Wiederattffindung von Ciceros Briefen durch Petrarcha, Konigsberg
program, 1879.
6 p. 1 1 Fr. 7 De Nolhac, 308 f.
8 Rer. Mem. \ ^.
3 ITALY. [CENT. xiv.
himself, exclaims: — O si mihi totus contingeres^. • He is familiar
with Caesar, Sallust, Justin, Suetonius, Florus, Curtius, the
Historia Augusta, Valerius Maximus, Vegetius, Frontinus, and
Orosius ; but he knows nothing of Nepos or of Tacitus. He has
only an imperfect copy of Quintilian2. He is unhappily un-
acquainted with the Letters of the younger Pliny ; but he is
fortunate in possessing the encyclopaedia of Pliny the elder.
His copy is now in the Paris Library3, and, in the margin of the
passage describing the fountain of the Sorgue4, Petrarch has
drawn from memory a dainty little sketch of the valley of
Vaucluse5.
Under the influence of Cicero6, Petrarch had been led to
believe that the Latin literature was far superior to the Greek7;
but he was ignorant of the Greek language. The first opportunity
for learning it presented itself in 1339, when Barlaam, the
Calabrian monk of Seminara, arrived at Avignon as an envoy
from Constantinople. He was sent once more to the West in
1342, and Petrarch's attempts to learn the language are best
assigned to that date8. But he had barely learned to read and
write the capital letters, when he unselfishly recommended his
preceptor for a bishopric in S. Italy. Another envoy, Nicolaus
Sigeros, who visited the West about 1350, sent Petrarch a MS
of Homer about 1354. To Petrarch it was a sealed book, but,
as he gazed on it, he was transported with delight. He even
wrote an enthusiastic letter to Homer himself9, and also asked
his friend in the East to send him copies of Hesiod and Euripides10.
Besides possessing a translation of the first four books of the
Iliad11, he acquired in 1369 a transcript of the rendering of the
whole of Homer by a pupil of Barlaam, named Leontius Pilatus,
1 Fam. xxiv 8.
2 Fam. xxiv 7; De Nolhac, 281 f.
3 MS 6802. 4 xviii § 190.
8 Reproduced in De Nolhac, 395. 6 De Fin. i 10, iii f .
7 Sen. xii, p. 913, Graecos et ingenio et stilo frequenter vicimus et fre-
quenter aequavimus, imo, si quid credimus Ciceroni, semper vicimus, ubi ad-
nisi sumus (De Nolhac, 318).
8 De Nolhac, 324-6. Cp. G. Mandorli, Fra Barlaamo Calabrese, 1888.
9 Fam. xxiv 12. 10 Fam. xviii 2.
11 De Nolhac, 353 f.
CHAP. I.] PETRARCH AND HOMER. 9
whom he had entertained in Venice for three months in I3631.
Though the baldness of this rendering led to an abatement in his
enthusiasm for the old Greek poet, his subsequent writings give
proof of his study of its pages. There is a well-attested tradition
that he died while 'illuminating' (that is, annotating) his copy
of a Latin translation of Homer2. This copy is now in the
National Library of France, and the trembling hand that marks
the close of the notes on the Odyssey confirms the tradition that
they were his latest work. A Latin rendering of Homer's
description of Bellerophon's wanderings on the Aleian plain3,
which appears in Petrarch's Secretum*, has caused needless per-
plexity to two of his most learned exponents in Germany and
France5, who hazard the conjecture that the rendering is due to
Petrarch himself. Had they been as familiar as Petrarch with
the pages of Cicero, they would have found it in the Tusculan
Disputations6.
Petrarch possessed a MS of the Greek text of sixteen of the
dialogues of Plato, and, on receiving the MS of Homer, placed
it beside his Plato and wrote to assure the donor of his pride
at having under his roof at Milan two guests of such distinction7.
He also possessed a copy of part of the translation of the Timaeus
by Chalcidius8. Leontius Pilatus, the only person from whom he
might possibly have obtained a rendering of the rest, had met
with a sudden and singular end. On his voyage from Constantinople
in the spring of 1367, he was struck dead by a flash of lightning
while standing against the mast, and Petrarch hurried down to
the quay in the vain hope of finding, in the unhappy man's
possessions, some precious manuscript of Euripides or of
Sophocles9. Petrarch knows of the Phaedo solely in connexion
with the story of the death of Cato10. He mentions the otiosa
1 The passages on Leontius Pilatus are quoted in full by Hody, 2 — 10; cp.
Gibbon, vii 20 Bury ; and De Nolhac, 339 — 349.
2 Decembrio, quoted by De Nolhac, 348.
3 //. vi 20 1 f. 4 iii p. 357.
6 Korting, i 477 f ; De Nolhac, 350 n. i. 8 iii 63.
7 Fam. xviii. 2.
8 Now in Paris, Bibl. Nat. 6280 (De Nolhac, 43).
9 Sen. vi i, p. 807; cp. Gibbon, vii 120 Bury.
10 Fam. iii 18, iv 3.
io ITALY. [CENT. xiv.
cupresseta and the spatia silvestria that were the scene of the
dialogue in Plato's Laws, but this touch of local colour is due
not to the original but to an allusion in Cicero1. For Aristotle,
whom he only knew in Latin versions, he had no partiality. He
was convinced that that philosopher had suffered much at the
hands of his translators ; he was repelled by a certain harshness
of style, a complete absence of eloquentia* ; and, so far from
accepting his authority, he declared that Aristotle had undoubtedly
erred, not in small matters only, but even in those of the highest
moment3. We have proof of his having once possessed the
current commentaries on Aristotle in a Paris MS including
Eustratius4 of Nicaea, Aspasius and Michael of Ephesus, but
there is little trace of any study of this MS on the part of the
owner. He has a special antipathy against the Aristotelians of
Padua, who followed the teaching of Averroes5. He urges his
friend, the Augustinian monk, Ludovicus Marsilius, to write contra
canem ilium rabidum Averroim*. He wages war against the
Dialecticians of the day, who contemn the old Greek or Latin
representatives of philosophy or literature7. In the Trionfo delta
Fama* he denounces the syllogisms of Porphyry as sophisms
which supply weapons against the truth. In the same work he
vaguely mentions Greek and Latin Classics, and, in his tenth
Eclogue, he ranks Euripides next to Homer. It is true that,
to Petrarch, these Greek authors are little more than names.
Nevertheless, he regards the great writers of antiquity, Greek as
well as Latin, as his personal friends ; he feels that the Classics
1 De Legibus, i 15 (cp. Plato's Laws, 625 B). De Vita Solitaria, i 5, i,
p. 242 (Tullius et Virgilius) Platonem secuti ambo, qui inter otiosa cupresseta
et spatia silvestria de institutis rerum publicarum deque optimis legibus dis-
putat. M. De Nolhac (p. 329), who here quotes neither Cicero nor Plato,
imagines that the Republic is meant (as well as the Laws), but the scene of
that dialogue is quite different.
2 Rer. Mem. ii i, p. 415; also De Ignorantia, pp. 1037, 1051.
3 De Ignorantia, p. 1042.
4 Eustachii (sic), wrongly identified as 'Eustathius' by De Nolhac, 337
n. 3.
5 De Ignorantia, 1035-59. 8 Sen. p. 734.
7 Fain, i i p. 30 Fr. ; i 6 and 1 1 ; Sen. v 2 (3), p. 795.
8 iii 62-4.
CHAP. I.] PETRARCH, PLATO AND ARISTOTLE. II
that have survived enshrine for him the memory of great men of
old whom he is glad to know1. Petrarch prepared the soil of
Italy for the reception of Greek culture. It is possible that, but
for his timely intervention, the Revival of Learning might have
been delayed until it was too late. Between the death of Petrarch
in 1374, and the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Italy recovered
the Greek Classics2,
It was owing to the influence of Petrarch that his great contem-
porary, Boccaccio (1313—1375), began in early life
Bocc&ccio
to study the Latin Classics3. His education had
unfortunately been left unfinished ; and his knowledge of Latin
remained imperfect to the last. A legend told by Filippo Villani4
ascribes his first love of poetry to a visit paid to the tomb of Virgil
at Naples. A devoted student of Dante, he sent his own transcript
of Dante's immortal poem5, and of certain works of Cicero and
Varro6, as a gift to Petrarch, whom he had long admired, but
had never met until he saw him in Florence in 1350. Boccaccio
1 Fam. Hi 18, p. 178 Fr.
2 Symonds, 86 f. — For the text of Petrarch I have generally referred to the
second Basel folio ed. of 1581 (my copy bears the autograph of Thos Campbell,
who used it in writing his Life of Petrarch, 1841); also to Fracassetti's ed. of
the Epp. de Rebus Familiaribus et Variae, 3 vols. 8vo, Florence, 1859-63.
These letters have been translated and annotated by the editor in five vols.
(1863-7), and the Epp. Seniles in two (1869). Cp. F. X. Kraus, Pelrarca in
s. Briefwechsel, 'Essays', i, 1896. The first ed. of his De Viribus Illustribtis,
and the best ed. of his Africa, were published at Bologna and Padua respec-
tively in 1874 (the sooth anniversary of his death), which is also the date of
Geiger's Petrarka (Leipzig), 277 pp. Cp. Voigt, Humanismus, i 20 — is63;
Kdrting, Litteratnr Italiens, i 1878; Geiger, Renaissance u. Humanismus,
22 — 44, 565 f; De Nolhac, Pelrarque et r Humanisme, 1892, ed. 2, 1907, and
the literature quoted in these works ; Sabbadini, // primo nncleo della Biblio-
teca del Petrarca, in Rendiconti del R. 1st. Lomb. di sc. e left. (1906), 369 —
388 ; also Symonds, Renaissance, ii 69 — 87% and Robinson and Rolfe,
Petrarch, The First Modern Scholar and Man of Letters, with translations
from his Correspondence (New York, 1898).
3 De casibus illustrium virorum, fol. 90, (P.), quern ego ab ineunte juven-
tute mea prae ceteris colueram.
4 F. Villani, De Civitatis Florentiae Famosis Civibus, ed. Galletti, 17;
Symonds, Boccaccio, 21.
6 Petrarch, Fam. xxi 15, c. 1359 (the copy is now in the Vatican).
6 ib. xviii 4.
H» ITALY. [CENT. xiv.
was the link between Petrarch and the city of Petrarch's ancestors.
It was through Boccaccio that Petrarch's influence first made
itself felt in Florence, and it was at Petrarch's prompting that
Boccaccio learnt Greek, and thus became the earliest of the
Greek scholars of the modern world. Both are equally eager for
literary fame, and both of them hope to attain immortality by
their Latin rather than by their Italian works. But Boccaccio's
Latin prose lacks the freshness of that of Petrarch, and is notably
inferior to all that he wrote, whether in prose or in verse, in his
native tongue. While Petrarch is interested in the spirit of the
ancient Classics, Boccaccio is absorbed in trivial items of subject-
matter, and busies himself in the collection of a multitude of
minor memoranda from their pages1. Petrarch's Latin work
'On Illustrious Men' prompted Boccaccio to write 'On Famous
Women', as well as on the 'Falls of Princes'2, in which prominence
is given to Greek legends. His principal Latin work is a small
folio on Mythology, claiming to be founded on ancient authorities
alone3. It is the earliest modern handbook of the subject, and
its allegorical treatment of the old legends' must have given it a
peculiar interest in the eyes of the author's contemporaries4.
His less important work on 'Mountains, Woods and Waters',
written to aid the study of the Latin poets, is simply an alphabetical
dictionary of ancient geography, founded on Vibius Sequester.
Both of these works, however, deserve recognition as the pre-
cursors of our modern Dictionaries of Ancient Mythology and of
Geography.
Boccaccio had a wide knowledge of the Latin poets5, and
with his own hand he made himself a complete copy of Terence,
which is still preserved in the Laurentian Library8. He sees
the importance of comparing the texts of ancient MSS, but beyond
that stage he does not advance. He differs from Petrarch in
1 Schiick in Neuejahrb. 1874 (2), 467 f.
2 The title of Lydgate's version of De Casibus Viroriim Illustrium (W. P.
Ker, Medieval Essays, 70). . u !.
3 1. xv c. 5. Cp. Schiick, Zur Charakteristik der italienischen Humanisten
(1857), 1—22.
4 F. Villani, I.e. 17, mysteria poetarum sensusque allegoricos...in medium
...perduxit; cp. Hortis, Accenni etc., 1877, and Stttdi, 229 — 256.
6 Hortis, Studi, 389 — 413. 6 xxxviii 17; Hortis, Studi, 339.
CHAP. I.] BOCCACCIO.
being uncritical. He is specially attracted to the two Latin
historians, Livy and Tacitus. His appreciation of Livy is proved
not only by abundant quotations from that historian, but also by
a manuscript in the Laurentian Library1, which has on the fly-leaf
some introductory notes by Boccaccio, first published from another
source by Hearne the antiquary2, and not traced to their true
author until many years later3. Boccaccio was the first humanist
to quote Varro, and he may have obtained from Monte Cassino
the extant archetype of all our MSS of that writer4. He also
discovered the Ibis of Ovid, besides Martial, Ausonius, the
Appendix Vergiliana, and the Priapeia, the earliest copy of which
is written in his own hand5. His interest in the preservation of
ancient manuscripts in general, perhaps even his interest in Tacitus
in particular, is illustrated by the story of his visit to Monte
Cassino, as told by his pupil Benvenuto in expounding the twenty-
second canto of the Paradiso :
Being eager to see the library, which, he had heard, was very noble, he
humbly besought one of the monks to do him the favour of opening it.
Pointing to a lofty staircase, the monk answered stiffly: 'Go up; it is already
open'. Boccaccio stepped up the staircase with delight, only to find the
treasure-house of learning destitute of door or any kind of fastening, while the
grass was growing on the window-sills and the dust reposing on the books and
bookshelves. Turning over the manuscripts, he found many rare and ancient
works, with whole sheets torn out, or with the margins ruthlessly clipped. As
he left the room, he burst into tears, and, on asking a monk, whom he met in
the cloister, to explain the neglect, was told that some of the inmates of the
monastery, wishing to gain a few soldi, had torn out whole handfuls of leaves
and made them into psalters, which they sold to boys, and had cut off strips of
parchment, which they turned into amulets, to sell to women6.
In connexion with this story it has been suggested that the
1 IxiiiS. 2 Oxford, 1708.
" Hortis, Cenni di Giovanni Boccaccio intorno a Tito Livio, Trieste, 1877,
and Studi, 1879, P- 3!7 f > and, on ms study of Livy, id. 416 — 424.
4 Laur. 1 10.
6 Laur. xxxiii $\. Cp. Sabbadini, Scoperte, 28 — 33.
6 Benvenuto on Paradiso xxii 74 f, ed. Lacaita v 301 ; cp. Corazzini, xxxvf,
and notes on Longfellow's Dante, I.e. (brevia is not, however, 'breviaries', but
'charms' or 'amulets'; see Ducange, s. v. ). The story, not unnaturally,
meets with protest from the learned historian of Monte Cassino, Tosti's Storia,
iii 99.
14 ITALY. [CENT. xiv.
well-known manuscript of the Histories and the latter part of the
Annals of Tacitus, which in some mysterious manner came into
the possession of Niccoli before 1427 \ and passed into the
Medicean Library after his death, was perhaps originally obtained
by Boccaccio from Monte Cassino. It is written in a 'Lombard'
hand, and this very manuscript may have come from that
monastery. What is certain is that Boccaccio possessed a copy
of Tacitus, transcribed by himself, possibly from the manuscript
which ultimately found its way into the Medicean collection2.
He is undoubtedly the first of the humanists who is at all familiar
with that historian. In his commentary on Dante he quotes
the substance of the historian's account of the death of Seneca;
and, in his work 'On Famous Women', he borrows descriptions
of certain notable personages from the thirteenth to the sixteenth
books of the Annals, and from the second and third books of the
Histories3.
After the date of his conversion in 1361, the author of the
Decameron, and of Fiammetta and the Amorosa Visione, ceases
to be a poet either in prose or verse, but he never ceases to be a
scholar4. As a scholar, he was content to remain poor rather
than sacrifice his independence. Apart from a few diplomatic
missions, the only office he ever held was that of being the first
to fill the lectureship on Dante, founded in Florence in 1373.
He left his MSS to the Convent of Santo Spirito, where they were
carefully tended by Niccoli in his youth. The catalogue of 1451
contains 106 MSSS. In the modest epitaph, which he wrote for
himself, the only touch of pride is in the final phrase : — Studium
io, Epp- iii 14.
2 He writes to the abbot of Montefalcone, 'quaternum quem asportasti
Cornel ii Taciti quaeso saltern mittas, ne laborem meum frustraveris et libro
deformitatem ampliorem addideris' (Corazzini, p. 59, corrected in Hortis,
Siudi, 425,- n. 4). Cp. Rostagno, p. vi Q{ facsimile of Tacitus, Laur. Ixviii 2.
3 Schiick in Neue Jahrb. 1874 (2)> '7°» Hortis, Sludi, 425 f; De Nolhac
in Melanges d'archeol. etc. xii (Rome, 1892); and other literature in Voigt, i
250* n. i.
4 Symonds, Boccaccio, 63 f, 70.
5 Goldrhann, Centralblatt fj'ir Bibliothekswesen iv (1887), 137 — 155; No-
vati, in Giornale star, della letter, ital. x 4191^ and Hecker, Boccaccio- Funde
(Braunschweig, 1902), 29 — 36.
CHAP. I.] BOCCACCIO AND TACITUS. 1 5
fuit alma poesis. Like Browning's ' Grammarian ', he was hot
prevented, even by the trials and tortures of old age1, from
remaining a brave and arduous scholar to the last ; and, when he
died, in the year following the death of Petrarch, the chancellor
of Florence declared that both of the luminaries of the new
eloquence had been extinguished, and that he had never known
a more loveable being than Boccaccio2.
Boccaccio was not only the earliest modern student of
Tacitus. He was also the first of modern men to study Greek in
Italy, and indeed in Europe. Part of his Greek lore he derived
from king Robert's librarian at Naples, one Paolo da Perugia, who
had obtained from the Calabrian monk, Barlaam, a number of
fragmentary details connected with Greek mythology. When
Barlaanrs pupil, another Calabrian, Leontius Pilatus, had arrived
in Venice from the East about 1360, Boccaccio promptly invited
him to come and teach Greek in Florence, and kept him in his own
house for three years translating Homer, while he carefully noted
all the little items of Greek learning that fell from the lips of his
ignorant and ill-favoured instructor3.
He has a fancy for giving clumsily compounded Greek names
to his Italian works. Greek and Roman mythology obtrudes
itself in his Filocopo. The scene of his Amelo is laid in an
imaginary Arcadia; that of the Teseide at Athens, while his
Filostrato professes to be a tale of Troy4. Like Petrarch5, he
declines to believe that Plato ever proposed the expulsion of
Homer from his ideal State ; and, in defending the ancient poets,
he takes refuge in allegorical interpretations6. He shows some
slight knowledge of the Ethics, Politics, and Meteorologica of
1 Ep. ad Brossanum, p. 378 Corazzini.
2 Salutati, ap. Corazzini, pp. 475, 477.
3 De Gen. Dear, xv c. 6, aspectu horridus homo est, turpi facie, barba pro-
lixa, et capilitio nigro, et meditatione occupatus assiclua,- moribus incultus,
nee satis urbanus homo etc. Petrarch, Sen. iii 6, calls 'Leo' a 'magna bellua, '
and 'Graius moestissimus' (Mortis, Stitdi, 502).
4 Symonds, Boccaccio, 30, 39, 47-91 78.
5 Contra Mcdiciun, iii p. 1 104 init.
6 De Gen. Dear, xiv c. 10, stultum credere poe'tas nil sensisse sub cortice
fabularum.
1 6 ITALY. [CENT. xiv.
Aristotle, and, in a single passage of his Commentary on Dante,
mentions the writings on Logic and Metaphysics^.
In his work on Greek Mythology he assumes that he will be
charged with ostentation for quoting lines of Greek from Homer.
In reply, he glories in the fact that, alone of all the Tuscans, he
has Greek poems at his disposal, and proudly claims to have been
the first to offer hospitality to a teacher of Greek in Italy, the first
to introduce the poems of Homer into Tuscany, the first of all
Italians to resume the reading of Homer2.
1 Hortis, Studi, 378—380.
2 De Gen. Dear. c. 7; cp. Manetti, Vita Boccaccii, eel. Galletti. 91, quic-
quid apud nos Graecorum est, Boccaccio nostro feratur acceptum. — In study-
ing the Latin works, I have used fohannis Bocatii irepl yet>ea\oyias Deorum
libri xv. . . ; ejusdem de Moniium, Sylvarum etc. nominibus (small folio, Basel,
1532), with Hortis, Sludi sulle Of ere Latine del Boccaccio, 956 pp., large 410
(Trieste, 1879), and Corazzini's Lettere edite e inedite (small 8vo, Firenze,
1877). Cp. in general Voigt, i 162 — 183*; Korting, Litteratur /(aliens, ii
(1880); Geiger, Renaissance und Humanismus, 45 — 69; Gaspary, Italienische
Literatur, ii i — 69, 636 — 645 ; and Feuerlein, Petrarca und Boccaccio, in Hist.
Zeitschr. xxxviii 193 f; also Symonds, Renaissance, ii 87 — 98, and Giovanni
Boccaccio (1895).
GIOVANNI BOCCACCIO.
From a medallion in the British Museum, inscribed
IOHES • BOCATIVS • FLORE(NTINVS).
Cp. Alois Heiss, Les Mddailleurs de la Renaissance (1891), i 140.
CHAPTER II.
SALUTATI. CHRYSOLORAS. BARZIZZA.
SHORTLY after the death of Boccaccio, we have a glimpse of the
interest inspired by the Classics in two of the social The villa
circles of Florence. In the brilliant company that Paradiso, and
frequented the Villa Paradiso of the Alberti, the
conversation sometimes turned on Odysseus and Catiline, on
Livy and Ovid, on the ancient Roman Empire, and the old
Latin language1. A more learned society assembled at Santo
Spirito, where the centre of the traditions of Boccaccio and of
Petrarch was the eminent theologian and patriot, Luigi de'
Marsigli (d. 1394), who was familiar with Cicero, Virgil and
Seneca, and followed St Augustine in assigning a moral meaning
to the scene in the Odyssey, where the comrades of Odysseus are
transformed into swine by the wand of Circe. Among those who
came under Marsigli's influence were Coluccio Salutati, Roberto
de' Rossi, and Niccol6 Niccoli2.
Salutati (1330 — 1406), who was educated at Bologna and
corresponded with Petrarch in his youth, held
the high office of chancellor, or Latin secretary, of saiuta"'0
Florence from 1375 to his death. Like Petrarch,
he was a great collector of Latin MSS. He eagerly sought for
the lost books of Livy, for Pompeius Trogus, and for a complete
copy of Curtius and of Quintilian. He obtained a transcript (1375)
of the Verona MS of Catullus, and of Petrarch's Propertius,
together with a Tibullus, which is still in existence3. He was the
first to possess a copy of Cato, De Agricultura, the elegies of
Maximianus, the Aratea of Germanicus and the commentary of
1 Giovanni da Prato, II Paradiso degli Alberti, ed. Wesselofsky, 1867.
2 Voigt, i 184 — i9O:'. 3 Ed. Baehrens, Proleg. pp. vii, x.
S. II. 2
1 8 ITALY. [CENT. xiv.
Pompeius on the Ars maior of Donatus1. On learning in 1389
that the two MSS of Cicero's Letters, from Verona and Vercelli,
were at Milan, he caused a copy to be made from the Vercelli
MS, which he found, to his joy, contained the Letters Ad
Familiares, unknown to Petrarch. In 1392 he received from
Milan a copy of the Verona MS of the Letters Ad Atticum,
Ad Quintum Fratrem and the Correspondence with Brutus, the
only MS of Cicero's Letters which Petrarch had himself discovered
and transcribed2. Thus, after the lapse of centuries, the two
volumes of Cicero's Letters stood side by side at last in the two
ancient MSS at Milan, and in the two modern transcripts in the
possession of Salutati in Florence3. Both of the latter are now
in the Laurentian Library4, together with the original of the
Ad Familiares, the MS from Vercelli5.
Salutati was much more than a mere collector. We find him
drawing up summaries of Cicero's Letters, and collating MSS of
Seneca and St Augustine. He detects the spuriousness of the
De Differentiis, formerly ascribed to Cicero. He encourages
younger scholars, and among those whose gratitude he thus won,
were men of no less mark than Poggio Bracciolini and Leonardo
Bruni. He was honoured with a public funeral in the Cathedral.
A full-length portrait of the Chancellor of Florence, a gaunt and
grim personage with a Roman nose, robed in the black gown of
his office, and bending beneath the weight of a vast volume which
he holds in his hands, forms the frontispiece of the monumental
edition of his Latin Letters6.
1 Sabbadini, Scoperte, 34 f. 2 P- 7 supra.
3 Cp. Voigt, Ber. d. sacks. Ges. d. Wiss. 1879, 41—65; Viertel, Konigs-
berg Progr. 1879, anAJahrb. fur kl. Phil. 1880, 231 — 247; and Cic. Epp. ed.
Mendelssohn (1893), xi f ; also Leighton, in Trans. Ainer. Phil. Assoc. xxi
59 — 87, and Kirner, in Studi ital. di filol. d. ix 399.
* xlix 7 (Ad Familiares) and 18 (Ad Atticum).
6 xlix 9.
6 Epistolario, ed. Novati, in 3 vols, large 8vo, Rome, 1891-6; frontispiece
to vol. i, reproduced in Wiese u. Percopo, Ital. Lift. 193 ; frontispiece to
vol. iii, an earlier portrait by Cristoforo Allori ; facsimiles from his letters in
iii 621, 661. More than a quarter of vol. iv part i (1905) is occupied with his
defence of the ancient poets and of classical education. Cp., in general,
Voigt, i 190— 21 23.
CHAP. II.] SALUTATI. CHRYSOLORAS. 19
Salutati was of signal service in promoting the study of Greek
in Florence. The youthful Guarino of Verona had
11 i i • t • r T.J- i Chrysoloras
been prompted by the high reputation of Manuel
Chrysoloras (c. 1350 — 1415), as a teacher of rhetoric and
philosophy, to seek a place in his household at Constantinople
with a view to profiting by his instructions1. The gratitude of
Guarino caused the name of Chrysoloras to become widely
known in the north of Italy ; and Chrysoloras and the aged
Demetrius Cydonius had hardly landed in Venice as envoys of
Manuel Palaeologus (1393), when two of the noble sons of
Florence hastened to obtain the benefit of their teaching. One
of them, Giacomo da Scarparia, accompanied the envoys on their
return to the Byzantine capital, there to learn Greek from
Cydonius. The other, Roberto de' Rossi, acquired some know-
ledge of the language in Venice, and inspired the aged Salutati
with an interest in Greek and in Chrysoloras. Salutati urged
Scarparia to search for MSS of all the Greek historians and poets,
and of Homer in particular, together with Plato and Plutarch,
and lexicons of the Greek language2. In 1396 he was authorised
by influential persons, such as Palla Strozzi and Niccol6 Niccoli,
to invite Chrysoloras to leave Constantinople and to settle in
Florence as a teacher of Greek. He accepted the invitation, and
held that office for four years (1396 — 1400). Under his influence,
Giacomo da Scarparia translated the Cosmography of Ptolemy,
and Rossi certain of the works of Aristotle3; Palla Strozzi, in
later life, produced renderings from the Greek, but Niccoli never
attained any intimate knowledge of the language. The most
enthusiastic pupils of the new teacher were younger men, such
as Leonardo Bruni, Carlo Marsuppini, and possibly Ambrogio
Traversari. Bruni had been engaged for four years in the study
of law, when the arrival of Chrysoloras prompted him to learn
a language that no Italian had understood 'for the last seven
1 Janus Pannonius, Delitiae poetariim Hung. (1619), 8 f (Legrand, Bibl.
Hillen. i xix), famulus colis atria docti hospitis, et mixto geris auditore minis-
trum.
2 Salutati, Epp. iii 129 — 132.
3 Attested in Guarino's dedication of Plutarch's Flamininus, ap. Bandini,
CataL Cod. Lat. ii 738.
2 — 2
20 ITALY. [CENT. xiv.
centuries ' ', a language that would unlock for him the treasures of
Homer, Plato and Demosthenes, and of all the poets, philosophers
and orators, of whom he had heard such wonders2. Bruni learnt
Greek for two years under Chrysoloras, and his memorable transla-
tions from the Greek will be mentioned at a later point3. Another
notable pupil, Vergerio, left a distinguished position as a teacher
at Padua, to learn Greek in Florence. But the first enthusiasm
for Greek had begun to abate on the Arno, when Chrysoloras, in
obedience to the bidding of the emperor Manuel Palaeologus,
left Florence in 1400 for Milan, where he was invited in 1402 to
teach Greek at Pavia. It was there that he commenced a literal
rendering of Plato's Republic^ afterwards revised by his favourite
pupil Uberto Decembrio4, who transmitted to his scholarly son,
Pier Candido5, a reverence for the memory of Chrysoloras. The
latter returned for a time to the East, but between 1407 and 1410
he was once more in the West as the envoy of his emperor, the
places visited during these years including Venice, Florence,
Paris, London6, and finally Rome. He was afterwards sent to
Constantinople to treat with the patriarch on the union of the
Churches. In 1413 he went to Germany with two cardinals to
arrange about the Council of Constance, and at Constance he
died of a fever in the spring of 1415. He was buried, not in the
church of the Dominican monastery, but in a chapel between the
north side of the choir and the sacristy. The monastery has been
secularised ; the finely vaulted church has become the dining-
room, and the adjoining chapel the pantry, of the Insel- Hotel '; but
1 This interval of time (in which several other humanists agree) is deemed
too small by Hody (p. 54), and by others. But it closely corresponds to the
statement in Martin Crusius, Annales Suevici 274, that Greek was extinguished
in Italy in 690 A.D. (exactly 706 years before).
2 Hody, 28 — 30; cp. Gibbon, vii 122 Bury, and Symonds, ii uof.
3 p. 45 f infra.
4 Cod. Laur. Lat. Ixxxix 50.
8 See his letter in Traversari, Epp. xxiv 69. He was only a child of three
when Chrysoloras reached Pavia.
6 £/>. aijoannem (Palaeologum //) imperatorem, tv y fftiyKpiffis TT?S TroXcuas
leal »^as 'Pti/wys, in Migne, P. G. clvi 343, /^/wjj/uat 5t rijs iv AovBivli? TTJS Bpe-
avroa (St Peter and St Paul) iro/tT^j Kal ravriytpcus r&v
CHAP. II.] CHRYSOLORAS. 21
on the ceiling of the ancient chapel the traveller may still read the
simple epitaph composed by Vergerio in memory of his master1.
His funeral was attended by his Roman pupil, the poet Cenci,
and by Poggio Bracciolini. The catechism of Greek Grammar
known as his Erotemata, the earliest modern text-book of the
subject, was printed in Florence shortly before 1484 and at
Venice in the February of that year, and was afterwards used by
Linacre at Oxford and by Erasmus at Cambridge. We also have
his letter to Guarino on the meaning of the term Theorica in
Demosthenes, and on the edition of the Iliad described by
Plutarch as that of the narthex*. But he was unproductive as an
author, and needlessly diffuse and redundant as a teacher. In his
general character, however, he was a man of a far finer type than
either of his precursors, Barlaam and Leontius Pilatus. His
pupil Poggio, who, in his relation to others, is only too apt to give
proof of an implacable and bitter temper, is eloquent in praise of
his master's integrity, generosity and kindness, and of that grave
and sober earnestness, which was in itself an incentive to virtue.
He had been a bright example to others, a heaven-sent messenger
who had aroused an enthusiasm for the study of Greek3. His
fame was cherished by another celebrated pupil, Guarino, who
compared him to a ray of light illuminating the deep darkness of
Italy. Forty years after his master's death, he fondly collected all
the many tributes to his memory and enshrined them in a volume
under the title of Chrysolorina*. A Greek MS that once belonged
to Chrysoloras is now at Wolfenbiittel5, and his own transcript
of Demosthenes in the Vatican6.
1 Ante aram situs est D. Emanuel Chrysoloras,... vir doctissimus, prudent-
issimus, optimus etc. (complete copy in Legrand, I xxviii f ). An epitaph, which
I have seen in the Portinari chapel (1462-6) of the church of S. Eustorgio in
Milan, strangely confounds Manuel Chrysoloras, litterarum Graecarum resti-
tutor, with his nephew John, the father-in-law of Philelphus.
2 Rosmini, Vita di Guarino, iii 181, 187 — 189.
3 P°gg'°> Epp' i 4> xiii '•
4 Partly preserved in Harleian MS 2580 (Sabbadini, La Scitola...di Guarino,
16). Cp., in general, Voigt, i 222 — 232s; ii H3S; also Hody, 12 — 54; Le-
grand, Bibliographic Hellenique, I xix — xxx ; and Klette, Beitrage, i 47 f-
Portrait in Paulus Jovius, Elogia (1575) 41, copied in Legrand, in 59.
5 Gud. 24. 6 Gr. 1368 (De Nolhac, Bibl. de F. Orsini, 145).
22 ITALY. [CENT. XIV.
Meanwhile, an interest in Latin literature was maintained and
developed in Northern Italy by the enthusiastic student of
Cicero, Gasparino da Barzizza, to whom we shall soon return1,
and by two earlier Latin scholars, both of them bearing the
identical name of 'John of Ravenna'2. One of the two was a
pupil of Petrarch, a youthful humanist, who has been identified
as Giovanni di Conversino da Ravenna (1347 —
c^ver^no dl c- I4°6)- He was recommended to Petrarch in
1364, and aided him in editing his 'Familiar
Letters'. His beautiful penmanship, his marvellous memory,
and his zeal for learning made his master desire to retain him
permanently in his service. He left for Pisa (1366) and soon
returned. After a while he was eager to go to Constantinople
and learn Greek ; but Petrarch assured him that Greece was
no longer a home of learning3, and accordingly he started for
'Calabria', with letters of introduction to persons in Rome and
Naples. We afterwards find him teaching in Florence (1368),
Belluno and Udine, but the only place in which he settled for
long was Padua, where he was a teacher of rhetoric in 1382, and
again from 1394 to 1405. Besides serving as Latin secretary to
the house of the Carraras, he lectured on the Latin poets, and
aroused an interest in the study of Cicero. Among his pupils
were the foremost teachers of the next generation, Vittorino da
Feltre and Guarino da Verona4. He was formerly confounded
with another ' John of Ravenna ', now finally identified as
Giovanni Malpaghini (fl. 1397 — 1417), who was
a teacher in Florence for many years, counting
among his pupils the three future Chancellors,
Leonardo Bruni, Carlo Marsuppini and Poggio Bracciolini5.
Early in the fifteenth century Gasparino of Barzizza, near
1 p. 23 infra.
2 They were regarded, even by so eminent an authority as Voigt, as one
and the same person.
3 Epp. Sen. xi 9, p. 887, Graeciam...nunc omnis longe inopem disciplinae.
4 Voigt, i 2I2-0,1, ed. 3, revised by Lehnerdt. See esp. the Konigsberg
Programm of the latter (1893), with Sabbadini in Giornale storico delta lett.
ital. V (1888) 156 f, and Klette's Beitrcige, i (1888).
8 Voigt, i 2i93f.
CHAP. II.] JOHN OF RAVENNA. BARZIZZA. 23
Bergamo (c. 1370 — 1431) taught for a time in Pavia, Venice,
Padua and Ferrara, and in 1418 found his earliest
hopes fulfilled by his final settlement in Milan. B°«i^aarino da
He expounded the De Oratore, De Senectute, De
Officiis, Philippics and Letters of Cicero, the last of these being
his favourite study. He collected Ciceronian Mss1, and gave a
strong impulse to the study of Cicero, and especially to the
cultivation of a new style of epistolary Latin. Henceforward,
Latin letters were neither to be inspired by Seneca and the
philosophical works of Cicero, as those of Petrarch, nor were they
to be rich in rhetoric, like those of Salutati. They were to aim at
a studied carelessness, and to reflect the grace of the best type of
conversation. Gasparino's own style was sometimes criticised as
marked by elegance and refinement rather than force and vigour.
But his style is not uniform. It is marked by three main
varieties : — (i) the easy and familiar style of his private corre-
spondence, in which, however, he is far too fond of the mediaeval
use of quod; (2) his orations, which include not a few un-
Ciceronian words and phrases, while his eulogy of St Francis
combines classical and Christian phraseology without any breach
of good taste ; and (3) his formal models for epistolary Latin
composition, — Epistolae ad exercitationem accommodatae. It is in
these last that he attains the highest degree of correctness ; it is
in these alone that he proves himself 'the true apostle of
Ciceronianism'2. It is characteristic of the French appreciation
of literary and epistolary style that his liber epistolarum was the
first book printed in France3.
1 Sabbadini, Scoperte, 36.
2 Sabbadini, Ciceronianismo, 13 — 17.
3 Paris, 1470; copy exhibited in British Museum, King's Library, case vii.
His book on Orthography was published about the same time, while his
Grammar was printed at Brescia in 1492. Opera, ed. Furietti, Rome, 1723;
two of his Latin lectures in K. Mtillner's Reden utid Briefen, 56 f. Cp. Voigt,
i 22o3 f, 5o63, and facsimile in Chap, xiii infra.
CHAPTER III.
THE RECOVERY OF THE CLASSICS.
POGGIO, AUR1SPA, FILELFO, JANUS LASCARIS.
THE quest for classical manuscripts, begun by Petrarch1 and
continued by Boccaccio2 and Salutati3, was extended beyond the
borders of Italy during the Council of Constance (1414 — 1418).
That famous Council witnessed not only the death of the first
great teacher of Greek in Italy, but also the discovery of not a
few of the old Latin Classics. Foremost in the quest was
Poggio Bracciolini(i38o — i45g)4. Born at Terranuovo
near Arezzo, and educated at Florence under Giovanni
Malpaghini and Chrysoloras, he had been a papal secretary since
1403, and attended the Council in that capacity. During the
vacancy in the 'Apostolic See', from 24 May 1415 to u November
1417, the papal secretary had no official duties to perform, and it
was during this interval that his principal discoveries were made.
These discoveries are connected with four distinct expeditions : —
(i) to Cluni in the summer of 1415, (2) to St Gallen in the
summer of 1416, (3) to St Gallen and other monasteries early in
1417, and (4) to Langres and other places in France and in
Germany in the summer of the same year5.
(i) At Cluni b, north of Macon, Poggio found an ancient MS
of Cicero's Speeches, including the pro Cluentio, pro Sexto Roscio,
and pro Murena"*. Recent researches have proved that it also
1 p. 7, sztpra. 2 p. 14 f. 3 p. 171".
4 Cp. Voigt, i 235—251, 257— 26o3.
6 These four expeditions have been carefully discriminated by Sabbadini,
Le Scoperte dei Codici Lalini e Greet ne' secoli xiv e xv (Firenze, 1905).
6 P°ggi°» Epp- ii 7> ex tnonaslerio Cluniacensi.
7 Epp. ii 26 (to Niccoli), Orationes meas Cluniacenses potes mittere...
Scribas mihi quae orationes sunt in eo volumine praeter Cluentianam, pro
Roscio et Murena.
26 ITALY. [CENT. xiv.
included the pro Milone and pro Cae/io1. Poggio rescued the MS
from the risk of destruction and sent it to his friends in Florence,
where Francesco Barbaro had great difficulty in deciphering it2.
The earliest known copy was completed in February, 1416, for
Cosimo de' Medici by 'Joannes Arretinus', doubtless the calli-
grapher of that name3.
(2) In Poggio's expedition to St Gallen in the summer of
1416, his comrades were Bartolomeo da Montepulciano, who soon
took a prominent part in the transcription of the newly discovered
Latin MSS ; Cencio Rustici, who like Poggio and Bartolomeo, was
a pupil of Chrysoloras, and was engaged in translations from the
Greek ; and Zomino (Sozomeno) of Pistoia, whose knowledge of
Greek, combined with an interest in Grammar and Rhetoric,
prompted him to collect 116 Latin and Greek MSS in Constance
and elsewhere, which he ultimately bequeathed to his native city
(d. 1458)*. So eager was the quest that even the wretched con-
dition of the roads did not prevent Poggio and Bartolomeo and
Cencio from sallying forth from Constance, and climbing the
steep slopes that led to St Gallen some twenty miles distant. In
that ancient home of learning they found the abbot and the
monks absolutely uninterested in literature, and many a precious
MS lying amid the dust and damp and darkness of one of the
towers of the abbey-church, a noisome prison (says Poggio) to
which even criminals condemned to death would never have been
consigned5. Cencio, who was deeply moved at the sight, declares
that, if those scrolls could have found a voice, they would have
exclaimed : — ' O ye, who love the Latin tongue, suffer us not to
1 A. C. Clark, in Anecdota Oxoniensia, x (1905), The Vetus Cluniacensis
of Poggio, p. iii. Poggio's MS is there identified with no. 496 in the Cluni
catalogue of cent, xii, ' Cicero pro Milone et pro Avito et pro Murena et pro
quibusdatn aliis'. Before Poggio's MS was removed to Italy, readings from it,
including the pro Milone and pro Caelio, had been copied in a St Victor MS,
now in Paris (Lat. 14,749).
2 Guarino on Rose. § 132, quoted in Clark's Anecdoton, iii.
3 Sabbadini, Scoperte, 77 n. 22. On other copies, see Clark, xxxix.
4 Vespasiano, Vite, 503-5, a short life of 'Zembino Pistolese'. His uni-
versal chronicle is partly printed in Muratori, Scr. xvi 1063.
5 Poggio, Epp. i 5 (to Guarino, 15 Dec. 1416).
CHAP. III.] POGGIO AT ST GALLEN. 2/
perish here; release us from our prison'1. Among Poggio's first
discoveries was a complete copy of the Institutio Oratoria of
Quintilian2, a work which Petrarch had never known except in an
imperfect and mutilated form3, and which Salutati had vainly
hoped to obtain from France4, while Gasparino da Barzizza had
audaciously undertaken to supply the missing portions by means
of compositions of his own5. Poggio hastened to send the good
news to Niccoli and Bruni in Florence, carried off the MS to
Constance, and copied it himself in 53 days6. His transcript was
apparently still in the Medicean Library in 1495 7» an(^ Gasparino
obtained a second copy direct from Constance8.
At the same time Poggio discovered a MS of the Argonautica
of Valerius Flaccus, containing books i — iv 317. He made a
copy, which became the source of other transcripts, and has itself
been identified with a MS now in Madrid9. Another copy,
probably made for Bartolomeo by some ignorant German scribe,
1 Cencio to Francesco da Fiano in Rome, in Quirinus (Angelo Maria
Querini), Dlatriba ad Fr. Barbari Epp. (1741), p. 8.
2 Epp. i 5, ibi inter confertissimam librorum copiam, quos longum est per-
censere, Quintilianum comperimus adhuc salvum et incolumem, plenum tamen
situ et pulvere squalentem.. Repperimus praeterea libros tres primos et dimi-
diam partem quarti C. Valeri Flacci Argonauticon, et expositiones... super
octo Ciceronis orationes Q. Asconii Pediani...Haec mea manu transcripsi, et
quidem velociter, ut ea mitterem ad Leonardum Arretinum et Nicolaum Flo-
rentinum ; qui cum a me huius thesauri adinventionem cognovissent, multis a
me verbis Quintilianum per suas litteras quam primum ad eos mitti contende-
runt. Cp. Bruni, Epp, iv 5.
3 p. 8 supra.
4 Ep, (i) in Thomas, De Johannis de Monsteriolo vita (1883) no; and (2)
in Salutati's Epistolario, i 260.
6 Blondus, Ital. Illustr. 346.
6 Sede Apostolica vacante says the transcript of the colophon, quoted by
Reifferscheid, in Rhein. Mus. 1868, 145. Bruni's reply to Poggio's first an-
nouncement of his discoveries is dated 13 Sept. 1416 (Epp. iv 5).
7 Archiv Star. Ital., Ser. Ill, xx 60. We have two transcripts from
Poggio's: Vat. Urbin. 327, and Ambros. B 153 sup. (Sabbadini, Spogli
Ambros. 350).
8 Sabbadini, Studi di Gasp. Barzizza (1886), 4.
9 x 8 1 (facsimile on p. 24), written in a more rapid hand than Poggio's
transcript of Jerome and Prosper. For photographs from both MSS I am in-
debted to Mr A. C. Clark.
28 ITALY. [CENT. xv.
is in the library of Queen's College, Oxford1. A complete MS
found its way into Italy at a later date (c. i^Si)2.
Another of Poggio's finds was a MS containing the commentary
of Asconius on five Speeches of Cicero, and that of an unknown
scholiast on a large part of the Verrine Orations3. This MS was
faithfully copied at Constance by Bartolomeo4 and by Zominos.
Bartolomeo's transcript is now in the Laurentian Library6; that of
Zomino, at Pistoia. It was also copied, with greater freedom in
conjectural emendation, by Poggio, whose transcript is still pre-
served in Madrid, in the same volume as the Valerius Flaccus
already mentioned7. A fair copy of Poggio's hasty transcript
became the archetype of MSS in the Laurentian Library8 and at
Leyden. Poggio's free recension was followed in all editions of
Asconius previous to that of Kiessling and Scholl, which is
founded on the faithful transcripts of Bartolomeo and Zomino.
Cencio, after stating that all the three MSS above-mentioned
had been transcribed9, notes the discovery of a Comment of
Priscian on a few lines of Virgil10, and a copy of Vitruvius. The
latter was not unique, as we hear of a MS at Reichenau (still
nearer to Constance), and of another in the papal library at
Avignon".
(3) A second expedition to St Gallen was made amid the
wintry snows of January, 141 7 la. This expedition was under
official sanction, and Bartolomeo and Poggio are regarded as
explorers of equal rank and authority13. St Gallen was not the
I A. C. Clark, in Cl. Rev. xiii 119 — 130.
* Vat. 3277 (cent, ix); Thilo, Proleg. xl ; cp. A. C. Clark, /. c., 124; Sab-
badini, Scopcrte, 151.
3 Div. Act. I, II, lib. i and ii, down to § 35.
4 25 July, 1416. B 23 July, 1417. 6 liv 5.
7 A. C. Clark, in Cl. Rev. x 301-5. 8 liv 4.
9 Quirinus, I.e., horum quidem omnium librorum exempla habfmus.
10 Partitions (i.e. 'parsing') xii versuum Aeneidos.
II Miintz, Hist, de V Art pendant la Renaissance, i 238.
18 Bartolomeo's letter of 21 Jan. to Traversari (Epp. p. 984); vis hyemis
and nives mentioned in Barbaro's subsequent letter to Poggio (p. 2), 6 July,
1417.
13 F. Barbari, Epp. pp. 4, 6. Among the promoters of this expedition was
Cardinal Branda (Sabbadini, Scoperte, 79, n. 33).
CHAP. III.] POGGIO AT ST GALLEN, ETC. 29
only monastery visited. Bartolomeo alludes to one as 'in the
heart of the Alps', probably Einsiedeln, and three others, doubt-
less including the celebrated Benedictine abbey of Reichenau,
founded in 724 on an island in the Untersee, and the later abbey
of Weingarten less than 16 miles from the northern shore of the
Lake of Constance. At St Gallen they found a Vegetius and a
Pompeius Festus (i.e. the compendium by Paulus Diaconus), both
of which were transcribed by Bartolomeo. Vegetius was in the
library of Petrarch, but 'Pompeius Festus' was practically un-
known1. The rest of the new finds were Lucretius, Manilius,
Silius Italicus, Ammianus Marcellinus, and the grammarians
Caper, Eutyches, and Probus. The Lucretius was discovered in
a 'distant' monastery where a copy was made on Poggio's behalf2.
It was probably in the summer of 1418 that this copy was sent to
Niccoli, who apparently kept it until I4343, making in the mean-
time the beautifully written transcript, now in the Laurentian
Library, which is the ancestor of a whole family of Lucretian MSS.
The Manilius is now represented by a transcript at Madrid4 con-
taining a number of readings not found in the earliest and best
MS, that from Gembloux. Of the Punica of Silius Italicus, a work
unknown in the Middle Ages, copies were made for Bartolomeo
and for Poggio5, and of the four MSS, on which the text now rests,
the two in Florence6 probably represent the copy made for
1 Sabbadini, 80, n. 36.
2 Poggio to Barbara, early in 1418, 'Lucretius mihi nondum redditus est,
cum sit scriptus : locus est satis longinquus, neque unde aliqui veniant ' (A- C.
Clark, Cl. Rev. xiii 125). Murbach im Elsass has been proposed by Lehnerdt
(Lucr. in der Renaissance, 5), who suggests that Poggio might have visited it
during the expedition to Langres.
3 Poggio to Niccoli, Epp- ii 26 (June, 1425), iv 2 (Dec. 1429; Munro,
Lucr. p. 33; Lehnerdt, 5).
4 R. Ellis, in Hermathena, viii (1893) 261 — 286, and Cl. Rev. vii 310, 356,
406. The Madrid MS (M 31), containing Manilius and the Silvae, was origi-
nally bound up with another MS (X 81) containing Asconius and Valerius
Flaccus. At the beginning of theyfrj/ are the contents of the whole : Afanilii
Aslronomicon Statii Papinii sylvae et Asconiu* Pedianus in Ciceronem et
Valerii Flacci nonnulla; for the end of the second, see facsimile on p. 24,
and cp. Clark, Cl. Rev. xiii 119.
8 Clark, Cl. Rev. xiii 126-9; xv 166.
6 L (Laur. xxxvii 16) and F.
3O ITALY. [CENT. xv.
Poggio, and the two others1 that made for Bartolomeo. Fulda
was the unnamed source of the MS of books xiv to xxxi of
Ammianus Marcellinus, which was possibly brought to Constance
by the abbot himself2. It ultimately found its way into the
Vatican Library3. Poggio afterwards essayed in vain to obtain
another MS of the same historian from Hersfeld4. By Probus
(who is mentioned with the two other grammarians) is meant the
Ars minor or Institutio Artium that bears his name.
(4) In the summer of 1417 Poggio discovered, probably at
Langres on the Marne, the/w Caectna5; and, in unnamed monas-
teries of France or Germany, seven other speeches, namely the
three de lege agraria, the two entitled pro Rabirio, with the pro
Rostio Comoedo, and the speech in Pisonem*. At Constance,
early in 1418, Poggio was still in possession of his transcript of
these speeches, but he afterwards sent it to Venice, where it was
kept by Francesco Barbaro until I4367. It is only through this
transcript, and its copies, that the text of the two speeches pro
Rabirio has descended to posterity, while the transcripts of the
Cluni MS, discovered by Poggio in his first expedition, are the sole
authority for the pro Murena and the/n? Sexto Roscio,
1 O (Oxon. Coll. Regin.) and V (Vat. 1652).
2 Ziegelbauer (ap. Urlichs, in Rhein. Mus. xxvi 638), lectissima de sua
bibliotheca exportari volumina iussit, quae magnam vero partem deinceps non
sunt restituta. Poggio, Epp. ii p. 375, Ammianum Marcellinum ego latinis
musis restitui cum ilium eruissem e bibliothecis ne dicam ergastulis Germano-
runi. Cardinalis de Columna habet eum codicem, quern portavi, litteris anti-
quis, sed ita mendosum, ut nil corruptius esse possit. Nicolaus Nicolus ilium
manu sua transcripsit in chartis papyri. Is est in bibliotheca Cosmi. Id. Ep.
printed by Clark, Cl. Rev. xiii 125, De Ammiano Marcellino non reperio, qui
symbolum conferat ('aid in the decipherment or interpretation').
3 No. 1873, cent, x ; Facs. in Chatelain, Pal. no. 195.
4 Epp. ii 7, iii 12 (1423-7). The text of the Hersfeld MS was published in
'533. ar>d the MS lost, with the exception of six leaves found at Marburg in
1876. Cp. Schanz, § 809.
8 Colophon to pro Caecina; hanc oralionem...cum earn... in silvis Lingo-
num adinvenisset....
6 Colophon to in Pisonem; has septem...orationes...perquisitis plurimis
Galliae Germaniaeque... bibliothecis cum latentes comperisset (A. C. Clark,
Anted. Oxon. p. n; Sabbadini, Scoperte, 81).
7 Letters, ap. A. C. Clark, Cl. Rev. xiii 125-6.
CHAP. III.] POGGIO. LANDRIANI. 31
The discovery of the Silvae of Statius has been referred to this
fourth expedition1 solely because it is not mentioned by Barbaro
in his letter to Poggio2, in which Lucretius, Manilius and Silius
are among the authors named. It was during his tour in
Germany that Poggio (as he tells us) hired a local scribe 3, and to
just such a scribe the MS of the Silvae at Madrid, which is the
archetype of all existing MSS of that work, has been independently
assigned on internal evidence4. It was probably on the fourth
expedition that he discovered a copy of Columella, an author
already known to Pastrengo of Verona5.
At Rome in 1427 Poggio sought in vain for MSS of Cicero,
rumours of which had reached him from Trier and Utrecht, and
even from distant Portugal. So closely was he identified with the
quest that he was even erroneously credited with the first discovery
of the Letters to Atticus6, the De Finibus and De Legibus"1. At
Pistoia in 1409 Leonardo Bruni8 had seen an ancient MS of
Cicero's Letters to Quintus and Brutus, with seven books ad
Atticum, which supplied new evidence as to the text and included
two letters hitherto unknown9. In the latter half of i42i10 (while
Poggio was in England) an important discovery was made near
Milan. In the cathedral church of Lodi, the bishop, Gerardo
Landriani, was engaged in searching for some ancient charters in
a chest that had long remained unopened, when he lighted on
a MS of Cicero, written in old ' Lombardic ' characters, including
a complete copy of the De Oratore, the Brutus, and the Orator.
The Brutus was absolutely new, while the De Oratore and the
Orator had hitherto been known only through imperfect and mu-
tilated MSS. The MS was sent by Landriani to Gasparino Barzizza,
who appropriated it, and sent in return a transcript of the De
Oratore made byCosimo Raimondi of Cremona". Subsequently,
Gasparino combined the newly discovered portions with those
I Sabbadini, 82. 2 Querini, Epp. Barbari, p. 2.
3 Epp. i p. 80, conduxi scriptorem in Germania.
4 Clark, C/. Rev. xiii 128. 5 Sabbadini, Scopcrte, 16, 82.
6 Vespasiano, Poggio, §2. 7 Jovius, Elog. no. 10.
8 Epp. iii 13. 9 Viertel, mjahrb.fiircl. Phil. (1880), 243.
10 Sabbadini, in Studi ital. vii 104 f, Scoperte, 100.
II Sabbadini, Scoperte, 100, n. 61.
32 ITALY. [CENT. xv.
already known, and his recension of the whole was soon copied
in many parts of Italy. In 1422, the Brutus was transcribed with
wonderful rapidity by Flavio Biondo of Forli, who happened to
be in Milan at the time1, and this copy, which is preserved in
the Vatican2, was sent successively to Verona and Venice, and
transcribed in various parts of Italy. A readable recension of
the Brutus was meanwhile produced at Verona by Guarino. A
transcript of the Brutus and Orator was forwarded to Niccoli
from Milan in 1422, and is still in Florence. Further, a MS of
the De Oratore and Orator, revised by Gasparino, found its
way to Heidelberg and is now in the Vatican, together with a
copy of all three treatises transcribed in 1422 and corrected from
the original at Pavia in April 1425. The original was lost to view
after I4283. In the meantime Poggio, while he was returning from
England, where he failed to find any classical MSS, had lighted on
an imperfect Petronius at Cologne and sent a copy to Niccoli,
who kept it for seven years4. From Paris he sent Niccoli a
transcript of the Lexicon of Nonius Marcellus5. The rumours
of a complete Livy in a Benedictine abbey (possibly Cismar) in
the diocese of Liibeck, which had reached Salutati in Florence,
found their counterpart in the statement by a Dominican, Giovanni
da Colonna, that he had seen an ancient MS of the 'fourth decade'
in the archives of the cathedral at Chartres (c. 141 3)6, and the hope
of finding new decades was thus revived. Early in 1424 a Dane
at Rome assured Poggio that, in the Cistercian monastery of
Soroe near Roskilde, he had seen three vast volumes, in Lombardic,
mixed with Gothic, characters, containing (according to the in-
scription outside one of them) ten decades of Livy, and that he
had read a summary of their contents. But no such MS was
found either at this, or at another monastery in Denmark, and
a still later rumour was dismissed by Poggio as a mere romance7.
We have already seen that the first of the humanists, who had
any knowledge of Tacitus, was Boccaccio, who may possibly have
1 Ital. Illustr. 346. * Ottob. 1592.
3 Sabbadini, Guarino e le op. ret. di Cic. 433, and Scuola di Gttarino, 102.
4 Epp. ii 3; iv 2, 4. 6 Epp. ii 22.
6 Valentinelli, Bibl. MSS. Add. S. Marci Venet. vi 53.
7 Epp. ii 9 ; iv 20 ; v 1 8.
CHAP. III.] MSS OF CICERO AND TACITUS. 33
discovered the MS of 'the Histories and the later books of the
Annals at Monte Cassino1. How and when that MS reached
Florence is unknown. It was in the possession of Niccoli in 1426
and there was some mystery about its provenance. Niccoli sent it
to Poggio, who solemnly promised to keep its existence a secret2;
he also allowed Francesco Barbara to make a copy, and this copy
was afterwards transcribed for Cardinal Bessarion (1453). But,
until the text was printed, about 1470, it was known to very
few. Thus the beginning of the Histories is quoted by Bruni in
his laudation of Florence (1400), and the contents of the above
MS were known to Valla, Tortelli, Decembrio, and Sicco Polentone.
Tacitus is also quoted by Leon Battista Alberti (i452)3. The fact
that Tacitus was so little quoted prompted an attempt on the part
of J. W. Ross (1878) to prove that the Annals were forged by
Poggio in 1422-9 4, a fancy refuted by Sir Henry Howorth5, to be
revived by P. Hochart8. But the later books of the Annals were
known to Boccaccio before Poggio was born, and the earlier books
were not discovered until 49 years after Poggio had died7. The
MS of Annals i-vi, which probably came from Corvey, did not
reach Italy until shortly before isog8.
The first to hear in Germany of the Agricola, Germam'a, and
Dialogus of Tacitus was apparently Bartolomeo Capra, an arch-
bishop of Milan, who was eager in the quest of MSS9. Poggio
was in London at the time (1422)'°, but his negotiations with a
monk of Hersfeld began in 1425. Ultimately, in 1455, Enoch of
Ascoli, the emissary of Leo X, acquired the Hersfeld MS of the
minor works, and eight leaves of this MS have been happily
1 p. nt supra; cp. H. Keil, in Rhein. Mus. vi (1848) 145. On the reco-
very of Tacitus, cp. Voigt, i 249 — 257*.
2 Epp. iii 5, 14, 15, 17 (1426-8).
3 Hist, ii 49, in Architettura, p. 38, ed. 1565.
4 Bursian's Jahresb. xix 568.
6 Cp. Edinburgh Review, vol. 148, pp. 437 — 468.
6 1890. Cp. Riv. di filol. xix 302.
7 Clark, Cl. Rev. xx 227, n. 3.
8 Viertel, in Neue Jahrb. 1881, 423, 805; Hiiffer, Korveier Studien, 1898,
p. 14.
9 Sabbadini, Scoperte, 104 b.
10 Epp. i 21.
S. II. 3
34 ITALY. [CENT. xv.
identified in the MS of the Agricola found at Jesi near Ancona
in I9021.
In 1427, Lamola found at Milan a famous MS of Celsus2. In
1429, Nicolaus of Trier, better known as Nicolaus Cusanus, sent
Poggio a list of MSS, including not only a complete Gellius and
Curtius, but also the titles of twenty plays of Plautus, most of
which were then unknown3. Poggio urged the Cardinal Orsini to
lose no time in securing the Plautus, and, by the end of the year,
Nicolaus had arrived in Rome bringing with him the MS4 of four5
of the eight known plays and of twelve that were new, which is
still one of the treasures of the Vatican Library6. In the recension
of Plautus which gradually became current in Italy, Poggio was
aided by Gregorio Corero of Venice7.
It was known to Poggio in 1425 that at Monte Cassino there
was a copy of the work of Frontinus on the aqueducts of Rome,
but it was not until he visited the monastery, in 1429, that
the manuscript was actually found8. It was carried off to Rome,
copied and returned, and it is still at Monte Cassino9. In the
quest of MSS others (such as Traversari), who had equal or greater
advantages, were less successful than Poggio. The only Classic
discovered by Traversari was Cornelius Nepos, found in 1434 in
the library of Hermolaus Barbarus at Padua10.
During the Council of Basel, the Sicilian Aurispa discovered
at Mainz in 1433 l^e Commentary of Donatus on Terence, as
well as the Latin Panegyric^ beginning with Pliny's Panegyric on
Trajan11. In the century that elapsed between Petrarch's discovery
of Cicero pro Archia (1333), and Aurispa's discovery of Pliny's
1 Facs. of one page in paper by Ramorino, in Atti del congresso...di sc.
storiche, Roma, 1905, ii 230-2; Sabbadini, Scoperte, 141 f.
2 Lanr. Ixxiii r. 3 Poggio, Epp. \ p. 266.
4 ib. p. 304.
5 Amphitruo, Asinaria, Aulularia, and half of the Captivi. The other
four known plays were, Casitia, Curculio, Cistellaria and Epidicus. These
survive in the Palatine MSS B and C, and the Ambrosian E.
6 Ritschl's D (c. xii). 7 Vespasiano, Poggio, § 2.
8 Epp. i pp. 284, 304 ; cp. Sabbadini, Scoperte, 85.
9 Complete facsimile, ed. C. Herschel (Boston, 1899).
10 Trav. Epp. viii 53 ; Sabbadini, 95.
11 Voigt, i 260*; Sabbadini, 116.
CHAP. III.] MSS OF PLAUTUS, FRONTINUS, ETC. 35
Panegyric (1433), tne principal accessions to the Latin Classics
had been made.
Francesco Pizzopasso, archbishop of Milan (d. 1443), collected
65 MSS, all of which are now in the Ambrosian Library. Among
these is a valuable fragment of Donatus on Terence, and the sole
authority for the Notae Juris of Probus1. In 1455, Enoch of
Ascoli brought to Rome from the North, not only the minor works
of Tacitus, but also all that remains of Suetonius de grammaticis
et rhetoribus, with Apicius, and the tragedy of Orestes, and
Porphyrio's commentary on Horace2. The Consolatio ad Liviam
was discovered by an unnamed scholar in 1470, and in the same
century a large part of two of Ovid's Heroides (xvi and xxi) was
recovered3. In France, in 1501-4, the exiled Sannazaro dis-
covered new poems of the Latin Anthology, as well as the
Halieuticon of Ovid, and the Cynegeticon of Grattius and of
Nemesianus4.
Politian was a keen investigator of all the ancient MSS that
came within his reach in Florence or elsewhere5. It was under
the auspices of his rival Merula at Milan that Merula's secretary,
Giorgio Galbiate, discovered the MSS at Bobbio in 1493. He
probably brought to Milan, for the purposes of his proposed
editions, the treatise of Terentianus Maurus on the metres, and
that of Fortunatianus on the Odes of Horace; the works of
Velius Longus and Adamantius, on orthography, with the Catholica
of Probus, and the Eleganiiae of Fronto. The Terentianus alone
was actually published. The satire of Sulpicia, first printed in
1498, came from Bobbio. Among the MSS which Inghirami, the
librarian of the Vatican, removed to Rome (1496), was that of the
Auctores Gromatici, now at Wolfenbiittel. Aulo Giano Parrasio
(1470 — 1534), one of the best scholars of his time, during his
stay at Milan (1499—1506) obtained from Bobbio the MS of
Charisius, and transcripts of the poems of Uracontius, besides
discovering, probably in one of the monasteries of Milan, the
hymns of Sedulius and Prudentius".
• About 1500, Fra Giocondo of Verona discovered in Paris the
1 Sabbadini, 121. 2 ib. 14 r. 3 ib. 125 f.
4 ib. 140. 6 ib. 151 f; p. 84 infra.
6 Sabbadini, 156 — 160.
3—2
36 ITALY. [CENT. xv.
Correspondence of Trajan and the younger Pliny. In 1508 the
MS of Tacitus Annals, \ — vi, was brought from Corvey to the
Medicean Library; in 1515, Velleius Paterculus was found by
Beatus Rhenanus at the abbey of Murbach; and, 1527, the
first five books of the fifth decade of Livy were brought to
light by Grynaeus from the abbey of Lorsch1.
The Greek MSSZ, which had found their way into Italy before
the corning of Chrysoloras, had been few indeed : — one or two
copies of Homer, parts of Plato and Aristotle, and a few of the
Greek Fathers. It was a pupil of Chrysoloras, Angeli da
Scarparia, who was urged by Salutati3 to bring MSS of Homer
and Plato and Plutarch from Constantinople. Another of his
pupils, Guarino, returned to Italy from the East in 1408 with more
than 50 MSS4. Foremost among the discoverers of
Greek MSS was the Sicilian Aurispa, who became
for Greek literature what Poggio was for Latin. He had his
ambitions as a scholar, but he was more remarkable for his
singular aptitude for trading in MSS. In 1417 he brought from
the East a few good MSS, a Sophocles, a Euripides, and a Thucy-
dides; this last he sold to Niccoli at Pisa5. Among those that
he possessed in 1421, was the Commentum Aristarchi in Homerum,
which has been identified as the celebrated codex A of the Iliad6.
In 1422-3 he was in Constantinople, where he gathered from
various parts of the Greek world a vast number of MSS. The aged
emperor, Manuel II, presented him with the great historical work
of Procopius, and with Xenophon's little treatise on Horsemanship.
When he reached Venice, late in 1423, he brought with him a
whole library of no less than 238 MSS, almost entirely consisting
of the Greek classics. Florence was the goal of his hopes, and
his most valued correspondents in Florence were Niccoli and
Traversari7. The solitary MS which he sent to Niccoli from Con-
stantinople was one of the tenth century containing seven plays
of Sophocles, six of Aeschylus, and the Argonautica of Apollonius
1 Sabbadini, 164. 2 Voigt, i 262-63. s Epp. iii 129 — 132.
4 List published by Omont in Rev. des Bibliothtques, ii (1892); cp. Sabba-
dini, Scoperte, 44 f.
6 Traversari, Epp. vi 8. 6 Sabbadini, 46.
7 Epp. xxiv 38, 53, 61.
• CHAP. III.] GREEK MSS. 37
Rhodius, now famous as the Laurentian MS of those authors1.
For his friends in Florence he wrote out from memory a short
list of his MSS which included the Homeric Hymns and Pindar
and Aristophanes, nearly all Demosthenes, the whole of Plato
and Xenophon, with Diodorus, Strabo, Arrian, Lucian, Athenaeus,
Dion Cassius, and Plutarch. He taught Greek for a short time
in Bologna and Florence, and afterwards settled in Ferrara. Of
his many MSS he made little use, beyond trading with them, and,
when he died in 1459, all except thirty had been scattered in
different directions2.
In 1427 a smaller number of valuable Greek MSS (including at
least forty authors, such as Homer, Hesiod, Pindar,
3 Filelfo
Euripides and Theocritus, as well as Herodotus,
Thucydides and Xenophon) was brought to Venice by Filelfo
(1398 — 1481) who had spent seven years as secretary to the
Venetian Legation at Constantinople3. Among the principal
collectors of Greek MSS were Bruni and Niccoli4, whose collection
found its way into the Medicean Library. Besides these there
were Palla Strozzi, and Manetti, and Nicolas V. MSS were also
collected at Urbino and Milan, at Mantua and Ferrara, at Padua
and Venice5. Of the Greek immigrants four were specially
famous as collectors of MSS. In 1468, Bessarion, the discoverer
of Quintus Smyrnaeus, presented his collection to the republic of
Venice6. Andronicus Callistus sold as many as six cases of MSS
at Milan in 1476. Constantine Lascaris bequeathed 76 MSS to
Messina, which are now in Madrid. Lastly, Janus Lascaris paid
two visits to the East in quest of Greek MSS on behalf of Lorenzo
de' Medici, returning on the second occasion with as many as 200
MSS from Mount Athos (i492)7.
The age of discovery saw the awakening of a new interest in
1 Facs. of Sophocles (1885) and Aeschylus (1896).
2 Voigt, i 263-5, 346-8, 556— s6o3; final list of his MSS in Sabbadini's
Biografihia ; cp. Scoperte, 46 — 47.
3 List in Traversari, Epp, xxiv 32, transcribed in Symonds, ii 27o'2; cp.
Sabbadini, Scoperte, 48 ; on minor discoverers of MSS, ib. 49 f.
4 ib. 51—55- 5 >b. 55—65-
6 Omont, Inventaire, 1894; p. 61 infra.
7 K. K. Miiller, Neue Mittheilttngen, 333—41 r. Cp. Sabbadini, 67 f.
38 ITALY. [CENT. xv.
the intelligent study of classical archaeology1. The ruins of Rome
had been regarded with interest by Petrarch and by his friends,
Rienzi and Dondi, and those friends had even recorded some of
her ancient inscriptions. But a marked advance was made by
Poggio, who carried off, either from St Gallen or from Reichenau,
the tract ascribed to a pilgrim of the ninth century known as the
Anonytmts Einsiedlensis'i, and himself collected inscriptions in
Rome3, besides carefully enumerating and describing the ancient
ruins in the first of the four books of his interesting treatise De
Varietate Fortunae*. For Nicolas V, whom he there hails as a
second Maecenas, he produced a translation of Diodorus Siculus,
and, after serving as a papal secretary for half a century (1403 —
1453), succeeded Carlo Marsuppini as chancellor and, in the
evening of his days, composed his masterpiece, the History of
Florence from 1350 to 1455. His style, which is apt to be
diffuse, has remarkable freedom and originality, though professedly
modelled on that of Cicero5. With his frivolous Facetiae and with
his bitter feuds with rival scholars, such as Filelfo and Valla,
we are not here concerned, though Valla has some interesting
criticisms on Poggio's departures from Ciceronian usage6. He
was buried behind the choir of Santa Croce, but the marble
monument, for which he left provision in his will, was never erected.
Donatello's statue of an aged ' prophet ', with sarcastic lips and
deeply furrowed face and with antique drapery, which formed
part of the facade of the cathedral church until 1560, when it was
removed to a niche in the N. aisle, has been supposed to be a
portrait of Poggio7, but it has been assigned to about 1422, when
Poggio was only 42. The portrait by Antonio Pollaiuolo, which
his sons were permitted to place in the hall of the Proconsolo,
1 Voigt, i 266— 286s.
2 Mommsen in Ber. d. sacks. Ges. 1850, p. 287 f; Voigt, i 2683, n. 4; Sab-
badini, Scoperte, 82, n. 49.
3 Copy discovered by De Rossi; cp. Henzen in C.I.L. vi i (Voigt, i
266-83).
4 Cp. Burckhardt, Part ill, c. ii, 177 — 186 E.T., and Symonds, ii 152-5.
5 Epp. xii 32, quidquid in me est, hoc totum acceptum refero Ciceroni,
quern elegi ad eloquentiam docendam. Cp. Sabbadini, Cicerontanismo, 19 f.
6 Sabbadini, Ciceronianismo, 20 — 25; cp. Harvard Lectures, 155 f.
7 Recanati, Vita Poggii, xxxiv.
CHAP. III.] CIRIACO OF ANCONA. 39
has not been traced ; and we have to rest content with inferior
representations in the gallery between the Uffizi and Pitti
palaces1 and in the Venice edition of the History of Florence
(i?i5)2-
The leading representative of archaeological research in this
aee was Ciriaco de' Pizzicolli of Ancona (c. 1391 —
. ' Ciriaco
c. 1450). He was the Schliemann of his time. A
self-taught student, he spent all his life in travelling, not only for
the purposes of trade, but also for the collection of objects of
archaeological interest. The study of Dante led him to that of
Virgil, and the study of Virgil to that of Homer. At his birth-
place of Ancona, he began his archaeological career by making
a careful copy of the inscription on the triumphal arch of Trajan.
He continued that work in Rome (1424), where he first became
conscious of the historic value of the evidence from inscriptions
as compared with that derived from ordinary literature3. In the
next year he learnt Greek at Constantinople, studied Homer and
Hesiod, purchased a fine copy of Ptolemy at Adrianople, and
MSS of Homer and Euripides in Cyprus, and even journeyed as
far as Damascus.
After returning to Rome (c. 1433), he visited Florence for the
first time, viewing with delight the treasures of ancient art col-
lected by Cosimo de' Medici and Marsuppini, by Donatello and
Ghiberti, and taking a peculiar pleasure in the MSS and antiquities
of his friend, Niccoli. Between 1435 and 1447 he travelled in
many parts of Greece, including the islands. In Thasos he
1 No. 761, head bent down towards left ; grayish hair brushed back from
right temple ; and marked depression between the nostril and the corner of
the lips. See also Boissard's f cones, i xii 108 (1597).
2 Partly facing to left, with abundant black hair. On Poggio in general,
cp. Vespasiano, 420-7; Life by Rev. W. Shepherd (1802); Voigt, i 235 — 249,
ii 7, 74, 251, 327, 448 etc.; Symonds, ii 134^ 152, 218, 230 — 246. Epistolae,
ed. Tonelli, i 1832, ii and iii (very rare) 1859-61. Orelli, Symbolae nonnullae
ad historiam philologiae (Zurich, 1835), prints extracts from the Letters on dis-
coveries of MSS, followed by the two on Jerome of Prague, and the Baths of
Baden near Zurich; and A. C. Clark, in Cl. Rev. xiii 125, publishes an im-
portant letter to Francesco Barbaro. A much-needed ed. of the Letters is
expected from Wilmanns.
3 maiorem longe quam ipsi libri fidem et notitiam praebere videbantur.
40 ITALY. [CENT. xv.
bought a MS of Plutarch's Moralial. He also obtained scholia
on the Iliad, and MSS of Herodotus, Plato, Aristotle, Hippocrates
and Galen. The latest incidents in his foreign travels were his
visit to the ruins at Ephesus (1447) and his discovery of Homer's
'epitaph' in the island of Chios. A few years later we find him
at Ferrara, and at Cremona, where he died about 1450.
His name is now known mainly in connexion with his col-
lections of inscriptions. They originally formed three vast volumes,
but only fragmentary portions have been preserved. He is
wanting in critical faculty, and much of his learning is ill digested.
His friend Bruni once told him that he would be much the better
for knowing less2. But he was an honest man, and the doubts
once cast on the accuracy of his transcripts have been trium-
phantly dispelled3. In his unwearied endeavour to resuscitate
the memorials of the past, he was fully conscious that his mission
in life was ' to awake the dead '. He took a special pleasure in
recalling an incident that once occurred while he was looking for
antiques in a church at Vercelli. An inquisitive priest, who, on
seeing him prowling about the church, ventured to ask him on
what business he was bent, was completely mystified by the
solemn reply : — ' It is sometimes my business to awaken the
dead out of their graves ; it is an art that I have learnt from
the Pythian oracle of Apollo'4. His drawings of ancient sculptures
have vanished, but, before their disappearance, some of them
were copied at Padua by the Nuremberg humanist, Hartman
Schedel (c. i466)5.
Among the contemporaries of Ciriaco was Flavio Biondo of
Fiavio Forli (1388 — 1463), who, in 1422, was the first to
Biondo make a copy of the newly discovered Brutus of
1 Vat. Gr. 1309. Of his Strabo in two vols., the first is at Eton (cod. 141),
the second in Florence (Laur. xxviii 15). Sabbadini, Scoperte, 48, 69.
2 Epp. vi 9 Mehus.
3 Boeckh, C.I. G. I p. ix; Henzen, C.I.L. vi (i) p. xl; Jahn, 341-3.
4 Voigt, i 284'; cp. Jahn, 336.
5 Chap, xvi infra; O. Jahn, Aus der Alterthumswissenschaft, 1868, 333 —
352. Cp., in general, Scalamontius in Colucci, Delle anlichith Picene, xv
50 f; the pref. to Kyriaci Itinerarium, ed. Mehus (1742); Tiraboschi, vi 179
— 203; C.I.L. Ill p. xxii, 129 f; Voigt, i 269 — 2863; Symonds, ii 155-7; De
Rossi, Inscr. Christ, i 356 — 387 ; and Ziebarth, in N.Jahrb. kl. Alt. 1902, 214 f.
CHAP. III.] FLAVIO BIONDO. FELICIANUS. 41
Cicero1. He also deserves a place among the founders of
Classical Archaeology. He was the author of four great
works on the Antiquities and the History of Rome and
Italy. His Roma Triumphans gives a full account of the
religious, constitutional, and military Antiquities of Rome ; his
Roma Instaurata describes the city of Rome, and aims at the
restoration of its ancient monuments ; his Italia Illustrata deals
with the topography and antiquities of the whole of Italy ; and,
lastly, the title of the Historiarum ab Inclinatione Romani Imperil
obviously anticipates that of the History of the. Decline and Fall
of the Roman Empire*.
Flavio Biondo died in 1463. In the following year we have
an interesting indication of the abiding influence of his contem-
porary, Ciriaco. On a pleasant day in the autumn of 1464 a
merry company from Verona, Padua and Mantua met among the
lemon-groves of Toscolano, on the western shore of the Lago di
Garda. They crowned themselves with ivy and with myrtle, and
sallied forth to visit all the remains of Roman antiquities that they
could find amid the ruins of the temple of Diana and elsewhere,
and to copy all the Roman inscriptions they could discover on or
near the south-west shore of the lake. When they left the shore
for the islands, their barque was dressed with laurel, and the
notes of the lyre floated over the waters as they sailed southward
for Sirmione. There they devoutly entered the little Church of
San Pietro to give thanks for a happy and successful day. No
less than two and twenty inscriptions had been copied by this
joyous and grateful company, all of whom were members of an
antiquarian confraternity. The confraternity had two officials
bearing the name of 'consuls', one of whom was none other than
the great antiquary and artist Andrea Mantegna, while the 'pro-
curator' or secretary was the fortunate possessor of a name of
happy omen, Felix Felicianus of Verona, whose jubilant memorial
of this antiquarian excursion is one of the brightest pages in the
early history of classical archaeology in Italy'5.
1 p. 32 sjtpra.
2 See further in A. Masius, Flavio Biondo, sein Leben und seine Werke ;
Voigt, ii 34-6, 85-83; cp. Symonds, ii 220-2, Creighton, ii 374, iii 174; and
Harvard Lectures, 46.
3 Complete text first published in Kristeller's Andrea Mantegna, ed. 1901,
42 ITALY. [CENT, xv f
Ciriaco's example was thus happily followed by the versatile
and accomplished Felix Felicianus, whose collection of inscriptions
was appropriately dedicated to the most antiquarian of artists,
Mantegna. The influence of Ciriaco may also be traced in the
sketchbooks of Giuliano da San Gallo, and in the manuscript
collections of Fra Giovanni del Giocondo of Verona. The villas
of the ancients were elucidated in his edition of Pliny's Letters
(1508), the first modern plan of a Roman house appeared in his
Vitruvius (1511), and the earliest of modern drawings of Caesar's
bridge across the Rhine in his Caesar (1513)'.
p. 523. Only the beginning of the Jubilatio is printed in Corp. Inscr. Lat. v i
p. 427 a.
1 On the successors of Ciriaco, cp. E. Zieharth, in Neue Jahrb.fiir das kl.
Altertum, xi (1903), 480 — 493; and Harvard Lectures, 48 — 54.
CHAPTER IV.
THE EARLY MEDICEAN AGE IN FLORENCE.
UNDER the rule of the Ottimati, or the leading members of
the greater Guilds (1382 — 1434), not a few men of mark in
Florence gave proof of their interest in classical learning. Roberto
de' Rossi, the first of the Florentine pupils of Chrysoloras, took
delight in translating Aristotle, and in making beautiful copies
of the works of ancient authors, which he bequeathed to his
pupils, one of whom was Cosimo de' Medici1. The noble and
generous Palla Strozzi, who had invited Chrysoloras to Florence,
might have surpassed his rival Cosimo as a patron of learning,
had he not been sent into exile in 1434. He spent the twenty-
eight years of his banishment in studying philosophy and in
translating Greek authors at Padua. Meanwhile, Cosimo was
for thirty years (1434-64) the great patron of copyists and
scholars of every grade, the inspirer of an important translation
of Plato, and the founder of the Library of San Marco. The
circle of Cosimo included Niccol6 de' Niccoli
Niccoli
(1363—1437), the copyist whose 800 MSS finally
found a home in the Medicean Library. The most important
of those copied by himself were his Lucretius and his Plautus2.
He was much more than a copyist. He collated MSS, revised
and corrected the text, divided it into paragraphs, added head-
lines, and laid the foundations of textual criticism. He visited
Verona and Venice in quest of MSS, directed the agents of the
Medici in acquiring MSS in foreign lands, was the valued corre-
spondent of the most eager scholars in Italy, and the centre of
1 Vespasiano, Cosimo, 246.
2 On MSS acquired by him, cp. Sabbadini, Scoperte, 54.
44 ITALY. [CENT. xv.
an enthusiastic literary circle in Florence. Though he was an
excellent Latin scholar, Italian was the language of his letters
and his conversation, and even of his only work, a short treatise
on Latin orthography. Leonardo Bruni confessed that, as a
student, he owed everything to Niccoli. He had attained the
age of 73 when he died in the arms of his devoted friend
Traversari1.
Ambrogio Traversari (1386 — 1439) entered at an early age
the Camaldolese convent of Santa Maria degli
Traversari
Angioh in Florence. He had taught himself Greek
with the aid of Chrysoloras, and found his chief delight in the
study of Chrysostom2. On his appointment as General of his
Order in 1431, he visited the Camaldolese convents in many
parts of Italy, but was far less fortunate than Poggio in the
discovery of ancient MSS3. At Cosimo's request he executed,
amid many misgivings, a Latin translation of Diogenes Laertius4.
When he writes to his scholarly friend, Niccoli, his conscience
does not allow him to quote a tempting passage from Naevius 5;
and, in the vast series of his letters, his only citation of a pagan
poet is from Virgil's Eclogues*. He was painfully conscious of
the conflicting claims of literature and of religion; but, in later
examples of monks who were also humanists, there is less of the
anxious scrupulosity of Traversari as to which of the two masters
should be served7.
1 Vespasiano, Nicolao Niccoli, 473 — 482 ; Poggio's Funeral Oration and
Letter to Marsuppini in Opera, -270, 342; Tiraboschi, vi 129 — 137; Voigt, i
296 — 3o63; Symonds, ii 178 — 182.
2 Francesco da Castiglione's letter to Lorenzo (1469), ed. Miillner, 216,
makes Cosimo say : — ' quam suavis est Chrysostomus, quam solus Ambrosius
'in vertendo', where solus is doubtless a mistake for scitus.
3 Epp. viii 45—52, p. 34 supra.
4 Epp. vi 23, 25, 27 ; vii 2 ; viii 8 ; xxiii 10.
5 Epp. viii 9. 6 Epp. iii 59.
7 Vespasiano, Frate Ambrogio, 240-5 ; Menus, Vita, compiled from the
Letters and the Hodoeporicon (ed. Mehus, 1680), on pp. 364 — 436 of the
preface to Canneto's ed. of the Letters in two folio vols. (1759) ; the rest of the
so-called Vita is a chaotic mass of materials for the literary history of Florence;
Tiraboschi, vi 157, 808 f; Meiners, vol. ii (1796); Cortesius, p. 227, ed.
Galletti ; and esp. Voigt, i 314 — 3223; cp. Symonds, ii i932f. A portrait,
copied from the 'bust in the cloister of S. Maria degli Angioli', represents him
CHAP. IV.] TRAVERSARI. MANETTI. BRUNI. 45
Among his pupils in Greek and Latin was Giannozzo Manetti
(1306 — 14^0). A merchant and diplomatist, he
x oy Manetti
was also a student of theology, and was perfectly
familiar with the languages of the Old and New Testaments,
besides being a fluent (in fact prolix) Latin orator. The official
oration delivered by Marsuppini, as chancellor of Florence, in
congratulation of the emperor Frederic III, was considered far
inferior to the extemporaneous speech delivered by Manetti in
prompt and effective reply to certain points then raised by Aeneas
Sylvius on the emperor's behalf. Driven into exile by the jealousy
of the Medici in 1453, he withdrew to the court of Nicolas V
in Rome, and subsequently to that of Alfonso in Naples. His
Latin translations include the Greek Testament1, and the Nico-
machean and Eudemian Ethics of Aristotle, together with the
Magna Moralia. His failure to attain the permanent reputation
that he fully deserved has been ascribed to the tediousness of his
Latin style, and to the fact that he was 'deficient in all that
elevates mere learning to the rank of art'2.
From the name of one who so little merited banishment from
the city which he adorned with his learning, we
Bruni
turn to two of her Latin secretaries who served her
to the end of their lives. Leonardo Bruni (1369 — 1444) was born
at Arezzo, the birthplace of Petrarch, and the daily sight of the
portrait of his distinguished fellow-countryman inspired him with
the ambition of following in his steps3. He learnt Greek at
Florence under Chrysoloras, and his fame as a Latinist led to
his being a papal secretary from 1405 — 1415, and chancellor of
Florence from 1427 to his death. His reputation rests on his
translations from the Greek. Beginning with the work of Basil
on the profit to be derived from pagan literature (1405), he
as a gracious personage with parted lips and upward-lifted eyes, and with a
bunch of hair falling over his forehead (Rittratti...Toscani, 1766, iii 16).
1 Naldus, Vita Manetti, in Muratori, xx 529.
2 Symonds, ii 193-. Cp. Vespasiano, Vite, 444 — 472, and Comentario
(ed. 1862) ; Voigt, i 322-6* etc. He was a small man with a large head ;
in the portrait in Kittratti... Toscani (1766), ii 16, we see his keen glance and
his grave and eager face. A resolute determination is the leading characteristic
of the likeness in the gallery between the Uffizi and Pitti (no. 574).
8 Commentarius in Muratori, Scr. xix 917.
46 ITALY. [CENT. xv.
subsequently translated the Speech of Demosthenes On the
Chersonesus (1406), that of Aeschines Against Ctesiphon and
Demosthenes De Corona, with the Third Ofynthiac; a selection
from Plutarch's Lives, with Xenophon's Hieron, These were
followed by renderings of the Phaedo, Gorgias, Crito, Apology,
Phaedrus (1423) and Letters of Plato, which were less highly
appreciated than his translations of the Oeconomics, Ethics1 and
Politics of Aristotle. The translation of the Politics was prompted
by the admiration for his Ethics expressed by Humphrey, duke
of Gloucester; and the autograph copy dedicated to the duke
was sent to England, but, owing to some delay in the acknowledge-
ment, its dedication was transferred (with satisfactory results) to
Pope Eugenius IV (i437)2. For this work he used a MS of the
Politics obtained from Constantinople by Palla Strozzi3, probably
comparing therewith the MS in possession of his friend Filelfo4.
It has even been suggested that Palla Strozzi's copy had also been
brought from the East by Filelfo in I4295. Bruni's rendering
is now regarded as far too free and arbitrary; it is often impossible
to infer with any certainty the reading of his Greek text; and
many peculiarities of his translation must accordingly be ' passed
over or regarded as merely his own conjectures '6. But 'not a few
good readings' are due to this source7. Bruni describes the
original as an opus magnificum ac plane regium8, and he had good
reason to be proud of a free and flowing version that made the
Greek masterpiece intelligible to the Latin scholars of Europe.
His other works included similar versions of Xenophon's Hellenica,
Polybius and Procopius. He even wrote a Latin history of the
First Punic War to make up for the loss of the second decade
of Livy. He also composed a Greek treatise on the origin and
1 Cp. Klette, Beitrage, ii 17.
2 Vespasiano, 436 f, where duca di Worcestri must be a mistake for Glocestri.
Cf. MS at New Coll. Oxford (c. 1450) and in Bodleian, Canon. Lat. 195
(Newman's Politics, II 58). Printed 1492 etc.
3 Vespasiano, Palla Strozzi, 272.
*• Bruni, Epp. vi n.
8 Oncken, Staatslehre des Ar. i 78 f ; Susemihl, ed. 1872, p. xv.
6 Susemihl-Hicks (1894), p. i ; cp. ed. 1872, xxviiif.
7 Newman's Politics t in p. xxif.
8 Epp. viii i (Voigt, i 169* f).
CHAP. IV.] BRUNI. MARSUPPINI. 47
constitution of Florence, a Latin dialogue criticising the works
of Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio1, and a Latin encomium on
Florence modelled on the encomium on Athens by the Greek
rhetorician Aristides2. His Letters were famed for their excellent
Latinity3; but the chief work of his life was his Latin History
of the Florentine Republic, of which twelve books had been
completed at his death. His funeral oration was pronounced by
Manetti, who placed a crown of laurel on the historian's brow.
His body rests in Santa Croce, where his marble effigy, with his
History laid upon his breast, reclines beneath a canopied tomb,
which is a masterpiece of Bernardo Rossellino. The epitaph,
modelled partly on that of Plautus, was composed by his successor
Marsuppini : —
' Postquam Leonardus e vita migravit, Historia luget, Eloquentia muta est,
ferturque Musas turn Graecas turn Latinas lacrimas tenere non potuisse'4.
Carlo Marsuppini (c. 1399 — J453) was, like Bruni, a native of
Arezzo. Like Bruni, he found his way to Florence;
, . , . „ - -,. ,. . , , Marsuppini
and, by the influence of Niccoli, was introduced to
the Medicean family, and, in 1431, appointed teacher of Latin
rhetoric and of the Greek language in the local university. In
his inaugural lecture he gave proof of his marvellous memory by
surpassing all his predecessors in the multitude of passages cited
from the Greek and Latin authors. So signal was his success
that he was permitted to lecture, even after his promotion in 1444
to the important office of chancellor. He was considered nearly
equal to Bruni in his mastery of Latin prose, and superior to him
in verse. It was in verse that he produced his rendering of the
Batrachomyomachia, and of the first book of the Iliad5. By his
1 Klette, Beiirdge, ii 37—83.
2 Extracts in Klette, ii 84—105. 3 Epp. ed. Mehus, 1741.
4 Vespasiano, Lionardo d? Arezzo, 427 — 439; Voigt, i 306 — 312, ii 163 —
I733; cp. Symonds, ii 282-6. His tractate De Stitdiis et Literis (c. 1405),
translated in Woodward's Vittorino, 119 — 133; cp. Harvard Lectures, 61 —
64. Portrait in profile, with aquiline nose, in Boissard's f cones, part i (1597),
no. xvi, p. 124.
5 Extract in Bandini, Bibl. Leap. Laurent, ii 439, beginning ' Nunc iram
Aeacidae tristem misefamque futuram Diva, cane, et quantos Graiis dedit ille
dolores '. The rendering was warmly welcomed by Nicolas V in two Letters
preserved by Vespasiano, 441.
48 ITALY. [CENT. xv.
contemporaries he was regarded as a man of no religion ; never-
theless, he was one of the papal secretaries, and, when he died in
1453, his head was crowned with laurel by his pupil, the mystical
poet, Matteo Palmieri1, and he was buried in Santa Croce. His
tomb, in the southern aisle, faces that of Bruni. The reclining
form, with the hands clasped over the book, is less calm in its
repose, and the design, as a whole, less severely simple, richer and
more florid, but without loss of refinement. It is the masterpiece
of Desiderio da Settignano, and is indeed one of the finest monu-
ments of the Renaissance2.
Niccoli, Traversari, Manetti, Bruni and Marsuppini were the
foremost of the humanists of Florence in the age of Cosimo de'
Medici. All of them, in their various ways, were actively engaged
in promoting the Revival of Learning, when the study of Greek,
and of Plato in particular, incidentally received a new impulse
during the conference between the Greek and Latin Churches at
the Council of Florence (1439). Before we trace the fortunes of
the Greek immigrants who flocked to Italy between the date of
that Council and the fall of Constantinople, we may glance at a
few of the Italian humanists who have points of contact with
Florence, though their main activity belongs to other cities in
Northern Italy.
We have already noticed the name of Gasparino Barzizza3, the
eminent Ciceronian scholar, who closed his varied career at Milan
in 1431, after professing Rhetoric at several other places, the
most important of which was Padua (1407). Padua is also
associated with a less eminent but not uninteresting humanist,
Pietro Paolo Vergerio(^. 1370 — c. 1445), who produced
Vcrijcrio
the first modern introduction to the study of Quin-
tilian4, and, in 1392, addressed to a prince of the house of Carrara
the first treatise in which the claims of Latin learning are methodi-
1 1406 — 1475; author of treatise Delia Vita Civile (cp. Woodward's
Renaissance Education, 65 — 78).
2 Cp. C. C. Perkins, Italian Sculpture, 119, 121 ; and cuts in Geiger's
Renaissance, 91, 93. On Marsuppini, cp. Vespasiano, Carlo cT Arezzo, 439 —
441 ; Voigt, i 312-4, ii 194* f; Symonds, ii i86f.
3 p. 23, supra.
4 Combi, Epistole di Vergerio, p. xxi.
CHAP. IV.] VERGERIO. GUARINO. 49
cally maintained as an essential part of a liberal education1. In
the latter he exults in Cicero's praises of literature, and himself
declares that 'without style' even worthy thoughts would not be
likely to attract much notice or secure a sure survival2. His
interesting references to Plato and Aristotle3 must have been
derived from Latin translations. He had not yet learnt Greek,
when, in connexion with Roman history, we find him writing as
follows : —
It is hard that no slight portion of the history of Rome is only to be known
through the labours of one writing in the Greek language (i.e. Polybius). It is
still worse that this same noble tongue, once well-nigh the only speech of our
race, as familiar as the Latin language itself, is on the point of perishing even
among its own sons, and to us Italians is already utterly lost, unless we except
one or two who in our own time are tardily endeavouring to rescue something —
if it be only an echo of it — from oblivion4.
About 1400, at the age of more than thirty, he went to Florence
to learn Greek from Chrysoloras5. He was a papal secretary,
when he had the honour of writing the Latin epitaph at Constance
in memory of the restorer of Greek learning in Italy6. From
Constance he followed the emperor Sigismund into Hungary,
where his latest work was a studiously simple Latin rendering of
the Anabasis of Arrian7.
While Vergerio had learnt Greek from Chrysoloras in Florence,
Guarino of Verona (1^74 — 1460) followed that
Guarino
teacher to Constantinople and learnt the language
by spending five years in his household (1403-8). On his
return he landed in Venice with about fifty Greek Mss8. He
afterwards lectured for a few years in Florence (1410-4). His
subsequent success as a lecturer in Venice (1414-9) led to his
return to his native city of Verona (1419-29). Ultimately he
was called to Ferrara, where after devoting five years to the
education of Lionello, the eldest son of Niccol6 d' Este, marquis
of Ferrara, he was appointed professor of Rhetoric in the local
1 Woodward's Vittorino, 14, 93 — 118; Harvard Lectures, 58 — 61.
2 Woodward, 105. 3 ib. 98, 101, no.
4 ib. 106. B Voigt, i 4$i3. 6 p. 21, supra.
7 Voigt, ii 272". Cp. Combi's Epistole di... Vergerio, Venice, 1887;
K. A. Kopp, in His/. Jahrb. der Gorresgesellschaft, 1897, 274 — 310, 533 — 571.
8 p. 36, supra.
S. II. 4
50 ITALY. [CENT. xv.
university (1436). The last thirty years of his life were spent in
teaching at Ferrara, where his proficiency in Greek and Latin led
to his acting as interpreter between the representatives of the
Greek and Latin Churches at the Council of 1438. In addition
to an elementary Latin Grammar, he produced a widely popular
Latin version of the Catechism of Greek Grammar by Chrysoloras.
His translations included three of the minor works of Lucian, the
Evagoras and Nicocles of Isocrates, the whole of Strabo, and some
fifteen of Plutarch's Lives. The singularly fine copy of his version
of Plutarch's Lysander and Sulla, now in the Laurentian Library,
was his wedding present to his pupil Lionello (I435)1. Guarino
was an eager collector of Latin MSS. At Venice in 1419 he
discovered a MS of Pliny's Epistles containing about 124 Letters
in addition to the 100 already known, and several copies of this
MS were made before it was lost. When the complete text of the
De Oratore, Brutus and Orator of Cicero was discovered at Lodi
(1422), he promptly obtained a transcript of all three treatises.
A MS of Celsus reached him at Bologna in 1426, and another was
discovered by his friend Lamola at Milan in the following year.
At Ferrara in 1432 he made himself an amended copy of the
famous codex Ursinianus of Plautus. As a native of Verona, he
is fond of quoting Catullus, and his interest in the text descended
to his son. He was himself concerned in the recension of Cicero's
Speeches, and of Caesar, as well as both the Plinies, and Gellius
and Servius. In his Letters he owes much of his inspiration to
Cicero and the younger Pliny, and Pliny's account of his Tuscan
villa is closely followed in Guarino's description of his own villa
near Ferrara. Similarly his pupil, Angelo Decembrio, imitates
the Noctes Atticae of Gellius in describing the literary discussions,
whose scene he places at Ferrara, either in the apartments of
Lionello, or in the suburban palace of Belfiore, or at the castle
of Bellosguardo. The long life of Guarino began with no
precociously early promise ; it was marked by a steady and
continuous growth. Unlike certain other humanists, he showed
no antagonism to the authority of the Church, no feeling of re-
sentment against the spirit of the Middle Ages ; but he was true
to the humanist type in a certain love of personal fame. He left
1 Jxv 27 ; Harvard Lectures, 76.
CHAP. IV.] GUARINO. 51
behind him many occasional speeches and some 600 letters, an
elaborate edition of which, prepared by the devotion of a
Sabbadini and deposited in 1892 in the library of the Lincei at
the Palazzo Corsini in Rome, is still awaiting publication. His
school and his method were eulogised in more than 1000 hexa-
meters by Janus Pannonius1, and he deserves to be remembered
with respect as a humanist whose moral character was very nearly
equal to his learning.
The method of instruction pursued by Guarino may be
gathered from the treatise De Ordine Docendi written in 1459 by
his son Battista (1434 — 1513)- It is the earliest treatise in which
the claim to be considered an educated gentleman is reserved for
one who is familiar with Greek as well as Latin : —
I have said that ability to write Latin verse is one of the essential marks of
an educated person. I wish now to indicate a second, which is of at least
equal importance, namely, familiarity with the language and literature of
Greece. The time has come when we must speak with no uncertain voice
upon this vital requirement of scholarship2.
Among the numerous pupils of Guarino we note the names of
four Englishmen, Robert Fleming, dean of Lincoln, John Free,
bishop of Bath, John Gunthorp, dean of Wells3, and William
Gray, bishop of Ely4. The Italian pupils included a precocious
1 Silva Panegyrica ad Guarinum, 1457 ; Delitiae Poetarnm Hung. (1619),
pp. 3 — 34. Cp., in general, Rosmini, Vita e Disciplina di Guarino Veronese,
Brescia, 3 vols., 1805-6, with copy of a miniature portrait in the Trivulzi
collection at Milan, representing Guarino in a conical Greek cap and with a
closely shaven face and an intelligent expression ; medallion by Matteo de'
Pasti in G. F. Hill's Pisanello opp. p. 230; portrait in Guarino's Strabo (MS
Phillipps 6645) published by Omont (1905), and reproduced on p. 52. See
also Voigt, i 344 f, 547 f3 etc. ; Symonds, ii 297 — 301 ; and Sabbadini, G. V. e
le opere retoriche di Cicerone (1885); Index to his Epistolario, with Vita (1885);
G. V. e gli archetipi di Celso e Plauto (1886) ; Codici Latini posseduti, scoperti,
illustrati da G. V., in Mus. Ital. di Ant. Class, ii (1887), 374—456; Vita
(1891), and esp. La Scuolae gli Studi di G. V. 240 pp. (1896). Mr Woodward,
in Olia Mersdana (Liverpool, 1903), i — 3, describes the contents of the
Balliol MS (cxxxv) containing Letters and Orations of Guarino, presented to
his College by Guarino's pupil, William Gray, bishop of Ely. Four of his
letters on educational subjects are printed in Milliner's Keden und Briefe,
213 — 238. See also Woodward's Renaissance Education (1906), 26 — 47.
2 p. 1 66 of Woodward's Vittorino, where the whole is translated, 159 — 178.
Cp. Harvard Lectures, 78 f.
3 Rosmini, iii 117—121. 4 Vespasiano, 214.
4—2
52 ITALY. [CENT. xv.
translator from the Greek, Francesco Barbaro (1398 — 1454), who
collected, collated, and emended Greek MSS, obtaining an Iliad
from Crete, as well as an Odyssey and the Batrachomyomachia.
Guarino shares with Vergerio the honour of having transmitted
the Greek teaching of Chrysoloras to one who is so eminent in the
history of education as Vittorino da Feltre.
GUARINO DA VERONA.
Reduced from H. Omont's Portrait de Guarino de Verone (1905), the frontis-
piece of which is derived from a photograph of the portrait painted in life-
size at the end of Guarino's Strabo in the Phillipps library at Cheltenham.
CHAP. IV.] VITTORINO. 53
Vittorino dei Ramboldini (1378 — 1446) was born at Feltre,
among the hills between Venice and the Eastern
Vittorino
Alps. For nearly twenty years he went on learning
and teaching in Padua and then left for Venice, where he learnt
Greek under Guarino. After a second stay at Padua, he returned
to Venice, where the turning-point of his life came to him at the
age of forty-six, when Gianfrancesco Gonzaga, lord of Mantua,
invited him to undertake the education of his sons. Mantua
thus became the home of Vittorino for the remaining twenty-two
years of his life. He there established ' the first great school of
the Renaissance', 'the great typical school of the Humanities".
The impetus given to the enthusiasm and to the educational
method of the humanists by the production of Guarino's rendering
of 'Plutarch's' treatise On Education in 1411, and by the
discovery of the complete Quintilian in I4i62, and the De
Oratore, Brutus and Orator in 14.22, was fully felt by Vittorino,
in whom a familiarity with the ' educational apparatus of classical
literature' was combined with 'the spirit of the Christian life' and
'the Greek passion for bodily culture'3. The 'Pleasant House'
amid the playing-fields on the slopes above the Mincio was a
palace of delight, where all the sixty or seventy scholars, of what-
ever rank, were under the selfsame discipline. Among the Latin
authors studied in his school were Virgil and Lucan, with selec-
tions from Horace, Ovid, and Juvenal, besides Cicero and Quin-
tilian, Sallust and Curtius, Caesar and Livy. The Greek authors
were Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, and the Dramatists, with Herodotus,
Xenophon and Plato, Isocrates and Demosthenes, Plutarch and
Arrian4. In the teaching of Greek he was aided by Georgius
1 Woodward's Vittorino, 24.
2 p. 27, supra; cp. A. Messer, Q. als Didaktiker und sein Einfluss auf
die didaktisch-pddagogische Theorie des ffumanismus, in Fleckeis. Jahrb. 156
(1897), 161, 273, 321, 361, 409, 457. An epitome of the complete Quintilian
was drawn up by Francesco Patrizi of Siena, bp of Gae'ta 1460-94; cp.
Fierville, Quint, i, 1890, p. xxxv ; Peterson, in Cl. Rev. v 54 ; Bassi, Turin,
1894; Meister, in Berl. Phil. Woch. 1892 (nos. 39 f), 1894 (no. 50), and 1906
(nos. 27-9, 31). See also Woodward's Education in the Age of the Renais-
sance (1906), 8— 10.
3 Woodward's Vittorino, 25 — 27.
4 On Vittorino's Greek MSS, cp. Sabbadini, Scoperte, 60.
54
ITALY.
[CENT. xv.
Trapezuntius and Theodoras Gaza, both of whom learnt their
Latin from Vittorino. His famous pupils included Federigo, the
soldier and scholar, who founded the celebrated library in his
ducal palace at Urbino ; a papal legate, Perotti, the author of the
first large Latin Grammar ; Ognibene da Lonigo (Leonicenus], an
able teacher at Vicenza, whose smaller Grammar was widely used1;
and Giovanni Andrea de' Bussi, the future bishop of Aleria, who
had the unique distinction of having been, in 1465 to 1471, the
editor of the first printed editions of as many as eight works of
the Latin Classics : — Caesar, Gellius, Livy, Lucan, Virgil, Silius,
and the Letters and Speeches of Cicero. In his splendid edition
of Livy, he pays a special tribute of gratitude to his master
Vittorino. Vittorino was a man of keen and eager temperament,
of small stature and of wiry frame, with a ruddy complexion and
1 His lecture on Val. Maximus, in Milliner's Reden, 142.
VITTORINO DA FELTRE.
From a Medallion by Pisanello in the 'British Museum, inscribed VICTORINVS •
FELTRENSIS • SVMMVS • MATHEMATICVS • ET • OMNIS • HVMANITATIS • PATER •
OPVS • PISANI • PICTORIS • The latter part is on the reverse, which repre-
sents a pelican feeding her young.
CHAP. IV.] FILELFO. 55
sharp features, and a frank and genial expression. The medallion,
on which his scholarly face has been immortalised by Pisanello1,
shows that he had the 'ornament of a meek and quiet'
countenance2.
One, if not both, of the Greek instructors in the school
of Mantua had been recommended by Francesco
' Filelfo
Filelfo (1398 — 1481), a humanist whose character
stands in sharp contrast to that of Vittorino. Filelfo had studied
Latin at Padua under Barzizza, and had taught at Padua and
Venice, where he saw much of Vittorino, as well as of Guarino. He
learnt Greek at Constantinople (1422-7) in the household of the
nephew of Manuel Chrysoloras, and he married that nephew's
daughter. He was particularly proud of the purity of the Greek
that he had acquired from his wife3. On his return to Italy he
taught at Venice and Bologna, and (in 1429-34) at Florence,
where he lectured with great eclat to audiences of four hundred,
including the two future Popes, Nicolas V and Pius II. He
gave four lectures daily, taking Cicero, and Livy or Homer, in
the forenoon, and, in the afternoon, Terence, and Xenophon or
Thucydides. Faults of character, however, led to his falling out
of favour with Cosimo and the foremost scholars of Florence.
From 1440 to the end of his life he lived mainly at Milan.
At the age of 77, he was invited to lecture in Rome, and, at
that of 83, in Florence, where he died soon after his return. His
translations included Xenophon's Cyropaedia, Agesilaus, and Lace-
daemoniorum Respublica, two speeches of Lysias, the Rhetoric of
Aristotle, and four of Plutarch's Lives*. Among his original works
1 Complete copy in Woodward's Frontispiece, and G. F. Hill's Pisanello,
Pi- 54-
2 Cp. Woodward's Vittorino, xi, i — 92, and the literature there quoted;
also Creighton's Historical Essays and Reviews, 107 — 134, 'A School-master
of the Renaissance ' (Macmillatt's Magazine, 1875); and Woodward's Renais-
sance Education, 10 — -25.
3 He says of the Greek women, ob solitudinem observabant antiquitatem
incorrupti sermonis. The same had been said of the Roman matrons by
Cicero, De Or. iii 45. In Sept. 1451 Poggio states the aim of his sojourn at
Constantinople, quo Graeca sapientia factus doctior, maiorivel ttsuivel ornamento
Latinae ftiturus essem.
* Cp. Ep. 30, Sept. 1444.
56 ITALY. [CENT. xv.
were Satires and Odes, and an epic poem of 6400 lines on
Francesco Sforza of Milan. The Laurentian Library has an
autograph volume of 46 sets of Greek verses, written alternately
in elegiac and in Sapphic metre, in which the principal interest
lies in the persons to whom the several poems are addressed, the
list including Palla Strozzi, Bessarion, Argyropulos, Theodorus
Gaza and Mahomet IP, who are among his correspondents in the
no Greek letters which have deserved the honour of publication2
far better than the poems.
His Latin letters throw much light on his studies, and on his attitude as a
humanist. He had learnt Greek in the hope of adding a new grace to his
Latin lore3. During his studies at Constantinople he had recognised the
Aeolic element in Homer4, but he had searched in vain for a copy of Apollonius
(Dyscolus) or of Herodian. Yet Greek would be better learnt there than in
the Peloponnesus, which had produced no scholar except Gemislus Plethon5.
The most learned Greek of the day was Theodorus Gaza6, who had copied for
Filelfo the whole of the Iliad7. He himself had MSS of Diodorus and Pollux8,
and was ready to lend a friend his 'Varro'9. He was careful in comparing
manuscripts, and in studying Servius' commentary on Virgil10. As a strict
purist he writes Quinctilis instead of Julius, and Deus (and even Christus)
Optimus Afaximus11. He criticises the ' Spanish ' style of Quintilian's Declama-
tions12. He exhorts a youth of high promise to devote himself to the study of
eloquentia and humanitas™. He has no doubt as to his own eminence, and he
assures his distinguished correspondents that, by the magic of his style, he can
make them immortal14.
He combined the accomplishments of a scholar with the in-
sidiousness and the brutality of a brigand. As one of the least
1 Laur. Iviii 15. After I had noted the contents of this MS, I observed
that 14 of the poems had been printed by Legrand (Cent-dix Leltres Grecques de
Francois Filelfe, 1892, 195 — 219) from copies supplied by other scholars, who
apparently did not inform him of Filelfo's express request that they should not
be published (neque ex hisce quisquam exscribat rogd), as he had not revised
them.
2 Klette, Beitrdge, iii (1890), 98 — 174; and Legrand, /. c. (1892), i — 194.
3 Sept. 1451. 4 13 Apr. 1441. ° 9 June, 1441.
6 28 Feb. 1446. 7 23 Jan. 1448. 8 3 Aug. 1437.
9 30 Dec. 1442. 10 1 8 Dec. 1439. n x Aug. 1428.
12 31 Jan. 1440. 18 8 Dec. 1440.
14 (To Cosimo) May 1433 ; cp. 23 Jan. 1451. (The above references have
been contributed by Prof. Sihler of New York, but the grouping and arrange-
ment are my own.)
CHAP. IV.] FILELFO. 57
humane of all the humanists, he is a discreditable exception to
the Ovidian rule,
' ingenuas didicisse fideliter artes
emollit mores, nee sinit esse feros'.
His bitter feuds may however be forgotten, while we remember
that in 1427 he brought from Constantinople the works of at least
forty Greek authors1, and that, on the death of Nicolas V, he
exultantly wrote, with reference to that Pope's collection of MSS,
and to the translations from the Greek that had been executed
under the papal patronage : —
' Greece has not perished, but has migrated to Italy, the land that was
known of old as Magna Graecia ' 2.
1 P- 37> supra.
z Epp. xiii i (ed. 1502, Venice, the only complete ed.). Cp., in general,
Vespasiano, 488 — 491 ; Rosmini, Vita, 3 vols. Milan, 1808, with frontispiece
from portrait by Mantegna ; Voigt, i 348 — 366, 512 f, 524 f3; Symonds, ii 267 —
288; also Klette's Beitrage, iii 1890; and Legrand's Cent-dix Leltres
Grecques, 1892. Five of his lectures at Florence (1429-34) printed in
Mullner's Reden, 146 — 162. Portrait (in profile, with upward gaze, and
laurel crown, and cap) in Jovius, Elogia, p. 30, copied in Wiese and Percopo,
207.
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CHAPTER V.
THE EARLIER GREEK IMMIGRANTS.
WHILE the Council of Constance is associated with the death
of the first important teacher of Greek in Italy (1415), the
Council held at Ferrara in 1438, and at Florence in 1439, gave a
definite impulse to the further study of that language in connexion
with the Platonic philosophy and with the controversies as to the
relative merits of Plato and Aristotle. The Council failed in its
avowed purpose of uniting the Greek and Latin Churches, but it
succeeded in the unintended result of drawing the scholars of the
East and the West nearer to one another. At Ferrara the leading
representatives of the Greek and Latin Churches were hospitably
entertained by the able physician and dialectician, Ugo Benzi of
Siena, who, after setting forth the differences between Plato and
Aristotle, is said to have triumphantly refuted the Greeks in their
preference for Plato1. On the transfer of the Council to Florence,
the city on the Arno became the meeting-place of the languages
of the West and the East, and of the two types of civilisation
prevailing in the Italian and the Hellenic world. When one of
the younger scholars of Florence first saw the long beards and
the shaggy hair of the Greeks, he recalled the stories of the
ancient Spartans, and strove in vain to repress his laughter ; but
he admitted that some of those Greeks were fully worthy of their
ancestors, and were still true to the traditions of the Lyceum and
of the Old Academy2.
1 Aeneas Sylvius, Europa, c. 52. Cp. Tiraboschi, vi 461 ; Voigt, ii 12 13.
2 Lapo da Castiglionchio, quoted by Hody, De Graecis Ilhistrilms, 31, 136.
Cp. Vespasiano, Wfe, 14 f. Two of Lapo's lectures at Bologna (c. 1435) in
Milliner's Reden, 129.
60 ITALY. [CENT. xv.
Petrarch and Boccaccio had been vaguely interested in Plato ;
and Bruni, the pupil of Chrysoloras, had translated several of the
dialogues. The attention of the leading spirits in Florence
was now called to a certain form of Neo-Platonism by the singular
personality of an aged representative of the Greeks,
'piet'hon8 Georgios Gemistos, a native of Constantinople
(c. 1356 — 1450). Estranged from Christianity in
his youth, he had spent a large part of his life near the site of
the ancient Sparta, where he elaborated a singular philosophic
system of a Neo-Platonic type. He had already attained the age
of eighty-three, when, in spite of his pagan proclivities, he found
himself in the peculiar position of having been selected, on
patriotic grounds, as one of the six champions of the Greek
Church at the Council of Florence. But ' instead of attending
the Council, he poured forth his Platonic lore, and uttered dark
sentences to a circle of eager Florentines. Cosimo de' Medici
was delighted with him, and hailed him as a second Plato.
Gemistos modestly refused the title, but playfully added to his
name, Gemistos, the equivalent, Plethon, which approached more
nearly to his master's name'1. 'The lively style of Plethon
inspired Cosimo with such enthusiasm that his lofty mind im-
mediately conceived the thought of forming an Academy, as soon
as a favourable moment should be found'. Such is the language
used many years later by Marsilio Ficino2, who was only six years
of age when he was selected by Cosimo to be the future translator
and expounder of Plato. Before leaving Florence, Plethon
produced a treatise on the points of difference between Plato
and Aristotle3, and thus stimulated the Italian humanists to a
closer study of both. The general result was an increased ap-
preciation of the importance of Plato, and a material diminution
of the authority of Aristotle, which had remained unchallenged in
Western Europe throughout the Middle Ages. By 1441 Plethon
had returned to the site of Sparta. His life extended over nearly
the whole century that preceded the fall of Constantinople. Even
1 Creighton's History of the Papacy, iv 41 f, ed. 1901.
2 Preface to Plotinus (1492).
3 wepi uv ' ApiffTOTtXrjs irpbs HXdrwva Siafaperai, Basel, 1574 '> Migne,
P. G. clx 882 f. Cp. F. Schultze, Plethon, 19, 70—91.
CHAP. V.] GEMISTOS PLETHON. BESSARION. 6 1
after his death in 1450, his Neo-Platonic and pagan opinions
were repeatedly attacked by the patriarch Gennadios1. But,
while his memory was assailed in the East, it was honoured in the
West, and, sixteen years later, when Sigismondo Malatesta, the
victorious general of the Venetian forces, had rescued the site of
Sparta from the Turks2, his ' love for men of learning ' led him to
remove the bones of the Neo-Platonist to the splendid semi-
pagan temple lately built by Leon Alberti of Florence for the lord
of Rimini3.
Among the Greeks assembled at the Council was Plethon's
former pupil, Bessarion (1395 or 1403 — 1472), the'
archbishop of Nicaea, whose services in the papal
cause led to his being made a Cardinal. He afterwards translated
into Latin the Memorabilia of Xenophon, and the Metaphysics
of Aristotle, and (in 1468) gave to Venice a large number of
Greek MSS, which formed the foundation of the famous library of
St Mark's4. As a Cardinal resident in Rome, and surrounded by
a crowd of Greek and Latin scholars, who escorted him every
morning to the Vatican from his Palace on the Quirinal, he was
conspicuous as the great patron of all the learned Greeks, who
flocked to Italy, both before the fall of Constantinople, and after
that event5.
1 W. Gass, Gennadios und Plethon, Arislotelismus und Platonismns in
der griechischen Kirche (1844). Cp. frontispiece to Legrand, III.
2 Schutze, 109.
3 Cut in Geiger's Renaissance, 211. Cp. F. Schultze, Gesch. der Philosophie
der Renaissance, (i) Georgios Gemistos Plcthon, 1874; Voigt, ii ii93f; Symonds,
i 157 f, ii 198 — 210, and Sketches in Italy and Greece, 236 ; and H. F. Tozer
in J. H. S. vii 353 — 380, with Creighton's History of the Papacy, iv 41-6,
ed. 1901. Works in Migne, P. G. clx; Alexandre, Traite des Lois (1858);
and Plethon's Denkschriften in Elissen's Analekten, IV ii (1860). Portrait in
Boissard's /cones, I xix 136.
4 Omont, Inventaire (1894) ; Sabbadini, Scoperte, 67 f; p. 37 supra.
5 Vespasiano, 145 f; Hody, 136 — 177; cp. Voigt, ii 123 — 1323 (with the
literature there quoted) ; Symonds, ii 246-8 ; and R. Rocholl, Bessarion,
Studie zur Gesch. der Renaissance, Leipzig, 1904. Portrait in Paulus Jovius,
Elogia, 43, copied in Legrand, ill 3; another in Boissard's Icones, I xix 136.
Autograph and portrait by Cordegliaghi, with illuminated first page of the
Act of Donation of his MSS, in La Biblioteca Marciana nella sua nuava sede,
Venice, 1906.
62 ITALY. [CENT. xv.
Of the Greeks who arrived before its fall, the foremost (apart
from Bessarion) were Theodorus Gaza, Georgius Trapezuntius,
Joannes Argyropulos, and Demetrius Chalcondyles.
ThGadz°arUS The first of these> Theodorus Gaza (c. 1 400— 1475),
fled from his native city of Thessalonica before its
capture by the Turks in 1430. He ranged himself on the side of
Aristotle in the controversy raised by Plethon during the Council
of Florence. He became the first professor of Greek at Ferrara,
where he lectured on Demosthenes in 1448, counting among his
pupils the German humanist, Rudolphus Agricola. In 1451 he
was invited by Nicolas V to fill the chair of philosophy in Rome,
and to take part in the papal scheme for translating the principal
Greek Classics. His numerous translations included the Mechanical
Problems1 and JDe Animalibus of Aristotle2, and the De Plantis
of Theophrastus3. He also produced a Greek rendering of Cicero
De Amicitia and De Senectute. On the death of the Pope in
1455, he went to Naples, where he translated Aelian's Tactics for
king Alfonso. On the death of the latter (1458), he withdrew
to a monastery on the Lucanian coast, was recalled to Rome by
Paul II in 1464, and took part in the editio princeps of Gellius
(1469). On the death of Bessarion (1472) he finally retired to
Lucania, where he died in 1475. Of his two transcripts of the
Iliad, one is preserved in Florence4, and the other in Venice5.
In the preface to an Aldine edition of his translation of the
Problems (1504), he is described by Manutius as facile princeps
among the Latin and Greek scholars of his age, and he is
eulogised by Scaliger as magnus vir et doctus, though he makes
mistakes in the Historia Animalium6. His Greek Grammar7, the
first of modern manuals to include Syntax, was used as a text-
1 Printed at Rome, 1475. His translation of the Problems of Alexander
Aphrod. first printed by Aldus, 1504.
2 Venice, 1476. 3 Tarvisii, 1483.
4 Laur. xxxii i, including the Batrachomyomachia. The text of the whole
published at Florence in 1811 by a Cypriote, Nic. Theseus.
5 At St Mark's. His copy of Aristotle's Politics is assigned by Hody,
p. 58, to another Venetian library.
6 Scaligerana prinia, 102.
7 ypa.p-na.Tucr> tlffaywy-fj, ed. pr. Aid. 1495 ; often reprinted with Latin
trans, down to 1803.
CHAP. V.] THEODORUS. TRAPEZUNTIUS. ARGYROPULOS. 63
book by Budaeus in Paris, and by Erasmus in Cambridge. In a
fine MS of this Grammar in the Laurentian Library, a portrait
bright with gold and various colours represents the author in a
Greek garb, holding a book in his hand1. A less pretentious
portrait, in the Elogia of Paulus Jovius, gives the impression of an
honest and intelligent scholar2.
The second of the early immigrants, Georgius Trapezuntius
(1395 — 1484), a native of Crete, who finally reached
Venice about 1430, became one of the papal secre- Trapezuntius
taries, and died at the age of nearly ninety. Like
Theodorus Gaza, he took the side of Aristotle in the controversy
raised by Plethon. His numerous translations included the
Rhetoric and Problems of Aristotle, and the Laws and Parmenides
of Plato, but they are more verbose and less felicitous than those
of Theodorus Gaza3.
The third, Argyropulos of Constantinople (1416 — 1486), was
in Padua as early as 1441, aiding the distinguished
exile, Palla Strozzi, in the study of Greek. At Argyropulos
Florence he taught Greek under the patronage of
the Medici for fifteen years4, leaving in 1471 for Rome, where he
died in 1486. He was highly esteemed as a translator of Aristotle,
and his versions of the Ethics, Politics, Oeconomics, De Anima
and De Caelo have all been printed. At Florence, his Greek
lectures were attended by Politian, and an earl of Worcester went
to one of them incognito5. At Rome, in 1482, his lectures on
Thucydides were heard by Reuchlin, afterwards eminent among
the humanists of Germany. The lecturer invited Reuchlin to
1 Law. lv 15 ; Bandini, Cod. Gr. ii 279 ; Legrand, i xli n.
2 p. 48, copied in Boissard's Scones, I xx 140, and in Legrand, in 187.
Cp., in general, Hody, 55 — 101, Voigt, ii 143-6"'; and esp. Legrand, I
xxxi — xlix.
3 Ludovicus Vives, De tradendis disciplinis, iii (Hody, 231). In his Laws,
Bessarion found 259 mistakes. Cp., in general, Hody, 102 — 135, Boemer,
105 — 120; Voigt, ii 45, 137 — 143*. His portrait, in Paulus Jovius, E/ogia,
46, copied by Legrand, in 119, represents him as having an honest and stupid
face, with an open book in his right hand. Cp. Boissard, I xviii 132.
4 Six of his introductory lectures on Aristotle (1456-62) are printed in
K. Milliner's Reden und Brief e (1899), 3 — 56.
5 John Tiptoft ; Vespasiano, 403.
64 ITALY. [CENT. xv.
read and translate a passage from one of the speeches, and was so
struck by the excellence of his pronunciation and his reading,
that he exclaimed with a sigh : — ' Lo ! through our exile, Greece
has flown across the Alps'1.
Lastly, Demetrius Chalcondyles of Athens (1424 — 1511)
reached Rome in 1447, and taught Greek at Perugia,
cha'cwidyies Padua, Florence, and Milan. In 1450, as a youthful
lecturer at Perugia, he made an immediate conquest
of his Italian audience. One of his enthusiastic pupils says : —
' I listen to his lectures with rapture, firstly because he is a Greek,
secondly because he is an Athenian, and, thirdly, because he is
Demetrius. He looks like another Plato '2. At Padua (1463-71)
he was the first teacher of Greek who received a fixed stipend
in any of the universities of Europe3. In 1466 he finished his
transcript of a Greek Anthology now in Florence4. The most
important event of his life as lecturer for twenty years in Florence
(1471-91) was his preparation of the editio princeps of Homer,
printed at Florence in 1488 for Bernardo and Neri Nerli, the first
great work that was printed in Greek5. There are some vague
and probably unfounded rumours of a feud with Politian. This
can hardly have been serious, for a fresco in Santa Maria Novella
painted by Ghirlandaio (d. 1498) represents an apparently friendly
group of scholars who have been identified as Ficino, Landino,
Politian and Demetrius6. Ficino thanks the last three scholars
1 Melanchthon, Declam. (1533 and 1552) in Corpus Reformaiortim, xi 238,
1005, ' Ecce, Graecia nostro exsilio transvolavit Alpes'. Cp. Hody, 187 — 210;
Voigt, i 367-9". In his portrait in Jovius, 50, reproduced in Legrand, in
155, he wears a large flat cap, and has a keen and resolute expression.
2 Campanus, Epp. ii 9, p. 72, ed. 1707; trans, by Symonds, ii 249; cp.
Tiraboschi, vi 820 ; Legrand, I xciv f.
3 Voigt, i 439s. 4 Laur. xxxi 28.
5 Legrand, I qf.
6 Cp. Vasari, ii 212 (E. T. 1876) (Bottari supposes that the fourth figure
is Gentile de' Becchi, bp of Arezzo). Reproduced on p. 58. This is clearly
the original followed by a German artist of cent, xvi, who, in a picture on a
wooden panel, now in the Bibl. Albertina at Leipzig, has painted a church
and some timbered houses of a German style beyond a piece of water, as the
background to a copy of the portraits of these four scholars, whose names are
given in German characters on the lower part of the frame. I am indebted to
Prof. Zarncke of Leipzig for facilitating the taking of a photograph of the
CHAP. V.] DEMETRIUS. NICOLAS V. 65
for their aid in the revision of his translation of Plato; and
Demetrius was Politian's colleague as preceptor to the sons of
Lorenzo. A Greek epigram by Politian describes the Muses as
dwelling in the breast of Chalcondyles1, while a few lines of lyric
verse by Marullus tell us that the bees of Attica were attracted by
the sweetness of his honeyed lips2. After the death of Lorenzo
in 1492, Demetrius withdrew to Milan for the last nineteen years
of his life. It was there that, about 1493, he printed his Erotemata,
a catechism of grammar aiming at a greater simplicity than that of
Theodorus, which is, however, preferred by Erasmus3. It was
there also that he produced the editio princeps of Isocrates (1493),
and of Sui'das (i499)4. He gave proof of much insight (not
unmixt with caprice) in the emendation of Greek texts. In
integrity of character and in gentleness of disposition he stands
higher than the ordinary Greeks of his time5.
Of the five Greeks already mentioned, three, namely Georgius
Trapezuntius. Theodorus Gaza, and Bessarion, took
. Nicolas V
part in the great scheme of Pope Nicolas V for the
translation of the principal Greek prose authors into Latin. The
future Pope, Tommaso Parentucelli of Sarzana (1397 — 1455)1 who
was born at Pisa, was a student at Bologna, and, in the literary
circle that surrounded Cosimo de' Medici in Florence, distinguished
himself by his skill as a copyist, and by his wide knowledge of
MSS. As Pope from 1447 to :455> ne did much for the archi-
tectural adornment of Rome, and for the encouragement of
learning. He gathered MSS from all lands, and became famous for
ever as the founder of the collection of classical MSS now preserved
Leipzig panel. The latter is the source of the portrait of Demetrius in Boerner.
Mr R. C. Christie's copy of the four portraits, now in the Library of Owens
Coll., Manchester, is attributed to Vasari ; it is clearly copied from the original,
and is better than the German version.
1 Politian, ed. 1887, 192.
2 Hymni etc., ed. 1497, P- 8 of signature d iii.
3 Demetrio...viro turn probo, turn erudito, sed cujus mediocritas exactum
illiul ac sublime Theodori judicium haudquaquam assequi potuerit (Hody, 221).
4 Legrand, I 16, 63.
5 Jovius, with portrait, 56 (reproduced by Legrand, Bibl. Hellen. I xciv)
similar to that in Ghirlandaio's fresco. Cp. Hody, 211 — 226; Tiraboschi, vi
819 — 822; Boerner, 181 — 191; Legrand, I xciv — ci.
S. II. 5
66 ITALY. [CENT. xv.
in the Vatican Library. In his scheme for translating the Greek
Classics into Latin, the author entrusted to the Greeks was
Aristotle. The Rhetoric and De Animalibus were translated by
Georgius Trapezuntius, who also undertook the Laws of Plato.
An improved version of the De Animalibus was produced by
Theodorus Gaza, who also rendered the Mechanical Problems, while
the Metaphysics was assigned to Bessarion. The Nicomachean
and Eudemian Ethics were undertaken by Gregorio of Cittk di
Castello1, and Theophrastus, De Plantis, by Gaza.
Turning to the Italian translators, we find Thucydides and
nearly the whole of Herodotus rendered by Valla, Xenophon's
Oeconomics by Lapo da Castiglionchio, the five extant books of
Polybius (with Epictetus) by Perotti, the first five books of Diodorus
Siculus by Poggio, the whole of Strabo by Guarino, and Appian by
Piero Candido Decembrio. The translation of the Iliad into Latin
verse was assigned to Marsuppini, who finished the first book only.
The scheme, as a whole, was concerned with writers of prose alone.
All the above translators were liberally rewarded by Nicolas V,
who, on his deathbed, was able to say with perfect truth : — ' In all
things I was liberal, in building, in the purchase of books, in the
constant transcription of Greek and Latin manuscripts, and in
the rewarding of learned men'2. Most of the scholars, who were
thus remunerated, are mentioned elsewhere, but three of them,
Valla, Decembrio, and Perotti, may be appropriately noticed at
the present point. The first of these was the only one of the
translators who was born and died in Rome; the second was one
of the papal secretaries; and the third was associated with Bologna
and Rome more than with any other seat of learning.
Laurentius Valla (1407 — 1457) learnt his Greek from Aurispa
and from the papal secretary, Rinucci, while he owed
his proficiency in Latin prose to Leonardo Bruni.
Leaving Rome at the age of 24, he visited various places in the
north of Italy, and subsequently entered the service of Alfonso,
king of Aragon and Sicily, first at Gae'ta (1435), an(^ afterwards
at Naples (1442). Valla's denunciation of the 'Donation of
Constantine' in 1440 served the interests of Alfonso by dis-
1 Tifernas. Two of his lectures in Milliner's Reden, 173 — 190.
a Manetti, Vita, 955-6.
CHAP. V.] NICOLAS V. VALLA. 67
crediting the papal claim to temporal power, whether at Naples
or elsewhere. Ultimately Valla made his peace with Eugenius IV,
but it was reserved for that Pope's successor, Nicolas V, to
appoint him a papal scriptor, and to obtain his aid in .the great
scheme of translations. In 1450 he became professor of Rhetoric
in Rome. He survived Nicolas, and became a papal secretary
under his successor. In 1457 he died in Rome at the age of fifty.
In early life Valla had been attracted to the study of Quintilian,
whom he deliberately preferred to Cicero, and certain of Valla's
notes on the first two books of the Institutio Oratorio, were long
afterwards included in the Venice edition of 1494. In his earliest
extant work, the dialogue De Voluptate, written at Pavia (1431),
he shows a more than merely dramatic interest in Epicurean
opinions1. His career at Pavia was brought to an end by his
bold attack on the superstitious respect paid to modern jurists
by the local lawyers2. Similarly, in his treatise on Dialectic, he
denounces the mediaeval Aristotelians, Avicenna and Averroes,
and attacks the philosophers of his time for their belief in the
infallibility of Aristotle3. He is also one of the founders of
historical criticism. His investigation of the sources of Canon
Law had drawn his attention to the 'decree of Gratian', and in
particular to the interpolated passage alleging that the emperor
Constantine had presented Pope Sylvester I with his own diadem,
and had assigned to the Pope and his successors, not only the
Lateran palace, but also Rome itself and all the provinces of Italy
and of the West. Valla attacks this decree on legal, linguistic,
political, and historical grounds, showing inter alia that its style
and contents are inconsistent with the date to which it purports to
belong, and that the ancient MSS of the legend of St Sylvester, on
which the decree professes to rely, say nothing of the alleged
'Donation'4. Thus it was that, 'in the revival of letters and
liberty, this fictitious deed was transpierced by the pen of
1 Opera, 896 — 1010. The short dialogues, De liberp arbitrio, and De
projessione religiosornm (Vahlen, Opnscula tria, 155), belong to the same
group.
2 Opera, 633—643.
3 Opera, 643 — 761, esp. 644. Cp. Vahlen's Vortrag, 10— 152.
4 Text of decree reprinted by M. von Wolff, Lorenzo Valla, 85 — 88.
5—2
68 ITALY. [CENT. xv.
Laurentius Valla, the pen of an eloquent critic and a Roman
patriot'1. Valla's declamation naturally attracted the notice of the
German reformers, and it was first printed by Ulrich von Hutten
in i5i72. The 'Donation of Constantine' has since disappeared
from the Roman Breviary.
In the domain of pure scholarship Valla's reputation mainly
rests on his widely diffused work, ' On the Elegancies of the Latin
language', the result of many years of labour3. He here attacks
the barbarous Latin of the Middle Ages and of his own times. He
declares that for centuries no one has really written Latin, yet he
has a profound belief in the immortality of that language, which
he deems as eternal as the Eternal City4. He tries its modern
use by the standard of Cicero and Quintilian. He repeatedly
shows a refined taste in the discrimination of synonyms5. From
observations on points of grammar and style, which occupy the
first five books, he passes on to criticism, • the last book being
mainly devoted to correcting the views of the ancient scholars or
grammarians, such as Gellius, Nonius, Donatus, and Servius. Of
the mediaeval grammarians, Isidore, Papias, and Hugutio, he
has a far lower opinion, and his disrespect for these traditional
authorities and even for Priscian, that ' Sun of Grammar, which
sometimes suffers eclipse', was one of the grounds alleged for
regarding him as a heretic6. In the latter part of the last book he
examines the meanings given to certain legal terms, and appeals
from the modern jurists to the ancient authorities on Roman law.
He thus became one of the founders of the exact study of juris-
prudence, and his influence was felt in France by Budaeus7. In
its first form (with an appendix on sui and suns) the work was
dedicated to Tortellius, the first librarian of the Vatican. It was
printed at Venice in 1471, passed through 59 editions between
1 Gibbon, c. 49 (v 273-5 and 538 Bury); cp. Milman's Lat, Chr. i 72 n;
Bellinger's Pabstfabeln des MAs, 61 f, and Vahlen's Vortrag, 25 — 33*.
2 Also in Valla's Opera (1540), 761 — 795.
* Cp. lib. v init.
4 Opera, ^f.
5 e.g. iv j6 (Of era, 142) on sylva, Incus, sallus, nennis.
6 Apologia in Opera, 799 ; cp. M. von Wolff, 69.
7 Cp. Valla, Eleg. lib. iii praef. ; Budaeus, Annot. in Pandectas, p. 9 g,
ed. 1536, and Vahlen's Vortrag 2i2.
CHAP. V.] VALLA. 69
that year and 1536, and, even at the present day, the greater part
of its contents is by no means out of date1.
As a textual critic Valla is represented partly by certain passages
of his Elegantiae, and still more by the emendations that arose
out of the readings in Livy at the court of Alfonso. It was Valla
who explained to that inquisitive king the exact meaning ofpedibtts
ire in sententiam*. Many of his emendations on the first six books
of Livy's Second Punic War now form part of the current text3.
He also criticises the Vulgate version of the New Testament in
relation to the original Greek (1444), and his criticisms4 were first
published by Erasmus in 1505.
Before returning to Rome, Valla translated Aesop at Gae'ta
(1440) and sixteen books of the Iliad at Naples (1442— 4) 5. It
may be doubted whether he, or indeed any Italian of that age,
was equal to the difficult task of translating Thucydides. However,
in little more than two years, the work was finished (1452): the
Pope was pleased, and asked Valla to translate Herodotus. The
latter was still unfinished when the Pope died in 1455, and the
uncompleted rendering was accordingly dedicated to Valla's earlier
patron, the king of Naples. His translation of Demosthenes,
De Corona, shows greater freedom and idiomatic force than the
somewhat bald version by Bruni6. Valla ended his days at peace
with Rome. In a lecture delivered two years before his death he
declares that, on the fall of the Roman empire, the Latin language
had been preserved from extinction by the beneficence of the
Christian religion and the apostolic see. The denouncer of the
Constantinian donation of the Lateran Palace died as a Canon of
the Lateran Church, and was buried within its walls. The epitaph
1 The criticisms by Velletri (1452 — 1505) are reprinted by Vagetius, De
Stylo Latino (1613), 143 — 191 f, with animadversions of his own, 60 f; also by
Sanctius (1523 — 1601) in his Minerva, II c. 10 and c. 12, who in c. 10 says of
Valla's treatment of the comparative, ' egregie ineptus est Valla, cujus studium
fuit Latinam linguam compedibus cpnstringere '. Valla's work was praised,
and epitomised, by Erasmus (P. S. Allen's Erasmi Epp. i 99, 108, no).
2 Liv. xxvii 34 ; Opera, 594.
3 Opera, 603 — 620. On Lucius and Aruns, cp. 438 f, 448.
4 Opera, 801—895.
5 Vahlen, Opuscula Tria, 74 — 104.
6 Vahlen, Opuscula Tria, 9 — 12, 128 — 148; specimens in 194 — 205.
70 ITALY. [CENT. xv.
on this pioneer of historical criticism was ultimately preserved
from destruction by Niebuhr1.
The translation of Appian had been entrusted to Pier Candido
Decembrio (1399 — 1477)> who in 1419-47 had been
Decembrio . -,-,.,. •»«- • -,T- • 11- •
secretary to rihppo Maria Visconti, and lived in
Rome and Naples in 1450-60, and for the rest of his life at
Ferrara and Naples. His father, Uberto (1370 — 1427), had
studied Greek under Chrysoloras, who had begun a Latin render-
ing of Plato's Republic. This rendering was revised by Uberto,
and continued by his son, who sent his translation of the fifth
book to Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, in 1439, and completed
the work in the following year. The presentation copy, which
arrived in England about 1443, was accompanied by a letter, the
last words of which, vale, immortalis princeps, intimate that
Decembrio's dedication of Plato's immortal masterpiece would
render the duke himself immortal2. Decembrio had already
prepared, for the duke of Milan, Italian renderings of the Lives
of Alexander and of Caesar (i438)3. In 1440 he presented
John II of Castile with a literal translation of Iliad i — iv, x4. In
1453 several books of his translation of Appian were ready for
Nicolas V, while the History of the Civil War was finished after the
death of the Pope, and was dedicated to Alfonso, king of Naples5.
Decembrio's portrait has been preserved in a fine medallion
produced before 1450 by Pisanello, in which he is described as
studiorum humanitatis decus, one of the earliest examples of the
1 Vortrdge uber rom. Alter th. 1858, p. u. On Valla, cp. Opera, Basel,
1540 and 1543, folio; Poggiali, Memorie, 1790; Tiraboschi, vi 1057-72;
C. G. Zumpt, in Schmidt's Zeitschrift f. Gesch. 1845, 397 — 434; and esp.
Vahlen, Lorenzo Valla, ein Vortrag, 1864', 1870", and L. V. Opuscula Tria,
205 pp., 1869; also Voigt, i 460 — 476, ii 148 — 15O3; Symonds, ii 258 — 263;
Mancini, Vita, 1891 ; Sabbadini, Ciceronianismo, 25 — 32, and Cronologia,
1891 ; M. von Wolff, L. V., 134 pp., 1893; and W. Schwahn, L. V., 6r pp.,
1896; also Harvard Lectures; 136-8, 156.
2 Voigt, ii 256*; Einstein, Italian Renaissance in England, 5 — 7; Mario
Borsa, in Eng. Hist. Rev. 1904, 509 — 576, and W. L. Newman, ib. 1905,
483—497-
8 From Curtius and (probably) Suetonius respectively; Voigt, i 5t23.
* ib. ii 192*.
8 tf-.ii 1 86V
CHAP. V.] DECEMBRIO. PEROTTI. ?I.
application of the term humanitas to the Classical studies of the
Renaissance1.
The free and flowing, though far from faithful rendering of
Polybius, executed by Perotti (1430 — 1480), was
. . . Perotti
highly appreciated by Nicolas. Perotti had been
educated at Mantua under Vittorino. He had lived at Verona
with William Gray, the future bishop of Ely, and at Bologna with
Cardinal Bessarion, in whose household he had diligently studied
Greek. At Bologna he produced, in his Metrica, the first modern
treatise on Latin Prosody (1453). His Rudimenta Gramntatices,
the first modern Latin Grammar (1468), printed as a magnificent
folio in 1473, is described by Erasmus as 'the most complete
manual extant in his day'2. In 1458 he was made bishop of
Manfredonia, but, except when travelling on ecclesiastical business
in Umbria, he usually resided among his literary friends in Rome,
where his recension of the elder Pliny was printed in 1473. ^e
spent his later years in a charming villa at Sassoferrato, the place
of his birth. He there prepared a remarkably learned and dis-
cursive commentary on the Spectacula and the first book of
Martial, published by his nephew nine years after the bishop's
death3. The same volume includes his commentary on Pliny's
preface, and (in the later issues of 1513-26) his editions of
Varro, Sextus Pompeius and Nonius Marcellus. As a Greek
scholar and a pupil of Bessarion, Perotti took the side of Plato in
one of the latest phases of the long controversy respecting Plato
and Aristotle.
Nicolas V had been a great patron of learning. On his death,
it was for a short time thought possible that his successor would
be the Greek Cardinal Bessarion. His actual successor, Callixtus III
(1455-8), did little for the Greeks beyond proclaiming war
against the Turks, and, to obtain funds for this purpose, he sold
the works of art which Nicolas had lavished on the churches of
Rome, and stripped the splendid bindings off the MSS, which
1 Geiger, Renaissance, 159; G. F. Hill's Pisanello, pi. 56.
2 i 521 c (Woodward's Vittorino, 87, and Erasmus, 163).
3 Corn ucop iae sive Latinac linguae coinmenlarionim opus, folio, 1396 pp.,
Ven. 1489, and at least five later edd. The commentary on Martial fills 1000
folio pages, but is not named in the title. On 1'erotti, cp. Voigt, ii I33-/3-
J2 ITALY. [CENT. xv.
Nicolas had stored in the Vatican1. The next Pope, Pius II
(1458-64), disappointed the hopes of the humanists, though he
was eminent not only as a statesman but also as a man of letters.
As Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, he had learnt some Greek from
Filelfo in Florence, had studied and taught at Siena, had written
Ovidian poems and Horatian epistles, and had made his mark by
a Latin oration at the Council of Basel. He had sent a long
letter to young Sigismund, count of Tyrol, in praise of learning
(1443), and an elaborate treatise on education to Ladislas, the
youthful king of Bohemia and Hungary (1450). In that treatise,
he had recommended the study of the Historians of Rome, and
the moral writings of Cicero, Seneca and Boethius, together with
Plautus and Terence, Virgil and Horace, Lucan and Statius, the
Metamorphoses of Ovid, as well as Valerius Flaccus and Claudian,
and Persius, with selections from Juvenal and Martial, neatly
saying of the latter that ' in handling Martial we cannot gather the
roses for the thorns', and dexterously parrying the 'shallow
Churchman's ' objection to the perusal of pagan poets by the
remark that, ' happily, there were in Hungary not a few to whom
the poets of antiquity were a precious possession'*. He had also
composed Ciceronian dialogues in which he had relieved the
dulness of scholastic arguments by discussions on classical
archaeology, literature and history ; not to mention a History of
Bohemia in the style of Livy, a Latin comedy in that of Terence,
and a Latin novel after the manner of Boccaccio. After he had
become Pope, he frankly regretted some of his earlier poems, and
spent much of his time on writing the history of his pontificate,
but he was too critical to be really popular with the humanists,
and his want of appreciation was never forgiven by the ever self-
assertive Filelfo.
Of his immediate circle the one who did most for the study of
the Classics was Campano (c. 1427 — 1477), the
Campano
Campanian shepherd boy, who became a pupil of
Valla in Naples. But it was not until after the death of Pius II
that, in or about the year 1470, he printed a series of seven folio
1 Creighton, History of the Papacy, Hi 184.
2 De Liberorum Educatione, translated in Woodward's Vittorino, 134 — 158.
Cp. Harvard Lectures, 67 — 69.
CHAP. V.] PIUS If. CAMPANO. 73
volumes, including the whole of Livy, Quintilian and Suetonius,
with the Philippics of Cicero, and a Latin translation of all the
Lives of Plutarch.
The name of Pius II is commemorated in the Piccolomini
palace and other buildings of Pienza, and also in the exquisitely
beautiful Piccolomini library at Siena. In his private library he
once possessed a MS of Prosper, which has since proved to be
a palimpsest of the Verrine Speeches of Cicero, and, after many
vicissitudes, has found a permanent home in the Vatican1. He
died at Ancona amid the final preparations for his crusade against
the Turks, and among the Cardinals who stood by his dying bed
was Bessarion. In comparison with that Cardinal, he knew little
of Greek, but when, only eleven years earlier, the news of the fall
of Constantinople broke like a thunder-bolt on Italy, Aeneas
Sylvius was fully conscious of the blow that had befallen the cause
of Greek literature. In a letter to Nicolas, the papal patron of the
Classics who had raised him to the purple, we find him exclaiming :
How many names of mighty men will perish ! It is a second death to
Homer and to Plato. The fount of the Muses is dried up for evermore 2.
1 E. Piccolomini, in Bolletino Storico Senese (1899), fasc. iii (Class. J?ev.
xvii 460).
2 Ep. 162, 12 July 1453 (Hocly, 191 f). On Aeneas Sylvius (Pope Pius II)
cp. Creighton's History of the Papacy, Book iv cc. i and ix, and Historical
Essays and Reviews; also Voigt, passim, and the monograph by the latter in
3 vols., 1856-63. Portrait in Phil. Galleus, Effigies, i (1572) A3, and
Boissard's /cones, in ii p. 10 (1598), reproduced in Miss J. M. Stone's
Reformation and Renaissance.
CHAPTER VI.
THE LATER GREEK IMMIGRANTS.
THE fall of Constantinople was once regarded as the cause of
the Revival of Greek Learning in Italy. But, exactly a century
before that event, Petrarch possessed a MS of Homer and of
Plato ; the whole of Homer was translated into Latin for the use
of Petrarch and Boccaccio ; and Boccaccio learnt Greek. Half a
century before the fall, Greek was being taught in Florence by
Chrysoloras ; and the principal Greek prose authors had been
translated, and at least five of the foremost of the Greek refugees
had reached Italy, before the overthrow of the doomed city.
The most prominent of the Greeks, who found their way to
Italy after the fall of Constantinople, were Michael Apostolius,
Andronicus Callistus, Constantine and Janus Lascaris, Marcus
Musurus, and Zacharias Callierges.
The Greeks in Rome continued the controversy as to the
respective merits of Plato and Aristotle, which had
Aristotle^ been waged at Florence by Plethon in 1439.
Plethon and Plato were attacked without bitterness
by Theodorus Gaza1, and defended with good temper by Bessarion2
between 1455 and 1459. Bessarion wrote a second treatise3,
which was answered by Gaza4 (c. 1459). Gaza's preference for
Aristotle brought down upon him an ill-mannered and ill-tempered
1 tfn T] <f>6<ris /3ov\fvtT<u.
2 De Natura et Arte, printed later as book vi of Adv. Calumniatorem
Platonis.
3 irpbs T& IIXTjflwi'os Tr/adj ' A.pLffTOTl\t)v iTepl ovcrias.
a vwep ' Ap
CHAP. VI.] APOSTOLIUS. CALLISTUS. 75
attack on the part of one of Bessarion's proteges, Michael
Apostolius, who hoped to retain Bessarion's favour by defending
Plato1 (1460-1). But Bessarion, who thoroughly disapproved of
his protege's controversial methods, protested that he himself had
a profound respect for Aristotle, as well as for Plato2, and even
gave a cordial welcome to a short treatise, in which Aristotle was
defended, and Apostolius refuted, in a sensible and moderate
manner by a Greek of better breeding named Andronicus
Callistus3 (1462). Bessarion was afterwards attacked in a petu-
lant spirit by Georgius Trapezuntius (i464)4, who in his turn was
answered by Bessarion (i469)5. Simply for approving this answer,
Argyropulos was denounced by Theodorus Gaza., who, so far as
the Greeks were concerned, had the last word in this long debate
(c. i47o)6. Bessarion, however, had the support of Italians such
as Filelfo and Ficino, and his own pupil Perotti, who wrote a
treatise against Trapezuntius7. Throughout all the tangles of
this complicated controversy, a thread of gold is inwoven by
the serene and imperturbable temper of Bessarion. Among the
Aristotelians who joined in the fray, Theodorus Gaza shines by
contrast with Georgius Trapezuntius, while Andronicus Callistus
is far more attractive than the selfish and interested Platonist,
Apostolius8.
1 Apostolios, Trov-/i/j.aTa rpia, Smyrna, 1876; also MS in Bodleian, mentioned
by Hody, 78.
2 tfj.e dt <t>i\ouvTa /j.ev tvOi IlXdrwca, <f>i\ovi>Ta 5' 'Apur-rorAij Kal a>s
<ro0wTaTw fftfio/j-evov (Kartpw. Text of Bessarion's Letter in Migne, P. G.
clxi 685 — 692,; cp. Legrand, I Ixii f.
3 MS in Escurial; Miller, Catal. des MSS Grecs, p. 177.
4 Coviparatio inter Aristotelian et Plalonetit (printed Ven. 1523).
5 Adversus Calumniatorem Platonis (printed in Rome, 1469).
6 'AvTippyTiKoi'. Cp. Bandini, Catal. MSS Gr. ii 275 f.
7 Valentinelli, Bill. nis. ad S. Marci, Venet. iv 7, 9.
8 The earliest account of this controversy is that of Boivin le Cadet,
Querdle des Philosophes du quinzieme siede, first printed in the Mhnoires
de Littcrature of the French Academy, ii (1717) 775 — 791, where the
correspondence about Apostolius and Andronicus (1462) is translated for the
first time. Cp. Tiraboschi, vi c. 2 § 18, pp. 368 — 370; Buhle, Gesch. der
neitern Philos. ii, 1800; Legrand, I xxxvi f ; Gaspary (on the chronology of the
controversy), in Arc hiv fur Geschichte der Philosophic, iii (1890) 50 — 53; and
Voigt, ii 1 55s.
76 ITALY. [CENT. xv.
Michael Apostolius (c. 1422 — 1480), who had been a pupil of
Argyropulos at Constantinople, fled to Rome in
1454. He subsequently settled in Crete, where
he supported himself as a copyist1. His bitter
attack on Theodorus Gaza was answered (as we have seen) in
a courteous spirit by Andronicus Callistus, a native
Callistus110' °f Constantinople, who makes his first appearance
in Italy in 1461, when (like Argyropulos at an
earlier date) he aided the Greek studies of Palla Strozzi at Padua.
It was probably at Padua that John Free2 wrote a letter of intro-
duction to a friend at Ferrara describing Callistus as fully equal
in learning to Gaza, and as a modest and pleasant person3.
Callistus afterwards taught at Bologna and at Rome, and, on the
death of Bessarion in 1472, left for Florence, where his lectures
were attended by the youthful Politian, who wrote a graceful set
of Latin elegiacs urging Lorenzo not to allow Callistus to leave
Florence4. His fame as a lecturer reached the Hungarian bishop,
Janus Pannonius, who had left Italy in 1458-9, but imagines
himself as returning to the school in which Callistus was dis-
coursing on Homer, Demosthenes, and Aristotle5. Callistus
dedicated to Lorenzo a translation of Aristotle, De Generatione et
Corruptione* . He subsequently lived in Milan and in Paris. He
died in London, far from his friends7, after aiding a fellow-
countryman, Hermonymus of Sparta, to return to Paris8, where
he was one of the earliest teachers of Greek in France.
A more notable name is that of Constantine Lascaris of Con-
stantinople (1434 — 1501), a pupil of Argyropulos.
He was nineteen years of age when he was made a
prisoner by the Turks on the fall of his native city.
During the greater part of the next seven years he probably stayed
1 Legrand, I Iviii f.
2 Creighton's Historical Lectures and Addresses, 202.
8 Hody, 228 f. 4 Politian, ed. 1867, 227 f.
5 Delitiae poetarum Hungaricorum, 1617, p. 198 (cp. Hody, 227 — 232;
Legrand, I Hi n. 6).
6 Legrand, I Ivii.
7 <f)i\wv tprinos, Const. Lascaris, ap. Legrand, I Ivi n. 3.
8 1476. Boissonade, Anecd. Gr. \ 420-6.
CHAP. VI.] CONSTANTINE LASCARIS. 77
at Corfu, but he found time for a visit to Rhodes, where he copied
or acquired certain MSS now at Madrid1. From 1460 to 1465 he
was transcribing MSS and teaching Greek in Milan. It was there
that, in a happy moment, he presented to the princess Hippolyta
Sforza a beautifully written transcript of his work ' On the Eight
Parts of Speech', now in the Paris Library2. On her marriage to
Alfonso II, the future king of Naples, Lascaris followed her to
that court, and, a year later, started for Greece in a vessel that
stopped at Messina, He was urged to stay, and there he abode
for the remaining thirty-five years of his life. At Messina he
taught Greek, one of his pupils being the future Cardinal Bern bo3.
In the bitterness of his spirit he once wrote to a friend lamenting
the enslavement of Greece, and longing to leave Sicily for the
British Isles, or for the Islands of the Blest4. In gratitude, how-
ever, to the Sicilian city, where he had spent the latter half of his
life, he left his MSS to Messina, then under the rule of Castile.
At Messina they remained until 1679, when they were removed,
first to Palermo, and thence to Spain. In 1712 they were placed
in the National Library founded in that year in Madrid5. Among
them (dated Messina, 1496) is his own copy of Quintus Smyr-
naeus— the poet once known as 'Quintus Calaber', simply because
the manuscript of his epic was first found, by Bessarion, in
' Calabria '. The small Greek Grammar of Constantine Lascaris,
published at Milan in 1476, is the first book printed in Greek6.
Constantine Lascaris is a pathetic figure in the history of scholar-
ship. Though he bore an imperial name, he found himself little
better than a slave in Italy. He was reduced to support himself
by teaching, and by copying MSS; and even his industry as a
1 Cod. Matrit. no. 43 (Aphthonius etc.), no. 85 (Byz. law), no. 101
(Choricius). Cp. Legrand, I Ixxi, and Iriarte's Catalogue.
3 no. 2590.
3 In 1492. Bembo, Epp. ed. 1582, p. 4 f.
4 Iriarte, Bibl. Matrit: CoM. Gr. 290 (Legrand, I Ixxx f).
6 Catalogued by Iriarte, 1769. Cp. Sabbadini, Scoperte, 68.
6 Legrand, I i — 5. Reprinted by Aldus at Venice (1495); the Pronouns
had been finished at Milan, 1460, the Nouns, 1463; the Verbs at Messina,
1468, and the Subscript Vowels, 1470. His abstract of Herodian is in the
Hamburg Library.
78 ITALY. [CENT XV f
copyist was of no avail, when his skill was superseded by the
newly-invented art of printing1.
The same famous surname was borne by Janus Lascaris
(1445 — 1535), who, on the fall of Constantinople,
Lascaris was taken to the Peloponnesus and to Crete. On
his subsequent arrival in Venice, he was sent, at
the charges of Bessarion, to learn Latin at Padua. On the death
of his Greek patron, he was welcomed by Lorenzo in Florence,
where he lectured on Thucydides and Demosthenes, and on
Sophocles and the Greek Anthology. As the emissary of Lorenzo,
he went twice to the East in quest of MSS. He recovered as many
as 200, but, before his second return, his great Florentine patron
had passed away (149 2)*. On the fall of the Medici, he entered
the service of France, and was the, French envoy at Venice from
1503 to 1508. When the second son of Lorenzo became Pope
as Leo X, Janus Lascaris was at once invited to Rome and set
over a Greek College. One of his colleagues was Musurus, and
among his pupils was Matthaeus Devarius of Corfu (c. 1500 —
1570), the future author of a work on the Greek particles3, and
the future editor of the editio princeps of Eustathius (1542-50).
In 1518 Lascaris returned to France, where he aided Francis I
in founding the Royal Library at Fontainebleau4. In this work
he was associated with Budaeus, who, as an occasional pupil of
his colleague, learnt more Greek from Lascaris than from his
former teacher, Hermonymus of Sparta. Lascaris returned to
Rome on the accession of the second Medicean Pope, in 1523,
and again in 1534. In the following year he died, and was
buried in the church of Sant' Agata, where the Greek epitaph,
composed by himself, tells of his grief for the enslavement of his
1 Cp. Hody, 240-6; Tiraboschi, vi 822-5; Voigt, i 369^ and esp.
Legrand, I Ixxi — Ixxxvii.
2 He visited Corfu, Arta, Thessalonica, Mount Athos, Constantinople,
Crete. The memoranda of his acquisitions (Cod. Vat. no. 1412) were published
by K. K. Muller.-in Centrlbl.f. Bill, i (1884) 333—412. Cp. De Nolhac, Bibl.
de F. Orsini, 154-9, anc^ iQ Melanges d'arcA. et d^hist. vi (1886) 255 f, 264 f.
3 Ed. Klotz, 1835-42; originally published in 1587 (details of his life in
his nephew's dedication of this work, and in Legrand, I cxcv-viii, and
II 52 f).
4 Cp. Omont, Catalogues des MSS grecs de Fontainebleau (1889), p. iv f. .
CHAP. VI.] JANUS LASCARIS. MARCUS MUSURUS. 79
country, and of his gratitude to the alien land that had given him
a new home1. His reputation rests on his five editione s principe s,
all of them printed in Florence, in Greek capitals with accents :
namely, four plays of Euripides2, Callimachus, Apollonius Rhodius,
the Greek Anthology, and Lucian (1494-6). At Rome he pro-
duced at the Greek press on the Quirinal the ancient scholia on
the ///Wand on Sophocles (i5i7-8)3.
Among his pupils in Florence was the Cretan Musurus
(c. 1470 — 1517), who was so diligent in teaching
Greek at Padua that he hardly allowed himself M^Jrus
four days of holiday throughout the year4. In
1513 we find him lecturing on Greek in Venice, and making
it a 'second Athens'. Such is the language of Aldus Manutius5
whom he aided, from 1498 to 1515, in the preparation of the
earliest printed editions of Aristophanes6, Euripides, Plato,
Athenaeus, Hesychius, and Pausanias. In recognition of the
beautiful Greek poem, prefixed in 1513 to the editio princeps of
Plato7, he was appointed bishop of Monembasia in the Morea,
but died at the age of less than fifty, before starting for his
distant diocese8. He was the editor of the ' Etymologic-urn
1 Lascaris Epigr. ed. 1544, f. 13 verso, Adcr/capis dXAoSairr; 70^77 m/car^ero,
yalr/v \ afire \irjv i;elvr)i>, w ^ve, /ue/u06yaei'os. | evpero /ieiAtx"7*', o.\\' &X^eTalj
2 Med. Hipp. Ale. Androm.
3 Cp. Boerner, 199 f; Hody, 247 — 275; Wolf, Analecta, i 237; Vogel in
Serapeum, 1849, no. 5 and 6; Symonds, ii 427 f; and esp. Legrand, I
cxxx — clxii, and portrait, ib. in 411.
4 Erasmus, iii 788 B; Nichols, i 449. His teaching is highly praised by
Beatus Rhenanus : ' nihil (in Graecisauctoribus) erat tarn reconditum, quod non
aperiret, nee tam involutum, quod non expediret Musurus, vere Musarum
custos et antistes' (Ep. ad Carolum V ; Leyden ed. of Erasmus, i /'«//.;
cp. Hody, p. 304).
5 Preface to Oratores Graeci, 1513.
6 Facsimile in Early Venetian Printing (1895), 1 1 1.
7 Printed in Botfield's Prefaces to the Editiones Principes, 290-6, and in
Didot's Aide Manuce, 491-8; translated in Roscoe's Leo X, i 421 f, ed. 1846.
8 He is described, in his epitaph in S. Maria della Pace, as exactae
diligentiae grammaticus et rarae felicilatis poeta (Legrand, I cxxi), and by
Erasmus as not only gente Graectts, eruditione Graecissimus (Ep. 295), but also
as Latinae linguae usque ad miracuhtm docttis (Ep. 671). Cp. Hody, 294 —
307; Boerner, 219 — 232; R. Menge in Schmidt's Hesychius, v i — 88 (1868);
80 ITALY. [CENT. XV f
Magnum ', published at Venice in I4991, while the printer was
Caiiier es Zacharias Callierges (fl. 1499 — X523)> who, in the
same year, printed the commentary of Simplicius
on the Categories, and afterwards produced at Rome the second
edition of Pindar (1515), and an early edition of Theocritus
(1516), followed by his Thomas Magister (1517). Callierges was
noted for his calligraphy *, and his Greek type is as beautiful, in
its kind, as that of Aldus Manutius8.
and esp. Legrand, I cviii — cxxiv, with portrait in vol. II, frontispiece, from
Jovius, Elogia, p. 57; also in Didot, p. 300 (with page of autograph, opp.
P. 5°°)-
1 Facsimile in Early Venetian Printing, 123 (wrongly dated 1497).
2 Stobaeus, in New Coll., Oxford, copied Dec. 1523, the latest definite
date in his life.
3 Hody, 317; Ritschl's Pref. to Thomas Magister, p. xviii, and esp.
Legrand, I 1 — Ivii. The Greek Immigrants are briefly sketched by Heeren,
ii 199 — 221, Bernhardy, Gr. Lit. i 747 — 7524; Symonds, ii 246 — 250, 375-8,
and by others; all previous accounts are, however, superseded by Legrand's
Bibliographie Plelleniqtte, I — ill (1885 — 1903). Cp. Literature in Krumbacher,
p. 502 f, ed. 1897.
CHAPTER VII.
THE ACADEMIES OF FLORENCE, NAPLES, AND ROME.
THE thirty years, during which Cosimo de' Medici was in
power (1434-64), were separated by the five years of the brief
sway of his son from the three and twenty years of the rule of
Lorenzo (1469-92). Lorenzo was one of the most accomplished
and versatile of men ; astute as a politician, graceful as a poet,
generous as a patron, and eager and enthusiastic as a lover of art
and philosophy and classical learning. In his virtues and in his
vices he was the incarnation of the spirit of the Renaissance.
Ficino had translated ten of Plato's dialogues before the death
of Cosimo ; ten more had been translated before the
r T ii. i i j. j • The Academy
accession of Lorenzo; the work was completed in Of Florence
1477 ar>d printed in 1482. The Introduction to
the Symposium is one of the few primary authorities on the
Platonic Academy of Florence. The ancient custom of cele-
brating the memory of Plato by an annual banquet had, after an
interval of twelve hundred years, been revived by Lorenzo. Nine
members of the Academy, including Ficino and Landino, had
been invited to the villa at Careggi. At the conclusion of the
repast, Ficino's rendering of all the seven speeches in the Sym-
posium is read aloud, and discussed by five of the guests1. Of
the nine that assembled at Careggi to discuss the Symposium, the
only one unknown to fame, apart from Ficino him-
.- . „ . Landino
self, is Cnstoforo Landino (1424 — 1504). A survivor
from the age of Cosimo, he was destined to live to the age of
eighty, and even to outlive the youthful Lorenzo. He had been
associated with Ficino as Lorenzo's tutor; he had already lec-
tured on Petrarch (1460), and, at a later time, he was to expound
1 PP- 373—440 of Basel ed., 1532.
S. II. 6
82 ITALY. [CENT. xv.
Dante (1481), to annotate Horace (1482) and Virgil (1487), to
translate the elder Pliny (1501), and to imitate the Tusculan
Disputations of Cicero1 in a celebrated dialogue, whose scene is
laid at Camaldoli, near the source of the Arno. In that dialogue
the life of action is lauded by Lorenzo, and that of contemplation
by the widely accomplished Leon Battista Alberti (1404 — 1472)2,
who maintains the allegorical significance of the Aeneid, and
finds affinities between the poetry of Virgil and the philosophy
of Plato3.
Ficino (1433 — 1499), the true centre of the Academy, received
holy orders at the age of forty, and spent the rest
of his days in the honest and reverent endeavour to
reconcile Platonism and Christianity. In the latter part of his
life he translated and expounded Plotinus (ed. 1492). After
surviving Lorenzo for seven years, he died in 1499, an^ is com-
memorated by a marble bust in the Cathedral of Florence4.
Among other members of the Academy was that paragon of
beauty and genius, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola
(1463 — 1494), who first flashed upon Florence
shortly before the publication of Ficino's Plato. He was pos-
sessed by the great thought of the unity of all knowledge, and,
while he was still absorbed in planning a vast work, which was to
form a complete system of Platonic, Christian, and Cabbalistic
lore, he passed away at the early age of thirty-one, on the very
day of 1494, on which the invader of Italy, Charles VIII of
France, marched into Florence5.
1 His lecture on the Tusc. Disp. is printed in K. Milliner's Reden,
118 — 129.
2 Voigt, i 37O-63; Symonds, ii 341-4; portrait in G. F. Hill's Pisanello,
192. At 20, he composed a Latin Comedy, which passed for a Classic (the
PhiloJoxius of 'Lepidus Comicus ', ed. Ven. 1588).
3 Portrait in group on p. 58 supra ; another portrait in Alois Heiss, Les
Medailleurs de la Renaissance, i 63.
4 Reproduced in Wiese and Percopo, It. Lift. 199; he is one of the group
on p. 58 supra. Cp. Reumont's Lorenzo, ii 20 — 30 E.T. ; Symonds, ii 324—8;
Harvard Lectures, 89 — 94.
6 Roscoe's Lorenzo, 259^ ed. 1847; Reumont, ii 79 — 95; Symonds, ii
329 — 338; fine portrait in the Uffizi, no. 1154, reproduced in Armstrong's
Lorenzo, and Wiese and Percopo, 203 ; another portrait in the Uffizi, repro-
duced by Alois Heiss, I.e. i 29.
CHAP. VII.] LANDING. FICINO. PICO. BARBARO. 83
Pico's friend and correspondent, Hermolaus Barbaras (1454 —
1493), died only a year before him. A grandson
of Francesco Barbaro, the Venetian friend of Poggio, BartaTiTs*11
he had been educated at Verona, Rome, and Padua.
He translated Themistius and Dioscorides, as well as the Rhetoric
of Aristotle. He claimed to have corrected 5000 errors in the text
of the elder Pliny1. In a memorable letter, Pico, while congra-
tulating him on his Ciceronian style, ventured to ask whether the
old schoolmen might not say to any one who now charged them
with dulness, 'Let him prove by experience whether we barbarians
have not the god of eloquence in our hearts rather than on our
lips ' 2. He is described by Politian as Hermolaus Barbarus
barbariae hostis acerrimus3 ; and he is declared by Bembo to
have surpassed all former Venetians in Greek and Latin learning.
He died in Rome in 1493, at the early age of thirty-nine.
' Urbs Venetum vitam, mortem dedit inclyta Roma,
non potuit nasci nobiliusve mori'4.
In the following year, at the age of forty, died a notable
member of the Florentine Academy, Angelo Poli-
. . , Politian
ziano, familiarly known as Politian (1454 — 1494).
Sent to Florence at the age of ten from his home at Monte Pul-
ciano, he attended the lectures of Landino, Argyropulos, Andro-
nicus Callistus, and Ficino. By the age of thirty, he was tutor to
Lorenzo's children, and professor of Greek and Latin Literature
in Florence. Among those from England, who attended his
lectures, were Grocyn and Linacre. The authors professorially
expounded by him included Homer and Virgil, Persius and
Statius, Quintilian and Suetonius. He was one of the first
to pay attention to the Silver Age of Latinity; and he justified
his choice partly on the ground that that Age had been unduly
neglected, and partly because it supplied an easy introduction to
the authors of the Golden Age5. It is as a scholar, and not as a
1 Castigaiiones Plin. 1492-3.
2 Ap. Politian, Epp. ix 4. 3 Misc. c. xc.
4 Jovius, Elogia, no. 36, with portrait on p. 69. Cp. Tiraboschi, vi 828 f;
Roscoe's Lorenzo, note 329.
B Oratio super Quintiliano et Siatii Silvis, in Opera, ed. 1498, signature aa.
6—2
84 ITALY. [CENT. xv.
philosopher, that he claims the right to expound Aristotle1. He
was probably the first teacher in Italy whose mastery of Greek
was equal to that of the Greek immigrants2.
A singular interest was lent to his lectures on Latin and
Greek authors by his impassioned declamation of Latin poems
composed by himself in connexion with the general subject of
his course. The four extant poems of this type are known by
the name of the Sylvae. The first in order of time is connected
with the Eclogues of Virgil (1482); the next, with the Georgics
and with Hesiod; the third, with Homer; and the last, apparently,
with a general course of lectures on the ancient poets (i486)3.
Among the authors, in whose textual criticism he was in-
terested, are Terence, Lucretius, Propertius, Ovid, Statius, and
Ausonius, as well as Celsus, Quintilian, Festus, and the Scriptores
Rei Rusticae. His copy of the editio princeps of Catullus, Tibullus,
Propertius, and Statius, published in 1472, formerly in the Laur-
entian Library4, is now in- the Corsini palace in Rome5. He made
a special study of the Pandects of Justinian, the: celebrated MS
of which was removed from Pisa to Florence in 1411. By the
influence of Lorenzo, Politian was allowed to study the MS at his
leisure6, and was thus enabled to point out mistakes in the later
MSS, and in the current editions of the work7.
The most learned of his extant productions is his Miscellanea
(1489). Among the many topics discussed in its pages are the
use of the aspirate in Latin and Greek, the chronology of Cicero's
'Familiar Letters', the evidence in favour of the spelling Vergilius
in preference to Vtrgilius, the details of the discovery of purple
dye, and the differences between the aorist and the imperfect in the
1 Lamia, ib. , signature Y.
2 Letter to Matthias Corvinus, in Epp. ix i.
3 Text in ed. 1867, 285 — 427; cp. Symonds, ii 453 — 484; Harvard
Lectures, 96.
4 Mahly, Angelus I'olitianus, 22.
5 Cp. Schanz, § 411, p. 146; Klotz, Praef. to Statius, Silvae, pp. 1— Ixviii;
Sahbadini, Scoperte, 153, n. 71.
6 Misc. c. xli; Epp. x 4.
7 Gibbon, c. 44 (iv 468 Bury); Roscoe's Lorenzo, note 217; and esp.
Mahly's Ang. Folitianus, 61-7.
CHAP. VII.] POLITIAN. 85
signatures of Greek sculptors. Gellius quotes a Latin riddle, and,
for its solution, refers his readers to a lost book of Varro : —
' semel minusve an bis minus sit nescio,
at utrumque eorum, ut quondam audivi dicier,
lovi ipsi regi noluit concedere'.
Politian solves the riddle with the word Ter-minus, adding a
reference to Ovid's Fasti^.
In his Latin prose, Politian was an eclectic, with an eccentric
fondness for rare and archaic words. As an eclectic, he found
himself in opposition to the pretended Ciceronian, Bartolomeo
Scala, the Latin Secretary of Florence, and to the true Ciceronian,
Paolo Cortesi, the author of the remarkable dialogue 'On Learned
Men' (1490). In the course of a controversy with Scala, Politian
insists that a single style is not sufficient to express everything.
He adds that his critics sometimes found fault with him for using
words that were really derived from the best MSS of Cicero. Scala
is ready to approve of Politian's imitation of Sallust and Livy,
while protesting against his partiality for the writers of the Silver
Age2. In the controversy with Cortesi, Politian denounces the
Ciceronians as the mere ' apes of Cicero '. ' To myself (he adds)
the face of a bull or a lion appears far more beautiful than
that of an ape, although the ape has a closer resemblance to
man '. But " someone will say : ' You do not express Cicero '.
I answer : ' I am not Cicero ; what I really express is myself "3.
In his Latin history of the Pazzi conspiracy, the model he selects
is Sallust.
Politian wrote Greek poems at the age of seventeen, and, by
his verse translation of four books of the Iliad4, gained the proud
title of Homericus juvenis. His other translations include poems
from Moschus and Callimachus and the Greek Anthology, with
1 ii 677 f. On the interest evoked, by its publication, cp. Epp. iii 18;
Harvard Lectures, 97. It led to a feud with Merula, who pretended that part
of Politian's learning was derived from himself (Epp. xi i, 2, 5, 10, n, 21;
Roscoe's Lorenzo, 251 f ; Mahly, 141-3).
. 2 Politian, Epp. v.
3 Epp. . viii 16; Mahly, 74 — 86; Sabbadini, Ciceronianismo, 34 — 42;
Harvard Lectures, 157-9.
4 ii — v, Poesie Lafine, ed. 1867, 429 — 523.
86 ITALY. [CENT. XV.
part of Plato's Charmides, and Epictetus, and a flowing rendering
of the historian Herodian1.
In Latin, as well as Italian, verse, Politian was a born poet.
The Italian Opera originated in his Orfeo, which, in its first
edition, written at an early age, contained, imbedded in the
Italian text, an ode in Latin Sapphics to be sung by Orpheus2.
There is a singular grace and beauty in the long elegiac poem on
the violets sent him by the lady of his love. The purport of the
whole may be gathered from a single couplet : —
' felices nimium violae, quas carpserit ilia
dextera quae miserum me mihi subripuit'3.
A graver pathos lingers over the lament for Lorenzo with its
twice-repeated refrain : —
' quis dabit capiti meo
aquam, quis oculis meis
fontem lachrymarum dabit?'4
The death of Lorenzo (i492)s probably hastened the death of
Politian (i494)6, and the Academy could hardly survive the death
of Ficino in 1499.
In the last year of his life we find Politian corresponding with
Filippo Beroaldo the elder (1453 — 1505), on the
Bcrosildo
subject of Merula, one of the few scholars of the
day who failed to live on good terms with Beroaldo. Beroaldo
had produced at Parma in 1476 the first commentary on the
1 Mahly, 86—100.
2 Opere Volgari, p. 71 f, ed. 1885.
3 Poesie Lat. 235, * ib. 274.
5 Politian, Epp. iv 2, ' mine extincto, qui fuerat unicus auctor eruditi
laboris videlicet, ardor etiam scribendi noster extinctus est, omnisque prope
veterum studiorum alacritas elanguit '.
6 On Politian, cp. Jovius, no. 38 (with portrait on p. 73, ed. 1577);
F. O. Mencken (Leipzig, 1836); Tiraboschi, vi 1098 — 1108; W. P. Greswell,
Memoirs (1801, 1805, 1809); S. F. W. Hoffmann, Lebensbilder beriihtnter
Humanisten, i (1837) 71 — 198; and esp. A. Mahly, Ang. Politianus, Ein
Culturbild aus der Renaissance, 173 pp. (1867); Symonds, ii 345 — 357,
452 — 465 ; Guido Mazzoni, // Poliziano e /' Umanesimo, in Vita Ilaliana net
Rinascimento (Milan, 1899), 147 — 177. Opera, Ven. 1498, Flor. 1499, Bas.
1553; Epp. Bas. 1522, Antw. 1567; Opera, Epp., Miscell. Lugd. 1526 etc.;
Poesie Latine e Greche in Prose Volgari etc., ed. Isidore del Lungo (Firenze,
1867). His portrait is included in the group on p. 58.
CHAP. VII.] BEROALDO. BRITANNICO. MARULLUS. 8/
elder Pliny. He was afterwards a professor at Milan and Paris
and in his native city of Bologna1, and proved himself a scholar
of wide attainments and extraordinary industry, as an editor of
many of the Latin Classics, including Propertius (1487) and
Plautus (isoo). The Latin Satirists and Terence
,.,,,. „. . . Britannico
were edited by his contemporary Giovanni Britan-
nico of Brescia (d. after 1518), who completed in 1506 a post-
humous edition of Plautus by his friend 'Pylades' Buccardus2.
Among Politian's contemporaries at Florence was Michael
Tarchaniota Marullus, who was a mere child when
• r ^ • r Marullus
his family fled from Constantinople in the year of
its fall. They took refuge first in Ancona, where his great-grand-
father had lived and died. In his youth Marullus served under
the banner of ' Mars and the Muses '3. On settling in Florence
he won the favour of Lorenzo, and married Alessandra, the ac-
complished daughter of Lorenzo's secretary, Bartolommeo Scala.
The daughter had previously won the affections of Politian, and the
feud that arose between the rival suitors has left its traces on the
poems of both. Among the Greeks in Italy Marullus is exceptional
in his mastery of Latin verse. In the first edition of his poems
he imitates Catullus, Tibullus, and Horace, but in the last, that of
1497, he gives proof of a keen admiration for Lucretius4. His
able emendations of the text of the poet were well known during
the latter part of his life5, and a copy was found on his person at
his death6. He perished in the waters of the Cecina in the
neighbourhood of Volterra (i5oo)7.
Among those who waited on Lorenzo, as he lay a-dying at the
early age of forty-three, were Pico and Politian.
There too was Savonarola (1452 — 1498), who, with-
in the next few years, was to see the works of Latin and Italian
poets and many precious MSS perish in the flames kindled by his
1 A lecture on Juvenal delivered at Bologna is printed in K. Milliner's
Reden, 60 f.
2 Cp. Ritschl, Opitsc. ii 62. 3 Epigr. i.
4 Esp. in his last poem ; cp. Munro's Lncretitis, p. 73.
6 ib. pp. 6 — 14*.
6 Candidus in pref. to Juntine ed. (1512).
7 Hody, 276 — 291.
88 ITALY. [CENT, xv f
followers (1497), and was himself to close his marvellous career
by an awful doom. About the date of Lorenzo's death, Savonarola
wrote a treatise describing all learning as dangerous unless limited
to a chosen few. He there attacks the abuse of poetry, though
he spares poetry itself. He is peculiarly suspicious of the imi-
tation of the ancient poets, and, as a reformer, he represents a
religious reaction against the pagan tendencies of some of the
humanists1.
Shortly after the death of Savonarola, Florence for the first time
employed in her Chancery the astute diplomatist,
Niccolb Machiavelli (1469 — 1527), who ceased to
hold office on the restoration of the Medici in 1513. While
living in poverty on his farm in the neighbourhood of Florence,
Machiavelli wrote, not only his Principe, but also his Discourses
on the first decade of Livy, in which the Roman historian supplies
the author with a few texts for setting forth the progress of an
ambitious people. These discourses were written in 1516 to 1519
for the meetings of the revived Academy held in the gardens of
Bernardo Rucellai in the Via della Scala2. The Academy was
suppressed in 1522, and, when it was restored in 1540, its aim
was solely the study of the Italian language. One of Machiavelli's
comedies, the Clizia, is founded on the Casina of Plautus, while
his Italian history of Florence, down to the death of Lorenzo,
has a flowing smoothness worthy of Herodotus, and a vivid
picturesqueness resembling that of Tacitus. Early in the seven-
teenth century, when a request for permission to publish Boccalini's
Commentaries on Tacitus was referred to five of the Senators of
Venice, ' it is the teaching of Tacitus (they said) that has produced
Machiavelli and the other bad authors, who would destroy public
virtue ; we should replace Tacitus by Livy and Polybius, historians
of the happier and more virtuous times of the Roman republic,
and by Thucydides, the historian of the Greek republic, who
found themselves in circumstances like those of Venice'3.
1 Savonarola, De Divisione ac Utilitate Omnium Scientiarum ; cp. Villari's
Savonarola, 501 f ; Burckhardt, 476 E.T. ; Pastor, Gesch. der Piipsle, iii 141 f;
and Spingarn, Lit. Criticism in the Renaissance, \j^{.
2 Nerli, Comm. vii 138.
3 Sclopis, in Revue hist, de droit franc_ais et elranger, ii (1856) 25.
CHAP. VII.] SAVONAROLA. MACHIAVELLI. 89
Machiavelli's writings abound in illustrations, not only from Livy
and Tacitus, but also from Aristotle's Politics, and from Polybius
and Plutarch. It is held by some that he was saturated with
Thucydides, with whom he may have been familiar in Latinised
selections, or in the Latin rendering of Leonardo Bruni, or of
Valla ; but he has very few actual references to the Greek historian.
It has been judiciously observed by Mr John Morley that, ' if
he had ever read Thucydides, he would have recalled that first
great chapter in European literature, ...where the historian analyses
the demoralisation of the Hellenic world'1. Paolo Giovio states
that Machiavelli confessed to him that he was indebted to
Marcellus Virgilius, whom he had once served as secretary, for
a number of choice passages from Greek and Latin authors for
insertion in his works2. Such indebtedness for a few quotations
is quite consistent with a high degree of originality3; and, what-
ever doubt there may be as to his knowledge of Greek, there
is none as to his Latin. At his farm, he used to read Ovid
and Tibullus in the open air, and, in the evening, array himself
in royal robes before holding converse with the great men of old4.
In the year of his death, Florence, for the third time, expelled
the Medici, only to fall once more under their sway, and ultimately
to pass for two centuries under the power of the younger branch
of the Medicean house, the ultimate descendants of the younger
brother of Cosimo, the Father of his Country.
The Academy of Naples came into being during the reign of
Alfonso of Aragon (1442-58), the 'magnanimous'
patron of learning, who was interested in visiting ^f Napies"y
the birthplace of Ovid, in preserving the site of
Cicero's villa at Gae'ta, and in listening to recitations from Virgil
or Terence, and readings from Curtius and Livy. The centre of
this Academy was the poet and courtier, Antonio of Palermo,
better known as Beccadelli (1394 — 1471) ; and its place of meeting
1 Thuc. iii 82-4; Romanes Lecture (1897), 16.
2 Elogia, c. 87. 3 Algarotti, ap. Tiraboschi, vii 594.
4 Letter to Fr. Vettori, 10 Dec. 1514. Cp., in general, Macaulay's Essay;
Villari's Machiavelli; Symonds, i 282 — 305; and Mr Burd's edition of the
Prince,
90 ITALY. [CENT, xv f
was an open colonnade looking out on the 'Street of Tribunals'.
On the death of Alfonso, it was organised as a club under the
influence of the poet Pontario (1426 — 150 A who
Pontano
was distinguished for the purity of his Latin prose
and the graceful elegance of his Latin verse1. His poems are the
theme of one of the elegies of Sannazaro (1458 —
Sannazaro
1530), one of the ablest members of the Academy,
the author of Latin idylls on the Bay of Naples, and a Virgilian
poem on the Birth of Christ, in which the work of twenty years is'
marred by an incongruous imitation of classical models2. Most
of the prominent members of this Academy were poets. One of
the exceptions is Valla, whom we have already noticed in another
connexion3.
While the Academy of Naples had been fostered by Alfonso,
and that of Florence by Lorenzo, Greek and Latin
scholarship in Rome owed little to public patronage
between the death of Nicolas V (1456) and the accession of
Leo X (1513)*. Callixtus III regarded the sums spent by
Nicolas V, on the red and silver bindings of the Greek and
Latin MSS in the newly founded Vatican Library, as a lamentable
waste of the resources of the Church5. Pius II disappointed the
hopes of the humanists ; Paul II persecuted the Roman Platonists ;
Sixtus IV opened the Vatican Library to the public, but suppressed
the stipends of the local professors. Innocent III patronised
Politian's translation of Herodian, but did nothing for scholarship
in Rome itself; no service to the Classics was rendered by the
infamous Alexander VI. Pius III was Pope for less than a
month ; and Julius 1 1 was too busy with his wars to do anything
for the votaries of the Classics, — beyond the bestowal of a laurel-
crown on a young Roman poet who assumed the garb of Orpheus6.
But it was for Julius that Raphael painted, in the Camera della
Segnatura, between 1509 and 1511, the famous fresco of Apollo
1 Carmina, ed. 1902. He was one of the early critics of the text of
Lucretius ; cp. Munro, p. 6 f.
2 Harvard Lectures, 101-9. 3 P- 66 f, supra.
4 Symonds, ii 357-9- 5 Vespasiano, Vite, 216.
6 Diary of Paris de Grassis, 1512 (Creighton's History of the Papacy,
v 201, 314).
CHAP. VII.] PONTANO. SANNAZARO. ERASMUS. 9!
and the Muses with the ancient poets on Parnassus, and the no
less famous 'School of Athens', which may well have been
inspired either by the writings of Marsilio Ficino in Florence,
or by the suggestions of Sadoleto in Rome1. It was under Julius
that many men of letters, such as Sadoleto, Bembo, and Vida,
gave the first proof of that distinction which added a lustre to the
pontificate of Leo X2. It was also under Julius
that Italy was visited, in 1506-9, by Erasmus iifuaiy"5
(1466 — 1536). In 1506, he went to Bologna.
Filippo Beroaldo the elder, who had edited a vast number of
Latin Classics, and Codrus Urceus, a professor of Greek, who
wrote poems in good Latin, had lately passed away. Erasmus
remained at Bologna for little more than a year, working quietly
at Greek, and, in November, saw the triumphal entry of the
warrior-pope, Julius II. Early in 1508, he left for Venice, where
he spent nine months with Aldus Manutius, revising his Latin
translation of the Hecuba and Iphigeneia in Au/is, correcting the
text of Plautus, Terence, and Seneca3, and seeing through the
press a new edition of the Adagia. From Venice he went to
Padua, where he studied Pausanias and Eustathius, with the
scholiasts on Pindar, Sophocles, Euripides, Theocritus, and
Lycophron4. After visiting Ferrara and Siena, in the spring of
1509 he reached Rome, where he first made the acquaintance
of the younger Beroaldo, as well as Cardinal Riario, the nephew,
and Cardinal Giovanni Medici, the future successor, of Julius II.
On a third visit he made the acquaintance of Cardinal Grimani5,
who pressed him to remain in Rome ; but the hopes inspired by
the news of the accession of Henry VIII soon called him to
England. He afterwards wrote, however, to assure one of the
Cardinals, that the river of Lethe alone would wash out the
memory of the delights of Rome6 ; and another, that he recalled
1 Raphael was in Florence in 1508. Cp. F. X. Kraus, Camera della
Segnatura (Firenze, 1890), and Pastor, Gesch. der Piipste, iii 758 f, 768 — 772,
792.
2 F. X. Kraus, in Catub. Mod. Hist, ii 15 f.
3 Didot's Aide Manuce, 414 n. 2.
4 Beatus Rhenanus, quoted by De Nolhac, 56.
5 Ep. 1175; CP- Harvard Lectures, 139. 6 Ep. 136.
92 ITALY. [CENT, xv f
with regret the theatre, the libraries, and the scholarly con-
versations he had enjoyed in that city1.
The Roman Academy flourished anew under Julius II. That
Academy had owed its origin to Pomponius Laetus
Academy"*' (X425 — 149%)> a pupil of Valla, whom he succeeded
as the leading spirit among the Roman humanists.
Greek he declined to learn for the curious reason that he was
afraid that it might spoil his Latin style. To Pomponius the
contemplation of the ruins of ancient Rome was a perpetual
delight ; and in his own person he revived the life of the pagan
past. He had a small plot of land, which he tilled in accordance
with the precepts of Varro and Columella, and he was himself
regarded as a second Cato. His vineyard on the Quirinal was
frequented by his enthusiastic pupils. Before day-break that
'insignificant little figure, with small, quick eyes, and quaint
dress '2, might be seen descending, lantern in hand, from his home
on the Esquiline to the scene of his lectures, where an eager
crowd awaited him3. He was the ruling spirit of the Academy.
The members of that body assumed Latin names, and celebrated
the foundation of Rome on the annual return of the festival of the
Palilia. They also revived the performance of the plays of
Plautus. Among the best-known members were Platina, the future
librarian of the Vatican (i475-8i)4, and Sabellicus (1436- — 1506),
the future praefect of the Library of San Marco in Venice5. In
1468 the Academy was suppressed for a time by Paul II, on the
ground of its political aims and its pagan spirit ; Pomponius was
imprisoned in the Mausoleum of Hadrian, and was put to the
torture with Platina6 and other men of mark. The Academy
was revived under Sixtus IV, and we have a quaint account of
1 Ep. 167-8. Cp. De Nolhac, Erasme en Ilalie, 144 pp., ed. 1898; and
Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, viii 309 f, E.T.
2 Sabellicus, Epp. lib. xi; Burckhardt, 279 E.T.
3 Jovius, Elogia, no. 40 ; portrait on p. 78.
4 Portrait in Jovius, p. 34. Platina is included in Melozzo da Forli's
fresco (admirably reproduced in Alois Heiss, Les Mtdailleurs de la Renais-
sance, i opp. p. 52), and in the interesting fresco copied in J. W. Clark's Care
of Books, fig. 99.
8 Portrait in Jovius, p. 98 (closely resembling Politian).
6 De Vitis Pontificum, p. 338, ed. 1568.
CHAP. VII.] POMPONIUS LAETUS. 93
all the ceremonies, grave and gay, attending the commemoration,
in 1482, of the first anniversary of the death of Platina1.
Between Pomponius' release from prison and his death, he pro-
duced editions of Curtius and Varro (c. 1470), commentaries on
the whole of Virgil, including the minor works (1487-90), and
editions of Pliny's Letters and of Sallust (1490) ; he also annotated
Columella and Quintilian, and paid special attention to Festus
and Nonius Marcellus. In complete accordance with his pagan
view of life, he had desired that, on his death, his body should
simply be placed in an ancient Roman sarcophagus on the Appian
Way ; but, when he died at the age of seventy, his desire was
over-ruled by his having a Christian burial in the church of
San Salvatore in Lauro, and his obsequies at the Ara Caeli were
attended by as many as forty bishops2. The Academy which he
founded flourished once more under Julius II, when it had its
Dictator and its Comitia, which, however, were of a somewhat
frivolous character. Its palmy days were in the pontificate of
Leo X, when it included the most brilliant members of the literary
society of Rome, men like the future Cardinals, Bembo and
Sadoleto, as well as Paolo Giovio and Castiglione. It held its
meetings in the Circus Maximus, or on the Quirinal, or near the
temple of Hercules by the bank of the Tiber, or in the suburban
park of some Maecenas of the day, when a simple repast, seasoned
with the salt of wit, would be followed by the delivery of Latin
speeches and the recitation of Latin poems3. It was overwhelmed
in the general ruin, which accompanied the sack of Rome by the
Spanish and German troops of the Emperor Charles V in 1527.
Among the minor Roman Academies of later origin was the
Accademia delta Virtu founded by Claudio Tolomei and others
under the patronage of the young Cardinal Ippolito dei Medici
(d. 1535). The special aim of this Academy was the study of
Vitruvius.
1 Jacopo Volterrano, in Muratori, Script. Rer. Hal. xxiii 171 (Tiraboschi,
vi 322).
2 Sabellicus, vol. iii, Epp. xi pp. 458 — 461, ed. Basel ; Tiraboschi, vi
108 — 114, 659 — 665; Symonds, i 353, ii 359 — 362; Creighton, iv 47 — 56;
Pastor, Gesch. der Piipsle, ii 292-5, 305 f; also Eckstein on Tac. Dial. p. 64;
Naeke, Opp. i 119; and Mommsen, in Rhein. Ahts. vi 628.
3 Tiraboschi, vii 141-4; Gregorovius, Book xiv, Chap, iv (viii 313 f).
ALDVS- pivs- MANVTIVS-
ALDUS MANUTIUS.
From a contemporary print in the Library of San Marco, Venice,
reproduced as Frontispiece to Didot's Aide Manuce; p. 97 infra.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE PRINTING OF THE CLASSICS IN ITALY.
WHILE we gratefully recall the preservation of Latin manu-
scripts in the mediaeval monasteries of the West, as well as the
recovery of lost Classics by the humanists of the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries, and the transference to Italy of the treasures of
Greek literature from the libraries of the East, we are bound to
remember that all this would have proved of little permanent avail,
but for the invention of the art of printing.
The old order culminates in the name of Vespasiano da
Bisticci (1421 — 1498), the last of mediaeval scribes
and the first of modern booksellers. The date of da^sS"'
his birth falls exactly a hundred years after the death
of Dante (1321) and before the death of Leo X (1521), and he is
himself one of the most interesting representatives of Medicean
Florence. An intimate friend of the many-sided Manetti, he was
conscious of not having such a mastery of the best Latin as would
warrant his using that language in answering the Latin letters of
his friend, yet he possessed a thorough knowledge of the com-
mercial value of Latin, Greek and Hebrew MSS. Besides executing
orders for Hungary, Portugal, Germany, and England, he was the
trusted agent of the three greatest collectors in the fifteenth century,
Cosimo de' Medici, Nicolas V, and Frederic of Urbino. When
Cosimo, the founder of three libraries, the private library of the
Medici, that of San Marco, and that of the Badia between
Florence and Fiesole, proposed to found a fourth library for the
monks of San Lorenzo, he applied to Vespasiano, who promptly
engaged 45 copyists, and, in less than two years, produced 200 MSS
for that purpose1. The library was divided into classes according
1 Vita di Cosimo, § n, p. 255.
96 ITALY. [CENT. xv.
to a scheme drawn up by Tommaso Parentucelli, afterwards famous
as Nicolas V, the founder of the collection of MSS in the Vatican
Library. In the formation of that library, Vespasiano was one of
the Pope's principal assistants, and the bookseller of Florence
dwells in glowing terms on the services rendered by Nicolas V to
the cause of learning1. Similarly, Vespasiano spent fourteen years
in forming for the duke of Urbino a fine library including all the
Greek and Latin authors as yet discovered, all the volumes being
bound in crimson and silver, and all in perfect condition, all
'written with the pen,' for the duke would have been ashamed
(says Vespasiano) to possess a single printed book2. Such is the
phrase found in one of those delightful biographies of the hundred
and three men of mark, the patriots, patrons of learning and
scholars of the fifteenth century, biographies founded on personal
knowledge and inspired by a love of virtue, which have made the
name of Vespasiano dear to all who are interested in the literature
of the time of transition from the age of the mediaeval copyist to
that of the modern printer. He rests in Santa Croce among the
great men of Florence, after proving himself faithful to the old
traditions of learning down to the very end of his life3. Twenty-
eight years before the death of Vespasiano, we find Filelfo
genuinely interested in the new art of printing, and resolving on
the purchase of 'some of those codices they are now making without
any trouble, and without a pen, but with certain so-called types,
and which seem to be the work of a skilled and exact scribe', and
finally inquiring as to the cost of a printed copy of Pliny and
Livy and Aulus Gellius 4.
Printing had been introduced into Italy by two Germans,
Sweynheym and Pannartz, who had worked under Fust at Maintz.
They set up their press first at the German monastery of Subiaco
1 Vita di Nicola V, § 25 f, p. 38 f.
2 Federigo, duca (T Urbino, §§ 27 — 31, esp. p. 99 ' tutti iscritti a penna, e
non v' e ignuno a stampa, che se ne sarebbe vergognato '.
3 The Vite first published by Mai, in Sficilegiiim Romanum, 1839 f» anc^
afterwards by Bartoli (Florence, 1859). Cp. 'n general, Voigt, i 399 f3;
Symonds, ii 306 f.
4 Letter dated 25 July, 1470, in Rosmini's Vita di Filelfo, ii 201 ;
Symonds, ii 306.
CHAP. VIII.] THE EARLY PRINTERS. 97
in the Sabine mountains (1465) and next at the palace of the
Massimi in Rome itself (1467). At Subiaco they produced the
editio princeps of the De Oratore of Cicero. At Rome they reprinted
that work, and added the earliest edition of the Brutus and
Orator (1469); moreover, they produced the editiones prindpes of
Cicero's Letters and Speeches, Caesar, Livy, Gellius, Apuleius,
Virgil, Lucan, and Silius (1469-71), the prefaces being generally
written by Giovanni Andrea de' Bussi, bishop of the Corsican see
of Aleria, who also saw through the press their Ovid of 1471.
Cardinal Campano edited Quintilian and Suetonius for Philip de
Lignamine, and Cicero's Philippics for Ulrich Hahn (1470).
Pomponius Laetus edited for Georg Lauer the first edition of
Varro De Lingua Latina (1471), and the second of Nonius
Marcellus (1476). In Venice, the first edition of the elder
Pliny was produced by John of Spires in 1469'. At Florence,
Bernardo Cennini, the first Italian who cast his own type, printed
the commentary of Servius on the whole of Virgil (1471-72).
By the year 1500 about 5,000 books had been produced in
Italy, of which about 300 belong to Florence and Bologna,
more than 600 to Milan, more than 900 to Rome, and 2,835
to Venice, while presses were set up for a short time in fifty
places of less importance.
Before the year 1495 only a dozen Greek books had been printed
in Italy, viz. the Greek grammars of Lascaris2 and Chrysoloras3;
two Psalters4; Aesop5 and Theocritus6, the 'Battle of the Frogs
and Mice'7, and Homer8, with Isocrates9, and the Greek Antho-
logy10. This last was in capital letters, and was succeeded in
Florence by similar editions of Euripides, Callimachus, Apollonius
Rhodius, and Lucian. The latter were, however, preceded by
the earliest of the Greek texts printed in Venice by Aldus
Manutius.
1 See list of Latin Editiones Prindpes on p. 103 infra,
2 Milan, 1476; Vicenza, 1488.
3 Venice, 1484; Vicenza, 1490.
4 Milan, 1481-6. 5 Milan, c. 1479.
6 Milan, c. 1493. 7 Venice, 1486; cp. p. 102.
8 Florence, 1488. 9 Milan, 1493.
10 Florence, 1494.
S. II. 7
98 ITALY. [CENT, xv f
Aldus Manutius (1449 — 1515) is the Latin form of Aldo
Manuzio, whose original name was Teobaldo
Manutius Manucci. Born in the neighbourhood of Velletri,
he was early imbued with classical learning by two
natives of Verona, having studied Latin in Rome under Gaspare,
and Greek as well as Latin under Guarino at Ferrara1. His
younger fellow-student, the brilliant Giovanni Pico of Mirandola,
recommended Aldus as tutor to his nephews Alberto and Lionello
Pio at Carpi, and it was at Carpi that Aldus matured his plans for
starting a Greek press with the aid of Alberto Pio. The press was
ultimately founded in Venice, the model for the Greek type was
supplied by the Cretan Marcus Musurus and most of the com-
positors were natives of Crete. The Greek books published by
Aldus between 1494 and 1504 included Musaeus, Theocritus and
Hesiod, Aristotle, nine plays of Aristophanes, Sophocles, Herodotus
and Thucydides, Xenophon's Hellenica, with eighteen plays of
Euripides, and, lastly, Demosthenes. After an interval caused by
the troubles of war, we have first the Greek rhetoricians, including
the first edition of Aristotle's Rhetoric and Poetic, and next, the
Moralia of Plutarch. Another interval, due to the same cause,
was followed by the publication of Pindar, with the minor Attic
Orators, and Plato, and Athenaeus2.
With a view to promoting the study of Greek and the systematic
publication of the Greek Classics, Aldus formed in 1500 the 'New
Academy' of Hellenists. Greek was the language of its rules ;
Greek was spoken at its meetings; and Greek names were adopted
by its Italian members. Thus Scipione Fortiguerra of Pistoia,
the earliest editor of the text of Demosthenes, and Secretary of
the Academy, translated his name into Carteromachus.
One of the aims of the Academy was to produce in each month
an edition of at least 1,000 copies of some 'good author'3. Among
the ordinary members were Janus Lascaris and his pupil Marcus
Musurus, besides other scholars from Crete. Among the honorary
foreign members were Linacre, whose Latin rendering of the Sphere
of Proclus was published by Aldus in 1499, and Erasmus, who
1 Pref. to Theocritus, 1495, p. 194 of Botfield's Prefaces.
2 See list of Greek Editiones Principes on p. 104 infra.
3 Pref. to Euripides, 1503, p. 226 Bolfield.
CHAP. VIII.] ALDUS MANUTIUS. 99
visited Venice in 1508, when he was engaged in seeing through
the press a new edition of the Adagio,1.
As a printer of Latin Classics Aldus had been preceded in
Venice by John of Spires (1469), Nicolas Jenson, and Cristopher
Valdarfer (1470). In 1501 Aldus began that series of pocket
editions of Latin, Greek, and Italian Classics in small 8vo, which
did more than anything else towards popularising the Classics in
Italy. The slanting type then first adopted for printing the Latin
and Italian Classics, and since known as the 'Aldine' or 'Italic'
type, was founded on the handwriting of Petrarch by Francesco
da Bologna2, and it was first used in 1501 in the Aldine editions of
Virgil, Horace, Juvenal and Persius, as well as in the Cose Volgare
of Petrarch3. The later Latin texts include Valerius Maximus
(1502), Pliny's Letters (i5o8)4, and Quintilian (1514).
In 1499 Aldus had married the daughter of Andrea Torresano
d' Asola, who had, twenty years previously, bought up the printing
business of Nicolas Jenson. In course of time Aldus and his
father-in-law, Andrea, went into partnership, and the above edition
of Pliny's Letters, printed in aedibus Aldi et Andreae soceri, supplies
us with the first public record of the fact. Aldus was far more
than a printer and bookseller; he rejoiced in rescuing the writings
of the ancients from the hands of selfish bibliomaniacs, many of
his texts were edited by himself, and he was honoured as a scholar
by the foremost scholars of the age. One of the most generous of
men, his generosity was appreciated by Erasmus, and by his own
countrymen. The editor of the Prefaces to the Editiones Prindpes
justly describes 'the dedications of Aldus as worth all the rest;
there is a high and a noble feeling, a self-respect, and simplicity of
language about him which is delightful; he certainly had aspiring
hopes of doing the world good'5. He is probably the only publisher
1 Didot's Aide Matinee, 147 — 152, 435 — 470; and Symonds, ii 385-8.
2 Of the Griffi family (not Francia) ; cp. Fumagalli, Lexicon typographicum
Italiae, Florence, 1905, s. v. Bologna, p. 42. Aldus himself called this style
of type, cancel leresco (ib. 4/1).
3 Didot, 155 — 169. Of the rare texts above mentioned, I happen to
possess Munro's copy of the Juvenal and Persius, bound with the Catullus,
Propertius and Tibullus of the following year.
4 The first complete ed. with all the correspondence with Trajan (and the
Panegyricus). B Botfield, p. vi.
7—2
ioo ITALY. [CENT, xv f
who, in the preface of a work published by himself, ever used
such language as the following : — nihil unquam memini me legere
deterius, lectuque minus dignum. Such are the terms in which he
refers to the Life of Apollonius by Philostratus; but he hastens to
add that, as an antidote to the poison, he publishes in the same
volume the refutation by Eusebius, translated by the friend to
whom he dedicates the work. In the twenty-one years between
1494 and 1515, Aldus produced no less than twenty-seven editiones
prinripes of Greek authors and of Greek works of reference1. By
the date of his death in 1515, all the principal Greek Classics
had been printed2. Before 1525 the study of Greek had begun to
decline in Italy, but meanwhile an interest in that language had
happily been transmitted to the lands beyond the Alps.
Paolo Manuzio (1512 — 1574), the youngest son of Aldo, was
educated by his grandfather Andrea, who carried on
Manutius tne business till his death in 1529, when Andrea was
succeeded by his sons, with whom Paolo was in
partnership from 1533 to 1540. From that date forward, Paolo
published on his own account a series of Ciceronian works,
beginning with the complete edition of 1540-6, and including
commentaries on the Letters to Atticus (1547), and to Brutus and
Quintus (1557), and on the Pro Sextio (1556). One of the
daintiest products of his press is the text of Cicero's De Oratore,
Brutus and Orator, printed in Italic type, with his own corrections,
in 1559. He published his Italian Letters in 1556-60, and his
Latin Epistolae et Praefationes in 1558. He had a branch house
in Rome, on the Capitol, and it was mainly in Rome that he lived
from 1561 till his death in 1574, producing scholia on the Letters
Ad Familiares (1571) and on the Pro Archia (1572). At Venice
and Rome he published several works on Roman Antiquities, while
1 Nine of these 27 'editions' included two or more works, 69 in all besides
the 27, making a total of 96.
2 On Aldus Manutius, see Didot's Aide Manuce, 1875 ; Renouard, Annales
de f imprinter ie des Aides (1803-12; ed. 2, 1834); and Omont, Catalogue... en
phototypie, 1892. Cp. A. Schilck, A. M. u. seine Zeitgenossen (1862); and
Symonds, ii 368 — -391. Portrait, published in Rome, probably by Antoine
Lafrery, now in Library of San Marco, Venice, copied by Phil. Galleus,
Effigies, ii (1577) 32, and in frontispiece to Didot's Aide Manuce, reproduced
on p. 94. Portraits of all the three Aldi in Cicero, ed. 1583.
CHAP. VIII.] PAULUS MANUTIUS. IOI
his comments on Cicero's Speeches were posthumously printed in
1578-9, and his celebrated commentarius on the Letters Ad
Familiares in 1592'. Tiraboschi, who refers to the eulogies
paid him by Muretus and others, happily describes him as
having been worthy of a far longer life, and still more worthy
of immortal remembrance2.
Paolo bequeathed his business to his son Aldo Manuzio the
younger (1547—1597), who held a professorship in
Venice before succeeding Sigonius in Bologna and ManuUus n
Muretus in Rome. At the age of eleven, he had
produced a treatise on the ' Elegancies of the Tuscan and Latin
languages', and, at fourteen, a work on Orthography founded on
the study of inscriptions (1561). The second edition of the latter
(1566) contains the earliest copy of an ancient Roman calendar of
B.C. 8 — A.D. 3 discovered by his father in the Palace of the Maffei
and now known as the Fasti MaffeianP. His other publications
include a volume of antiquarian miscellanies entitled De Quaesitis
per Epistolam (1576). He is somewhat severely denounced by Sca-
liger as 'a wretched and slow wit, the mimic of his father'4. After
little more than a century of beneficent labour in the cause of clas-
sical literature the great house of printers came to an end when
the younger Aldus died in Rome without issue in I5975. The vast
library which had descended to him from his father and his grand-
father was dispersed, but the productions of the Aldine press are
still treasured by scholars in every part of the civilised world.
1 Ed. Richter, 17791"; 'optimi etiamnunc interprets ' (Orelli's Cicero, ed.
1845, III p. xxxv f).
2 vii 208 f ; cy. Epp. 1581, ed. Krause, 1720; Epp. Sel. (Teubner, 1892),
Lettere Volgari, 1560, Renouard, Lettere di P. M. (Paris, 1834). Portrait in
his Liber de Coinitiis (1585), and in Phil. Galleus, ii 33, and Boissard's
Icones, vili tnmm i.
3 Cp. C.I.L.i pp. 303-7; J. Wordsworth, Fragments... of Early Latin,
166 f, 539.
4 Scaligerana, 149. ' P. Manucius quidquid scripsit bonum fuit, magno
labore scribebat epistolas. Aldus filius miserum ingenium, lentum ; quae dedit
valde sunt vulgaria : utrumque novi; Patrem imitabatur, solas epistolas bonas
habet: sed trivit Ciceronem diu. Insignis est Manucii commentarius in Epi-
stolas ad Atticum et Familiares. Manucius non poterat tria verba Latine
dicere, et bene scribebat....'
5 Portrait in Eleganze (1580), and in Cicero, ed. 1583.
102 GERMANY, ITALY, FRANCE. [CENT. XV f
The present chapter may fitly close with a chronological conspectus of the
editiones principes of the Greek and Latin Classics. The list
Editiones is mainly confined to the principal classical authors, with the
principes addition of the two earliest texts of the Greek Testament
(1516-7) and of the Latin Fathers (1465), but to the exclusion
of translations, grammars, and minor bibliographical curiosities. Not un-
frequently an editio princeps conies into the world without any note of time or
place, and without the name of any editor or printer, and the determination
of these points is often a matter of considerable difficulty. Possibly the unique
Batrachomyomachia in the Rylands Library, Manchester (ascribed by Proctor
to Ferrandus of Brescia, c. 1474), and the rare copies of Virgil (Mentelin,
Strassburg, c. 1469), Juvenal (Ulrich Hahn, Rome, c. 1470), and Martial
(Rome, c. 1471), are earlier than those entered in the list ; and it is uncertain
whether the editio princeps of Curtius (c. 1471) is that of G. Laver, Rome, or
Vindelin de Spira, Venice. In the list, approximate dates are (as here) dis-
tinguished by the usual abbreviation for circiter', and conjectural names of
printers, or of places of publication, are enclosed within parentheses. For all
these details the best bibliographical works have been consulted1. The name
of the ' editor ' has been added, wherever it can be inferred either from the
colophon or title-page, or from the preface or letter of dedication. It will be
seen how large a part of the editorial work was done, in the case of Latin
authors, by Giovanni Andrea de' Bussi, bishop of Aleria, and, in the case of
Greek, by Janus Lascaris, and Aldus Manutius (with or without the aid of
Musurus). Besides frequently indicating the names of the editors, the Aldine
prefaces are full of varied interest. Thus Aldus laments that his work as
a printer is interrupted by wars abroad2 and by strikes at homes, and by
difficulties in procuring trustworthy Mss.4 But he exults in the fact that
Greek is being studied, not in Italy alone, but also in France and Hungary
and Britain and Spain5. A Greek scholar at Milan begins the editio princeps
of the great lexicon of Suidas with an adroit advertisement in the form of
a lively dialogue between the bookseller and the student, who finally produces
three gold pieces and buys the book.
1 Dibdin's Introduction, ed. 4 (London, 1827); Panzer, Annales Tyf>o-
graphici, ad ann. 1536, n vols. (Nurnberg, 1793 — 1803); Hain, Repertoriutn
Bibliographicuni, ad ann. 1500, 2 vols. in 2 parts each (Stuttgart, 1826-38;
now in course of reprinting), with Indices and Register (Leipzig, 1891),
Copinger's Supplement ', 3 vols. (London, 1898), and Reichling's Appendices
(Munich, 1905-) ; R. Proctor, Index to the Early Printed Books in the British
Museum to 1500, 2 vols. (London, 1898), Germany, in 1501-20 (1903), and
The Printing of Greek in the xvth cent. {Bibliographica, Dec. 1900) ; Re-
nouard, Annales des Imprimeries des Aides, 3 vols. ed. 3 (Paris, 1834) ; Didot,
Aide Manuce (Paris, 1875); Botfield, Praefationes el Epp. (London, 1861);
R. C. Christie, Chronology of the Early Aldines (1894), in Selected Essays
(London, 1902), 223 — 246; and H. Guppy, The John Rylands Library
(Manchester, 1906), 49 — 78.
2 Plato, 1513. 3 Prudentius, 1502 N. 8.
4 Aristotle, i i, and iv 1495-8. * Aristotle, i 2 (init.); Steph. Byz.
Editiones Principes of Latin Authors.
Date
Author
Editor
Printer
Place
1465
Cicero, De Officiis, Paradoxa
Fust and Schoeffer
Maintz
c. 1466
Cicero, De Ojficiis
Ulrich Zell
Cologne
1465
Cicero, De Oratore
Sweynheymand Pannartz
Subiaco
Lactantius; 1467 Aug.Civ. Dei
1467
Cicero, ad Familiares
Rome
1469
Cicero.ZV Or.,Bnitus,Orator
Apuleius
Jo. Andreas de Buxis
Gellius
Caesar
Lucan
Pliny, Hist. Nat:
J. de Spira
Venice
c. 1469
*Virgil
Sweynheymand Pannartz
Rome
Livy
1470
Cicero, ad Atticiim
Sallust
Vindelin de Spira
Venice
*J u venal and Per>ius
Priscian
Cicero, Rhetorica,
N. Jenson
Justin
Quintilian, Inst. Or.
Campanus
(Phil, de Lignamine)
Rome
Suetonius
c. 1470
Cicero, Philippicne
Ulrich Ha'h'n
Terence
(Mentel)
(Strassburg
Valerius Maximus
Boethius, De Phil. Cons.
Hans Glim
Savigliano
Tacitus, Ann. n — 16, Hist.,
J. de Spira
Venice
Germ., Dial.
1471
Ovid
Franc. Puteolanus
Azzoguidi
Bologna
Silius Italicus
Jo. Andreas de Buxis
Sweynheymand Pannartz
Rome
Cicero, Orationes
Pliny, Kp/>.. libri viii
Ludovicus Carbo
(Chr. Val'darfer)
(Venice)
Pomponius Mela
Zarolus
Zarotus
Milan
Nonius
(Italy)
Florus
Gering,Crantz, F'riburger
Paris
Varro, L.L.\ 0.1471 *Curtius
Pomponius Laetus
Georg Lauer
Rome
Eutropius
Aem. Probus, i.e. Nepos
N. Jenson
Venice
c. 1471
Horace
(Venice)
*Martial
G. Merula
Vindelin de Spira
Venice
1473
Plautus
Tib., Prop., Cat , Slat. Silv.
Macrobius
N. Jenson
Ausonius and Calpurnius
Bart. Girardinus
Bart. Girardinus
Scriptores de Re Rustica
Merula and Colucia
N. Jenson
Manilius
Regiomontanus
Regiomontanus
Nuremberg
c. M73
Lucretius
Ferrandus
Brescia
1474
Valerius Flaccus
Rugerius and Bertochus
Bologna
Amm. MarceUinus, libri 13
Sabinus
Sachsel and Golsch
Rome
c. 1474 84
Seneca, Tragoeiiiae
Andreas Gallicus
Ferrara
1475
Quintilian, Bed, 3
Dom. Calderinus
Schurener
Rome
M75-83
Statins
Octavianus Scotus
Venice
M75
Hi-t. Aug. Scriptores
Bonus Accursius
Philippus de Lavagna
Milan
Seneca, Aforalia et /?//.
Moravus
Naples
M77
Dictys Cretensis
Masellus Beneventanus
(Philippus de Lavagna)
Milan
1478
Celsus
Bart. Fontius
Nicolaus Alemannus
Florence
1481
Quintilian, Decl. 19
Jac. Grasolarius
Lucas Venetus
Venice
1482
Claudian
Barn. Celsanus
Jac. Dusensis
Vicenza
c. 1482
Pliny, Pan., Tacitus, Agr.
Puteolanus. I.anterius '. (Zarotus)
(Mil.in)
1486
Probus
Franc. Michael j Boninus
Brescia
c. 1486
Vitruvius
Joan. Sulpitius G. Herolt
Rome
Froniinus, De aquaednctibns
1487
Vegetius, Aelian, Frontinus
Eucharius Silber
1494
Quintilian, Decl. 138
Thad. Ugoletus
Aug. Ugoletus
Parma
1498
Apicius
Ant. Motta
Guil. Signerre
Milan
1498-9
Cicero, 4 vols. folio
Alex. Minutianus
Gulielmi fratres
1502
Prosper, Sedulius
Aldus Manutius
Aldus Manutius
Venice
c. 1508-13
Symmachus
Bart. Cyniscus
Bern, de Vitalibus
1515
Tacitus, Annal. i — 5 etc.
Beroaldus II
Steph. Guilleroti
Rome
1520
Velleius Paterculus
Beatus Rhenanus
Jo. Froben
Basel
1533
Amm. Marcellinus, libri 18
M. Accursius
Silvanus Otmar i Augsburg
1596
Phaedrus
Pierre Pithou
J. Odot Troyes
See p. 102.
Editiones Principes of Greek Authors.
Date
Author
Editor
Printer
Place
c. 1478
Aesop
Lat. trans. Rinutius
(Bonus Accursius)
(Milan)
1486
* Batrachomyomachia
Leonicus Cretensis : Venice
1488
Homer
Dem. Chalcondyles
Bart, di Libri for
Florence
Bern. Nerli
1493
Isocrates
(Uderic Scinzenzeller)
c. 1493
Theocritus, i — 18, and He-
(Bonus Accursius)
Milan
siod, Opera et Dies
1494
Anthologia Graeca
J. Lascaris
Laur. de Alopa
Florence
c. 1495
Euripides, Med. Hipp.
Ale. Andr.
Callimachus, i — 6
c. 1494-5
Musaeus
Lat. trans. Musurus
Aldus Manutius
Venice
1495 8
Aristotle, 5 vols. folio and
Aldus Manutius
Theophrastus,.//z'.rf./Y««/.
1496 N.S.
Theocritus, i — 30, Bion,
Moschus.Hesiod.Theognis
1496
Scriptores Grammatici
Guarino, Politian etc.
Apollonius Rhodius
J. Lascaris
Laur. de Alopa Florence
Lucian
M97
Zenobius
Bened. Ricciardini
Phil, de Junta Florence
1498
'Phalaris'
Bart. Capo d' Istria
Printers from Carpi Venice
Aristophanes, 9 plays
Aldus et Musurus
Aldus Manutius
1499
Epp. Graecae
••
Dioscorides and Nicander
\\
' Etymologicum Magnum'
Musurus
Zach. Callierges
Simplicius in Ar. Categ.
Z. Callierges
Milan
1500
Su'idas
Ammonius in v voces
Dem. Chalcondyles
Printers from Carpi
Z. Callierges
Venice
Orpheus
Phil. Junta
Florence
1502
Stephanas Byz.
Aldus Manutius
Aldus Manutius
Venice
Pollux
B ,
Thucydides
. .
Sophocles
Herodotus
1503
Euripides, 18 plays
Ammonius in Ar. Interp.
Ulpian and Harpocration
Xenophon, Hellenica
I5<M
Philostratus, vita Apoll.
Philoponus in Ar.
Demosthenes
Aldus et Carteromachus
1508-9
Rhetores Graeci (incl. Ar.
Aldus Manutius
..
Rhet. Poet.)
1509
Plutarch, Moralia
Aldus et Demetrius
Aldus et Andreas Asul.
Ducas
1512
Dionysius Periegetes
Bondenus, & printer
J. Maciochus
Ferrara
1513
Pindar, Lycophron etc.
Aldus Manutius
Aldus et Andreas Asul.
Venice
Orationes Rhet. Gr.
Plato
Aldus et Musurus
. .
I5M
Alex. Aphrod. in Ar. Top.
Aldus Manutius
.,
Athenaeus
Aldus et Musurus
Hesychius
1515
Oppian, Halieutica
Bern. Junta
Phil. Junta
Florence
1516 N.S.
Aristoph. TAesm. JLys.
1516
Testamentum Novum
Erasmus
Jo. Froben Basel
Xenophon
Euphrosynus Boninus
Phil. Junta Florence
Pausanias
Musurus
Aldus et Andreas Asul. Venice
Strabo
Ben. Tyrhenus
' •
* See p. 102.
Editiones Principes of Greek Authors (continued).
Date
Author
Editor
Printer
Place
1517
Libanius
Coelius Calcagninus
Jo. Maciochus
Ferrara
Didynius, Homerica
J. Lascaris
Ang. Collottius
Rome
Aristides
Euphrosynus Boninus
Phil. Junta
Florence
Plutarch, Vitae
Phil. Junta
1514-7
Complutensian Polyglott
Cardinal Ximenes
Arnold Gul.de Brocario
Alcal'a
1518
Biblia Sacra Graeca
Andreas Asulanus
Aldus et A ndreas socer
Venice
Aeschylus, 6 plays
Fr. Asulanus
Porphyrius, Homerica
J. Lascaris
' Monte Caballo'
Rome
1525
Galen, in 5 parts
Asulani fratres
Aldus et Andreas Asul.
Venice
Xenophon, Opera
Aldi in aedibus
1526
Hippocrates
Fr. Asulanus
Aldus et Andreas Asul.
1528
Epictetus and Simplicius
J. Anton, et fr.de Sabio
153°
Polybius
Vine. Obsopoeus
Jo. Secerius
Hagenau
1532
Aristophanes, u plays
Simon Grynaeus
Cratander
Basel
1533
Diogenes Laertius
Hieron. Froben et
Hieron. Kroben et
Nic. Episcopius
Nic. Episcopius
Euclides
Simon Grynaeus
Jo. Hervagius
Ptolemaeus
Erasmus
Hieron. Froben et
Nic. Episcopius
1535
Arrian
Stobaeus
Jo. Bapt. Egnatius
Victor Trincavelli
J. F. Trincavelli
Venice
1539
Diodorus, 16 — 20
Vine. Opsopoeus
Jo. Oporinus
Basel
J544
Josephus
Arnoldus Arlenius
Hieron. Froben
Archimedes
lliomas Gechauff
Jo. Hervagius
1545
Aelian, Var. Hist., etc.
Camillas Peruscus
Rome
!546
Dionysius Halic.
Rob. Stephanus
Rob. Stephanus
Paris
1548
Dion Cassius, 36 — 58
1542-50
Eustathius. 4 vols.
Majoranus & Devarius
Ant. Bladus
Rome
I55i
Dion Chrys.
F. Turrisanus
F. Turrisanus
Venice
Appian
Car. Stephanus
Paris
1553
Aelian, Tactica
Robortelli
Spinelli
Venice
Aeschylus, 7 plays
1553
Menander, Frag.
F. Morel I
Paris
'554
' Longinus'
Robortelli
Jo. Oporinus
Basel
Anacreon
Putschius, & printer
H. Stephanus
Paris
Aretaeus
Jac. Goupyl
Andr. Turnebus
1555
Apollodorus, Bibl.
Ben. Aegius
Ant. Bladus
Rome
1556
Claudius Aelian, Opera
C. Gesner, Robortelli,
Gesneri fratres
Zurich
Gillius
1557
Aeschylus, c. Ag. 323 — 1050
Victor! us
H. Stephanus
Paris
Maximus Tyrius
H. Stephanus
1558
Marcus Aurelius
Xylander et C. Gesner
And. Gesner
Zurich
J559
Diodorus, i — 20
H. Stephanus
H. Stephanus
Geneva
'565
Bion, Moschus
Adolf MeUerch
Goltzius
Bruges
1566
Poetae Gr. Principes
H. Stephanus
H. Stephanus
Paris
Aristaenetus
J. Sambucus
Plantin
Antwerp
1568
Antonius Liberalis,
Xylander
Thomas Guarinus
Basel
Phlegon, Apollonius
1569
Nonnus, Dionysiaca
Falkenburg
Plantin
Antwerp
1572
Plutarch, Opera
H. Stephanus
H. Stephanus
Paris
1575
Stobaeus
Guil. Canter
Plantin
Antwerp
1580
Plotinus
I. at. trans. Ficinus
Petrus Perna
Basel
1583
Hierocles
Jo. Curterius
Nic. Nivellius
Paris
1587
' Empedocles,' Sphaera
Florent Chrestien
F. Morel II
1589
Polyaenus
Casaubon
J. Toinaesius
Leyden
1594
Andronicus Rhodius
Hoeschelius
M. Manger
Augsburg
1598
lamblichus
Jo. Arcerius Theo-
Aegid. Radaetis
Franeker
1 doretus
1601
Photius, Bibliotheca
Hoeschelius i Jo. Praetorius Augsburg
1621
Diophantus
Cl. G. Bachetus ' Seb. Cramoisy Paris
PIKTRO BEMHO.
From Bartolozzi's engraving of a portrait by Titian (1539). Cp. p. ii2f.
(Print-room, British Museum.)
CHAPTER IX.
FROM THE AGE OF LEO X TO THE SACK OF ROME.
THE age of Aldus Manutius was succeeded by the pontificate
of Leo X (1513-21). Under the care of Lorenzo the future Pope
had learnt his Latin and his Greek from the best scholars of
Florence. When he made his progress as Pope in the splendid
procession from St Peter's to the Lateran, the streets of Rome
were adorned with marble statues of the old pagan divinities,
while a triumphal arch in front of the palace of the wealthy
banker, Agostino Chigi, bore an inscription in golden letters
recalling the times of Alexander VI and Julius II, and declaring
that the reign of Venus and of Mars was over, and that of Minerva
had begun :—
'olim habuit Cypris sua tempora, tempora Mayors
olim habuit, sua nunc tempora Pallas habet'1.
Chigi set up a Greek press in his palace, where a celebrated
edition of Pindar, the first including the scholia, was printed in
1515 by Zacharias Callierges of Crete, who produced an edition
of Theocritus in the following year. The Pope himself established
a Greek school and a Greek printing-press on Monte Cavallo.
Under the supervision of Janus Lascaris, and Marcus Musurus2,
the scholia on Homer and Sophocles, and the Homeric Questions
of Porphyry, were there published in 15 1 7-8. A pupil of Politian,
named Guarino of Favera3, who had already taken part in editing
1 Casanova; cp. Gregorovius, book xiv, c. iii (viii 186, E. T.).
2 p. 78 f supra.
3 Also known as Varinus and Phavorinus and as Gamers (from his birth-
place in the March of Camerino). Cp. Tiraboschi, vii 1 101 f.
io8 ITALY. [CENT. xvi.
for Aldus in 1496 a collection of grammatical extracts, selected
from the works of 34 Greek grammarians1, and was afterwards
to be the compiler of a Greek dictionary printed by Callierges
in 1523, was made bishop of Nocera and custodian of the private
library of the Pope. That library had been mainly formed from
the Medicean collection, which had been dispersed on the entry
of Charles VIII into Florence in 1494. The greater part of it
was fortunately purchased by the monks of San Marco, from
whom it was bought by the Cardinal Giovanni Medici and con-
veyed to Rome in 1508, there to remain until the second
Medicean Pope, Clement VII, restored it to Florence (1523),
and founded, for its reception, the present building of the
Laurentian Library2. While the Medicean collection was still
in Rome, Leo added to it the recently discovered MS of the first
five books of the Annals of Tacitus, and it was under his
patronage that the first complete edition of Tacitus was produced
at Rome in 1515 by Filippo Beroaldo of Bologna (1472 — 1518),
the nephew and pupil of the far more prolific editor bearing the
same name (1453 — 1505). In a brief granting to Beroaldo the
exclusive privilege of publishing this work (a privilege which was
immediately infringed at Milan), the Pope insists on the im-
portance of classical literature and expresses his earnest desire
to continue to bestow honours and rewards on men of learning3.
The publication of the editio princeps of the extant works
of Tacitus was followed in 1516 by the appearance
Aristo«e°f °f tne sma^ but by no means unimportant treatise
of Pietro Pomponazzi, De Immortalitate Animae*.
1 Scriptores Grammatici Graeci ; ' 'Thesaurus Cornucopiae el Horti Adonidis '
(1496); cp. Roscoe's Leo X, i 349 f, 489, ed. 1846; Botfield's Prefaces, 205.
This work is not really, as stated by Gregorovius, viii 346, 'the first Thesaurus
of the Greek language', in the ordinary sense of that term. Guarino was
aided by another pupil of Politian, Carlo Antinori, and by Politian himself;
also by Aldus and Urbano da Belluno, author of the Aldine Greek Grammar
of Jan. 1497.
2 Anziani, Delia biblioiheca Mediceo-Laurenziana, 1872; Jebb's Introd. to
plain text of Sophocles (1898), xxxiii.
3 The brief was written by Sadoleto (Pastor, Gesch. der Pafste, iv 483);
translated in Roscoe's Leo X, i 357.
4 Bologna, 1516; Venice, ^25; anon. '1534'.
CHAP. IX.] BEROALDO. POMPONAZZI.
Its author, a native of Mantua (1462 — 1525), is a representative
of one of the four varieties of the Aristotelianism of
. ... . Pomponazzi
the time, namely that which accepts the interpreta-
tion of the opinions of Aristotle originally put forth by Alexander
of Aphrodisias.
The Italian Aristotelians were either content to follow one of the three
exponents of Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas or Averroes or Alexander, or they
studied the Greek text of Aristotle himself with or without the aid of the
current Latin translations. Thomas Aquinas was the interpreter accepted by
Aristotelians, who were in full accord with the normal doctrine of the Church.
The teaching of Averroes had found a home in Padua in the first half of the
fourteenth century, where it continued to flourish in the fifteenth century, and
in the sixteenth, under Zimara (d. 1532) and Zabarella (d. 1589), until it
practically came to an end on the death of Cremonini (1637). It had roused
the energetic protests of Petrarch in the fourteenth century, the century in
which it was represented at Padua by Jean de Jandun (fl, 1322) l. It had also
been represented in Northern Italy by Urbano da Bologna (fl. 1334), and by
Paolo Veneto (d. 1429), who, at a disputation held at Bologna in the presence
of 800 Augustinians, had been defeated by Niccolo Fava (d. 1439), a friend of
Filelfo2 and an early representative of that school of students of the Greek text
which was to dethrone Averroes in the following century3. Averroism of a
much more moderate type than that of Paolo Veneto had been expounded at
Padua in the fifteenth century by a member of a distinguished family of Vicenza,
named Gaetano da Thiene (1387 — i46s)4. It was at Padua that, in the same
century, the first printed edition of Averroes had appeared in 14/2, followed by
a new edition in 1552-3. Averroism was combined with varying degrees of
orthodoxy. Even the celebrated Thomas de Vio (1469 — 1534), who became
Cardinal Cajetan in 1517, used Averroes as his text-book at Padua, where he
counted Pomponazzi among his pupils. Towards the close of the fifteenth
century, the extreme Averroistic doctrine of the unity of the immortal reason in
the whole human race had been professed at Padua by Nicoletto Vernias from
1471 to 1499, but, in the latter year, under the moderating influence of the
bishop of Padua, Vernias had withdrawn from that doctrine, and had written
in favour of the plurality of souls, and the immortality of each individual human
soul*. Four years before this public change of opinion, he had become remiss
in his teaching, and he found himself opposed by a spirited rival in the person
of Pomponazzi, who broke loose from the dry and dull routine of the traditional
exposition of Aristotle and Averroes by adopting a more vigorous and varied
style6.
1 Renan, Av. 339-42 4. - Epp. i 29, 38 (1428).
3 Tiraboschi, vi 333 f, 343 f; Renan, Averroes, 344~64.
4 Tiraboschi, vi 345 ; Renan, Av. 3474. 5 Renan, Av. 3524.
6 Jovius, Elogia, no. 71 ; Renan, Av. 3534.
l id ITALY. [CENT. xvi.
While agreeing that the doctrine of Averroes as to the unity
of all intellect had been sufficiently refuted by Thomas Aquinas,
Pomponazzi held that Aristotle's true meaning was not that there
was a plurality of immortal intellects (as contended by Aquinas),
but that the human soul, including the rational faculty, was
mortal. For this interpretation he appealed to Alexander of
Aphrodisias, who identifies the active mortal intellect with the
divine mind and declares the individual reason of each man
to be mortal1. To escape from the imputation of heterodoxy,
he distinguished between two orders of truth, the philosophical
and the theological, admitting that an opinion, which was philo-
sophically true, might be theologically false. Two years after this
youthful teacher had begun to supersede the aged Vernias, the
traditional interpreters of Aristotle were set aside and the original
Greek text restored to a position of supremacy by a scholar of
Albanian origin born in Venice, who had attended the lectures
of Demetrius in Florence. This was none other
Leonico
than Leonico Tomeo (1456 — 1531), an admirer of
Plato and of Cicero2, who, by the vigour of his attack on scholas-
ticism, and by the beauty of his style, opened a new era in the
scholarly study of Aristotle. While he effectively recalled atten-
tion to the original text, he treated the views of Averroes with the
utmost deference, and even found support in the Arabic inter-
preter's psychology for a reconciliation of Aristotle with Plato,
and a proof of the pre-existence and the immortality of all indivi-
dual souls. He is described as a singularly attractive person, a
quiet and unambitious bachelor, whose house, no less than his
lecture-room, was frequented by earnest students in quest of
knowledge. Towards the end of his long life, his venerable
appearance was enhanced by the silvery whiteness of his flowing
beard. As the inmate of his home he kept a tame crane for no
less than forty years, and, not long after the loss of his favourite
bird, he died of old age at 75. In the church of San Francesco
in Padua his merits are commemorated in the Latin prose of an
1 Ueberweg, ii 13 E.T. Pomponazzi, who was ignorant of Greek, doubt-
less used the translation of Alexander, irepl faxy*, D7 Girolamo Donato of
Venice (Brescia, 1495). It had already been printed in Oxford, 1481.
2 Erasmus, Ciceronianus, 71, ed. 1621.
CHAP. IX.] LEONICQ. ACHILLINI. ill
epitaph written by Bembo, who also honoured his memory in the
impressive epigram : —
'Naturae si quid rerum te forte latebat,
Hoc legis in magno nunc Leonice Deo.' l
Pomponazzi was opposed in Padua by the moderate Averroist
Alessandro Achillini (1463 — 1518). The war that
r r ^ i • r i i Achillini
arose from the league of Cambrai for the overthrow
of Venice compelled these academic combatants to transfer their
battlefield to Bologna, where Achillini died nine years afterwards.
He cherished a belief in the orthodoxy of his views, by distin-
guishing (like his opponent) between theological and philosophic
truth, but this even balance of opinion is not maintained in the
pagan epitaph which was placed on his tomb : —
' Hospes, Achillinum tumulo qui quaeris in isto,
Fallen's, ille suo iunctus Aristoteli
Elysium colit, et quas rerum hie cliscere causas
Vix potuit, plenis nunc videt ille oculis :
Tu modo, per campos dum nobilis umbra beatos
Errat, die longum ferfetuumque vale.'2
Meanwhile, a decree of the Lateran Council, published on
19 Dec. 15 1 23, had condemned all who maintained either the
mortality or the universal unity of the intelligent soul. The
former was the view of Alexander4, the latter that of Averroes.
The same Council condemned the distinction between two orders
of truth, and declared everything false that was in conflict with
revelation. In September, 1516, Pomponazzi produced his
celebrated treatise on the immortality of the soul, towards the
close of which, after stating that Aristotle regards the soul as
mortal, he himself concludes that the immortality of the soul is
a neutral problem, that the soul cannot be proved by natural
reason to be either mortal or immortal, but that its immortality
depends on revelation. The tone and spirit of the work are clearly
opposed to the Lateran decree, but, when the Dominicans of
Venice urged the Pope to condemn it, the question was referred
to the papal secretary, Bembo, who (as it happened) had attended
1 Jovius, no. 81 (portrait on p. 170); Tirabosclii, vii 422 f.
2 Jovius, no. 57 (portrait on p. 112); Tiraboschi, vi 489 f.
3 Labbe, xix 842 f. 4 i.e. Alexander of Aphrodisias.
ii2 ITALY. [CENT. xvi.
Pomponazzi's lectures at Padua. In Bembo's view the work
contained nothing worthy of censure, and this opinion was
judicially approved by the Master of the Palace. As the writer
had separated the region of philosophic speculation from that
of Christian belief, he was acquitted, especially as he had formally
declared that he did not adhere to anything he had written, save
in so far as was determined by the Apostolic See. The Pope,
however, entrusted the formal refutation of the treatise to a
dexterous controversialist, Augustinus Niphus, who had produced
a complete edition of the works of Averroes in 1495-7, and had
passed from extreme to moderate and comparatively orthodox
Averroism1. Pomponazzi, a person of diminutive stature, never
dared to show himself in Venice, where his book had been burned
in public ; for nine more years he enjoyed the safety of the papal
city of Bologna. He finally resolved on starving himself to death,
and on departing from the world in perfect silence, but that
silence was broken by a few brief words attesting that he died
without the hopes inspired by Christianity2. His body was taken
to his native place, where he was buried in the church of San
Francesco, while a bronze statue was set up in his memory by his
pupil, the Cardinal Gonzaga3.
Among the Latin scholars of this age the most conspicuous
was Pietro Bembo (1470 — 1547). His father, a
Venetian noble, was the owner of the celebrated
Bembine MS of Terence. The son was born and bred in Florence.
He afterwards studied Greek under Constantine Lascaris at
Messina4, and philosophy under Pomponazzi at Padua. On
completing his education, he joined his father at the brilliant
court of Ferrara, where he sang the praises of Lucrezia Borgia
in elegiacs modelled on those of Tibullus5, and dedicated to her
the most graceful of his Italian works, a Platonic dialogue on
1 Renan, Av. 366-71*. 2 Pastor, iii 113-5.
3 See Jovius, no. 71 (portrait on p. 134). On Pomponazzi, cp. in general
Tiraboschi, vii 425-31; Renan, Av. 353-66*; F. Fiorentino (1868); Geiger,
Renaissance u. Humanismus, 289 f; Creighton, v 270-5; Fairbairn in Camb.
Mod. Hist, ii 702-4; Pastor, Gesch. der Papstc, iv (1906) 562 f; also R. C.
Christie's Selected Essays (1902), 124 — 160.
* Cp. his description of Etna, Ven. 1495 ; Opera (1567), iii 41 — 69.
5 Delitiae CC Ital. Poet. (1608), i 354.
CHAP. IX.] BEMBO. 113
love1. At Urbino, he attended the court of Guidobaldo da
Montefeltro (1506-8), and, in Castiglione's Cortegiano,i\.\$ Bembo
who discourses on the same Platonic theme, until the day breaks
and the star of love alone is shining in the summer sky2. At
Rome, in 1512, he was soon engaged in a controversy on
Latin style with Gianfrancesco Pico della Mirandola (1470 —
1533), the scholarly nephew of Politian's brilliant friend, Giovanni
Pico3. In this controversy, Pico is the eclectic, and Bembo
the Ciceronian4. In the following year, Leo X, on his accession,
appointed Bembo one of the papal secretaries. This office he
held during practically the whole of Leo's pontificate, and his
official letters, in their published form, are good examples of an
ultra-Ciceronian style. In the printed edition, the papal secre-
tary lapses into some of the strangely pagan phrases that were
characteristic of the age5. The Virgin Mary is described as
Dea ipsa* ; Francis I is exhorted per deos atque homines to
undertake a crusade against the Turks7; and a bishop calls
' gods and men ' to witness to the truth of his statement8. In
the ' History of Venice ' the Senate of the Venetian Republic
becomes the Patres Conscripti, the Turks are transformed into
the Thracians, and, by a still stranger anachronism, the ' im-
mortal gods ' are mentioned, certainly in thirteen passages, and
probably in many more.
Among his official letters, the two of special interest to
scholars are those recommending Janus Lascaris and Longolius
1 Gli Asolani, 1504. 2 Symonds, Italian Byways, 137.
3 p. 82 sufra.
4 J. Fr. Picus (19 Sept. 1512) and Petrus Bembus (i Jan. 1513) De Imita-
tioneaxe both printed in Bembo's Opera (Bas. 1567) iii i — 41, and by themselves
(c. 1513, and Jena, 1726). Cp. Erasmus, Ciceroniames, 69 (ed. 1621);
Sahbadini's Ciceronianismo, 46; Harvard Lectures, 159.
8 Gregorovius, book xiv, c. 4 (viii 295 f, E.T.).
6 Epp. viii 17. 7 Epp. xv 17.
8 Epp. xii 24, 'obtestansque deos et homines', and, ad fin., 'ex quo tamen
et uberior a Diis immortalibus gratia, et clarior ab hominibus gloria te sequetur '
(to Francis I). Pastor, Gesc/i. der Ptipste, iv (1906) 433, says: 'Die meisten
heidnischen Ausdriicke wurden erst spater fiir die Druckausgabe der Briefe
hinzugefugt; in den Originalen, die aus der Kanzlei Leos X versandt wurden,
findet sich die Mehrzahl jener Wendungen nicht' (Anhang, nr. 3).
S. II. 8
ii4 ITALY. [CENT. xvi.
to the favour of Francis I1. The second of these is the last
of the series. Shortly before the death of Leo in 1521, Bembo
had withdrawn to the neighbourhood of Padua, where he formed
a choice collection of medals, inscriptions, statues and pictures2.
The Terence, which he had inherited from his father, and the MS
of the fragments of Virgil (cent, v), ultimately passed into the
Vatican Library. He brought his collections to Rome3 on being
made a Cardinal in 1539. It was after that date that he acquired
the once celebrated Tabula Isiaca*. On his death in 1547 he was
buried in the church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva, and, among
the Latin poems written in his memory5, there are some, which,
like Castiglione's Idyll of Alcon*, and the Eclogues of Joannes
Baptista Amaltheus7, may well be regarded as the Italian proto-
types of Milton's Lycidas. In his perfect mastery of pure and
correct Latin prose, Bembo is the typical Ciceronian of his time.
His interest in Latin scholarship is displayed, not only in his
treatise De Imitatione, but also in his disquisition on the Culex of
Virgil and on the plays of Terence, composed in the form of a
dialogue between Pomponius Laetus and Hermolaus Barbarus8.
Nine years after his death, these were valued by Muretus9 more
highly than their author's Latin poems. As a Latin poet he has
more elegance than vigour. His early elegiacs, best represented
by his Galatea™ and his poem De Galeso et Maximo11, are mainly
modelled on Tibullus, Ovid, and Martial. He imitates the
hexameters of Catullus in the poem on Benacus™, and his hendeca-
1 Epp. xi 5, and xvi 30 (April, 1521).
2 Villa in Opere (Ven. 1729) ; copied in Wiese and Percopo, 328 f.
3 Opere, iii 266.
4 Now in Turin Museum, a spurious product of the age of Hadrian.
5 Delitiae, i 379 — 396, esp. 380 f.
6 Symonds, ii 490 f.
7 Selecta Poemata Italorum, ed. Pope (1740), i 23 — 37. Ed. vi 'Lycidas';
p. 14,, pecudes, alto sub sole, requiram: externasqite petam, diversa per aequora,
terras ('To-morrow to fresh woods, and pastures new ') ; p. 25, at vos o lauri;
Eel. viii 'Corydon'; p. 29, En iternm ('Yet once more, O ye laurels').
8 Ed. 1530; also in Opera, iii 70 — 128.
9 Opera, ii 525 ; cp. Harvard Lectures, 170.
10 Delitiae, i 347. n i 364.
12 i 306 (also in Sel. Poemata Ital. ii 192).
CHAP. IX.] SADOLETO. 1 1 5
syllables in some delightful lines defending his cultivation of his
mother tongue, and concluding as follows : —
' Hac uti ut valeas, tibi videndum est ;
ne dum marmoreas remota in ora
sumptu construis et labore villas,
domi te calamo tegas palustri'1.
His hexameter poem on the river-god Sarca, the ' father ' of the
Mincius, closes with a fine apostrophe on Virgil2. But, of all his
Latin verses, those that live longest in the memory are his eulogy
of Politian, ending with the line, Arbiter Ausoniae, Politiane,
fyrae3 ; and two of the shortest of his epitaphs, that on Actius
Sincerus Sannazarius : —
' Da sacro cineri floras : hie ille Maroni
Sincerus Musa proximus, ut tumulo';
and that on Raphael : —
'Hie ille est Raphael, tnetuit quo sospite vinci
Rerum niagna parens, et moriente mori'4.
Bembo's colleague as papal secretary was Jacopo Sadoleto
(1477 — 1547)5. He had studied at Ferrara under
. Sadoleto
Leomcenus, and had reached Rome in the pon-
tificate of Alexander VI, when he enjoyed the patronage of
Cardinal Caraffa, and the friendship of Scipio Carteromachus.
The hexameter poem, in which he celebrated the discovery of the
Laocoon in 1506, was one of the most memorable compositions of
the age. In the enthusiasm kindled by the recent discovery
of the masterpiece, the poem was warmly welcomed. Bembo
read it 'a hundred times"5; but it is to be feared that, to many
modern readers, it will seem as polished and as cold as the
1 1365; cp. Symonds, ii 415.
2 Mai, Spicilegium Rom. viii 488 — 504; Burckhardt, 259 E.T.
3 Delitiae, i 375; Jovius, no. 38.
4 Deliliae, i 378 f. On Bembo, cp. Tiraboschi, vii 938 f ; Roscoe's Leo X,
c. 16; Greswell's Politian etc. 405-53*; Symonds, ii 410-5, 481-5; Creighton,
vi 199; Cian, Un decennio di vitti di Bembo (Torino, 1885); and Pastor, Gesch.
dcr Ptipste, iv (1906) 430-4. Portrait by Titian, reproduced on p. 106; cp.
Phil. Galleus, Effigies, i (1572) A 5.
5 For his later Letters, cp. Epp. ed. Balan (Innsbruck, 1885).
6 Epp. Fam. iii 23 (vol. iv p. 178 a, ed. Ven. 1729).
1 16 ITALY. [CENT. xvi.
marble which it commemorates'. His far longer poem on the
ancient Roman hero, Marcus Curtius, has much more life and
movement2. In his maturer years he wrote Ciceronian treatises
De Gloria and De laudibus philosophiae*. The influence of
Quintilian is apparent in his dialogue on education, where the
poets passed in review are Homer and Virgil, Plautus and
Terence, and a new emphasis is laid on the study of Greek4. His
Letters are more important than those of Bembo for the light that
they throw on the literary life of the age ; and he is in general a
man of wider interests and of far finer character than his colleague.
He counted Erasmus among his correspondents, and had the
highest regard for Melanchthon and Calvin. He was made bishop
of Carpentras by Leo X, and a Cardinal by Paul III, and he died
in the same year as Bembo (i547)5. .
The briefest mention must suffice for the ' learned Muse ' of-
Celio Calcagnini of Ferrara (1479 — 1541), a many-
Calcagnini \
sided scholar, who saw service as a soldier, was
interested in law and astronomy, collected MSS, and severely
criticised the De Offidis of Cicero. His learning has been lauded
by his friend Giraldi, who implies that his Latin verses were
a mosaic of reminiscences from the ancient poets6. Giraldi
himself is among those addressed in his hendecasyllables, which
are in general more successful than his elegiacs. But a place
may here be found for the best and briefest of his epigrams,
1 Delitiae, ii 582 f (58 lines); transcribed by Lessing in his Laokoon, c. vi,
where it is considered 'worthy of an ancient poet'. Cp. Gregorovius, viii
146 f, E.T.
2 Delitiae, ii 584 — 600; Sel. Poemata Ital. ii 181 — 191.
3 Welcomed by Beml>o, Epp. Fam. v 21, as a masterpiece of Ciceronian
style.
4 De Libris Recte Instituendis (1534); also in Opera, iii 66 — 126 (Verona,
1738). Cp.Tiraboschi, vii 312 ; Gerini, Scrift.pedag.de! sec. ^T/(Torino, 1891) ;
Woodward's Renaissance Education, c. ix.
B Epp. (Lyons, 1560) ; Epp. proprio nomine scriptae (Rome, 1760-7); Opera
(Mainz, 1607; Verona, 1737); lllustrium Imagines (Rome, 1517). Cp.
Tiraboschi, vii 308 f; A. Joly (Caen, 1857); Symonds, ii 415; Gregorovius,
viii 327 f; Pastor, Gesch. der Pdpste, iv (1906) 434-6; portrait in Boissard, I
xliv 262.
De Poetis Nostrorum Temporum, ed. Wotke (1894) 33 f.
CHAP, IX.] CALCAGNINI. VIDA. I 17
' Ut tibi mors felix contingat, vivere disce :
ut felix possis vivere, disce mori'1.
The foremost Christian poet of the time was Marcus
Hieronymus Vida (c. 1490 — 1566), who was born
at Cremona, and spent most of his youth at
Rome under Julius II and Leo X. Of his earlier poems the
greatest is his Art of Poetry'1. He was the first of the many
Italians who wrote on that theme in the sixteenth century3. His
poem is mainly inspired by Virgil. But he is distinctly original
in laying down laws of imitative harmony, and in illustrating them
by his own verse4. He is apostrophised in the well-known lines
of Pope's Essay on Criticism : —
' Immortal Vida : on whose honour'd brow
The Poet's bays and Critic's ivy grow ;
Cremona now shall ever boast thy name,
As next in place to Mantua, next in fame ' 5.
His didactic poems on the Management of Silkworms and on the
Game of Chess are singularly skilful compositions6. The former
was highly appreciated by the elder Scaliger7, and the latter by
Leo X, who presented the poet with a priory at Frascati, and
set him the task of composing, amid the beauties of nature, an
epic poem on the Life of Christ. The Christias, which was thus
begun under happy auspices in the age of Leo, was not completed
until the time of the second Medicean Pope8. It is more
successful in the general treatment of its sacred theme than
Sannazaro's poem De Partu Virginis9.
1 Delitiae, i 520. Cp. Tiraboschi, vii 870-3; Roscoe's Leo X, c. 21;
Geiger, Renaissance, 232 f. He revised for Aldus the ed. princeps of Libanius
OS'?)-
a Selecla Poemata Italorum, i 131—189; written before 1520, printed 1527.
3 Spingarn, Literary Criticism in the Renaissance, i26f, 131 f.
4 Selecta Poemata Italorum, i 182-5.
5 1. 705 f. It was probably this eulogy that led to the whole poem being
translated by Chr. Pitt.
6 De Bombyce, and De ludo scacorum (Sel.Pocm. Ital. i 103—120, 190 — 210).
7 Poetices liber vi 806 (1586).
8 Cremona, 1535; illustrated ed., Oxford, 1725.
9 Tiraboschi, vii 1440-51 ; Hallam, i 431*; Roscoe's Leo X, c. 17 (ii 1540;
Symonds, ii 399; Pastor, Gesch. der Papste, iv (1906) 436-8 (and the literature
there quoted) ; portrait in Wiese and Percopo, 282.
n8 ITALY. [CENT. xvi.
Among the correspondents of these Roman poets was a
patrician of Venice, Andreas Navagero (1483 —
Navagero . . .
1529). He revised for the Aldine press Quintilian
and Virgil (1514), Lucretius (1516), Ovid and Terence (1517),
Horace, and the Speeches of Cicero (1519). The three volumes of
the last were accompanied by Ciceronian letters of dedication
addressed to Leo X, Bembo and Sadoleto. Among the works
dedicated to himself was the editio princeps (1514) of Pindar
(whose Odes he had more than once transcribed), together with
editions of Cicero, De arte rhetorica and Brutus (1514-5), and
the first decade of Livy (1518). He wrote Latin verse of singular
beauty and purity on elegiac and idyllic themes; and Giraldi
has praised his antiquae simplicitatis aemu/atio1. So deep was his
detestation of Martial that once a year, on a day dedicated to the
Muses, he solemnly burnt a copy of that poet's epigrams2. He
found relief from the depression caused by overwork by serving
for a time as a soldier. He was afterwards appointed librarian of
San Marco, and historiographer of Venice, but his early death, as
envoy to the court of Francis I at Blois, led to the History being
entrusted to Bembo. Among the poets and scholars of his age,
he is one of the purest in life and the most attractive in character3.
The fellow-students of Navagero, at the philosophical lectures
of Pomponazzi at Padua, included one of the ablest
Fracastoro
authors of the age, Girolamo Fracastoro (1483 —
I553)- Devoted to the study of music and astronomy, he was
famous as a physician and a poet. The theme of the most
important of his poems was the terrible scourge that first ap-
peared in 1495 among the French soldiers quartered at Naples4.
A theme no less unpromising had been vigorously handled by
Lucretius in his description of the plague of Athens; but
Manilius rather than Lucretius is the model of Fracastoro. The
poem was dedicated to Bembo, and men of letters admired the
1 P- 29> 31 Wotke ; cp. J. C. Scaliger, Poet, vi, 'Naugerii stilus generosus
totus: semper enim aliquid vult, quantum potest'.
2 Jovius, no. 78; portrait in Boissard, I (1597) xliii 256.
3 Opera (Padua, 1718), including his Variae Lectiones on Ovid ; Poems in
Delitiae, ii 104 — 135; cp. Greswell's Politian etc. 474-7^ Roscoe:s fao X,
ii 163-7; ESdG?*JUtJf**ttftt 4651"; Symonds, ii 485-8.
4 Bembo, Hist. Feneta, iii 113, ed. 1567.
CHAP. IX.] NAVAGERO. FRACASTORO. FLAMINIO. 119
poetic skill with which the author had handled an undoubtedly
difficult topic. Sannazaro held it superior to anything composed
by himself or any of his brother-poets, while the elder Scaliger
even described it as a ' divine poem ' '. The author passed a large
part of his life at his beautifully situated villa near Verona, a
villa described in one of his poetical epistles2. His memory was
perpetuated at Padua by a statue of bronze, by the side of a
similar memorial of his friend Navagero ; and the names of
both are united in a monumentum acre perennius, in Fracastoro's
celebrated dialogue Naugerius (i555)3- Navagero not only sup-
plies the title of that work, but is also the principal speaker, as
the exponent of the ideal element in Aristotle's theory of poetry4.
A pleasant contrast to the neo-paganism of not a few of the
poets of this age is presented by Marcantonio
J Flaminio
Flaminio of Serravalle (1498 — 1550), who is de-
scribed by the historian of Italian literature as 'a name no
less dear to Virtue than to the Muses'5. In his early youth he
presented to Leo X some elegant compositions in Latin verse ;
but he cared little for the great world of Rome. Though he
spent part of his life at Urbino and Bologna, and at Padua,
Genoa and Naples, and visited Venice in 1536, with a view to
supervising the printing of his paraphrase of Aristotle's Meta-
physics, he was never happier than at his villa on the Lago di
Garda, poring over his Aristotle or writing his Latin poems6.
1 Foetices liber vi 817, ed. 1586. The poem De Morbo Galileo is printed
in Sel. Poemata flalomm, i 53 — 95; part is translated in Greswell's Politian etc.
4792, and in Roscoe's Leo X, c. 17 (ii 160), and the whole by Tate in Dryden's
Miscellaneous Poems, v 333 — 381, ed. 1716 (other poems, ib. ii 198 — 235).
The author himself says, in his dialogue on poetry, 'omnis materia poetae
convenit, dummodo exornari possit '.
2 Ad Franc. Turrtanum, quoted and translated in Greswell's Politian etc.
464— 47 12.
3 Fracastorii Opera, i 340; Naugerii Opera, 227 — 272.
4 Spingarn, Literary Criticism in the Renaissance, 31. On Fracastoro, cp.
Tiraboschi, vii 1458; Roscoe's Leo X, c. 17; Greswell's Politian etc., 455 —
491 2; Symonds, ii 477 — 481. Portrait in Boissard, i xvii 128.
5 Tiraboschi, vii 1417 f.
6 His delight in a rural life is charmingly expressed in his poems Ad agellum
suiim and Ad Fr. Tnrrianum (in Sel. Poemata Ital. ii 53, 62). Most of his
poems are printed in Delitiae, i 984 — 1045.
ITALY. [CENT. xvi.
His verse is marked by piety of tone, and purity of theme, as
well as terseness and vigour of style. A volume of poems by
scholars of Northern Italy, which he sends, about 1549, to his
patron, Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, is accompanied by a set of
verses, in which he expresses his wonder that, after the dark ages,
and after all the ruin that has since befallen Italy, so many lights
of song had shone forth in a single generation, and within the
narrow bounds of Trans-Padan Italy. But these lights alone (he
declares) would suffice to dispel the gloom of barbarism and
restore the splendour of Latin letters; they would add eternal
lustre to Italy, while Latin was now studied, not only by the
northern nations, but even in the New World1.
Such are some of the principal Latin poets of that age, but
there are many whose names cannot here be recounted, though
they are far from forgotten. The scholars and poets of Italy have
been enumerated by Bartolommeo Fazio (d. I457)2 and by
Cortesius (d. i5io)3. Francesco Arsilli supplies us with a
hundred epigrammatic descriptions of the poets who dwelt on
Leo's Parnassus4. In 1514, no less than a hundred and twenty
'poets' laid their offerings on the altar in the church of Sant'
Agostino5. Two hundred 'illustrious' poets of Italy are included
in the Delitiae of Janus Gruter6. Lilio Giraldi of Ferrara
(1479 — X552) nas crowned his dialogues on the Greek and Latin
poets of the past with two that are rich in delicate discrimination
of the many poets of his time7; while Paolo Giovio (1483 — 1552)
has published his 'eulogies' on the scholars of Italy, whose portraits
he had gathered round him in his villa on the Lake of Como8.
1 Carmina (Padua, 1743), 122 f; Poeinata Sel. Italorum (Oxford, 1808),
166; Symonds, ii 504-7. Cp. Tiraboschi, vii 1417-32; Roscoe's Leo X, c. 17;
Ores well, I.e., 493 — sop2, and Fifty Select Poems imitated by E. W. Barnard,
with a memoir (Chester, 1829); Harvard Lectures, pp. iv, 82; portrait in
Carmina (1743), copied in \Viese and Percopo, 326.
2 De viris ilhistribus. 3 De hominibus doc t is.
4 De Poetis Urbanis (1524), reprinted in Tiraboschi, vii ad fin.; cp. Roscoe's
Leo X, c. \i ad fin.
6 Coryciana (1524) ; Roscoe, I.e.', Gregorovius, viii 357 f; Creighton,
vi 121.
6 Deliiiae CC Italorum poetarum hujus superiorisque aevi illustrium (1608).
7 De poetis nostrorum temporum (Ferrara, 1548) ; ed. Wotke, 1894.
8 Elogia vcris clarorum virorum imaginibus apposita (Ven. 1546); Elogia
CHAP. IX.] FULVIO.. LONGOLIUS. 121
From the poets we turn to the archaeologists. A collection of
Roman inscriptions founded on the researches of
Roman In-
Fra Giocondo of Verona, and probably prepared by scriptions and
the learned Canon Francesco Albertini, was pub-
lished in Rome by Mazocchi in I52I1. Meanwhile in 1513
Andrea Fulvio had presented to Leo X a description of the
antiquities of Rome in Latin verse. This archaeological poet
was the learned adviser of Raphael, who studied an Italian
translation of Vitruvius specially made for his own use by Marco
Fabio Calvi of Ravenna, and in 1518-9, shortly before his death,
proposed to Leo X a scheme for an illustrated plan of Rome
divided into the ancient ' regions '. The scheme bore fruit in the
prose version of the Antiquitates of Fulvio, and in the Plan of
Rome by Calvi, both published in the year of the ruin of Rome,
the fatal 152^.
Rome, which had been visited by Erasmus under Julius II,
was, in the age of Leo, the goal of another
Longolius
wanderer from the North, Christopher Longolius
(1488 — 1522). Neither the study of the law at Valence, nor its
practice in Paris, could prevent his being drawn to Rome by the
'genius of Italy'3. In 1517 he entered the capital in the
disguise of a soldier ; his disguise was soon detected, he was
hospitably entertained for three years, and, under the advice of
Bembo, he applied himself to the study and the exclusive
imitation of Cicero. A charge of treason to Rome, founded on
the fact that, as a student in France, he had once eulogised the
ancient Gauls at the expense of the ancient Romans, drove him
from Rome to Padua, where he once more found a friend in
Bembo. At Padua he published a volume of Ciceronian epistles,
and, in 1522, he died at the early age of thirty-four. His death
was lamented by all the scholars of the day, not excluding
doctorum viroriim (Bas. c. 1556); Elogia virorum literis illustrium, ex ejtisdern
Musaeo...iniaginibns exornata (Bas. 1577); his own portrait ib. and in Uffizi.
Cp. Tiraboschi, vii 908 f; Gregorovius, viii 344.
1 Henzen, Monatsber. Berl. Acad. 1868, 403 f; Pastor, Gesch. der Piipste,
iv (1906) 465.
2 Pastor, I.e., 468, n. 3 ; Lanciani, Golden Days of the Renaissance (1906),
245—252.
:i Epp. iv 26, ' felicem ilium ac plane divinum Italiae genium sum secutus'.
122 ITALY. [CENT. XVI.
Erasmus, who, in his Ciceronianus (1523), singles him out as a
typical Ciceronian1.
Leo's posthumous fame as a patron of learning has been partly
enhanced by the phrase of Erasmus, who marked the transition
from Julius II to Leo X in the words : — ' an age worse than that
of iron was suddenly transformed into an age of gold'2. Leo's
'golden days' have been celebrated in Pope's Essay on Criticism ;
and, when Leo died, his tomb was strewn with verses lamenting
the passing away of the 'golden age'3.
Leo's successor, Adrian VI (1522-3), cared little for classical
literature or Greek art. In the presence of an
Adrian VI . r
envoy from Venice, after glancing for a moment at
the Laocoon and the Apollo Belvedere, he turned away, and said
with a sigh : — ' They are the idols of the ancients'4.
The pontificate of the second Medicean Pope, Clement VII
(1523-34), saw a brief revival of learning. Piero
Clement VII
Valenano of Belluno (1477 — 1558), who had lived
Valeriano
in Rome since 1509, and had been a favounte
of Leo X, and a friend of that multifarious scholar, Cardinal
Egidius Canisius of Viterbo5, was now recalled from Naples, and
appointed professor of Eloquence6. His fame as an antiquarian,
as a critic of Virgil, and as a successful imitator of Horace and
Propertius, is eclipsed by his thrilling account of the calamities
that befell the scholars of his time. The greatest of these
calamities was the Sack of Rome by the Spanish and German
troops of Charles V in the month of May, 1527 7. In that
overwhelming catastrophe many an artist and many a scholar
perished, or suffered grievous losses, or passed into exile. The
learned recluse, who had aided Raphael in the study of Vitruvius,
died a miserable death in a hospital ; the literary critic of the
1 p. 82 f, ed. 1621. Cp. Jovius, no. 67 (portrait on p. 127, and in
Bullart's Academie, ii (1682) 156); Sabbadini, Ciceronianismo, 52 — 60; Gre-
gorovius, viii 361 f; Harvard Lectures, i6of.
2 Ep. 174. 3 Gregorovius, viii 432.
* Negri in Lettere di Principi, i 113 (Venice, 1581); cp. Valeriano, ii 34.
6 Gregorovius, viii 341 f.
6 Portrait (in fur cloak, with strong face and fine eyes) in Philippus
Galleus, Effigies, ii (Antwerp, 1577) 36.
7 Creighton, vi 339 — 344, and Diaries quoted ib. 381-3, 418 — 437.
CHAP. IX.] THE SACK OF ROME. 123
Latin poets of that age, Lilio Giraldi, had to lament the loss of all
his books; the writer of the eulogies of learned men, Paolo
Giovio, was bereft of his only copy of part of the first decade of
his great History of Rome, while the head of the Roman Academy
saw most of his fine collection of MSS and antiquities dispersed
and destroyed. Valeriano was absent from Rome during this
appalling calamity, but on his return he found in the strange
adventures of those who had lingered in the doomed city, much
of the material for his work 'on the misfortunes of scholars'1.
Giovio, at the close of his brief biographies, bids a sad farewell
to the scholars of his own nation. The Germans, he laments,
' have robbed exhausted Greece and slumbering Italy of the
ornaments of peace, of learning, and of the flower of the arts'.
Yet this 'hostile age' has left us 'something of our ancient
heritage'. 'If, after the almost utter loss of liberty, we may still
glory in anything, we may boast that we hold the citadel of
imperishable eloquence.' Every citizen of Rome must 'guard
this post, in order that under the banner of Bembo and Sadoleto,
we may heroically defend the remnant of the great bequest of our
forefathers'2.
Immediately after the great disaster, men were saying on
all sides that the light of the world had perished. Sadoleto,
who had left for his bishopric in the South of France, wrote to
the head of the Roman Academy recalling those happy meetings
that had now been broken up by the cruel fate of Rome3. He
himself received a letter from Bembo, who had withdrawn to
Padua, exhorting him to bury their common misfortunes in a life
of study4; and another from Erasmus, saying that this terrible
event had affected the whole earth; for Rome was not only the
fortress of the Christian religion, the instructress of noble
minds, but also the mother of the nations ; her fall was not the
fall of the city, but of the world5.
1 DC literatonini infelicitate, Venice, 1620; cp. Roscoe's Leo A", c. 21;
Gregorovius viii 334, 357, 651 ; Symonds, ii 443 f.
- Elogia, ad fin.; Gregorovius, viii 350.
3 Sadoleto, Efp. i 106. Cp. Gregorovius, viii 654 f.
4 Bembo, Epp. Fain, iii 24.
5 Erasmus, Ep. 988.
History of Scholarship in the Sixteenth Century.
Italy
Spain and
Portugal
France
Netherlands
England and
Scotland
Germany
Janus Lascaris
Ant. Nebriss-
Wimpfeling
1445-1535 .
ensis 1444—1522
1450—1528
Aldus Manutius
Reuchlin
M49— 15*5
I455-I522
Beroaldus 1
Grocyn
Conrad Celtes
1453-1505
1446-1519
I459—I.508
Leonico Tonieo
Linacre
Trithemius
1456—1531
Sannazaro
Budaeus
1467—1540
Erasmus
1466-1536
1460—1524
Colet
1462—1516
Peutinger
M58-I539
Corderius
1467-1519
1465-1547
Pomponazzi
1479—1564
Lily 1468—1522
Busche
1462—1565
J. 0. Scaiiger
Vives(in Nether-
More
1468—1534
Achillini
1484—1558 (in
lands 1512 22,
1478-1535
Pirkheimer
1463- 1518
Fran 061523-5 3)
1525-40)
Croke
1470^530
Machiavelli
Rabelais
1489—1558
HeatusRhenanus
1469—1527
1490-1553
1485-1547
Musurus
Danesius
Eobanus Hessu*
1470- 1517
1497—1577
1488—1540
Bembo
NoniusPincianus
Toussain
Glareanus
1470—1547
I47I-I552
1498—1547
1488—1563
Beroaldus 11
R. Stephanus
Nannius
Petrus Mosel-
1472—1518
1503—1559
1500—1557
lanus
Sadoleto
Dorat
Buchanan
1493—1524
M77-I547
1502—1588
1506 — 1582
Grynaeus
Calcagnini
Dolet
1493—1541
M79—I54I.
I509— 1546
Gelenius
Lilio Giraldi
Le Roy
Pulmannus
1497— J554
M79-I552
I5IO-I577
1510—1590
Melanchthon
Navagero
i urnebus
H. Junius
M97— '560
1483—1529
1512- 1565
1511-1575
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1500—1553
1483-1552
15*3— 15<#
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Fracastoro
Amyot
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1500-1574
1483—1553
I5I3—I593
1514—1557
Micyllus
J. C. Scaliger
Vergara
Raraus
Petreius Tiara
Ascham
1503—1558
1484—1558 (in
I484—I545
I5I5—I572
1516—1588
1515-1568
Sturm
Italy —1529)
1. am bin us
Pighius
1507— "589
Longolius
1520—1572
1520—1604
Conrad Gesner
1488—1522 (in
De Grouchy
1516—1565
Italy 1517-22]
1520—1572
G. Fabricius
Vida
Vives
Cujas
1516—1571
1490—1566
1492-1540
1522—1590
H. Wolf
Flaminio
Clenardus
Hotman
1516—1580
1498—1550
I495—I542
1524—1590
B. Faber
Nizolius
Reseiide
Muretus
1520—1576
1498-1566
1498-1573
1526—1585
F. Fabricius
Victorius
Doneau
1525-1573
M99-I585
1527—1591
Vulcanius
Golding
Martin Crusius
Paleario
H. Stephanus
1538—1614
1536—1605
1526—1607
1504-1570
1528-31— 1598
J. J. Scaliger
Xylander
Castelvetro
Osorio
P. Daniel
1540-1609 (at
1532—1576
1505— I571
1506—1584
1530—1603
Leyden 1593 —
Sylburg
Fr. Portus
Ant. Augustinus
Brisson
1609)
1536 -1596
1511—1581
1517—1586
I53I—I59I
W. Canter
Savile
Rhodoman
Majoragius
Sanctius
Montaigne
1542—1575
1549— 1£22
1546—1606
I5I4-I555
1523—1601
1533— J592
Cruquius ed.
Frischlin
Robortelli
Nunnesius
Passe rat
Horace 1578
I547-I590
1516—1567
d. 1602
1534—1602
Janus Dousa I
Phil. Holland
Aem. Portus
Sigonius
Ach. Statins
Pierre Pithou
1545-1604
1552—1637
1550—1615
1524—1584
1524—1581
1539-1596
Lipsius
Chapman
Guilielmus
Muretus
P. Ciacconius
J. J. Scaligcr
1547-1606
1559—1634
1555—1584
1526-1585 (in
1525—1581
1540—1609
A. Schott
Owen
Hoeschel
Italy 1554-85)
Gothofredus
1552—1629
1560 — 1622
1556—1617
Panvinio
Alvarez
J549— J62i
Modius
A. Melville
Gruter
1529- 1568
1526—1583
Bongars
1556—1599
1565—1622
1560—1627
Patrizzi
A. Ciacconius
1554-1612
Janus Dousa II
Drummond
Taubmann
152?— 1597,
1540—1599
Casaubon
1571— J597
1585-1649
1565—1613
Fulvio Orsini
Cerda
1559-1614
FranciscusDousa
Johnston
Acidalius
1529—1600
1560—1643
Mercier d. 1626
1577—1606
1587—1641
I567—I595
BOOK II.
THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
Videmus Latinam eruditionem, quamvis impend iosam, citra
Graecismum mancam esse ac dimidiatam. Apud nos enim rivuli
vix quidam sunt ef lacunculae lutulentae ; apud illos fontes pnris-
simi et flumina durum volventia.
ERASMUS, Ep. 149 ed. Allen, 1906 ; (Paris, 1501).
Capessite ergo sana studio, ... ; veteres Latinos colite, Graeca
amplexamini, sine quibus Latina tractari neqneunt. Ea pro
omnium litterarum usu ingenium alent mitius, atque elegantius
undequaque red dent.
MELANCHTHON, De Corrigendis Adulescentiae
Studiis, ad fin. (Wittenberg, 1518).
Linguae Graecae osoribus ita responsum volo, omnem elegantem
doctrinam, omnem cognitionem dignam hominis ingenui studio, uno
verbo, quicquid usquam est politiorum dtsdplinarum, nullis a/iis,
quam Graecorum libris ac literis, contineri.
MURETUS, Or. ii iv (Rome, 1573).
ERASMUS (15-23).
From the portrait by Holbein in the salon carre of the Louvre.
(Photographed by Messrs Mansell.)
CHAPTER X.
ERASMUS.
IN tracing the history of humanism, our natural course at the
present point would be to turn from Italy to the other countries of
Europe and to embark on a survey of the Revival of Learning in
each. But there is one eminent scholar whose life and influence,
so far from being confined to his native land, are even more closely
connected with France, England, Italy, Germany and Switzerland
than with the land of his birth. Our survey of the early history of
scholarship beyond the bounds of Italy will therefore be preceded
by some account of Erasmus, so far as his remarkable career was
connected with Classical Scholarship.
Erasmus was born at Rotterdam in 1466. He was the second
of the two sons of Gerard of Gouda, near Rotterdam,
Erasmus
and Margaret of Zevenberge in Brabant. His father
was in priest's orders at the time of his birth, and the name
Erasmus was that of a martyred bishop of Campania, who was
revered in the Low Countries, as well as in England1. The Latin
equivalent, Desiderius, was adopted by Erasmus himself, whose full
name in the old Latin style was Desiderius Erasmus Rotterodamus.
In his ninth year he was sent to school at Deventer, where the
mediaeval text-books of Grammar were still in use, and his high
promise was there recognised in 1484", when the school was
visited by Rudolphus Agricola, afterwards described by Erasmus
himself as ' the first who brought from Italy some breath of a
better culture'3. In the same year he was removed to a school
at Bois-le-Duc, distinctly inferior to that at Deventer, though
1 F. M. Nichols, Epistles of Erasmus, i 37 f.
2 P. S. Allen, Epp. Erasmi (1906), i p. 581.
3 p. i of Ep. ad Botzhennim, 30 Jan. 1524 (Leyden ed. of Opera, i init.).
128 HOLLAND, FRANCE, ENGLAND, ITALY. [CENT. XV f
founded by the Brothers of the Common Life1; in 1487 he entered
an Augustinian monastery near Gouda; and in 1492 was ordained
priest. The ten years spent in that monastery happily left him
much leisure for study, and among the works that he there wrote
was an abridgement of the Elegant 'iae of Lauren tius Valla. He
next entered the service of the bishop of Cambrai, who sent him
to Paris, where he wrote a laudatory preface to a Latin history of
France and thus became known to Colet. In Paris he learnt a
little Greek, but made his living mainly as a teacher of Latin,
counting among his pupils one of his future patrons, the youthful
Lord Mountjoy, whom he accompanied to England in 1499. He
was welcomed by Colet at Oxford, and by More and Warham in
London. Early in the following year he returned to Paris, there
to resume the work which he describes in the pathetic words : —
' my Greek studies are almost too much for my courage, while I
have not the means of procuring books, or the help of a master'2.
He is conscious that 'without Greek the amplest erudition in Latin
is imperfect'3, and, of his early study of Homer, he says (like
Petrarch) ' I am refreshed and fed by the sight of his words, even
when I cannot always understand him'4. In 1500 he produced
his Adagia, and, in the following year, an edition of Cicero De
Ojficiis, besides working at Euripides and Isocrates. For part of
1502-3 he resided at Louvain, where he studied Lucian in the
newly published Aldine text of 1503: His return to Paris was
followed by a visit to London, where (early in 1506) he presented
Warham with a translation of the Hecuba, and Fox with a rendering
from Lucian, whom he continued to translate in conjunction with
More. In June he left for Italy, visiting Turin, where he received
the degree of Doctor in Divinity ; Florence, which appears to have
attracted him but little; Bologna, where (as we have already seen)
1 The school to which Erasmus was removed in his i.}.th year is described
by himself as one of those belonging to the Fratres Collationarii (Ep. 442), i.e.
the Brethren of the Common Life. Cp. Delprat's History of the Confraternity
(Utrecht, 1830), 196, 313^ quoted (with other passages) in a letter to
Dr A. W. Ward from F. van der Haeghen of Ghent.
2 iii 80; Nichols, Epp. \ 233; Ep. 123, p. 285 Allen.
3 iii 9680; 36 and 968 ; De Ratione Studii, § 3; Ep. 129, p. 301 Allen.
4 iii 78; Nichols, i 270; Ep. 131, p. 305 Allen. Woodward's Erasmus,
ii 135-
CHAP. X.] ERASMUS. 129
he worked quietly at Greek ; Venice, where (as a guest of Aldus)
he prepared a second edition of his Adagia; Padua, where he
attended the lectures of Musurus, and then passed through
Florence and Siena to Rome, where he was far less interested in
its old associations, its ' ruins and remains ', its ' monuments of
disaster and decay', than in the libraries and in the social life of
the papal city1. Returning to England in 1509, he published his
famous satire, the Moriae Encomium. Soon afterwards he found
a home in Cambridge2, where, under the influence of John Fisher,
bishop of Rochester, he became Lady Margaret Professor of
Divinity. His rooms were near the south-east corner of the
inner cloistered court of Queens'. It was there that in October,
1511, he taught Greek to a little band of Cambridge students,
using for his text-book the Grammar of Chrysoloras, and hoping
to begin that of Theodorus Gaza, if he could obtain a larger
audience3. Meanwhile, he was aiding Colet in his great design
for the future school of St Paul's by writing his treatise De
Ratione Studii (1511), as well as a work on Latin composition,
De Copia Rerum et Verborum (1512), and a text-book of Latin
Syntax, founded on Donatus (1513). He was also producing
Latin renderings from the Moralia of Plutarch, and was beginning
to prepare his edition of St Jerome, and his text of the Greek
Testament. Early in 1514 he left Cambridge with a view to the
publication of these works at Basel in 1516. His edition of the
Greek Testament, the first that was actually published, was accom-
panied with a Latin version and with notes suggested by those of
Valla, which Erasmus had discovered in I5054. 1516 was also the
date of the first edition of his famous Colloquies. The years
between 1515 and 1521 were spent mainly at Basel and Louvain,
where he aided in organising the Collegium Trilingue for the study
of Hebrew, Greek and Latin. In the spring of 1522 he returned
to Basel, making it his home for the next seven years. He there
published his Ciccronianus (1528), a celebrated dialogue on Latin
1 De Nolhac, Erasme en Italic, 1888 (cp. p. 91 supra).
2 Aug. 1511 — Jan. 1514. He had paid a brief visit in 1506 (Allen, i
p. 590 f ).
3 Ep. 123 (iii no); cp. Ep. 233, p. 473 Allen.
4 Cp. Ep. 182, p. 406 f Allen.
S. II. 9
130 GERMANY, SWITZERLAND. [CENT. XVJ.
style, in which he vigorously protests against limiting the modern
cultivation of Latin prose to a slavish and pedantic imitation of
the vocabulary and phraseology and even the very inflexions of
Cicero. The dialogue aroused the bitter attacks of the elder
Scaliger and of Etienne Dolet1. In the same year he also
produced his treatise De Recta Latini Graecique Sermonis Pro-
nuntiatione, which, in process of time, led the northern nations of
Europe to adopt the ' Erasmian ' pronunciation of Greek in
preference to that which Reuchlin had derived from the modern
Greeks and had introduced into Germany. In the pronunciation
adopted by Reuchlin the vowels ij, i, v and the diphthongs 01 and
ai were all pronounced like the Italian /, while av and eu were
pronounced like af or av, and </or ev. 'The Erasmians main-
tained... that, among the ancients, each vowel or diphthong had
its own proper sound, a like the Italian a, iota like the Italian
*, v like the French u or German u, e and rj like the Italian short
and long e respectively, and that the diphthongs had the sound
which results from the combined sounds of their component
letters. They proved also that /? had the sound of our b, y of
our hard g, 8 of our d, £ of ds, x of hard ch...; that T and TT
should always "retain the sound of / and /, and that the initial
aspirate should be sounded as h'2.
In 1529 Erasmus gave to the world the maturest of his educa-
tional treatises in a work De Pueris statim ac liberaliter Erudiendis.
In the same year he left Basel for Freiburg on the verge of the
Black Forest, where he was still living when his edition of Terence,
the most important of his classical recensions, was published3. In
1534 he returned to Basel, and worked at his edition of Origen.
He was engaged on a new edition of his Letters, and on other
work, when he died in the summer of 1536.
The art of Holbein and of Diirer, with some slight touches
derived from tradition, enables us to picture his personal appear-
ance as a man of slight but well-built figure, with bluish grey eyes
and light brown hair, a face characterised by a quiet humour, and
a calm and steady gaze, blended with a caution that verges on
1 Cp. Harvard Lectures, 162 — 167, and pp. 177-8 infra.
z W. G. Clark in Journal of 'Philology ', l no 2, 98 — 108 ; Egger, Hellenisme
en France, i 451 — 470. 3 Basel, 1532.
CHAP. X.] ERASMUS. 131
timidity1. The inscription on the portrait by Diirer8, as well as a
phrase in the author's own Letters3, tells us that a better picture
may be found in his writings. We there find proof of an unwearied
industry brightened by a quick apprehension, a vivid fancy, and a
playful wit, acuteness of observation and vigour of intellect rather
than depth of thought, wide and varied learning expressed with
facility in a flowing style that is free from a ponderous and pre-
tentious pedantry, and never aims at elegance for its own sake.
Erasmus is a representative not so much of Greek as of Latin
scholarship, and of Latin verse far less than of Latin prose. The
strength as well as the occasional weakness of his character, and
the wide extent of his influence, are amply attested in his Letters.
His varied learning is best seen in his Adagia, where his erudite
illustrations of the meaning of ancient proverbial phrases are often
curiously diversified by pungent criticisms on modern priests and
princes4; and the same satirical element is constantly recurring in
his Colloquies. He has rendered service to the cause of education
not only by his general treatises on the subject, but also by the
lucid text-books on syntax and style that soon superseded the dull
mediaeval manuals. He translated into Latin the Greek Grammar
of Theodoras Gaza, and supplied a Latin Syntax founded on
Donatus. He represents scholarship on its formal side, grammar,
style and rhetoric. He promoted the study of models of pure
Latinity, such as Terence and Cicero. The other Latin books
that he recommends for use in schools are select plays of Plautus,
with Virgil and Horace, Caesar and Sallust. In Greek he approves
Lucian, Demosthenes, Herodotus, Aristophanes, Homer and
Euripides5. His own editions of Latin authors comprise Seneca
(1515), Suetonius (1518), certain works of Cicero (1518-32), with
Pliny (1525) and Terence (1532). His Greek texts belong to the
last five years of his life and include Aristotle (1531) and Ptolemy
(1533). He also produced recensions of St Ambrose, St Augustine
and St Chrysostom, with three editions of St Jerome. Lastly, we
1 Beatus Rhenanus (Nichols, i 36) ; Mullinger's Cambridge, i 491 ; Jebb's
Erasmus, 5 f.
2 rrjv Kpeirrw TO. ffvyypdfj.iJ.aTa. 5«'£a (1525).
3 Ef. 428 (iii 446), optimam Erasmi partem in libris videre licet, quoties
lihet (i June, 1519). 4 Cp. Hallam, Lit. i 280-5.
5 De Ratione Studii, § 3 ; ed. Woodward, 112.
9—2
132 THE NORTHERN NATIONS. [CENT. XVI.
cannot forget his edition of the Greek Testament (1516). In the
preface to that work, the scholar, who had done so much for
secular as well as for sacred learning, points the contrast between
those two branches of scholarship in the words: —
' aliorum litterae sunt eiusmodi ut non parum multos paenituerit insumptae
in illis operae...at felix ille quern in hisce litteris meditantem mors occupat'1.
Even as Petrarch marks the transition from the Middle Ages
to the Revival of Learning, so, in the early history of learning,
Erasmus marks the transition from Italy to the northern nations
of Europe. 'I used my best endeavour' (he declared) 'to deliver
the rising generation from the depths of ignorance and to inspire
them with a taste for better studies. I wrote, not for Italy, but for
Germany and the Netherlands'*. Before turning to the northern
nations, we propose to trace the History of Scholarship in Italy
in the age that immediately succeeded the Revival of Learning.
1 The following is a small part of the literature on Erasmus. Opera, ed.
J. Clericus (Leyden) in eleven folio vols. (1703-6); Life etc. by Jortin
(1758-60); De Laur (1872); R. B. Drummond (1873); Fougere (1874);
Nisard (1876); Froude (1894) ; Emerton (1899); Mark Pattison in Enc. Brit.
ed. ix, and Capey, with brief bibliography (1902); also Bursian, Gesch. d. cl.
Philol. in Dnitschland, i 142-9 ; Geiger's Renaissance, 526 — 548, Mullinger's
Cambridge, i 472 — 520; Jebb's Erasmus (1890) and in Camb. Mod. Hist. i
569 — 571; F. M. Nichols, The Epistles of Erasmus (1901-4); Woodward,
Erasmus on Education (1904), with bibliography, Renaissance Education
(1906), 104 — 126, and Brunetiere, Hist, de la Lift. Francaise classique (1904), i
34 — 50; and, lastly, Briefe an Erasmus, ed. Enthoven (Strassburg, 1906), and
esp. Erasmi Epistolae, vol. i, 1484 — 1514, ed. P. S. Allen (Oxford, 1906).
Of the portraits by Holbein there are three types : — (1) the profile-portraits,
(a) once in the possession of Charles I, and now in the salon carre of the
Louvre (reproduced on p. 126); (b) at Basel, with a simpler background, and
with the words on the paper clearly legible : — In Evangelium Marci para-
phrasis followed by the author's name..., Cunctis mortalibus ins(itum est)
(reproduced in Geiger's Humanismus, 531) ; (2) the three-quarter-face
portrait at Longford Castle, near Salisbury ; (3) the small circular three-
quarter-face portrait at Basel, representing a somewhat older man. (l) and
(2) belong to 1523 (Woltmann's Holbein, 182-9).
2 Jebb's Erasmus, 41 f; Erasmus, Opera (Basel, 1540), ix 1440, 'me
adolescente in nostrate Germania regnabat impune crassa barbaries, literas
Graecas attigisse haeresis erat. Itaque pro mea quantulacunque portione
conatus sum iuventutem ab inscitiae coeno ad puriora studia excitare. Neque
enim ilia scripsi Italis, sed Hollandis, Brabantis, ac Flandris. Nee omnino
male cessit conatus meus' (1535).
CHAPTER XI.
ITALY FROM 1527 TO 1600.
THE Sack of Rome in the month of May, 1527, marks the end
of the Revival of Learning in Italy, but not the end T ..
•* ' Literary
of the History of Scholarship in that country. In Criticism.
Vidci
the month immediately preceding that appalling
event, a work composed by Vida before 1520 was printed in
Rome in the form of a didactic poem De Arte Poetica, the first of
a long series of volumes on the theory of poetry published in
Italy during the sixteenth century. Vida's treatise accepts as the
text-book of literary criticism the Ars Poetica of Horace, while
it finds the true model of epic verse in the Aeneid of Virgil1.
Meanwhile, in 1498, another of the great classical influence of
text-books of literary criticism, the treatise of Aristotle's
Aristotle On the Art of Poetry, had been im-
perfectly translated into Latin by Giorgio Valla of Piacenza
(c. 1430-99), probably a cousin of Laurentius Valla; and it was
in this form that Aristotle's treatise was first known in the Revival
of Learning. The Greek text was afterwards printed for the first
time in the Aldine edition of the Rhetores Graeri (1508) ; but the
modern influence of this famous work dates from the memorable
year I5362. It was the year that saw the Greek text separately
published by Trincaveli, a revised Latin translation published by
Pazzi, and the teaching of Aristotle applied for the first time
to the theory of tragedy by Daniello3. In 1536 Ramus obtained
his doctor's degree in Paris by maintaining that all the doctrines
1 On Vida, see p. 117 supra; and cp. Saintsbury, History of Criticism,
ii 29 — 37 ; Spingarn, Literary Criticism in the Renaissance, 127, 131-3.
2 Spingarn, 17. 3 Spingarn, 137; also 28, 41, 81 f.
134 ITALY. [CENT. xvi.
of Aristotle were false, thus marking the decline of Aristotle's
teaching in philosophy ; but, in the very same year, the dedicator
of Pazzi's posthumous work declares that, in the treatise on
Poetry, 'the precepts of poetic art are treated by Aristotle as
divinely as he has treated every other form of knowledge', — thus
marking the beginning of Aristotle's influence in literature1.
Between 1536 and 1550 the critics and poets of Italy had
assimilated the teaching of Aristotle's treatise on Poetry. In 1543
Giraldi Cintio tells us that it was already in use as a dramatic
text-book2. In 1548 the first critical edition, with a Latin transla-
tion and a learned commentary, was produced by Robortelli, then
professor at Pisa3. In the following year the first Italian transla-
tion was published by Bernardo Segni, and before April in that
year, Ferrara was the scene of its first public exposition by Maggi,
whose edition appeared in 1550". The great edition by Victo-
rius was produced in 1560, and in 1563 we find Trissino adding
to his earlier work (1529) two new parts, which are entirely
founded on Aristotle5. Next follow the Italian commentaries
of Castelvetro (1570) and Piccolomini (1575). The former
is regarded by Tasso as supreme in erudition, and the latter
in maturity of judgement6. The Unity of Time, which had made
its first appearance in Giraldi Cintio (i543)7, is now followed
by the Unity of Place, which presents itself in Castelvetro
(i57o)8, whose commentary is lauded by Milton9, and described
by Bentley as sold for its 'weight in silver in most countries
of Europe'10. Aristotle's treatise was even expounded in
Latin verse by Baldini in 1576, and, ten years later, it was
paraphrased and explained in Italian prose by Salviati (1586), who
briefly reviews the works of his precursors11. It was made into a
practical manual for poets and playwrights by Riccoboni (1591)'*,
1 Spingarn, 137.
2 Discorso suite Comedie e sulle Tragedic, \\ 6 (Spingarn, 62).
3 p. 141 infra. 4 Cp. Tiraboschi, vii 1472 f.
6 Spingarn, 140. 6 xv 20 (Spingarn, 140).
7 Discorso sulle Comedie e sulle 7'rageJie, ii lof; Spingarn, 91.
8 Po'etica, 534; Spingarn, 98 f.
9 Of Education (iv 389, ed. 1863). 10 Phalaris, 63, Wagner.
11 Printed from MS in Florence by Spingarn, 314-6.
12 Spingarn, 140.
CHAP. XL] INFLUENCE OF ARISTOTLE'S POETIC. 135
defended against all detractors by Buonamici (I597)1, and finally
expounded on a large scale by Beni (1613).
Meanwhile, a series of treatises on the Art of Poetry had been
produced in Italy by Danielle (1536), Muzio (1551), Varchi
(r5S3)> Giraldi Cintio (1554), Fracastoro (i555)2, Minturno
(1559), and Partenio (i56o)3. All these culminated in a work by
a more famous scholar of Italian birth, Julius Caesar Scaliger
(1484 — 1558), who in 1529 had left the banks of the Lago di
Garda for Agen on the Garonne. In his treatise on poetry,
posthumously published at Geneva in 1561, he describes Aristotle
as 'imperator noster, omnium bonarum artium dictator per-
petuus'4. The elder Scaliger belongs to the history of scholarship
in France, the land of his adoption, but we must here notice two
eminent Italian scholars, whose studies were closely connected
with the Ars Poetica of Aristotle, though far from being confined
to it.
Piero Vettori, whose name is more familiar in the Latin form
of Petrus Victorius (1499 — 1585), may be regarded
•111 /~i r Victorius
as possibly the greatest Greek scholar of Italy, as
certainly the foremost representative of classical scholarship in
that country during the sixteenth century, which, for Italy at
least, may well be called the saecuhtm Victorianum. Descended
on both sides from families of distinction in Florence, he owed
much to the intellectual ability of his mother. He learnt his
Greek from Marcello Hadriano, and Andrea Dazzi5, and from the
1 Discorsi Poelici in difesa d' Aristotele.
2 p. 1 1 8 supra.
3 See Index to Spingarn and Saintsbury.
4 Poetices libri septem, vn ii i, p. 932 (ed. 1586). Cp. Saintsbury, ii
69—80. Scaliger's treatise was succeeded by a second work by Minturno
(1564), and by those of Viperano (1579), Pat"zzi (I586), Tasso (1587),
Denores (1588), Buonamici (1597) and Summo (1600).
6 Andrea Dazzi (1475 — 1548), a pupil of the Latin secretary of Florence,
and editor of Dioscorides (1518), Marcellus Virgilius Adrianus (1464 — 1521),
whom he succeeded as professor. In his Latin poem on the 'Battle of the
Cats and Mice' he imitated Virgil, Ovid, and Silius Italicus. He also wrote
minor hexameter poems, Silvae, and Greek and Latin Epigrams (W. Riidiger,
Marcellus Virgilius Adrianus, 65 pp., and Andreas Dactius aus Florenz,
70 pp., Halle, 1897).
PIERO VETTOP1
SENATORS
/
LKTTEIMTO L\'SIGN£
£ CONTE R4LJT1NO
G/ISIJO III-
MCCCCXCIX-
da.
delta
chpuita LJX ffauota. cki
dftoma nfU' tfiL' Ca/<*
VlCTORIUS.
From the portrait by Titian, engraved by Ant. Zaballi for the Ritratti
Toscani, vol. I, no. xxxix (Allegrini, Firenze, 1766).
CHAP. XI.] VICTORIUS. 137
blind scholar, Giorgio Riescio of Poggibonsi. An early interest in
astronomy led to his eager study of Aratus and his commentator
Hipparchus. At the age of 24 he visited Spain in the company of
his relative, Paolo Vettori, admiral of the papal fleet which was
sent to escort the newly-elected Pope, Adrian of Utrecht, to the
shores of Italy ; and, in the neighbourhood of Barcelona, he then
collected a number of Latin inscriptions1. After taking part in
the spirited but unavailing attempt of Florence to oppose the
return of the base-born tyrant, Alessandro Medici, he lived in
retirement at San Casciano from 1529 to the death of the second
Medicean Pope, Clement VII (1534). In 1536-7 he produced
in three volumes an edition of the Letters and the philosophi-
cal and rhetorical works of Cicero, whose Speeches had already
been edited by Naugerius. Under Cosimo I, he withdrew to
Rome, but was soon invited to return to Florence as professor of
Latin. He was subsequently professor of Greek, and of Moral
Philosophy. In Latin scholarship he paid special attention to
Cicero's Letters* ; he also edited Cato and Varro, De Re Rustica
(1541), and Terence (1565) and Sallust (1576). In Greek his
greatest works are his Commentaries on Aristotle's Rhetoric
(1548), Poetic (1560), Politics (1576) and Nicomachean Ethics
(1584). All of these are published in folio volumes, in which
every sentence, or paragraph, of the text is printed separately,
followed, in each case, by a full exposition. For the second
Juntine edition of Sophocles (1547) he collated certain ancient
MSS in Florence (doubtless including the codex Laurentianus] so
far as regarded the Oedipus Tyrannus, Oedipus Coloneus, and
Trachiniae, but in the preface he is simply described as ' a learned
man ', without any mention of his name. He produced editions
of Plato's Lysis, and Xenophon's Memorabilia (1551), Porphyry,
De Abstinentia (1548), Clemens Alexandrinus (1550), Dionysius
of Halicarnassus on Isaeus and Dinarchus (1581), and Demetrius,
De Elocutione (1562), with the text interspersed in the folio pages
1 Cp. Epp. 167 f.
2 Ed. 1536, followed by Castigationes in 1540-1, Ad Familiares 1558, and
Ad Atticum 1571. Many of the corrections now universally accepted are due
to Victorius, e.g. Ad Fam. iv 8, virep MaMa? for 'supra Maias', and Ad Alt.
xv 19, ' De Menedemo ' for ' Demea domi est'; cp. Riidiger, P. V. 18, 24, 49.
138 ITALY. [CENT. xvi.
of the Latin commentary. In Greek verse, he published the
editio princeps of the Electro, of Euripides (1545), a play discovered
in that year by two of his pupils, and the first edition of
Aeschylus which contained the complete Agamemnon (1557)'.
Twenty-five books of Variae Lectiones, or Miscellaneous Criticisms,
published in 1553, were followed by thirteen more in 1569, and
re-issued in the complete folio edition of thirty-eight books in
1582. The only other works that need here be mentioned are his
Epistolae ad Germanos missae (1577) and the Epistolae and
Orationes published by his grandson in 1586.
While he disapproved of the disastrous policy of the Medicean
Pope, Clement VII, which ended in the Sack of Rome and
the suppression of the liberty of Florence, he was loyal to the
successors of Clement, and to the Grand Dukes of Tuscany ; and
he was sent by Florence to congratulate Julius III on his election
(T549)-
When the Grand Duke, Francesco, married Bianca Capella,
Victorius presented the ruler of the State with a very exceptional
wedding-gift in the form of a new edition of the commentary
on Aristotle's Rhetoric (1579). In the Commentary on the
Ethics, Aristotle's reference to the opinion of Eudoxus, that
pleasure is the chief good2, prompts Victorius to introduce an
irrelevant notice of the services of Eudoxus in the correction of
the Calendar, and an equally irrelevant compliment to Gregory
XIII on his similar services, — a compliment which Victorius
also pays the Pope in a separate letter on this subject3. None of
the attempts to attract Victorius to Rome or Bologna had any
permanent result ; he remained true to Florence to the last. We
are told that, for eighty-five of the eighty-six years of his long life,
his sight remained undimmed; also that he drank water only, and
constantly bathed in his native stream of the Arno. At the age
of 86 he died and was buried in the church of Santo Spirito, where
the following inscription may be seen on the wall to the right
of the altar : —
1 Owing to the loss of 14 leaves, more than two-thirds of the play is
missing in the Medicean MS, viz. 323 — 1050, 1159 — 1673, ed. Wecklein.
2 Ethics, x 2, § i.
3 Epp. p. 222, ' nactus occasionem idoneam laudandi te etc.'
CHAP. XL] VICTORIUS. 139
'D. O. M.
In sepulcro hoc sub aram posito
Inter ceteras familiae Vettori exuvias
Translata servantur ossa
Petri Victorii cognomento docti'.
During his lifetime five medals were struck in his honour1,
and his portrait was painted by Titian2, while, in the frontispiece
of his posthumous Epistolae, we have an engraving representing
the great scholar in the 8yth year of his age. His fame was
not limited to his own land, or his own time. Scholars of his own
age, or little later, were loud in his praises. His scrupulous care
and unwearied industry are lauded by Turnebus, who declines
to be compared with him, even for a moment3; the epithets
doctissimus, optimus, and fidelissimus are applied to him by the
younger and the greater of the two Scaligers4, while Muretus calls
him eruditorum coryphaeus* ; and similar eulogies might be quoted
from Justus Lipsius6, and the author of the Polyhistor1^ as well as
from editors of the Ars Poetica of Aristotle, such as Anna Dacier8,
and of Cicero's Letters, such as Graevius9. His Variae Lectiones,
however, were sometimes regarded as unduly diffuse, and the
prolixity of his Latin letters has been noticed in the Scaligerana™,
and by Balzac, who observed that the perusal of the whole
volume was as tedious as travelling, on foot and alone, across the
moorlands of Bordeaux". Among his editions of Greek authors,
the highest place for wide and varied learning was generally awarded
to his commentary on Aristotle's Rhetoric™, while his contemporary
Robortelli lauded him as the only scholar who had really thrown
light on the text of Cicero13. He is described by a poet as having
1 Bandini's Vita, 1759, opp. p. civ, and on title-page.
2 Reproduced opp. p. 137.
3 Adversaria, xix 28 ; Epp. clar. Ital. et Germ, iii 34.
4 Prima Scaligerana, 99. s Var. Led. viii 6.
6 Var. Led. ii 25.
7 Morhof, Polyhistor, \ 5, 15.
8 Ed. 1692, Preface.
9 Epp. Earn., Praef. Cp. Sir Thomas Pope in Blount's Censura, 475 f.
10 P- 359-
11 Lettres a M. Chafelain, iii 21 (6 July, 1638), ed. 1656.
12 Epp. clar. Ital. et Germ, i 36. 13 ib. \ 6.
140 ITALY. [CENT. xvi.
climbed the 'hill of Virtue.', and taken his place on its summit
between Cicero and Aristotle1. The funeral oration in his honour
was delivered by Leonardo Salviati, the head of the newly founded
Accademia della Crusca, who dwells on the simplicity of his life,
the unselfishness of his character, and his high qualities as a
teacher ; and personifies Italia as saying of her famous son : —
Now no more shall distant peoples cross the snows of the Alps to see
Victorias, or men of mark arrive from every land to hear him ; or princes hold
converse with him. Now no more shall the works of scholars in all parts of
the world be sent here for his approval ; or youth learn wisdom from his lips2.
Within a year of the delivery of that funeral oration, Salviati,
in the course of the celebrated controversy in defence of Ariosto
and in depreciation of Tasso, had written an extensive com-
mentary on the Ars Poetica of Aristotle, which still remains in MS
at Florence3. As commentators on that treatise, Salviati and
Victorius alike had been anticipated by the author of the first
critical edition, Robortelli (1548).
Francesco Robortelli (1516 — 1567) was the son of a notary
belonging to a noble family at Udine. He was
Robortelli
educated at Bologna, and held professorships at
Lucca (1538), Pisa (1543). Venice (1549). an<i Padua (1552-7),
and at Bologna itself (1557). From Bologna he returned to
Padua in 1560. Seven years later he died in poverty, and the
university honoured him with a public funeral, while the gratitude
of his Paduan pupils of the ' German nation ' caused his statue to
be placed in the church of Sant' Antonio4. An inordinate self-
esteem led to his quarrelling with several of the leading scholars
of his time. His earliest work, the Variorum Locorum Adnota-
tiones (Venice, 1543), is remarkable for its frequent attacks on
Erasmus. It was reprinted at Florence in 1548, in the same
volume as several minor works on History and Rhetoric, on
Catullus and Virgil, and on the Names of the Romans, closing
1 Albericus Longus, ib. ad fin.
2 Orazione Funerale, 1585. Cp., in general, Bandini's Vita, 1759;
H. Kammel \njakrb. f. Philol. xcvi, 1866, 325 f, 421 f; and W. RUdiger
(Halle, 1896).
3 Cod. Magliabech. II ii 2, Spingarn, 314 f; also 123 f.
4 G. B. Rossetti, Pitture etc. di Padova^ 77.
CHAP. XL] ROBORTELLI. 141
with a Greek Ode in honour of the author. The disquisition
on the Names of the Romans became notorious in connexion
with his subsequent controversy with the great authority on
Roman Antiquities, Sigonius. In the same year he produced
a far more important work, his edition of Aristotle's treatise on
the Art of Poetry, a thin folio volume including a critical revision
of the text, a Latin translation, and a learned and suggestive
commentary1. In the course of the latter he reviews the question
of aesthetic imitation, discusses the reason why tragedy deals only
with persons of importance, and, in his interpretation of Aristotle's
famous definition of tragedy, describes terror and pity as 'purging'
the mind of those emotions, and diminishing their effect in real
life, by familiarising the spectator with their representation on the
stage2. In this view, he is followed by Victorius (1560) and
Castelvetro (1570). His edition concludes with a paraphrase of
the Ars Poetica of Horace, and some account of other criticisms
on poetry. Much of the erudition contained in this work was
afterwards utilised in the Arte Nuevo of Lope de Vega (d. 1 635)1
His next important work was an edition of Aeschylus, including
the scholia (1552), in which he revised the text, and did much
towards restoring the metre4. In the same year he published
Aelian's Tactics with a Latin translation, and with illustrations
copied from ancient MSS. He was the first to print the celebrated
treatise On the Sufi/imes, which here appears as the work of
' Dionysius I.onginus', an attribution which remained unchallenged
until i8o86. With a pardonable pride, the editor describes the
text as an opus redivivum ... e tenebris in lucem eductum ; but all
that he supplies by way of elucidation of this masterly work is a
series of marginal headings denoting the principal contents. His
unimportant edition of Callimachus, with the Greek scholia and
with a Latin translation, appeared in the same year as his Fasti
Capitolini (1555). The only other work that need here be
noticed is the folio volume of 1557 including a treatise on the
Art of Criticism, two books of emendations, and a comparison of
1 Later ed. Basel, 1555. ~ Cp. Spingarn, 29, 63, 77.
3 Ed. Morel-Fatio, 1901-2 (Saintsbury's History of Criticism, ii 50, 345).
4 Cp. Enm. ed. Davies, p. 25. 8 Basel, 1554.
6 Cp. Rhys Roberts, 3, 247, 251.
142 ITALY. [CENT. xvi.
the chronology of Livy with the dates in the extant Roman Fasti.
The short treatise On the Art of Textual Criticism claims to be
the first of its kind1. It still deserves respectful remembrance, for
it really broke new ground. The author here notes the general
characteristics of Latin MSS, and the different kinds of handwrit-
ing, indicates some of the principal causes of corruption and the
corresponding means of restoration, and lays down certain rules
for conjectural emendation2. The chronological work published
at the same time, and the earlier Fasti Capitolini of 1555, are con-
nected with his memorable quarrel with his learned fellow-country-
man, Sigonius. The quarrel arose out of Robortelli's unimportant
treatise On the Names of the Romans, published while he was
still at Pisa (1548). Five years later, Sigonius wrote on the same
subject, attacking Robortelli's opinions3, but describing the author
as a 'friend' and as 'a man of learning'. In the following year
Robortelli published a letter resenting the attack, and reprinted
this letter in his Fasti Capitolini. The latter had been published
earlier in the same year by Sigonius with additions of his own.
But these additions were omitted by Robortelli, who stated that
they contained many mistakes, which he proposed to set forth in
his public lectures. In a new edition of the Fasti (1556), Sigonius
said nothing of Robortelli ; and, in the following year, Robortelli,
in his treatise on the chronology of Livy, renewed his attacks on
Sigonius, repeatedly describing him as nullo judicio praeditus, and
heading half the chapters with error Sigonii. Sigonius managed
to obtain advance sheets of this work, and was thus enabled
to answer the attack within a month of its publication. The
answer is as bitter as the attack, but Sigonius 'might fairly plead
excessive provocation. The quarrel was composed for a time by
the good offices of Cardinal Seripando, who was at Bologna in
1561, but it broke out afresh in 1562, when both the disputants
1 De Arte sive Ratione corrigendi Antiquos Libras Disputatio, mine
primum a me excogitata ; reprinted in the Amsterdam ed. of Scioppius,
De Arte Critica (1672), and in Gruter's Lampas, ed. 1747, t. ii.
2 Hallam, i4g64.
3 e.g. Robortelli had denied the antiquity of Roman female praenomina,
except in the marriage formula, ubi tu Gaius, ego Gaia. Sigonius replied by
quoting examples to the contrary from the times of the Republic.
CHAP. XL] SIGONIUS. 143
were professors in Padua. Robortelli's treatise De Vita et Victu
Populi Romani was afterwards attacked by Sigonius in his
Disputationes Patavinae, and Robortelli replied under an assumed
name in his Ephemerides Patavinae with remarks on the personal
peculiarities of Sigonius, which brought on him a still more
violent attack in a second edition of the Disputationes, Happily,
both works were suppressed by order of the State. Robortelli's
merits, as an editor of Aeschylus, and as an intelligent expositor of
Aristotle's treatise on Poetry, are undoubted. It is true that
he failed to rise to the height of a great opportunity in the editio
princeps of the treatise On the Sublime, but, five years later, he
laid the foundation of the art of textual criticism as applied to
Latin MSS. It would have been better for his reputation if he
had written nothing more, for, in the department of Roman
Antiquities, he was no match for his opponent Sigonius1.
Carlo Sigone or Sigonio (c. 1524 — 1584) was born at Modena,
and at Modena he died, after having held professor-
ships at Venice (1552), Padua (1560), and Bologna
(1563). His minor works include a Latin translation of Aristotle's
Rhetoric (1557) and a collection of the fragments of Cicero (1559).
All his greater productions are connected with the history and
antiquities of Rome. In 1555, while still at Venice, he published
his folio edition of Livy and his Fasti Consulares, with an ample
commentary on the latter in the following year2. The last two
works were the first in which accurate criticism was applied to
the chronology of Roman history. Their author also broke new
ground in his treatises on the legal rights of the citizens of Rome
and the inhabitants of Italy and the Provinces (1560-7). Roman
Antiquities are further represented in his treatises on Roman names,
and Roman law-courts (1574), the latter work being lauded by
Gibbon as written 'with much learning and in a classic style'3.
Moreover, he traced the fortunes of Rome from the days of
Diocletian to the end of the Western Empire in a folio volume
consisting of twenty books, the first modern work that fully
deserves the name of a history4. In another stately volume he
1 Cp., in general, Tiraboschi vii 840-8.
2 Both reprinted at Oxford, 1801-2. 3 c. 45 (iv 506 Bury).
4 ffistoriarum de occidental! imperio libri xx, Bononiae, 15/8.
144 ITALY. [CENT. xvi.
had already told the story of the 'Kingdom of Italy' from the
invasion of the Lombards (568) to 1199, and afterwards to
1286', a work which was founded on wide research in the Italian
archives, and has received the highest eulogy from the competent
pen of the author's erudite biographer, Muratori2. He had dealt
more briefly with the Constitution of Athens, and with the times
of the Athenian and the Spartan supremacy (1564-5). In the
former all the Greek authorities appear in a Latin dress, and
hardly any Greek words occur, a fact that has been held by
Hallam to imply a decline of Greek learning in Italy, while his
works on the Roman government are regarded by the same writer
as marking an epoch in that department of ancient literature3.
Besides his controversy with Robortelli, he was involved in
a discussion, conducted in a better temper on both sides, with
Nicolas de Grouchy of Rouen, professor of Greek at Bordeaux^
the author of a treatise De Comitiis Romanorum (i555)4. Late
in life he was engaged in a less creditable controversy with Antonio
Riccoboni (1541 — 1599), who was already known as a commen-
tator on the rhetorical works of Cicero, and as a translator of the
Rhetoric of Aristotle5. In 1583 a printer in Venice produced a
volume purporting to be the Consolatio of Cicero, liber... nunc
primum repertus et in lucem editus6. It had been seen through
the press by one Francesco Vianello. Sigonius maintained in
two 'Orations' that it was the work of Cicero, while Riccoboni
declared that it was spurious ; he suspected, indeed, that it was
the work of Sigonius himself. Justus Lipsius and others agreed
with Riccoboni, and there is no doubt that they were right.
Sigonius did not live to publish his third 'Oratio' on the subject
1 De Regno Italiae, Ven. 1574, etc. ; cp. Gibbon, c. 45 ad fin.
2 Vita Sigonii, p. ix, 'insigne profecto opus et monumentorum copia, et
splendore sermonis, et ordine narrationis, ex quo incredibilis lux facta est
eruditioni barbarorum temporum, in ilium usque diem apud Italos tenebris
innumeris circumfusae'. 3 i 525-64.
4 The discussion related to the question whether popular elections had to
be confirmed by the comitia curiata ; cp. Cic. De Lege Agr. ii 26 — 31.
8 His criticisms on the Rhetoric and Ethics were reprinted at Oxford as late
as 1820-1.
6 There were nine different editions in 1 583-4 (Orelli-Baiter, Onomasticon,
i 377 f). It may be seen in Nobbe's Cicero, p. 1345.
CHAP. XL] PANTAGATO. PANVINIO. 145
(1599). Early in 1584 he withdrew to his native town of Modena,
where he had built himself a villa that may still be seen across the
Secchia, two miles distant from the town. He there died in the
same year, and was buried in the church of Sant' Agostino1.
An interest in Roman antiquities was aroused in Rome itself
by one of the earlier contemporaries of Sigonius,
. ,. . Pantagato
Ottavio Pantagato of Brescia (1494 — 1567), who
passed the greater part of his life in Rome. His high reputation
for learning, especially in the department of Antiquities and
Chronology, is attested by Victorius2 and by Paulus Manutius3.
A younger contemporary of Sigonius, Onofrio Panvinio, an
Augustinian monk of Verona (1529 — 11568), printed
b,. . Panvinio
an edition of the fasti Consulares at Venice m 1556,
and thus came into friendly controversy with their recent editor,
Sigonius. Panvinio spent most of his time in Rome. During a
visit to Sicily in 1568, he died at Palermo; he was buried at
Rome in the church of Sant' Agostino. In the course of his
short life, besides producing his edition of the Consular Fasti,
he wrote on Roman names, on ludi circenses and saecnlares, on
triumphs and sacrifices, on the books of the Sibyls and the
portraits of the emperors. Much of his work was founded on
his own researches in Roman inscriptions. He had collected
nearly 3000, and formed a grand scheme for publishing all the
inscriptions of the Roman world4. His collection has not been
found, but it has been surmised that it was the same as that
published at Antwerp by one of his companions in Rome, named
Martin Smetius, whose work became the foundation of that of
Janus Gruter9.
During the life-time of Sigonius, the study of Cicero, but not of
1 A complete edition of his works in six folio volumes was published at
Milan, 1/32-7, with a Life by Muratori, and with a fine portrait as frontis-
piece. Cp., in general, Tiraboschi, vii 831 — 840.
2 Pref. to Cic. ad Alt.
3 Epp. ii 34, ' urbem, a qua ceteri honestantur, sua ipse virtute nobilitat '
etc. Cp. Tiraboschi, vii 882-6.
4 Fasti, lib. ii, ' magnum inscriptionum totius orbis opus adorno, quod
quamprimum Deo auspice evulgabitur ; in quo omnia singillatim inscriptionum
loca accuratissime descripta sunt '. Cp. Lanciani (it. s. p. 121), 130-2.
6 Cp. Tiraboschi, vii 825—831 ; Henzen in C./.Z. VI (i) liii ; Stark, 101.
S. II. 10
146 . ITALY. [CENT. xvi.
Cicero alone, was well represented by scholars bearing the Latin
names of Nizolius, Majoragius, and Faernus. The first
Nizolius
of these, whose name was Mario Nizzoli (1498 —
1566), was born at Brescello in the duchy of Milan, and had already
enjoyed for thirteen years the generous patronage of Count Gian-
francesco Gambara of Brescia, when he published the first edition
of his Observationes in Ciceronem, in two folio volumes (1535), with
references to the pages of the Aldine text. This important work of
reference was revised by Alexander Scot under the title of Apparatus
Latinae locutionis, with references to the sections of his edition of
the whole of Cicero (Basel, 1588). It was republished under the
more intelligible titles, Thesaurus Ciceroniamis, and Lexicon Cicero-
nianum. The latter was the title adopted by Facciolati in his
edition of 1734- Later editions of this valuable work are still
in use1. From 1547 to 1562 he was a professor at Parma, and
was brought into controversy with Majoragius. The latter had
attacked the Paradoxes of Cicero (1546) ; the attack was met by
a friendly letter of protest on the part of Nizolius. Majoragius
replied in an Apologia, and Nizolius retorted in an Antapologia,
whereupon Majoragius hurled forth two books of Reprehensiones,
and soon found himself confronted by his opponent's Anti-
barbarus Philosophicus (i553)2. The author here attacks the
scholastic terminology, which was still predominant in the study
of the logic and metaphysics of Aristotle, and pleads for a wider
recognition of the best authors of Greece and Rome. The
treatise owes its reputation mainly to the fact that it was reprinted
by Leibnitz in 1670, with a notable preface recommending the
work as a model of philosophical language that was free from
barbarism3. The controversy between Nizolius and Majoragius,
which was waged with violence on both sides, was viewed with
regret by the literary world of Italy, and many attempts were
made to reconcile the disputants. Oporinus, who printed the
1 e.g. ed. 1820 London, in three octavo vols. Sir Philip Sidney, in his
Apologie for Poetrie (1595), p. 68 Arber, mentions ' Nizolian Paper-bookes
of... figures and phrases'; cp. p. 150 infra,
2 This is only the popular abridgement of the true title : — De veris
principiis et de vera ratione philosophandi contra pseudo-philosophos.
8 Hallam, ii 17 f*.
CHAP. XL] NIZOLIUS. MAJORAGIUS. FAERNUS. 147
tracts of Majoragius at Basel, vainly intervened in a controversy
which was only closed by the early death of that otherwise blame-
less and meritorious scholar (1555). In 1562 the survivor,
Nizolius, became professor at Sabbioneta, but, four years later,
he appears to have died at the place of his birth, where a tablet
commemorates him, not only as the ' first author of the Observa-
tions on Cicero' (which is true), but also as 'the sole restorer of
the Aristotelian philosophy ' (which does not appear to be in ac-
cordance with the facts)1.
His opponent, Marcantonio Majoragio, assumed that name
in exchange for that of Maria Antonio Conti
/ u . ik/r • • Majoragius
(1514 — 1555). He was born at Majoragio near
Milan, and it was at Milan that he held a professorship for the
latter part of his short life, being only absent for a year or more,
in 1542. At that date the war in Lombardy led to his leaving for
Ferrara, where he attended the lectures of Maggi on philosophy,
and those of Alciati8 on jurisprudence. He produced a com-
mentary on the Rhetoric of Aristotle (1547) and on the Orator
of Cicero (1552 etc.); that on the first book of the De Oratore
(1587) was not published until after his death. He defended
Cicero against the attack on the De Offiriis by that versatile
scholar and eager student of Cicero, Celio Calcagnini (1479 —
1546), who had already passed away before the defence was pub-
lished. His own attack on the Paradoxes of Cicero (1546)
brought him (as we have seen) into a conflict with Nizolius,
which was only closed by the early death of Majoragius3.
Another student of Cicero, Gabriello Fae'rno (or Faernus) of
Cremona (d. 1561), owed much to the favour of
Faernus
Cardinal Carlo Borromeo and to that Cardinal's
uncle, the future Pope Pius IV. It was not until after the death
of Faernus that the classical world of Rome welcomed the pub-
lication of his edition of Cicero's Philippics, with the pro Fonteio,
pro Flacco and in Pisonem (1563), and his recension of Terence
(1565), both of which works were highly commended by Vic-
torius4. His celebrated rendering of a hundred Aesopian fables
1 Cp. Tiraboschi, vii 452, 1510-3.
2 (1492 — 1550); portrait in Boissard, n 134.
8 p. 146 supra. Cp. Tiraboschi, vii 1507-10. 4 Epp. pp. 112, 129.
10 — 2
148
ITALY.
[CENT. xvi.
Muretus
into Latin verse was similarly published by command of the Pope
(1564)'.
The year that preceded the death of Faernus was that of
the arrival of Muretus in Rome. Marc-Antoine
Muret (1526 — 1585), who was born at Muret
near Limoges, studied at Poitiers, but was mainly self-taught.
In early life he had a great admiration for the elder Scaliger,
whom he twice visited at Agen. In 1546 he began to lecture
at Poitiers, where he made the acquaintance of Joachim du
Bellay, one of the brilliant group of poets known as the Pleiad.
In the following year he was already lecturing with success at
Bordeaux. Montaigne, who claims Muretus as one of his private
tutors, and took part, as a boy, in his play of Julius Caesar,
1 Tiraboschi, vii 1409-1 r.
MURETUS.
From Joannes Imperialis, Museum Historicum (Venice, 1640), p. no.
CHAP. XL] MURETUS. 149
describes him as recognised by France and Italy as the best
stylist of his time1. In Paris he lectured on Cicero, De Divinatione,
and on Aristotle's Ethics, his notes on the latter being printed in
1553, — his first publication on a Greek subject. Thanks to Dorat,
himself a native of Limoges, and to Joachim du Bellay, he was
admitted into the circle of young poets, to which Dorat and
Ronsard then belonged. In 1553 he published his French com-
mentary on Ronsard's Amours, and his Juvenilia, a collection of
Latin verse, including the fine line : — Pande oculos, pande stellatae
frontis honorem*. In the midst of his gay and brilliant life among
the poets of Paris, a cloud suddenly arose on the horizon.
Mysterious charges of heresy and of immorality led to his
suddenly leaving Paris for Toulouse, where he is said to have
been condemned to death ; but one of the two entrusted with the
execution of the sentence sent him a slip of paper inscribed with
the Virgilian phrase, heu fuge crudeles terras ; Muretus at once
took the hint, and was at a safe distance by the time when he was
burnt in effigy at Toulouse. During his flight across the north of
Italy, he fell into a fever, and, in one of the cities of Lombardy,
found himself in the hands of certain physicians. The coarseness
of his features, and the rustic garb of his disguise, led to his being
mistaken for a tramp. After a consultation, one of the physicians
said to the other in Latin : — -faciamus experimentum in anima
vili, whereupon the patient rose in his bed, and indignantly ex-
claimed : — Vilem animam appellas pro qua Christus non dedignatus
est mori?3. Escaping from this second peril, he made his way
to Venice, where he held a professorship of humanity for four
years (1555-8). He afterwards took private pupils in Padua, and
lived for twelve years under the patronage of the Cardinal of Este
at Ferrara and elsewhere ; and, finally, he was a professor in
Rome for more than twenty years (1563-84). In 1576 he was
ordained to the priesthood, and in 1585 he died, and was buried
near the high altar in the French church of SS. Trinita de' Monti,
where an inscription in his own Latin prose identifies his tomb4.
1 i 25, Me meilleur orateur du temps'.
2 No. 28; Dejob, p. 35. Pattison, Essays, i 127, compares the Tennysonian
' star-like sorrows of immortal eyes'.
3 Colletet, ap. Dejob, 60 ; Menagiana, i 302. 4 Dejob, 367.
ISO ITALY. [CENT. xvi.
At Venice, his friendship with Paulus Manutius led to his
publishing at the Aldine Press his editions of Catullus, Horace
and Terence, Tibullus and Propertius, the Catilinarian Orations
of Cicero, a commentary on the first book of the Tusculan Dis-
putations^ and the three lectures De Studiis Litterarum (1555).
Early in 1563, on a visit to Paris in the train of the Cardinal
of Ferrara (when he was well received by Turnebus and Dorat,
and met the young Canter, besides coming into friendly relations
with Amyot), he discovered a MS of Victorinus1, and published
an edition of Cicero's Philippics. During his early time in Rome
he lectured on Aristotle's Ethics, and on Roman Law. Forbidden
to lecture on Law, he discoursed on Cicero, De Finibus, and
on Plato's Republic. Forbidden to lecture on Plato, he took
refuge in expounding Juvenal and Tacitus, the De Offiriis and the
Letters of Cicero, the De Providentia of Seneca, and the Rhetoric
and Politics of Aristotle. His translation of the first two books
of the Rhetoric, and his commentaries on the Ethics, Oeconomics,
Topics, Plato's Republic i, n, and his notes on Tacitus and Sallust,
were afterwards printed. Most of his published works were closely
connected with his lectures. Far more interesting than any of
these were the Variae Lectiones, which appeared in three in-
stalments, the first eight books in 1559, the next seven in 1580,
and the last four in 1585. One of the most interesting passages
is that in which he tells us of the trap that he laid for some of the
ultra-Ciceronians of his day, who had a singularly sensitive ear
for any words, which, as they supposed, had never been used by
Cicero. To these fastidious critics the touchstone of Ciceronianism
was the lexicon of Nizolius. When some of them were attending
Muretus' lectures in Rome, he slyly introduced into his discourse
some of the words which had been accidentally omitted by the
lexicographer. The ' Ciceronians ' protested that it was simple
torture to listen to such barbarisms ; but, when Muretus actually
showed them his authority in the pages of Cicero, the words that
had just before been deemed harsh and rough, at once became
' smooth and sweet and delightful to the ear'2. Similarly, the
superlative illustrissimus lay under grave suspicion, so long as it
1 Epp. in xii.
* Var. Lect. xv i; Harvard Lectures, i6gf.
CHAP. XL] MURETUS. 151
was supposed that the earliest authority for its use was Gellius ;
but, as soon as it was discovered in Varro, it was no longer
necessary to resort to the circumlocution maxime illustris^.
Muretus was specially grateful to Cujas for bringing some of the
old Latin words into use, ne lingua per se inops . . .magis etiam
pauperetur 2.
His relations with Lambinus were perfectly satisfactory in
1556, when Lambinus visited Muretus in Venice ; but an
estrangement arose in 1559, when Muretus published in his
Variae Lectiones some emendations, which he had borrowed,
without leave, from Lambinus. The final and irreparable breach
ensued two years later, when Lambinus published his corre-
spondence with Muretus, regardless of the damage that was thus
inflicted on the good name of the latter. Muretus, who had
plagiarised from Lambinus, held that he had himself been similarly
treated by Lipsius, in his edition of Tacitus, but he states his
grievance in the most courteous terms3. Nevertheless the work
of Lipsius on Tacitus, like that of Lambinus on Horace, is
superior to any single edition published by Muretus. Scaliger says
more than once that Muretus thoroughly understood Aristotle's
Rhetoric; he adds that Muretus was a very great man, that he
satirised the Ciceronians and at the same time expressed himself
in a thoroughly Ciceronian style, without confining himself to that
style, like the rest4. As an imitator of Cicero, he was more
successful than the younger Pliny, or than Paulus Manutius.
Nature (says Ruhnken) had given him the same genius as Cicero5.
He was long regarded as a classic model for modern Latin prose.
But he was himself fully conscious of the importance of Greek.
In his inaugural lecture on Plato, he defended the teaching of
Greek against the unintelligent protests of the day, and clearly
pointed out the probable results of a neglect of that study. ' All
that was lofty in thought' (he declared) 'was enshrined in the
literature of Greece '6. During the twenty years, in which he
1 Var. Lect. xv. i; Harvard Lectures, 169 f.
2 Var. Lect. xi 17 ; paupero itself is only found in Flautus.
3 Var. Lect. xi i. 4 Scaligerana Sec.
5 Mureti Opera, IV iii, ed. Ruhnken. Cp. Hallam, i 5O44.
6 Or, \\ iv (i 236 Ruhnken), ' Omnem elegantem doctrinam, omnem
152 ITALY. [CENT. xvi.
lectured under no small difficulties and restrictions in Rome,
he foresaw the decline of learning in Italy and made every effort
to arrest it1.
Muretus had been forbidden to continue his lectures on Plato.
It was not until seven years after his death that the
Patrizzi . . ...
prominent Platonist, Francesco Patnzzi (1529 —
1597), was invited to hold a professorship in Rome. This original
and versatile genius was at once a philosopher, mathematician,
historian, soldier, orator, and poet. Born on an island between
Istria and Dalmatia, he was educated from an early age at Padua,
where he became the pupil and the friend of Robortelli. In
1553 he published a discourse on the different kinds of poetic
inspiration, followed, in 1561, by his dialogues on history. After
living abroad in Cyprus, France and Spain, he produced the four
volumes of his Discussiones Peripateticae (1571-81), in which he
criticises the life of Aristotle, declaring many of his writings to
be spurious and violently attacking his opinions. During a second
visit to Spain he parted with several of his Greek MSS, which are
now in the Library of the Escurial2. He subsequently spent
fourteen years at Ferrara under the patronage of duke Alfonso II.
It was during this time that he published his remarkable work
Delia Poetica (1586), in which he once more opposes Aristotle.
In the historical division of this work he declines to follow
Aristotle in founding the type of the various forms of poetry on a
few great works. He surveys the history of literature as a whole,
and thus produces the first attempt in modern times to study
cognitionem dignam hominis ingenui studio, uno verbo quicquid usquam est
politiorum disciplinarum, nullis aliis quam Graecorum libris ac litteris contineri'.
' Praedicere possumus, si homines nostri paulo magis Graecas litteras negligere
coeperint, omnibus bonis artibus certissimam pestem ac perniciem imminere'.
1 Dejob, 375. On Muretus, cp. Dejob, Marc-Antoine Miiret, pp. 496
(1881), and the literature there quoted (reviewed in Pattison's Essays, i 124 —
131). Opera, four vols., ed. Ruhnken (1789) ; Epistolae, Prae/ationes, Orationes,
three vols., ed. Frotscher (1834-41); Scripta Selecta, two parts, ed. Frey
(1871-3). Portrait in his Juvenilia (1553), also in Phil. Galleus, Effigies, ii
(1577) 12 ; Boissard's /cones, vin /// 2; in Ruhnken's ed. vol. i, and Joannes
Imperialis, Museum Historicum (Ven. 1640), p. no, reproduced on p. 148.
Cp. also De Nolhac, La bibliotheque d'un humanists au -xvie s. (Rome, 1883).
2 Proclus, Libanius, Plotinus, etc. (Graux, Fonds grec de f Escurial, 127-9).
CHAP. XI.] PATRIZZI. FULVIO ORSINI. 153
literary history in a broad as well as a philosophic spirit. In the
controversial division he attacks the Treatise on Poetry, denouncing
its teaching as ' obscure, inconsistent and entirely unworthy of
credence }l. As a literary critic he is two centuries in advance of
his time2. In his Nnova Philosophia of 1591 he combined the
opinions of Plato with the teaching of Bernardino Telesio of
Cosenza (1508 — 1588), who united a keen appreciation of the
prae-Socratic natural philosophers with an eager insistence on the
importance of the direct investigation of nature. The work was
dedicated to Gregory XIV, formerly his fellow-student at Padua.
That Pope's successor, Clement VIII, soon invited him to Rome,
where he was professor of Platonic philosophy till his death
in I5973.
His contemporary, the enthusiastic scholar and antiquarian,
Fulvio Orsini (1^29 — 1600), who was probably the
x J . . ' ' . . Fulvio Orsini
natural son of a condottiere named Maerbale Orsini,
was originally a chorister and ultimately a canon of the church of
St John Lateran. For his interest in Greek and Latin and his
taste for the study of Roman antiquities he was mainly indebted
to a canon of the Lateran church, Gentile Delfini, and to the
president of the Roman Academy, Angelo Colocci. When the
Roman Fasti were discovered in the Forum (1546-7) it was
Delfini who was entrusted by Cardinal Alessandro Farnese with
the duty of placing them in the Palace of the Conservatori on
the Capitol. On the death of Delfini (1559), Orsini became
librarian to three of the Farnese cardinals in succession, and
devoted himself to the formation of a large collection of
manuscripts and printed books, as well as busts and gems and
Latin inscriptions. He was the centre of classical and antiquarian
interests in Rome, and there was hardly any edition of a Latin
author published in his time to which he did not contribute
readings from his store of MSS. He was thus brought into
relations with many of the leading scholars in Italy and in other
parts of Europe. Among his independent works were Greek illus-
trations of Virgil (1567), and selections from the Greek lyric poets
(1568), as well as an important work on iconography entitled
1 Spingarn, 165 f. 2 Saintsbury, ii 95 — 102.
3 Cp. Tiraboschi, vii (i) 458-66; Hallam, ii 6 f .
154 ITALY. [CENT, xvi.
Imagines et Elogia (1570), and textual notes on the whole of Cicero
(1579 f). He was also in various ways associated with Antonio
Agostino1 in his own work on Roman Families (1577), in his Festus
(1581), in his editio princeps of the excerpts from Polybius, which he
received from his friend the archbishop of Tarragona (1582), and
in his latest work, the fragments of the Roman historians (1595).
He bequeathed his important collection of MSS to the Vatican
Library, which thus became possessed of many treasures of the
highest value, including the celebrated MSS of Pindar, Terence
and Virgil, which had once belonged to Cardinal Bembo. He
was buried at the foot of the altar of the chapel, which he founded
near the entrance to the sacristry of the Lateran church. He has
been justly eulogised by Baronius as rerum antiquarum soller-
tissimus exploralor^.
The briefest mention must suffice for the classical archaeologists, Barto-
lommeo Marliani of Milan, who produced in 1 544 the second
Archaeologists edition of his antiquae itrbis Romanae topographia; Pirro
Marliani Ligorio (d. c. 1586), who published a work on the Antiquities
Panciroli of Rome in 1553, and left a vast collection of copies of Latin
inscriptions3 and ancient monuments4 ; Guido Panciroli (1523-
99), a professor of law at Padua, whose Descriptio Urbis Romae appeared in
*5935 > Ulisse Aldrovandi6, who printed in Venice a brief but important account
of the ancient statues in Rome (1556); Joannes Baptista de Cavaleriis, who
1 p. 160 infra.
2 Ann. Eccl. 324 A.D. See also the eulogy by De Thou, ap. Tiraboschi,
vii 246, Blount, Censura, 553, and esp. De Nolhac, La bibliotheque de Fttlvto
Orsini (1887), 489 pp., with plate of autographs of Petrarch, Poggio, Pomponius
Laetus, Politian and J. Lascaris etc.
3 Many of these are spurious: cp. C. I. L. VI (i) li, (5) 19* — 213*; Pref. to
IX — x xlviii. — Under the name of Annius of Viterbo, the Dominican Giovanni
Nanni (1432 — 1501) had already published in Rome in 1498 the 'Commen-
taria supra opera diversorum auctorum de Antiquitatibus loquentium confecta',
including passages purporting to be the remains of Berosus, Manetho, Megas-
thenes, Fabius Pictor, and Cato, the genuineness of which was doubted by
Sabellicus (d. 1506), Crinitus (d. 1504), and Raphael Maffei of Volterra
(d. 1521), and has since been vainly defended by A. Florchen (Hildes. 1759)
and G. B. Favre (Viterbo, 1779). Cp. Tiraboschi, vi 666 f, Hallam, i 240"*,
and R. C. Christie's Selected Essays, 59 f.
4 Tiraboschi, vii 880-2 ; Stark, 103. His collection was preserved at Turin
and Naples. There is a single vol. in the Bodleian.
6 Tiraboschi, vii 794-8.
6 Portrait in Bullart's Academic (Paris, 1682), ii 109.
CHAP. XI.] ARCHAEOLOGISTS. PALEARIO. 155
published reproductions of the buildings in 1569, and of the statues in 1584
and 1594; Antonio Lafreri, who produced more than 100 engravings of old
Rome in his Speculum Romanae Magnificentiae (I575)1 ; and, lastly, Flaminio
Vacca, who in 1 594 wrote a careful account of the Roman Antiquities discovered
in his day, and thus closed with a work of high merit the archaeological pro-
ductions of the sixteenth century2.
During the latter half of the century the influence of the In-
quisition and the Index was distinctly unfavourable
to classical scholarship3. The scholar and poet, p^^rto
Aonio Paleario (1504 — 157°), denounces the Index
as 'a dagger drawn from the scabbard to assassinate letters'4. He
laments that 'the study of the liberal arts is deserted, the young
men wanton in idleness and wander about the public squares'5.
He complains that ' a professor was no better than a donkey
working in a mill ; nothing remained for him but to dole out
commonplaces, avoiding every point of contact between the
authors he interpreted and the burning questions of modern
life'6. Paleario is well known as the author of the Latin poem
On the Immortality of the Soul7, an uneven work modelled partly
on Lucretius8. After holding a professorship of eloquence at
Lucca, he succeeded Majoragius as professor at Milan in 1555.
Fifteen years later he was accused of heresy, and died a martyr's
death in Rome9.
The influence of the Greek and Latin drama on the Italian
literature of the sixteenth century may readily be
traced in the translations, or imitations, of Sophocles, ^"classics0
Euripides, and Seneca10, as well as of Plautus and
1 Stark, 102. 2 id. 100.
3 Cp. Charles Dejob, Sur f Influence du Concile de Trente, 49 — 80, 99 —
102; Symonds, vi 219 — 237.
4 Oratio pro se ipso (Lyons, 1552), 'sica districta in omnes scriptores'
(Symonds, vi 212). 5 Camb. Mod. Hist, iii 465.
6 Symonds, vi 230.
7 Sel. Poem. Ital. i 211 — 270; cp. Symonds, ii 497 n. i.
8 Cp. J. C. Scaliger, Poet. 796, ed. 1586.
9 Cp. Tiraboschi, vii 1452-6. Of the treatise On the Benefits of Christ's
Death, ascribed to Aonio Paleario, 40,000 copies were printed ; among the very
few that survive are two in Italian and one in French in the Library of St
John's College, Cambridge. It was really written by Don Benedetto, a follower
of Flaminio ; Lanciani (u. s. p. 121), 208 f.
10 Gaspary, Ital. Lit. ii c. 29.
156 ITALY. [CENT. xvi.
Terence1. The representation of plays of Plautus had been
begun in Rome by Pomponius Laetus, and was continued at
the brilliant court of Ferrara towards the close of the fifteenth
century. It was Ferrara also that saw the performance in 1508 of
the first comedy written in Italian, the Cassaria of Ariosto, a
play of a Plautine type, which had been composed ten years
previously. The author, in adopting the new language, pays in
the prologue an interesting compliment to the old : —
' E ver che ne volgar prosa ne rima
Ha paragon con prose antique o versi
Ne pari e 1'eloquenza a quella prima '.
Another early Italian comedy, the Calandria of Cardinal
Bibbiena (first performed at Urbino in or before 1510), is founded
on the Menaechmi, and similarly the Mercator, Aulularia and
Mostellaria are imitated by Machiavelli in the two plays which
he produced in 1536. But the practice of performing Latin plays,
or Italian translations of them, was by no means superseded by
these and other imitations of Latin originals. After the middle
of the century we find a performance of the Phormio of Terence,
the prologue of which was, on this occasion, written by Muretus2.
The influence of Virgil may most readily be traced in Tasso,
whose Christian epic abounds in reminiscences of the pagan
poet. In some of the more exalted passages a certain incongruity
has been noticed in these reminiscences. For example, the
Crusaders at an impressive and tragic moment are allowed to
lapse into an obvious translation from the dying words of Dido : —
' Noi morirem, ma non morremo inulti'. All such incongruity
vanishes, however, in the beautiful renderings of the similes and
the battle-scenes. Tasso's models also include Lucretius and
Lucan3.
1 Gaspary, Ital. Lit. ii c. 30.
2 Tiraboschi, vii 1302. Cp., in general, Vincenzo De Amicis, Z' Imitazione
Latina nella Commedia Italian a del xvi secolo, ed. 1897.
3 See Symonds, vii 102-6.
CHAPTER XII.
SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
IN tracing the influence of humanism beyond the bounds of
Italy, we shall begin with the Latin nations, and
Spain
with the Iberian peninsula. In Spain we find no
proof of any influence on the part of Petrarch, while there are
several points of contact with Poggio1. Again, the Spanish noble-
man, Nugno Gusmano, who visited Italy during the Council of
Florence, returned with Italian renderings of the Tusculan Disputa-
tions and De Oratore of Cicero, the Declamations of Quintilian and
the Saturnalia of Macrobius2. Among early scholars in Spain, a
pupil of Politian, Arias Barbosa, taught Greek at Salamanca ; and
Antonio of Lebrixa, commonly called Nebrissensis
. . . Nebrissensis
(1444 — 1522), after spending twenty years in Italy,
returned in 1473 to lecture at Seville, Salamanca and Alcala, and
to publish Grammars of Latin and Greek, as well as Hebrew3.
His Introductiones Latinae was the first Latin Grammar of note in
Spain4. The first classical book printed in Spain was Sallust
(Valencia, 1475). A College was founded at Alcala by Cardinal
Ximenes (1437 — 1517), but the Greek Testament, there completed
and printed early in 1514 as the fifth volume of the 'Complu-
tensian Polyglott' (two years before that of Erasmus), was not
licensed for publication until 1520 and was not seen by Erasmus
until 1522. The Cardinal had died five years before, and the
issue of this important work was not followed by any public
patronage of Greek studies in Spain. The knowledge of Greek
1 Voigt, ii 3573.
2 Vespasiano, Vile, 520; cp. Snbbadini's ScoperU, 195.
3 McCrie's Reformation in Spain (Hallam, i I733).
4 A. Merrill, in Prof. Atner. Phil. Assoc. XXI (1870) xxiii f.
158 SPAIN. [CENT. xvi.
was confined to a very select class, who learned the language, not
for its own sake, but to aid them in their other studies. By the
compact concluded by Charles V and Clement VII at Bologna in
1530, Spain was pledged to a reactionary policy in Italy, and the
Revival of Learning was checked in both countries. However, in
the latter half of the fifteenth and the first half of the sixteenth
century Spanish scholars who visited Italy brought back with them
a certain interest in Greek authors. Pincianus, Cardinal Ximenes,
and Francesco de Mendoza, Cardinal of Burgos, had thus imported
Greek MSS and texts; and these volumes were accessible to scholars,
while their owners lived, and passed into public libraries on their
death1. In 1548 Aristotle's Politics was translated into Latin by
the Spanish scholar Sepiilveda, but the translation was printed in
Paris. In 1555 Dioscorides was translated into Spanish by
Andrea Laguna, a physician of Valencia, who, with the aid of
an ancient MS, corrected the text in more than 700 places2.
Among the pupils of Barbosa and Lebrixa, we find Fernan
Nunez de Guzman (1471 — 1552), also known as
Pincianus
Nonius Pincianus (from Pmtia, the ancient name of
Valladolid). He taught Greek at Alcala and Salamanca. At
Alcala in 1519 he published interlinear Latin renderings of Basil's
tract on the study of Greek literature, and of the ' Helen and
Alexander' of Demetrius Moschus3. He annotated the margins
of his MS of twelve unpublished discourses of Themistius, but he
never published any edition. That honour was reserved for
France and the Netherlands4. In 1536, however, he produced an
edition of Seneca that earned the praise of Lipsius5, and, in 1544,
a series of able emendations of Pliny's Natural History, which
were completely reproduced in the edition of Commelin (1593) 6.
Vives, a native of Valencia (1492 — 1540), spent a large part
of his active life in the Spanish Netherlands7; and,
conversely, Nicolaus Clenardus, or Cleynaerts, a
native of Brabant (1495 — 1542), taught Latin in Spain at Braga
1 Graux, Essai sur les origines des fonds grecs de FEscurial (Bibl. de V Ecole
des hautes etudes, XLVi), xxxi + 5^9 pp. (1880).
2 Graux, 98. 3 Graux, 9 f.
4 Graux, 21. B Hallam, i 335*.
6 Cp. Graux, 9 — n. 7 chap, xiv infra.
.CHAP. XII.] PINCIANUS. VERGARA. SANCTIUS. 159
and Granada, publishing an excellent Greek Grammar (Louvain,
I53°)> which was widely used and frequently reprinted1. The
Greek Grammar of Clenardus was, however, surpassed by that of
Francisco Vergara (c. 1484 — 1545), a work produced
in I5372, and fully appreciated by Scaliger3, who
added that the best parts had been borrowed by Canini. Half
a century later, Francisco Sanchez of Brozas, com-
monly called Franciscus Sanctius Brocensis (1523—
1601), professor of Greek at Salamanca in 1554, won a high
reputation by a celebrated text-book on Latin Syntax, called
Minerva, seu de causis linguae Latinae Commentarius (1587).
Sanctius owed much to the elder Scaliger's work De linguae Latinae
causis. While he constantly cites the ancient and modern grammarians, he
nevertheless regards them with a scorn that is almost ludicrous. He is led
astray by comparing Latin with Hebrew and Arabic. He insists on a rigid
uniformity in Latin Grammar. Rules were to have no exceptions ; every word
was to have one construction only. The author constantly takes refuge in
'ellipse', when he is confronted by any syntactical difficulty. But the
ultimate success of his Minerva was unbounded. He was regarded by Haase
as having done more for Latin Grammar than any of his predecessors, and
Sir William Hamilton even held that the study of Minerva, with the notes of
the editors, was more profitable than that of Newton's Principia. The peculiar
and uncommon constructions that are here collected doubtless make the book
useful as a work of reference. It is at any rate written in good Latin. The
author shows a familiarity with the whole range of Latin literature, as well as
with Aristotle and Plato. He edited Virgil's Bucolics and Horace's Ars
Poetica, with Persius, the Ibis of ' Ovid ', the Gryphus of Ausonius, and the
Sylvan of Politian4.
A contemporary of 'Sanctius', named Pedro Juan Nunez, or
Nunnesius, of Valencia, who studied in Paris, and
r r /-i i *_ -n i / i /- \ Nunnesius
was professor of Greek at Barcelona (d. 1602), is
best remembered as an editor of Phrynichus (i58o)5. He was
also the author of an interesting little Greek Grammar (1590),
1 Hallam, i 33O4; R. C. Christie's Selected Essays, 92 — 123.
" Paris, Morel, 1557, 'ad Complutensem ed. excusum et restitutum ',
438 pp., including 100 on Syntax.
3 Scaligerana Sec.', Hallam, i 493.
4 A. Merrill, /. c.
5 Described in Lobeck's ed., p. Ixxv, as ' non indoctus sane, ut ilia erant
tempora ' ; and his notes as ' philologiae sibi proludentis crepundia '.
160 SPAIN. [CENT. xvi.
which differs little from those now used in schools1. We are sorry
to add that the great Greek Thesaurus of H. Stephanus was not
appreciated2 either by Nunnesius or by the eminent scholar who
will next engage our attention.
Archaeological studies were well represented in Antonio
Agostino of Saragossa (1517 — 1586), who was
educated at Salamanca, and (under Alciati) at
Bologna, where he continued the study of law, combining with
it the study of Greek, which was then a somewhat rare accom-
plishment. He taught law at Padua, and at Florence, where he
questioned the accuracy of Politian's collation of the famous MS
of the Pandects3. He studied MSS, inscriptions, and ancient
monuments in Rome, where he was a member of the papal
tribunal (1544-54), while he was in constant communication
with the scholars of the time, and rejoiced in the old associations
of the eternal city4. In 1554 he published at Rome an edition
of Varro, De Lingua Latina, in which he followed the interpolated
MSS and banished every archaism from the text, a process that met
with protests from Turnebus and Scaliger. In 1559 he was more
successful in editing certain fragments of Verrius Flaccus, and
Festus, making good use of the Farnese MS at Naples, and intro-
ducing many corrections5. After holding the see of Lerida, he
became archbishop of Tarragona for the last ten years of his life
(1576-86). In 1583 he published a treatise on Roman laws and
Senatus consulta, which was twice reprinted before the end of the
century. His masterpiece in classical archaeology was his book
of dialogues on coins, inscriptions and other antiquities, posthu-
mously published in 1587, and subsequently translated into Latin6.
He breathes the spirit of the Italian humanists when he writes
with rapture to his Roman friend Orsini, telling him of the
1 Rutherford's New Phrynichtis, 504. 2 Graiix, 16, 17.
3 p. 84 supra.
4 Andreas Schott, laudatio funebris, ' vixit jucunde in hac urbe propter
antiquitatis Romanae impressa vestigia, theatrum circum titulos nummos et
inscriptiones, quibus referta urbs est, ut et moenia omnia Romane loqui
videantur ' (Stark, 106).
6 K. O. Miiller, pref. to Festus, p. xxxvi.
6 By Andreas Schott (1617); cp. Stark, 106 ; De Nolhac, La bibliothtque
de Fulvio Orsmi, 43 — 48.
CHAP. XII.] AGOSTINO. CIACCONIUS. l6l
discovery of the Excerpts on Legations from the Encyclopaedia
of Constantius Porphyrogenitus : —
Somewhere in Spain a Greek MS has been found containing the fairest
fragments of the ancient historians. I have a large part of them in my hands at
the present moment, while the rest are being promptly copied. If they were
pearls or rubies or diamonds, they could not be more precious. The most
ancient of these belong to Polybius...! have also in my hands some beautiful
fragments of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, fragments as lucid as crystal, and
well-nigh as bright as the stars1.
The MS that aroused this enthusiasm was the gem of the
collection of Greek MSS belonging to Juan Paez de Castro, the
chaplain of Philip II, who had addressed to the king, in the
early part of his reign, a memoir 'on the utility of founding a good
library '. The monastery of the Escurial, near Madrid, was built
in 1563-84; the library was founded in 1566-87, and this MS
formed part of its treasures, but the text was not published by
any Spanish scholar2. The MS was more than once transcribed
by the Greek copyist Darmarius ; and the transcripts made by the
latter were the source of the editions of Orsini in 1582 and of
Hoeschel in 1603, and of the fragments in Casaubon's Polybius
(1609). The original, and one of the transcripts, perished in the
Escurial in the disastrous fire of 1671; but another of the
transcripts still survives in that library3.
The study of Roman Antiquities and Latin texts was mean-
while represented by a modest and industrious
. Ciacconius
scholar named Pedro Chacon, Petrus Ciacconius of
Toledo (1525 — 1581), who was employed by Gregory XIII on
learned researches in Rome and was called the Varro of his age.
His antiquarian treatises were published after his death, and were
partially reprinted in the Thesaurus of Graevius. He is cele-
brated for his works on the Roman triclinium and on the columna
rostrata of Duilius. His namesake Alfonso Chacon (1540 — 1599),
a native of Granada, who died in Rome, wrote a treatise on the
Column of Trajan, and left behind him many drawings of Roman
Antiquities.
1 Letter to Fulvio Orsini, from Lerida, 26 Sept. 1574, in Antonii Augnstini
opera, vii 256, ed. Lucca; Graux, 15, 93 — 97.
2 Graux, 20. 3 Graux, 95 — 97.
S. II. II
1 62 .' SPAIN. PORTUGAL. [CENT. XVI.
The Jesuit, Juan Luigi de la Cerda of Toledo (c. 1560 — 1643),
produced at Madrid in three folio volumes an edition
of Virgil (1608-17), reprinted in Lyons and Cologne.
The only other names that need here be noted are those of the
historian Enrique Florez (1693—1773), and the expert in numis-
matics and epigraphy, Francesco Perez Bayer (1711 — I794)1-
Among the public institutions of Spain the Library founded by
Philip II at the Monastery of the Escurial between 1566 and 1587
is celebrated for its Greek Mss2. The monastery is a vast and
lonely palace amid the mountains north of Madrid. The collection
formed by Mendoza (1503 — 1575), the envoy of Charles V in
Venice, was acquired for the Library in I5763, and that of Antonio
Agostino in 1587*; but a large number of the MSS were destroyed
by the fire of 1671 5. The classical MSS in the Biblioteca National
at Madrid include the collection made by another Mendoza (i 508 — -
'1:566), the cardinal bishop of Burgos6. They also include the
Greek MSS of Constantine Lascaris7, and several important Latin
MSS formerly belonging to Poggio, (i) Manilius and the Silvae of
Statius, and (2) Asconius and Valerius Flaccus, (i) having been
copied by a scribe in his employ, and (2) by Poggio himself8.
The MSS of Poggio and Lascaris are an interesting link between
Spain and Italy.
Portugal, as well as Spain, took a keener interest than France
in the works of Poggio, who wrote a letter congratu-
Portugal ...„. »T • i • i •
latmg Prince Henry the Navigator on his exploration
of 'Ocean's utmost shores'9. The restoration of learning in that
country is ascribed to the historian and poet,
Resende , . . . „, ..
Resende (1498 — 1573), who was instructed in Greek
by Barbosa and Lebrixa, published his Latin Grammar in 1540,
and taught at Lisbon and Evora. He there counted among his
1 C. I. L. ii p. xxi. 2 Miller, Catalogue (Paris, 1848).
8 Graux, 163 f. 4 il>. 280 f.
6 ib. 32of. 6 ib. 60 f.
7 Included in catalogue by Iriarte, Madrid, 1769; cp. Graux, Rapport,
1878, p. 124; and p. 77 supra.
8 A. C. Clark in Cl. Rev. xiii 119 f. These MSS formerly belonged to the
Conde del Miranda. For a facsimile from Poggio's Valerius Flaccus, see
p. 24 supra.
9 Epp. ix 35 (1448-9); Voigt, ii 3573f.
CHAP. XII.] CERDA. RESENDE. STATIUS. OSORIO. 163
pupils Achille Esta9O, or 'Achilles Statius' (1524 — 1581), who
afterwards won a high reputation in Rome, not
only by a work on ancient portraits (1569), but statius8
also by studies on the viri illustres of Suetonius,
which were highly praised by Casaubon1. The Portuguese bishop,
Jeronymo Osorio (1506 — 1-580), who was educated
at Salamanca, Paris, and Bologna, has been described
by Dupin as the Cicero of Portugal2. He owes his reputation as
a Latinist to his treatise on Glory and to his History of the reign of
Emanuel, but Bacon has severely said of him that his vein was
weak and waterish 3. The Jesuit, Emanuel Alvarez
of Lisbon (1526 — 1583), produced in 1572 a Latin
Grammar, which has been extolled as the first in which the
fancies of the ancient grammarians were laid aside4. It was the
text-book in all the Jesuit schools, and has often been reprinted,
the latest edition being that of Paris in 1879.
1 ' Statius' commented on the Ars Poetica of Horace (1553) and on Catullus
and Tibullus (1566-7), after he had already been associated with Muretus'
edition of Propertius (1558).
2 Niceron, ed. Baumgarten, vol. ii 308.
3 'The flowing and watery vein of Osorius' (Advancement of Learning, I
iv 2 p. 29 Aldis Wright); cp. Ascham's Scholernaster, no, 129 — 131, 233,
239, ed. Mayor; and Hallam, i 5O74. Opera in 4 folio vols. 1592.
4 Morhof, i 831, ed. 1747.
BUDAEUS.
From the engraving in Andre Thevet, Portraits et vies des hommes illustres
(Paris, 1584), p. 551. Cp. p. \ioiinfra.
CHAPTER XIII.
FRANCE FROM 1360 TO 1600.
IN France, where the early stages in the Revival of Learning
were mainly marked by Italian influence, the chief centres of
intellectual life were the Royal Court, and the University of Paris.
Petrarch, who was unfamiliar with French, and consequently
never felt quite at home in Paris, wrote a letter in 1367 con-
gratulating Urban V on exchanging Avignon for Rome. He there
praises Italy at the expense of France, and even describes the
French as a barbarous people1. The letter naturally aroused the
indignation of a champion of France identified as Jean de Hesdin,
who in his reply gives proof of his familiarity with the Latin
Classics in general and with the historians in particular2.
Among the constant companions of Petrarch during the three
months that he spent in Paris in 1361, was Pierre
Bersuire
Bersuire (d. 1362), the French priest who trans-
lated for king John the Good all the books of Livy that were
then known. Under that king's son, Charles the ' Wise ' (who was
familiar with Latin), Sallust, Suetonius, Seneca, Vegetius, with
Lucan and parts of Ovid, were translated into French. A French
rendering of the Latin translation of the Politics, Economics, and
Ethics of Aristotle was produced by Nicole Oresme
(d. 1382), chaplain to the king, and dean of Rouen,
who, after his promotion to the bishopric of Lisieux, produced
a translation of Aristotle De Cae/o3. As a translator, he intro-
duced into French a large number of words of Greek origin,
which were then new, such as aristocratic, democratic, oligarchic,
1 Epp. Sen. ix i. 2 Voigt, ii 333:if.
3 Fr. Meunier, Essai (1857) 84 — 117.
i66 FRANCE. [CENT. xv.
demagogue and sophiste, and even mttaphore, poete and fobne'1.
While Oresme belongs in spirit to the Middle Ages, a certain
sympathy with the Revival of Learning is shown by Laurent de
Premierfait, a priest of Troyes, who died in Paris in 1418. He
translated the De Senectute and the De Amidtia of Cicero for
an uncle of Charles the 'Wise'2.
The library of king Charles included Lucan, Boethius, por-
tions of Ovid and Seneca, Latin translations of Plato's Timaeus,
and of parts of Aristotle, with French translations from Aristotle,
Valerius Maximus3, Sallust and Vegetius. 'Virgil is conspicuously
absent'4. But Virgil's Eclogues (as well as Pliny and Terence)
were to be found in the library of the king's brother, John, duke
of Berry5.
The influence of the University is exemplified in the text-
books prescribed for the academic course. In the fourteenth
century they included authors such as Virgil, Ovid, Juvenal,
Terence, with Sallust and Livy, as well as Cicero, Seneca and
Quintilian6. Of the two foremost representatives of the Uni-
versity, Pierre d'Ailly (d. 1425) and Jean Charlier de Gerson
(d. 1429), the latter was far more familiar with classical authors,
his speeches and sermons including quotations from Virgil and
Terence, Horace and Statius, Cicero and Seneca, as well as
Caesar, Sallust, Livy, Suetonius and Valerius Maximus. But
his Latin style is obscure, and teems with Gallicisms and with
scholastic terminology7.
The earliest genuine humanist in France was Jean de Mon-
treuil (1354 — 1418), secretary to the Pope and the
Montrexiii Dauphin, as well as to the dukes of Burgundy and
Orleans, and ultimately chancellor to Charles VI.
He regarded Petrarch as the most famous of moral philosophers ;
1 Fr. Meunier, I.e. ; Egger, Hellenisms en France, i 128 f; Voigt, ii 339s f.
2 Voigt, ii 34O3.
3 The translation begun by Simon de Hesdin for Charles the 'Wise'
(1375), and completed by Nicolas de Gonesse for John, duke of Berry (1401),
was adorned with fine miniatures by Jean Fouquet (c. 1475) for Philippe de
Comines (reproduced from two Harleian MSS in 1907).
4 Cp. Delisle, Cabinet des MSS, i 18 — 46, iii 115—170, 335 f, quoted in
Tilley's Essay on the preludes of the French Renaissance (1885), 139.
5 Tilley, I.e. 1391". 6 Voigt, ii 342*. 7 ~ib. ii 3433f.
CHAP. XIII.] JEAN DE MONTREUIL. l6/
he had a special admiration for the Remedia Utriusque Fortunae,
but his model in Latin style was Salutati, 'the father of Latin
eloquence'. As envoy of his king in 1412, he spent some time
in Rome, where Leonardo Bruni gave him an introduction to
Niccoli in Florence. He thus obtained transcripts of plays of
Plautus and certain books of Livy, with Varro De Re Rustica,
being apparently the first Frenchman who derived classical learning
from Italy. In his letters he is fond of quoting Virgil and Terence,
with Cicero, Sallust and Seneca ; he is the first in France to follow
the example of Petrarch in adopting the classical second person
singular, instead of the plural, in addressing Popes and Princes ;
he even urges the Pope to imitate the actions recorded in the
ancient history of Rome1. Among his most intimate friends was
Nicolas de Clemanges2 (1360 — c. 1440), who taught the rhetoric
of Cicero and Aristotle in the schools of Paris, and was an eager
student of the Latin Classics, especially Quintilian and Cicero,
from whose speeches (he assures us) he learnt many more lessons
in eloquence than from his rhetorical works3. He spent some
twelve years at Avignon as the only humanist among the papal
secretaries, was made a Canon of Langres, and late in life
resumed his lectures on Rhetoric in Paris. Among the Classics
familiar to him were several that were then imperfectly known in
Italy, such as Persius, Cicero, De Oratore and Pro Arc/iia, and
the Letters Ad Familiares*.
The Revival of Learning in France was promoted by the
introduction of printing. In 1470 Michael Freyburger of Colmar,
Ulrich Gering of Constance, and Martin Crantz, were invited by
Guillaume Fichet and Jean Heynlyn to set up a press in the
precincts of the Sorbonne. The first book printed in France by
these German printers was the work of an Italian humanist, —
the model Letters of Gasparino da Barzizza5. The prefatory
epistle, with its reference to Heynlyn as 'prior' and Fichet as
1 Ep. 19 in Epp. Set., Martene and Durand, Vet. Script, et J\fon, Am-
plissima. Cvllectio, Paris, 1724, ii 1311 — 1465; Voigt, ii 344-9^. Eight new
letters in A. Thomas, De Joannis de Monsterolio vita et oferibus, Paris,
1883.
2 Or Clamanges. 3 Ep, 43.
« Voigt, ii 349— 3553. 5 p. 23 supra.
168 FRANCE. [CENT. xv.
'doctor', determines the date as 1470. In the next year the
editio princeps of Florus was produced by the same printers ; their
Sallust (1471) was soon followed by Terence, and by Virgil's
Eclogues and Georgics, Juvenal and Persius, Cicero, De Oratore,
Tusculan Disputations and De Officiis (1472), and Valerius
Maximus '.
ne ab onibus te defertu efte iudiccs/ ego
(quern forte in numero amicoy no habe/
bas)polliceot tibt opera mca* d(qd illi
non fine fcelere negkxerut)ego paratus
fum defenfione tuam fufciperc « Tu uero
admonebts/quibus adiumentis opus tibt
fit«d ego nec| pecunWnecg confilio tibi
deero t Vale ;
Foeltx Eptay Gafpatint f bis;
CONCLUSION OF THE EPISTOLAE GASPARINI.
The first book printed in France (1470); part of facsimile in British
Museum Guide to the King's Library (1901), p. 40.
The study of Greek was slow in making its way in France.
The Council of Vienne (1311) had decreed the appointment of two
Lecturers in Greek, as well as Hebrew, in the University of Paris,
no less than in those of Bologna, Salamanca, and Oxford, but
the decree, which was passed in the interest of theological rather
than classical learning, remained a dead letter2. It was not until
1430 that a stipend was assigned to teachers of Greek and
Hebrew in Paris3, and not until 1456 that Gregorio
Tifernas, who was born at Citta di Castello about
1 Cp. Tilley, Essay (1885), 155 f, and the earlier authorities there quoted ;
also A. Claudin's First Paris Press (Bibliogr. Soc. 1898), and Hist, de /'/;//-
primerie en France, i (1900), with illuminated facsimile of Gasparino p. i,
and colophon, facing p. 22 ; and P. Champion, Les plus anciens monuments
de la typographic parisienne (1904), 86 planches.
2 vol. i 5841, 6o72. 3 Bulaeus, Hist. Univ. Paris, v 393.
CHAP. XIII.] TIFERNAS. HERMONYMUS. ALEANDER. 169
1415 and had lived in Greece and had taught Greek in Naples,
Milan and Rome, applied for permission to teach it in Paris1.
The permission was granted and a salary assigned, on condition
that the lecturer charged no fees and that he lectured daily on
Rhetoric as well as on Greek. He continued to lecture for four
years, and then left for Venice, where he died in 1466.
About 1476 another teacher of Greek appeared in the person
of a skilful copyist2, George Hermonymus of Sparta,
. . „ , Hermonymus
the somewhat incompetent instructor of Erasmus15
and Budaeus and Reuchlin4. Lectures in Greek were occa-
sionally given by John Lascaris, who was invited to France in
1495 by Charles VIII, aided Louis XII in organising the library
at Blois, and joined Budaeus in doing similar service to Francis I,
when the library at Blois was transferred in 1544 to Fontainebleau5.
A more regular and continuous course of instruction was supplied
by the Italian, Jerome Aleander, who arrived in
. . Aleander
1508, armed with an introduction from Erasmus .
In and after that year, he lectured on Greek as well as Latin,
and perhaps also on Hebrew. He became Rector of the Uni-
versity of Paris in 1512; on his return to Rome, in 1517, he
was appointed librarian to the Vatican, and, as Cardinal Aleander,
he became prominent in the ecclesiastical history of the age7.
It was with the aid of Aleander that the text of three treatises
from Plutarch's Moralia was printed in Paris in 1509, doubt-
less to serve as text-books for Aleander's pupils.
Gourmont
I he printer was Gourmont, who had established
the first Greek press in Paris, producing in 1507 a little volume
1 The dates in Crevier, Hist, de F Univ. de Paris, iv 243 f, are 1458
or 1470.
2 Omont, Mem. Soc. Hist. (Paris, 1885).
3 Catal. Lucubr. in Pref. to Leyden ed. i, Graece balbutiebat... ; neque
potuisset docere si voluisset ; neque voluisset, si potuisset.
4 Cp. Egger, i 146 f; Omont, in Mem. de la Soc. d'histoire de France,
xii 65 — 98 ; Tilley, Essay, 146 f.
6 Removed to Paris under Henri IV (1595). Cp. Omont, Cat. des MSS
frees de Fontainebleau, 1889; also (in general) Tilley, Essay, 148 f.
6 Cp. De Nolhac, in Revue des Etudes grecques, i 61 f ; and Lefranc, Hist,
du College de France, 29 f.
7 Tilley, Essay, 149 f.
i/o FRANCE. [CENT. XVL
of extracts from the gnomic poets called the liber gnomagyricus,
the first Greek book printed in France. In the course of a
brief preface the editor, Francois Tissard, insists on the im-
portance of Greek: — nemini dubium est...quanti sit Latinis eru-
ditio Graeca in hac praedpue tempestate aestimanda. He also
describes the difficulty with which he had induced the printers
to put a Greek work into type by appealing to their sense of
honour, their ambition, their public spirit, and their hope of
personal profit1. In the same year, Gourmont printed the Frogs
and Mice of ' Homer ', the Works and Days of Hesiod, and the
Erotemata of Chrysoloras. He also printed Musaeus and Theo-
critus, and (in 1528) the Ecclesiazusae of Aristophanes, and
Demosthenes and Lucian2. The text of the whole of Sophocles
was completed by Simon Colinaeus on Dec. i6th, I5283.
The following year was the date of the publication of the cele-
brated Commentarii Linguae Graecae of Budaeus4.
Guillaume Bude (1467 — 1540), who was born in
Paris, was the son of a wealthy civilian who had a considerable
collection of books. After spending three years in studying law
with little success at Orleans, he returned to Paris and gave
himself up to the pleasures of the chase, a pursuit on which he
long afterwards wrote a dialogue by the command of Charles IX.
It was not until the age of 24 that he became a serious student
and began to form his Latin style on the study of Cicero. His
letter to Cuthbert Tunstall assures us of the little Greek that he
ever learned from Hermonymus of Sparta5. He derived far more
profit from the occasional instructions of the busy Greek diplo-
matist, Janus Lascaris. Budaeus rose to be secretary to Louis XII
and a Maitre des Requetes; he was charged with diplomatic missions
to Julius II and Leo X; and in 1520 was present at the interview
between Francis I and Henry VIII in the ' Field of the Cloth
of Gold '. Under Francis I and Henry II his fame as a Greek
scholar was one of the glories of his country. In 1502-5 he
1 Egger, Helltnisme en France, i 1 54-7.
2 Cp. Didot's Aide Manuce, 596 f ; Lefranc, College de France, 29 — 33.
3 Th. Renouard, Bibl. de Simon de Colines, 1894, p. 128.
4 Ed. Badius, 1529; ed. R. Estienne, 1548.
5 Of era, 1362(1557)-
CHAP. XIII.] GOURMONT. BUDAEUS. I/ 1
produced a Latin rendering of three treatises of Plutarch ; in his
'Annotations' on the Pandects (1508) he opened a new era in the
study of Roman law; and, in 1515 (N, s.), he broke fresh ground
as the first serious student of the Roman coinage in his treatise
De Asse. It was the ripe result of no less than nine years of
research, and in twenty years passed through ten editions. Its
abundant learning is said to have aroused the envy of Erasmus,
and its dry erudition was preferred by one of the author's par-
tisans to the rich variety and the sparkling wit of the Adagio1.
The collection of letters which he published in 1520 included
several in Greek, and thenceforth he held, by the side of
Erasmus, the foremost rank as a scholar. The original aim of
his Commentarii was the elucidation of the legal terminology of
Greece and Rome, and, amid all the miscellaneous information
here accumulated, that aim remains prominent2. The author's
learning was generously recognised by Scaliger3, and much of
the material stored in his pages was incorporated in the Greek
Thesaurus of Henri Estienne. . The little volume De Philologid
(1530) is a plea for the public recognition of classical scholarship,
in the form of a dialogue between Budaeus and Francis I. In
his far more extensive work De Trdnsitu Hellenismi ad Christian-
ismum (1534) he describes the philosophy of Greece as a prepa-
ration for Christianity, and defends the study of Greek from the
current imputation of ' heresy '. His French treatise, De V Insti-
tution du Prince, written in 1516, was not printed until 1547.
He here declares that 'every man, even if he be a king, should
be devoted to philology', which is interpreted as 'the love of
letters and of all liberal learning'. Such learning, he adds, can
only be attained through Greek and Latin, and of these Greek is
the more important4.
Besides two villas in the country, he owned a house in the
Rue Saint-Martin (no. 203), which in the seventeenth century still
bore the motto selected by Budaeus himself : —
' Summum crede nefas animam praeferre pudori.
Et propter vitam vivencli perdcre causas '.
1 Hallam, i I'jS4 f. 2 Quarterly Review, vol. xxii (Hallam, i 3294).
3 Scaligcrana, 39, $a este le pins grand Grec de PEurope.
4 Woodward, Renaissance Education, 127-^138.
172 FRANCE. [CENT. xvi.
In 1503 he married the daughter of an ancient Norman house,
and it is said that, on his wedding-day, by an exceptional act
of self-denial, he limited his time of study to three hours only.
In his studies he was aided in every possible way by the devotion
of his wife. Once, when he was busy reading in his library, one
of the servants suddenly rushed in to inform him that the house
was on fire. The scholar, without lifting up his eyes from his
book, simply said to his informant : — allez avertir ma femme ;
vous savez bien que je ne irfoccupe pas des affaires du menage!^
His health was seriously impaired by his prodigious industry,
and the surgeons of the day vainly endeavoured to cure him of
his constant headaches by applying a red-hot iron to the crown
of his head2. Happily he was enabled to find a safer remedy
by taking long walks and by cultivating his garden3. When he
died in 1539, he had a simple burial in the church of Saint-
Nicolas-des-Champs4. The contrast between this great Greek
scholar and his contemporary, the admirable Latinist, Erasmus,
has been felicitously drawn by M. Egger : —
' Bude ne sut jamais emprunter a son ami les charmes d'une latinite facile et
amusante. II dit lourdement des choses souvent neuves, toujours sensees,
quelquefois profondes, sur 1'efficacite des etudes helleniques et sur 1'utilite de
leur alliance avec 1'esprit chretien. II n'a du reformateur que le savoir et les
convictions serieuses; il n'en a point le talent'5.
Perhaps his most important, certainly his most permanent,
service to the cause of scholarship was his prompting Francis I
to found in 1530 the Corporation of the Royal Readers. It had
no official residences, or even public lecture-rooms. // eta it bati
en hommes*. It was many years before it attained the dignity of
a local habitation7 and the name of the College de France. In
front of the present buildings of that centre of eloquent and
inspiring teaching the place of honour is justly assigned to the
1 Eugene de Bude, Vie de Guillaume Bnde, 22.
2 ib. 23. 3 ib. i87f.
4 Cp. Saint-Gelais, i 120, quoted by Tilley, i 19.
5 Hellenisme en France, i 173.
8 Etienne Pasquier, (Euvres, i 923.
7 The first stone was laid 28 Aug. 1610 (Lefranc, 235), and the fabric
finished about 1778 (ib. 266 f).
CHAP. XIII.] BUDAEUS. CORDIER. ROBERT ESTIENNE. 173
statue of Budaeus '. In his own age, Calvin had proudly described
him as primum rei literariae decus et columen, cuius beneficio
palmam eruditionis hodie sibi vindicat nostra Gallia. It was
mainly owing to Budaeus that the primacy in scholarship had
passed from Italy to France2.
The foundation of the royal readerships had been opposed by the
obscurantists in the University, but lectures in Greek were already being
given in several of the Colleges, and, in the College of Sainte-
Barbe, Maturin Cordier (1479 — 1564) had been active as an
educational reformer for the sixteen years immediately preceding the publication
of his treatise attacking the barbarous Latin of the day3. Among his pupils at
another College was Calvin, who afterwards invited him to Geneva, where he
taught in 1536-38, and in 1559-64, and where he published his celebrated
Colloquies ( 1 564) 4.
The year 1527 was memorable as that in which the famous
printer and scholar, Robert Estienne, or Stephanus
(I5°3 — 1559)> first assumed an independent position Estienne
as a publisher. His Thesaurus Linguae Latinae,
published in a single volume in 1532, as a reprint of Calepinus'
(1502), became in its final form an entirely new work in three
folio volumes (i543)5. It was not until 1544 that he turned his
attention to Greek, and produced a series of eight editiones
principeS) beginning with Eusebius (1544-6) and going on with
Dionysius of Halicarnassus (1546-7), Dio Cassius (1548)", and
1 On Budaeus cp. Vita by Louis le Roy 1540-1 ; Rebitte, Guillaume
Bude, restaurateur des Etudes grecques en France (1846) ; and Eugene de Bude,
Vie de Guillaume Bade", Fondateur du College de France (1884) ; M. Triwunatz,
in Miinchener Beitrage, no. 28 (1903); also Egger, i 161 — 173; Lefranc, Hist,
du College de France, 46 f, 102-6; and A. A. Tilley, Literature of the French
Renaissance, 1904, i 14 — 19. Portrait on p. 164 supra.
2 Tilley, i 19. On Germanus Brixius and Nicolas Berauld, who ranked
next to Budaeus as Greek scholars, and on Pierre du Chastel, one of his
successors, see ib. i 20 f.
3 Corderius, De corrupti serrnonis apud Gallos et loquendi latine rationc
libellus, 1530.
4 E. T. 1614, 1657; latest ed. London, 1830. Cp. E. Puech, Maturin
Cordier, 1895; Tilley, i 17 f; and Woodward, Renaissance Education, 154 —
1 66.
6 Cp. Christie's Etienne Dolet, 235 n.
6 The words in the preface, locos mutilos intactos reliquimus, give proof of
a more cautious and critical spirit than that of the Italian humanists.
ROBERTVS STEPHAN v £.
E R T KAf cernis STE PHA JfVM > qufmGallicus or Ins
C?*ic04r4pyA
Quipius et cwcftiisprocudii Scripts ptorum .
*~- «£n / /•- / / . .-£*•-£.
vow ?tiu twn vwmfttiL fcrrz ~uirun •.
ROBERT EsxrENNE.
From a photograph of one of Croler's reproductions of the. original engraving by
Leonard Gaultier (copied in Renouard's Anndles, p. 74). Cabinet des .E^tampes,
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
CHAP. XIII.] ROBERT AND HENRI ESTIENNE. 1/5
Appian (^i)1. These books were printed_in a magnificent type
designed in 1541 by the last of the professional calligraphers,
Angelo Vergecio2, executed by the first French engraver of the
day, Claude Garampnd, and finally cast at the expense of the
royal treasury. In this type the complex ligatures and contractions
used by calligraphers were skilfully imitated. The first book in
which all the three alphabets of the new type were used was the
folio edition of the Greek Testament (i5so)3. This Testament
had already been printed in duodecimo in 1546 and 1549, and
long remained the standard text, being ultimately even described
as the textus receptus in the Elzevir edition of 1633. In 1551
persecutions arising from his printing of this text compelled
Robert Estienne to take refuge in Geneva, where he died in
I5594-
As a printer and a scholar he was even surpassed by his
son, Henri Estienne (11528— -?i5 — 1598), who, in the
... • r i H. Estienne
early part of his career, spent several years in Italy
(1547-9), and also visited Florence, Brabant, and England. A
second visit to Italy led to his discovery of ten new books of
Diodorus, printed in 1559, the year in which he succeeded to
his father's business at Geneva. His editions of ancient authors
amounted to no less than 58 in Latin and 74 in Greek, 18 of the
latter being editiones principes. He was specially attracted to the
Greek historians6. He ruined himself over the publication of
his Thesaurus Graecae Linguae (1572) and his Plato (1578). The
1 Completed by his younger brother, Charles.
8 Egger, i 148, 150.
3 A. Bernard, Les Estienne et les types grecs de Francois I (1856, and 1867) ;
Pattison's Essays ii 85 — 89; W. Meyer, Henricus Stephanus ilber die Regii
Typi, mil i 7'afeln (Gottingen Abhandl. vi 2 (1902) 32 pp.)- The same type
was used at Paris by Morel and Turnebus, and also at Heidelberg and Basel.
It was not until 1662 that a simpler type (with 40 instead of 400 characters)
•was first used by Wetstein at Antwerp. The Typi Regii are reproduced in
Omont's Gk Catalogues of Fontainebleau (1889); cp. Proctor's Essay r,
95—108.
4 Cp. Mark Pattison's Essays, i 70 — 89. Portrait on p. 174.
5 1528 is the traditional date, given by Maittaire and Renouard; but 1531
is supported by the evidence of Henri himself and his uncle Charles, and is
preferred by L. Clement, Henri Estienne et son ceuvre fraitfaise (1899), 463 f.
6 Pulcherrimum scriptorum genus (Pref. to Diodorus, 1559).
FRANCE. [CENT. xvi.
former, in five folio volumes, is his greatest work ; it was a Thesaurus
that (as the publisher bitterly remarked) made him poor instead
of rich ; its sale was damaged by the publication of an abridge-
ment in a single volume, prepared by his disloyal assistant, Scapula
(1579). The original work has been re-edited in modern times1,
and, as a Greek lexicon on a large scale, it is still unsurpassed.
The text of Plato held its ground for two centuries until the
Bipontine edition of 1781-7, and it is a familiar fact that all
modern references to Plato recognise the pages of ' Stephanus '.
; His ' Apology for Herodotus ', a volume of 600 closely printed
pages, is an example of his weakness and diffuseness as an author
and a critic2. His main strength lies in a perfect mastery of
Greek idiom, attained as the ripe result of long and laborious
study. His first publication was the editio princep s of 'Anacreon '
(1554), and the text of that edition was not superseded for three
centuries. When it first appeared, it was welcomed by the poet
Ronsard, who passes from the imitation of Pindar to that of
Anacreon in the pretty lines addressed to his page-boy :
' Verse done et reverse encor
Dedans ceste grand' coupe d'or :
Je vay boire a Henry Estienne,
Qui des enfers nous a rendu
Du vieil Anacreon perdu
La douce lyre teienne'8.
His Aeschylus, edited by Victorius (1557), was the first to
include the complete Agamemnon. His edition of the ' Planudean
Anthology' was supplemented by many epigrams recorded in
ancient authors (1566). In his recensions of the Classics his
alterations of the manuscript readings were capricious and un-
critical, and he is accordingly denounced with some severity by
Scaliger as a corrupter of ancient texts4. It has also been sup-
posed that the readings, which he describes as derived from MSS,
are sometimes merely conjectures of his own, to which he thus
attempts to lend an air of fictitious authority5; but his veracity
1 London, 1815-28; Paris, 1831-65. 2 Cp. Tilley, i 292 f.
8 Egger, Hellenisme en France, i 363; Tilley, i 332.
4 Prima Scaligerana, s.v. Dalechampius, and Erotianus.
6 e.g. Hermann on Eur. HtL 1410, 1507.
CHAP. XIII.] JULIUS CAESAR SCALIGER. . 177
has been repeatedly vindicated, and, whenever his statements
cannot be put to the test, it must be remembered that, during
his extensive travels in Italy and elsewhere, he examined many
MSS in a cursory manner, and that, in the case of those in private
collections in particular, the MSS, from which he states that he
derived his readings, may easily have been lost1.
The Ciceronianus of Erasmus had appeared in 1528. The
French were not unnaturally offended by the way in which their
great Greek scholar, Budaeus, had been rather unceremoniously
mentioned in the same breath as the Parisian printer, Badius. A
reply was prepared in the very next year by Julius
Caesar Scaliger (1484—1558), a scholar of Italian slallg^^
origin, who had been born at Riva on the Lago
di Garda, and, after spending 42 years in Italy, had betaken
himself to the French town of Agen on the Garonne. During
his Italian days he had seen service as a soldier ; he was now
physician to the bishop of Agen. Burning to make himself a
name among scholars, he published, in 1531, an oration de-
nouncing Erasmus as a parricide, a parasite, and a corrector of
printer's proofs; defending Cicero from the attacks of Erasmus;
and maintaining that Cicero was absolutely perfect2. Erasmus
treated this abusive tirade with silent contempt ; he attributed it
to Aleander ; he felt sure that Scaliger could not possibly have
had the ability to write it. Stung with rage and mortification,
Scaliger flung himself once more into the fray. He prepared a
1 Feugere, Caracteres, ii i — 204; GrautofF's Program (Glogau, 1862),
15 — 17; Sintenis in Philologus, i 134 — 142, zur Ehrenerkliirung fiir Henricus
Stcphanus. On both the Stephani, cp. Almeloveen, de vitis Stepkanorunt,
Amst. 1683; Maittaire, Stephanorum Historia, London, 1709 (both include
a portrait of Robertus); H. St. xxvii Brief e an Crato, ed. Passow (1830);
Hi unedierte Brief e, ed. Dinse, in Jahrb. cl. Philol. 1864, 843 — 859; also
Didot, Observations (1824); GreswelFs Early Parisian Greek Press (1833);
Renouard, Annales (\%$i etc.); Feugere (1853 and 1859); Egger, Hellenisme
en France, i 198 — 221; Mark Pattison, Essays, i 67 — 123; Stein, Noicvcaitx,
Documents sur les Estienne (1895). On 'Henri Estienne', cp. L. Clement,
H. Estienne et son auvre francaise (1899); Tilley, i 290-8. There is no
known portrait.
2 J. Caesaris Scaligeri Pro M. Tullio Cicerone, contra Desiderium
Erasmum Roterodamum, Oratio I (1531), ed. 1620, Toulouse.
S. II. 12
178 FRANCE. [CENT. xvi.
still more violent and vain-glorious harangue, which was not
published until late in 1536*; but, meanwhile, in the month of
July, Erasmus had passed from the scenes of earthly controversy
'To where beyond these voices there is peace'.
A more creditable production of Scaliger's is his treatise De
Causis Latinae linguae (1544), an acute and judicious work on
the leading principles of the language, in the course of which he
claims to have corrected 634 mistakes made by Valla and his
other predecessors. A far more comprehensive work is his
Poetice (1561), one of the earliest modern attempts to treat the
art of poetry in a systematic manner. He here deals with
the different kinds of poems, and the various metres, together
with figures of speech and turns of phrase, criticises all the Latin
poets ancient and modern, and institutes a detailed comparison
between Homer and Virgil to the distinct advantage of Virgil,
while the epics of Homer are regarded as inferior to the Hero and
Leander of 'Musaeus'2. He also declares Seneca 'inferior to
none of the Greeks in majesty '3. He makes all literary creation
depend ultimately on judicious imitation4.
During the controversy raised by the Ciceronianus, Scaliger
was not alone in his championship of Cicero. He was supported
by one who was nettled, not only by the disrespectful way in
which Erasmus was supposed to have treated Budaeus, but also
by his criticisms on the young Ciceronian scholar, Longolius, one
of whose devoted pupils at Padua was a friend of this second
champion of Cicero, Etienne Dolet (1509 — 1546).
Dolet's 'Dialogue on the imitation of Cicero'
takes the form of an imaginary conversation between the pupil
of Longolius, and Sir Thomas More as the representative of
Erasmus. It was less violent than Scaliger's first oration, but it
was treated by Erasmus with the same silent contempt5.
1 Oratio II, ed. 1623, Toulouse. Christie's £tienne Dolet, 194-6;
cp. Hallam, i 325*.
2 Hallam, ii 200-2*. 3 vi 6.
* Spingarn, Literary Criticism in the Renaissance, 131, and passim ; also
Saintsbury's History of Criticism, ii 69 — 80; cp. E. Lintillac, De J. C. Scali-
geri poetice (Hachette, Paris, 1887), and Tilley, ii 80 f.
5 Christie, £tienne Dolet, 197 f.
CHAP. XIII.] DOLET. 1/9
Its author, a native of Orleans, had eagerly devoted himself \
to the study of Rhetoric and Cicero in Paris and Padua, and, on
returning to France, took up his residence at Toulouse (1532-4),
where he resolved on writing a great work with a view to proving
Cicero's superiority to Sallust, Caesar and Livy. After making
many enemies by his injudicious and intemperate speeches at
Toulouse, he left for Lyons, where the two folio volumes of his
'Commentaries" were published by Gryphius in 1536-8. The
work has been justly described as 'one of the most important
contributions to Latin scholarship produced by the sixteenth
century'2, and its almost simultaneous appearance with the second
edition of the Latin Thesaurus of Robert Estienne marks an
epoch in the history of Scholarship. The Thesaurus, aiming at
practical utility, naturally follows the order of the alphabet ; the
' Commentaries ', ' more scientific and critical ' in their method,
follow the sequence of meaning, and are mainly concerned with
Ciceronian usage. The work was enlivened by personal touches
that would certainly have been out of place in a dictionary3. The
author also gives a singularly complete list of the leading repre-
sentatives of the Revival of Learning, adding an eloquent eulogy
on their victories over barbarism4. This great achievement was
soon followed by a collection of Formulae, or Ciceronian phrases
(1539), afterwards printed as an Appendix to Nizolius5. Dolet's
attack on Erasmus provoked in 1539 a rejoinder by Franciscus
Floridus Sabinus, who charged Dolet with plagiarism in his
'Commentaries', and even with 'atheism'6. Dolet replied in
1540, and was himself answered in the following year. The
charge of plagiarism is only true to a trifling extent. As a
printer, from 1538 to 1544, Dolet produced a French translation of
the Ad Familiares and the Tusculan Disputations of Cicero, and a
history of the reign of Francis I in Latin verse and prose. He
was for a time a friend of Marot and of Rabelais. His Carmina
were denounced as heretical in 1538 ; his publication of the New
1 Commentarii Linguae Laiinae: facs. of title-page in Christie, 243.
2 Christie. 23.1 f.
2 Christie, 234 f.
3 ib. 241.
5 Edd. 1606, 17;
6 Christie, 272 f.
3 ib. 241. 4 ili. 247 — 253.
5 Edd. 1606, 1734, 1820; also in several epitomes.
6 Christie. 272 f.
12 — 2
i8o FRANCE. [CENT. xvi.
Testament in French and his translation of two religious treatises
by Erasmus, with other works, charged with 'heresy' in 1542, led
to his being prosecuted in the court of the Inquisitor-General at
the instigation of jealous rivals among the printers of Lyons. On
his condemnation, he appealed to the Parliament of Paris, but
meanwhile the royal pardon had been obtained and he was set at
liberty. He was the first to translate any part of Plato, or the
' Platonic ' writings, into French. His rendering of the Axiochus
and Htpfarchus, which was probably made with the help of a
Latin version, was published in 1544. A redundant phrase in
a single passage of his rendering of the former dialogue laid him
open to the imputation of attributing to ' Plato ' a disbelief in the
immortality of the soul1, and, strange to say, this charge con-
tributed in no small degree to his being condemned to death.
He was executed in the Place Maubert in 1546. Julius Caesar
Scaliger ignobly heaped insults on his memory, but his fate
was lamented by Theodore Beza, and his memory has recently
been honoured by a bronze statue erected on the spot where he
died as a ' martyr to the Renaissance '.
He has been well described as ' a sound Latin scholar, as scholarship was
then understood, possessed of much learning, of strong classical feeling, of
unwearied industry, and of both the will and the power to make his learning
available for the use and benefit of others'2. 'His enthusiastic love of
learning and his intense belief in himself are his strongest characteristics,
and both contributed in no small degree to his misfortune'3.
Three centuries before the death of Dolet, an oriental College
had been founded on the southern bank of the Seine, not far from
the Place Maubert. It had been suggested by a bull of
Innocent IV in the year 1248. It was afterwards called the
'College of Constantinople', and its aim was the theological
instruction of young Greeks with a view to their being sent as
missionaries to the East. But this Greek College was in no sense
a College for the teaching of Greek. In 1515 Leo X had founded
a Greek College under Lascaris at Rome. In the same year, the
1 <ri> 7&p OVK &r«, ' tu ne seras pas rien du tout\ Christie, 445.
2 Christie, 477.
8 ib. 480, ed. 1880 (ed. 2, 1899). Cp. Saintsbury, in Macmillan, xliii
273 f, and Tilley, i 25 f.
CHAP. XIII.] DOLET. DANES. TOUSSAIN. l8l
university of Alcala, with its College of St Jerome and its four
chairs of Greek and Hebrew, had been established by Cardinal
Ximenes ; and in 1517 the Collegium Trilingue was constituted at
Louvain. It was the ambition of Francis I to found a similar
College in France. In 1517 he vainly endeavoured to attract
Erasmus to Paris, while the foremost scholar of the day declined
on the plea that Charles V had the first claim on his allegiance.
Francis I afterwards became the prisoner of Charles V, and, during
his captivity in Spain, actually saw in 1525 the newly-founded
university of Alcala. The eloquent appeal addressed in 1529 to
Francis in the preface of the 'Commentaries' of Budaeus,
together with the enlightened cooperation of Lascaris, led in 1530
to the foundation of the ' Corporation of the Royal Readers u with
teachers of Greek, Hebrew and Mathematics, who were in the
first instance five in number. The College arose partly out of
the hostility of the Sorbonne to the study of Greek and Hebrew.
The lawyer Conrad of Heresbach states in 1551 that he once
heard a monk vehemently declaring in the pulpit, ' they have
recently discovered a language called Greek, against which we
must be on our guard. It is the parent of all heresies. I
observe in the hands of many persons a work written in that
language called the New Testament. It is a work teeming with
brambles and vipers. As for Hebrew, all who learn it immedi-
ately become Jews'2.
The first two teachers of Greek were Pierre Danes, ' Danesius '
(1497 — 1577), a member of an ancient and wealthy
family in Paris, who afterwards produced editions
of Justin and Pliny, became bishop of Lavaur, took an important
part in the Council of Trent, and was buried in St Germain-des-
Pres ; and Jacques Toussain (c. 1498 — 1547), a
... Toussain
less pretentious and far more industrious scholar,
the compiler of a Greek and Latin Dictionary, whose portrait in
Beza's Icones3 suggests austerity of life and energy of character.
Among their first pupils were two whose paths diverged widely in
1 p. 172 supra.
8 De laudibiis Graecarum literanim oralio, Argentorati, 1551, p. 26 f;
Eugene de Bude, Vie de Btide, 43 f.
3 Facing p. v. ij.
1 82 FRANCE. [CENT. xvi.
after life, — Ignatius de Loyola, and Calvin (1509 — 1564), whose
earliest work was a commentary on Seneca De dementia (1532),
and who owed much to his mastery of Latin1. It is probable
that their lectures were also attended for a short time by
Rabelais.
Frai^ois Rabelais (c. 1490 — 1553)1 the son of an avocat, was born at or
near Chinon in Touraine. He was educated at the Cluniac
Rabelais .. _ ... , , r
monastery of Seuille, and afterwards at a Franciscan convent
near Angers. He subsequently became a Friar of the strictest order of the
Franciscans at the convent of Fontenay-le-Comte in Poitou; where he laid
the foundation of his wide erudition (1509-24). His friend Pierre Lamy was
a protege of Budaeus, who encouraged the brethren in their Greek studies.
Rabelais translated Herodotus, and read largely in Lucian. The less scholarly
inmates of Fontenay were alarmed by the publication of Erasmus' Commentaries
on the New Testament ; Greek was denounced as heretical, and the students
of Greek deprived of their books. Lamy fled at the first opportunity, while
Rabelais was considerately transferred by Clement VII to the Benedictine
abbey of Maillezais near Liguge, then under the refined and enlightened
bishop, Geoffroi d'Estissac. He was here welcomed by a circle of learned
men, mostly jurists, e.g. Andre Tiraqueau, Jean Bouchet, and Almaric Bouchard.
But, before long, he left for the French universities, studying law at Bourges,
and medicine in Paris (1528-30). In December, 1530, he graduated as
Bachelor in Medicine at Montpellier. After lecturing there with great
success, he went to Lyons early in 1532, with a view to his lectures on parts
of Hippocrates and Galen being published by Sebastian Gryphius, an excellent
Latin scholar and printer of handy editions of the Latin classics. Rabelais
almost certainly acted for Gryphius as corrector of the press. In October he
became physician to the local hospital, and, to amuse his patients, composed
Les grandes...Croniques du geant Gargantua, in which the adventures of that
beneficent giant are combined with those of Merlin and Lancelot of the Lake.
The success of this work prompted him to publish his Paniagruel, which
combines giant-stories of the Carolingian cycle with humanistic learning, with
satires on legal and scholastic studies and on the disputations in the Sorbonne,
and with attacks on the Mendicant Orders. He here borrows from the
Commentaries on the Pandects and the De Asse of Budaeus, from More's
Utopia, as well as from Homer, Hippocrates, Galen, and Diogenes Laertius,
with Virgil, Ovid, and Gellius, and from translations from Lucian and Plutarch
by Erasmus and Budaeus.
After a visit to Rome in company with the future Cardinal, bishop"
Jean du Bellay, he produced at Lyons an edition of Marliani's Topographia
Romae Antiquae (i534)2. In the next year his Grandes Croniques were super-
seded by his Gargantua, a work of wider outlook and more extensive erudition.
1 Tilley, i 230. 2 p. 154 supra.
CHAP. XIII.] RABELAIS. 183
The suggestions made in Pantagruel1 are here expanded into a complete
system of moral, intellectual and physical education2, which even now
commands respect, — a system probably partly inspired by that of Vittorino.
The giant-stories are dropped, but we have much about medicine and classical
learning, and many traces of indebtedness to the Adagia of Erasmus. Erasmus
is doubtless the source of the learned allusion to the images of the Sileni in
the prologue, and the series of references to Hippocrates, Plautus, Varro and
Pliny is really derived from Gellius3.
After a second visit to Rome with the Cardinal (July 1535 to March 1536),
he returned to Paris, completed his medical degrees at Montpellier, and
wandered about the South of France till late in 1539, when he took service
with the Cardinal's brother, Guillaume du Bellay, Viceroy of Piedmont4.
A stay at Orleans was succeeded by his residence at the Benedictine priory
of St Maur des Fosses near Paris, under Cardinal du Bellay. Here he seriously
took up classical studies and completed his Third Book. This, his most
finished production, is concerned almost entirely with various systems of
divination on the prospects of the marriage of Panurge. The wealth of
classical reference is more profuse than ever, including Homer, Diodorus,
Strabo, Pausanias and Diogenes Laertius5, with Ovid, Suetonius, Gellius, and
the ' Scriptores Historiae Augustae', Lucian and Philostratus, Catullus and
Terence. Under the inspiration of the library of St Maur6, he carefully
studied Plutarch's Moralia7, the De Divinatione and the moral treatises of
Cicero, Pliny's Natural History (especially on points of botany), Ovid's
Metamorphoses and Fasti, and (above all) Virgil, with the commentary of
Servius8 and the elucidations of Macrobius. The renaissance scholars laid
under contribution include Politian and Valla, Budaeus and Erasmus, with
Tiraqueau9, Johannes Nevizanus10, and Cornelius Agrippa11.
On the publication of the Third Book (1546) he retired to Metz, where he
soon became physician to the hospital, and wrote part of his Fourth Book with
the aid of a few texts such as Ovid's Fasti and Valerius Maximus. The Book
was finished in Rome during his third visit in the company of the Cardinal
(1548-50), when he added to his authorities the Antiquae Lectiones of Caelius
Rhodiginus, formerly Greek Professor at Milan (d. 1525). The Fourth and
the posthumous Fifth Book are entirely taken up with the Voyage of Pantagruel
and his companions to consult the oracle in Northern India or Cathay,
whither they proceed by the famous North- West passage12. Rabelais is
I c. 8. 2 c. 23 and 24.
3 iii 16. 4 d. Jan. 1543.
5 Also Herodotus and Dionysius of Halicarnassus.
6 Lib. iv, Ep. Ded.
7 Cp. P. P. Plan, in Melanges a" Archeologie et d" Histoire, xxvi (1906),
195—249.
8 W. F. Smith, in Revue des Etudes rabelaisiennes, iv 4 (1906), 22 pp.
9 De legibus connubialibus. 10 Silva Nttptialis.
II De occulta philosophia and de vanitate scientiarum. 12 iv c. i.
i&4 FRANCE. [CENT. xvi.
femarkable for his interest in voyages of discovery. Hence his fondness for
the Odyssey, and for Lucian's Vera Historia.
After the publication of the Fourth Book (1552), in which the Decretals
are ridiculed, he resigned his cure of Meudon early in 1553, and died in the
same year1.
Toussain counted not only Rabelais, but also Ramus and
Turnebus among his pupils. In 1547 (the year of the death
of Francis I) Toussain was succeeded as lecturer in Greek by
Turnebus, while Ramus became a professor in 1551. For a
quarter of a century Ramus, or Pierre de la Ramee
. Ramus '
(1515 — 1572), was the most prominent teacher in
Paris. He was already celebrated as the resolute opponent of the
exclusive authority of Aristotle. In 1536 he had maintained the
thesis that everything written by Aristotle was false, and in 1543
he had severely attacked the Aristotelian logic. This attitude had
naturally made him many enemies. Nevertheless in 1551 a
special chair of ' eloquence and philosophy ' was instituted on his
behalf2. He lectured with great success on Cicero and Virgil.
He substituted humanistic methods of teaching for the scholastic
methods that had long prevailed ; he encouraged the study of
Greek, and he improved the study of Latin. In the very first
year of his lectureship he was entangled in a petty controversy
with the Sorbonne as to the proper pronunciation of quisquis and
quanquam. The Royal Reader pronounced the vowel u in both
words ; the Sorbonne pleaded for its suppression ; Parliament
decided to leave it an open question3. With his colleague,
Galland, he had a dispute on the merits of Quintilian, of which
Rabelais has said in the 'new preface' to the fourth book of
Pantagruel : — ' What shall we do with this Ramus and this
Galland, who are setting by the ears the whole University of
Paris ?' As a protestant, Ramus was unhappily one of the victims
of the massacre of St Bartholomew in 1572*.
1 This account of Rabelais is abridged from a sketch written on my behalf
by my friend, Mr W. F. Smith, Fellow of St John's, translator of Rabelais
(1893). '. Cp. Tilley, i 165—223, with the bibliography there quoted, and
Brunetiere, Hist, de la lift. fran(aise dassique, i (1904), 105 — 164; also
C. Whibley, Literary' Portraits (1904), i — 108.
2 Pasquier, Recherches de la France, ix 18. 3 Lefranc, 21 r n.
4 On Ramus, cp. Ch. Waddington (Paris, 1855); Desmaze, 1864; Ziegler,
CHAP. XIII.]
RAMUS; TURNEBUS.
I85
The Royal Readers in Greek included Turnebus (from 1547
to 1565), Dorat (1559 to 1588) and Lambinus
(1561 to 1572). The first of these, 'Adrianus
Turnebus'1 of Andelys in Normandy (1512 — 1565), was sent at
the age of twelve to be educated in Paris under Toussain and
TURNEBUS.
No. 127 of De Leu's Pourtraictz (c. 1600) ; Print Room, British Museum.
others, whom he astonished by his marvellous memory and his
rare acumen. In 1545 he became a professor at Toulouse, and,
on the death of Toussain, was appointed to succeed him in Paris.
Toussain had been (like Budaeus and Rabelais) a man of marked
Gesch. der Piidagogik (1895), 107 f; and see Tilley, i 273 f; portrait in Bois-
sard, II 96.
1 This is the form found on the title-page of his Aeschylus. In the
Letters prefixed to that ed., and to his Sophocles, the name is spelt Toi//>-
ve/3oj, as also in the Greek Epitaph by Henr. Stephanus, who in another
epigram calls him TcwpcTj/Sos (Maittaire, Stephanorum Vitae, 112 f). The
Latin epitaphs, by Stephanus and Jean Mercier, have Turnebus. His
own contemporary, Estienne Pasquier (GLuvres choisies, Ep. i) addresses him
in 1552 as M. de Tournebu, and the form Tournebou is given in the Bibliotheque
Britannique, vii 154 f; Tournebus is found in Paris accounts of 1550-1
(Lefranc's College de France, 404), and is the form adopted by Legay (Caen,
1828), and by Tilley, i 280, who describes 'Tournebus' as Latinised into
Turnebus, and then Gallicised back into Turnebe. The suggestion that the
original French form was Touvnebceuf, and that this was derived from the
Scottish name of Turnbull (a suggestion due to Dempster), is rightly regarded
as doubtful by Eckstein, Nomencl. Philol. s.v. Cp. L. Clement (1899), p. 7.
r86 FRANCE. [CENT. xvi.
erudition, ' a living library ' ; Turnebus was more of a specialist in
Greek textual criticism. From 1552 to 1556 he was Director of
the Royal Press, and, in that capacity, published a series of Greek
texts, including Aeschylus (1552), and Sophocles with the scholia
of Triclinius (1553). He also edited Cicero's Laws, and Philo
and Oppian; and commented on Varro and the elder Pliny.
Late in life he completed his most important work, the thirty
books of his Adversaria, in which a large number of passages in
ancient authors are judiciously explained or boldly emended.
De Thou describes them as aeternitate digna. Scaliger's verdict
on the Adversaria is vague. He admires the author's learning,
but regards the work as immature1; at the same time, he con-
siders that there is more in a single book of Turnebus than in the
37 books of the Variae Lect tones of Victorius2. Montaigne, his
junior by 21 years, speaks with no uncertain sound: —
' I have seen Adrianus Turnebus, who having never professed any thing
but studie and letters, wherein he was, in mine opinion, the worthiest man that
lived these thousand years,... notwithstanding had no pedanticall thing about
him but the wearing of his gowne, and some external fashions, that could not
well be reduced and incivilized to the courtiers cut... For his inward parts,
I deeme him to have been one of the most unspotted and truly honest minds
that ever was. I have sundry times of purpose urged him to speake of
matters furthest from his study, wherein he was so cleare-sighted, and could
with so quicke an apprehension conceive, and with so sound a judgment
distinguish them, that he seemed never to have professed or studied other
facultie than warre, and matters of state '3.
Another of the Royal Readers in Greek, Jean Dorat4
(c. 1502 — 1588), was born at Limoges. Francis I
made him tutor to the royal pages, and Charles IX
gave him the title of ' Poet Royal '. He is said to have published
more than 50,000 Greek and Latin verses, and 15,000 of these
1 Scaligerana s.v. 2 Scaligerana Sec. s.v.
3 Essayes, I c. xxiv, Of Pedantisme (in Florio's transl.); cp. n c. xii,
1 Adrianus Turnebus, a man who knew all things '. Cp. in general L. du
Chesne's Funeral Oration in Opera (Arg., 1600); Legay (Paris, 1893), 51 pp.;
L. Clement, De Adriani Turnebi . . .praefationibus et poemalis (1899), 152 pp.
with bibliography.
4 His father's name was Dorat ; the son Latinised this as Auratus ; and
his contemporaries called him Daurat as well as Dorat (Tilley, i 309 ;
cp. Pattison's Essays, i 206 n.).
CHAP. XIII.]
DORAT.
I87
are preserved in his Poematia. ' No book was written but Auratus
composed a poetic eulogy of the author ; no person of quality
died but Auratus wrote an elegy in verse'. He represents the
' moment in French literature, when Greek learning was in
alliance with public taste and polite letters ' 1. Scaliger, who can
only describe him as ' bonus poe'ta ', because he could write verses
DORAT.
No. 108 of De Leu's Pourtraictz (c. 1600) ; Print Room, British Museum.
on any subject, is more emphatic when he calls him ' Graecae
linguae peritissimus '. Ten years before his appointment as one
of the Royal Readers, he published his edition of the Prometheus
Vinctus (1549). Among his pupils at the College de Coqueret
was the future poet Ronsard. Dorat, 'foreseeing that Ronsard
would one day be the Homer of France, and desiring that his
spirit should be nursed with appropriate aliment', took him and
read to him the whole of the Prometheus. ' Why is it, master ',
cried Ronsard, ' that you have hidden such riches from me for so
long?'2 The gratitude of Dorat's poetic pupils enrolled their
master's name in the ' Pleiad ' ; and the Greek spirit that, under
the influence of Dorat, began to breathe in the poems of Ronsard,
aroused an interest in all that was Greek3. Apart from the edition
of the Prometheus, Dorat left behind him conjectural emendations
on other plays of Aeschylus, which give proof of learning,
1 Pattison, i 207.
3 Egger, Hellenisme, lefon x.
2 Binet's Life of Ronsard.
i88 FRANCE. [CENT, xvi.
acumen, and poetic taste. Hermann preferred him to all the
critics on Aeschylus1.
Dolet had translated the Letters of Cicero ; Masures, the whole of Virgil ;
. Habert, the Metamorphoses of Ovid, and Pelletier, the Ars
Poetica of Horace. The number of these translations
multiplied to such an extent that a protest was raised by one of the ' Pleiad ',
J. du Bellay, who urged the duty of imitating and assimilating the ancients
instead of translating them. The poets in particular, he declared, should not
be translated, except at the command of princes and great noblemen*. Never-
theless, he afterwards translated Aeneid IV and vi, while the Epistles of Ovid
were published in French by a lady of high birth, Madeleine de l'Aubespine3.
Literary criticism in France began with the publication of Pelletier's
French version of the Ars Poetica of Horace (1545), and the
Criticism ^rs*; reference to the corresponding work of Aristotle in the
critical literature of France is to be found in du Bellay's
Defense et Illustration de la Langue frattfaise (1549). An edition of Aristotle's
treatise was produced in 1 555 by the learned printer, Guillaume Morel (i 505-64) ;
and the dramatic law of the ' Unity of Time', ascribed to Aristotle by Italian
writers such as Minturno and Castelvetro, was accepted in France by Ronsard
(1565), and by Jean de la Taille (i572)4.
LAMBINUS.
The third of the above-mentioned Royal Readers in Greek
was Denys Lambin, or Dionysius Lambinus (1520 —
i Lambinus . 1-1 "\ • /-
1572), who won his laurels mainly in the field of
Latin scholarship. Born at Montreuil-sur-mer in Picardy, he was
educated at Amiens, and, after spending some years on the study
of the best Greek and Latin authors6, entered the service of the
1 On Agam. 1396. Cp. Vitrac's Eloge (1775); Robiquet, De J. Aurati
vita (1887) ; and Pattison's Essays, i 206, 210.
2 Defense, 1. i. 3 Feugere, Cdraeteres, i 7.
. * Spingarn, 171, 177, 184, 206; Saintsbury, ii 113, 117; Tilley, ii 82.
8 Preface to Cicero, ' cum in optimo quoque scriptore et Graeco et Latino
evolvendo ac legendo aliquot annos in Gallia consumpsissem, in Italiam
profectus sum '.
.CHAP. XIII.] LAMBINUS. 189
Cardinal de Tournon, whom he accompanied on two visits to Italy.
.During the first of these visits he lived in Rome for four years
(1549-53). After staying for a year or two in Paris, he returned
to Italy for five years (1555-60), which he spent in Rome, Venice
and Lucca. In one of his letters he describes himself as having
passed twelve years in a vita motoria et turbulenta^. But he was
thus brought into contact with scholars such as Faernus, Muretus
and Fulvius Ursinus, and had those opportunities of collating MSS
in the Vatican and elsewhere, which proved of signal service in
his subsequent editions of the Latin Classics. In 1561 he was
appointed one of the Royal Readers in Latin, but was soon
transferred to a readership in Greek. At that time he had
already published, at the suggestion of the Cardinal de Tournon,
a Latin translation of Aristotle's Ethics (1558), which was followed
(in 1567) by one of the Politics, while, in the last year of his life,
he published a discourse on the utility of Greek, and on the
proper method of translating Greek authors into Latin (1572).
Meanwhile, he had won a wide reputation by his great editions of
Latin authors. The first of these was his Horace (1561). He
had been preceded by unimportant commentators on the Ars
Poetica, such as Achilles Statius (1553) and Francesco Luisini
(1554), and by others whose names are now forgotten; he had
gathered illustrations of his author from every source ; and he had
collated ten MSS, mainly in Italy. The text was much improved,
while the notes were enriched by the quotation of many parallel
passages, and by the tasteful presentment of the spirit and feeling
of the Roman poet". Within the next two years he had completed,
in November 1563, his masterly edition of Lucretius (1564). He
had founded his text on five MSS ; three of these he had collated
in Rome, a fourth was lent by his friend, Erricus Memmius, and
the fifth, collated on his behalf by Turnebus, was that in the
monastery of St Berlin in Saint-Omer, and is now known as the
' Leyden quarto '. He had also examined the earlier editions, and
1 Letter to Erricus Memmius, Epp. Bruti, p. 435.
'2 Preface, to .Cicero, 'ibidem (in Italia) Q. Horatium Flaccum cum
exemplaribus antiquis, quorum magna est in eis locis copia, comparavi,
eosque duces et auctores secutus, multos in eo poe'ta locos et mendosos
emendavi et implicates explieavi '.
190 FRANCE. [CENT. xvi.
had studied the old Latin grammarians ; while, with a view to his
commentary, he had ransacked the Greek and Latin Classics.
For his author he had a peculiar admiration : of all the surviving
Latin poets, Lucretius was, in his opinion, not only elegantissimus
et purissimus, but also gravissimus atque ornatissimus. He
dedicates the whole work to Charles IX, and the several books
to individual scholars, such as ' Memmius', Ronsard, Muretus,
Turnebus, and 'Auratus'. He claims to have restored the true
reading in 800 passages, and we are assured on the best authority
that the superiority of his text over those of all his predecessors
' can scarcely be exaggerated '.
' The quickness of his intellect, united with his exquisite knowledge of the
language, gave him great power in the field of conjecture, and, for nearly three
centuries, his remained the standard text '. ' His copious explanatory and
illustrative commentary calls for unqualified eulogy, and has remained... the
great original storehouse, from which all have borrowed who have done
anything for the elucidation of their author '. ' His reading is as vast as it
is accurate, and its results are given in a style of unsurpassed clearness and
beauty. His notes observe the mean between too much and too little : he
himself calls them brief, while his thankless countrymen, thinking however
more perhaps of his Horace than his Lucretius, have made lambin or lambiner
classical terms to express what is diffuse and tedious '.
The learning accumulated in this edition was shamelessly pillaged by
Giphanius (1566). In 1570 Lambinus published his third edition. 'In
a preface of great power and beauty of style he states his wrongs ; there and
throughout his commentary the whole Latin language, rich in that department,
is ransacked for terms of scorn and contumely'1.
To the preparation of his brilliant edition of the whole of
Cicero, which appeared in 1566, he gave only two years and a
half, and some of his alterations of the text are regarded as
unduly bold. In 1569 he edited Cornelius Nepos. He had
already completed his commentary on twelve of the plays of
Plautus, and was beginning the thirteenth, when the shock caused
by the news, that his colleague Ramus had been put to death in
the massacre of St Bartholomew, hastened his own end. Scaliger,
who observes that Lambinus possessed very few books2, admires
the excellence of his spoken and written Latin style3; and it has
1 Munro's Lucretius, pp. 14 — 163.
2 Scaligerana. 3 Prima Scaligerana.
CHAP. XIII.] LAMBINUS. PASSERAT. DANIEL. 19 1
been well remarked by Munro, that ' his knowledge of Cicero and
the older Latin writers, as well as the Augustan poets, has never
been surpassed and rarely equalled".
During his second sojourn in Italy, Lambinus had been
assisted by Muretus in deciphering the readings in
certain MSS of Lucretius, and had shown his assistant
part of his future commentary on Horace. In 1559,
on receiving from Muretus a copy of the Variae Lectiones, Lambinus
discovered that his own notes on Horace had been appropriated.
He wrote in temperate terms to expostulate, and, in 1561, printed
the whole of the correspondence, in which (as it happened) there
were several other items detrimental to the moral character of
Muretus2. The latter had afterwards the satisfaction of noticing
in the margin of a copy of Lambinus' Horace some of the minor
mistakes in that important work3. The career of Muretus has
already been traced in connexion with the land of his adoption4.
In the latter half of the sixteenth century we note the name of
the poet and professor, Jean Passerat (1534 — 1602),
who succeeded Ramus as Royal Professor of
Eloquence in 1572. He is said to have published nothing before
the age of sixty, when he wrote the French verses at the close of
the Satire Menippee (1594). In Latin, his favourite author was
Plautus, whom he is said to have read through forty times. He
lost his sight five years before his death. He is best known for
two of his posthumous works: — a treatise De literarum inter se
cognatione ac permntatione (1606), and an annotated edition of
Catullus, Tibullus and Propertius (i6o8)5.
In this century there were three notable scholars in France,
who published classical texts from MSS formerly
in monastic libraries. Pierre Daniel of Orleans Daniel,
(1530 — 1603) produced the first edition of the Pithou
Querolus (1564), and of the fuller form of the
1 Lucretius, p. i43. Cp., in general, P. Lazerus in Orelli's Onomaslicon
Tullianitm, 1478 — 491 ; and, for opinions of early scholars, Blount's Cetisura,
504 f.
2 Muretus, Opera, eel. Ruhnken, i 395 f, where the rest of the correspondence
is reprinted.
3 Lazeri, u.s. p. 486 f. * p. 148 supra.
5 Cp. Tilley, ii 54.
192 FRANCE. [CENT, xvi
commentary of Servius (I6OO)1. Pierre Pithou, ' Petrus Pithoeus '
of Troyes (1539 — 1596), General-Procurator in Guienne and at
Paris, had a fine library including an important collection of MSS.
He produced the first important text of Juvenal and Persius (1585)
founded on the ' codex Pithoeanus ' formerly in the Benedictine
abbey of Lorsch, and now at Montpellier2, and the editio princeps
of Phaedrus (Autun, 1596), the Pervigilium Veneris (1577),
Salvianus (1580), and the Edict of Theodoric (1579). He also
produced an improved edition of Petronius3. He narrowly escaped
death in the massacre of St Bartholomew (1572), and became a
Catholic in the following year. When Scaliger left for Leyden in
1593, Pithou was perhaps the ablest scholar in France; but a
decline in Greek scholarship is indicated by the fact that Scaliger
describes Pithou as 'nothing of a Greek scholar'4.
The Protestant, Jacques Bongars of Orleans (1554 — 1612),
who received part of his early education in Germany,
Bongars .,..„,. _,
and was afterwards a pupil of Cujas at Bourges,
edited Justin in 1581, a collection of Dacian Inscriptions in 1600,
and the Gesta Dei per Francos, early histories of the French
Crusades, in 1611. He held diplomatic positions abroad, and in
the course of his travels visited Constantinople in 1585, and
Cambridge in 1608. In 1603-4 he bought a large part of the
libraries of Pierre Daniel and of Cujas, and subsequently be-
queathed all his books and MSS to the son of Rene Grausset,
the Strassburg banker. The son presented them to Bern, the
native city of his wife (1632). The most important items in the
collection are the MSS of Virgil, Horace5, and Lucan. The
collection included part of the literary treasures of Fleury, which
had been dispersed in 15 62".
1 Hagen, Zur Gesch. der Philol. i f (Bern, 1873) ; L. Jarry, Une corre-
spondance litteraire (1876); history of his library in Moreri, Grand Diet. Hist.
2 Facs. in Chatelain, Pal. no. 127.
3 A. Collignon, Petrone en France (1905), 24 — 28.
4 Scaligerana Altera. Cp. Boivin, vita etc. 1716; Grosley (1756); Briquet
de Laraux (1768); O. Jahn, Ber. sacks. Geselhch. iv 278; and Tilley, i 294,
ii 234. A fine portrait engraved by Vanschuppen (also by Morin, in Lacroix,
xviie siecle, 1882, fig. 55, p. 149). 6 Chatelain, Pa!, pi.. 76, 77.
6 Hagen, /. c. .53 f, and Schultess, in Beitrage.zur Gelehrten-Geschichte
des xvii fahrh.t Hamburg, 1905, 103 — 206; also vol. i 625*, n. 8,
CHAP. XIII.] JURISTS. 193
In the same age law and archaeology were admirably re-
presented in France. The study of jurisprudence
had been introduced by the Italian, Andrea Alciati DC Grouchy
(1492 — 1550), who lectured for a few years at Hotman
Bourges (1528-32) 1. Nicolas de Grouchy, of Rouen Doneau
(1520—1572), taught at Bordeaux, Paris, Coimbra Godefroy
and Rochelle, and (besides his numerous transla-
tions from Aristotle) distinguished himself by his learned disserta-
tion De Comitiis Romanorum (1555). Jacques Cujas, or Cujacius,
of Toulouse (1522 — 1590), who taught at Cahors, Valence, Paris,
and Bourges, was the founder of the historical school of juris-
prudence. He was famous as the author of an extensive series
of learned 'Observations and Emendations' (1566), while the
fullest edition of his works extends to eleven folio volumes. The
professors in certain German universities were wont to raise their
caps whenever, in the course of their lectures, they mentioned
the name of Cujas or of Turnebus2. Francois Hotman (1524 —
1590) was the author of 'Observations' on Roman Law, and of
Commentaries on Cicero's Speeches. His political pamphlet, the
Tigre (1560), which has been described as a 'succession of pistol-
shots fired point-blank ' at the Cardinal of Lorraine, was modelled
on the Catilinarian orations3. He also produced an important
political treatise in Latin, the Franco-Gallia (15 73)4. Hugues
Doneau, or 'Donellus' (1527 — 1591), was the author of a
systematic work on Civil Law5. The massacre of 1572 drove
Doneau and Hotman to Geneva. Barnabe Brisson (1531—
1591) was the writer of celebrated treatises on the terminology of
the Civil Law (1557) and on the legal formulae of the Romans
(X5^3)- He was forced by the partisans of the League to act as
first President of their Parliament in 1589, and was put to death
by the faction of the Sixteen in 1591". Lastly, Denys Godefroy,
1 Portrait in Boissard, n 134.
2 Pasquier, Recherches, ix c. 18 (Tilley, i 281). Portrait in Boissard,
vn ff.
3 Tilley, ii 229.
4 ib. ii 231 ; portrait in Boissard, in 140.
5 Portrait in Boissard, in 290.
6 Molles, Diss. de Brissonio, Altd. 1696 ; Conrad in his ed. of De Formulis
(1/81).
S. II. 13
194 FRANCE. [CENT. xvi.
' Gothofredus ' (1549 — 1621)', distinguished himself as the editor
of the Corpus Juris Civilis, while his son Jacques (1587 — 1652)
edited the Theodosian Code. The treatise on Government, Six
livres de la Republique, written in French and also in Latin by
Jean Bodin (1530 — 1596), may here be noted, in so far as it is
founded on the teaching of Plato and Aristotle2. The learned
lawyers above mentioned are among the glories of France. An
interesting picture of their scholarly industry is preserved by
one of the legal luminaries of the time, Antoine Loisel, who tells
us that, after supper, Pithou, Cujas and himself used to meet in
the library every evening, and continued to work there until three
o'clock in the morning3.
During this age classical masterpieces were translated with a marked effect
on the literature of France. In the fourteenth and fifteenth
Translators
centuries the most popular Latin poet was Ovid, whose Meta-
morphoses had been popularised by the paraphrase and commentary of
Pierre Bersuire (d. 1362). The Epistles were translated in 1 500, the Remedium
Amoris in 1509, and the first two books of the Metamorphoses (by Marot) in
1532. Among the translations of Virgil may be mentioned the first Eclogue
by Marot (1512) and the first Georgic by Peletier (1547), who also translated
the Ars Poetica of Horace (1544), which partly inspired the Art Poelique of
Sibilet (1548), the first French translator of the Iphigeneia at Anlis (1549).
Terence's Andria was competently rendered by Charles Estienne (1542).
Estienne Dolet's translations of Cicero, ad Familiares, and Tusculan
Disputations, I — in (1542-3), were frequently reprinted. The De amicilia
and De seneclute, the De legibus and Somnium Scipionis were rendered by
Jean Colin (1537-9), an(^ ten °f ^ Speeches by Macault (1548). Meigret
translated the De Offidis, and Sallust, and three books of the elder Pliny. Old
translations of Caesar were revised. Bersuire 's Livy held its ground till 1582,
but a new rendering had been begun in 1548, which was also the date of the
beginning of a translation of Tacitus completed in 1582. Vitruvius was
translated by Martin in 1547.
Translations from the Greek poets opened a new era in French literature
in the reign of Francis I. The Electra of Sophocles and the Hecuba of
Euripides were indifferently rendered by Lazare de Baif (1537-44), ar|d the
first ten books of the Iliad and the first two of the Odyssey were translated in
verse by Salel and Peletier respectively (1545-7)- With the aid of Janus
Lascaris, several of the Greek historians were translated by Claude de Seyssel,
bishop of Marseilles and afterwards archbishop of Turin, and were published
1 Portrait in Boissard, vn ff 2.
2 Feugere, Caracteres, i p. xxxii, ii 432-5.
3 ib. Cp. Tilley in Camb. Mod. Hist, iii 58 f.
CHAP. XIII.] TRANSLATORS. AMYOT. 195
after his death (1520) by command of the king1. The title-page of Macault's
translation of the first three books of Diodorus shows us the king's secretary
and valet de chambre presenting his work to Francis I (1535). There were
also translations of Herodian and Polybius, I — v, Dion Cassius and Xenophon's
Cyropaedeia. These were surpassed in popularity by Pierre Saliat's Herodotus
(i556)2. The above translation from Diodorus was printed by Tory, who
himself translated thirty dialogues of Lucian (1529), and the Oecononiicus of
Xenophon (1531). The Hipparchus of Plato and the spurious Axiochus were
rendered by Dolet (1544), and we know of versions of part of the Symposium,
and of the Ion, Crito, and Lysis. Oresme's translations of Aristotle's Ethics and
Politics still held the field. Two renderings of Aesop in French verse were
published in 1542-7. Parts of Plutarch's Moralia and eight of the Lives
appeared in the reign of Francis I. With regard to these translations in
general, it must be noticed that they were made from Latin versions, with the
rarest possible reference to the original Greek3.
Pindar, whose text was first published in 1513, doubtless presented serious
difficulties even to Dorat, the best Greek scholar in the Pleiade, but he found
imitators such as Ronsard, one of whose odes even surpasses the Fourth
Pythian in length4. It was apparently with a sense of relief that Ronsard
welcomed the easier task of imitating Anacreon5.
The title of prince of translators was won by Jacques Amyot
(1513 — 1593), who made Plutarch speak the French
language6. He was lectured on Greek by Danes
and Toussain, and was appointed professor at Bourges. He
published his translation of the Greek novel of Heliodorus in
1547, and, in recognition of this rendering and of his version of
some Lives from Plutarch that was still unpublished, was made
abbot of Bellozane, one of the last acts of Francis I. For the
next four years he worked in the Libraries of St Mark and the
Vatican. In the Vatican he discovered a better MS of Heliodorus ;
at Venice he found five of the lost books of Diodorus (xi-xv),
1 Thuc. , Xen. Anab., Diodorus 18 — 20, Eusebius and Appian (1527-44).
2 Ed. Talbot (1864).
3 Cp. Tilley, i 35 — 40 ; and, for translations from Greek and Latin poets,
Goujet's Bibliothequefran$aise, iv — vin, and, from Latin and Italian generally,
J. Blanc's Bibliographic ilalieo-frattfaise (Milan, 1886) quoted ib. i 39 ; also a
popular sketch by J. Bellanger, Hist, de la Traduction en France, 131 pp. (no
index), 1903.
4 Egger, i 351-8.
5 ib. 363 ; Sainte-Beuve, Anacreon au xvie s. (in Tableau de la poesie fr.) ;
Delboulle's Anacreon, 1891 ; and Tilley, i 330 f.
6 Montaigne, ii 10.
13—2
FRANCE. [CENT. xvi.
which he published, with the next two, in 1554. In 1559 he
produced his rendering of the Daphnis and Chloe of Longus, and
completed that of the Lives of Plutarch, which he dedicated to
Henry II. Henry's successor, Charles IX, made him Grand
Almoner of France (1560) and bishop of Auxerre (1570).
Amyot's translation of the Moralia appeared in 1572. His
translation of Plutarch was practically a new and ' original work'1,
and a living force for two and a half centuries2. In his own age,
' I am grateful to Amyot above all things ' (says Montaigne), ' for
having had the wit to select so worthy and so suitable a work to
present his country. We ignorant folk had been lost, had not this
lifted us out of the mire ; thanks to it, we now dare speak and
write, and ladies give lessons out of it to schoolmasters ; 'tis our
breviary'3. The dignity and grace of Amyot's rendering were
lauded by the translator's friend and publisher, Morel ; his version
of the Lives > in the English dress of Florio, became Shakespeare's
Plutarch. Minor flaws have been found in its pages by Muretus4,
and in the seventeenth century by Meziriac, and, early in the
nineteenth, by Paul Louis Courier; but its smooth and flowing
charm, and its literary merits in general, have been more generously
appreciated by later critics5.
Louis Le Roy (1510 — 1577) attended the lectures of the new
royal professors in 1530, a year or two later than
Amyot. He wrote a life of Budaeus in excellent
Latin, and, after spending nearly twenty years in translating Greek
prose authors, succeeded Lambinus as professor of Greek (1572).
His translations consist of the Olynthiacs and Philippics of
Demosthenes ; Plato's Timaeus, Phaedo, Symposium and Republic ;
Aristotle's Politics, and some treatises of Isocrates and Xenophon.
He is recognised as a ' competent translator ', whose style ' some-
times strikes a higher note'. In the first of his lectures on
Demosthenes, which were delivered in French (1576), after
1 Joseph Joubert, ed. K. Lyttelton (1898), 188.
2 O. Greard, De la morale de Plutarque, 328 f (ed. 1874).
3 ii 4 init. * Journal de Montaigne, ii 152 (ed. 1774).
5 A. Pommier, £loge <f Amyot (1849) ; Blignieres, Amyot et les traducleurs
franfais au xvi s. (1851) ; Feugere, Caracteres, i 487 — 506 ; Egger, Hellenisme,
i 261-4; Bellanger, Hist, de la Traduction en France, 13, 25 — 28; and Tilley,
i 280 — 289.
CHAP. XIII.] LE ROY. MONTAIGNE. 197
paying a tribute to the ancient languages, he attacks ' those
scholars who entirely neglected their native language and all
modern topics'1.
Michel de Montaigne (1533—92) preserves a perfect silence as
to Saliat, the translator of Herodotus, from whom
„ , . . .. .... Montaigne
all his quotations from that historian are bor-
rowed. He is personally acquainted with Amyot, ' the great
Almoner of France'2; the books that he reads for profit as well as
pleasure are 'Plutarch (since he spake French) and Seneca'3;
and he confesses that his book is completely built up with
the spoils of these two authors4. The other Classics that he
cites most frequently are Cicero, Lucretius, Horace and Virgil5.
As his ' familiar tutors ' he names ' Nicholas Gruchy, who
hath written De comitiis Romanorum; William Guerente, who
hath commented Aristotle ; George Buchanan, that famous
Scottish Poet, and Marke Antonie Muret, whom (while he lived)
both France and Italic to this day, acknowledge to have been the
best orator'6. He also quotes 'our late most famous writer
Lipsius, in his learned and laborious work of the Politikes'7. His
eulogy of Turnebus has been already noticed8. There is no
1 Tilley, i 289 f ; cp. A. H. Becker, Lays Le Roy, 1896.
2 i c. 23 ; p. 196 supra. 3 ii c. 10.
4 ii c. 32 ; i c. 25 ; cp. Tilley, ii 160-2, and in Canib. Mod. Hist, iii 69.
8 For a list of authors read by Montaigne, with his judgements on them, see
Miss Grace Norton's Studies in Montaigne (1904), p. 265 f. The authors read
before 1580 include Aristotle, Caesar, Gellius, Horace, Manilius, Martial,
Ovid, the elder Pliny, Plutarch, Suetonius, Terence, Valerius Maximus; those
read chiefly in 1580-8, Catullus, 'Cornelius Callus', Curtius, Juvenal, Lucan,
Lucretius, Persius, Propertius, Tacitus, Virgil; after 1588, Diodorus, Herodotus,
Livy, Plato, Quintilian, Xenophon ; and, in all years, Cicero, Diogenes
Laertius, and Seneca (pp. 267 — 286 f). Besides these 50 authors, he uses 125
others, e.g. Stobaeus ; Florilegium Epigraminatuin (1531); Poetae Gnomici
(1561-9); ' Publius Syrus' (1516 or 1560). Montaigne is 'one of the most
original of authors, though he helped himself to ideas in every direction ; but
they turn to blood and coloring in his style, and give a freshness of complexion
that is forever charming' (Lowell, on Montaigne as a Reader, and Student of
Style). Cp. C. Whibley, Literary Portraits (1904), 181 — 221.
6 i c. 25 (Florio's transl.); p. 149 supra.
7 ib., cp. latest ed. of ii, c. 12. He had corresponded with Lipsius in
1589 (Tilley, ii 149).
8 p. 1 86 supra.
I9§ FRANCE. [CENT. XVI.
writer of this age who is so thoroughly saturated with the wisdom
of the ancients or who so frequently applies quotations from the
Classics to the conduct of life. He is proud of the honorary
title of ' Citizen of Rome ' ; and he represents the final and the
ripe result of the Revival of Learning in France.
With Montaigne we may associate his short-lived friend,
Estienne de La Boetie (i^o — is6i), whom he
La Boetie
so warmly admired for his bold protest against
tyranny1. La Boetie's interest in Greek is proved by his translation
of the Oeconomicus of Xenophon and of part of the Economics of
Aristotle, as well as Plutarch's Praecepta Conjugalia and Consolatio
ad Uxorem. His skill in Latin verse is exemplified in the poems,
which he composed at the prompting of the elder Scaliger, whose
death he commemorated in a pathetic passage in which he foresees
the approach of his own end2.
The French civilian and poet, Estienne Pasquier (1529 — 1615),
who was born before Montaigne and his friend, and
Pasquier . . ...
survived them both, agreed with Montaigne in his
admiration of Horace, and, at a time when Du Perron preferred a
single page of Quintus Curtius to thirty of Tacitus, insisted on
the superiority of the author of the Annals, and sent one of his
correspondents a happy rendering from that historian's pages3.
His friend Scevole de Sainte-Marthe of Loudun
Sainte-Marthe
(1536—1623), a member of a noble house, and a
pupil of Muretus, Turnebus and Ramus, was distinguished as a
Latin poet. Two of his works deserve mention: — (i) a didactic
poem on the education of children, called by one of his medical
contemporaries the divinum carmen Paedotrophicum*; and (2) A
book of eulogies in Latin elegiacs on no less than 150 Frenchmen
distinguished for their learning, who had died during the author's
life-time, beginning with Lefevre d'Etaples (d. 1536) and ending
(in its final form) with Estienne Pasquier (d. 1615)*. Among those
1 Essais, i c. 27 ; cp. Hallam, ii 36*.
2 Feugere, Caracttres, i i — 125, esp. 115.
3 ib. i 227-9. See also Tilley, i 299 — 304.
4 Feugere, i 435 n., translated into English verse, with life, by H. W.Tytler,
M.D., 1757 ; cp. Tilley, ii 23 f.
8 Gallorttm doctrina illustrium, qui nostra patrumque memoria floruerunt,
elogia (Poitiers, 1598, 1602), Paris, 1630.
CHAP. XIII.] LA BOETIE. PASQUIER. SAINTE-MARTHE. 199
commemorated are Budaeus, Longolius, Montaigne, Ramus,
Turnebus, Amyot, Muretus, Lambinus, Auratus, and Henri
Estienne. Aureolus Elogiorum libellus is the phrase applied in the
Letters of Balzac1 to this brief and epigrammatic survey of more
than a century of French Scholarship2. The characters of the
leading scholars who died between 1545 and 1607 are admirably
summed up in the obituary notices that adorn the great Latin
History of De Thou (1553 — i6i7)3.
Of the foremost scholars of France in the sixteenth century,
Turnebus died some years before the eventful date of St Bartho-
lomew (1572); Ramus perished in the massacre, Lambinus died
of fright, while Hotman and Doneau fled to Geneva, never to
return. Joseph Justus Scaliger withdrew to the same city for two
years, and, when he returned, the only great scholars who survived
from the former age were Dorat and Cujas4. Scaliger, who is one
of the glories of the later age, spent the last sixteen years of his
life at Leyden, but, for the first fifty-three years of his life, he
belongs to France.
Joseph Justus Scaliger (1540 — 1609) was of Italian descent.
At Agen on the Garonne, he was the constant com-
. . . . . Scaliger
panion of his father, Julius Caesar Scaliger, during
the last four years of that father's life. Between the ages of
fourteen and eighteen, he was required to produce daily a short
Latin declamation, and also to keep a written record of the peren-
nial flow of his father's Latin Verse. It was thus that he acquired
his early mastery of Latin. But he was already conscious that 'not
to know Greek, was to know nothing'5. Hence, on his father's
death, he went to Paris to attend the lectures of Turnebus; but,
finding these too advanced for his purpose, he was compelled to
be his own teacher. With the aid of a Latin translation, he worked
through the whole of Homer in twenty-one days; and, in four
months, he perused all the Greek poets. During his four years
in Paris, he became intimate with Canter, and with Dorat, who
introduced him to a nobleman of Poitou, Louis Chasteigner, Lord
1 xxii 17. - Feugere, i 461 — 482.
3 Extracted in Teissier's Eloges (Geneva, 1683), and in Blount's Censara,
passim.
4 Tilley, i 294. 8 Scaliger, Epp. p. 51 (L.B. 1627).
JOSEPH JUSTUS SCALIGER.
From the frontispiece of the monograph by Bernays ; portrait copied from
the oil-painting in the Senate-House, Leyden ; autograph from Appen-
dix ad Cyclometrica in the Royal Library, Berlin.
CHAP. XIII.] JOSEPH JUSTUS SCALIGER. 2OI
of La Roche-Pozay. With this nobleman Scaliger travelled for
four years in Italy, paying two visits to Rome, where he saw much
of Muretus, and staying for a time in Naples and Venice, and at
Verona, which he regarded with reverence as the home of his
ancestors. In Italy, his main attention appears to have been given
to inscriptions, but a whole winter was devoted to Thucydides,
and, on returning to France, the scholar was wont to discourse on
Polybius during his rides with his patron. In that patron's family
he lived from time to time for thirty years (1563-93), moving from
castle to castle in Poitou and Limousin. During all that period
he was serving his long apprenticeship to learning, but his studies
were repeatedly interrupted by the disturbed state of the country.
Shortly after his tour in Italy, he visited Edinburgh, and, although
he failed to find any Greek MSS in the libraries of the British Isles,
he afterwards borrowed a transcript of the Lexicon of Photius from
Richard Thomson of Clare1. In 1570 he studied Roman Law
at Valence under Cujas, who, in his commentary on the Digest,
accepted one of his pupil's emendations2. At Valence he also
began a friendship, that was to last for thirty-eight years, with the
great historian De Thou. Two years later he left Valence; and,
on the fatal night of St Bartholomew, he was safe at Lausanne.
For the next two years he remained at Geneva, lecturing with some
reluctance, but with marked success, on Cicero, De Finibus, and
on Aristotle's Organon. He then returned to his patron in Poitou.
Scaliger had already given early proof of his study of Varro
(1565), and had edited the Catalecta of Virgil (1573). These were
followed by his editions of Ausonius (1574), of Festus (1575), and
of Catullus, Tibullus, and Propertius (i577)3. He regarded the
Italian type of Scholarship, with its fancy for the imitation of the
ancients, as a frivolous pursuit, and he had no sympathy with
Italian scholars in their hap-hazard alterations of classical texts.
He was the first to point the way to a sounder method of emen-
dation founded on the genuine tradition of the MSS; but, when he
had made his mark as a textual critic by his editions of Festus and
the Latin poets above mentioned, he left the path, that he had
1 Scaliger, Epp. p. 503. 2 Eernays, 144.
3 His transpositions in Propertius and Tibullus are severely criticised in
Haupt's Opusc. iii 34 — 36.
202 FRANCE. [CENT. XVI.
struck out, for a profound and protracted study of ancient history
and the subject-matter of the Classics. The transition is marked
by his Manilius (1579), where his interest in textual criticism is
thrown into the shade by his study of the astronomy of the
ancients. His Manilius thus serves as an introduction to the
comprehensive system of chronology set forth in his folio volume
De Emendatione Temporum (1583). The publication of this work
placed him at the head of all the living representatives of ancient
learning. In 1590, Justus Lipsius, who had for the last twelve
years been the leading professor at Leyden, applied for leave of
absence, and, during that absence, became a Catholic. After
some delay, Scaliger consented to fill the vacant place, and the
stores of learning, that he had accumulated for thirty years as a
native of France, were surrendered to the service of the Northern
Netherlands. His disinclination to lecture was duly respected ;
all that the authorities at Leyden desired was his living and inspir-
ing presence in that seat of Protestant learning. His laborious
study of ancient chronology and history was no longer broken, as
of old, by constant changes of residence, or by alarms arising from
religious wars in the provinces of France. As a groundwork for
the study of primitive tradition, he selected Jerome's translation
of the Chronicle of Eusebius.
From the fragments of the Eusebian text, he divined that the Chronicle, in
its original form, must have consisted of two books ; that the second alone,
with its chronological tables, was represented in Jerome's translation, while
the first had comprised extracts from the Greek authorities on the ancient
history of the East. He resolved on reconstructing the original Greek text of
both books. In 1601 he came on the track of a manuscript chronicle by a
Greek monk, Georgius Syncellus, and, in 1602, he ultimately succeeded in
getting a MS of this Chronicle sent from the Paris Library to Leyden, when he
found that it largely consisted of transcripts from Eusebius. In 1605 he heard
from Casaubon that in the Paris Library there was a chronological list of all
the Olympic victors down to the 249th Olympiad. He was convinced that
this must at one time have formed part of the work of Eusebius, and that it
was originally compiled by Julius Africanus. He obtained a transcript, and
with the aid of all the extant Greek evidence, drew up a complete list in Greek,
which has sometimes been erroneously regarded by scholars as an original
Greek document. He was thus enabled to restore the Greek Eusebius, which
he printed as part of his great Thesaurus Teiiiponini (1606). His conjecture
as to the character and contents of the first book of Eusebius was confirmed
CHAP. XIII.] JOSEPH JUSTUS SCALIGER. 2O3
long afterwards by the discovery of an Armenian version (1818), which also
included the Olympic lists of Julius Africanus.
The Jesuits had captured Muretus and Lipsius, and had hopes
of securing the timid and wavering Casaubon. Their attack
against the apparently impregnable Scaliger was directed, not
from France, but from Flanders and Germany. It was opened at
Gratz in 1601 by Martin Delrio, formerly of Liege and Louvain,
who denounced Scaliger for denying the genuineness of the writings
ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite. It was continued at Antwerp
in the coarse production called the Amphitheatrum Honoris (1605),
and, at Mainz, by criticisms on Scaliger's knowledge of Hebrew,
and by the polished and pungent pages of the Scaliger Hypobo-
limaeus of the Latin stylist Caspar Scioppius (1607). Scaliger had
inherited from his father a profound belief in his descent from the
Delia Scalas of Verona1. It was this claim that was denounced
by Scioppius. In the Confutatio Fabulae Burdomim (1608),
Scaliger produced a vigorous and triumphant reply, which more
than convinced his friends, Casaubon and Daniel Heinsius, but
was disregarded by his foes and by the general public.
During his fifteen and a half years at Leyden, apart from his
great Thesaurus Temporum he produced editions of Apuleius (1600)
and Caesar (1606), and went on correcting the text of Polybius to
the very end of his life. Early in 1609, he fell asleep in the arms
of his favourite pupil, Daniel Heinsius. That pupil honoured his
master's memory by a funeral oration in Latin prose and by a
Latin poem. Of Scaliger's productions in Latin verse, two thirds
are translations, including a Latin rendering of the whole of the
Ajax of Sophocles2 and the Cassandra of Lycophron, and many
Greek versions from Catullus and Martial. His original Latin
verse is marked by a high degree of moral force3. He was praised
by Bentley as an expert in prosody4. His chronological labours
were also warmly appreciated by Selden in England, and by
Calvisius at Leipzig ; he aided the literary labours of David
Hoeschel in Augsburg, and of Sylburg and Gruter at Heidelberg,
devoting no less than ten months to producing a masterly index to
1 Epp. pp. i — 58 (1594), ed. 1627, ' De Vetustate Gentis Scaligerae '.
2 Cp. Scaligcrana Sec. s.v. Muretus. 3 ed. 2, 1864.
* Menatider, p. 67, ' nemo in arte metrica Scaligero peritior'.
204 FRANCE. [CENT. XVI.
the Inscriptions edited by the latter1. He foresaw the future
greatness of Grotius. De Thou describes his friend, Scaliger, as
the foremost scholar of his age2. Scaliger says that 'Lipsius is
nothing in comparison with Muretus', while Lipsius compares
Scaliger to 'an eagle in the clouds'3, the symbol adopted in the
vignette to the funeral oration. Lastly, Casaubon says of Scaliger : —
'nihil est quod discere quisquam vellet, quod ille docere non
posset; nihil legerat, quod non statim meminisset'4. He had no
sympathy with the fashion of publishing Miscellanea or Adversaria,
which had been set by Politian and Victorius, by Turnebus and
Muretus; he preferred to deal with the exposition and criticism
of each author as an undivided whole5. He not only exhibits a
remarkable aptitude for the soundest type of textual emendation;
but he is also the founder of historical criticism. His main strength
lay in a clear conception of antiquity as a whole, and in the
concentration of vast and varied learning on distinctly important
works6.
Isaac Casaubon (1559 — 1614), who was eighteen years younger
than Scaliger, was born at Geneva of Huguenot
Casaubon
parents, who had fled from Gascony. At the age
of nine he could speak and write Latin. He was learning Greek
from his father, with Isocrates, ad Demonicum, as his text-book,
when the news of the massacre of St Bartholomew's drove them
to the hills, where the lessons in Greek were continued in a cave
in Dauphind Till the age of nineteen his father, who was a
Huguenot pastor, was his only instructor. The son describes
1 Epp. p. 381 ; cp. Bernays, p. 186.
2 Hist. lib. xxi, ' in re literaria principem sine controversia locum tenet '.
3 Epp. Misc. Cent, i 6.
4 Praef. to Scaliger's Opusc. For other eulogies, see Blount's Centura.
5 Ep. i, p. 52, Bernays, 164.
8 The materials for the life of Scaliger include his Epistolae (1627), and
Lettres Intdites (1879) 5 his opinions are reproduced in the Scaligerana prima
{Vertuniani, 1574-93), and secunda (Vassanorum, 1603-6), best ed. 1740.
The Poemata (1615) were reprinted in 1864. The account in Nisard's
Triumvirat Litttraire (1852) is superseded by the learned monograph of
Bernays (1855), and by Pattison's Essays, i 132 — 243. Cp. Urlichs, 59 — 6i2.
(Bernays is regarded as unduly laudatory by Lucian Miiller, Philologie in den
Niederlanden, 35, 222-7, anc* by Haupt, Oj>uscula, iii 30 f.)
CHAP. XIII.] CASAUBON. 20$
himself as o\j/ifj.aO^ and auroSiSaKTos. He hardly began any con-
secutive study until the age of twenty, when he was sent to Geneva,
there to remain for the next eighteen years (1578-96). At
Geneva he read Greek with the Cretan, Franciscus Portus, whom
he succeeded as 'professor' in 1582. His second wife (1586) was
a daughter of Henri Estienne, who jealously prevented his son-in-
law from having access to his MSS, and hardly ever lent them: 'he
guards his books' (writes Casaubon) 'as the griffins in India do
their gold'1. But, when Estienne died in loneliness at Lyons,
Casaubon inscribed in his journal a few feeling lines lamenting his
loss2. Meanwhile, he read all the Greek texts that he could find,
besides buying transcripts of unpublished MSS from the Greek
copyist, Darmarius. Even at a place where literary interests were
almost dead, he carried out his own ideal of classical learning. In
an exhaustive course of reading he made a complete survey of the
ancient world. Among his foremost friends in Geneva was the
venerable Beza; his correspondents in France included De Thou
and Bongars. In 1594 he writes to Scaliger at Leyden: — 'I never
take up your books or those of your great father, without laying
them down in despair at my own progress'3; and, on hearing of
Scaliger's death in 1609, he notes in his diary, that he had lost
'the guide of his studies, the inseparable friend, the sweet patron
of his life'. Scaliger himself had said of Casaubon: 'he is the
greatest man we now have in Greek'; 'his Latin style is excellent,
terse, not diffuse Italian Latin'4.
In 1596 Casaubon left Geneva for Montpellier, where there
was a greater interest in the Classics, the medical course including
Hippocrates and Galen. His entry into Montpellier was nothing
short of a triumphal progress. For three years he lectured to
students of mature years on Roman law and history, on Plautus
and on Persius, on Homer and Pindar, and on Aristotle's Ethics.
Though Latin was the theme of most of his public lectures, his
private reading was mainly Greek.
In 1598 he paid his first visit to Paris, where he was welcomed
by a group of scholars, which had, only two years previously, lost
its presiding genius, Pierre Pithou. The group included the elegant
1 Ep. 41. 2 Ephcm. 1598. 3 Ep. 17.
4 Scaligerana Sec. s.v. Casaubon.
206
FRANCE.
[CENT, xvi f
Latin versifiers, Passerat and Rapin, and their customary place of
meeting was the house of the learned historian De Thou, with
whom Casaubon had been in correspondence for many years. He
had heard much of De Thou's library1, but it surpassed his expec-
tation, and his heart sank at the thought of the little that he knew.
He returned to Montpellier in October, 1598.
1 Engraving in Lacroix, xviie siecle, fig. 54 (frontispiece of Bibliotheca
; portrait in Boissard, vm kkk 4.
ISAAC CASAUBON.
From a photograph of an engraving in the Cabinet des Estampes,
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
CHAP. XIII.] CASAUBON. 2O?
Early in 1599 he was invited to Paris by the king, who desired
his aid in a proposed 'restoration' of the university. Bidding a
sad farewell to Montpellier, he waited on the way for more than a
year at Lyons, while he superintended the printing of his 'Animad-
versions' on Athenaeus. At Paris he had the title of Ledeur du
Roi, but, owing doubtless to his remaining true to his Protestant
principles, he was not appointed to an actual professorship either
in the University of Paris or in the College de France. In the
latter the Chair of Latin was filled by Federic Morel, who has far
less claim to distinction as a professor of Latin than as a printer
of Greek, the finest of his editions, in point of typography, being
the Libanius of 1606. The Chair of Greek, which ought to have
been assigned to Casaubon, was given to a youthful protege of
Cardinal Du Perron. In 1604 Casaubon was, however, appointed
sub-librarian to De Thou in the Royal Library. In that capacity
he supplied materials to Scaliger and Heinsius at Leyden, Gruter
at Heidelberg, Hoeschel at Augsburg, and Savile at Eton, while
his own works prove how eagerly he ransacked the Royal MSS.
His ten years in Paris were the happiest period of his life.
After the assassination of Henry IV (1610), the Ultramontane
party gained new power, and Casaubon was urgently pressed to
become a Catholic. His own feelings were in favour of the via
media of the Anglican Church, and he accepted from archbishop
Bancroft an invitation to England, where he was welcomed by
James I, and was assigned a prebendal stall in Canterbury with a
pension of ^£300 a year. Writing from England to Salmasius,
Casaubon gratefully exclaims: — 'This people is anything but bar-
barous; it loves and cultivates learning, especially sacred learning'1.
Casaubon was compelled to give most of his time to the refutation
of the Annals of Baronius. He discovered that the errors of
Baronius were errors of scholarship, for Baronius knew neither
Hebrew nor Greek. Casaubon paid visits to Cambridge and Oxford,
and was delighted with both. His host at Oxford was Sir Henry
Savile, then Warden of Merton as well as Provost of Eton, but,
although they had the common ground of an interest in Greek,
they were separated by the strongest contrast of character :—
1 Casaubon, insignificant in presence, the most humble of men,
1 Ep. 837.
208 FRANCE. [CENT. XVI f
but intensely real, knowing what he knew with fatal accuracy, and
keeping his utterance below his knowledge'; Savile, 'the munifi-
cent patron of learning, and devoting his fortune to its promotion,
with a fine presence, polished manners and courtly speech', not
devoid of 'swagger and braggadocio'1. Casaubon was hospitably
entertained, but succeeded in reserving many hours of each day
for his studies in the Bodleian, a pleasure for which he paid the
penalty during the second week in a sudden sense of giddiness
which seized him on his way to the library2. His stay in England
lasted only for three years and eight months; and, in his strenuous
labours in the refutation of Baronius, he sometimes sighed over his
unfinished Polybius. He looked upon England as 'the island of
the blest'3, but it was in that island that his life of long-continued
labour and of late vigils came to a premature end at the age of 55.
The martyr of learning was buried in Westminster Abbey, and the
epitaph, added at a later date by Morton, bishop of Durham,
begins and ends as follows : —
' O Doctiorum quidquid est assurgite
Huic tarn colendo Nomini'...
' Qui nosse vult Casaubonum
Non saxa sed chartas legat
Superfuturas marmori,
Et profuturas posteris'4.
His earliest work was concerned with Diogenes Laertius (1583).
His father had recommended him to read Strabo, and the son
produced a commentary on that author in 1587, which is still
unsuperseded. This was followed by the editio princeps of
Polyaenus (1589), and by an ordinary edition of the whole of
Aristotle (1590). It is not until we reach his commentary on the
Characters of Theophrastus (1592), that we find a work that is
marked by his distinctive merit, an interpretation of a text of the
most varied interest founded on wide reading and consummate
learning5. It was a work that won the highest praise from Scaliger6.
The number of Characters in this edition is raised from 23 to 28
1 Pattison, 3552. 2 Eph. p. 984. 3 Ep. 703.
4 Blount, Censura, 622. Wolf, Kl. Schriften, ii 1185-8, prefers Casaubd-
nus to Casaubonus.
6 Pattison, 4332. 6 Ep. 35, with Casaubon's reply, Ep. 19.
CHAP. XIII.] CASAUBON. 2OQ
by the addition of five from the Heidelberg Library. His notes on
Suetonius (1595) continued to be reprinted in extenso down to
1736. Though generally destitute of poetic feeling, he admired
Theocritus; he calls the 27th poem a 'mellitissimum carmen';
and his Lectiones Theocriteae formed part of an edition published
in 1596. One of his greatest works was his Athenaeus; his text
of 1597 was followed by his 'Animadversions' of 1600, the whole
of which were reproduced by Schweighauser in 1801. Casaubon
would indeed have rejoiced, if he could have foreseen this fact
when he wrote to Camerarius in 1594: 'I am deep in Athenaeus,
and I hope my labour will not be in vain. But one's industry is
sadly damped by the reflexion how Greek is now neglected and de-
spised. Looking to posterity, or the next generation, what motive
has one for devotion to study?'1 But the absence of ethical motive
led to the editor feeling a lack of interest in this author, and he
was more strongly attracted to biography and to history. In the
preface to the Historiae Attgustae Scriptores (1603) he holds that
'political philosophy may be learned from history, and ethical
from biography'2. The ethical interest is strong in his Persius
(1605), on which he had lectured at Geneva and Montpellier,
and his commentary on the Stoic satirist, of which Scaliger said
that the sauce was better than the meat3, was reprinted in Germany
as late as 1833, and has been ultimately merged in Conington's
edition. Casaubon was interested in the practical wisdom of
Polybius, and his edition of that author, promised in 1595, was
published in 1609, with a preface of 36 folio pages of masterly
Latin prose addressed to Henry IV, urging the importance of
classical history as a subject of study for statesmen. The four
years spent on this work were mainly devoted to the Latin trans-
lation, the aim of which was to make the ancient historian accessible
to the modern world4. A small volume of notes was posthumously
published in 1617. Casaubon lives in his Letters* and in his
Ephemerides6, a Latin journal largely interspersed with Greek,
recording his daily reading and his reflexions for the last seventeen
years of his life. When he has read continuously for a whole day,
1 Ep. 996 (Pattison, 52'-'). 2 Pattison, 44O2. 3 Ep. 104.
4 Cp. Pattison, 197 — ioy. 5 Ed. Almeloveen, Rotterdam, 1709.
6 Ed. J. Russell, Oxford, 1850.
S. II. 14
210 FRANCE. [CENT. XVI f
from early morn till late at night, he gratefully records the fact in
the words : hodie vixi. Here and in his Letters, the Latin is that
of a perfect master of the language, though it fails to attain ' the
verve and pungency' of the style of Scaliger1. The only two mots
attributed to him illustrate the attitude of the humanist towards an
expiring scholasticism. Once when he was shown the old hall of
the Sorbonne, his guide exclaimed : — Voila une sale oil il y a quatre
cens ans qiton dispute; and Casaubon replied with the question: —
Qu'a-t-on decide"? Again, after listening to a long disputation in
that home of mediaeval lore, he remarked that 'he had never
heard so much Latin spoken without understanding it'2. The
'Casauboniana' printed by J. C. Wolf in 1710 are merely extracts
from the 60 volumes of Adversaria and other papers deposited in
the Bodleian by his son. The Adversaria themselves consist
almost entirely of rough memoranda of his own reading, and the
only item that can here be quoted is the precept that supplies us
with the motive that inspired this vast collection: — 'quicquid legis
in excerptorum libros referre memineris. Haec unica ratio labanti
memoriae succurrendi. Scitum enim illud est, Tantum quisque
scit, quantum memoria tenet'3.
His good name was attacked by his foes and was vindicated by
his son Meric (1599 — \^i\\ who was educated at Eton and
Oxford, and held preferment in England. He is known as a
translator of Marcus Aurelius, and an annotator on Terence, as
well as on Hierocles, Epictetus and Cebes.
The sixteenth century in France closes with the name of Josias
Mercier, or Mercerius, who was born in Languedoc,
was a member of the Council of Henry IV, and
produced editions of the Ibis of Ovid (1568), the dictionary of
Nonius Marcellus (1583, etc.), the Letters of Aristaenetus, and the
treatise of Apuleius, De Deo Socratis (1625). Mercier marks the
transition from the sixteenth to the seventeenth century. Three
years before his death in 1626, his daughter was married to one of
the leading scholars of the seventeenth century, Claudius Salmasius.
1 Pattison, 882. 2 ib. 4262.
3 Tom. 16 (Pattison, 4292). On Isaac Casaubon, cp. esp. the Life by
Mark Pattison, 1875, and (with portrait and index) 1892 ; also Enc. Brit. s.v.
Cp. C. Nisard's Gladiateurs, 309 — 456, esp. 344 — 379 ; and the slight sketch
by L. J. Nazelle, /. C., sa vie et son temps (1897).
CHAPTER XIV.
THE NETHERLANDS FROM 1400 TO 1575.
DURING the fourteenth century the Brotherhood of the Common
Life was founded in the Netherlands by Gerhard
Groot (1340-84) and Florentius Radewyns (1350- Rfdre°^yannsd
1400). Among the chief aims of the Brethren were
the transcription of MSS and the promotion of education in a
religious spirit In and after 1400 many schools were founded by
them in the Netherlands and in Northern Germany. In these
schools the moral and religious education was based on the study
of Latin, thus preparing the way for the humanists in Northern
Europe. Among the precursors of humanism trained Nicoiau
in these schools, as well as in Italy, were Nicolaus Cusanus
T. Wcsscl
Cusanus (1401 — 1464), who bequeathed to his birth-
place of Cues on the Mosel a valuable collection of Greek and
Latin MSS1; and Johann Wessel of Groningen (1420—1489), the
lux mundi of his age, who learnt Greek in Italy and counted
Rudolf Agricola and Johann Reuchlin among his pupils in Paris2.
The School at Deventer appears to have been originally a
Chapter School, revived by the Brethren3 who took part in the
instruction, although the most celebrated of its head-masters,
Hegius, was not a member .of that body. The Brotherhood, how-
ever, has a clear claim to the credit of having founded the school
1 Cp. F. A. Scharpff (Tubingen, 1871) ; Geiger, 331 f ; Creighton, Papacy,
vi 8. Many of the MSS now form part of the Harleian collection in the British
Museum; cp. Sabbadini's Scoperte, 109 — 113.
2 Bursian, i 90 ; cp. Creighton, Papacy, vi 7.
3 On returning from Amersfurt, where they had been driven by the plague
in 1398 (Delprat, Broederschap van G. Groote 1830, p. 43 f, ed. 1856).
14 — 2
212 THE NETHERLANDS. [CENT. XVI.
at Hertogenbosch, or Bois-le-Uuc. Deventer was the first, and
Bois-le-Duc the second of the schools of Erasmus.
Erasmus
That eminent humanist, who belongs to the Nether-
lands by virtue of his birth, is so cosmopolitan in his character
and in the varied regions of his activity, that his career has
already been reviewed at an earlier point1.
The university of Louvain had been founded in 1426 by
John IV, duke of Brabant, with the approval of Martin V. The
best of the local schools, known as that of the Lilium or Lis, was
established in 1437 by Carolus Virulus (d. 1493), who presided
over it for fifty-six years, and was the composer of a highly popular
book of formulae epistolares'2'. From the school of Lis
Despauterius .
came Jan van rauteren, or 'Despauterius (d. 1520),
a teacher at Hertogenbosch, who was one of the reformers of the
current text-books of Latin Grammar3; and at that school the
study of Latin was popularised in and after 1508 by the public
performance of the Aulularia and Miles Gloriosus of Plautus4.
The Collegium Trilingue for the study of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew,
was founded in 11517 by Jerome Busleiden, who in
Busleiden J . J
1498 had left Louvain to study law at Bologna, and
on his return became famous as a patron of letters and a collector
of MSS. The magnificent museum, which formed part of his
mansion at Malines, was admired by Sir Thomas More5, while he
is lauded in the Letters of Erasmus as not only omnium librorum
emaa'ssimus6, but also utriusque linguae callentissimus^ . After the
death of the founder, no one did more than Erasmus to ensure
the realisation of his friend's design, and, but for Erasmus, the
Collegium Trilingue could hardly have survived the first ten years
of its existence.
1 p. 127 f supra.
2 He is lauded by Vives De Trad. Disc, iv i 336 ; Felix Neve, Memoire
historique et litttraire stir h coltege des Trois-Langues a Ftiniversite de Louvain
(Bruxelles, 1856), 9 f.
8 Neve, 15; Babler, Beitriige, 140 — 169. It was founded on Alexander de
Villa Dei, and written in Latin verse. The Orthographiae Isagoge (Paris,
1510), Rudimenta (1512), and Syntaxis (1515), were combined in the Cotn-
mentarii Grammatici (Lyons, 1536; Paris, 1537).
4 Neve, 118 f. 6 Lucubrations, 258 f, ed. 1563 (Neve, 384 f).
6 i p. 671. 7 i p. 1836.
CHAP. XIV.] ERASMUS. DESPAUTERIUS. BUSLEIDEN. 213
The history of humanism in the Southern Netherlands is inseparably
connected with the early printers of that region. John of
Westphalia began printing in Louvain in 1474, and, between Printers:
that date and 1497, produced more than 1 20 works. Mispress Westphalia
was in one of the university buildings, and his editions included
Juvenal and Persius, Virgil (1475-6), Cicero's Brutus (1475) and De OJfidis
etc. (1483), and Leonardo Bruni's translation of the Ethics
(1475). His business was bought by Dierik Martens, who
settled at Louvain in 1512, there producing 24 editions of Latin works, which,
in size and price, were suited for the use of students. In 1512 he made a
fount of Greek type, and, when lectures began to be given in Louvain, he
improved his type and produced a large number of Classical editions, including
the greater part of Lucian, Homer (1523), Euripides, Theocritus, Aesop, the
Plutus of Aristophanes, Herodotus, parts of Xenophon, Demosthenes, Plato,
Aristotle, and Plutarch. He was himself a Greek and Latin and Hebrew
scholar, and, in his preface to the Plutus, he laments the loss of the plays of
Menander. His Greek texts are better printed than any produced in Paris
before the establishment of the Royal Press by Francis I in 1538. He left
Louvain for his native town of Alost in 1529. From that year onward, under
the editorship of Rescius, the first professor of Greek at the Collegium
Trilingue, a series of Greek texts was printed by Barthelemy Gravius,
including Xenophon's Memorabilia, parts of Lucian, the Laws of Plato, the
Aphorisms of Hippocrates, and Homer (1531-5)' After the death of Rescius
little was done at Louvain for the printing of Greek ; Gravius died in 1580, and
scholars at Louvain had their Greek editions printed either abroad or at
the important press recently founded by Plantin at Antwerp.
Christopher Plantin (1514 — 1589), who was born near Tours,
was apprenticed to a printer at Caen; he practised bookbinding in Paris for
three years before leaving for Antwerp, where he established a press in 1550.
In 1570 he obtained the important privilege of printing all books of devotion
for every part of the Spanish dominions. His greatest work was the Antwerp
Polyglott printed in eight folio volumes (1569-72). His business was carried
on under great difficulties owing to the revolt of the Netherlands against the
power of Spain. In 1583-5 he was compelled to withdraw to Leyden, not
returning until Antwerp had been recovered for Spain by the duke of Parma.
On his death he was buried in the Cathedral1. In 1585, one of his sons-in-
law, Franz Raphelinghius (1539-97), professor of Hebrew and Arabic, set up
a press at Leyden, where his sons succeeded him as printers. At Antwerp,
Plantin's business was inherited by his son-in-law, Moretus, and for three
centuries it was continued in the same premises from 1576 to 1876, when the
last representative of the house of Plantin- Moretus sold the building, with all
its plant, its collection of MSS, printed books and engravings, and picture-
1 Portrait in Bullart's Academic, ii 257 ; and in Max Rooses, Christophe
Plantin, 1882.
214 THE NETHERLANDS. [CENT. XVI.
gallery, to the city of Antwerp, to be preserved for ever as a Museum of
Printing. Among the numerous portraits by Rubens there preserved are those
of Matthias Corvinus, Pico della Mirandola, Ortelius, and Lipsius, who is also
represented in a fine engraving1 ; in the room set apart for the correctors of the
press, are two paintings probably representing Theodor Poelman, the editor
of Horace (1557), and Cornelius Kilianus, the Flemish lexicographer, correcting
their proofs, while among the printed Classics exhibited are diminutive copies
of Martial (1568), and of Canter's Aeschylus (i58o)2. We shall meet Canter
and Poelman and Lipsius in the sequel ; meanwhile, from scholars connected
with the house of Plantin at Antwerp, we must turn to a humanist of earlier
date, who was similarly connected with Martens at Louvain.
In 1509 Juan Luis de Vives (1492 — 1540), a Spaniard of
distinguished ancestry, who had been an adherent
of scholasticism in his native land, and had opposed
the adoption of a new Latin Grammar at Valencia, left for Paris,
where he endeavoured to attain proficiency in dialectics. Three
years later, weary of word-fence, he settled among the Spanish
merchants in the university town of Louvain. He subsequently
paid repeated visits to Paris. His conversion from scholasticism
to humanism, probably begun in Paris and completed in the
Netherlands, was due to the writings of Erasmus, whose personal
acquaintance he made at Louvain. He there lectured mainly on
Virgil and Cicero, and on the elder Pliny. In 1522 he went to
England, and from Sept. 1523 to March 1525 resided from time
to time in Corpus Christi College, Oxford3. He composed for his
pupil, the Princess Mary, his treatise De Ratione Studii, and De
Institutione Feminae Christianae, which he dedicated to her mother,
queen Catherine of Aragon; and, for protesting against the king's
divorce from Catherine, he was disgraced and dismissed. He
returned to Bruges, where he had married in 1524, and where he
lived (with few exceptions) for the rest of his life. It was there
that, as tutor to a future bishop of Cambray and archbishop of
1 Reproduced in chap, xix, p. 302 infra.
2 Both in i6mo. Cp. Max Rooses, ChristopTie Plantin, with 100 plates;
and Musee Plantin- Moretus, Antwerp, 1883.
3 In 1523 he was invited by Wolsey to fill one of the public lectureships,
and gave two brilliant courses of lectures (cp. P. S. Allen, on ' Vives at
Corpus,' in the Pelican Record, 1902, ig6f, and on the 'Early Corpus
Readerships ').
CHAP. XIV.] VIVfeS. GOCLENIUS. NANNIUS. 215
Toledo, he composed (in 1531) his three educational treatises1.
All three are included under the general title De Disciplinis.
(i) In the first seven books, which are critical, he discusses the causes that
have led to the decline of learning, touches on the superficiality of the school-
men, whom he describes as ' sophists ' ; refers to the corruptions in Classical
MSS and the inadequacy of the Latin translations of Aristotle ; the evil effects
of scholastic disputations, the objections to the existing method of obtaining
university degrees, the moral influence of the teacher, and the dignity of his
calling. Grammar must not be studied in the subtle scholastic manner, but
must be treated as the study of literature. All the other ' arts' are next reviewed
in due order, (ii) The five books of part ii are constructive. The proper site
for a school, and the character of the teacher, are set forth, and quarterly
conferences on the part of teachers in each school recommended. The
mother-tongue must be cultivated, but the almost universal language is Latin,
which is also necessary in learning Italian and Spanish, while, for a complete
mastery of Latin, it is necessary to learn Greek. The work forms a systematic
and consistent whole, and it rests on an ethical and psychological basis. It is
characterised by a blending of humanism with a Christianity that is partly
coloured by Stoic and Platonic elements. It is one of the most valuable
products of the union of Christianity and humanism during the Revival of
Learning2.
It was at Lou vain that several of the minor works of Vives were
printed between 1519 and 1523, and, for part of that time, he
lectured on Latin authors in the university. In his early treatise
In Pseudodialeeticos (1519) he criticised the university of Paris,
and, late in life (1538), he produced a volume of colloquies for
beginners in Latin3.
Among the lecturers of more than local fame at the Collegium
in is 19-^9 was Conrad Goclenius. He
Goclenius
dedicated a translation of the Hermotimiis of Lucian
to Sir Thomas More (1522), who acknowledged the compliment
by sending the translator a gilded cup full of gold pieces4. His
successor in i S^9-=57 was Petrus Nannius of Alkmaar
Nannius
(1500 — 1557), who produced ten books of critical
1 De Corruptis Artibus ; De 7radendis Disciplinis ; De Arlibns.
2 Hartfelcler in Schmid's Gesch. der Erziehuttg, II ii 128 — 135.
3 Cp. Vita by Majan, prefixed to the Opera (Valence, 1782-90) ; Mcmoire
by Nameche (Bruxelles, 1841), and article by Mullinger in D. N. B.; also
P. S. Allen, u.s.; and Woodward, Renaissance Education, 180 — 210 (list of
classical authors recommended by Vives, ib. 198 f ).
4 Nannius (Neve, 146 n).
2l6 THE NETHERLANDS. [CENT. XVI.
and explanatory Miscellanea, and commentaries on the Eclogues
and Georgics, and the Ars Poetica, together with many translations
from the Greek. He is described by Lipsius as the first who
kindled an ardour for letters in the school of Louvain1.
A few other names may be briefly noted. Hermann Torrentius,
who taught at Groningen and in his native town of
Torrentius .
Zwolle, is known as an editor of the Eclogues and
Georgics (1502), and as the author of a Classical Dictionary
(1498 etc.)2, and of a revised and corrected edition of the
mediaeval Grammar of Alexander de Villa Dei3.
Pulmannus
Iheodor Poelman, or Pulmannus (1510 — -1581),
saw through the press a large number of Latin Classics (Horace,
Virgil, Lucan, Censorinus, Claudian etc.) for the
SecimdAis great house of Plantin at Antwerp4. Jan Everaerts,
or Joannes Secundus, a jurist of the Hague (1511-
36), is best known as the author of the Basia. Hadrianus Junius
(Adriaan de Jonghe), a physician at Haarlem, Copen-
hagen, and Delft (1511 — 1575), is in good repute as
an early editor of Nonius Marcellus (i565)5. A higher distinction
belongs to the name of the Greek critic, Willem
Canter of Utrecht (1542 — 1575), who studied under
an able teacher, Cornelius Valerius, or Wouters (fl. 1557-78), and
under Dorat in Paris, and afterwards lived as an independent
scholar at Louvain. Among his works are the Novae Lectiones
(1564), a Syntagma on the proper method of emending Greek
authors6, and an edition of the Eclogae of Stobaeus. He opens a
new era as an editor of the Tragic Poets of Greece. His Euripides,
a sexto-decimo volume of more than 800 pages (1571), is the
first in which the metrical responsions between strophe and anti-
strophe are clearly marked by means of Arabic numerals in the
margin, and the text repeatedly corrected under the guidance of
these responsions7. His editions of Sophocles (1579) and Aeschylus
1 Ep. Sel. Misc. iii 87 ; cp. Neve, 149 — 156.
2 Elucidarius carminum et historiarum, etc. 3 Bursian, i 104 f.
4 Max Rooses, Plantin, 106 f (with portrait).
8 Also as the author of a Greek and Latin Lexicon (Bas. 1548, 1577);
Life (1836) and Letters (1839) by Scheltema, Amsterdam.
6 Reprinted in Samuel Jebb's Aristides, vol. ii.
7 Euripidis Tragoediae xijc, in quibus praeter infinita menda sublata,
CHAP. XIV.] W. CANTER. PIGHIUS. CRUQUIUS. 2 1/
(1580) were posthumously published1. The former remained in
common use for more than two centuries2.
If we descend below the year 1575, we have to note the name
of Stephanus Vinandus Pighius (1520 — 1604), a
. . Pighius
native of Campen, who spent eight years in Italy,
was librarian to Cardinal Granvella in Brussels (1555-74)? and
passed the latter part of his life as a Canon at Xanten on the
Rhine. It was there that he produced both of his important
works, his edition of Valerius Maximus (1585), and his Annales
Romanorum (1599 — 1615). His earlier life in Italy is represented
by a collection of drawings of ancient monuments preserved in the
codex PiManus at Berlin3. We may also notice
3 Modius
Franz Modius, a Canon of Aire, who was born near
Bruges (1556 — 1599), an editor of Curtius, Vegetius, Frontinus,
Justin, and Livy, and author of a work on the triumphal proces-
sions and the festivals of Rome. The Jesuit, Martin
Delrio
Anton Delrio, of Antwerp and Louvam (1561—
1608), who criticised Solinus, and annotated Claudian and the
plays of Seneca, is best known for his denunciation of Scaliger's
disbelief in the genuineness of the works ascribed to 'Uionysius
the Areopagite'4. A far more familiar name is that
Cruquius
of Jacob Cruquius, the professor of Bruges, whose
edition of Horace, begun in 1565 and completed in 1578, supplies
us with our only information as to the codex antiquissimus Blandi-
nius, borrowed from the library of a Benedictine monastery near
Ghent, and burnt with the monastery after it had been returned
to the library.
During the progress of the Horatian labours of Cruquius, an
event took place that marks an epoch in the history of scholarship
in the Netherlands, the foundation of the university of Leyden, in
memory of the heroism displayed by its inhabitants during its
famous siege in 1575. While Louvain continued to be the leading
carniinntn omnium ratio hactenus ignorata mine primuin proditur (Plantin,
Antwerp).
1 Cp. Burman, Trajectum Erudition, 59 — 70.
2 Brunck (1786); cp. Jebb's Inlrod. to text of Sophocles (1897), xxxviii.
3 Bursian, i 345.
4 Bernays, Scaliger, 81, 205 f.
2l8 THE NETHERLANDS. [CENT. XVI.
university of the Southern (or Spanish) Netherlands, Leyden
became the foremost seat of learning in those Northern Nether-
lands, which threw off the Spanish yoke and formed themselves
into the 'United Provinces' in 1579. The first period in the
history of scholarship in the Netherlands has now ended : the
foundation of Leyden marks the beginning of the second.
CHAPTER XV.
ENGLAND FROM c. 1370 TO c. 1600.
IN the dawn of the Renaissance the only point of contact
between Petrarch and England is supplied by the learned biblio-
phile, Richard of Bury. When these kindred spirits met at
Avignon in 1330, Petrarch seized the opportunity to enquire as
to the exact position of the ancient Thule, and was disappointed
to find the English envoy perfectly indifferent to this interesting
topic1. Petrarch was afterwards, however, assured by Boccaccio
that a day would come when even ' the backward Briton ' would
appreciate his epic poem of Africa2. Chaucer (1328 — 1400) paid
three visits to Italy in 1372-8 and was under Italian influence
until 1384. He made use of Boccaccio's Latin works, though he
never names their author, and there is no evidence that he knew
the Decameron3. But he frequently mentions Petrarch. The
* Clerkes Tale ' he professes to have ' lern'd at Padowe of a
worthy clerk'.
' Franceis Petrark, the laureat poete,
Ilighte this clerke, whos rethorike swete
Enlumined all Itaille of poetry'4.
The Latin Classics most familiar to Chaucer were Ovid, Virgil,
Statius, and Juvenal, with parts of Cicero and Seneca5. Homer6,
1 Epp. Fain, iii i.
2 Studiis tardiis Britannits (Boccaccio, Lettere, p. 250, Corazzini).
3 W. H. Schofield, English Literature, from the Norman Conquest to
Chaucer (1906), 109, 293, 341, 347.
4 On Petrarch's influence on English poetry, cp. Einstein's Italian Renais-
sance in England, 316 — 340.
5 Cp. W. Hertzberg, Chanters Canterbury Gcsch. 42 — 45; Kissner, Chaucer
in s. Beziehungen zur ital. Literatur, Marburg, 1867; T. R. Lounsbury,
Studies in Chaucer, New York, 1892, vol. ii.
6 Cp. Schofield, 282 f.
220 ENGLAND. [CENT. XV.
Statius, Virgil, Ovid, Lucan, and Claudian are the poets placed
on lofty pillars in his House of Fame1. Chaucer's pupil, Lydgate,
knew the most important of the Latin 'works of Petrarch and
Boccaccio, and Thomas Arundel, archbishop of Canterbury
(d. 1414), was a correspondent of Salutati. In i3952an Augus-
tinian monk named ' Thomas of England ' lectured in Florence,
where he ' bought the books of the modern poets ', and the
translations and other early works of Leonardo Bruni3. In
December, 1400, the Greek emperor, Manuel Palaeologus, was
entertained at Christ Church, Canterbury, and, in 1408, England
was visited by Manuel Chrysoloras4. At the Council of Constance
(1415) Henry Beaufort became acquainted with
England. ™ P°ggi°> wno at the bishop's invitation spent several
years in England (1418-23). Poggio's English
correspondents included Nicholas Bildstone, archdeacon of
Winchester, Richard Pettworth, the bishop's secretary, and John
Stafford, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury. In the early
years of the Council of Basel, Aeneas Sylvius was
neasTsyivius" sent as an envov to Britain. On his way to Scotland
he noted the barbarism of the rustics in North-
umberland, but, on his return, he saw a Latin translation of
Thucydides in the sacristy of St Paul's cathedral (i435)5. It was
probably after returning to Basel that he made the acquaintance
of Adam de Molyneux, Secretary of State to Henry VI and a
frequent correspondent of Aeneas Sylvius. Molyneux was pro-
bably the first Englishman who acquired the art of writing a Latin
letter in a polished style adorned with classical quotations6.
In the same age Cardinal Beaufort's rival, Humphrey, duke
Hum hre °^ Gloucester (I39I — 144?)) distinguished himself
duke of as a patron of learning. He employed Italian
teachers to aid him in the study of Latin poetry
and rhetoric. These teachers included ' Titus Livius of Forli ',
1 iii 365—423.
2 Gherardi, Statuti, 364. 3 Epp. ii 18 ; Voigt, ii 2583.
4 F. A. Gasquet, Eve of the Reformation, p. 20, ed. 1905.
5 Ep. 126 (Creighton's Papacy, iii 53 n.).
6 Cp. Creighton's Early Renaissance, p. 19 ; also in Hist. Lectures and
Addresses, p. 196 f.
CHAP. XV.] DUKE HUMPHREY. TIPTOFT. 221
'poet and orator to the duke of Gloucester', and afterwards
author of a life of Henry V; Antonio Beccario of Verona, a
pupil of Vittorino ; and Vincent Clement, his ' orator ' at Rome,
who was also famous as the 'star' of the university of Oxford1.
Duke Humphrey left to that university a considerable library2,
including the Panegyrici Veteres, and the Letters of Cicero3. His
admiration of Leonardo Bruni's rendering of the Ethics led him
to ask the translator to produce a similar rendering of the
Politics, which was ultimately dedicated to Pope Eugenius IV4.
Another Italian scholar, Pier Candido Decembrio, sent the duke
a translation of the first five books of the Republic, begun by
Chrysoloras, continued by his father, and completed by himself.
On this second occasion the duke (who had been remiss with
Bruni) did not forget to thank the translator for the work ; he
even encouraged him to complete it (i439)5. He also received
from the youthful Lapo da Castiglionchio certain of his renderings
of Plutarch's Lives6. With his death in 1447 the first age of
humanism in England comes to an end, and the interest in the
Greek Classics falls, for a time, into abeyance.
In the second half of the same century, Italy was visited by
John Tiptoft, earl of Worcester (c. 1427 — 1470), a
friend of the monks of Christ Church, Canterbury.
Forced to leave England, he went to Venice, and thence to
Palestine. On his return to Italy, he studied Latin at Padua,
visited the aged Guarino at Ferrara, and Vespasiano in Florence,
where he heard Argyropulos lecture on Greek. The Latin speech
1 Beckynton's Correspondence, \ 223 (Rolls Series}.
2 The number is variously stated at 108, 1-29, 300 — 400, or 600 (probably
the ultimate total). Cp. Munimenta Academica, ed. Anstey, for 1439 and
1444; and Delisle, Le cabinet des AfSS, i 52. Erasmus could hardly refrain
from tears when he saw the scanty remains of this library, and in Leland's
day scarcely a single volume survived.
3 Voigt, ii 2s63.
4 Vespasiano, Vile, 436f; p. 46 supra.
5 The whole correspondence is printed in English Hist. Rev. July 1904-5;
a facsimile of a MS of Decembrio's letter is given opposite p. 6 of Einstein's
Italian Renaissance in England. The duke's reply includes the phrase hoc
nno nos longe felicem iitdicantes (Hist. Rev. 1904, 513) ; cp. Hallam i io84 n.
6 Bandini, Cat. codd. Lat. Laur. ii 699, 742 ; Voigt, ii 257*.
222 ENGLAND. [CENT. XV.
that he delivered in Rome in the presence of Pius II drew tears
of joy from the eyes of the Pope. A translation from Lucian
was dedicated to him by Francesco d' Arezzo, and he himself
translated the De Amicitia of Cicero. Some of the numerous
MSS that he purchased in Florence were presented to the university
of Oxford1. His love of letters was lauded by Caxton2, but Italy
had inspired him, not only with an appreciation of the Greek and
Latin Classics, but also with an admiration for the methods of
the Italian despots, and, when he was executed on Tower Hill,
the mob declared that he deserved his death for infringing the
liberties of the people by bringing from Italy ' a law of Padua ' to
take the place of the common law of England3.
Florence was also visited by an Englishman, who was the
royal envoy to the Pope, and remained in Florence for a year and
a half, consorting with scholars of the better sort, such as Manetti,
and purchasing many MSS from Vespasiano4.
Englishmen resorted still more frequently to Ferrara. Reynold
Chicheley studied there and became Rector of the university5.
Among those who attended the school of Guarino at that place
was William Grey, who had already worked at
Grey
Cologne and Padua, and invited a youthful scholar,
Niccol6 Perotti, to share his lodgings and aid him in the study of
Latin. Grey became bishop of Ely (d. 1478), and bequeathed to
Balliol College, Oxford, a number of MSS, including many letters
of Guarino6.
1 Epist. Acad. ii 354, 390.
2 Leland, Script. Brit, 480.
' s Vespasiano, Vite, 402-5 ; Creighton, Historical Lectures, 198 ; Einstein,
24 — 27. In the Canterbury necrology (MS Arundel 68 f 45 d, quoted by Gasquet,
p. 21) he is described as ' vir ujidecumque doctissimus, omnium liberalium
artium divinarumque simul ac secutarium litterarum scienter peritissimus'.
4 Vite, 238, ' Messer Andrea Ols '. . I have succeeded in identifying him
as Andrew Holes, chancellor of Sarum (1438) and envoy, of Henry VI to
Eugenius IV in Florence (1441-3). He had meanwhile been nominated
archdeacon of Northampton, and bishop of Coutances. See Beckynton's
Correspondence, in the Rolls Series, i 26, 91, i i8, 172 f, 225, 234, 239, ii 251.
* Calendar of State Papers, Venetian, vol. VI, part iii, 1581.
q Coxe, Cat. Cod. Oxon. I Balliol; and Woodward, Otia Meneiana, 1903.
Cp. Vespasiano, 213 f; Creighton, 201 ; Einstein, 19 f.
CHAP. XV.] GREY. FREE. FLEMMING. GUNTHORPE. 223
Guarino was also visited by John Free (better known as
Phreas), Fellow of Balliol, who taught medicine at
Ferrara, Florence, and Parma, and is said to have
been nominated bishop of Bath shortly before his death in 1465 1.
When Guarino died in 1460, his son referred with pride to the
fact that his father's school had been attended by pupils even
from Britain, 'which is situated outside the world'2, and the
funeral oration by Lodovico Carbone paid the same tribute to the
master's memory3. Robert Flemming, who had
, , , - T . , . i r T • i Flemming
been made dean of Lincoln in 1451, left Lincoln
for Ferrara, and was agent for Edward IV in Rome. He wrote
Latin verses at Tivoli and compiled a Greek and Latin dictionary.
On his death in 1483, he left the MSS, which he had collected in
Italy, to his cousin's foundation of Lincoln College, Oxford4.
John Gunthorpe, who was invited to Ferrara by
Gunthorpe
Free, there learnt to make Latin speeches. He
was employed on complimentary embassies by Edward IV, was
Warden of the King's Hall, Cambridge, prebendary of Lincoln
and dean of Wells (1472-98). The house that he there built
gives proof of his interest in Italian architecture, while some of
the MSS which he collected in Italy were bequeathed to Jesus
College, Cambridge5.
All of these Englishmen, who went on pilgrimage to Guarino's
school at Ferrara, were interested in Latin. They all attained
positions of eminence, and left their Latin MSS to College libraries, ]/
but they kindled no interest in the Classics. ' It was not till the
value of Greek thought became in any degree manifest that the
New Learning awakened any enthusiasm in England'6.
In the Revival of Learning the first Englishman who studied
Greek was a Benedictine monk, William of Selling, or Celling,
1 Voigt, ii 26o3; Creighton, 202; Einstein, 18, 20 — 23; some of his Letters
published by Spingarn in Journal of Comp. Lit. 1903. Dr J. F. Payne sug-
gests that his original name was possibly Wells (plural of <f>ptap).
2 Voigt, ii 261 n. i3.
3 Leland, De Scriptoribns Brit. 462.
4 Voigt, ii 26o3 ; Creighton, 203 ; Einstein, 23 f.
5 Only one or two are left (M. R. James, Parker MSS, 1899, 13). Cp. in
general Voigt, ii 26o3 ; Creighton, 202 ; Einstein, 23.
6 Creighton, 204.
hcm*s linxcrt. prc
i>immc t'.erfvs tlicf-r tixxs deaf-tana ut; l/rC: y ^ '•'
• serf it ffn4i-mri -fife: "• L-Pet*
From a drawing in the Cracherode collection, Print Room, British Museum.
Thomas Linacre professeuren medecine a son isle Angloise, homme certes docle aits
deux langues, Grecque et Latine, lequel ayant compose plusieurs doctes liures,
mourn t a Londres fan de notre Seigneur 1524.
CHAP. XV.] SELLING. LINACRE. 22$
near Canterbury (d. I494)1. Night and day he was haunted by
the vision of Italy that, next to Greece, was the
nursing mother of men of genius2. Accompanied
by another monk, William Hadley, he went to Italy in 1464* and
studied for three years at Padua, Bologna, and Rome. On his
return, he brought back many MSS, and endeavoured to make a
home of learning in the monastery of Canterbury, of which he
become Prior in 1472, after a second visit to Rome in 1469. He
paid special attention to Greek, and produced a Latin rendering
of a work of St Chrysostom. In 1485, he visited Rome for the
third time, to announce the accession of Henry VII, when he
delivered a Latin oration in the presence of Innocent VIII and
the College of Cardinals. He was possibly Fellow of All Souls' ;
he was certainly Prior of Christ Church, Canterbury, from 1472
to 1494. The MSS, which he had collected in Italy, were be-
queathed to that body ; most of them perished in a fire, but one
of them possibly survives in the Homer given by archbishop
Parker to the library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge4. His
monument in Canterbury Cathedral describes him as ' Doctor
theologus Selling, Graeca atque Latina | lingua perdoctus'5.
In the school of Christ Church, Selling inspired with his love
of classical learning his pupil and nephew, Thomas
Linacre (c. 1460 — 1524), who went to Oxford about
1480, was elected Fellow of All Souls' in 1484, and accompanied
Selling on his embassy to the Pope in 1485-6. It was during
1 Leland's Tillaeus (De Scr. Brit. 482) has suggested Tilly or Till. The
Canterbury Letter Books (iii 291 in the Rolls Series, quoted by Gasquet, p. 22)
show that Prior Selling was interested in a boy named ' Richard Tyll\
" Leland, Script. Brit. 482, 'prae oculis obversabatur Italia, post Graeciam,
bonorum ingeniorum et parens et altiix '.
3 Litt. Cant, iii 239; cp. Einstein, 29; Gasquet, 23. Leland, I.e., states
that, at Bologna, Selling was the pupil of Politian 'with whom. ..he formed
a familiar and lasting friendship'; but Politian was only 10 in 1464, and was
probably then in Florence. The Greek Readers at Bologna in 1466-7 were
Lionorus and Andronicus (Dallari's Rotuli, p. 51, quoted by Gasquet).
4 M. R. James, Parker MSS (1899), P- 9- The Euripides in the same
library, and the Livy in that of Trinity College, possibly belonged to Selling.
5 William Worcester mentions ' certain Greek terminations as taught by
Dr Selling' with the pronunciation of the vowels (Brit. Mus. Cotton MS Julius
F vii, f. 118, quoted by Gasquet, p. 24).
S. II. 15
226 ENGLAND. [CENT. XV f
this visit to Italy that Selling introduced Linacre to Politian in
Florence. In Florence Linacre studied Latin and Greek under
Politian and Chalcondyles. A year later he went to Rome. It
was there that, while examining a MS of the Phaedrus in the Vatican
Library, he made the acquaintance of Hermolaus Barbarus l, who
urged Linacre and his two English companions, William Grocyn
and William Latimer, to translate Aristotle into Latin. After
leaving Rome for Venice, he made the acquaintance of Aldus
Manutius, and was enrolled as an honorary member of his Greek
Academy. In the preface to the second volume of the Aldine
editio princeps of Aristotle (February, 1497), Aldus states that the
care with which the work had been executed would be attested by
many in Italy, and in particular at Venice by ' Thomas Anglicus,
homo et Graece et Latine peritissimus '. At the end of the
Astronomici Veteres (1499), Aldus prints the Sphere of Proclus
in the Latin rendering recently made by 'Thomas Linacrus
Britannus', who had become intimate with the prince of Carpi,
to whom this part of the work is dedicated by the printer in
October, 1499. He also prints a letter from Grocyn (27 August)
mentioning Linacre's recent return to England. Linacre had
meanwhile, in 1492, graduated in medicine at Padua, and had
studied Hippocrates under Leonicenus at Vicenza. On his way
back to England (probably in the summer of 1499), he erected
on the highest point of one of the Alpine passes an altar of stones
which he dedicated to Italy as his Sancta Mater Sfudiorum2.
On his return he proceeded to translate the commentary of
Simplicius on the Physics and of Alexander on the Meteorologica
of Aristotle, and it was probably at this time, in London, that his
lectures on the Meteorologica were attended by Thomas More3.
His translation4 remained unpublished, but his renderings of
1 Pauli Jovii Elogia, no. 63.
2 Epigram by Janus Vitalis, in Pauli Jovii Elogia, no. 63 ; cp. Dr Payne's
Introd. to Linacre's Galen, 13 — 15.
3 Stapleton (Vita Mori, 12, in Tres Thomae, 1588) states that More learned
Greek, and studied the Meteorologica, under Linacre at Oxford, where More
was in residence about 1493. This is the only evidence for Linacre's return to
England in 1492 (see esp. P. S. Allen, in Eng. Hist. Rev. xviii (1903) 514,
Linacre and Latimer in Italy).
4 Erasmus, Epp. 466, 1091.
CHAP. XV.] LINACRE. 22?
several treatises of Galen saw the light, De Sanitate Tuenda and
Methodus Medendi in Paris (1517 and 1519), De Temperamentis
at Cambridge (I52I)1, and three other treatises in London
(1523-4). The work printed at Cambridge in 1521 by Siberch,
who in the same year and place was the first to use Greek type in
England2, was dedicated by Linacre to Leo X, in memory of the
fact that, by permission of Lorenzo, the translator had shared
with the future Pope the private instructions of Politian. In
1509 he had been appointed physician to Henry VIII; in 1512
he wrote for St Paul's School a Latin Grammar, which was not
accepted by Colet. His appointment as tutor to the princess
Mary led to his preparing a Latin Grammar, which was composed
in English, though it bore the Latin title, Rudimenta Grammatices
(c. 1523); it was afterwards translated into Latin by Buchanan.
A far more important work was Linacre's treatise De Emendata
Structura Latini Sermonis (1524), which was reprinted abroad
with a letter from Melanchthon recommending its use in the
schools of Germany3. The edition of Julius Pollux by Antonio
Francesco Varchiese (1520) was dedicated to Linacre, who also
counted among his correspondents the eminent Greek scholar,
Budaeus. Lastly, Linacre was the founder of the College of
Physicians (1518), and of lectureships in medicine at Merton
College, Oxford, and St John's College, Cambridge. The lecturers
were originally required to expound Linacre's own renderings of
Galen, but the Galenian tradition, which had come down from
the Middle Ages, was abolished at Cambridge by the statutes of
Queen Elizabeth4. Linacre was buried in St Paul's cathedral,
but it was not until 1557 that Dr Caius marked the site with an
epitaph in which he describes Linacre as vir et Graece et Latine
atque in re medica longe eruditissimus6. He is among the earliest
1 Facsimile, Cambridge, i8Sr.
2 Assuming the correctness of Mr Bradshaw's chronological arrangement
of Siherch's publications, the first Greek printed in England must have
been the expressive words, irdvrwv ^era/JoX^, the motto of the Sermon of
St Augustine (1521; facsimile, 1886).
3 Hallam, i 3s84.
4 Prof. Macalister's Lecture in Lancet, 1904, pp. 1005 f.
5 Cp. Einstein, 30 — 38; Dugdale's History of St Paul's (1658), 56.
228 ENGLAND. [CENT. XV f
of England's humanists. Erasmus has declared that nothing can
be more acute, more profound, or more refined than the judge-
ment of Linacre1, and in the Encomium Moriae (1521) has drawn
a portrait of his friend, which may well have been the original of
Browning's Grammarian'2': —
' Novi quendam tro\vTex"l)rarov Graecum, Latinum, Mathematicum, philo-
sophum medicum Kal TO.VTO. /3a.<n\iK6v jam sexagenarium qui, caeteris rebus
omissis, annis plus viginti se torquet et discruciat in Grammatica, prorsus
felicem se fore ratus, si tamdiu licet vivere, donee certo statuat, quomodo
distinguendae sint octo partes orationis, quod hactenus nemo Graecorum aut
Latinorum ad plenum praestare valuit. Proinde quasi res sit bello quoque
vindicanda, si quis conjunctionem facial dictionem ad adverbiorum jus per-
tinentem '3.
Modern English Scholarship begins with Linacre and his
two friends, William Grocyn and William Latimer.
Grocyn
The eldest of the three was Grocyn (c. 1446 — 1519),
elected Fellow of New College in 1467. He was over forty when
he joined Linacre in Italy, where he and Latimer attended the
lectures of Politian and Chalcondyles between 1488 and 1490.
It was probably not until his return from Italy in 1491, that the
teaching of Greek began to be effective in Oxford. In 1496
he left for London, where More became his pupil. Beyond the
tradition of his teaching, he has left little behind him, except a
letter to Aldus, written in 1499, thanking him for his singular
kindness to Linacre who had just returned to England, and con-
gratulating him on his publication of the Greek text of Aristotle4.
William Latimer (c. 1460 — 1545), Fellow of All Souls' in
1489, who studied at Padua (1498) and was a friend
W. Latimer
of Sir Thomas More, was even less productive than
Grocyn. He is only represented in literature by his correspond-
ence with Erasmus, who playfully refers to the little use he made
1 p. 229 infra. 2 Dr Payne, I.e., p. 48.
3 p. 251. Life (by George Lily) in Paulus Jovius, Descr. Britanniae
(Ven. 1548); also in Bale (Ipswich, 1548), Leland's Encomia (1589); and
Dr Noble Johnson (1835). See esp. Dr Payne's In trod. (pp. i — 48) to
Linacre's Galen (1881, with portrait from Windsor), and his Harveian Lecture
on Harvey and Galen (1897), 7 — 14. Another portrait, p. 224 supra.
4 Printed next to Preface to Linacre's Prochts in the Aldine Astronomici
Veteres ; cf. Oxford Collectanea, ii 351, and Einstein, 30 — 35.
CHAP. XV.] GROCYN. LILY. COLET. MORE. 229
of his learning by comparing him to a miser hoarding his gold1.
The youngest of this group of Greek scholars was
William Lily (c. 1468 — 1522), who during his early
pilgrimage to Jerusalem studied Greek in Rhodes, underwent
all kinds of difficulties and privations, while working in Venice2,
and attended the lectures of Sulpitius Verulanus and Pomponius
Laetus in Rome. He was chosen by John Colet to be the first
high-master of St Paul's (1512-22), and in that capacity prepared,
under the title of 'Grammatices Rudimenta', a short Latin Syntax,
with the rules in English, which was not printed until 1527.
Colet (c. 1467 — 1519), after studying the Platonic
and Neo-Platonic philosophy in Latin versions,
spent three years in Italy (1493-6), during which he acquired
the rudiments of Greek. Among his favourite modern authors
were Ficino and Pico della Mirandola. The life and letters of
the latter were specially studied by Thomas More
(1478 — 1535) about 15 io3. More himself informs
us that he attended Linacre's lectures on Aristotle's Meteorologica*,
and his Utopia (1516) has elements derived not only from
St Augustine's De Civitate Dei but also from Plato's Republic*.
More had already left Oxford to read law in London, while
Erasmus was spending those two months in Oxford (Oct. Nov.
1499), when he first met Colet; but he lighted on More (as well
as Grocyn and Linacre) during a visit to London, and in Decem-
ber, 1499, wrote from London to an English friend in Italy : —
' I have found in England... so much learning and culture, and that of no
common kind, but recondite, exact and ancient, Latin and Greek, that I now
hardly want to go to Italy, except to see it. When I listen to my friend Colet,
I can fancy I am listening to Plato himself. Who can fail to admire Grocyn,
with all his encyclopaedic erudition ? Can anything be more acute, more
profound, more refined, than the judgement of Linacre? Has nature ever
moulded anything gentler, pleasanter, or happier, than the mind of Thomas
More?'6
1 Rp. 363. 2 Sir George Young, Gk Literature in England, 69.
3 More's Picus Erie of Alyrandula has been reprinted, ed. J. M. Rigg
(1890). More may have been born in 1477 (P. S. Allen, Erasmi Epp. i 265).
4 Letter to Dorpius, 21 Oct. 1515, in his Lucubrationes (1563), 416 f;
Lnpton's Introd. to Utopia, p. xix. Cp. p. 226 n. 3 supra.
5 ib. xlviii f, and Index.
6 Ep. 14 (no. 118, ed. P. S. Allen, 1906).
230 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVI.
It was to a daughter of More that Erasmus, in the language of
a modern picture of The Household of Sir Thomas More, disclosed
his opinion of the relative value of Greek and Latin : —
'You are an eloquent Latinist, Margaret1, he was pleased to say, 'but, if
you woulde drink deeplie of the Wellsprings of Wisdom, applie to Greek.
The Latins have onlie shallow Rivulets ; the Greeks, copious Rivers running
over Sands of gold'1.
During the short time spent by Erasmus in Cambridge (Aug.
1511 — Jan. 1514), he gave unofficial instruction in Greek, be-
ginning with the catechism of Chrysoloras, and going on to the
larger grammar of Theodorus Gaza2.
When in 1516 Bishop Fox, who had been Master of Pem-
broke College, Cambridge, founded Corpus Christi
Oxford and College, Oxford, he made provision for lecturers
who were to give instruction in the Greek and Latin
Classics. This was the first permanent establishment of a teacher
of Greek in England. But the teaching of Greek aroused in 1518
the opposition of a party of students who called themselves
Trojans ; and a preacher in Lent went so far as to denounce, not
only Greek, but also Latin and all liberal learning whatsoever.
Mo're, who was then in attendance on the king at Abingdon,
wrote to the authorities of the university on behalf of the Gre-
cians3; a royal letter was sent commanding that all students
should be readily permitted to study Greek4 ; and in the same year
(1518) a lectureship of Greek was founded by Wolsey. Erasmus,
who rejoices in recording the way in which the ' brawlers were
silenced' at Oxford, observes that, meanwhile, at Cambridge,
' Greek was being taught without disturbance (tranquille), as its
school was under the government of John Fisher, Bishop of
Rochester, a divine not only in learning but in life '5.
Among the pupils of Erasmus in Cambridge was Henry
Bullock, Fellow of Queens' (1506), who kept Greek alive in
1 [Miss A. Manning], Household of Sir Thomas More, p. 90, ed. Hutton,
1906 ; Erasmus, quoted on p. 125 supra.
2 Ep. 123 (no. 233, ed. P. S. Allen).
3 Letter in Jortin's Erasmus, ii 662-7 ; 29 March, 1518.
4 Erasmus, Ep. 380 (22 April, 1519).
8 ib. (cp. Mayor on Ascham's Scholemaster, 245).
CHAP. XV.] BULLOCK. CROKE. SMITH. CHEKE. 23!
Cambridge1, till it was taken up in 1518 by Richard Croke
(c. 1489 — 1558), the minister and discipulus of
Grocyn (probably in London). Croke became crokeCk
Scholar of King's, and afterwards Fellow of St John's.
After studying at Cambridge in 1506-10, he worked in Paris2
1511-2 under Erasmus and Aleander, and, in 1515-7, taught
Greek with signal success at Cologne, Louvain, and Leipzig3,
where he counted Camerarius among his pupils4. After eight
years' absence abroad, he returned from Dresden to Cambridge
in 1518, and, having been formally appointed Reader in Greek,
delivered two orations on the importance and utility of that lan-
guage (i52o)5. Cambridge was the first university in the British
Isles to institute the office of Public Orator (1522), and Richard
Croke, the first holder of that office, was specially appointed for
life, and had further privileges, quia primus invexit literas ad nos
graecas6. As Reader in Greek, he was succeeded
by Thomas Smith of Queens' (1514 — 1577), who smith
filled that position from 1535 to 1540, when he be-
came Regius Professor of Civil Law, the Regius Professorship of
Greek, founded in this year, being assigned to
John Cheke (1514-57), 'who taught Cambridge Chekl°h
and king Edward Greek'. He was then Fellow of
St John's, and afterwards Public Orator, and Provost of King's.
Within two years of Cheke's appointment as Professor, we find
Roger Ascham, Fellow of St John's, writing to another member
of the same society on the flourishing state of classical studies in
Cambridge : —
1 His translation of Lucian -irepl duf/ddwv (1521) is in St John's College
Library, the only copy in Cambridge. He was Vice-Chancellor in 1524-5,
and died in 1526.
2 Erasmus, Ep. 149 ; no. 227 and 256, P. S. Allen ; Nichols, ii 22.
3 Nichols, ii 274, 533.
4 Camerarius, De Eobano ffesso, ' ferebar in oculis, quia audiveram
Ricardum Crocum Britannum, qui primus putabatur ita docuisse Graecam
linguam in Germania, ut plane perdisci illam posse — arbitrarentur' (Mullinger's
Cambridge, i 527).
5 Mullinger, i 528 — 539.
6 Statute in Heywood's Doctintcnts, 1852, i 433. This ignores the in-
struction privately given by Erasmus in October, 1511 (Ep. 233 Allen).
232 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVI.
For some five years, Aristotle and Plato had been studied at St John's ;
Sophocles and Euripides were more familiar than Plautus had been twelve
years before ; Herodotus, Thucydides, and Xenophon were more ' conned and
discussed ' than Livy was then ; Demosthenes was as well known as Cicero ;
Isocrates as Terence ; ' it is Cheke's labours and example that have lighted
up and continue to sustain this learned ardour'1.
About 1535, Thomas' Smith and John Cheke, then young men
of little more than twenty, had been attracted to
numfiatiorj0" the question of the pronunciation of Greek, and,
after studying the Dialogue of Erasmus on that sub-
ject (1528), and the treatise of Terentianus, De Litteris et Syllabis,
they had come to the conclusion that a reform was necessary.
This reform, which was none other than the adoption of the
'Erasmian' method, was cautiously introduced by Smith, whose
example was followed by Cheke and Ascham. In December, 1536,
the Plutus was acted in St John's with the Erasmian pronunciation.
The reform was opposed, and the question brought to the notice
of Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, then Chancellor of
the university. In 1542 Gardiner, after writing to Cheke, decreed
an immediate return to the ' Reuchlinian ' pronunciation. The
effect is described as most disheartening. Ascham complains
that 'all sounds in Greek are now exactly the same, reduced,
that is to say, to a like thin and slender character, and subjected
to the authority of a single letter, the iota ; so that all one can
hear is a feeble piping like that of sparrows, or an unpleasant
hissing like that of snakes'2. Then followed a protracted corre-
spondence between Cheke and Gardiner3. Compliance with the
1 Epp. p. 74 (Mayor's ed. of The Scholemaster, 257; Mullinger, ii 52 f.
Cp. Toxophilus, p. 77 Arber). Portrait in H. Holland's Heroologia (1620),
p. 52, and in Strype's Life, ed. 1705.
2 Epp. p. 75 (Mullinger, ii 60). Ascham found the ' Erasmian ' pronuncia-
tion in use at Louvain in 1551 (Works, 355). Cp. Strype's Life of Sir John
Cheke, 17 — 19 (ed. 1705), and of Sir Thomas Smith, 29 — 34 (ed. 1698) ; also
Sir George Young, Greek Literature in England (1862), 85 — 94.
3 Joannis Cheki...de pronuntiatione Graecae potissimum linguae (Basileae,
1555), reprinted, with other treatises on the same subject, in S. Havercamp's
Sylloge, 2 vols., Leyden, 1736. The force of many of Gardiner's arguments is
noticed by Munro in my copy of this work. ' The Erasmian pronunciation of
the vowels was the same as that already in use in France, and with the
exception of u, with that used in Italy and Germany'; the English pro-
CHAP. XV.] GREEK AND LATIN PRONUNCIATION. 233
decree was neglected for a time ; it was rigorously enforced in
1554 ; but, on the accession of Elizabeth in 1558, the ' Erasmian '
pronunciation came into general use in England. It was subse-
quently adopted abroad, being accepted by Henry Stephens' and
Beza, and by Ramus and Lambinus2.
It has not been generally noticed that Gardiner's edict of
May, 1542, was directed against any change in the
customary method of pronouncing Greek or Latin3. nunci*t\on~
Early in the i6th century it was assumed in England
that the Italian method of pronouncing the Latin vowels was
right. Erasmus4 describes the Italians as recognising the English
pronunciation of Latin as being the next best to their own. Even
as late as 1542 the vowels were still pronounced at Cambridge
in the Italian manner5. But the Reformation made it no longer
necessary for the clergy to use the common language of the
Roman Church ; and, partly to save trouble to teachers and
learners, Latin was gradually mispronounced as English. The
mischief probably began in the grammar schools, and then spread
to the universities. Coryat, who visited Italy and other parts
of Europe in 1608, found England completely isolated in its
pronunciation of long /.
' Whereas in my travels I discoursed in Latin with Frenchmen, Germans,
Spaniards, Danes, Polonians, Suecians, and divers others, I observed that
everyone, with whom I had any conference, pronounced the i after the manner
that the Italians use... Whereupon having observed such a generall consent
amongst them in the pronunciation of this letter, I have thought good to
nunciation of the Greek vowels was (and is) the same as that of the English
vowels (W. G. Clark m. Journal of Philology, i (2) 98 — 108).
1 Afologeticum (1580). 2 Mullinger, ii 54 — 64.
,3 The question referred to the Chancellor is: 'quid in literamm sonis ac
linguae turn Graecae turn Latinae pronuntiatione spectandum, sequendum,
tenendum sit ' ; and the Chancellor's decision is : 'quisquis nostram potestatem
agnoscis, sonos literis siue Graecis siue Latinis ab usu publico praesentis saeculi
alienos, priuato iudicio affingere ne audeto': Cheke, De pronuntiatione (1555),
p. 1 8. Cp. Cooper's Annals, i 401-3.
4 1528. De Pronuntiatione, 234, ed. 1643.
5 Thomas Smith, DC rectd et emendala linguae Graecae pronuntiatione
(12 Aug. 1542), Paris, 1568, p. 14% ' voces. ..quas nos Angli Concordes cum
Italis producebamus ' ; but the English pronunciation was already, in certain
points, different from the Italian and the French (ib. 3 f ).
234 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVI.
imitate these nations herein, and to abandon my English pronunciation of
vita... and amicus, as being utterly dissonant from the sound of all other
Nations ; and have determined (God willing) to retayne the same till -my
dying day'1.
At Leyden, in 1608, Scaliger received a visit from an unnamed
English scholar, and, after listening to his ' Latin ' for a full
quarter of an hour, and finding it as unintelligible as Turkish,
was compelled to bring the interview to a close by apologising, in
perfect good- faith, for his inadequate knowledge of English2.
Coryat visited Leyden in the same year, but he does not profess
to have called on any other scholar than Vulcanius.
The isolation of England had doubtless extended still further
by the time of Milton, who holds that ' to smatter Latin with an
English mouth, is as ill a hearing as Law-French', and recom-
mends that the speech of boys should ' be fashion'd to a distinct
and clear pronuntiation as near as may be to the Italian,
especially in the vowels'3 (1644).
The flourishing state of Greek studies in Cambridge has been
attested4 by Roger Ascham (1515 — 1568), who was
Fellow and Greek reader at St John's and Public
Orator (1546-54). He was private tutor to Elizabeth as princess
in 1548, and as queen ten years later, and between these dates
he was a Secretary of Embassy under Edward VI, and Latin
Secretary to queen Mary in 1553. On the accession of that
queen, he wrote in the space of three days no less than 47 different
Latin letters to the principal personages of Europe, not one of whom
was below the rank of a Cardinal5. In 1550, on visiting Bradgate
Park in Leicestershire, to take leave of Lady Jane Grey before
he went to Germany, he found her in her chamber reading the
1 Coryat's Crudities (1611), ii 157 f, ed. 1776. At Venice he conversed
with a 'Jewish Rabbin, that spake good Latin' (i 301); and with a Greek
Archbishop, whose ' pronunciation was so plausible, that any man which was
skillfull in the Greeke tongue, might easily understand him ' (i 295).
2 Ep. iv no. 362, p. 700, ed. 1627.
3 Of Education, in Prose Works, ii 384 f, ed. Mitford. Cp. W. G. Clark,
in Journal of Philology, i (2) 103.
4 p. 232 supra.
5 E. Grant, De Vitd, p. 22 in Epp. ed. 1703.
CHAP. XV.] ASCHAM. 235
Phaedo of Plato, and regarding all the sport in the Park as
' but a shadow' to the pleasure that she found in Plato1.
In the course of his Scholemaster the Latin books that he recommends are
the Letters and Speeches of Cicero, with Terence, Plautus, Caesar, and Livy.
He also maintains that the best method of learning Latin is that of translation
and retranslation, which was followed by Cicero in the case of Greek and
commended by the younger Pliny, while the method of paraphrase, rejected
by both, was approved by Quintilian. It had, however, injured the style of
Melanchthon and was discountenanced by Sturm. Again, 'Metaphrasis', or
turning Latin verse into prose, or prose into verse, was approved by Quintilian,
but disallowed by Cicero, with whom Ascham agreed. Epitomising was
useful to the compiler himself, but harmful to others. He also touches on
dramatic imitation, discusses the choice of models and of means and instru-
ments of literary imitation in general, briefly reviewing the ancient and modern
authorities on the subject ; and, after an interesting digression on the state of
learning in Cambridge, ends by setting forth the rules for the imitation of
Latin authors that had been laid down by Cheke, including a full account of
his admirable criticism on Sallust, with his ' uncontented care to write better
than he could'2. The sections on declamation, and on the imitation of Cicero,
are missing, as the work, which was published in 1570, had been left incom-
plete at its author's death.
Ascham's definition of Plato's ev^uifs3, founded mainly on a
passage of Plutarch's Moralia*, is, in a certain sense, the source of
the Euphues of John Lyly (1579 f ) ; but there is a vast difference
between the plain and strong style of Ascham, and the elaborately
antithetical and affectedly sententious manner of Lyly, who, so
far from appealing to the same circle as the Scholemaster^ has
himself assured us that ' Euphues had rather lye shut in a Ladyes
casket, then open in a Schollers studie'5. In opposing the opinion
of the bishop, who said, ' we have no nede now of the Greeke
tong, when all things be translated into Latin', x\scham urges
that 'even the best translation is... but an evill imped wing to
flie withall, or a hevie stompe leg of wood to go withall'6.
While travelling abroad, he looked back on Cambridge as
a place to be preferred to Louvain7, and he failed to admire a
Greek lecture on the Ethics at Cologne8. He spent several
1 Scholemaster, 33, 213, ed. Mayor.
2 p. 192 ; cp. Saintsbury, ii 152.
3 Scholemaster, p. 21 Mayor. 4 81 D. 5 p. 220 Arber.
6 p. 151. 7 pp. 62, 220, 258.
8 EPP- PP- 230, 233.
236 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVI.
years at Augsburg, where he frequently met Hieronymus Wolf.
During nine days in Venice, he saw ' more liberty to sin ' than
he ever heard tell of in nine years in London2; he knows
many whom 'all the Siren songs of Italy could never untwine
from the mast of God's word'3; but he holds that, for young
men, travelling in Italy is morally dangerous4. Next to Greek
and Latin he 'likes and loves' the Italian tongue5, but he
maintains that to read and to obey the precepts of Castiglione's
Cortegiano for one year would do a young man more good than
three years spent in Italy6. 'Time was, when Italy and Rome
have been... the best breeders and bringers up of the worthiest
men... but now that time is gone'7. Clearly, in Ascham's opinion,
the age in which Italy had exercised a healthy influence on the
Revival of Learning in England was already over. His place
in the History of Scholarship cannot be better summed up than
in the language of Fuller : — ' Ascham came to Cambridge just at
the dawning of learning, and staid therein till the bright-day
thereof, his own endeavours contributing much light thereunto'8.
The year of the publication of the Scholemaster was also that
of the appearance of the earliest English translation
°f Demosthenes. In the dedication of a version of
the Three Olynthiacs (1570) the translator, Thomas
Wilson, of Eton and King's, and LL.D. of Ferrara (c. 1525 — 1581),
dwells on Sir John Cheke's masterly renderings of the orator,
and recalls the days they spent together ' in that famous Universitie
1 Katterfeld, Roger Ascham, 141. 2 p. 87.
3 Scholemaster, p. 73. 4 pp. 68, 83.
5 p. 69. 6 p. 61. 7 p. 69.
8 Fuller's Worthies (1662) in Yorkshire, 209. See, in general, the edd.
of the Scholemaster by Mayor and Arber ; also Katterfeld's Roger Ascham
(Strassburg, 1879), anc^ Quick's Educational Reformers, 23 f. The only
portrait is in the frontispiece of Elstob's ed. of the Epistolae (1703) where
Ascham is presenting an address to Queen Elizabeth. In the margin are
10 medallions, including Sir Thomas Smith, Sir John Cheke, and Sturm, all
of them excellent portraits. But Ascham's profile is in the shade and his
features cannot be clearly distinguished ; there was obviously no authentic
portrait for the engraver to follow. A profile portrait carved in wood, and
evidently founded on this engraving, was presented to the Library of St John's
College about 1900. It was formerly in a private library in Southampton.
The English works of Ascham have been edited by Mr Aldis Wright (1904).
CHAP. XV.J SIR THOMAS WILSON. GABRIEL HARVEY. 237
of Padua', and the ' care that he had over all the Englishe men
there, to go to their bokes". In his Art of Rhetoric (1553), which
shows a keen interest in style, he protests against ' strange inkhorn
terms' and all undue ' Latining of the English language'2.
One of the crazes of his contemporaries was the introduction
of classical metres into English poetry. Homer's
description of Odysseus is regarded by Ascham3 as metres103
translated ' both plainly for the sense and roundly
for the verse ' in an excruciating couplet by Thomas Watson,
bishop of Lincoln, of which William Webbe actually says that,
'for the sweetness and gallantness thereof, it 'doth match and
surpass the Latin copy of Horace'4 :
' All travellers do gladly report great praise of Ulysses,
For that he knew many men's manners, and saw many cities'.
Chapman, in one of his earliest poems, says the last word on
the newly-imported English hexameter : —
' Sweet Poesy
Will not be clad in her supremacy
With those strange garlands, Rome's hexameters,
As she is English; but in right prefers
Our native robes, put on with skilful hands,
English heroics, to those antic garlands'5.
The adoption of such metres had been pressed upon Edmuud
Spenser6 by that eccentric genius, Gabriel Har-
vey (1550-1 — 1630) Of Christ's College, Fellow of Harvey6
Pembroke, who may here be briefly mentioned,
not only by reason of his claim to be the father of the English
hexameter, but also as the author of the ' Oratio post Reditum ',
which he published under the title of Ciceronianus (1577). We
are here concerned solely with that part of the discourse which
1 Cp. Arber's Introd, to the Scholemaster, 6 f.
2 Cp. Saintsbury, ii i+gf and Gregory Smith's Elizabethan Essayists,
index, s.v. Inkhorn.
3 Scholeniaster, p. 71 Mayor.
4 Of English Poetry (1586), p. 72 Arber.
5 Shadow of Night, 86 — 91 (Gregory Smith, I.e., I liv, and Camb. Mod.
Hist, iii 369).
8 Cp. Einstein, 357.
238 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVI.
shows how deeply the author was influenced by scholars abroad.
He confesses that he had formerly followed the strict Ciceronians,
such as Bembo, Sadoleto and Nizolius, had disapproved of
Erasmus, and had sided with Cortesius against Politian. But he
had since lighted on the Ciceronianus of Joannes Sambucus (1531—
84) 1. From Sambucus he had been led to the Ciceronianus of
Ramus (1557), and the corresponding works of Freigius (1575)
and Sturm (15 74)2. These had sent him back to the study
of the old Latin Classics, and he had thus learnt to appreciate
other models besides Cicero3. 'Let every man', he said, 'learn
to be, not a Roman, but himself. In the margin of his Quintilian
in the British Museum he writes that ' Mr Ascham, in his fine
discourse of Imitation, is somewhat too precise and scrupulous
for Tully only, in all points'4.
The History of Scholarship in England has necessarily some points of contact
with that of its principal educational institutions, the dates of
which may here be briefly noted. In the year 1300 only three
Colleges were in existence in Oxford, University, Balliol, and Merton, and
only one in Cambridge, Peterhouse (1284). In the fourteenth century, during
the life of Petrarch, three were founded at Oxford, Exeter, Oriel, and Queen's,
and five at Cambridge, Clare, Pembroke, Gonville Hall, Trinity Hall, and
Corpus Christi College. The next foundation at Oxford was New College
(1386), in intimate connexion with Winchester (1387), and the next at Cam-
bridge was King's (1441) in similar relation to Eton (1441). In the fifteenth
century, Oxford saw the foundation of three Colleges: Lincoln (1427), All Souls'
(1437), and Magdalen (1458); and Cambridge also of three, Queens', St Cath-
arine's, and Jesus (1496). It is not until the sixteenth century that we can
trace the influence of the Revival of Learning in the foundation of Brasenose
(1509), Corpus (1516), Christ Church (1525), Trinity and St John's (1554-5)
at Oxford; and of Christ's (1505), St John's (1511), Magdalene (1542), and
Trinity (1546) at Cambridge. In 1558 Gonville Hall was endowed anew,
as Caius College, by Dr John Caius (1510-73), who, between 1539 an<^ !544>
1 De Imitalione Ciceroniana IV dialogi, Par. 1561.
2 De Imitatione Oratorio,.
3 Ciceronianus (ed. 1577), 18 — 47.
4 H. Morley's Hobbinol^ in Grosart's Introd. to Gabriel Harvey, I xviii.
Cp. Mayor on Ascham's Stholemaster, 241, 272. Harvey's favourite Latin
phrases are ridiculed in Pedantiiis, a play which was performed in Trinity
College in February, 1581, and probably contributed to his being defeated in
his candidature for the office of Public Orator in March (G. C. Moore-Smith's
ed., Louvain, 1905, xxxii-xxxviii).
CHAP. XV.] COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS. 239
had studied at Padua and lectured there on Aristotle, and had collated MSS of
Galen in Italy, and who permitted the medical fellows on his foundation to
study abroad either at Padua or Bologna, or at Paris or Montpellier1. In the
same century we have the distinctly post-Reformation Colleges of Jesus
College, Oxford (1571), and of Emmanuel (1584) and Sidney, Cambridge
(1596). The only Colleges that have since been founded are, at Oxford,
Wadham and Pembroke (1612—24), and Worcester (1714), with Keble (1870)
and Hertford (1874); and, at Cambridge, Downing (1800) and Selwyn (1882).
The founder of Exeter College (1314) had established a School at Exeter
in connexion with his College at Oxford, thus anticipating the
principle carried out in the splendid foundations of Winchester
(1387) and Eton (1441). The first English School that came into being under
the immediate influence of the Revival of Learning was that of St Paul's in
London, founded in 1510 by dean Colet, the friend of Erasmus; the first
high-master was one of the earliest students of Greek in England ; by the
Statutes, the holder of that office was required to be 'learned in good and
clean Latin2, and also in Greek, if such may be gotten\ and this requirement
is copied in the Statutes of Merchant Taylors School (1561). By the ordinances
of Shrewsbury School (f. 1551), made in the time of the first Master, Thomas
Ashton (1562-8), the Master and the Second Master must be 'well able to
make a latten vearse and learned in the greke tongue ', while the books pre-
scribed in Greek are the Grammar of Cleonardus, the New Testament,
Isocrates ad Demomcum, and Xenophon's Cyropaedeia*. Archbishop Sandys
directs the Master of his School at Hawkshead (1588) to 'teach Grammar,
and the pryncyples of the Greeke tongue '4; and the text-books mentioned by
John Lyon, the founder of Harrow (1590), include some Greek orators and
historians, as well as Hesiod. Greek text-books were prepared for the use of
Westminster School in 1575 and 1581, and the influence of the Revival of
Learning extended to many other schools such as Christ's Hospital (1552),
Repton (1557), Rugby (1567), and the numerous Grammar Schools5.
The Revival of Learning in England led to the production
of many English renderings of the Classics. The
r T^ • • i i /-. Translations
Phoenissae of Euripides was translated by George
Gascoigne, of Trinity, Cambridge, and Francis Kinwelmersh, both
students of Gray's Inn (i556)6. The ten Tragedies of Seneca
1 Statute 54 (Hey wood's Documents, ii 276).
2 Cicero, Sallust, Virgil, and Terence are mentioned in the Statute, which
also required the teaching of Lactantius, Prudentius, Proba, Sedulius, Juvencus,
and Baptista Mantuanus (Lupton's Life of Colet, 279).
3 Baker-Mayor, Hist, of St John's Coll. 409 — 413.
4 Complete text of Statutes in H. S. Cowper's Hawkshead, 1889, 472 f.
5 Cp. A. F. Leach, English Schools at the Reformation, 1546-8 (1896), 5 f.
6 Warton's History of English Poetry, §57 init. Gascoigne's translation
was made from the Italian rendering by Dolce (Einstein, 359).
240 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVI.
were paraphrased by various hands' and published in a collected
edition (1581), of which Thomas Nash has said in his General
Censure (1589): — 'English Seneca read by candle light yields many
good sentences..., and... he will afford you whole Hamlets, I
should say handfulls of tragical speeches'2. Thomas Phaer, the
lawyer, who was also an M. D. of Oxford, had translated little more
than nine books of the Aeneid before his death in 1560 ; the task
was completed by Thomas Twyne, of Corpus Christi, Oxford, in
1573. Phaer, who began his work with a view to proving that
the English language was not incapable of elegance and propriety,
claims to be a pioneer: — 'By mee first this gate is set open'.
His metre is the Alexandrine line of seven feet: — e.g.
' Lo ! there againe where Pallas sits, on fortes and castle-towres,
With Gorgons eyes, in lightning cloudes inclosed grim she lowres'.
Webbe cites several passages from Phaer to prove the 'meetnesse
of our speeche to receive the best forme of Poetry', and the 'gal-
lant grace which our Englishe speeche affoordeth'3. The first four
books of the Aeneid were rendered in rude but sometimes vigorous
hexameters by Richard Stanyhurst of University College, Oxford
(i582)4. The translation of Virgil was completed by Abraham
Flemming of Peterhouse, in his bald and literal rendering of the
Eclogues and Georgics (1575, 1589). Virgil's Culex was paraphrased
by Spenser (1591). Ovid's Metamorphoses was rendered in a
spirited and poetic manner by Arthur Golding (1565-7), in the
same metre as Phaer's Aeneid: — e.g.
' The princely pallace of the Sun, stood gorgeous to behold,
On stately pillars builded high, of yellow burnisht gold'5 (Lib. ii).
He is commended by Webbe for 'beautifying the English lan-
guage'6, and his version was well known to Shakespeare. It was
1 Jasper Hey wood's Troades, Thyestes, Hercules Furens; Alex. Nevyle's
Oediptis ; Trios. Nuce's Octavia ; John Studley's Medea, Agamemnon ; Henry
Denham's Hippolytus ; and Thos. Newton's Thebais. Warton, § 57 ult.
2 Ed. Gregory Smith, in Elizabethan Critical Essays, i 312.
3 pp. 46 — 51 Arber; i 256 — 262 Gregory Smith.
4 Ed. Arber (1880). Cp. Gregory Smith, i 135—147; and the vigorous
onslaught by Nash, ib. 315 f.
8 New ed. 1904.
6 p. 51 Arber.
CHAP. XV.] TRANSLATIONS. 241
succeeded (in 1621-6) by the rather unduly literal rendering of
George Sandys, of St Mary Hall, Oxford, a rendering admired by
Dryden '. Marlowe of Corpus Christi, Cambridge, translated part
of the Hero and Leander of Musaeus, the Amores of Ovid (c. 1597),
and the first book of Lucan ( 1 600). Ovid's Heroides was rendered
by Turberville of New College, Oxford (1567) : and Horace's Satires,
Epistles, and Art of Poetry by Thomas Drant, of St John's,
Cambridge (i567)2. Martial fills a large part of the Epigrams
translated by Timothy Kendall of Magdalen Hall, Oxford (1577).
Christopher Johnson, Fellow of New and Head-Master of
Winchester, translated Homer's Battle of the Frogs and Mice into
Latin hexameters (1580); and Thomas Watson, possibly of Oxford,
produced a Latin version of the Antigone (1581), and of the 'Rape
of Helen' (1586), a poem rendered into English in the next year
by Marlowe, who in 1598 paraphrased part of the Hero and
Leander of Musaeus, a work completed by George Chapman. The
earliest English translation of any part of Homer was that of
Iliad \ — x, translated, in 1581, from the French version of Hugues
Salel (1545), by a turbulent M.P., Arthur Hall, who had been
encouraged in the work by Roger Ascham. It begins thus : 'I
thee beseech, O goddess milde, the hatefull hate to plaine'. This
was entirely superseded by the splendid work of George Chapman
(c. 1559 — 1634), who in 1611 completed his vigorous rendering of
'the Iliads of Homer, Prince of Poets, never before in any lan-
guage truly translated'. This was followed by the Odyssey (1614),
the Battle of the Frogs and Mice, and the Hymns (1624); and, at
the end of this volume, he proudly adds: 'The work is done that
I was born to do'. The following is an extract from his translation
of Iliad v: —
' From his bright helme and shield did burne, a most unwearied fire,
Like rich Autumnus' golden lamps, whose brightnesse men admire,
Past all the other host of starres, when with his chearfull face,
Fresh-washt in loftie ocean waves, he doth the skie enchase'.
Chapman has enriched the language with a long array of compound
epithets, such as 'silver-footed', 'high-walled', 'triple-feathered'.
1 Hooper's Introd. to George Sandys' Poetical Works, I xxvii — xlii.
2 Warton, § 58.
S. II. I 6
242 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVI.
Waller could never read his rendering of the Iliad without a feeling
of transport, and Pope appreciated its 'daring fiery spirit'1. It was
after sitting up till daylight over a copy of the fine folio edition
that Keats wrote the celebrated sonnet, 'On first looking into
Chapman's Homer', from which the few following lines are
taken : —
' Oft of one wide expanse had I been told,
That deep-brow'd Homer raled as his demesne:
Yet did I never breathe its pure serene
Till I heard Chapman speak out loud and bold :
Then felt I like some watcher of the skies
When a new planet swims into his ken '.
But Keats (as Matthew Arnold has reminded us) 'could not read
the original and therefore could not really judge the translation'.
"Coleridge, in praising Chapman's version, says at the same time,
'It will give you small idea of Homer'"2. In the Preface to the
Reader (i598)3 Chapman holds that 'the worth of a skilful trans-
lator' is to adorn his version 'with figures and formes of oration
fitted to the original'. But, while it is a mark of Homer's style to
be 'plain in thought', Chapman introduces 'conceits' of his own,
that are not fitted to the original, as in the line: — 'When sacred
Troy shall shed her toitfrs, for tears of overthrow'1*. And yet
Chapman has much that is truly Homeric: 'he is plain-spoken,
fresh, vigorous, and, to a certain degree, rapid'5.
Arthur Golding, the translator of Ovid, was also the translator
of Caesar (1565), Justin (1574), Seneca De Beneficiis (1578), and
Pomponius Mela and Solinus (i587-9o)6. Sir Thomas North
(c. 1535 — c. 1601), who translated Marcus Aurelius from French
and Spanish editions, reproduced Amyot's French rendering of
Plutarch's Lives in a version published in 1579, which is celebrated
1 Warton, § 59.
2 Matthew Arnold, On Translating Homer, 24; cp. 25 — 30 (ed. 1896).
3 Gregory Smith, ii 295 f.
4 OTO.V WOT 6\w\y"I\ios Iptf (Matthew Arnold, /.<-., 89, 98).
5 ib. 23. Cp. Saintsbury's Elizabethan Lit. 189 f.
6 In the Caesar (dedicated to Sir William Cecil), nostris militibus cunc-
tantibus (iv 25) is expanded into, 'when our men staied and seined to make
curtsy'; and scaphas and speculatoria navigia (iv 26) are rendered 'cockbotes
and brigantines'.
CHAP. XV.] LATIN VERSE. BUCHANAN. 243
as the authority followed by Shakespeare in Coriolanus, Julius
Caesar, and Antony and Cleopatra*. A still wider fame was
attained by Philemon Holland (1552—1637), Fellow of Trinity,
Cambridge, and ultimately head-master of Coventry School, whose
remarkable industry as an interpreter of the Classics earned him
the title of 'the translator general in his age'2. His renderings
included the whole of Livy (i6oo)3, Pliny (1601), the Moralia of
Plutarch (1603), Suetonius (1606), Ammianus Marcellinus (1609)
and (after an interval occupied partly by his translation of Cam-
den's Britannia), the Cyropaedia of Xenophon (1632).
The example of Petrarch and his successors, as writers of
Latin verse, was followed in England. Several of
• • Latin Verse
the Latin poets of Italy visited that country, and the
Zodiac of Life by Marcellus Palingenius (Venice, c. 1531) was
highly popular in its English dress. The eclogues of Baptista
Mantuanus (1448 — 1516), the 'good old Mantuan' of Love's
Labours Lost*, were read in the grammar-schools of Shakespeare's
boyhood, were translated by Turberville in 1567 and imitated in
Spenser's 'Shepherd's Calendar' in isS?5.
Meanwhile, Latin scholarship was well represented in Scotland
by a humanist who was born before Cheke and
Buchanan
Ascham, and survived them both. George Buchanan
(1506 — 1582) studied in Paris in 1520-2 and at St Andrew's in
1524. In 1526 he returned to Paris, where he taught Grammar
in the College of Ste Barbe, and was tutor to the young Earl of
Cassilis in 1529-34". In 1540-7 he was teaching Latin at Bor-
deaux, Paris, and Coimbra, living mainly in France, Portugal, and
Italy, until his return to Scotland in 1559. Apart from his Latin
poem on the Sphere7, his Latin epigrams on his imaginary loves,
1 Cp. Shakespeare's Plutarch, ed. Skeat (1875).
2 Fuller's Worthies, iii 287 Nuttall.
3 The whole of this translation was ' written with one pen', which a lady
set in silver and preserved as a curiosity.
4 iv 2, 97 f.
5 Cp. Einstein, 346-8.
6 It was to the Earl of Cassilis that Buchanan dedicated his first work, his
Latin translation (1533) of Linacre's English Rudinienta Granunaticcs.
7 1586 etc.; Hallam, ii 147 4.
16 — 2
Scotia, fi cUAt&m hunc a eliclam produce it all arcton,
Credo cquid^m, qdiitf purcaluvre poli .
<J- ex >
GEORGE BUCHANAN.
From Boissard's Icones, in iv 22 (Frankfurt, 1598).
CHAP. XV.] BUCHANAN. 245
his Latin plays1, and his translation of the Medea and Alcestis in
Latin verse, his scholarship is best represented by his Latin version
of the Psalms in various metres (1566 etc.), mainly produced
during his stay in Portugal. One of the most elegant is his ren-
dering of the psalm By the waters of Babylon, which begins as
follows : —
' Dum procul a patria, moesti Babylonis in oris,
Fluminis ad liquidas forte sedemus aquas ;
Ilia animum subiit species miseranda Sionis,
Et nunquam patrii tecta videnda soli.
Flevimus, et gemitus luctantia verba repressit,
Inque sinus liquids decidit imber aquae.
Muta super virides pendebant nablia ramos,
Et salices tacitas sustinuere lyras'2.
The following is the first half of the poem dedicating the work to
Mary, Queen of Scots : —
'Nympha, Caledonke quse nunc feliciter one
Missa per innumeros sceptra tueris avos;
Quce sortem antevenis meritis, virtutibus annos,
Sexum animis, morum nobilitate genus :
Accipe (sed facilis) cultu donata Latino
Carmina, fatidici nobile regis opus'.
Henry and Robert Stephens in all their editions describe the
translator as poetarum nostri saecnli facile princeps. Scaliger says
of him: Buchananus unus est in tota Europa, omties post se relin-
quens in latina poesi* . Even in his lifetime his Latin Psalms were
studied in the schools of Germany; they remained long in use in
the schools of Scotland, and an edition was even set to music in
I5854. Buchanan has not merely translated the Psalms into Latin
1 His Jepthes (1554) is described by Ascham (Sch. 169) as 'able to abide
the true touch of Aristotle's precepts and Euripides' examples'. This play
and John the Baptist have been translated into English verse by the Rev. A.
Gordon Mitchell.
2 Cp. Eglisham's Duellum Poeticitm (London, 161 Sf), and the criticisms
on the same by Arthur Johnston (1619) and W. Barclay (1620); also Andrew
Symson's Octupla (Edinb. 1696).
3 Scaligerana I. Cp. Blount's Censura.
4 P. Hume Brown's Buchanan (1890), 146 9. Preceded by another
musical ed., Lyons, 1579.
246 SCOTLAND. [CENT. xvi.
verse : he has endeavoured to clothe them in the form and texture
of lyrical and elegiac Latin poems. Sir Philip Sidney declares
that 'the tragedies of Buchanan doe justly bring forth a divine
admiration'1. 'Buchanan' (said Dr Johnson) 'was a very fine
poet'2, 'whose name has as fair a claim to immortality as can be
conferred by modern Latinity'; he 'not only had great knowledge
of Latin, but was a great poetical genius'. It is as a writer of
history that he is described by Dryden as 'comparable to any of
the moderns, and excelled by few of the ancients'3. His Rerum
Scoticarum ffistoria, a folio volume in twenty books, was published
in the year of his death (1583). His instincts as a humanist
prompted him to select Latin as the language of this work, which
was read with interest by the scholars of Europe for two centuries.
In the eighteenth century it was seriously debated whether the
historian's model was Caesar or Livy or Sallust, and it was almost
universally agreed that he had surpassed his predecessors. He
is now remembered mainly for his compositions in Latin verse.
He wrote a May-day poem that was a joy to Wordsworth4, a poem
closing with the lines in which that day is hailed as the image of
life's early prime and as the happy omen of a new age : —
'Salve vetustae vitae imago,
Et specimen venientis aevi'5.
1 Apology for Poetry, 67 ed. Arber.
2 Boswell's Life, i 376 Napier ; cp. iii 295.
3 Hume Brown, 3, 293^ 327.
4 Life by Chr. Wordsworth, ii 466 (CalenJae Maiae, translated in Hume
Brown's Buchanan, 177-9).
5 On Buchanan, cp. Bernays on Scaliger, 108 f ; Henry Morley, English
Writers, viii 339 — 352; Testimonia in Allibone's Dictionary; and esp.
P. Hume Brown, George Buchanan, Humanist and Reformer (1890); also
Life by D. Macmillan (1906), and Essay by T. D. Robb ; Lit. Suppl. to The
Times, 6 July, 1906; C. Whibley in Blackwood, July, 1906. The portrait on
p. 244 is reproduced from that in Boissard's Icones (15970, which has been
copied in the bust in Greyfriars Churchyard, and in Hume Brown's frontis-
piece. For another portrait, see Bullart's Acadhnie, ii 351 (1682).
Opera omnia, ed. T. Ruddiman (Edinb. 1715); for the best bibliography
of Buchanan, see (Dr David Murray's) Catalogue of the Quatercentenary Exhi-
bition held in Glasgow (1906) including list of 13 portraits in oils, with more
than 6 engravings; reprinted as part of the 'Quatercentenary Studies', ed.
G. Neilson, with Robb's Humanism in Buchanan (1907). See also St
Andrews Memorial, ed. D. A. Millar (1907).
CHAP. XV.] VOLUSENUS. MELVILLE. 247
One of the most interesting of the minor 'Scots abroad' was
Florentius Volusenus (c. 1504-47), who was edu-
cated at Aberdeen, and resided in Paris (1528-35). vSSwS
When he called on Sadoleto, bishop of Carpentras,
he so completely charmed that Ciceronian scholar by his exquisite
Latinity, that he was at once appointed principal of the local
school, where he lectured on Latin authors for ten years (1536-
46). The humanist and the Christian alike are represented in his
Ciceronian dialogue, De Animi Tranquillitate. He died at Vienne
on his way home to Scotland, and is commemorated in the
following lines by Buchanan: —
' Hie Musis Volusene jaces carissime ripam
Ad Rhodani, terra quam procul a patria !
Hoc meruit virtus tua, tellus quae foret altrix
Virtutum, ut cineres conderet ilia tuos ' *.
In the generation next to that of Buchanan we have Andrew
Melville (1545 — 1622), who, as a Latin poet, is
Melville
sometimes ranked second to Buchanan. Among
the finest of his hexameter poems is that on the Creation, and
the paraphrase of the Song of Moses2. He studied under Ramus
in Paris, was professor at Geneva in 1568, was acquainted with
Scaliger, and, as head of Glasgow University in 1574, and principal
of St Mary's College, St Andrews, in 1579, led the revolt against
the mediaeval method of studying Aristotle3, and created a taste
for Greek letters in Scotland4. The foundation of the university
of Glasgow had been sanctioned in 1450 by a Bull issued by
Nicolas V, but the study of Greek was not introduced into
Scotland until 1534, when John Erskine of Dun (1509 — 1591),
on returning from his travels, brought with him Petrus de
1 P. Hume Brown's Buchanan, 71 — 74.
2 Delitiae, ii 77, 84. Cp. Dr McCrie's Life of Andrew Melville, \ 92-6.
3 James Melvill's Diary, 48 f, 67, 123 f (owing to Andrew Melville's
influence at St Andrews, they ' perusit Aristotle in his awin langage ').
McCrie, i 78, 258 f; R. S. Rait, on 'Andrew Melville and the Revolt against
Aristotle in Scotland,' in Eng. Hist. Rev. 1899, 250 — 260.
4 Latin Poems in Delitiae, ii 67 — 137 ; an epigram of six lines led to his
being imprisoned for nearly four years in the Tower of London (1607-11);
Life by Dr McCrie, 242 f.
248 SCOTLAND. [CENT. xvi.
Marsiliers, a native of France who taught Greek at Montrose1.
Andrew Melville studied under him as a boy in 1556— 8 2, but
Andrew's nephew, James, who ' would have gladly ' learnt Greek
and Hebrew at St Andrews, complains that
'the langages war nocht to be gottine in the land; our Regent... teatched us
the A, B, C of the Greek, and the simple declintiones, hot went no farder'3.
The influence of the Humanist-Pope, who had granted the Bull
for the founding of Glasgow, had not availed to arouse an interest
in Greek on the distant banks of the Clyde ; and at St Andrews,
in 1564, the great Latin scholar, Buchanan, failed to obtain recog-
nition for the study of Greek4. The honour of promoting the
study of that language at Glasgow was reserved for the protagonist
of presbyterianism, Andrew Melville, who substituted for a blind
faith in the authority of Aristotle an intelligent study of Greek
texts. With Melville, however, the languages were simply the
handmaids to theology. The Union of the Crowns in 1604,
which ' brought about the victory of the party opposed to Melville,
placed in the universities a new type of men, who cared for the
humane learning for its own sake'. The period of the first
episcopalian supremacy (1604-38) has accordingly been described
as 'the golden age of the humane letters' in Scotland5.
In that age a closer rendering of the Psalms than that of
Buchanan was produced in 1637 by his countryman,
Arthur Johnston (1587 — i64i)6. It will be remem-
bered that the Baron of Bradwardine used to read 'Arthur
Johnston's Psalms of a Sunday, and the Deliciae Poetarum Scoto-
rum'7. Johnston has a pretty poem on his birthplace, beside the
river Ury and below the ridge of Bennachie, both of which are
named in the following graceful lines : —
1 James Melvill's Diary (ed. 1842), 39; cp. McCrie's Life of Knox,
period i, note C, and James Grant's Burgh Schools of Scotland (1876), 46 — 48,
330—349-
- Diary, 39. 3 Diary, 30.
4 Hume Brown, 238 f.
5 R. S. Rait, on University Education in Scotland, in Proceedings of
Glasgow Archaeological Society, 15 Dec. 1904.
6 P. Hume Brown's Buchanan, 147-9.
7 IVaverley, c. 13.
CHAP. XV.] JOHNSTON. DRUMMOND. 249
' Mille per ambages nitidis argenteus undis
Hie trepidat laetos Vrius inter agros.
Explicat hie seras ingens Bennachius umbras,
Nox ubi libratur lance dieque pari.
Gemmifer est amnis, radiat mons ipse lapillis,
Queis nihil Ecus purius orbis habet'1.
He had taken the degree of M.D. at Padua, and was a physician
in Paris. On his return to Scotland after an absence of twenty-
four years, he was patronised by Laud as a rival to Buchanan2.
While Buchanan uses a variety of metres in his version of the
Psalms, Johnston confines himself to the elegiac couplet3. He has
been called 'the Scottish Ovid', his style 'possessing somewhat
of Ovidian ease, accompanied with strength and simplicity'4. A
word of praise may be added on the Heroides of Mark Alexander
Boyd (1563 — 1601), and on the poem on Anne of Denmark by
Hercules Rollock (fl. 1577 — i6ig)5. David Wedderburn (1580
— 1646), who compiled a Latin Grammar (i63o)6, was from 1620
to 1646 the official Latin poet of Aberdeen. One of his poems
is an elegy on Arthur Johnston (1641). Johnston's Psalms had
been published in 1637. After the Scottish Revolution of 1638,
' down with learning ' was the cry of some of the extreme Cove-
nanting divines.
The biographer of Buchanan has aptly described William
Drummond, of Hawthornden (is8=; — 1640), as 'the
Drummond
only Scotsman of eminence in whom it is possible
to find the humanist even in his milder form; and Drummond all
through his life felt himself an alien in a strange land'7. He
attended lectures on law at Bourges and Paris (1607-8), shortly
before becoming laird of Hawthornden (1610). His sonnets were
1 Dditiae Pott. Scot, i 6or, ed. 1637.
2 i.e. a rival to Buchanan's posthumous fame (Buchanan having died five
years before the birth of Johnston).
3 A fine ed. of Johnston's Poems was produced by Geddes, 1892-5, with
copies of three portraits. Cp. Bibliography and Portraits by W. Johnston,
1896.
4 W. Tennant, quoted (with other Tcstimonia] in Allibone's Diet.
5 Cp. McCrie, ii 328f.
6 James Grant's Burgh Schools of Scotland, 365-8.
7 P. Hume Brown, 236.
250 SCOTLAND. WALES. [CENT. XVI.
inspired by those of the Italian poet, Guarini, and his poetry
reveals many traces of the influence of the Latin poets of Italy.
His interest in Chess led to his being specially attracted by Vida's
poem on that theme: —
' If Hieronymus Vida can be found, with Baplista Marini his Adone, we
shall not spare some houres of the night and day at their Chesse, for I affect
that above the other'1.
Turning from Scotland to Wales, we have a clever contemporary
of Andrew Melville in the Latin epigrammatist John
Owen, or Audoenus (c. 1560 — 1622). Borri at
Armon in the county of Caernarvon, he was educated at Win-
chester, was a Fellow of New College, Oxford, in 1584-91, became
head-master of Warwick School about I5952, and was buried in St
Paul's cathedral. The three books of his Epigrams (1606) were
followed by a complete edition in 1624; they were thrice translated
into English, and often reprinted at home and abroad. They are
described by Hallam as ' sometimes neat, and more often witty'.
They were placed in the Index in 1654, doubtless mainly owing
to the unfortunate epigram, which, in his lifetime, had led to his
being disinherited by his uncle: —
'An Petrus fuerit Romae, sub judice lis est;
Simonem Romae nemo fuisse negat '3.
Among happier examples of his style we may quote his epigram
on Martial: —
' Dicere de rebus, personis parcere nosti ;
Sunt sine felle tui, non sine melle, sales'4,
and the central couplet of his lines on Drake :—
' Si taceant homines, facient te sidera notum ;
Atque polus de te discet uterque loqui'5.
1 History of Scotland (1655), p. 263.
2 A. F. Leach, History of Warwick School, 124 — 134 (with Owen's
portrait).
3 Ad ffenricum, i 8.
4 Ad Dominant Mariam Neville, ii 160.
5 ib. ii 39.
CHAPTER XVI.
GERMANY FROM 1350 TO 1616.
THE German Emperor, Charles IV, who ascended the throne in
1346, was regarded by Petrarch, not only as the head of the Holy
Roman Empire, but also as a beneficent patron of literature, a new
Augustus. Petrarch's correspondence with Charles IV began in
I3501; at Mantua, in the autumn of 1354, he presented the
emperor with gold and silver coins of ancient Rome bearing the
effigy of the emperor's great precursors2. In 1356 he was sent as
the envoy of Milan to the emperor's capital of Prague, 'the extreme
confines of the land of the barbarians'3; but this visit led to no
permanent result4. The second son of Charles IV, the emperor
Sigismund, was enabled to study Arrian's account of the exploits
of Alexander in the easy Latin version provided for him by
Vergerio, the first of Italian humanists to enter the service of a
foreign prince5. But this version would have been forgotten, had
it not fallen into the hands of Aeneas Sylvius, who represented
Italian humanism in Vienna (1442-55), and wrote in 1450 an
interesting treatise on Education for the benefit of a royal ward of
his master, Frederic IIIs. As Pope, in 1459, he was assured by
his former pupil, the German historian, Hinderbach, of the grati-
tude of Germany for the teaching and the example which had
led that land to admire the studies of humanism, and to emulate
the olden splendour of Roman eloquence7. The German jurist,
1 Epp. Fain, x i. - ib. xix 3. 3 Sen. xvi 2.
4 On Petrarch's relations to Charles IV, cp. Voigt, ii 263~83 ; and Cancel-
laria Caroli IV, ed. Tadra, Prag, 1895.
5 p. 49 supra. 6 p. 72 supra.
7 Geiger, Renaissance und Humanismus in f (alien und Deittschland (1882),
342-
252 GERMANY. [CENT. XV.
Gregor Heimburg, who, in his earlier years, had acquired for him-
self a certain degree of proficiency in the Classics, was a political
opponent of Aeneas Sylvius and of the humanistic influence of
Italy1. The influence of Aeneas was, however, continued at
Prague by Johann von Rabstein2 and in Moravia by bishop
Prostasius of Czernahora3.
The first to expound the Latin poets in Vienna was Georg
Peuerbach (1423 — 1469), who had visited many universities in
France, Italy and Germany, and in 1454-60 lectured in Vienna,
not only on mathematics and astronomy, but also on the Aeneid,
and on Horace and Juvenal4. Lectures on the Eclogues and on
Terence, and on Cicero, De Senectute, were given by his pupil, the
astronomer Johann Miiller of Konigsberg, near Coburg, who is
best known as Regiomontanus (1436 — 1476). In
tanus10' 1461 he accompanied Bessarion to Italy, where he
made a complete copy of the tragedies of Seneca,
learnt Greek, and produced Latin translations of the works of
Ptolemy, and the Conic Sections of Apollonius of Perga. Return-
ing to Vienna in 1467, he entered the service of Matthias
Corvinus, king of Hungary, and finally settled at Nuremberg,
where he published the first edition of the astronomical poem of
Manilius (1472). He ultimately became archbishop of Ratisbon,
and a proposal to reform the calendar led to his being summoned
to Rome, where he died in I4765.
The influence of Italy on German humanism was early exem-
plified by Peter Luder (c. 1415—^. 1474), who, after
matriculating at Heidelberg, visited Rome as a
priest, became a pupil of Guarino at Ferrara, sailed from Venice
along the coast of Greece as far as Macedonia, and, on his return,
settled at Padua with a view to studying medicine. The presence
1 Scripta, ed. Goldast, 1608 : Joachimsohn, Gregor Heimburg (Bamberg,
1891); Voigt, ii 284 — 290'.
2 Dialogus, ed. Bachmann (Vienna, 1876).
3 Voigt, ii 2933.
4 Voigt, ii 29i3; cp. Aschbach, Gesch. dcr Wiener Univ. 486 f.
8 Bursian, i 107 f; cp. Hallam, i i864; and Aschbach, I.e., 537 f; also
Janssen's History of the German People at the Close of the Middle Ages (E. T.
1896 f ), i 139 — 146.
CHAP. XVI.] REGIOMONTANUS. LUDER. SCHEDEL. 253
of some German students at Padua led to his fame reaching the
Palatinate. He was accordingly invited to Heidelberg, and
appointed to lecture on Latin poets (1456). His older colleagues
immediately insisted on his submitting his inaugural discourse to
their own approval, and prevented his having easy access to the
university library. Driven from Heidelberg by the plague in 1460,
he was welcomed at Ulm and Erfurt and Leipzig. He even
returned to Padua, and afterwards lectured on medicine as well as
Latin at Basel1.
Among his most eager pupils at Leipzig was Hartman Schedel
(1440 — 1514)5 who became an unwearied collector
TT 11 i Schedel
of humanistic literature. He has thus preserved an
important part of the great journal of Ciriaco d' Ancona, including
his copies of the monuments and inscriptions of the Cyclades.
His sketches of certain works of ancient art afterwards inspired
some of the drawings of Diirer, now in Vienna2. His large collec-
tion of inscriptions is now in the library at Munich, and his work
on the history of the world from the creation to the year 1492 is
widely known under the name of the 'Nuremberg Chronicle'
(M93)3-
A place of honour among the early humanists of Germany
is justly assigned to the famous Frisian, Roelof
Huysman, or Rodolphus Agricola (1444 — 1485),
who was born near Groningen, and was educated at Deventer,
Erfurt, Louvain and Cologne, and perhaps also in Paris. In 1468
he left for Italy, where he studied law and rhetoric at Pavia
between 1469 and 1474, paying two visits to the North during
that interval. In 1475 he went to Ferrara, and studied Greek
under Theodorus Gaza. In 1479 he finally returned to Groningen,
where he was town-clerk in 1480-84, often acting as an envoy and
paying repeated visits to Deventer, on one of which (possibly in
1484) he saw Erasmus4. In 1484 he went to teach at Heidelberg
1 Voigt, ii 295 — 3Oi3; Bursian, i 95 f; Geiger, 327. Cp. Wattenbach,
Peter Luder, in Zdtschr. f. Gesch. des Obcrrheins, xxii (1869) 33 f; Bauch's
Erfurt, 43—50.
2 p. 40 supra.
3 Voigt, ii 3o63 ; Bursian, i 108 f ; Geiger, 374; Wattenbach in Forsch.
zur deittschen Geschichte, xi 351 f.
4 P. S. Allen's Erasmi Epp. i 581.
254 GERMANY. [CENT. XV.
on the invitation of Ualberg, bishop of Worms, whom he accom-
panied to Rome in the following year to deliver an oration in
honour of the newly elected Pope, Innocent VIII. Shortly after
his return he died at Heidelberg.
At Heidelberg he lectured occasionally on Aristotle, but was
apparently more effective in his private and personal influence
than in his professorial teaching. The highest praise must be
bestowed on his renderings from Lucian1. He was long regarded
as the standard-bearer of humanism in Germany2. His slight
treatise on education (i484)3 was welcomed as a libellus .vere
aureus when it appeared in the same volume as the corresponding
works of Erasmus and Melanchthon, but the only important points
on which he there insists are cultivation of the memory, care-
fulness in reading, and constant practice. A cheerful alacrity in
saying and doing the right thing is the lesson of life expressed in
his own epigram: —
' Optima sit vitae quae formula quaeritis : haec est :
Mens hilaris faciens quod licet, idque loquens'.
He is remembered as an earnest opponent of mediaeval scholas-
ticism, and he certainly did much towards making the study of
the Classics a vital force in Germany. In a letter to a fellow-
labourer in this cause, Rudolf von Langen (1438 — 1519), who
promoted the revival of education in the cathedral-school of
Miinster4, we find Agricola saying: — 'I entertain the highest hope
that, by your aid, we shall one day wrest from proud Italy her
vaunted glory of pre-eminent eloquence'5; and the closing couplet
of a tribute to his memory written by the Italian humanist,
Hermolaus Barbarus, implies that, during the life-time of Agricola,
Germany was the rival of Greece and Rome: —
' Scilicet hoc vivo meruit Germania laud is,
Quicquid habet Latium, Graecia quicquid habet'6.
1 Callus, and the libellus de non facile credendis delationibiis (ed. 1530).
2 Pref. to Opuscula (1518), 'antesignanus'.
3 Deformando studio. Cp. Woodward, Renaissance Education, 99.
4 Bursian, i 98 f.
5 Opera (Col. 1539) ii 178 (Heeren, ii 173 ; Ilallam, i 2o64).
6 Boissard, I 175. For Agricola, cp. Opera (Col. 1539); Tresling, Vita et
Merita Rudolphi Agricolae (Groningen, 1830); Bursian, i 101 f; von Bezold
(1884); Ihm (1893); P. S. Allen, in English Hist. Rev., April, 1906, and in
CHAP. XVI.] AGRICOLA. HEGIUS. WIMPHELING. 255
Agricola gave some instruction in Greek to his friend and
earlier contemporary, Alexander Hegius (1433 —
Hegius
1498), who was a master at Wesel and Emmerich,
and, during the last fifteen years of his life, made the School of
Deventer the great educational centre of North Germany, waging
a successful war against the old mediaeval text-books and pointing
to the Latin Classics as the only source of a perfect Latin style1.
Among his pupils at Deventer was Erasmus.
Rudolf von Langen (1438 — 1519), a student at Erfurt, who
visited Italy in 1465 and 1486, finally succeeded in
1498 in carrying out his long-cherished plan of
founding a school on humanistic lines at Miinster, where he spent
the greater part of his life as Canon of the cathedral church. He
failed to induce Hegius to become the head-master, but one of the
best-known masters of the school was a pupil of Hegius, namely
Murmellius (1480 — 1517), the author of many useful text-books.
Langen himself published a work in Latin prose on the Fall of
Jerusalem, and four volumes of Latin verse2.
The Schools of Deventer and Miinster in the North had their
counterpart in the South-West, at Schlettstadt in
Elsass. It was the school of Jacob Wimpheling
(1450 — 1528), who afterwards studied at Freiburg and Erfurt, and
also at Heidelberg. He returned to that university as a professor
(1498), lecturing mainly upon St Jerome. He subsequently left
for Strassburg, where he was in frequent feud with monks and
humanists alike, and failed in his hopes of reforming education
and establishing a university. He had founded literary societies
in several of the cities where he dwelt. At Strassburg he became
the centre of a literary circle, which corresponded with Erasmus
Erasmi Epp. i 106 ; and Woodward's Renaissance Education (1906), 79—103,
where a still unpublished Life of Petrarch (1477; Munich Cod. Lat. 479) is
noticed. Cp., in general, Creighton, Papacy, vi 9 f; and Geiger in A. D. B.,
and in Renaissance, 334 f. A contemporary portrait is reproduced ib. 335,
and in Boissard's Icones, I xxvii 172 (1597).
1 O. Jahn, Populare Aufsiitze, 416; Geiger, 391 f; and literature in
Bursian, i 100 n. Cp. P. S. Allen in Erasmi Epp. \ 105 f, and Woodward,
I.e., 84 f.
2 Bursian, i 98 — 101 ; J. F. Schroder's Kl. Studien in Deutschland (in cent,
xv f), 1864, 6i-6j Bauch's Erfurt, 41 f; P. S. Allen's Erasmi Epp. i 197.
256 GERMANY. [CENT. XV f
on questions of literature and theology. In his writings on the
theory of education, he insisted on the importance of moral
influence; he also suggested new methods and better text-books,
that should aim at appealing to the intelligence instead of burden-
ing the memory. He abolished the commentaries on Donatus
and Alexander, and supplied practical manuals in their place.
His own treatises on grammar and style were widely popular1.
His principal friend at Strassburg was the town-
clerk, Sebastian Brant (1457 — 1521), celebrated as
the author of the Ship of Fools (1494). 'He was more, of a
humanist than Wimpheling, and found a solace for his legal
labours in the cultivation of the Muse... He celebrated, with justi-
fiable pride, the German invention of printing, and took it as an
omen of the coming time when the Muses would desert Italy and
make their abode on the banks of the Rhine'2.
His great contemporary, Johann Reuchlin (1455 — :522)>
studied Greek at Paris in 1473 under the pupils of
Gregory Tifernas and in 1478 under Hermonymus.
In the interim he went to Basel and made good progress in the
language under Andronicus Contoblacas (1474). At the age of
twenty he there produced, under the title of Vocabularius Brevi-
loquus (1475-6), a Latin dictionary, which showed a marked
advance in clearness of arrangement, and, in less than thirty
years, passed through twenty editions. He taught Greek, as well
as Latin, at Basel, Orleans and Poitiers. He describes the results
of his learning and teaching Greek as follows: —
To Latin was then added Greek, the knowledge of which is necessary for
a liberal education. We are thus led back to the philosophy of Aristotle,
which cannot be really comprehended until its language is understood. In
this we so won the minds of all who... longed for a purer knowledge, that they
flocked to us and deserted the trifling of the schools3.
1 Isidoneus Germanicus and Adolescentia (1496-8); also Elegantiarum
Medulla (1490), and Germania (1501). Cp. Wiskowatoff (Berlin, 1867);
B. Schwarz (Gotha, 1875); Geiger, 359, 402 f, 576; Bursian, i 103 f ; Paulsen,
i 61 f ; Hartfelder in Schmid's Gesch. der Erziehung, ii 2, 68 — 70; Creighton,
Papacy, vi n — 13; Karl Pearson, Ethic of Freethought, 185 — 192, ed. 1901 ;
P. S. Allen's Erasmi Epp. 463 ; and Woodward's Renaissance Education, 216.
2 Creighton, vi 14 ; cp. Geiger, 365-9; portrait in Boissard, n 174.
3 Ep. 250; cp. 171 ; Karl Pearson, Ethic of Freethought, 164 f (ed. 1901).
CHAP. XVI.] BRANT. REUCHLIN. MUTIANUS. 257
In 1482, and again in 1490, he went to Italy, where he became
acquainted with the learned Venetian, Hermolaus Barbarus. At
Rome he won the admiration of Argyropulos by his mastery of
Greek1. On a subsequent visit in 1498 he learnt Hebrew, which
was thenceforward the main interest of his life2. He spent twenty
years at Stuttgart, and two at Ingoldstadt, and for the last year of
his life was professor of Greek and Hebrew at Tubingen.
In the study of Hebrew he came into conflict with the obscu-
rantists of the day, but his cause was supported by the enlightened
humanists of Germany. It was in defence of Reuchlin that the
barbarous Latinity and the mediaeval scholasticism of Ortwin
Gratius (1491 — 1451)1 and his allies in Cologne, were admirably
parodied in the Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum. The first volume
of that memorable satire (1516) was mainly composed by a
humanist of Erfurt, Johann Ja'ger of Dornheim, who called him-
self Crotus Rubianus*, while the second (1517) was chiefly the
work of Ulrich von Hutten". The unobtrusive leader of the
eager band of humanists, who produced these remarkable volumes,
was Conrad Muth, or Mutianus Rufus (c. 1471 —
1526), who had been a school-fellow of Erasmus at
Deventer, and had lived at Erfurt, as a student and a teacher,
from 1486 to 1492, when he left for Italy. He there made the
acquaintance of Giovanni Pico della Mirandola and Baptista
Mantuanus, as well as the elder Beroaldus and Codrus Urceus at
Bologna, where he took the degree of Doctor in Law. On his
return, he settled at Gotha, where he placed, in golden letters,
over the door of his canonical residence the words BEATA TRAN-
QUILLITAS, and thereafter devoted his thoughts to 'God and the
Saints and the study of all Antiquity'. He took the keenest
interest in his younger friends, the humanists of Erfurt, inspiring
them with an eager desire for the spread of classical literature,
a hatred for the pedantry and formalism of the old scholastic
methods, and a critical spirit which felt little reverence for the
1 p. 63 f supra.
2 Bursian, i 120 f; Geiger, 504 — 525, and Life (1871) and Letters (1875) >
cp. P. S. Allen, Erasmi Epp. i 555.
3 Bauch's Erfurt, 147-9.
4 Ed. Booking, 1859-70; cp. Geiger, 504 f, 549 f; Bursian, i 120 — 131.
S. II. 17
258 GERMANY. [CENT. XV.
past1. After organising the victory of the humanists over the
scholastic obscurantists of the day, their leader lived to see his
'tranquil' home ruthlessly plundered by a protestant mob2, at a
time when the quiet waters of Humanism had been overwhelmed
by the stronger stream of the Reformation3.
The humanists of Germany may be divided into three suc-
cessive schools distinguished from one another in their relation to
the Church4, (i) The Earlier or Scholastic Humanists, who were
loyal supporters of the Church, while they were eager for a revival
of classical learning, and a new system of education. They are
represented by the three great teachers of North Germany, Rudolfus
Agricola, Rudolf von Langen, and Alexander Hegius; also by
Wimpfeling, the restorer of education in South Germany; by
Trithemius., one of the founders of the Rhenish Society of Litera-
ture; and by Eck, the famous opponent of Luther. They worked
for the Revival of Learning in all branches of knowledge, while
they hoped that the new learning would remain subservient to the
old theology. (2) The Intermediate or Rational Humanists, who
took a rational view of Christianity and its creed, while they pro-
tested against the old scholasticism, and against the external
abuses of the Church. 'They either did not support Luther, or
soon deserted him, being conscious that his movement would lead
to the destruction of all true culture'. Their leaders were Reuchlin
and Erasmus, and Conrad Muth, the Canon of Gotha. 'Their
party and its true work of culture were shipwrecked by the tempest
of the Reformation'. (3) The Later or Protestant Humanists,
who were ready to 'protest' against everything, — young men of
great talent, but of less learning, whose love of liberty sometimes
lapsed into licence. Their leading spirit was Ulrich von Hutten.
1 Creighton, vi 32. 2 1524; Kampfschulte, ii 233.
3 On his highly original letters, which reveal the secret of his influence,
cp. Krause's Briefwechsel de s Mutianus Rtifus (1885) ; also Bocking, Hutteni
Opera, Suppl. ii 420-8 ; and esp. Kampfschulte, Die Universitat Erfurt in
ihrem Verhciltnisse zu dein Humanismus und die Reformation (2 vols., Trier,
1858-60). Cp. A. W. Ward, On some Academical experiences of the German
Renascence, 1878; G. Bauch, Erfiirt im Zeitalter des Friihhumanismus
([904), 126-8, VD& passim\ Geiger, 432 f; Bursian, i 128 f.
4 Karl Pearson, Ethic of Freethought, 166—184, ed. 1901; cp. Janssen's
History of the German People (E.T.), i 63 — 80; iii i — 44.
CHAP. XVI.] CELTES. TRITHEMIUS. PIRKHEIMER. 259
In course of time, some of them became Rational Humanists;
others, supporters of Luther. 'While Erasmus, Reuchlin and
Muth viewed Luther's propaganda with distrust ', these younger
Humanists 'flocked to the new standard of protest and revolt, and
so doing brought culture into disgrace and shipwrecked the
Revival of Learning in Germany'1. 'The revolt of Luther caused
the Church to reject Humanism, and was the deathblow of the
Erasmian Reformation'2.
On the publication of the Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum, a
premature death had already cut short the career of
Reuchlin's younger contemporary, Conrad Celtes
(1459 — 1508), the knight-errant of humanism in Germany. The
scholastic spirit was still dominant during the seven years that he
had spent in Cologne. But he learnt some Greek from Agricola
at Heidelberg, and he was widely known, and fairly remunerated,
as a lecturer on the Platonic philosophy, and on Latin poets and
orators, at Erfurt, Rostock, and Leipzig. The proceeds of his
lectures enabled him to spend six months in Italy, living mainly
at Ferrara with Battista Guarino, and also at Padua with Musurus,
and in Rome with Pomponius Laetus. Soon after his return in
1487, he received the poet's crown from Frederic III at Nurem-
berg, being the first German who attained that distinction. We
next find him studying and teaching at Cracow. He there met
a congenial spirit in Filippo Buonaccorsi, who had fled from
Rome owing to the suppression of the Roman Academy. Celtes
was thereby prompted to found humanistic societies in Poland
and Hungary, and also on the Rhine. This last was inaugurated
at Mainz in 1491; the great patron of learning, Johann von
Dalberg, bishop of Worms, was its first president,
while Johannes Trithemius, of Trittenheim on the p^khek^er
Mosel (1462 — 1516), and Wilibald Pirkheimer of
Nuremberg (1470 — 1530), were among its most prominent
members. Trithemius combined wide learning of the mediaeval
type with a keen interest in the collection of MSS, and the acquisi-
tion of Greek and Hebrew3; while Pirkheimer, who had spent
1 Karl Pearson, 177. 2 ib. 227 ; cp. 244.
3 Bursian, i 105 f; Geiger, 446-9; cp. Silbernagel (iSSj2), Schneegans
(1882); Janssen, i 108 — 116.
17—2
260 GERMANY. [CENT. XV f
seven years in Italy, was eminent as a statesman and a patron of
humanism, and as a translator of Greek texts and a student of
archaeology1. Celtes himself lived for a time at Nuremberg, and
afterwards lectured on rhetoric at Ingoldstadt. In 1497, under
the favour of Maximilian, he became a professor, as well as head
of the Imperial Library, in Vienna, and, in 1502, president of the
'College of Poets and Mathematicians' then founded by the
emperor. His adventures in various parts of Germany are the
main theme of his Latin poems, many of which are inspired by
a semi-pagan spirit. His more serious productions included
editions of Gunther's Ligurinus"*, of the Latin plays of Hroswitha3,
and of the Germania of Tacitus, which was accompanied by a
patriotic poem on Germany. Lastly, he discovered in the Vienna
Library a thirteenth-century copy of a map of Roman roads of the
third century, which he bequeathed to the patrician patron of
learning, Conrad Peutinger of Augsburg (1465 —
IS4?)4> to whom it owes the familiar name of the
Tabula Peutingeriana5. Peutinger was an eager collector of coins
and inscriptions. It was by his aid, and at the cost of Count
Raymund Fugger of Augsburg, that a corpus of Greek and Latin
inscriptions was produced by Petrus Apianus and Bartholomaeus
Amantius of Ingoldstadt (i534)6-
Among the ablest of the successors of Celtes in Vienna was
Johannes Cuspinianus (1473 — 1529), a poet and
Vadianus"11 statesman, who edited Avienus and Florus, and
critically studied Roman chronology7. His friend,
Joachim Watt, or Vadianus of St Gallen (1484 — 1551), produced
an exhaustive commentary on Pomponius Mela8.
1 Bursian, i 160-4 ; Geiger, 3/6—384, with Diirer's fine portrait on
P- 3775 Janssen, i 147 f.
2 Vol. i c. 29 prope finem. 3 Vol. i c. 26.
4 Geiger, 369 — 372, with portrait on p. 444.
5 Now in Vienna; handy ed. by Miller (1888). — On Celtes, cp. J. F.
Schroder, Kl. Studien (1864), 154—168; Bursian, i 109—117, and Jahresb.
xxxii 215-8; Bauch's Erfurt, 67—72 ; Geiger, 454—462, 578, with portraits
on pp. 455, 459; also Janssen, i 158 f.
6 Bursian, i 167; Janssen, i 148 — 151. 7 Geiger, 441 f.
8 Bursian, i 1701". Portrait of Vadianus (Watt} in Boissard's Icones III
xv 112 (1598), copied in Cribble's Early Mountaineers, facing p. 43.
CHAP. XVI.] PEUTINGER. CUSPINIANUS. BUSCHE. 26l
One of the most scholarly of the adherents of Ulrich von
Hutten was Hermann von dem Busche (1468 —
1534). Educated- at Deventer and Heidelberg, he
went in 1486 to Italy, where he spent five years, in the course of
which he visited Rome, and attended the lectures of Pomponius
Laetus. On his return, after spending a year at Cologne, he
passed through many of the universities in Northern and Central
Germany, lecturing everywhere on the Latin Classics, till he
became the first professor of Classical Literature, rectiorum litte-
rarum professor, at Marburg (1527-33). He defended classical
studies in his Vallum Humanitatis (1518); he was the first to
publish the Carmen de Bella Civili preserved in Petronius (1500);
and he also edited Silius Italicus (1504) and the Amphitruo
of Plautus, and commented on Claudian's poem De Raptu
Proserpinae^.
Meanwhile, at Tubingen, an enthusiastic teacher of humble
birth, Heinrich Bebel (1472 — 1518), was laying
down the laws of Latin usage, of Latin letter-writing,
and of Latin versification. He was also winning a wide popularity
by singing the glories of Germany, and the Triumph of Love, and
by providing a German counterpart of the frivolous Facetiae of
Poggio2.
Among the humanists of Erfurt a prominent place must be
assigned to Helius Eobanus Hessus (1488 — 1540),
who lived at that university, not only as a student, HCSSUS""
but also as a teacher. From 1517 to 1526 he was
the highly popular professor of Poetry and Rhetoric, lecturing to
enormous audiences, and counting among his pupils youths of
high promise, such as Micyllus and Camerarius. .The somewhat
serious student just mentioned was the first treasurer of a festive
club, over which Eobanus presided as the 'king of poets'. When
the interests of humanism fell into abeyance at Erfurt, Eobanus
left for Nuremberg, where he taught for seven years with the grave
Camerarius as his colleague. This was the time of his greatest
activity as a translator. He rendered into Latin verse the Idylls of
1 Bursian, i 136-9; cp. Geiger, 426-8.
2 Bursian, i i4of; Geiger, in A, D. B. and Renaissance, 423-5; Creighton,
vi 28 f.
262 GERMANY. [CENT. XV f
Theocritus (1531), and Similes from Homer, with some of the
Psalms, and the book of Ecdesiastes. He also produced a long
Latin poem on the historic and artistic glories of Nuremberg. A
brief return to Erfurt (1533-6), where he found that the fame of
the university had declined, and that the spell of his own popu-
larity had been broken, was followed by his migration to the
newly-founded university of Marburg, where he continued his
activity as a poet and a teacher during the four remaining years of
his life. He there completed his metrical version of the Psalms,
and produced a new edition of his numerous poems, the principal
place among them being due to the 'Christian Hero'ides' that won
him the title of the 'Christian Ovid'. His latest work was a
rendering of the whole of the Iliad in Latin hexameters (1540).
He undoubtedly did much in his time for the popularising of
humanistic studies. His success was due to his happy and cheer-
ful temper, and also to the elegant and idiomatic Latin, which
characterised his work as a translator1
In this age one of the most important centres of humanism
was Basel2. Humanism was there fostered by the
Basel . .
university founded in 1460, while Classical texts
were issued by at least three printing-presses: — (i) that of
Johannes Froben (1491), who was succeeded in 1527 by his son
Hieronymus and his son-in-law Episcopius ; (2) that of Cratander
(1518), subsequently managed by Oporinus3 (1544); and (3) that
of Hervagius (1531). The texts were founded on MSS from the
monasteries of Alsace and the Palatinate, and some of them are
now the only evidence as to the readings of those MSS, e.g.
Cratander's edition of Cicero ad Atticum, Beatus Rhenanus'
Velleius Paterculus, Gelenius' Ammianus Marcellinus, and the
joint edition of Livy by the last two scholars4.
Erasmus had resided at Basel during the four years after 1514,
1 Bursian, i 131-4; Bauch's Erjurt, passim ; and esp. C. Krause's
admirable monograph in two vols. (1879), w'tn specimens of his translation
of Theocritus (ii 94) and Homer (ii 249), and portrait of 1533; Diirer's
engraving of 1526 is reproduced in Geiger, 469, and less accurately in Bois-
sard, in xvii 124.
2 Cp. Geiger, 416-21.
3 Bursian, i 158 ; portrait in Boissard, iv xlix 32?.
4 Urlichs, 6f-; Bursian, i 159, 254.
CHAP. XVI.] EOBANUS. RHENANUS. GELENIUS. 263
the seven after 1522, and also for the last two years of his life.
He had been attracted to the place by his printer and publisher
Johannes Froben, that genuine bibliophile, that ' ideal friend ',
who ' had no memory for injuries ', and ' never forgot the most
trivial service". Froben died in 1527. For sixteen years before
that date Basel had also been the home of the friend
and biographer of Erasmus, Beatus Rhenanus of RhenlmU
Schlettstadt (1485 — -1547), who, on the death of
his publisher, left Basel for the place of his birth and his early
education ; he died (at Strassburg) twenty years later. With the
main exception of his Curtius, with notes by Erasmus, which
had already appeared at Strassburg (1518), his best editions were
printed at Basel : — the editio princeps of Velleius (1520), from a
MS discovered by himself at Murbach ; Seneca, Ludus de morte
Claudii (1515); 'emendations' on the text of the elder Pliny
(1526), from a Murbach MS that has since vanished; and lastly
his Tacitus (1519-33), and his joint edition of Livy (i535)2.
The text of Tacitus owes much to his corrections, but he was
in general distinguished for his fidelity to the readings of the
MSS, and for his critical caution in admitting conjectures3.
Among his younger contemporaries was Glareanus (1488 —
1563), who generally resided at Basel, or at Freiburg,
where he held the professorship of poetry, though Grynaeus
his main distinctions were won in the criticism of
the current Roman chronology4. A second contemporary was
Grynaeus of Heidelberg (1493 — 1541), who in 1527 discovered at
Lorsch a MS of the first five books of the fifth decade of Livy (now
in Vienna), taught Greek in Vienna and Buda-Pest, as well as
Heidelberg, and finally settled in 1529 at Basel5. A third was
Gelenius of Prague (1497 — * 554), who, after studying at Venice
1 Ep. 922; Drummond's Erasmus, \\ 273 f.
2 He also edited Pliny's Epp. (Strassburg, 1514), Gregory of Nyssa, Pru-
dentius, Tertullian, and Origen.
3 Bursian, i 150-2; Geiger, 488 f; Life, etc. by Horawitz (1872-4); Brief-
'Meehsel, 1886; G. C. Knod, Aus dtr Bibliothek des B. K. (Schlettstadt, 1889);
portrait in Boissard, I xli 248.
4 Bursian, i 1541"; Geiger, 41 8 f.
5 Bursian, i 156 f; portrait in Beza's /cones, facing p. O iij, and in Bois-
sard, iv xliii 286.
VlVENTlS -P OTVIT-DVRERIV51- ORA-PHi UPPI
A\ENTEAVNON-POTViT-PiNGERE-DOGTA
-/WANYS '
MELANCHTHON.
From a print of Albert Durer's engraving. Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge.
CHAP. XVI.] PETRUS MOSELLANUS. MELANCHTHON. 265
under Musurus, went in 1524 to Basel, where he produced
editions of Callimachus and Aristophanes, as well as the Planudean
Anthology, with a commentary by Brodaeus of Tours, and the
editio princeps of several of the minor Greek geographers (I533)1-
In Latin he published an edition of Ammianus Marcellinus (1533),
with the aid of a MS from Hersfeld, which has since disappeared ;
he was associated (as we have seen) with Beatus Rhenanus in an
edition of Livy, to which he contributed a collation of a MS at
Speyer, and a new collation of that at Mainz, both of which MSS
are now lost2. Lastly, he made good use of two ancient MSS in
his Castigationes on the text of the elder Pliny (1535), followed
by his edition of 1554, the merit of which has been recently
recognised by Mayhoff3. His short-lived con-
temporary, Petrus Mosellanus (1493—1524), who MJSuTnu«
succeeded Richard Croke as the teacher of Greek
at Leipzig (1517), distinguished himself as an expositor of
Quintilian and of Gellius, and still more as the preceptor of
Camerarius, who is best known as the friend of Melanchthon4.
Philip Schwarzerd, or Melanchthon (1497 — 1560), who was
educated at Tiibingen, left his mark on the history
- . . . r ° ' Melanchthon
or education in Germany, not only as a lecturer on
Virgil, Terence, and the rhetorical works of Cicero, and as Pro-
fessor of Greek at Wittenberg, but also as a keen advocate for a
thorough training in grammar and style. He produced works on
Greek (1518) and Latin Grammar (1525-6), and many editions
of the Classics, besides text-books of all kinds, which remained
long in use. In conjunction with colleagues inspired by the same
spirit, he published a series of commentaries on Cicero's rhetorical
1 He assisted in the preparation of the editio princeps of Josephus (Basel,
I544)- The editor was Arnoldus Arlenius of Brabant, who also produced
the editio princeps of Lycophron (ib. 1546); while his Polybius (1549) was
the first to include the Epitome of books vn — xvn. A pupil of Gyraldus
(Depoetis, p. 69 Wotke), he had copied for Conrad Gesner the illustrations in
the MS of ' Oppian' in the Library of St Mark's, and, in 1538-46, had organised
the collection of MSS formed by Mendoza, the envoy of Charles V at Venice
(Graux, Fonds Grec de rEscurial, 185-9).
2 Bursian, i 152 f. * Ed. 1906, Praef. p. iv.
4 Bursian, i 184; cp. O. G. Schmidt, 1867, and De Paedologia, ed. 1906,
with Einleitung by Hermann Michel.
266 GERMANY. [CENT. XVI.
works, on Terence and Sallust, on the Fasti of Ovid, and the
tenth book of Quintilian, as well as on selections from Aristotle's
Ethics and Politics. The series included editions of Hesiod and
Theognis, and the Clouds and Plutus of Aristophanes, with trans-
lations of Pindar and Euripides, and of speeches of Thucydides
and Demosthenes. His text-books, and his courses of lectures,
were introduced by excellent ' Prefaces '. Of his numerous
' Declamations ' the most celebrated is that on the study of the
classical languages, and especially on the study of Greek, de-
livered as his inaugural lecture at Wittenberg (i5i8)a. His many
Latin Letters, and indeed his Latin works in general, are written
in a style that is easy, clear, and simple, without being distinctly
elegant. He had no sympathy with the paganising spirit of many
of the Italian humanists : the principles of Christianity were part
of the very life-blood of the praeceptor Germainae*.
His friend, Joachim Camerarius of Bamberg (1500 — 1574),
studied Greek under Croke and others at Leipzig
Camerarius • «_ • i • T-.
and belonged to the circle of Eobanus Hessus at
Erfurt. After becoming the intimate friend of Melanchthon at
Wittenberg, he held classical professorships at Nuremberg (1526),
Tubingen (1535), and Leipzig (1541-74). His numerous editions
of the Classics, without attaining the highest rank, are characterised
by acumen and good taste. They include Homer, the Greek
Elegiac poets, Theocritus, Sophocles, Thucydides and Herodotus,
as well as posthumous editions of Aristotle's Ethics, Politics, and
Economics. He also produced an extensive series of Latin trans-
lations of the Greek Classics. Among his editions of Latin authors
a place of honour must be assigned to his Plautus (1552), the
1 De corrigendis adolescentiae stitdiis. The Declamationes have been edited
in two parts by Hartfelder (Weidmann, Berlin).
2 His philological works are included in the Corpus Refonnatorutn
vols. xvi — xx, and the Letters and Declamations in other volumes. Cp. Bur-
sian, i 173-8; also Hartfelder, Melanchthon ah Praeceptor Germaniae, and
Mel. Paedagogica, and in Schmid's Gesch. der Erziehung, in ii 206 — 228;
Paulsen, ed. 2, i 1 12 f, 185 f, 203 f, 223 f, 258 f ; and Woodward's Renaissance
Education, c. xi, 211 f; also T. Bailey Saunders (preparing). As compared
with Wimpfeling, Melanchthon is depreciated by Karl Pearson, Ethic of Free-
thought, 2222. Portrait after Diirer on p. 264; the life-like medallion at
Hanover is reproduced as frontispiece to Hartfelder's Melanchthon.
CHAP. XVI.] CAMERARIUS. STURM. 267
text of which was founded on the codex vetus Camerarii (cent, xi),
containing all the extant plays, and on the codex decurtatus (xii),
formerly at Freising, containing the last twelve plays alone. Both
of these belonged to the Palatine Library at Heidelberg, but were
removed to the Vatican in 1623 ; the former is still in the Vatican,
while the latter has been restored to Heidelberg. They are now
known by the symbols B and C respectively. Camerarius was
fully equal to his friend and exemplar Melanchthon in the wide
extent of his attainments and in his thorough knowledge of Greek
and Latin in particular, but he distinctly surpassed him in critical
acumen, and in this respect holds one of the foremost places
among the German scholars of the sixteenth century1.
Among his friends Was Jacob Molsheym of Strassburg (1503 — 1558), who
owed his name of Micyllus to his taking the part of that
Micyllus
character in a dramatic representation of Lucian's 'Dream'
at Erfurt, where he was under the influence of the enthusiastic Latin scholar
and poet, Eobanus Hessus. After continuing his studies under Melanchthon at
Wittenberg, he lectured on Latin at Frankfurt, and on Greek at Heidelberg.
He was associated with Camerarius in an edition of Homer comprising the
earlier and shorter scholia of Didymus (1541). His independent works in-
cluded the editio princeps of the fables of Hyginus (1535) from a MS at Freising,
besides editions of large portions of Ovid, a translation of the whole of Lucian
(1538), and a treatise on prosody (1539) 2-
Strassburg is also associated with the more notable name of
Johannes Sturm (1507 — 1589). His educational
principles are laid down in the celebrated treatise
De puerorum ludis recte aperiendis (1538), his inaugural oration as
head-master of Strassburg school, a position which he filled with
distinction for no less than forty-three years. He made the
writing and the speaking of Latin the almost exclusive aim of
education. His school was frequented by pupils from all lands,
and became the model for gymnasia in many parts of Germany.
His correspondent Roger Ascham, who unfortunately never met
him3, describes him as 'one of his two dearest friends'4; he
praises his 'Select Letters of Cicero' (1539), and his treatise
De Institutione Prineipum* (1551); and, when he wishes to
1 Bursian, i 185-9; Paulsen, ' /229 — 233"> Ritschl, Opusc. ii 99 f, iii 67 f;
Ribbeck's Ritschl, ii 432 ; cp. Pokel, s.v.
~ Bursian, i 192-6. s Katterfeld, Roger Ascham, 78.
4 Scholemaster, 128. 8 Scholemaster, 3, 35.
268 GERMANY. [CENT. XVI.
recommend a modern model of the plain, as well as the grand
and the intermediate, styles, he says: —
' For our time the odde man to performe all three perfitlie, whatsoever he
doth, and to know the way to do them skilfullie, whan so ever he list, is in my
poore opinion Joannes Sturmius'1.
An educational position similar to that of Sturm at Strassburg was attained
. in Saxony by his short-lived contemporary Rivius (1500 —
1553), who published at the Saxon town of Meissen an ex-
cellent edition of Sallust, in which the text is founded on the evidence of four
. MSS and is corrected in many passages (i53y)2. His pupil,
Georg Fabricius (1516 — 1571), studied in Italy at Padua and
Bologna, and explored the monuments and inscriptions in Rome. His
numerous editions of the Classics included Virgil and Horace, with the
scholia on both, while he also produced works on Roman topography and
antiquities (1540 f)- His namesake, Franz Fabricius of
F. Fabricius
Diiren (1527 — 1573). studied in Paris under Ramus and
Turnebus, and was Rector of the gymnasium at Dlisseldorf (1564-73). The
most important of his works was the Annals of the Life of Cicero (1563 etc.).
He also arranged Cicero's Letters in chronological order, and, in editing
several of Cicero's works, made use of several new MSS. Lastly, he supplied
Lambinus with readings from a MS at Cologne. In this respect, and as a
pupil of eminent teachers in Paris, he is an interesting link between Germany
and France3.
A name of greater note is that of Melanchthon's pupil,
Hieronymus Wolf (1516 — 1580), who, after a
wandering life, settled at Augsburg, first as se-
cretary and librarian to the wealthy merchant Johann Jakob
Fugger, and next as Rector of the newly-founded gymnasium,
which he ruled from 1557 until his death. He made his mark
by his repeated editions of Isocrates (1570 etc.), and De-
mosthenes (1572 etc.), with Latin translations and explanatory
notes. For his Demosthenes, which was published in five folio
volumes, he used a valuable MS in the Augsburg Library, the codex
Augustanus primus, now at Munich. He also edited Suidas
(1564), and three folio volumes of Byzantine historians4. Roger
1 p. 113, with Mayor's n. on p. 208. Cp. Life by C. Schmidt (1855);
Raumer's Gesch. d. Pddagogik, i 228 — 2762; Paulsen, i 282 — 29O2; E. Laas
(Berlin, 1872); Bursian, i 201 f; Geiger, 404; portrait in Boissard's Icanes,
VII 663 ; G. Schmid in R. A. Schmid's Gesch. der Erziehimg, II ii 302 — 388.
2 Bursian, i 204 f. 3 Bursian, i 208 f.
4 Bursian, i 210-2 ; portrait in Boissard's Icones, n 270.
CHAP. XVI.] H. WOLF. B. FABER. C. GESNER. 269
Ascham, during his stay in Augsburg (1550-1), admired the
varied learning and the fine library of Jakob Fugger, and had the
use of a catalogue of the MSS, made by Wolf1, whom he describes
as 'very simple' in his personal appearance, and a frequent guest
at the table of the English embassy2.
A wide range of reading was represented by the educational
text-books of Michael Neander (15215 — 1595), who
\ j j jyjn Neander
studied under Luther and Melanchthon at Witten-
berg, and was for forty-five years Rector of the school at Ilfeld.
His best-known works were his Opus Aureum of Greek and Latin
moral maxims, his Anthologicum Graeco-Latimim^ and his selec-
tions from Pindar and Euripides3.
Lexicography is represented in the same age by Basilius Faber,
Rector of Erfurt (1=520 — 1=576). In 1571 he pro-
v . 7 . B. Faber
duced a comprehensive Latin Thesaurus, which long
survived. It was re-edited by Cellarius (1686), Graevius (1710),
and J. M. Gesner (1726). Lexicography satisfied
only a part of the varied intellectual activity of an
earlier Gesner, Conrad Gesner of Ziirich (1516 — 1565), whose
Bibliotheca Universalis (1545-9) is a biographical and biblio-
graphical Dictionary of all the writers in Greek, Latin, or Hebrew
known to the author. The second part of this work is a vast
encyclopaedia of the arts and sciences. Gesner was one of the
founders of the modern study of Natural Science, and his descrip-
tion of the ascent of Pilatus opens an era in the literature of the
scientific exploration of the Alps4. His classical works include a
Dictionary of Greek and Latin, and of Proper Names, an edition
of Stobaeus, and the editio princeps of Aelian, De Natura Ani-
malium (1556). In his Mithridates (1555) he made the first
attempt towards the comparative study of language5. The study
1 Ep. p. 41 (to Sturm) and p. 252 (to Froben), eel. Elstob.
2 Katterfeld, A. Ascham, 1401". — On H. Wolf as an educationist, cp. G.
Schmid, I.e., II ii 430 — 461.
3 Bursian, i 212-5; G. Schmid, I.e., n ii 388 — 430.
4 De raris herbis etc. (Zurich, 1555). Cp. F. Cribble's Early Moun-
taineers, with Gesner's portrait (1899), 51 — 62.
5 Bursian, i 216-8; portrait in Boissard, IV xxiii 130 (with his own list of
his writings).
2/0 GERMANY. [CENT. XVI.
of modern, as well as ancient, Greek was represented in the same
age by Martin Crusius (1526 — 1607), for the last
Crusius . .
forty-seven years of his life professor at Tubingen '.
His younger and abler colleague, the Latin versifier Nicodemus
Frischlin (1547 — 1590), did much for the advance-
Frischlm
ment of the study of Greek and Latin Grammar8.
Wilhelm Xylander3 of Augsburg (1532 — 1576), a student of
Tubingen, who in 1558 succeeded Micyllus4 as
Xylander
professor of Greek and as librarian at Heidelberg,
produced the editio princeps of Marcus Aurelius (1558), and
important editions of Plutarch (1560-70), Strabo (1571), and
Stephanus of Byzantium (1568). He made good use of the MSS
accessible to him, and also gave proof of a singular acumen in the
emendation of texts. His edition of Pausanias was completed by
Sylburg5.
A thorough knowledge of Greek, considerable critical acumen,
and an intelligent application of great powers of
work were the main characteristics of Friedrich
Sylburg (1536—1596), who, besides studying at Marburg and
Jena, spent some time in Geneva and Paris, where he learnt much
from Henri Estienne, to whose Greek Thesaurus he afterwards
contributed. In 1583 he settled for eight years at Frankfurt, and,
for the last five years of his life, at Heidelberg, working for the
press of Wechel at the former, and for that of Commelinus at the
latter. Besides completing Xylander's edition of Pausanias ( 1 584),
he edited at Frankfurt the whole of Aristotle, and of Dionysius
of Halicarnassus, the three volumes of the Scriptores historiae
Romanae, and the grammatical work of Apollonius Trepi a-wrd^cw;.
His work at Heidelberg included the Latin writers De Re Rustica,
and the Greek Fathers, Clement of Alexandria and Justin Martyr.
Early in his career he declined an invitation to fill the Chair of
Greek at Marburg: he was content to hold an appointment in the
library at Heidelberg, devoting almost all his energies to editorial
work. Every one of his editions is distinguished by important
1 Bursian, i 223. 2 ib. i 224-7.
3 Holtzmann. 4 p. 267 supra,
5 Bursian, i 228; portrait in Boissard, IV xli 278.
CHAP. XVI.] XYLANDER. SYLBURG. RHODOMANN. 271
corrections of the text, and is accompanied by a full and careful
index1.
Sylburg would naturally have been appointed professor of Greek at Heidel-
berg, but for his sudden death from over-work at the age of
60. The vacant professorship was assigned to Aemilius Portus Aemilius
Portus
(1550 — 1614-5), a son of the Cretan Greek, Franciscus Portus.
The father had taught his native language at Ferrara, and had withdrawn to
Geneva in 1559 owing to his sympathy with the cause of the Reformation.
The son, who was born at Ferrara and had taught Greek at Geneva and
Lausanne, was living in Heidelberg at the time when the professorship fell
vacant2. He had inherited from his father a complete command of his
ancestral tongue, but, notwithstanding his undoubted industry, he was inferior
to Sylburg in thoroughness, in critical acumen, and in sound judgement. An
unfortunate dispute with a German student led to his resigning his professor-
ship ; he was accordingly compelled to confine himself to the duties of an
ordinary teacher at Kassel and Stadthagen, where he died. His numerous
works, many of which were hastily produced under the pressure of poverty,
included lexicons, such as those to Herodotus and Pindar and the Bucolic
Poets, besides many Greek texts with Latin translations. In the first volume
of his edition of Euripides, there was printed for the first time a long fragment,
which was then ascribed to the Danae, but has since been proved to be spurious3.
He was the first to prepare an edition of the six books of Proclus on the
Theology of Plato, posthumously printed in i6i84.
Among Germans who studied Greek, a place of honour is
due to Lorenz Rhodomann (1546 — 1606), a school-
• i i Tr Rhodomann
master, who, in the latter part of his life; was pro-
fessor of Greek and Latin at Jena and Wittenberg. He had a
remarkable facility in writing Greek hexameters, and his epic
poems, anonymously published in 1588 by his former master,
Michael Neander, were accepted by many as genuine classical
works. In ancient literature the special subject of his study was
Quintus Smyrnaeus, whose epic poem he published, with a Latin
translation and critical notes, in 1608. In the same year he
produced the ripe result of many years of learned labour in an
edition of Diodorus Siculus, by which the textual criticism of
that author was materially advanced. Ten years previously, he
had published Latin translations of the extracts from the historian
1 Bursian, i 229-^232.
2 By the death of Pithopoeus (1596); Portus resigned in 1608.
3 Nauck, Trag. Gr. Frag. p. 714 f. 4 Bursian, i 232-4.
272 GERMANY. [CENT. XVI.
Memnon, and the geographer Agatharchides, which had been
preserved by Photius1.
Far greater service was done for Photius by a pupil of
Hieronymus Wolf, named David Hoeschel (1556 —
Hoeschel . . . .. .
1617), who, m 1 60 1, gave to the world the editto
princeps of the whole of the Bibliotheca. He also edited the
Illyrica of Appian (1599), the Edoga of Phrynichus (1601), and
the Excerpta ex Legationibus in the historic encyclopaedia of
Constantine Porphyrogenitus (1603). The material for these and
other works was derived from a valuable collection of Greek
MSS from Corfu, which was bought in Venice by the enlightened
Council of Augsburg (i544)2. With the aid of a wealthy and
learned member of that Council, Marcus Welser, he set up a
printing press, at which his own editions and those of other
scholars were printed on fine paper and in excellent type from
1595 to i6i43.
One of the last of the scholars of Germany, who taught the
language and literature of Greece in the spirit of
Melanchthon, was Erasmus Schmied (1570 — 1637),
who was professor, first of Greek, and next of Mathematics, at
Wittenberg. His principal work was an edition of Pindar, with
a Latin translation and a careful commentary (1616). It was
founded on three Palatine MSS, and the writer claimed to have
corrected the text in more than 600 places. The commentary
remained unsurpassed until the appearance of the editions of
Heyne and Boeckh. He also edited Hesiod (1603), and pro-
duced a treatise maintaining his preference for the ' Reuchlinian '
over the ' Erasmian ' method of pronouncing Greek4.
Mention may here be made of two Latin scholars of high
promise, both of whom died in the prime of life.
Janus Guilielmus of Liibeck (1555 — 1584) published
at an early age at Rostock a treatise on the officials of the Roman
Republic, and a Latin rendering of the Phoenissae. His subse-
quent studies at Cologne were followed by the publication at
Antwerp of his Verisimilia on the early Latin authors (1582). In
1 Bursian, i 235^ 2 Graux, UEscurial (1880), no, 413.
3 Bursian, i 236-8 ; portrait in Boissard, vill nnn i.
4 Bursian, i 238 — 240.
CHAP. XVI.] HOESCHEL. SCHMIED. ACIDALIUS. 2/3
the next year he was welcomed in Paris by all the foremost
scholars of the day, and there published his maturest work, the
Plautinarum Quaestionum Commentarius. In 1584 he conclu-
sively refuted Sigonius by proving that the Consolatio, printed in
1583, was not the work of Cicero1. From the days of his youth
Cicero had been his favourite author, and he had collected
materials for the correction of the text in Cologne and Paris.
The results were first published in Gruter's edition of 1618, long
after their author's early death at Bourges in 1584*.
In extent and variety of published work Guilielmus was
surpassed by Valens Acidalius (i^y — 1595), who
3 , Acidalius
m 1590 left the universities of Northern Germany
for those of Italy. At Bologna, where he spent most of his time
in the study of the Classics, he graduated in Medicine. At
Padua, he had already produced, in 1590, an edition of Velleius
Paterculus, containing many corrections'of the text. He also paid
much attention to Apuleius, and the plays of Plautus and Seneca.
On returning to Germany in 1593, he settled at Breslau, but the
only results of his studies abroad that he produced in the two
remaining years of his life were his 'Animadversions' on Q. Curtius.
His corrections of the text of Plautus and Tacitus and the Latin
Panegyrici were published by his brother 3.
Far less capacity for the criticism of Plautus was displayed by
Friedrich Taubmann of Wittenberg (i*,6s. — 1613),
3 v ° D Taubmann
who deserves, however, to be remembered for the
zeal with which he endeavoured to counteract the decline in Latin
style which he laments in his thesis De Lingua Latina (1602).
Notwithstanding the efforts of men like Ulrich von Hutten and
Martin Luther to mould the German language for the purposes
of literature, Latin long continued to be the normal medium,
not only for works of learning of every description4, but even for
poetry5.
An early link between Italy and Hungary may be found in the
treatise on education addressed in 1450 by Aeneas
Sylvius to Ladislas, the youthful king of Hungary
1 p. 144 supra, 2 Bursian, i 240-2. 3 Bursian, i 242 f.
4 Bursian, i 244^ 5 ib. i 250 f.
S. II. 18
2/4 HUNGARY. [CENT. XV f
and Bohemia. The study of the best Latin literature in prose
and verse is here strongly recommended, with details as to the
authors that should be preferred. For reasons of style, the
youthful king is warned against wasting his time over the history
of Bohemia or Hungary1. Five years later the royal youth
requested the king of Naples, and the duke of Modena, to send
him any works of interest on the exploits of the ancient Romans,
or of others who were worthy of imitation2; but his life of
promise came to an early end at the age of eighteen. Even the
heroic general of the king's armies, Joannes Hunyady, found time
for studying the works of Poggio; but the true founder of classical
studies in Hungary was Joannes Vitez (d. 1472), who
had studied in Italy before becoming secretary to
Hunyady; chancellor to Hunyady's royal son, Matthias Corvinus;
and, finally, cardinal archbishop of Gran. Vitez was in constant
correspondence with Florence, sending for correct copies of the
Classics, and himself transcribing translations from the Greek.
It was his ambition to found a Hungarian university, and he
prompted the king to become a patron of learning. Among
those whom he befriended was the aged Italian humanist,
Vergerio, while he received from Argyropulos the dedication of
a rendering of the De Caelo of Aristotle3.
One of the youths sent at his charges to receive their educa-
tion in Italy was his nephew, Janus Pannonius
Pannonius (H34— 1472)> wh°, from the age of thirteen to
that of twenty, was an inmate of the house of
Guarino at Ferrara, where he gave proof of a singular precocity of
intellect, as well as a marvellous memory. He produced trans-
lations from the Greek, but his favourite field of composition was
Latin verse. When he had studied law for four years at Padua,
and was still under the age of twenty-five, his uncle induced
Pius II to appoint him to a Hungarian bishopric. Returning to
Hungary with a large collection of Greek and Latin MSS, he
regarded his native land as a place of exile as compared with the
1 p. 72 supra; De Liberonun Educatione, translated in Woodward's Vit-
torino, 134 — 158 ; cp. Harvard Lectures, 67 — 69.
2 Abel's Analecta (Budapest, 1880), 156 f.
:) Voigt, ii 3i6-83.
CHAP. XVI.] VITEZ. J. PANNONIUS. CORVINUS. 275
Italy that he had left. His gratitude to his teacher, Guarino, was
enshrined in a lengthy poem in Latin hexameters1, and, to the
end of his life, Latin verse was the main theme of his interest.
Ficino's rendering of Plato's Symposium was dedicated to him;
and he himself dedicated to king Matthias Corvinus a translation of
part of the Iliad, and of the Apophthegms of Plutarch. Unhappily
he was induced by his uncle to join in a conspiracy against the
king, and, not long afterwards, he died at the early age of thirty-
eight2.
King Matthias Corvinus (1443 — 1490) was interested in Latin
poets, such as Silius Italicus, in historians, such as
„ „ . Corvinus
Livy and Curtius, and in -Roman writers on the
military art. In 1467, with the approval of the Pope, he founded
an academy at Pressburg, but young Hungarians still preferred,
if possible, to complete their education in Italy. He also formed
a fine library at Buda, where thirty copyists and artists were
employed in keeping up the supply of illuminated MSS. This
library, which belonged to the last ten or fifteen years of his life,
was unfortunately scattered in all directions at his death3. He
introduced the art of printing and founded a university at Buda;
Italian humanists were welcomed at his court, and an interest
in literature flourished in the land ; but the intellectual life of
Hungary, as well as the newly-founded university, was over-
whelmed for a time by the Turks, who invaded the country after
the victory of Mohacs in 15 26*.
In Poland, the earliest apostle of humanism was apparently
the cardinal archbishop of Cracow, Sbignew Oles-
nicky. He had studied at Cracow, but there is
. . , _ Olesnicky
nothing to prove that he had ever visited Italy.
His command of Latin prose, mainly founded on modern models,
1 p. 51 supra.
2 Vespasiano, Vile, 11^ ; Voigt, ii 318 — ^43', Pocinata and Opnscula
(Utrecht, 1784); Abel, Analeda (1880).
3 Abel in Lit. Bericht en atis Ungarn, n iv (1878). Cp. Marki in Osl.
Ung. Rev. xxv. In this library J. A. Brassicanus (1500 — 1539) saw a com-
plete Hypereides (Praef. ad Salvianum, 1530).
4 Voigt, ii 3i5-3*73-
1 8— 2
POLAND. [CENT. xv.
such as the letters of Salutati, led to his appointment as secretary
to the king of Poland. In 1423 he became bishop of Cracow, a
position which he held for thirty-two years. In 1424 he there
made the acquaintance of Filelfo; and for twelve years he cor-
responded with Aeneas Sylvius, who, as bishop of Triest in 1450,
displayed to the German Councillors at Neustadt a letter from the
Polish Cardinal proving that the German skill in Latin was
surpassed in Poland1.
For twenty-four years the Cardinal's secretary was Johannes
Dlugosz, who, in a letter to Aeneas Sylvius, con-
Diugosz ...
fesses to his admiration for clearness of style, and
is himself known as the author of the first important Latin history
of Poland2. Latin poetry rather than prose was the
ofGSanok favourite study of Gregor of Sanok, who, after
setting out on his wanderings in Germany at the
age of twelve, settled down as a student at Cracow, where he
graduated in 1439. He lectured on the Eclogues and Georgics,
and on Plautus and Juvenal. After acting as tutor to the sons of
Hunyady, he lived in the household of bishop Vitez, and himself
became archbishop of Lemberg in 1451. He wrote much, but
published little apart from a selection from his Latin verses, with
two historical works. In Italy he might have attained that
distinction in literature, for which he could find no scope in the
land of his birth. Among the Italians whom he welcomed in
Poland was Filippo Buonaccorsi, who had fled from Rome when
the local Academy was suppressed by Paul II3. Buonaccorsi was
the first Italian to introduce into Poland a wider and more
popular interest in Classical studies4. It was at Cracow that (as
we have already seen) he met Conrad Celtes, who was thereby
inspired to found humanistic societies in Poland and Hungary,
as well as on the banks of the Rhine6.
1 Voigt, ii 32 7-9". 2 ib. ii 329s. 3 p. 92 supra.
4 Zeissberg, Die polnische Geschichtschreibung des MAs (1873), 349 f
(Voigt, ii 3303).
6 p. 259 supra. On humanism in Poland, cp. Cod. Epist. Saec. XF, ed.
Sokolowski et Szujski (Man. medii aevi, t. ii) Crac. 1876.
BOOK III.
THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
Nescire qnaedam, magna pars Sapientiae est.
GROTIUS, Poemata, p. 332, ed. 1617.
Non audiendi sunt homines imperiti, qui humano ingcnio
majorem, vel inutilem, et rebus gerendls adversam TroXv/jidOfiav
criminantiir.
MORHOF, Polyhistor, i i § i, 1688.
La fin naturelle de la science, et par consequent des etudes,
est, apres Jestre rempli soy-mesme, de travailler pour les autres.
MABILLON, Etudes Monastiques, Part n, Ch. xv, 1691.
History of Scholarship in the Seventeenth Century.
Italy
France
Netherlands
England and
Scotland
Germany
Savile
1549—1622
P. Merula
Downes
1558—1607
1549—1628
Sirmond
Baudius
Bacon
Gruter
1559—1651
1561—1613
1561—1629
1560 — 1627
Strada
Guyet
Wowerius
Gataker
Taubmann
1572—1649
1575—1655
1574—1612
1574—1654
'565—1613
Puteanus
R. Burton
H. Lindenbrog
1574—1646
1576—1640
1570—1642
Heraldus
Scriverius
Dempster
Seber
1579—1649
Peiresc
1576—1660
G. j. Vossius
1579-1625
Barclay
1573—1634
F. Lindenbrog
1580—1637
1577—1649
1582—1621
1573-1648
Donati
C. Labb<<
Meursius
Selden
Pareus
1584—1640
1582—1657
1579-1639
1584—1654
1576—1648
Petavius
Putschrus
Hales
Scioppius
1583—1652
1580—1606
1584—1656
1576-1649
Cluverius
Drummond j Bernegger
1580—1623
I585— 1649 1582—1640
Palmerius
D. Heinsius
Johnston Barth
1587—1670
1580-1—1655
1587—1641 1587—1658
Doni
Salmasius
Grotius
May j Reinesius
1594-1647
Cassiano dal
1588—1653
P. Seguier
1583—1645
Salmasius at
I595— 1650 1587—1667
Meric Casaubon Holstenius
Pozzo d. 1657
1588—1672
Leyden
1599—1671 1596-1661
Nardini
Maussac
1631—1653
Duport i Kircher
d. 1661
1590—1650
F. Junius
1606—1679 1601 — 1680
Vigerus
1589-1677
Milton ! Weller
1591—1647
H. Valesius
J. F. Gronovius
1608—1674
Falkland
1602—1664
Conring
1603—1676
1611—1671
1610—1643
1606-1681
P. Labbe'
Pearson
Freinsheim
1607—1667
1613—1686
1608—1660
Bellori
Du Cange
H. More
Boekler
1615—1696
1610—1688
1614—1687
1610—1672
Pietro Bartoli
Manage
Isaac Vossius
Cudworth
Scheffer
1635—1700
1613—1692
1618—1689
1617—1688
1621—1679
R. Fabretti
Tan. Faber
N. Heinsius
Stanley
Vorst
1619—1700
1615—1672
1620 — 1681
1625—1687
1623—1696
Rapin
Spanheim
Theoph. Gale
Jonsen
1621—1687
1629 — 1710
1628—1678
1624—1659
Huet
Meibomius
Barrow
Lambeck
1630—1721
1630 — 1710
1630-1677
1628—1680
Mabillon
Graevius
Dryden
Spanheim
1632—1707
1632 —1703
1631 — 1700
1629 — 1710
C. Patin
Thomas Gale
Gude
1633—1694
1635—1702
,1635—1689
Hardouin
Rycke
H. Dodwell
Cellar! us
1646 — 1729
1640—1690
1641—1711
1638—1707
Spon
Francius
Baxter
Morhof
1647—1685
1645-1704
1650—1723
1639—1690
Salvini
Dacier
JakobGronovius
Barnes ; Obrecht
1653—1729
1651 — 1722
1645—1716
1654—1712
1646—1673
Anne Dacier
Broukhusius
Creech
Beger
1654—1720
1649—1707
1659—1700
1653—1705
J.J.F.Vaillant
Cuypers
Hudson
1665—1708
1644 — 1716
1662—1719
Ficoroni
Perizonius
Bentley
1664-1747
1651-1715
1662—1742
Potter
1674—1747
CHAPTER XVII.
ITALY IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
IN the seventeenth century the classical learning of Italy was
mainly limited to archaeology, — a study that was
, , , , r Archaeologists
stimulated by the perpetual presence of the rums of
old Rome, by the accumulation of ever-increasing stores of Latin
inscriptions, and by the occasional discovery of interesting works
of ancient art. In the first half of the century a large collection
of drawings and prints from the antique was formed at Rome
by the Commendatore Cassiano dal Pozzo (d. 1657)
and his brother Antonio. This collection was con- da?^ozzo°
stantly consulted by Winckelmann while it was
still in the possession of Cardinal Alessandro Albani, from whom
it was purchased in 1762 for the Royal Library at Windsor1.
The topography of ancient Rome was intelligently described in
the Roma vetus ac recens (1638) of a Jesuit teacher of rhetoric
in Rome named Alessandro Donati of Siena (1584 — 1640), and
in a diffuse and popular work on the same subject.
3 Donati
the Roma antica of Famiano Nardini of Florence, Nardini
who died in Rome in 1661. The Inscriptions
Antiquae of Giovanni Battista Doni (1594 — 1647) were posthu-
mously published by Gori in 1731. The distinguished archaeo-
logist, Giovanni Pietro Bellori (1615 — 1696), pub-
lished the 'Capitoline plan' of Rome (1673), and ^^ and
reproduced the coins and gems in the collection of
queen Christina, the portraits of ancient poets and philosophers and
Roman emperors, the paintings in the Roman crypts and in the
sepulchre of the Nasos, the reliefs on the Antonine column, and
1 Michaelis, Ancient Marbles in Great Britain, 84, 433, 718.
280 ITALY. [CENT. xvn.
a large series of similar sculptures included in the Admiranda
Romanarum antiquitatum vestigia (1693). The engravings for
these great works were mainly executed by Pietro Bartoli1. His
contemporary, Raphael Fabretti of Urbino (1619
— 1700), who became director of the archives of
Rome, published a clear and almost complete account of the
Roman aqueducts (1680), and a fine folio volume on Trajan's
column (1683). He also did good service by his learned labours
in the field of Latin inscriptions,
' His diligence in collecting inscriptions was only surpassed by his sagacity
in explaining them ; and his authority has been preferred to that of any other
antiquary. His time was spent in delving among ruins and vaults, to explore
the subterranean treasures of Latium; no heat, nor cold, nor rain, nor badness
of road, could deter him from these solitary peregrinations. Yet the glory of
Fabretti must be partly shared with his horse. This wise and faithful animal,
named Marco Polo, had acquired, it is said, the habit of standing still, and as
it were pointing, when he came near an antiquity ; his master candidly owning
that several things which would have escaped him had been detected by the
antiquarian quadruped'2.
In Latin scholarship the most pleasing product of this century
is to be found in the Prolusiones Academicae of the Roman
Jesuit, Famianus Strada (1572 — 1649), first PUD"
StfcLCld.
lished in 1617. In the varied pages of this compact
and compendious volume the author shows considerable taste in
dealing with large questions of historical, oratorical and political
style.
The most interesting of his Prolusiones are the fifth and sixth of the second
book, where we have a critical review of the Latin poets of the age of Leo, and
a discourse on poetry, purporting to have been delivered by one of their
number, Sadoleto. The ancient models imitated by the poets of that age are
next illustrated by a series of six short poems composed by Strada himself,
with criticisms on each. The following are the six poets selected, with the
names of the modern poets to whom the several imitations are dramatically
assigned : — Lucan (Janus Parrhasius), Lucretius (Bembo), Claudian (Casti-
gltone), Ovid (Hercules Strozzi], Statius (Pontano), and Virgil (Naugerio)3. The
happiest of these parodies are those on Lucan and Ovid ; a lower degree of
1 '635 — 1700; Stark, 115.
2 Hallam, iii 255*, who refers to Fabroni, Vitae Italorum, vi, and Visconti
in Biographic Universelle. Cp. Stark, 116.
3 pp. 322 — 342, Amsterdam, 1658.
CHAP. XVII.] R. FABRETTI. STRADA. 28 1
success is attained in the case of Virgil, Statius and Claudian, and the lowest
in that of Lucretius. But this last has an interest of its own. The theme is
the magnet, and the poem describes an imaginary method of communication
between absent friends by means of two magnetic needles which successively
point towards the same letters of the alphabet, however far the friends may be
removed from one another, — .in ingenious play of fancy, which almost antici-
pates the electric telegraph. This poem has been specially mentioned by
Addison in the Spectator^, while all the six poems are noticed in the Guardian"*.
The theme of the poem in the style of Claudian is the famous contest between
the nightingale and the player on the lute, which (as observed by Addison) is
introduced into one of the pastorals of Ambrose Philips (d. 1749)- But
Addison omits to observe that the whole of the poem had been elegantly
translated by Richard Crashaw, who died exactly a hundred years before
Philips, in fact in the same year as Strada himself. Strada's name is not
mentioned in the Delights of the Muses, where the first poem, on Music's
Duel, ends with the following description of the nightingale's fate :
' She fails ; and failing, grieves ; and grieving, dies ; —
She dies, and leaves her life the victor's prize,
Falling upon his lute. O, fit to have —
That lived so sweetly — dead, so sweet a grave'.
In the second half of this century there were other Latin poets, both within
and without the ' Society of Jesus'. Among these may be men-
tioned Tommaso Ceva (1648 — 1 737), the author of an elegant, Ceva
though somewhat incongruous, poem on the childhood of Sergardi
Jesus; and Sergardi, who bitterly satirises the jurist Gravina3.
But to the classical scholar not one of these poets is equal in interest to
Strada.
Strada was violently attacked in a curious work by Caspar
Scioppius (1576 — 1649), the Infamia Famiani, in which that
captious critic objects to Strada's use of Latin words found only
in authors of the Silver age. The critic, who was born near
Nuremberg, had spent nearly half a century in Italy after joining
the Church of Rome in 1598. An account of his varied career
is reserved for the chapter on the land of his birth4.
In the Italian literature of the transition from the sixteenth
to the seventeenth century the lyric poet Chiabrera
J j c Imitators
(1552 — 1637), who was educated by the Jesuits in of Pindar
Rome but spent most of his life at his birthplace
1 No. 241 (iii 135 of Addison's Works, eel. 1868).
* Nos. 115, 119, 122 (Works'w 221, 237 — 243). Cp. Sir Thomas Browne's
Works, \ 152 f, 155, ed. 1852; Hallam, iii 132*.
3 Hallam, iii 490 f4. 4 c. xxi infra.
282 ITALY. [CENT, xvn f
Savona, endeavoured to strike out a new line by the avowed
imitation of Pindar. His ruling instinct as a scholar is revealed
in the sentence : — ' When I see anything eminently beautiful, or
taste something that is excellent, I say : It is Greek Poetry %1.
The ' Pindaric Ode ', with its strophe, antistrophe and epode,
but without any imitation of the poet's style, had been introduced
by Trissino (d. 1550). The study of Pindar is also exemplified
in the free translation by Alessandro Adimari (d. 1649) 2. I"
1671 'Pindaric Odes' appear among the works of the great lyric
poet Guidi (1650 — 1712), but Guidi was unfamiliar with the text
of Pindar himself3. Pindar was afterwards translated by the
Abate Angelo Mazzo of Parma (d. 1817)*, but the eminent critic
Carducci considers that the only Italian lyric poem, ' in the deep
Pindaric sense of the term', is the Sepolcri of Ugo Foscolo
(d. i827)5.
The Alcaic odes of Horace were imitated by Chiabrera6, and
the 'Roman Pindar' was emulated by Fulvio Testi of Ferrara
(1593 — i6o6)7, of whom it has been said that 'had he chosen
his diction with greater care, he might have earned the name
of the Tuscan Horace18. The odes had already been imitated
by Bernardo Bembo (1493 — 1569), by Bartolomeo del Bene of
Florence (d. 1558)°, and, later than this century, by Luigi Cerretti
(d. 1 808) 10 and others.
1 Symonds, vii 316 f. Cp. Hallam, iii pf4; portrait in Wiese u. Percopo,
It. Lilt. 399.
2 Hallam, iii 1 14. 3 Wiese u. Percopo, 409.
4 Wiese u. Percopo, 532. 6 ib. 532.
6 ib. 401. 7 ib. 400, 402.
8 Crescimbeni (Hallam, iii io4). 9 ib. 339.
10 Wiese u. Percopo, 532.
CHAPTER XVIII.
FRANCE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
WE have seen that, in the latter part of the sixteenth century,
the two greatest representatives of classical learning in France,
Scaliger and Casaubon, were Protestants, who, in 1593 and 1610,
were compelled to leave their native land for the Netherlands and
England1. Owing to the influence of the Counter-Reformation,
and the training of the Jesuits, the energies of the classical
scholars that still remained in France were diverted from pagan
to Christian studies. Thus the Jesuit, Jacques Sirmond (1559 —
1651), edited Apollinaris Sidonius (i6i4)2, together
with a number of ecclesiastical writers. Another p'Jtavius
Jesuit, Denys Petau, or Petavius, of Orleans (1583
— 1652), besides editing Synesius (1612) and Epiphanius (1622),
devoted a large part of his chronological work, the Doctrina
Temporum (1627), to the criticism of Scaliger's De Emendatione
Temporum*. A third, Fronton du Due (1558 — 1624), edited
Chrysostom; while a pupil of the Jesuits, Nicolas Rigault (1577 —
1654), edited Tertullian and Cyprian. Among other eminent
men of learning, who were trained by that Society, were the
brothers Henri and Adrien de Valois, and Du Cange, to whom we
shall shortly return4. The Catholic side was also represented by
Francois Guyet of Angers (1575 — 1655), a private
tutor in Rome and Paris, whose posthumous works p^resc
include acute criticisms on Hesiod and Hesychius,
1 pp. 203, 207 supra.
2 Cp. Gibbon's Life and Letters, 56, ed. 1869.
3 Hallam, ii 295-7* ; Bernays, Scaliger, 76, 165.
4 pp. 287-9 i"f''a. Cp. Tilley, in Cainb. Afod. Hist, iii 61.
SALMASIUS.
From the engraving by Boulonnois in Bullart's Academic, 1682, ii 226.
CHAP. XVIII.] SALMASIUS. 285
and on Horace, Phaedrus, and Valerius Maximus, as well as
recensions of Terence and Plautus, with a translation of the
latter. His contemporary Nicolas Peiresc (1580 — 1637), wno
was educated by the Jesuits at Avignon, and distinguished him-
self in mathematics and in oriental languages at Padua, made
the acquaintance of Camden and Saville on his visit to England
in 1605. On returning to the South of France he began to form
his extensive collection of marbles and medals. Among those
whom he aided by his liberality were Grotius and Valesius, as
well as Scaliger and Salmasius1.
Claude de Saumaise, better known as Salmasius (1588 — 1653),
was a native of Saumur. His early promise was
. , „, . . . 01- Salmasius
recognised by Casaubon, who, writing to Scaliger
in 1607, calls him &juvenis ad miraculum doctus^. In that year,
at the age of 19, he had already discovered at Heidelberg the
celebrated MS of the Anthologia Palatina of Constantine Cephalas,
and was receiving letters from the aged Scaliger3, to whom he
sent transcripts of many of the epigrams, and by whom he was
strongly urged to edit the work. The edition was repeatedly
promised, but was never produced; in 1623 the MS was carried
off to Rome, where it remained until 1797 ; and it was not until
1813-4 that the text of the whole work was printed by Jacobs.
At Heidelberg Salmasius was under the influence of Gruter, who
contributed the notes to his early edition of Florus (1609). In
his edition of the Historiae Augustae Scriptores (1620) he dis-
tinguished himself less as a sound textual critic than as an
erudite commentator. It was said that what Salmasius did not
know was beyond the bounds of knowledge4, but his erudition
had its limits, for, in a discussion on the different varieties of
silk, his 'profound, diffuse, and obscure researches'5 show that
he was 'ignorant of the most common trades of Dijon or
Leyden'6. His most remarkable work is that entitled Plinianae
Exercitationes, in which more than 900 pages are devoted to the
elucidation of the portions of Pliny included in the geographical
compendium of Solinus (1629).
1 Hallam, iii 238— 240*. 2 Epp. p. 284.
3 Epp. 245-8, pp. 525 — 536. 4 Hallam, ii 2834; p. 286 n. 6 infra.
5 Hist. Aug. pp. 388 — 391. 6 Gibbon, c. 40 (iv 229 Bury).
286 FRANCE. [CENT. xvn.
The Chair of Scaliger, which had been left vacant at Leyden
since 1609, was filled in 1632 by the call of Salmasius, who, like
Scaliger, was expressly invited not to teach, but to ' shed on the
university the honour of his name, illustrate it by his writings, and
adorn it by his presence'1. At Leyden he produced his learned
treatise De Usuris (1638), which includes a historical survey of
the subject, and insists on the legitimacy of usury for clergy
and laity alike. This was followed by an appendix De Modo
Usurarum (1639). In his Funus linguae Hellenisticae (1643) he
contends that the language of the Greek Scriptures is not a
separate dialect but the ordinary Greek of the time2. In 1649
the exiled king, Charles II, then living in the neighbourhood at
the Hague, requested Salmasius to vindicate the memory of
Charles I in a Latin treatise that should appeal to the whole of
Europe. Accordingly, Salmasius, 'a man of enormous reading
and no judgment ', a pedant destitute of either literary or political
tact, and utterly ignorant of public affairs, prepared his Defensio
Regia Pro Carolo 7(i649)3. The reply was entrusted to Milton,
who, in his pamphlet entitled Pro Populo Anglicano Defensio
(1651), began by attacking Salmasius for using persona of an
individual, but, in the very same passage, unfortunately exposed
himself to attack by using vapulandum instead of verberandum*.
Milton's pamphlet teems with personalities, and the same is true
of the rejoinder by Salmasius, which was his latest work5. Neither
of the controversialists gained any credit, or even any pecuniary
reward. Milton paid the penalty of his efforts in the total loss
of sight, while Salmasius, who had left Leyden in 1650, for the
Swedish court of queen Christina, ended his days in gloom. He
left behind him a vast reputation for learning. He is called by
Gronovius the Varro and Eratosthenes of his age, and he is
lauded by Grotius as 'optimus interpres veteris Salmasius aevi'6.
1 Funeral Oration by Voorst, in Pattison's Casaubon, iffi.
'•* Hallam, ii i"]f>*. * Pattison's Milton, 106.
4 Milton's Prose Works, iv 6 Mitford; Johnson's Lives, i 102, ed. 1854.
5 '^53, printed in 1660.
6 Cp. Blount's Censura, 7191", ed. 1690. He is severely criticised by
Baillet, n. 511. ' Non homini sed scientiae deest, quod nescivit Salmasius'
(Balzac).
CHAP. XVIII.] HERALDUS. VIGERUS. VALESIUS. 287
Meanwhile, in the native land of Salmasius, Desiderius
Heraldus (c. 1579 — 1649), professor of Greek at Heraidus
Sedan, and a member of the parliamentary bar in Paimerius
Seguier
Pans, had published ' animadversions ' on Martial
(1600), besides writing a work on Greek and Roman law, which
was published in the year after his death. Paimerius, or Jacques
le Paulmier (1587 — 1670), who had studied law and Greek
literature at Sedan, passed the last twenty years of his life at
Caen, and, during that time, published at Leyden a volume of
' Exercitations ' on the best Greek authors (1668). Pierre Seguier
(1588 — 1672), President of the French Academy, was at the same
time collecting those MSS, which led to his name being assigned
to the Lexica Segueriana in a single MS in the Paris Library1.
The Jesuit Francois Vigier, or Vigerus, of Rouen vigerus
(1591 — 1647), broke the ordinary Jesuit tradition Maussac
of the predominant study of Latin by producing a
work on the principal idioms of Greek (1627), which had the
distinction of being successively edited anew by Hoogeveen,
Zeune, and Hermann (i834)2. Harpocration had been edited
in 1614 by Philippe Jacques de Maussac (1590 — 1650), president
in Montpellier. That lexicographer was further expounded in
1682 by the disputatious pedant3, Henri de Valois, or Valesius
(1603 — 1676), who had been educated by the Jesuits at Verdun
and Paris, and is known as the editor of Ammianus Marcellinus
(1636) and of the Excerpta (Peiresciand) from Polybius (1634).
Greek was also studied by Charles Labbe (1582 —
^5 7), a parliamentary barrister of Paris, who pub-
lished Glosses on Greek law (1607), and prepared
an edition of the Glossaries of 'Cyril and Philoxenus', published
after his death by Du Cange (1679). His namesake, the Jesuit
Philippe Labbe of Bourges (1607 — 1667), edited several of the
Byzantine historians, besides taking part in a great work on the
Councils4. Editions of the Byzantine historians, Cinnamus and
1 Vol. i 406', 4i62; portrait in Lacroix, Science and Literature in the...
Renaissance, fig. 410 (p. 547 E.T.).
Vigerus, De praecipuis graecae linguae idiotismis. Cp. Hallam, ii 275*.
3 E. de Broglie, Alabillon, i 60.
4 He also published numerous works on Greek Grammar, Tirocinium
linguae graecae, etc.
P'.
Du CANGE.
From a print in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
CHAP. XVIII.] DU CANGE. 289
Zonaras, and of the Chronicon Paschale, were produced by the
erudite scholar and historian, Charles du Fresne,
sieur Du Cange (1610 — 1688), who was born at
Amiens, and educated at the local Jesuit College. After studying
law at Orleans, he was called to the parliamentary bar in Paris,
but devoted himself mainly to historical studies at Amiens
(1638-68) and in the capital. He is best known for his great
Glossary of mediaeval Latin, originally published in three folio
volumes (1678)', and a corresponding Glossary of mediaeval
Greek in two (1688). The Jesuit, Fran£ois Vavasseur (1605 —
1681), an elegant Latin scholar and the author of an Anti-bar-
barus, said of the lexicon of late Latin : — ' II y a soixante ans que
je m 'applique a ne me servir d'aucun des mots rassembles si
laborieusement par M. Du Cange'. The lexicographer of the
latest Latinity was himself an accomplished writer, and the range
of his learning not only included a variety of languages, but also
extended over history and geography, law and heraldry, numis-
matics and epigraphy, and Greek and Latin palaeography. His
lexicographical works were directly founded on the study of an
infinite number of MSS. His work on Byzantine History was
illustrated by a two-fold commentary, including an account of the
families, as well as the coins and topography, of Constantinople
(1680). He also edited Ville-Hardouin's History of the Latin
conquest of that city, and wrote a History of its Latin emperors,
besides editing Joinville's History of Louis IX. The edition of
the Glossaries ascribed to 'Cyril and Philoxenus' etc. (1679) ls
closely connected with his own glossarial labours. He is one of
the greatest lexicographers of France, and his work in this depart-
ment still remains unsurpassed. He was a man of unaffected
piety, and his sociable temperament won him many friends, among
the most learned being Mabillon. He had a small but well-knit
frame, and a fine figure. His statue in bronze, larger than life,
still adorns the Place St Denis in his native city of Amiens2.
1 Ed. 4 in six vols. (1733-6); ed. Charpentier in ten (1766) ; in six (Halle,
1772-84); ed. Henschel in seven (1840-50) ; ed. Favre in ten (1883-7).
2 Cp. Pref. to his Amiens (1840); Hardouin's Essai (1849); Feugere in
Journal de V Instruction pnbliqm (mars, avril, 1852); Leltres Inedites, 1879;
and other literature quoted in Nonv. Biogr. Gen.
S. II. 19
FRANCE. [CENT. XVII.
The Society of Jesus, founded in Paris by Ignatius Loyola in 1534 and
approved by Paul III in 1540, had, in spite of the opposition
of the university, succeeded in establishing the Collegiiim
Claromontanum in 1563. Expelled in 1594, they returned in 1609. In their
celebrated schools they did much for the promotion of original composition
modelled on Cicero and Virgil. Of their numerous Latin poets, the best-
known in the i7th century were Petavius1, Rapin2, and Santeul (1630 —
1697), and in the i8th, Sanadon (d. 1733). Intensely conservative in their
adhesion to the ratio studiorum of 1599, they continued to use Latin in their
text-books long after it had been abandoned by other teachers. The use of
French was one of the characteristics of the ' Little Schools '
of the Jansenists of Port- Royal, founded in 1643 near the
abbey of Port-Royal-des-Champs, eight miles beyond Versailles, and sup-
pressed in 1660. Their text-books included the Latin Grammar of Lancelot
(1644), who also composed a Greek Grammar (1655), and a highly popular
fardin des racines grecques (1657), which remained in use for two centuries.
The most celebrated pupil of Port-Royal was Racine, while their opponents,
the Jesuits, claimed Corneille and Moliere. More than a century after the
suppression of Port-Royal, the Jesuits were themselves suppressed in 1762.
The anecdotist, Gilles Menage of Angers (1613 — 1692), a
parliamentary barrister, and prior of Mont-Didier,
Manage . . . .. .
besides writing a discourse on the Hautontimoru-
menos of Terence, and notes on Lucian, produced several works
which were repeatedly reprinted, — including notes on Diogenes
Laertius, the Amoenitates juris civilis, and the Historia mulierum
philosopharum. A similar popularity has attended his Poemata,
a pleasing imitation of Ovid and Tibullus3, and the light anecdotes
of a literary kind collected in the four small volumes of his
Menagiana. He confesses that he cannot read a Greek author
easily without the aid of a translation4, but he is quite capable of
finding flaws of prosody in the Greek verses of Scaliger5. He is
the original of Vadius in the Femmes Savantes of Moliere (1672),
and of the 'Pedant' in the Caracteres of La Bruyere (1644-96),
the translator as well as the imitator of Theophrastus (1688).
La Bruyere, Menage, and Du Cange were all, sooner or later,
elected members of the French Academy founded
Academy and by Richelieu in 1635. During the five preceding
ijnities^6 years, while that Academy was coming into being,
one of its original members, the minor poet
1 p. 283 supra. 2 p. 291 infra. 3 Hallam, iii 49i4.
4 Menagiana, iii 61, ed. 1715. B Menagiana, i 326.
CHAP. XVIII.] MENAGE. . T. FABER. THE DACIERS. 2pl
Chapelain, definitely formulated in France the theory of the
Three Unities, which the dramatic critics of Italy had elicited
from Aristotle, who really recognises no other Unity than that of
Action. Chapelain converted Richelieu to his views and inspired
the attack directed by the Academy against Corneille's Cid on
the ground of its violation of the Unities. The controversy ended
in 1640 with the victory of the theory of the Unities; Corneille
was elected a member of the Academy in 1647, and in 1660
wrote a discourse recanting, at the bidding of the minor critics
of his day, the principles he had himself followed in the Cid\
The influence exerted in France by Italian commentaries on
Aristotle's treatise on Poetry is further exemplified in the survey
of the history of the subject by the Jesuit, Rene Rapin of Tours
(1621 — 1687)*, who is also the writer of an elegant Latin poem
on Gardens3, and in his ' Parallels of Great Men ' prefers the
Latins to the Greeks4.
Tanaquil Faber of Caen (1615 — 1672), who taught at Saumur,
was a diligent editor of Greek and Latin texts.
T. Faber
Among the former were Anacreon and Sappho,
Dionysius Periegetes, Agathemerus, Apollodorus, ' Longinus ',
and Aelian ; while the latter included Florus, Terence, Lucretius,
Virgil, Horace, and Phaedrus. Menage effectively says of him : —
' M. le Fevre etoit un bon Gaulois de 1'ancienne roche, qui faisoit
autant gloire de sa pauvrete que de sa profession'. He was in
fact so poor that he was compelled to part with his library, but
he is famous, adds Me'nage, not only as the editor of the works
he has left behind him, but also as the father and the preceptor
of Madame Uacier5. Faber's daughter, Anne, was
married to Andre Uacier (1651—1722), a member A^Dadet
of the Academy, and Librarian in Paris. Dacier,
besides producing new editions of Faber's Anacreon and Sappho,
edited ' Festus and Verrius Flaccus ' (1681). His translations
included Aristotle's treatise on Poetry. He edited Horace, while
the honour of producing a French translation of that poet was
1 Saintsbury, ii 257 f; Spingarn, 210.
2 Avertissetnent to his Reflexions sur I'Art Poetique d' 'Aris(6te (1674).
3 Cp. Hallam, iii +<)i-T,4. * jb. 54 14.
5 Menagiana, ii 17 f.
I9-2
FRANCE. [CENT. XVII.
shared by his learned wife. Madame Dacier (1654 — 1720) was
also the translator of Terence, and of three plays of Plautus,
together with the Plutus and Clouds of Aristophanes, Anacreon
and Sappho, and the whole of the Iliad and Odyssey. Her
rendering of Homer is her masterpiece ; and, although it has been
criticised for a too frequent resort to periphrasis, and for its
occasional anachronisms, it deserves the praise of having been
founded on an accurate knowledge of the text, and inspired by a
boundless enthusiasm for the poet1. As an editor of the Classics,
she is represented in Greek by her Callimachus2; and in Latin by
Florus, Dictys and Dares, Aurelius Victor, and Eutropius.
All these Latin works formed part of the celebrated series of
the Delphin Classics. The general editor and organiser of the
series was Pierre Daniel Huet of Caen (1630 —
1721), who from 1670 to 1680 was the coadjutor
of Bossuet in the tuition of the Grand Dauphin, the son of
Louis XIV.
Nearly sixty volumes were produced in less than twelve years by thirty-nine
editors at a cost equivalent to about ,£15,000. The project marks an epoch in
the history of classical literature in France. Learning had indeed been de-
clining since the days of Francis I, but the Latin Classics, though no longer
exclusively cultivated for their own sakes, were still recognised as forming a
part of general literature, and popular editions of the ordinary Latin authors
were welcome. In addition to a Latin commentary, each of these editions
had an ordo verbonim below the text, and a complete verbal index. These
points were not novel in themselves; the novelty lay in their application to
the whole of the Latin authors included in the series. The best known of the
editors are (besides Madame Dacier) Hardouin and Charles de la Rue. But
the only distinctly scholarly edition was that of the Panegyrici Veteres by
De la Baune, while Huet's conjectural emendations on Manilius prompted
Bentley, the next editor of that poet, to describe Huet and Scaliger as viros
egregios. All the volumes of the original edition have an engraving of * Arion
and the dolphin', and are inscribed with the phrase in usum serenissimi
Delphini. The Dauphin, for whose benefit this comprehensive series of Latin
Classics was organised by Huet, and for whom the 'Discourse on Universal
History' was composed by Bossuet, celebrated the completion of his education
by limiting his future reading to the list of births, deaths and marriages in the
Gazette de France. He died four years before Louis XIV, who was succeeded
by the Dauphin's eldest son.
1 Bellanger, Traduttion en France, 45 — 47. Cp. Hallam, iii 247'.
2 Bentley calls the editor jbeWMMnUM doctissima.
CHAP. XVIII.] HUET. MABILLON. 293
Huet, who in early life had seen Salmasius at Leyden, and
had visited the court of queen Christina at Stockholm, was in
frequent correspondence with many of the scholars of Europe.
He was the founder of the Academy of Caen, and, in his edition
of Origen, showed a singular sagacity as a conjectural critic.
After devoting ten years to the tuition of the Dauphin, he spent
ten summers at a beautifully situated abbey south of Caen,
and was afterwards for fourteen years bishop of Soissons and
Avranches. On his elevation to the bishopric, he did not cease
to be a student, and the disappointed rustic, who was not allowed
to see him at Avranches, 'because the bishop was studying', ex-
pressed a hope that the king would send them a bishop 'qui a fait
ses etudes'. After resigning the mitre, he persisted in continuing
his studies for the remaining twenty-two years of his life. He
resided mainly at the abbey of Fontenai, near Caen, devoting
most of his time to philosophical pursuits. His keen interest in
classical studies led to his opposing the Cartesians, who despised
the ancients. His Latin has been described as the characteristic
Latin of the Jesuits, faultless, fluent, perfectly clear, and — insipid.
A student of philosophy to the very end of a long life of more
than 90 years, he is the modern counterpart of Carneades, as
described by Valerius Maximus: — 'laboriosus et diuturnus sapien-
tiae miles; siquidem, nonaginta expletis annis, idem illi vivendi
ac philosophandi finis fuit".
Huet had survived for fourteen years his learned contemporary,
Jean Mabillon (16^2 — 1707), one of the greatest
Mabillon
ornaments of the Benedictine Order. Born in a
simple cottage at Saint-Pierremont in the diocese of Reims, he
had delighted in passing his time in meditation under the shadow
of an oak tree, the site of which was known long after as ' le
chene Mabillon'. He was a student at Reims, and, at the abbey
of Saint- Remi in that city, he entered the Order at the age of
twenty-two. Part of the next ten years was passed at the monas-
teries of Nogent, Corbie, and Saint-Denis, where his duties as
custodian of the treasury of the abbey enabled him to cultivate his
archaeological tastes. He had already seized every opportunity
1 Pattison's Essays, i 244 — 305.
MABILLON.
From an engraving by Simonneau, Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
CHAP. XVIII.] MABILLON. 295
for the study of MSS, when, at the age of thirty-two, he was invited
by Luc d'Achery (1609 — 1685), the editor of the thirteen volumes
of the Veterum aliquot Scriptorum Spicileghtm, to take part in the
learned labours of the Benedictines at the abbey of Saint-Germain-
des-Pres in the south of Paris.
The earliest home of the Benedictine Order in France was the monastery of
Saint-Maur on the Loire, founded by St Benedict's favourite pupil, St Maun
The Order had been reformed in Lorraine and elsewhere by Didier de la Cour
in 1613-8, and this reform had been taken up by Tarisse, who in 1630-48
presided over the ' Congregation of Saint-Maur ', with its head-quarters at the
ancient abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Pres, which continued to be a famous
centre of religious learning until its suppression in I7921.
Mabillon was a member of this abbey for 43 years from the
date of his entering it at the age of thirty-two to his death at the
age of seventy-five. During the many years of his residence
within its walls, the abbey was the resort of the foremost repre-
sentatives of the learned world in Paris, including classical
scholars such as Du Cange and Valesius. In less than three
years after his admission, he produced the two folio volumes of
his edition of St Bernard, a work in which he proved himself a
sound critic, an able expositor, and the master of a pure and lucid
Latin style. In the following year he published the first volume
of his Acta Sanctorum Ordinis Sancti Benedict^ a historic work
of the highest order, which was characterised throughout by a
never-failing love of truth. The quest of manuscript materials
for the composition of this and other learned works led to his
visiting the monasteries of Flanders, Lorraine, Burgundy, Nor-
mandy, and Alsace. In the course of these investigations he
produced his third great work, the folio volume of 635 pages,
De Re Diplomatica (1681). The authority of the charters of
Saint-Denis had been attacked, and the general object of the
treatise was to set forth the proper method of determining the
date and genuineness of ancient documents. A spirit of charity
and candour is conspicuous in the preface ; the work itself
includes numerous facsimiles from charters and other ancient MSS,
and it ends with a special tribute of thanks to the learned Du
1 Cp. Vanel, Les Benedictine de Saint-Afaur a Saint-Germain-dts-Pres
1630 — 1792 (1896).
296 FRANCE. [CENT. xvn.
Cange. Its publication was welcomed as an important event by
the world of scholars throughout Europe. After its publication
the king desired to see the author, who was accordingly presented
by Le Tellier, the archbishop of Reims, and by his rival, Bossuet,
bishop of Meaux. In introducing Mabillon, Le Tellier said : —
' Sire, I have the honour of presenting to your Majesty the most
learned man in your realm'. Bossuet, regarding this as a reflexion
on his own learning, quietly suppressed the proud archbishop by
adding : — 'and the most humble'. Even in recent times the value
of the treatise has been recognised by M. Leopold Delisle, who
says of Mabillon : —
The most illustrious of the pupils of Luc d'Achery added much to the
collections of his master ; above all he devoted himself to the task of dissi-
pating the darkness that enveloped the historical documents of the Middle
Ages, and, in his immortal treatise De Re Diplornatica, laid down the rules
that have resisted the most vigorous attacks, rules whose truth has been con-
firmed by the most modern investigations1.
The work was dedicated to Louis XIV's great minister,
Colbert. In the following year Colbert invited Mabillon to
examine, in the archives of Burgundy, the documents relating to
the reigning house, and afterwards sent him to the libraries of
Germany at the royal expense.
The time was not entirely favourable for a tour in Germany. The
Germans had been exasperated by the sudden capture of Strassburg by the
French (1681), and Vienna was being threatened by the Turks (1683). But
the tour was accomplished with very little inconvenience in the happy com-
panionship of Michel Germain, the devoted friend of Mabillon. It extended
over parts of Bavaria, Switzerland, and the Tyrol, and included visits to
Luxeuil, Bale, Einsiedeln, St Gallen, Augsburg, Ratisbon, Salzburg, Munich,
Innspruck, Constance, Reichenau, Freiburg and Strassburg. At the prompting
of Mabillon, the manuscript Chronicle of Trithemius was printed in the abbey
of St Gallen. Some Greek MSS had been noticed at Augsburg, and MSS of
Virgil at Reichenau ; and a collection of Roman inscriptions, unknown to
Gruter, had been discovered. The journey lasted from January to October
1683, and was recorded in the Iter Germanicum, in the last of the four volumes
of the Analecta (1685).
A similar journey in Italy was taken at the king's charges by the same two
monks. It lasted from April 1685 to June 1686, including a month at Milan,
eleven days in Venice, seven months in Rome, one in Naples, ten days at
1 Cabinet des MSS, 1874, ii 63.
CHAP. XVIII.] MABILLON. 297
Monte Cassino, and three at Bobbio, and more than one visit to Florence.
At Florence they were greatly aided by the ducal librarian, Magliabecchi,
whom Mabillon describes as a 'walking museum and a living library'; at
Rome, they were shown all the objects of antiquarian interest by the eminent
archaeologist, Fabretti. Among the numerous MSS, which they acquired in
Italy for the royal library in Paris, was a fine copy of Ammianus Marcellinus.
The tour was described under the title of the Iter Italicum in the first part
of the first of the two quarto volumes of the Museum Italicum (1687).
Mabillon was subsequently invited to draw up a scheme of
study for persons leading a monastic life. This was published in
1691, and was received with applause by the learned world. But
it brought him into controversy with the Abbe Armand de Ranee,
who had renounced all his preferments except the small priory of
La Trappe (near Mortagne), where he founded a reformed com-
munity consisting of members of the Cistercian Order. In 1683
he produced his treatise, Les Devoirs de la Vie Monastique,
permitting the monks no other employment than that of prayer,
the chanting of the psalms, and manual labour, and enjoining
perpetual silence and abstinence from study. Mabillon's lively
friend, Michel Germain, indignantly exclaimed : — ' he would con-
demn us to the spade and the plough!'1 De Rance"s views
reappeared in a modified form in his Eclairtissements. On the
publication of Mabillon's Traite des Etudes Monastiques, de Ranee
regarded it as a direct attack on his own principles, although his
name was nowhere mentioned. The Abbe published a Reponse
(1692), and in the same year was answered by Mabillon in his
Reflexions. The controversy excited the keenest interest among
scholars. On the publication of the Traite, Mabillon received
a letter from Huet, congratulating him on his endeavour to dis-
abuse the minds of those who had been led to believe that
ignorance was a necessary qualification for a good monk'2. The
controversialists were finally reconciled by the Christian charity ex-
hibited by Mabillon in an interview with the Abbe de Ranee, which
was brought about by the latter's friend, the widowed Duchesse de
Guise. In 1701 the 'Academy of Inscriptions' was founded by
Colbert, not with a view to the study of ancient inscriptions, but
1 Valery, Correspondence, ii 329.
2 13 Aug. 1691 (Valery, ii 320). Cp., in general, Maitland's Dark Ages,
161-5 (ed. 1844).
298- FRANCE. [CENT. xvn.
primarily for the composition of appropriate mottoes for the
medals struck in honour of the exploits of Louis XIV. This
Academy soon became the centre of the study of language and
history in France. By the royal command Mabillon was nominated
one of the original members. Two years later he produced the
first of the four folio volumes of the ' Annals ' of the Benedictine
Order, which occupied his attention until his death in 1707. In
all his scholarly investigations he was inspired by a perfect charity,
and an unfailing honesty of purpose. The guiding principle of
his life may be found in the motto prefixed to the particular work
which, among all his learned labours, has the closest connexion
with scholarship: scientia veri justiquevindex^. His devoted friend,
Thierry Ruinart, spent two years in collecting his papers and in
writing his life. In 1819 his remains found their final resting-
place in the second chapel to the right, as one enters the choir of
the ancient abbey church of Saint-Germain-des-Pres. The in-
scription runs as follows : —
4 Memoriae D. loannis Mabillon, Presbyteri, Monachi Ordinis S. Benedict!,
Academiae Inscriptionum Humaniorumque Litterarum Socii, pietate doctrina
modestia elapso iam saeculo clari, bibliothecarum turn nostratium turn
exterarum diligentissimi indagatoris, in diplomatum sinceritate dijudicanda
facile principis, Actorum Annaliumque Ordinis sui collectoris conditoris'2.
The other tablets of the same date in the same chapel are in
honour of Descartes, and of Mabillon's great successor among
the scholars of the Benedictine Order, Bernard Montfaucon.
Montfaucon belongs to the next generation and is therefore
reserved for a subsequent chapter. Meanwhile, the
Jesuit Jean Hardouin of Quimper ( 1 646 — 1 729) may
here be mentioned as the editor of the Delphin edition of the elder
Pliny (1685), and as the author of works on numismatics (1684 and
1693), who paradoxically maintained that almost all the ancient
Classics were spurious products of the thirteenth century. He
made an exception in favour of the Georgics of Virgil, the Satires
1 De Re Diplomatica, 1681 ; cp. Jadart, 89.
2 On Mabillon cp., in general, Ruinart (1709), Chavin de Meulan (1843),
Valery, Correspondance Intdite (1847), and esp. the works of H. Jadart (Reims,
1879), E. de Broglie, 2 vols. (1888); and S. Baumer, Johannes Mabillon, ein
Lebens- und Literaturbild (Augsburg, 1892).
CHAP. XVIII.] HARDOUIN. SPON. 299
and Epistles of Horace, with Cicero and the elder Pliny, and to
these he was disposed to add Homer, Herodotus and Plautus.
Thus he held that the Odes of Horace and the Aeneid of Virgil
were written in the middle ages, an opinion that prompted his
younger contemporary Boileau to remark that, although he had no
love for the monks, he would not have been sorry to live with
' Frere Horace' or 'Dom Virgile'. Jacob Vernet of Geneva hit off
his character in the following epitaph : — ' in expectatione judicii
hie jacet hominum paradoxotatus..., credulitate puer, audacia
juvenis, deliriis senex'1.
Classical archaeology owed much to his short-lived con-
temporary, Jacques Spon of Lyon (1647 — 1685),
who travelled with George Wheler in Greece and S whefe"?
the Levant (1675-6), collecting coins and MSS and
antique marbles. Drawings of the sculptures of the Parthenon
were made in 1674, thirteen years before it was reduced to ruin
during the Venetian siege of 1687 2. These drawings were for-
merly ascribed to the French artist, Carrey, but were probably
produced by one of the two Flemish artists who accompanied the
Marquis de Nointel3.
1 E. de Broglie, Alabillon, i 105; borrowed partly from Menage, Vita
Gargilii Mamurrae, in Misc. 1652.
2 Stark, 137 f; Michaelis, Parthenon, 62 f, 95 f, 345 f; Omont, Atfihies au
xviie siecle (1898), pi. i — xix ; Springer-Michaelis, Kunstgeschiclite, eel. 7, fig. 44.
3 Omont, 4 f.
CHAPTER XIX.
THE NETHERLANDS FROM 1575 TO 1700.
A NEW era in the History of Scholarship in the Northern
Netherlands is marked by the foundation of the
Leyden
university of Leyden in 1575. When the siege of
Leyden had ended in the repulse of the Spanish forces, the
heroism of the inhabitants was publicly commemorated by the
institution of an annual fair and by the establishment of a
university. The actual birth of that university was celebrated by
a gorgeous series of ceremonies. In the van of an imposing
procession were the allegorical representatives of the faculties of
Theology, Law, and Medicine ; in the centre, a personification of
Minerva, surrounded by Aristotle and Plato, Cicero and Virgil ;
and, in the rear, the professors and other officials of the newly-
founded seat of learning. Meanwhile, a triumphal barge floated
slowly down the Rhine, bearing to the place of landing the
radiant forms of Apollo and the Muses. The barge was steered
by Neptune, who had lately let loose the waters of the Ocean on
the troops of Spain, and had thus relieved the siege of Leyden.
As soon as the procession of the professors had reached the
landing-place, each in turn was embraced by the Muses and
Apollo, and all were welcomed by the recitation of a Latin
poem1. It was the happy inauguration of a seat of learning that
had come into being under circumstances that were absolutely
unique.
1 Motley's Dutch Republic, ii 565-8; cp. Meursius, Athenae Batavae,
1 8 — 20. The current story that Leyden was offered a choice between a univer-
sity and an annual fair free of tolls and taxes finds no support in the documen-
tary history of Pieter Bor, vii 561, and (as I learn from Mr Hessels) is
rejected by the latest historian of the Netherlands, Prof. Blok of Leyden.
CHAP. XIX.] LIPSIUS. 301
The newly-founded university owed much to the foremost of
its three Curators, the lord of Noortwyk, Janus
Dousa
Dousa (1545 — 1604)1. As governor of Leyden he
had been the brave leader of the beleaguered citizens ; in Latin
letters, he was then known for his poems alone, but he afterwards
gave proof of his interest in Plautus (1587) and in other poets.
His love of Plautus was inherited by his elder son, Janus (1571 —
1597), the Librarian of Leyden, while the younger, Franciscus
(1577 — 1606), produced in 1597 a memorable edition of the
fragments of Lucilius, in which the influence of Scaliger is
apparent2. The first Rector of Leyden was Petreius Tiara
(1516-88), professor of Greek, translator of the Sophistes of Plato
and the Medea of Euripides3. The same professorship was held
from 1588 to 1612 by Bonaventura Vulcanius,
Vulcanius
or De Smet, of Bruges (1538 — 1614), an editor
of Arrian, Callimachus, and Apuleius, who also published the
glossary of Philoxenus4.
One of the two greatest services rendered to Leyden by its
first curator, Janus Dousa, who was known as the
'Batavian Varro' and the 'Oracle of the University'5,
was his happily inducing the great Latin scholar, Justus Lipsius
(1547 — 1606), to take up his residence at Leyden in 1579. Born
at Issche near Brussels, he had from the age of sixteen been a
student at Louvain, where he specially devoted himself to Roman
Law. In 1567 he had accompanied Cardinal Gravella to Italy
as his Latin secretary. He spent two years in Italy, exploring the
libraries and examining all the inscriptions he could find. In
Rome he made the acquaintance of Muretus and other leading
scholars, and collated transcripts of Tacitus, without ascertain-
ing the existence of either of the two Medicean MSS. After
returning to Louvain for a year of irregular life, he visited Dole
and Vienna. On his way back in 1572 he stayed for more than a
1 Portraits of Janus, father and son, in Meursius, 87, 151, and in Boissard,
IV 2 and vi 14.
2 Portrait in Marx' Lucilius, 1906.
3 Portrait in Meursius, 83, and Boissard, VI 3.
4 Portrait in Meursius, 102, and Boissard, VI 5.
8 id. 89 ; cp. Hamilton's Discussions, 332 f.
LIPSIUS.
IVSTO LlPSIO LlTTERARVM 8TVDIIS FLORENTISSIMO SAPIENTIAE ARTIBVS
IMMORTALI VIRO IOANNES WOVERIVS ANTVERPIENSIS HANG DIGNISSIMAM
VVLTVS VERITATEM PERENNI AERE SVO AERE ET AMORE INSCRIPTAM
CVLTVS ET OBSERVANTIAE AETERNVM SYMBOLVM L. M. CURABAT ANT-
VERPIAE M.IOCV.
From Pierre de Jode's engraving of portrait by Abraham Janssens (1605).
Reduced from large copy in Max Rooses, Chrislophe Planlin (1882), p. 342 f.
CHAP. XIX.] LIPSIUS. 303
year at Jena, where he held a professorship. He there became a
Protestant, and even delivered a violent discourse against the
Catholics. He left Jena for Cologne, where he spent nine months,
in 1574. In the same year his great edition of Tacitus was
published at Antwerp. He then withdrew to his old home at
Issche, but the horrors of civil war soon drove him from that de-
fenceless town to the city of Louvain. In 1576 he was lecturing
at the local university on the Leges Regiae et Decemuirales, and on
the first book of Livy. The memorable invitation to leave the
Spanish Netherlands for the Dutch university of Leyden led to
his residing there with great distinction, as honorary Professor of
History, from 1579 to 1591. In the latter year, when a controversy
arose on the punishment of heretics, he asked for leave of absence,
and quietly went to Mainz, where he was re-admitted into the
Roman Church. After declining many tempting proposals from
princes and bishops in Germany, in 1592 he accepted a call to his
first university of Louvain, where, as professor of History, he
lectured to large classes on the Roman historians and on the
moral treatises of Seneca. He also received a stipend as honorary
professor of Latin at the Collegium Trili/igite, which long remained
closed in consequence of the disturbed state of the country. In
One of his Dialogues he writes of Louvain in 1602 : — nunc jacent
ibi omnia el silent^. Even the office of President of the College
continued vacant for thirty years until 1606, — the year of the
death of Lipsius2.
His main strength lay in textual criticism and in exegesis.
His masterpiece in this respect was his Tacitus, of which two
editions appeared in his life-time (1574, 1600), and two after his
death, the latest and best, that of 1648, including Velleius. It
was not until 1600 that the readings of the two Medicean MSS
were published (by Pichena), when one of the earliest of his
emendations, gnarum (for G. navuni) id Caesari3, was confirmed.
He was so familiar with the text of Tacitus, that he ' offered to
repeat any passage with a dagger at his breast, to be used against
him if his memory failed him'4. The exegesis of his edition rests
on a profound and accurate knowledge of Roman history and
1 Lovaniniii, lib. in, c. iv. - Neve, Mem. 103.
3 Ann. \ 5. 4 Niceron, xxiv 119 (Hallam, i 4S64).
304 THE NETHERLANDS. [CENT. XVI.
antiquities. It is a work that places him in the front rank of
Latin scholars, but it must not be forgotten that he also produced
editions of Valerius Maximus and Velleius Paterculus, and of
Seneca and the Panegyric of the younger Pliny. Except in
the case of Seneca's Tragedies and Plautus, he did little for
Latin Verse, and his work was of far greater service for the
authors of the Silver Age than for Cicero. His familiarity with
Cicero is, however, proved by his Variae Lectiones, and by his
decisive rejection of the Consolatio published by Sigonius1. His
thorough acquaintance with Latin literature and Roman history
is conspicuous in his numerous treatises, especially in those
entitled De Militia Romana and Poliorcetica (the former including
a commentary on the Roman camp as described by Polybius2), in
his Variae and Antiquae Lectiones of 1569 and 1575 respectively,
and in his Epistolicae Quaestiones (1577). His Politica is mainly
a digest of Aristotle, Tacitus, and other ancient authors. A
special interest attaches to the work on the pronunciation of
Latin, dedicated to Sir Philip Sidney (1586), in which he is dis-
tinctly in favour of always pronouncing C as K, and V as W,
while he allows of some variation in the sounds of the vowels3.
His study of the authors of the Silver Age led to his abandoning
the moderate Ciceronianism of his earlier Letters and of his Variae
Lectiones for a style founded on Tacitus and Seneca, and even on
Gellius and Apuleius4. Though he was fond of quoting Greek,
his strength did not lie in that branch of scholarship. Scaliger
said of him : Lipsius n'est Grec que pour sa provision* ; and a remark
in one of the Letters of Lipsius, ' Graecas litteras homini erudito
decoras esse, necessarias non item', met with a protest, in his
life-time, from Casaubon6, and, after his death, from Ruhnken7,
1 Lipsii Opera Critica (Hallam i so84 n.) ; p. 144 supra.
2 Cp. Hallam, i 527*; founded on Fr. Patrizzi (cp. Seal. Sec. 143).
3 Opera (Antwerp, 1637), 441 f.
4 H. Stephanus, De Lipsii Latinitate (1595); cp. C. Nisard, Triumvirat,
39—42, 140-6.
6 Seal. Sec. 143.
6 Epp. 291, 294; with Lipsius' reply, Ep. 356 (Burman, Sylloge, i 376).
7 Opera, i 268. On the Life and Works of Lipsius, cp. Meursius, 109 —
115 (portrait, ib. and in Boissard, n ii 28); his portrait was painted by
Rubens, Van Dyck, and Abraham Janssens (see p. 302 supra). Cp. also Blount,
CHAP. XIX.] SCHOTT. SCALIGER. 305
who describes him as ' perfectus literis Latinis, Graecarum medi-
ocriter peritus'.
The Jesuit Andreas Schott of Antwerp (1552 — 1629) was, like Lipsius, a
pupil of Cornelius Valerius, professor of Latin at Louvain
Schott
(1557-78). After visiting Douai and Paris, he spent several
years in Spain, as a professor at Toledo and Saragossa. Thereupon he
entered the Society of Jesus, and was a teacher in Rome at the Collegio
Romano. In 1597, at the age of 45, he returned to Antwerp, which remained
his home for the rest of his life. To the Ciceronian controversy he contributed
a pamphlet entitled Cicero a calumniis vindicates (1613). His name is con-
nected with the discovery of the Monumentum Ancyranum, first copied by
Busbequius (1555), Legationis Turcicae Epp. iv (1595), 65; and first published
by Schott with Aurelius Victor (Antwerp, 1579) 65 f. He edited Aurelius
Victor, Pomponius Mela, and Seneca the rhetorician; while his study of Greek
is attested by his edition of the Bibliotheca of Photius (1606), and the Chresto-
mathy of Proclus (1615). He was the first to edit the Proverbs of Diogenianus
(1612); all his notes on those Proverbs were reprinted by Gaisford, and a small
selection only by Leutsch and Schneidewin. Although he was a Jesuit, he
was on friendly terms with Casaubon, their correspondence beginning in 1602.
But in writing to Protestants he exercised a certain degree of caution ; at the
end of a letter to G. J. Vossius he simply subscribes himself as ' the darkling
{tenebrid) who translated Photius ' *.
At Louvain, Lipsius was succeeded in 1607 by h'5 PUP''> Erycius Puteanus
of Venloo (1574 — 1646), who at an early age was appointed
professor of Eloquence at Milan, where he was honoured with
the friendship of Cardinal Frederic Borromeo, the founder of the Ambrosian
Library. He was the correspondent of many scholars throughout Europe, but
the topics treated in his Latin works were unimportant, and he succeeded in
his blameless ambition of being bonus potius quam conspicnus^.
At Leyden, the place of distinction filled by Lipsius until
1590 was offered by Janus Dousa to Scaliger, who
there produced his great work, the Thesaurus
Temporum (1606). His life and works have been already noticed
in connexion with the land of his birth3. In the land of his
591-4; Reiffenberg (1823); C. Nisard, Triumvirat, i — 148; Neve, Me HI.
166—172, 322 f; G. H. M. Delprat, Lettre.s Inedites (1580-97), Amst. 1858;
Van der Haeghen, Bibliographic ; L. Miiller, 24 — 29, 33 — 35; Urlichs, 62- f.
1 Colomies, Melange Curieux, 833. Cp., in general, Baguet in Alt' in. Acad.
Belg. xxiii 1-49; van Hulst in Revue de Liege (1846) ; de Backer, Bibliographie
i 710—727; Neve, Mem. 342 f; Pattison's Casaubon, 396 — 400- n.
2 Neve, Mem. 172—180; portrait in Boissard, vil // 3; Blount, Centura,
689; Max Rooses, Musee Plantin (1883), 32.
3 p. 199 supra.
S. IL 20
306 THE NETHERLANDS. [CENT. XVI f
adoption he continued to be famous as the greatest scholar of his
age. Among those who came under his immediate influence at
Leyden was Daniel Heinsius, to whom we shall shortly return.
Wowerius1 (1574 — 1612), a native of Hamburg, was Scaliger's
pupil at Leyden, and, after living at Antwerp, travelled for some
years in France and Italy. He was aided by Scaliger in his
edition of Petronius ;. he also edited Apuleius. A greater interest
attaches to his Tractatio de Polymathia, a fragment of a vast
work on the learned studies of the ancients, the first attempt at a
general survey of the whole domain of classical learning (i6c>4)2.
He was an intimate friend of Philip Rubens (1574 — 1611), the
elder brother of the artist. Both of the friends were pupils of
Lipsius, and their friendship has been immortalised by the artist
in a picture now in the Pitti Palace. The two friends are seated
at a table covered with books, and between them is Lipsius. In
a niche of the wall to the right, we see a copy of the bronze bust
of 'Seneca' (whose works had been edited by Lipsius in 1605),
with four Dutch tulips in a glass beside it; in the middle distance,
we have a glimpse of a beautiful Italian landscape ; while the
artist himself is standing on the left3.
The teaching of History at Leyden was taken up in 1597 by Paulus Merula
of Dordrecht (1558 — 1607), who had travelled extensively in
France, Italy, Germany, and England, and was then practising
as a barrister. Several of his antiquarian and geographical works were pub-
lished after his death. Two years before his appointment, he published an
edition of the Fragments of Ennius (1595). He professed to have found some
of these in a MS of L. Calpurnius Piso at the monastery of Saint-Victor in
Paris4, but this is now regarded as a fraudulent statement5. Merula's successor
was Dominicus Baudius (1*61 — 1613), an excellent composer
Baudius
in verse and prose, as is proved by his Ainores and his Orationes.
One of these was addressed to queen Elizabeth, another to James I, while a
1 Jan van der Wouwer. 2 Bursian, i 303, Urlichs, 74*.
3 Cp. Emile Michel, Rubens, i 155. It is clear, from chronological con-
siderations, that it is not Grotius who is here represented as the friend of
Philip Rubens; and this opinion is confirmed, on other grounds, by Max
Rooses as well as Emile Michel. A portrait of Lipsius, engraved for
Wowerius, p. 302 supra.
4 p. 424 of Hessel's ed. of Ennius, 1707.
5 Lawicki, De fraude P. Merulae, Bonn, 1852. — Cp. Meursius, Ath. Bat.
158 f; portrait ib., and in Boissard, VI 16.
CHAP. XIX.] P. MERULA. SCRIVERIUS. G. J. VOSSIUS. 307
third is the funeral oration in honour of Scaliger (1609). Of his numerous
letters many are addressed to Grotius1. Petrus Scriverius of
i • i i Scnverius
Haarlem (1576 — 1660), who lived at .Leyden as an independent
scholar, is best known as an editor of Martial (1619). He also edited the
tragedies of Seneca and the works of Apuleius, but he was probably much
more interested in writing his own poems and in printing repeated editions of
the Basia of Joannes Secunclus2.
A far wider field of learning was covered by Gerard John
Vossius (1577 — 1649), the greatest ' Polyhistor ' of
,-, . G- J- Vossius
his age. Born of Dutch parentage in the neigh-
bourhood of Heidelberg, he was educated at Dordrecht and
Leyden, ultimately becoming Rector of the former in 1600 and
of the latter in 1615. In 1622 he was appointed professor of
Eloquence at Leyden, and, after holding that office for ten years,
accepted the professorship of History at Amsterdam in i63i3.
Seventeen years later, at the age of 72, when he was climbing a
ladder in his library, he had a fall that proved fatal, thus dying
(as Reisig has phrased it) ' in the arms of the Muses'. The
subjects of his most important works were Grammar, Rhetoric,
and the History of Literature. His earliest literary distinction
was won at Leyden in 1606, when he published a com-
prehensive treatise on Rhetoric, which, in the edition printed
thirty years later, fills 1000 quarto pages. On its first appearance,
Scaliger declared that he had learnt an infinite amount from its
perusal, while Casaubon lauded its critical power and its wide
erudition4. His text-book of Latin Grammar (1607) was re-
peatedly reprinted in Holland and Germany, while his learned
and scholarly work on the same general subject, published in four
volumes in 1635, under the title of Aristarchus, sive de Arte
Grammatica, was warmly welcomed by Salmasius, and went
through several editions, the latest of which appeared at Halle
after the lapse of two centuries5. He also wrote a treatise De
Vittis Sermonis et Glossematis Latino-barbaris in nine books.
1 Epp. et Orationcs, ed. nova, 1642, portrait ib., and in Meursius, 154,
and Boissard, vi 15.
2 Portrait of Scriverius in Meursius, 220, and Boissard, vi 27.
3 Meanwhile, he was offered a professorship of History at Cambridge in
1624, and was made Canon of Canterbury in 1629.
4 See also Saintsbury, ii 358. 5 Cp. Hallam, ii 2884.
2O — 2
GEJtARDVS IOAN. VOSSIVS.
.
(_ ?/*/?*. .
fafrsrtm:
•/ '''r '
I/ a.'l; ,'is,' <ist<j •.•<-';r.r-'t •//.'. .- ( +t~-vacrfc'~c/vr'
G. J. Vossius.
From Bloteling's engraving of portrait by Sandrart.
CHAP. XIX.] G. J. VOSSIUS. SALMASIUS. 309
Four of these, published during his life-time (1645), may be
briefly described as an Anti-barbarus • of the remaining five
(1685), printed after his death, the most interesting part is on the
verbafalso suspecta, giving lists of many good Latin words that do
not happen to be found in Cicero1. In the interval between these
two works on Grammar, he published two important treatises on
the History of Literature, entitled De Historitis Graecis (1623-4)
and Latinis (1627), and a new edition of the former appeared at
Leipzig as late as 1833. His treatise on Poetry (1647) was a
work of wide influence. It resembles the corresponding treatise
of the elder Scaliger2. His interest in Art is attested by his brief
treatise De Graphice, while • he is also the author of one of the
earliest works on Mythology3. The brother of his
Junius
second wife was Franciscus Junius (1589 — 1677),
author of the De plctura veterum (1637 and 1694), and for thirty
years librarian to the earl of Arundel4.
The Chair of History at Leyden, left vacant from the death
of Scaliger in 1609 to the year 1631, might well have been
offered to Gerard John Vossius, who had produced both of his
important works on the Greek and Latin historians before the end
of 1627. But in 1631 a native of another land,
„, , . . Salmasius
Claude Saumaise, was invited to fill the vacant
Chair, and it cannot be regarded as an entirely accidental co-
incidence that in that very year Vossius resigned the professorship
of Eloquence at Leyden for that of History at Amsterdam.
Saumaise, or Salmasius, whose earlier career we have already
noticed in connexion with the land of his birth5, had produced in
1629 his great work on Solinus, but, after his appointment at
Leyden, he edited authors of minor importance only, such as
Scylax, Cebes, Simplicius, and Achilles Tatius, while he added
1 Cp. Hallam, ii sS?4.
2 See Saintsbury, ii 359.
3 De Origitie et Progressu Idololatriae, sine de Theologia Genlili. On
G. J. Vossius, cp. Meursius, Ath. Bat. 267 — 275 (portrait ib. and in Boissard,
ix n % i; also on p. 308 supra) ; Blount, 680; C. Tollius (1649) ; H- Tollius
(1778); Ue Crane (1820); Hallam, ii 287-* f ; L. Miiller, 40.
4 Michaelis, Ancient Marbles in Great Britain, 25; Stark, 126. Cp.
Lessing's iMokoon, c. 2 and c. 29.
5 p. 285 supra.
IGANNES MEURSIUS I.G.ET
HISTORIC CRJLCA PROFESS.
MEURSIUS.
From the engraving in Meursius, Athenae Batavae (1625), p. 191.
CHAP. XIX.] MEURSIUS. 311
little to his reputation for learning, except by his work on usury,
and his treatise disproving the existence of a separate Hellenistic
dialect.
Jan de Meurs, or Joannes Meursius (1579 — 1639), who was
born near the Hague, was a student at Leyden,
.... /- T-> • T Meursius
and, after receiving the degree of Doctor in Law at
Orleans, became professor of History and of Greek in his own
university (1610). During the fourteen years of his professorial
activity, he printed for the first time a number of Byzantine
authors; he also produced the editio princeps of the Elementa
Harmonica of Aristoxenus (1616), and edited the Timaeus of
Plato with the commentary and translation of Chalcidius (1617).
Most of his numerous lucubrations are concerned with Greek
Antiquities, including the festivals, games, and dances of Greece,
and the mysteries of Eleusis. Gronovius, who has gathered many
of these into his Thesaurus, describes Meursius as ' the true and
legitimate mystagogue to the sanctuaries of Greece'. He wrote
much on the Antiquities of Athens and Attica, and the vast
amount of rather confused learning that he has thus collected has
been largely utilised by later writers on the same subject. His
treatise on the Ceramicus Geminus was first published by Pufendorf
(1663), to whom Graevius dedicated his edition of the Themis
Attica of Meursius (1685). He commemorated the first jubilee
of Leyden by producing, under the name of Athenae Batavae, a
small quarto volume in two books, (i) a history of the Town and
University with curious cuts representing incidents connected
with the siege, and (2) a series of biographies of the principal
professors, contributed by themselves, with lists of their works
and with their portraits. The date of its publication (1625)
marks a turning point in his career. The work is dedicated to
the chancellor of the king of Denmark, who had lately invited
him to accept the professorship of History at the Danish university
of Soroe, where he passed the last fourteen years of his life. The
portrait prefixed to his autobiography in the Athenae Batavae,
presents us with a face marked with an exceptional alertness and
keenness of expression'.
1 p. 191, and Boissard, vi 23. See also D. W. Moller's Dispu.'atio (1693);
J. V. Schramm (1715); and A. Vorst, in preface to posthumous ed. of Theo-
phrastus, Char. 1640 (reprinted in Gronovius, Thes. x); Opera, Flor. 1741-63.
DANIEL HEINSIUS.
From Snyderhuis' engraving of portrait by S. Merck. Print Room, British Museum.
CHAP. XIX.] PUTSCHIUS. CLUVERIUS. D. HEINSIUS. 313
Helias Putschius of Antwerp (1580 — 1606) was educated at
Stade, near the mouth of the Elbe, and at Leyden,
• v r^ Putschius
where he came under the influence of Scaliger. To
Scaliger, who calls him an egregius juvenis1, he dedicated his
comprehensive collection of Grammaticae Latinae atictores antiqui
(1605), printed from manuscript sources at Heidelberg, one of the
many places in Germany where he lived before that early death
at Stade, which prevented his completing the notes to that great
work2.
Cluverius of Danzig (1580 — 1623) visited Poland and Germany before he
was sent to learn Law at Leyden. But he was much more
Cluverius
attracted to the study of Geography, and, under the influence
of Scaliger, he devoted himself entirely to that subject. He served as a
soldier for two years in Hungary, travelled in Bohemia, and in England and
Scotland, as well as in France, Germany, and Italy. He had a wide know-
ledge of modern languages, and the Italian Cardinals endeavoured to retain
him in Rome, but he remained true to Leyden, where he ended his days in
receipt of an annual stipend, which did not involve any public duties as a
teacher. He produced three important works on the ancient geography
of Germany (1616), Sicily, with Sardinia and Corsica (1619), and Italy (1624).
The first of these, as well as his Introduction to Geography, which was pub-
lished after his death, was twice reprinted3.
A far longer life than that of Putschius the grammarian, or
Cluverius the geographer, was allotted to one who
D. Heinsius
was born in or about the same year as both. Daniel
Heinsius of Ghent (1580-1 — 1655) studied Law at Leyden, but
his real interest lay in Plato and Aristotle. He found a friend in
Scaliger, who bequeathed to him a number of his books, while
Heinsius was deeply devoted to the memory of that great scholar,
and published three orations in his honour4. His work on Greek
authors, such as Hesiod and Aristotle's treatise on Poetry, was
(except in the case of Theocritus) better than his work on Latin
authors. He studied the treatise of Aristotle in connexion with
the Ars Poctica of Horace. His edition of the former (1611) is
the only considerable contribution to the criticism and elucidation
1 Seal. Sec. s. v.
- Life by Ritterhusius, 1608 and 1706, and by Wilcken, Lindcnbrogii
(1723), 82—112.
3 Cp. Meursius, Alh. Bat. 290 f, with portrait, and D. Heinsius, Oratio ix.
4 Or. ii, iii, xxix.
314 THE NETHERLANDS. [CENT. XVII.
of the work that was ever produced in the Netherlands. It
includes several satisfactory corrections of the text, a Latin
translation completed in 'two or three days', and a number of
original notes. In his pamphlet De Tragoediae Constitutione,
published in the same year, he deals with all the essential points
in Aristotle's treatise, giving proof that he has thoroughly imbibed
the author's spirit, and adding illustrations from the Greek tragic
poets, and from Horace and Seneca1. It was through this work
that he became a centre of Aristotelian influence in Holland2.
His influence extended, in France, to Chapelain and Balzac3, to
Racine and Corneille4 ; in Germany, to Opitz5; and, in England,
to Ben Jonson, who in his Discoveries (1641) borrows largely from
Heinsius, without mentioning his name6. He also borrows from
the criticisms of Heinsius on Plautus and Terence, first printed
in that scholar's edition of Horace (i6i2)7.
His transpositions in the text of the Ars Poelica and his verbal
conjectures in the other works of Horace have been disapproved
by Bentley and other critics; but his treatise De Satyra Horatiana
is not without merit. His critical notes on Silius (1600), on the
tragedies of Seneca (1611), and on Ovid (1629), are not much
more valuable than those on Horace8. Nevertheless, his criticisms
were highly praised by his contemporaries and by his immediate
successors9. His Latin orations are sometimes deemed to be
unduly grandiloquent, but his elegiac poems have a more uniform
elegance than those of Buchanan, which they closely resemble.
His Juvenilia in particular are marked by a repeated preference
for a polysyllabic ending to the pentameter line10. He was highly
honoured at home and abroad; he was made a Councillor of State
by Gustavus Adolphus, and a knight of St Mark by the Republic
1 Saintsbury, ii 356 f.
2 Jonkbloet, Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Lefterkunde, 1889*, iv 214 f.
3 ib. iii 60 f. 4 Pref. to Don Sanche.
5 Beckherrn, Opilz, Ronsard, und Heinsius, 1888.
6 This has been pointed out to me by Prof. Spingarn, to whom all the
above references are due.
7 See esp. Spingarn's Sources ofjonsorfs ' Discoveries ', in Modern Philology,
ii (1905) 451—460, and M. Castelain's critical ed. (Paris, 1907).
8 L. Muller, 39. 9 Blount, 698.
10 Hallam, iii 5i4.
CHAP. XIX.] GROTIUS. 315
of Venice; and was invited to the papal court by Urban VIII 'to
rescue Rome from barbarism'1.
Hugo Grotius (1583 — 1645), w^° was born at Delft and
educated at Leyden, was eminent as a statesman, a
... . 11- i 11 TT-ri Grotius
diplomatist, a theologian and a scholar. His father
wrote Latin poems, and corresponded with Lipsius in Latin prose^
The son began writing Latin verses at the tender age of eight, and
constantly practised the art until he was at least thirty-four. At
the age of fifteen, under the influence of Scaliger, he began to
prepare an edition of the mediaeval text-book of the liberal arts
by Martianus Capella. In the same year he attended Olden-
Barneveldt on an important mission to France, and was presented
to Henry IV2, who gave the young attache a gold chain with his
portrait. On his return to the Netherlands the youthful Grotius
published his commentary on Capella, with a portrait of himself
wearing the gold chain and the medallion. The work was
welcomed by Scaliger, who divined the editor's future greatness3.
In the year of its publication his father, fearing he might be unduly
attracted to the pursuit of literature, removed him from Leyden
as soon as he had taken the degree of Doctor in Law, and entered
him as an advocate at the Hague. The early part of his public
career was an unbroken series of distinctions. He was successively
historiographer of the Netherlands, advocate-general of Holland
and Zealand, a member of the States-general, and envoy to Eng-
land. His earliest work on international law was the Mare Liberum
(1609), and he was well content with the terms of the answer to
that work in the Mare Clausiim of the learned Selden (1636).
The controversy excited by the two theological professors of
Leyden, Arminius and Gomar, continued long after the death of
the former in 1609; and the Arminian (or anti-Calvinistic) opinions
of Barneveldt led to his being sentenced to death with the approval
of the Synod of Dort (1619). Grotius, who sympathised with
Barneveldt, was condemned to imprisonment for life. The same
sentence was pronounced on the president of the council of Ley-
1 Cp., in general, Meursius, Ath. Bat. 209 — 219 (portrait ib., and in
Boissard, VI 16, bearing his modest motto, quantum est quod nescinnts);
Thysius, Orat. Funebris, 1655. Portrait on p. 312 supra.
- Poemata (1617), p. 307 f. 3 ib. 519 f.
316 THE NETHERLANDS. [CENT. XVII.
den, who, on hearing his doom, exclaimed in the words of Horace:
hie murus aeneus esto, nil conscire sibi, nnlla pallescere culpa.
Grotius received his sentence in silence, reserving for a future time
the publication of the proof of its scandalous injustice1. In his
prison he wrote in Dutch verse the first draft of his future treatise
De Veritate Religionis Christianae ; and the ' dulces ante omnia
Musae' were now dearer to him than ever2. All that he composed
at this time was sent to G. J. Vossius at Leyden, and Vossius in
his turn was permitted to send large parcels of books for the use
of the imprisoned scholar. The books passed to and fro in a box
about four feet long, and, by the ingenuity of his wife, it was in
this box that, after the lapse of a year and ten months, the prisoner
made his escape. In March, 1622, he fled to Paris, where he
found friends among the scholars of the time, such as Salmasius
and Peirescius. Once, in the company of the latter, a stranger
asked how he could become as learned as Peirescius and Grotius,
when Grotius replied: 'Lege Veteres, sperne recentiores, et eris
noster'3. When Puteanus wrote to console the exile with the
examples of Themistocles and Coriolanus, Grotius preferred to
think of Aristides, and of Phocion, who in his last words sent a
message to his son, bidding him never to reproach Athens with
the penalty she had inflicted on his father4. In 1622 he published
his Defence in Dutch and in Latin. In the following year he
produced his edition and translation of the poetic passages in
Stobaeus, accompanied by the treatises of Plutarch and Basil on
the study of the poets, and followed, three years later, by excerpts
from the tragic and comic poets of Greece5. The Latin version of
the extracts in Stobaeus had occupied him during the imprison-
ment at the Hague immediately before his trial, and, curiously
enough,, he had just reached the 4pth Section, On the Criticism of
Tyranny, when the pen was taken from his hand6. In the three
short years between the publication of his Stobaeus and 1625 he
composed his classic work De Jure Belli et Pads1. In the same
year he completed the Latin version of the De Veritate and offered
1 Afologeticiis, c. 19. '2 Ep. 125.
3 Luden, 171 n. * Ep. 164, p. 62.
5 1626; enlarged by Gataker in his Miscellanies,
6 Ep. 200, p. 71. 7 Hallam, ii 544—589*.
CHAP. XIX.] GROTIUS. 317
Scriverius some memoranda on the tragedies of Seneca1. He also
put together certain notes and emendations on Tacitus, which
reminded him to resume his Latin History of Holland. The
emendations were subsequently printed in 1640 in a new issue
of the edition of Lipsius. His translation of Procopius was not
published until ten years after his death. His rendering of the
Phoenissae of Euripides in Latin Verse, begun in prison, was
completed and published in 1630.
His attempt to return to his native land was rudely met by a
decree of perpetual banishment. But the treatise De Jure Belli
et Pads had been specially admired by the great warrior Gustavus
Adolphus ; Grotius entered the service of Sweden, and in 1635
began his career as envoy of the young queen Christina at the
court of France. Fourteen years later, he asked for his recall;
the request was granted; on his way to Sweden, he was welcomed
by his friends at Amsterdam and Rotterdam. He had an
interview with the queen at Stockholm, and left for Liibeck
(presumably) in the hope of returning to his native land. His
ship was, however, wrecked on the Pomeranian coast, and he was
only able to drive as far as Rostock, where he died. His em-
balmed body was afterwards buried in the tomb of his ancestors
at Delft, and the place of his rest was marked by an epitaph, which
he had himself composed: —
' Grotius hie Hugo est, Batavus, Captivus et Exul,
Legatus Regni, Suecia magna, tui '.
Apart from his important works in the domain of theology, law,
and history, his productions as a scholar alone would be enough
to lend distinction to his name. In his early youth (as we have
seen) he had commented on Martianus Capella ; in 1601 and 1608
respectively, he had written two Latin tragedies, on the Exile of
Adam and the death of Christ, and the former of these was imi-
tated by Vondel and by Milton. He had translated the Phoenissae
of Euripides, and the poetic extracts in Stobaeus; he had edited
Lucan (1614), and Silius (1636); and had corrected the text of
Seneca's Tragedies and of Tacitus. At Paris in 1630 he began
his renderings of the Planudean Anthology. In the course of this
work he corrected the original text in many passages, and in this
1 Ep. 101, p. 784.
3l8 THE NETHERLANDS. [CENT. XVII.
connexion consulted Salmasius1, who had made his memorable
discovery of the more comprehensive Palatine Anthology in 1 606,
and was still contemplating an edition of the same. For the
appearance of that edition Grotius waited in vain; he continued
to revise and polish his renderings, and lived in the hope of seeing
this work printed, not in France, but in Holland2. The printing
had even begun3, when the work was laid aside, and these admir-
able renderings did not see the light until 150 years after the
translator's death4.
He was less skilful as a critic of the text of the tragic and
comic poets of Greece, than as a translator; but he had a singular
faculty for illustrating any passage with the aid of apt parallels from
his wide reading of the Classics. His Latin poems give abundant
proof of his poetic taste; and his immature verses of 1598 were
superseded by the edition of his poems collected by his brother
in 1617. Of the Latin poets of that age, Baudius may excel in
fancy; Broukhusius, and the elder and younger Heinsius, in
smoothness of style; but Grotius surpasses all in the success with
with he reproduces the spirit of classical poetry, and clothes
modern thoughts in ancient forms. Lucian Miiller, in the course
of a long and interesting examination of his Latin verse, quotes,
as a solitary example of a departure from classical usage, the
following couplet referring to a portrait of Scaliger painted shortly
before the death of that great scholar: —
'haec est Scaligeri mortem meditantis imago,
luminis heu tanti vespera talis erat '.
'The evening of life' (adds the critic) 'is a modern, not an ancient,
metaphor'5. On the contrary, the 'evening of life' is a metaphor
approved by Aristotle6, who quotes a parallel from Empedocles
and might have quoted another from Aeschylus7; and Daniel
1 Epp. 368, 418. a Epp. 527,612, 1698 etc. ; Suppl. 402, 486, ed. 1687.
3 Ep. 1721.
4 His secretary, E. le Mercier, deposited the original in the library of the
Jesuits' College in Paris in 1665. It was published by Jerome de Bosch at
Utrecht in 1795-8, with the aid of a transcript from England, corrected by
Grotius himself (Luden, 278). It has since been reproduced as part of the
Didot ed. of the Greek Anthology.
5 p. 203. 6 Poet. c. 21 § 6. 7 Agam. 1123.
CHAP. XIX.] GRONOVIUS. 319
Heinsius, who, like Grotius, was one of the favourite pupils of
Scaliger, had translated in 161 1 the very treatise in which Aristotle
approves this metaphor1. Grotius could hardly have failed to be
familiar with this work.
Of all the scholars to whom he addresses his poems, the first place
belongs to Heinsius2, who, as it happened, was afterwards Secretary of the
Synod of Dort, which condemned Grotius. Among the rest are Scaliger3
and Meursius4. A scholarly interest attaches to his iambic poem on Docta
Ignorantia, the point of which is driven home in the final line: — 'Nescire
quaedam, magna pars Sapientiae est'5. In -the preface he confesses to an
ingenium sequax ac ductile, which made it easy for him to imitate any Latin
poet in whose works he happened to be interested. His vocabulary is even
coloured occasionally by his study of Roman law, which is directly represented
by his poetic paraphrase of a long passage in the Institutes of Justinian6. He
skilfully imitates the Apophoreta of Martial in a long series of couplets on the
articles, which the thrifty Dutchman, so far from presenting to his friends,
carefully keeps for himself. In this series the couplet on Pocula cerevisiaria,
in which the contents of those glasses are lauded v&pretiosior undo, Lyaeo7, led
to an amusing controversy with the French scholar, Fran9ois Guyet, who
patriotically preferred the national beverage of France8.
The next generation to that of Grotius is represented by
Tohann Friedrich Gronov (1611 — 1671). He was
... . . Gronovius
born at Hamburg and studied at Leipzig and Jena,
entered Leyden in 1634, and completed his academic education
1 p. 47, Dicet ergo . . .senectutem vesperam vitae.
2 PP- 73. 23°. 251, 324. 335. 372, 373. 3/6- Cp. Heinsius ad Grotium,
531-3; and Baudius on Grotius and Heinsius, 527, 529.
3 pp. 299, 300, 344, 360 ; and seven poems on his death, 357 f.
4 pp. 247, 288, 335, 336, 362. There are also poems on Gruter's In-
scriptions (235) ; on Gorlaeus (322) and his Dactyliotheca (176); on Scriverius,
editor of Martial (381) ; and on the death of Lipsius (239, 345) ; lastly, a poem
by Vossius on the works of Grotius (541).
5 331 : cp. Quint, i 8, 21 ; Scaliger, Poemata, Iambi, xx ; and Gibbon,
Autob. 54, ed. 1869 ; also Sir W. Hamilton's Appendix on 'Learned Ignorance"
in Discussions, 601-7.
6 PP- 433—452. 7 p- 428.
8 On the life and works of Grotius, cp. Burigny (1750 f); H. Luden,
Berlin, 1806; Caumont, £tude, Paris, 1862; Neumann, Berlin, 1884; and
literature in Eckstein, and Pokel, s. v. Testimonia in Blount, 663-7, Portrait
in Meursius, Ath. Bat. 204, and elsewhere ; also a coloured print, including
his escape from prison, published by J. Wilkes, 1806; see also Fred. Muller's
Catalogits (Amst. 1853).
J. F. GRONOVIUS.
From an engraving by J. Munnickhuysen.
CHAP. XIX.] GRONOVIUS. 321
at Groningen. Thereupon he travelled in France, Italy and
England ; and the MSS examined in the course of his travels
supplied him with materials for his future editions of the Latin
Classics. He owed his interest in scholarship to the influence of
Vossius, Grotius, Daniel Heinsius, and Scriverius, and to the
teaching of Salmasius. He describes the large classes that
attended the lectures of Heinsius, whom he succeeded at Leyden,
while the younger Heinsius was one of his most intimate friends.
His miscellaneous Observations were warmly welcomed by
Grotius (1639), and his commentary De Sestertiis was received
with equal enthusiasm by Vossius (1643). As an editor, he
devoted himself mainly to the classical writers of Latin prose,
sharing with Lipsius a preference for the authors of the first
century, and especially for those that gave peculiar scope for the
elucidation of their subject-matter. His editions mark an epoch
in the study of Livy, of both the Senecas, and of Tacitus and
Gellius. He also edited the great work of the elder Pliny. This
preference for prose had possibly been inspired at Leyden by the
example of Salmasius. The extension of his interest to the
textual criticism of Latin poetry was due to the discovery of
the Florentine MS of the tragedies of Seneca. His diatribe on the
Silvae of Statius is an immature work, but, in his riper years, the
acumen exhibited in his handling of prose is also exemplified in
his treatment of the text of poets such as Phaedrus and Martial,
Seneca and Statius. His edition of Plautus is marred by an
imperfect knowledge of metre, which has been noticed by Bentley1.
His breaking ground in Greek is hailed with delight by the French
scholar, Tanaquil Faber3, but his published work was almost
entirely confined to Latin3. His son and grandson will be
mentioned in the sequel.
Meanwhile, we turn to certain scholars of the same generation,
the sons of a distinguished father, G. F. Vossius.
1 Em. in Men. et Phil. p. 484 Meineke, ' Gronovius senariorum rationes
parum intelligebat '.
* Ep- 75-
3 Testimonia in Blount, 741 f; cp. L. Miiller, 42 — 44; also the Life by
N. Wilckens (1723), and in the Lectiones Plautinae (1740); and J. Holier,
Cimbria Litterafa, iii 265 — 282.
S. II. 2 I
322 THE NETHERLANDS. [CENT. XVII.
All of his sons were singularly precocious. Dionysius (1612-33) was the
short-lived librarian of Amsterdam; and Gerhard ([620-40)
edited Velleius Paterculus at the age of nineteen. His second
son, Isaac Vossius (1618 — 1689), who was born at Leyden, was appointed pro-
fessor of History at Amsterdam at the age of fifteen. Nine years later he visited
Italy, and we find him giving his friend N. Heinsius a graphic account of the
difficulties he experienced in seeking admission to the libraries in Rome1. In
1649 ne l6^ Amsterdam for the court of queen Christina. He taught the queen
Greek, and sold her a large number of his father's valuable MSS. She is the
'Xanthippe' of his letters to Heinsius. He left Sweden in 1652 owing to
a dispute with Salmasius, and, six years later, in an edition of Pomponius Mela,
had the satisfaction of noticing some of the geographical mistakes made in his
opponent's work on Solinus. He repeatedly visited Paris, and was tempted to
enter the service of France, which would have made it necessary for him to
become a Catholic. But he preferred becoming an Anglican, not (like
Casaubon) on grounds of real belief, but because he desired to retain the right
to a certain degree of speculative freedom. His sponsor in England was John
Pearson, the scholarly Master of Trinity, who had been attracted by his work
on Ignatius. He received an honorary degree at Oxford (1670), and was
presented by Charles II with a prebend at Windsor (1673), but he scandalised
his colleagues by reading Ovid during the services in St George's Chapel, and
by saying of one of their number who was absent from Windsor but was
loyally doing his duty at his country-living : — ' est sacrificulus in pago et
rusticos decipit '. With his scepticism he combined a singular degree of
credulity, and it was possibly the credulity exhibited in his work on the
Sibylline Oracles (1679) that prompted Charles II to say of him: 'He is
a strange man for a divine; there is nothing that he will not believe, if only it
is not in the Bible '. He is said to have been intimately acquainted with the
manners and personages of all ages but his own. Evelyn, who met ' the
learned Isaac Vossius' at dinner 'at my Lord Chamberlain's'2, discourses, ten
years later, on the erudite note on tacking, which Vossius had introduced into
his commentary on Catullus3. The miscellaneous character of his learning is
also illustrated by his telling Evelyn ' of a certain harmony produced by the
snapping of carters' whips, used of old in the feasts of Bacchus and Cybele ' 4.
Evelyn further notes that, with the aid of MSS, he had corrected Justin 'in
many hundreds of places most material to the sense and elegancy' 5. He held
his prebend at Windsor for sixteen years, and, when he died, his fine library
of 762 MSS was offered ' at a great price ' to the Bodleian, and Bentley, who
was then at Oxford, did his best to bring about its purchase6; but the executors
1 Burman's Sylloge, iii 561.
2 Diary, 31 Oct. 1675.
3 iv 20. 4 Evelyn to Pepys, 23 Sept. 1685 (Diary etc. iii 278, q.v.).
* ib. iii 190.
Monk's Life of Bentley, i 21 f ; and Bentley's Correspondence, 6—8.
CHAP. XIX.] ISAAC VOSSIUS. N. HEINSIUS. 323
carried the MSS back to Holland, where they expected 'a quicker market'.
' I wished with all my heart ' (says Evelyn) ' some brave and noble Maecenas
would have made a present of them to Trinity College, Cambridge'1. Had
the MSS remained in England, instead of being bought by Leyden, Bentley,
who was then working at Lucretius, might, with the aid of the two Vossian
MSS of that poet, have anticipated Lachmann's discoveries by a century and
a half2. Isaac Vossius (as we have seen) edited Justin, and the minor
geographers, Scylax and Pomponius Mela, his edition of the former including
an anonymous periplus from trie library of Salmasius. His Catullus, published
in London in 1684, is rich in curious erudition, but is not highly esteemed.
One of his best works is his treatise Depoematum cantu et vocibus rhythmicis,
published anonymously at Oxford in 1673. He there 'retraces the ancient
alliance between poetry and music, insists on a strict adherence to the rules of
prosody', and 'dwells on the beauty of rhythmical movement'3. His principal
characteristic is a not inconsiderable versatility, but he is unquestionably
inferior to his father4. It may, however, be remembered to his credit that his
learning attracted the interest of bishop Pearson, and that his correspondents
included Laud and Ussher, as well as his accomplished countryman, the
younger Heinsius5, who follows next in order.
Niklaas Heinsius (1620 — 1681), the only son of Daniel
Heinsius, was born in Leyden. He travelled in
England (1641), France (1645), Italy (1646), and
Sweden (1649). In 1651 he resided in Italy as the envoy of
queen Christina ; he represented the Netherlands at the Swedish
court in 1654; was Secretary of State at Amsterdam in 1656;
and was once more in Sweden in 1659. In 1671 he visited
Moscow ; he afterwards lived in retirement at Vianen, a small
place on the lower Rhine, S. of Utrecht; and he died at the
Hague. His library, which was sold by auction for a considerable
sum after his death, included all branches of learning, but was
peculiarly rich in editions of the Latin poets6. For a large part
of his career he was engaged in diplomatic and political work;
1 Evelyn to Pepys, 12 Aug. 1689 (iii 306).
2 Munro's Lucretius, i p. 1 y3. 3 D. N. B. s. v.
4 Hallam, iii 2444, is not sufficiently decisive on this point.
5 On Isaac Vossius, cp. Aa's Wbordebook, xix 416; Danou in Biogr. Univ.
xlix ; and authorities quoted in D. N. B. Correspondence in Vossii et
Clarontm Virorum Epistolae (1690), and with N. Heinsius in Burman's
Sylloge, iii 556—692.
6 Peerlkamp, De Vita, Doctrina, et Facilitate Nederlandonitn, qui car-
mina Latina compositerunt, 426.
21 — 2
N. HEINSIUS.
From the frontispiece to his Adversaria (1742).
CHAP. XIX.] N. HEINSIUS. 325
he never held any academic appointment; and it was only the
leisure hours of his public life that he could devote to the
pursuits of scholarship. His natural tastes inclined him to
poetry. His Latin poems are brighter in style than those of his
father and of Grotius, and are fully as graceful as those of
Baudius and Broukhusius. Of his three volumes of Latin verse,
two had been published before he had edited a single Latin
author. His practice in versification, his wide reading in classical
and post-classical Latin, and his knowledge of Greek literature,
made him an accomplished scholar, and a well-equipped editor of
classical texts. As a textual critic, he had acquired an extensive
knowledge of various readings by his study of MSS during his
residence abroad. Few scholars have examined so many Latin
MSS, and his careful collations of such MSS compare favourably
with those prepared by others on his behalf. In making his
selection from the vast mass of variants, he was guided by a fine
taste and a sound judgement acquired by long experience1.
While Gronovius had devoted himself entirely to the writers of
Latin prose, his friend, the younger Heinsius, was almost ex-
clusively an editor of Latin poets. He produced editions of
Claudian (1650), Ovid (1652), Virgil (1664), Prudentius (1667),
and Valerius Flaccus (1680), besides leaving notes on Catullus,
Propertius, Phaedrus and Silius Italicus, which were published
long after his death2. In Latin prose he only edited Velleius
Paterculus (1678), but he left behind him notes on Curtius,
Tacitus, and Petronius. His editions of the Latin poets above-
mentioned laid the foundation of the textual criticism of those
authors, and he has thus obtained the title of sospitator poet arum
Latinorum. He had a singular aptitude for conjectural emenda-
tion, while his vast reading enabled him to support his conjectures
by parallel passages that were exactly to the point. As a critic,
he is more concerned with single words or phrases, than with the
composition as a whole. The fact that Virgil and Ovid formed a
kind of conventional phraseology, which became current in Latin
poetry, made it comparatively easy for one who was familiar with
that phraseology to correct the texts of the Latin poets. Cicero
and Livy had no similar influence on their immediate successors,
1 L. Miiller, 51 f. 2 Adversaria (1742).
326 THE NETHERLANDS. [CENT. XVII.
who have in general a definite individuality. This may explain
the fact that Heinsius is less successful as a corrector and a critic
of Velleius Paterculus, Curtius and Tacitus, than of Claudian and
Silius Italicus1. But we may also attribute his success as a critic
of the poets to the fact that he was himself endowed with a high
degree of imaginative power and with a singularly felicitous taste.
In his works in general he wears his learning 'lightly, like a
flower '. While his pressing engagements as a diplomatist and a
statesman robbed him of the leisure which might have enabled
him to produce a longer array of learned lucubrations, it can
hardly be doubted that his experience of public life preserved
him from the perils of pedantry, and contributed to the formation
of a sound and sober judgement, a practical sense of proportion,
and an aptitude for clear and lucid expression. In his Latin
verse, he shares with the other poets of the Netherlands a certain
partiality for Catullus, Tibullus, and Propertius, but his own
model is mainly Ovid. Two of the happiest of his elegiac poems
are those on the Bay of Naples2, and on the girls skating on the
frozen Rhine3. His eulogy of General Monk as the restorer of
the Stuarts includes the couplet : —
' Harmodios Atthis, Brutos ne Roma loquatur ;
Pulchrius haec longe dextra peregit opus'4.
Among his many ' occasional ' poems, a special interest attaches
to those concerned with Menage and Balzac5; Thomas May, the
continuator of Lucan6; Scriverius, the editor of Martial7; and
J. F. Gronovius : —
' Optimus antiqui Gronovius arbiter aevi,
Cui nihil ignotum saecula cana ferunt'8.
In his Latin letters, his chief correspondents are Gronovius9 and
Graevius 10.
1 Ruhnken's Praef. in Velleium, ' haec tantopere celebrata felicitas ilium
destituit in prosae orationis scriptoribus, Velleio, Petronio, Curtio, Tacito'.
2 p. 12 f, ed. 1666. 3 p. 234.
4 p. 82. 8 pp. 255—260.
6 p. 274. 7 p. 203.
8 p. 85; cp. 18, 107, 228.
9 342 Letters in Burman's Sylloge, iii i — 555-
10 699 Letters, ib. iv i — 733. Portrait in his Adversaria (1742), reproduced
on p. 324.
CHAP. XIX.] SPANHEIM. GRAEVIUS. 327
Among the scholars who, like Heinsius, were connected with the queen
of Sweden, was Marcus Meibomius (1630 — 1710), who lived
Meibomms
for a short time at the Swedish court. He was a professor at
the Danish university of Soroe, and at Amsterdam. An interval of forty years
separates his Latin translation of the Antiqui Musici Scriptores (1652) from
that of Diogenes Laertius (1692).
The cosmopolitan scholar, Ezechiel Spanheim (1629 — 1710),
was born in Geneva. His father was celebrated
Spanheim
as a theological professor, first at Geneva and next
at Leyden, where the son continued his early education from
1642 to his father's death in 1649. At the age of twenty-two
he became professor of Eloquence at his native town; travelled in
Italy until 1665 as tutor to the son of Charles Louis, Elector-
Palatine, and subsequently represented the Elector in London ;
and was the envoy of Frederic III, Elector of Brandenburg, at
Paris in 1680, and, on that Elector's becoming the first king
of Prussia in 1701, represented him in London for the last eight
years of his life. His principal work, De Praestantia et Usu
Veterum Numismatum, was published at Rome during his visit
to Italy (I664)1. He also contributed a prolix commentary to
the posthumous edition of Callimachus (1697) bearing the name
of Theodorus Graevius (1669-92), a son of J. G. Graevius2.
Lastly, he produced an edition, and a French translation, of
Julian (1696). Wyttenbach thought more highly of Petavius
than of Spanheim as a commentator on the first Oration of Ju-
lian : ' Spanheimius multa, non multum legerat ; at eruditio ejus
censeri debeat multitudine ac varietate, non vi ac ratione '3.
Johann Georg Greffe, or Graeve, better known as Graevius
(1632 — 1703), was born at Naumburg, educated
„ ....... Graevius
at bchulpforta, and at the universities of Leipzig,
Deventer and Leyden. He was professor of Eloquence at Duis-
burg (1656) and Deventer (1658), and at Utrecht (1662), where
1 Ed. 2 (1671); ed. nova (London, 1706; Amst. 1717), with portraits.
" Monk's Life of Bentley, i 62, 76, 189, 195.
3 Juliani . . . Oralio, 166, ed. Schaefer (1802). — Opera omnia in 3 folio vols.
(Leyden, 1701-3); many papers in Graevius, Thesaurus. Portrait in Trinity
Lodge, bequeathed by Spanheim; engravings dated 1683 and 1700 in
F. Midler's Catalogs, 5044-6, also in editions of his principal work, and
in Niceron etc. — Cp. Cambridge ed. of Matthew Prior, ii (1907) 183.
328 THE NETHERLANDS. [CENT. XVII.
he lived and worked for the last forty years of his strenuous life.
His Hesiod (1667) is almost his only edition of a Greek Classic;
his Catullus, Tibullus, and Propertius (1680), his only recension
of any of the Latin poets. As a pupil of Gronovius, he limited
his attention mainly to writers of Latin prose, and primarily to
Cicero, whom Gronovius had admired without either imitating
his style or editing his works. Graevius edited Cicero's Letters
(1672-84), De Offiriis, Cato, Laelius, Paradoxa and Somniiim
Scipionis (1688) and the Speeches (1695-9), a"d also the Opera
cum notis variorum, which extended to eleven volumes and then
remained unfinished (1684-99). He further edited the Latin
historians, Justin, Suetonius, Florus, and Caesar. Finally he pub-
lished the Inscriptions Antiquae (1707), and the works of earlier
scholars collected and reprinted in the three Thesauri, (i) eru-
ditionis scholasticae (1710) ; (2) antiquitatum Romanarum, in twelve
folio volumes (1694-9); and (3) antiquitatum et historiarum Italiae,
in nine volumes (1704), continued by Burman (1725). In so vast
an output of learned labour, we cannot expect all the parts to
be equally excellent, and it is in his recension of Cicero's Letters
that we may most clearly trace the salutary influence of Grono-
vius. The Latin style of his Prefaces, his Speeches and his
Letters, is elegant, but he did not succeed in creating a school
of style among his pupils1. The correspondence begun by
Bentley in 1692 was continued with little intermission until the
death of Graevius in i7032. Bentley supplied Graevius with a
collection of more than 400 fragments of Callimachus as his
contribution to an edition of that poet begun by his correspondent's
short-lived son ; and Graevius, whose attention was first drawn to
Bentley by the Epistle to Mill, hailed him as the novum sed
splendidissimum Britanniae lumen' z,
The successor of Gronovius at Leyden in 1672 was his pupil Theodor
Rycke of Arnheim (1640 — 1690), who produced an annotated
edition of Tacitus (1687), and a small volume of Animadver-
1 Praefatioties et Epp. (1707); L. Miiller, 45.
3 Monk's Life of Bentley, \ 49 f; Correspondence (1842), 4r — 270 passim,
and Epistolae (1825), i — 125 (with portraits of both); also in Haupt's Opusc.
iii 89 — 107.
3 Praef. ad Callimachum. Cp., in general, Frotscher's Narraliones, 1826,
i 134—204.
CHAP. XIX.] J. GRONOVIUS. BROUKHUSIUS. 329
stones (r686), which attained the distinction of being reprinted in three volumes
at Dublin (1730). Another pupil of Gronovius was his son
Jakob (1645 — 1716), who studied under his father at Deventer Gronovius
and Leyden, visited England, Spain and Italy, and was pro-
fessor of Greek at Pisa, and at Leyden from 1679 *° h's death thirty-seven
years later. Besides producing new editions of his father's Tacitus, Gellius,
and Seneca's tragedies, he edited Herodotus and Polybius, Cicero, Livy and
Ammianus Marcellinus, as well as Harpocration, and Stephanus Byzantinus.
He also produced a Thesaurus Antiquitatnm Graecanim in thirteen folio
volumes (1697 — 1702), volume 12 including an enlarged Latin edition of
Potter's Antiquities. A special interest attaches to his editio princeps of
Manetho (1689). Bentley's success in correcting the fragments of Callimachus
aroused the envious spirit, the angry temper and the vituperative tongue of
Jakob Gronovius, whose failings as an editor of Cicero led him to be described
by Bentley ten years later in language of unwonted severity1. Bentley's sub-
sequent correction of a fragment of Menander, and of the errors committed by
Gronovius in attempting to correct it, prompted the latter to attack Bentley
once more in a pamphlet, in which the bitterness of the tone is only equalled
by the harshness of the style 2. The reputation of this industrious scholar has
been unduly enhanced by the credit he derived from his father's fame, which,
in the third generation, descended in a diminished degree on Abraham
Gronovius (1695 — 1775), an editor of Aelian, and Librarian of Leyden3.
Jan van Broekhuyzen, or Janus Broukhusius of Amsterdam
(1649 — 1707), was a pupil of Hadrianus Tunius.
Broukhusius
Skilfully discriminating between the special apti-
tudes of two of his pupils, Hadrianus recommended Ovid as the
best model for Petrus Francius, and Propertius for Broukhusius.
So successful was the latter that he became known as the ' Pro-
pertius of Holland'. The love of Latin literature, with which
he had heen inspired by his master, never deserted him. On
the death of his father, his uncle vainly endeavoured to apprentice
him to an apothecary. Rather than submit he enlisted as a
soldier, and rose to the command of one of the bodies of troops
stationed at his native city of Amsterdam. But he never ceased
to read and to imitate the Latin poets, and especially Propertius
and Tibullus, and also to prove himself an original poet in his
lyric as well as his elegiac pieces4. He began his literary career
1 homunciilus ernditione mediocri, ingetiio nullo ; Monk's Life of Bmtlty,
i 226.
2 ib. i 276. 3 Cp. L. Miiller, 44.
4 Foemata, 1684 and i/n; Peerlkamp, 455 — 460.
330 THE NETHERLANDS. [CENT. XVII.
as an editor of the modern Latin poems of Aonio Paleario (1696),
and his edition of Sannazaro was published in 1728, twenty-one
years after his death. The former of these works was followed
by an elaborate edition of Propertius (1702, ed. 2 1727), in which
he is far too apt to reduce the poet's rough and vigorous phrases
to an Ovidian smoothness. After the publication of his first
edition, he transcribed all the notes of N. Heinsius on Propertius,
and his transcript was printed by Burman, at the end of his
publication of the Adversaria of Heinsius (I742)1. His own
edition of Propertius was followed by one of his other favourite
poet, Tibullus (1708).
Petrus Francius (1645 — 1704), the fellow-pupil of Broukhusius,
had the honour of reciting a Virgilian poem in
Francius °
the 'New Church' of Amsterdam in memory of
the heroic Admiral Ruyter, who had fallen in a victorious en-
gagement off the shore of Sicily. So vast was the crowd which
thronged the church to listen to the poem, that the poet's friend,
the scholar-soldier, Broukhusius, who was in command of the
troops on that occasion, resorted to the use of the Latin language
in addressing every applicant for admission, and all who replied
in Latin were immediately admitted. His skill in carrying out
his master's injunction to imitate Ovid is fully proved by his
published poems (1697). His early travels in England, Italy,
and France, were followed by his election, first to the Chair of
History and Eloquence, and, next, to that of Greek at Amsterdam.
He carried out a small part of his plan for rendering all the Greek
epigrams of the Planudean Anthology into Latin verse2. He also
published some Latin Orations, which were attacked by an in-
ferior composer, the learned Perizonius (1651 —
Perizonius
1715). Ihe vernacular name of the latter was
Voorbroek, and under the Latinised name, Accinctus, he wrote
a Latin letter 'ad P. Francium Barbarum'. But, as a Latin
composer, Perizonius only excited the ridicule of Francius. His
strength lay in another line. He produced an annotated edition
of the Minerva of Sanctius, while he was still a professor at
Franeker (1607). He was called to Leyden in 1693. His best
1 Burman's Funeral Oration (1708), and Peerlkamp, /. c.
•i Peerlkamp, 446 — 453.
CHAP. XIX.] FRANCIUS. PERIZONIUS. CUYPERS. 33!
work as an editor is his recension of Aelian's Varia Historia
(1701). He also produced a learned dissertation on Dictys (1702).
In his Origines Babylonicae et Aegyptiacae (1711), he was the first
to suggest the spuriousness of the royal lists of Manetho, and
he defended the chronology of Scaliger against the criticisms of
Sir John Marsham. His Animadversiones Historicae (1685) are
recognised as a masterpiece of historical criticism, and as an
anticipation of Niebuhr's method of dealing with the early history
of Rome1.
Classical archaeology in the Netherlands is best represented
by his contemporary Gisbert Cuypers (1644 — 1716),
a pupil of Gronovius at Leyden, who become pro-
fessor of History (1668), and Biirgermeister at Deventer. His
volume of Observationes (1670), which included explanations of
various rites, and illustrations from Roman coins, was twice
reprinted. In his Harpocrates (1676) he published a number
of monuments that were previously unknown, and in 1683 he
lavished a considerable amount of learning on the famous relief
called the Apotheosis Homeri, found at Bovillae, formerly in the
Colonna Palace and now in the British Museum2.
We have already noticed the early printers of the Classics in the Southern
Netherlands, at Louvain and Antwerp3. We have here to mention a famous
family of printers belonging to the Northern Netherlands, and, in particular, to
Leyden and Amsterdam.
The founder of the family was Louis Elzevier (1540 — 1617), who, when his
native place, Louvain, had been ravaged by war and pestilence,
left it for Leyden, where he established himself as a bookseller
and bookbinder in 1580, five years after the foundation of the university. His
fame as a printer began about 1595. In the works issued from his press, he
was the first to draw a distinction between the consonant v and the vowel ;/.
Of his five sons, two, namely Matthys and Bonaventura, succeeded their father
at Leyden; the business continued to flourish until i68r, and then declined
between that date and 1712. Two other sons of Louis became booksellers at
the Hague, and the fifth at the university of Utrecht.
1 Niebuhr, History of Rome, i 251 f (E. T., 1831); Schwegler, i 135;
Kramer's E/ogium, Berlin, 1828; Urlichs, 8i'2.
- Third Graeco-Roman Room, no. 159. First published in Kircher's
Latium, Amsterdam, 1671. Cp. L. Miiller, 21; Urlichs, 8o2; Stark, Ha nd-
buch, 122 f.
3 p. 213 supra.
332 THE NETHERLANDS. [CENT. XVII.
Meanwhile, another firm had been founded at Amsterdam in 1638 by
another Louis (d. 1670), who was joined in 1654 by Bonaventura's son, Daniel,
who died in 1680. The business passed into the hands of another family
in 1 68 1, a date which marks the close of the best days of the Elzeviers of
Amsterdam, and of Leyden.
The beautiful editions of the Greek and Latin Classics that continued to
appear down to 1681 were produced at Leyden in and after 1595 and especially
between 1622 and 1651, the era of the i2mo and i6mo volumes of Bona-
ventura and of his nephew Abraham, the son of Matthys. Similar editions
were produced at Amsterdam in and after 1638. The Greek Testament was
repeatedly printed at Leyden (1624 and 1633) and Amsterdam (1656, 1662,
1670, 1678). It is the preface to the second Leyden edition that contains the
oft-quoted words : — textum habes mine ab omnibus receptum 1. All the Elzevier
editions, of the Greek Testament and the Classics alike, fully deserve their
place among the dainty little volumes described, in the preface to the former,
in the Homeric phrase: — oXlyois Tf Q&ois re.
1 E. Reuss, Bill. N. T. (1892) 109 f. On the Elzeviers, cp., in general,
Willems, Les Elzevier, Bruxelles, 1880, and Eckstein's Nomenclator, 642 f,
with the literature there quoted; also Berghman's Etudes, Stockholm, 1885;
Goldsmid's Catalogue, Edinburgh, 1885 (abridged from Willems); and R. C.
Christie's Essays, 297 — 308.
CHAPTER XX.
ENGLAND IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
IN the reign of queen Elizabeth one of the most learned
representatives of classical scholarship in England
. Savile
was Sir Henry Savile (1549 — 1622). After matricu-
lating at Brasenose, he became Fellow and mathematical Lecturer,
and ultimately (from 1585 to 1622) Warden of Merton. On
taking his M.A. degree in 1570, he 'read his ordinaries in the
Almagest of Ptolemy', thus attaining a two-fold reputation, as a
mathematician and as a Greek scholar. In 1578 he went abroad,
collecting MSS and making the acquaintance of scholars on the
continent. He is said to have represented the queen for a short
time in the Netherlands1. On his return he became her tutor
in Greek, and it was in her presence at Oxford that he delivered a
memorable discourse on the merits of the mediaeval Schoolmen2.
As Warden of Merton he showed great judgement in selecting
men of learning as Fellows. In 1591 he translated four books of
the Histories, and the Agricola of Tacitus3. His translation was
eulogised in verse by Ben Jonson, and, within fifty years, had
passed through six editions. In the Agricola*, the correction
Intemelio for in templo is due to Savile. The notes were after-
wards reproduced in Latin by Gruter (1649). Savile added 'A
view of certain militar matters, for the better understanding of
ancient Roman stories', which was translated into Latin by
M. Freher of Heidelberg (1601). (It is generally regarded as
1 Wotton, English Baronetage, i 60.
2 Oratio, printed 1658.
3 The Annals and Ger mania were translated in the same reign by Richard
Grenawey.
334 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVII.
the first contribution made by any English scholar to the study
of Roman Antiquities ; but we must not forget that, half-a-century
previously, Robert Talbot, of Winchester and New (c. 1505 — 1558),
had published Latin 'annotations' on the Antonine Itinerary.)
When the office of Provost of Eton fell vacant, he aspired to fill
it, although he was a layman, and the holder of the office was
required to be in priest's orders. Early in 1595 the queen gave
him the Latin Secretaryship and the Deanery of Carlisle, 'in
order to stop his mouth from importuning her any more for
the provostship of Eton". However, in May, he was actually
appointed Provost, and was as strict a disciplinarian as in his
other high office, that of Warden of Merton. At Eton we are told
he could not abide 'witts', and much preferred 'the plodding
student'2. In 1604 he was knighted after a banquet given at Eton
to James I. He was subsequently one of the scholars associated
in the preparation of the authorised version of the Bible, being one
of those entrusted with the Acts and Revelation, and with part of
the Gospels. The loss of his only son, in the year of the father's
knighthood, led to his devoting the larger part of his private
fortune to the advancement of learning. He collected MSS, and
secured the aid of scholars at home and abroad, for a great
edition of Chrysostom. Through Casaubon, he obtained colla-
tions of MSS in the royal library of Paris, but he failed in his
attempt to purchase the set of matrices of the royal type, which
Henri Estienne, the father-in-law of Casaubon, had taken from
Paris to Geneva3. Thereupon Savile purchased a special fount
of type, probably from the founders employed by the firm of
Wechel at Frankfurt4, engaged the king's printer, and himself
superintended the work at Eton. In 1611 Casaubon tells a
friend abroad that the work was being produced privata impensa,
animo regio, and that he found some solace for all his troubles
in reading the proofs5. The printing of the eight folio volumes
1 Anthony Bacon to Hawkins, 5 March, 1595.
2 Aubrey's Lives, n ii 525 (ii 214, ed. 1898).
3 Pattison's Casaubon, 23 12.
4 To Hoeschel, Ep. 738.
5 R. Proctor, The French Greek Types and the Eton Chrysostom, in Essays
(1905), 110-7.
CHAP. XX.] SAVILE. 335
was completed in 1613, at a total cost of ^8000, the paper alone
costing a quarter of that sum.
'This worthy knight' (says Fuller) 'carefully collected the best Copies of
St Chrysostome, and employed learned Men to transcribe, and make Anno-
tations on them1 ; which done, he fairly set it forth, on his own cost, in a most
beautiful edition ; a burthen which he underwent without stooping under it,
though the weight thereof would have broken the back of an ordinary
Person ' 2.
In splendour of execution, and in breadth of erudition, it far sur-
passed all the previous productions of English scholarship3. An
edition of Xenophon's Cyropaedia was printed at Eton at the
same press in 1615. After Savile's death the 'elegant types',
which that ' learned knight procured with great cost ', were
scattered about the Provost's lodge and lost4. All the type had
been bequeathed to the University of Oxford; in 1632, some of
it was lent to the University Press at Cambridge; but nothing
more is known of it5.
It was on the completion of the great edition of Chrysostom
that Savile (as we have seen) had the satisfaction of driving
Casaubon in his coach from Eton to Oxford and showing him
the Library and all the other sights of the University6. He
aided Bodley with his advice in founding his famous Library.
His own MSS are mentioned on almost every page of the Greek
ecclesiastical historians edited by Valesius". In 1619 he founded
the two professorships of Geometry and Astronomy at Oxford ;
and, two years later, published his prelections on Euclid. On
his death in 1622 he was commemorated by sculptured monu-
ments at Eton and at Merton College, Oxford.
The latter includes a portrait representing him clad in a Roman toga and
resting his hand on a closed book, with figures of Chrysostom and Ptolemy on
one side of the monument, and of Euclid and Tacitus on the other. In the
1 Among these may be mentioned Richard Montagu, of Eton and King's,
afterwards bishop of Norwich, and Andrew Downes, professor of Greek at
Cambridge.
2 Worthies of England, Yorkshire, iii 431 Nuttall.
3 Cp. Hallam, ii 27j4.
4 Evelyn to Pepys, 12 Aug. 1689 (iii 300, ed. 1854).
5 Proctor, /. c. 1 1 7.
6 p. 207 f supra. 7 Evelyn, iii 307.
336 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVII.
upper part are two Genii, one of them gazing at Savile's face in a mirror, and
the other writing his name in the Book of Life ; while above them is a figure
seated on his coat of arms and blowing the trumpet of fame1.
Munificent in his patronage of learning, he was polished in
his manner, courtly in his speech, and vain-glorious in his
character. ' He would faine have been thought to have been
as great a scholar as Joseph Scaliger'2. He is reported to have
been an 'extraordinary handsome man, no lady having a finer
complexion'3. There is a portrait at Eton, and another in the
university gallery at Oxford.
Among those who aided Savile by their learning was Andrew
Downes (c. 1^49 — 1628), 'whose pains were so in-
Downes . v J^ "
laid with Sir Henry Savile's edition of Chrysostom,
that both will be preserved together'4. He was educated at
Shrewsbury and at St John's, Cambridge, where he held a
fellowship from 1571 to 1586. Amid the conflict of theological
controversies, the knowledge of Greek was ' almost lost and
forgot' in St John's, 'had it not been restored' by Downes5.
After migrating to Trinity in 1586, he held the professorship of
Greek for nearly forty years (1586 — 1625). He is characterised
by Fuller as a scholar ' composed of Greek and industry'. His
lectures on Demosthenes, De Corona, were attended in 1620
by Simonds D'Ewes, who in his Diary describes the lecturer
as follows :
'He had been Greek professor in the University about 30 years, and was at
this time accounted the ablest Grecian of Christendom, being no native of
Greece ; which Joseph Scaliger himself confessed of him long before... When I
came to his house near the public Schools, he sent for me up into a chamber,
where I found him sitting in a chair with his legs upon a table that stood by
him. He neither stirred his hat nor body, but only took me by the hand, and
instantly fell into discourse... touching matters of learning and criticisms. He
was of personage big and tall, long-faced and ruddy-coloured, and his eyes
very lively, although I took him to be at that time at least 70 years old'6.
1 Ant. Wood, De Coll. Merton. ; epitaph in Blount's Censura, 651.
2 Aubrey, Lives, ii 524 (ii 214, ed. 1898). 3 ib.
4 Fuller's Cambridge, 310, ed. 1840.
6 Baker's Hist, of St John's, 180, 171, ed. Mayor.
6 Life, ed. Halliwell, i 139; Diary, 17 Mar. 1620; Baker-Mayor, 598.
Cp. [Marsden's] College Life in the Time of James I, 30 — 34.
CHAP. XX.] DOWNES. 337
D'Ewes, after repeatedly absenting himself from the Greek professor's lectures,
received from the professor, by the hands of a bachelor in divinity, ' a scroll
containing certain notes of his last lecture '.
Dowries had been appointed one of the six final revisers of
the authorised version of the Bible, but he would never leave
Cambridge for the meetings at Stationers' Hall ' till he was either
fetcht, or threatened with a Pursivant'1. Another of the six was
his pupil John Bois, who, like himself, had aided Savile in his
Chrysostom, and whose notes survived in the Benedictine edition,
while those of Downes were omitted2. Downes published his
lectures on Lysias, De caede Eratosthenis (1593), and on Demos-
thenes, De Pace (i62i)s. John Taylor, in the preface to his
Lysias (1739), says of him: 'multum de juventute Academica
et renascente Graecismo meruit vir ille laboriosissimus'. For the
first of his Colleges, he wrote a letter of thanks in Greek to a
lady identified as Mildred lady Burghley4; corresponded in Greek
with Casaubon 5 ; and, on the death of James I, wrote a Greek
epigram stating that Peitho had rested on the lips of the departed
monarch. He deprecates criticism on his verses ; he was then
77 years of age. Two years later he resigned his Professorship,
and retired to the village of Coton, near Cambridge, where he
died early in i6288. The Diarist, to whom we are indebted for
part of the above description of Andrew Downes, gives us a
glimpse of a young classical student's range of reading in those
days, when he writes :
' I... finished Florus, transcribing historical abbreviations out of it in mine
own private study ; in which also I perused most of the other authors, and read
over Gellius' Attic Nights, and part of Macrobius' Saturnals'7 .
1 Peck, Desiderata Curiosa, viii 48 § 9.
" Mullinger's Cambridge, ii 506 n.
3 Dedicated to James I ; reprinted in C. D. Beck's eel. (1799), pp- 10.5 — 318.
Valckenaer, on Herodotus iii 70, refers to 'Andreae Dounaei, viri Graece per-
docti, Praelect. in Demosth. Philipp. p. 99'.
4 Baker- Mayor, 396.
5 Epp. 108 (1596), 949 (1614), 995 (1595) etc.
6 Epitaph in chancel, copied in Taylor's Lysias, xv, and in Baker- Mayor,
599-
7 Simonds D'Ewes, Life, i 12 r.
S. II. 22
338 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVII.
A far wider range of study is represented by Francis Bacon
(1561 — 1629), who 'had taken all knowledge to
be his province'1. At the age of twelve, he came
into residence at Cambridge, as a fellow-commoner of Trinity
College; and, among the books with which he was furnished
by the Master, were Cicero, Livy, Sallust, Caesar; Homer,
Xenophon, Plato and Aristotle2. We are confidently assured by
his earliest biographer that, even ' whilst he was commorant at
the university, about sixteen years of age, he first fell into the
dislike of the philosophy of Aristotle, ...being a philosophy only
strong for disputations and contentions, but barren of the pro-
duction of works for the benefit of the life of man'3. His
general attitude towards ancient philosophy is briefly summed
up by Macaulay : ' Two words form the key of the Baconian
doctrine, Utility and Progress. The ancient philosophy dis-
dained to be useful, and was content to be stationary'4. In
Bacon's Essays (1597 — 1625), a History of Scholarship is only
concerned with a single sentence from that on ' Studies ' : — To
spend too much time in Studies is Sloth ; To use them too much
for Ornament is Affectation ; To make Judgement wholly by
their Rules is the Humour of a Scholler'. In the Advancement
of Learning (1605), the principal classical authors quoted are
Cicero and Seneca, Livy and Tacitus : Xenophon and Plato,
Demosthenes and Aristotle. In the same work the absence of
any adequate history of learning is noticed5. We have, however,
a 'survey' or 'general and faithful perambulation of learning'6;
and indications of the author's familiarity with certain stages
in its history.
Thus, of the attitude of the early and mediaeval Church towards the
Classics, he writes : — ' We find that many of the ancient bishops and fathers of
the Church were excellently read and studied in all the learning of the
heathen ' ; and ' it was the Christian Church, which, amid the inundations of
the Scythians... and Saracens..., did preserve in the sacred lap and bosom
thereof the precious relics even of heathen learning, which otherwise had been
extinguished'7.
1 Letter to Burleigh.
2 Advancement of Learning, ed. Aldis Wright, pref. p. vi.
8 ib. vii. 4 Essays, 383, ed. 1861.
6 II i a. 8 II Ded. 15. 7 I vi 14.
CHAP. XX.] BACON. 339
As an instance of the ' contentious ' type of learning, Bacon selects the
schoolmen, ' who, having sharp and strong wits, and abundance of leisure, and
small variety of reading, but their wits being shut up in the cells of a few
authors (chiefly Aristotle their dictator)..., and knowing little history, either of
nature or time, did, out of no great quantity of matter and infinite agitation of
wit, open out unto us those laborious webs of learning which are extant in
their books'1. Of their dependence on Aristotle he adds: — 'As water will
not ascend higher than the level of the first springhead from whence it
descendeth, so knowledge derived from Aristotle, and exempted from liberty
of examination, will not rise again higher than the knowledge of Aristotle'1*.
' Notwithstanding, certain it is that, if those schoolmen to their great thirst of
truth and unwearied travail of wit had joined variety and universality of
reading and contemplation, they had proved excellent lights, to the great
advancement of all learning and knowledge'3.
In connexion with the Revival of Learning, the credit, now generally
assigned to Petrarch and the early humanists, is here attributed to Luther,
who, ' finding his own solitude, being no ways aided by the opinions of his
own time, was enforced to awake all antiquity, and to call former times to his
succours to make a party against the present time. So that the ancient
authors, both in divinity and in humanity, which had long slept in libraries,
began generally to be read and revolved'.... 'The admiration of ancient
authors, the hate of the schoolmen, the exact study of languages ' were among
the causes that contributed to the study of eloquence. ' This grew speedily to
an excess ', as might be seen in the ' flowing and watery vein of Osorius '4, in
the superstitious cult of Cicero which had been satirised by Erasmus and
exemplified by Ascham and Sturm, and in the almost deification of
Demosthenes by Car of Cambridge5. All these are examples of the 'first
distemper of learning, when men study words and not matter'6.
In the age of the Reformation, he points out that ' it was ordained by the
Divine Providence, that there should attend withal a renovation and new
spring of all other knowledges ; and, on the other side ' he recognises that the /
Jesuits7 'have much quickened and strengthened the state of learning'8.
Lastly, in the reign of James I, he feels persuaded ' that this third period
of time will far surpass that of the Grecian and Roman learning '9.
The Advancement of Learning is expanded in a Latin form
in the De Augmentis Scientiarum (1623). The Wisdom of the
Ancients (1609) gives a moral or political interpretation to many
1 i iv 5. 2 i iv 12. 3 i iv 7.
4 p. 163 supra.
5 Nicholas Carr (1523-68), Greek professor 1547, translator of Dem. 01.
and Phil., etc.
6 i iv 2. 7 Cp. i iii 3, and De Angmentis, vi 4.
8 i vi 15. 9 II xxiv.
22 — 2
340 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVH.
of the fables of Greek Mythology. Finally, in the Novum Or-
ganum (1620), by the very title of that memorable work, the
author boldly enters the lists against the logical text-book of
Aristotle; and, although it has been censured by Hallam' for
the 'general obscurity' of its style, it has been highly commended
by the learned author of the Polyhistor, who 'had found little
in the books since written by Englishmen, the grounds of which
he had not long before met with in Bacon'2.
A remarkable variety of classical erudition is the main characteristic of
Robert Burton (1576 — 1640), Fellow of Brasenose, and
Student of Christ Church, Oxford, the celebrated author of
the Anatomy of Melancholy (162 1)3. He is quaintly described in Wood's
Athenae Oxonienses* as ' a general read scholar, a thoro' pac'd philologist ' ;
'by many accounted a severe student, a devourer of authors'; but 'very
merry, facete, and juvenile'. The Latin" elegiacs which he addresses to his
book show a turn for pleasant raillery. Dr Johnson has justly described the
work as ' perhaps overloaded with quotations ' ; ' but there is great spirit and
great power ' (he adds) ' in what Burton says when he writes from his own
mind'5.
Thomas Dempster of Pembroke Hall, Cambridge (c. 1579 —
1625), was born some three years later than
Robert Burton and died fifteen years before him.
He belonged to an ancient family in Scotland, which lost all
its fortunes owing to its fidelity to the catholic cause. He
graduated at Douay and Paris, and was a professor at Toulouse
and Nimes, and at several Colleges in Paris. In Paris he edited
Claudian (1607) and Corippus (1610). At Cologne in 1613 he
reprinted, with corrections and large additions, the Antiquitates
Romanae of Johann Rossfeld, or Rosinus (1585). He afterwards
professed civil law at Pisa, and the humanities at Bologna, where
he died. Meanwhile he had been knighted by Urban VIII. In
addition to a critique on Historians, he wrote an Ecclesiastical
History of Scotland6, in which he was prompted by his patriotism
to exaggerate the literary fame of his country, and even to claim
Turnebus as of Scottish descent7. His work De Etruria Regali,
1 » 43° *•
2 Morhof, ii 124 f, ed. 1747. 3 17 other edd. before 1850.
4 ii 652 f, Bliss. B Boswell, ii 259, Napier.
6 1627; new ed. 1828. 7 p. 185 n. supra.
CHAP. XX.] BURTON. DEMPSTER. BARCLAY. GATAKER. 34!
printed nearly a century later (1723-6), with an illustrated
supplement by Philip Buonarroti, aroused a fantastic interest in
Etruscan Art, and an exaggerated sense of the antiquity and
extent of Etruscan civilisation1. He also wrote on mythology
and cosmography, and was famous as a Latin poet, his poem
entitled Musca being admired as a lepidum carmen, sed non
indoctum*. He had a frank and open manner, and a pugnacious
temper. He had also a remarkably good memory, and spent
fourteen hours a day in reading3. He is described by Ussher
as a man of much reading, and absolutely no judgement4.
His contemporary John Barclay (1582 — 1621), who was born
in Lorraine of Scottish descent and was probably
. Barclay
educated by the Jesuits, has some reputation as a
Latin writer. At the beginning of the ten years of his residence
in London, he produced the Latin poems of his Sylvae (1606),
and, at the close of the five years spent in Rome towards the
end of his life, he completed a political satire in Latin prose
called the Argents (1621). The latter is an allegory, partly
founded on the state of France during the latter years of
Henry III, and it was a favourite with Richelieu5. Coleridge
even preferred the Latin style of this work to that of Livy or
Tacitus, but Hallam is more judiciously content to compare it
with that of Petronius6. His Latin verse is modelled mainly
on Statius and Claudian. He is the theme of a couplet com-
posed by Grotius : —
' Gente Caledonius, Gallus natalibus hie est,
Romam Romano qui docet ore loqui'7.
The puritan divine and critic, Thomas Gataker (1574 — 1654),
was a Scholar of St John's, a Fellow of Sidney
. Gataker
Sussex College, Cambridge, and subsequently lec-
turer at Lincoln's Inn and rector of Rotherhithe. In 1620 he
1 Stark, 183.
2 Borrichius, De Poet 'is, 151. 3 Aub. Miraeus, ap. Blount.
4 Antiy. Britann. Eccl. c. i. Cp. Blount, 642 f, and D. N. B.
5 Vita, prefixed to Argents.
6 Hallam, ii 2844, iii 165 f4.
7 For other Testimonia, cp. Blount, 655 f. See also sketch of Life by
Lord Hales, 1783.
342 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVII.
travelled in the Netherlands. He wrote a curious treatise on the
' Nature and Use of Lots ', and, apart from works on the Hebrew
prophets and on the ecclesiastical controversies of the day, pub-
lished a Greek text of the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius, with
a Latin version and a copious'commentary1, — ' the earliest edition
of any classical writer published in England with original anno-
tations's. The Stoic philosophy is reviewed in the Introduction
and many parallel passages from Greek and Latin philosophical
writings are cited in the notes. His Adversaria Miscellanea
(1651) and Posthuma, with an autobiography (1659), include
many observations relating to classical antiquity. His translation
of Marcus Aurelius is reprinted in the Opera Crttica, published
at Utrecht in 1698, with a Life by Herman Witsius. He has
been placed by a foreign writer among the six Protestants con-
spicuous for depth of reading, and has been characterised as a
vir stupendae leclionis magnique judicii*.
Gataker's slightly younger contemporary, the learned jurist,
John Selden (1584 — 1654) of Hart Hall, Oxford,
Selden . .
and of the Inner Temple, M.P. for his university
in the Long Parliament, produced in 1617 two works of profound
learning, his ' History of Tythes ' in English, and his treatise
De Diis Syr is in Latin. As the author of the latter he earned
from Gataker the epithet of TroXv/zafo'crraTos4. A more immediate
service to scholarship was rendered in 1628-9 by his publication of
the Marmora Arundelliana, a description of the marbles brought
from Asia Minor by William Petty, a Cambridge man, who was
acting as agent for Thomas Howard, the second Earl of Arundel
(1586 — 1646). Petty found at Smyrna a number of Greek in-
scriptions originally collected by an agent of the Provengal
scholar, Peiresc5. Owing to some intrigues on the part of the
sellers, the agent had been thrown into prison and the collection
dispersed. Petty recovered them, and purchased them, at a high
price, for Lord Arundel, and the marbles reached Arundel House
in the Strand in 1627. The greatest interest was excited by the
1 1652; reprinted, 1697, 1707.
2 Hallam, iii 250*.
3 Morhof, Polyhistor, i 926, ed. 1747.
4 De Tdragr. 5 Vila, by Gassendi, 227.
CHAP. XX.] SELDEN. 343
two large fragments of a chronological table which, from the place
of its original discovery, became known as the Marmor Parium.
The table begins with Cecrops and goes down to 354 B.C., the
latter part, ending with 263-2 B.C. (the year of its composition),
having been lost1. The deciphering and interpretation were
undertaken by Selden, the magnus dictator doctrinae gentis Anglicae,
with the aid of Patrick Young and Richard James. The fame of
the inscriptions and their collector was spread abroad by the
publication of Selden's work, and Peiresc now learnt for the first
time the fate of his former property, but he generously rejoiced
that the task of appreciating the inscriptions had fallen into such
good hands2. The work is lauded by Baillet, who adds that, even
if men were to refuse to Selden the eulogies that were his due,
' les pierres parleroient pour luy'3. Forty years after the marbles
had arrived in England, the inscriptions, which Selden's volume
had made famous, are described by Evelyn as ' universally
neglected and scattered up and down about the garden, and
other parts of Arundel House', 'exceedingly impaired' by the
'corrosive air of London'4. Part of them were used in the
repair of the house, and in this way the upper half of the
Marmor Parium had disappeared in the chimney, and would
have been lost to the learned world, had it not been discovered
betimes by Selden and his friends5. Under the influence of
Evelyn, the marbles were presented to the university of Oxford,
but, of the original number of 250 inscribed stones, only 136
reached that destination. These were at first 'inserted in the
walls that compass the area of the (Sheldonian) theatre', where
the author of the Sylva judiciously advised the planting of a
hedge of holly to prevent idle persons from scratching and
injuring them6. They were edited afresh by Prideaux (1676),
and afterwards transferred to the interior of the Ashmolean
Museum, and ultimately to the University Galleries.
1 A fragment covering 336 — 2996.0. has been found (At/i. Milt. 1897, 183).
2 Michaelis, Ancient Marbles in Great Britain, 17 f, 34 f.
3 Jugfwens des Sfavans, 1685, ii 401 ed. 1722.
4 Diary, 19 Sept. 1667 (ii 29).
5 Prideaux, Marmora Oxoniensia, 1676, pref.
6 Evelyn, Diary, 13 July, 1669 (ii 41 f).
344 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVII.
When Grotius, in his Mare Liberum (1633), denied England's
right to exclude the fishermen of the Netherlands from the seas
claimed by England, that right was maintained by Selden in his
Mare Clausum (1636), and Grotius, who had already described
Selden as the Honor Britanniae (1625)', was (as we have already
seen) well content that the controversy should be in such good
hands2. His dissertation on the Civil Year and the Calendar
of the Jews was lauded by Vossius3. His Table-Talk has been
characterised as ' far less rude, but more cutting than that of
Scaliger '4. Selden must have been thinking mainly of theological
learning, when he said of the English clergy of his day, 'All
Confess there never was a more learned Clergy — no Man taxes
them with Ignorance'; and of learning in a larger sense, when he
says elsewhere, ' The Jesuits and the Lawyers of France, and the
Low-Countrymen, have engrossed all Learning; the rest of the
world make nothing but Homilies'5. His own preference for
quoting original authorities is expressed with some rudeness, when
he remarks : ' To quote a modern Dutch Man, where I may use
a Classic Author, is as if (in justifying my reputation) ' I were
to... neglect all persons of Note and Quality that know me, and
bring the Testimonial of the Scullion in the Kitchen'6. He is
described by Burnet as 'the most learned Mr Selden, one of
the greatest men that any age has produced". His industry,
and his strength of frame, the exactness of his memory and the
sureness of his judgement, have been lauded in the Memoirs of
Dr Lloyd, who adds that his 'Fancy' was 'slow'; nevertheless
he made ' several sallies ' into poetry and oratory, and was proud
of the fact that he had been taught by Ben Jonson 'to relish
Horace '8.
Thomas Young (1587 — 1655), curate to Gataker at Rother-
hithe, and afterwards the Puritan Master of Jesus
College, Cambridge, was John Milton's private
tutor, and is the theme of the fourth of his Latin Elegies and of
1 De Jure Belli et Pads, lib. II, c. 2.
2 p. 315 supra. :! De Scient. Math. 466.
4 Hal lam, ii 5i84. 8 pp. 37, 67 Arber.
6 ib. 31. 7 Hist. Kef. book 3, p. 264, ed. 1539.
8 Blount, 696.
CHAP. XX.] MILTON. 345
two of his Latin Letters1. In the Elegy the poet confesses that
he has derived from his private tutor his first taste for classical
literature and poetry : —
' Primus ego Aonios, illo praeeunte, recessus
Lustrabam, et bifidi sacra vireta jugi ;
Pieriosque hausi latices, Clioque favente,
Castalio sparsi laeta ter ora mero '.
Milton (1608 — 1674), who was educated at St Paul's School,
London, and for seven years at Christ's College, Cambridge, tells
us in his 'Apology' that at Cambridge he was not 'unstudied in
those authors which are most commended', the 'grave Orators
and Historians ', ' the smooth Elegiack Poets ', and the ' divine
volumes of Plato and Xenophon'2. During his five years at
Horton, he ' enjoyed a complete holiday in turning over Latin
and Greek authors'3. His common-place book, ascribed to the
latter part of his time in that rural retreat, includes quotations
from as many as sixteen Greek authors, cited mainly for historical
facts, and not for poetic phrases4. His reading was that of a poet
and a general scholar rather than that of a professional philologer;
and he ' meditated ' what he read5, thus escaping the reproach of
being ' deep verst in books, and shallow in himself'6.
At Paris, in 1638, he saw Grotius, who 'took his visit kindly,
and gave him entertainment suitable to his worth, and the high
commendations he had heard of him '7. During his year in Italy
(1638-9) he attended two of the meetings of one of the Florentine
Academies, and recited from memory some of the Latin verses
of his youth. He spent two months in Rome, viewing the an-
tiquities, and cultivating the acquaintance of scholars, such as
Lucas Holstein of Hamburg, who had lived for three years at
Oxford, and was then librarian of the Vatican. He was shown
the sights of Naples by Manso, the patron of Tasso and Marini,
and on his departure presented his host with his Virgilian Eclogue
of Mansus. On his way back he spent two more months in
1 Mitford's Milton, \ 216, vii 369, 373.
- ill. iii 269, 272. 3 ib. vi 287.
4 Pattison's Milton, 19. 5 Aubrey's Lives (ib. 18).
6 P. A', iv 326.
7 Philips, Life of Milton (1649) 'n ^- Godwin's Lives (1815), p. 358.
346 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVII.
Rome, and two in Florence, where he saw Galileo. After a
month in Venice, he returned to England via Geneva, the home
of the uncle of his bosom-friend, Carolus Diodati, the Damon of
the Epitaphium, a pastoral elegy inspired by a genuine emotion.
It was composed on his return from abroad, and is the latest of
the poet's serious efforts in Latin verse. His Lycidas, which pre-
ceded his visit to Italy, and his Epitaphium Damonis, which
immediately followed his return, were both of them modelled on
the Latin Eclogues of Virgil and of later Italian poets1. 'The
Latin pieces ' (says Dr Johnson) ' are lusciously elegant ; but the
delight which they afford is rather by the exquisite imitation of
the ancient writers, by the purity of the diction, and the harmony
of the numbers, than by any power of invention, or vigour of
sentiment'2. He also describes the Epitaphium Damonis as
' written with the common but childish imitation of pastoral life '3.
The poem is, however, defended by Warton, who observes that
' there are some new and natural country images, and the common
topicks are often recommended by a novelty of elegant ex-
pressions'4. Leland's hendecasyllables and epigrams are an
unimportant exception to the statement that Milton is 'the
first Englishman, who, after the restoration of letters, wrote
Latin verses with classick elegance'5. His early Latin poems
belong to 'the spring-time of an ardent and brilliant fancy'6;
and his Latin poems in general are 'distinguished from most
Neo-Latin verse by being a vehicle of real emotion '7.
In 1640 Milton was engaged in the tuition of his two nephews, who were
joined by other pupils in 1643. One of those nephews has preserved an
impressive list of the authors studied : — in husbandry, Cato, Varro, Columella,
Palladius; Celsus, and a great part of Pliny; Vitruvius; the Stratagems of
Frontinus; Lucretius and Manilius, In Greek verse, Hesiod, Aratus, Diony-
sius, Oppian, Quintus Smyrnaeus, Apollonius Rhodius; in prose, Plutarch's
Placita Philosophorum, and On the Education of Children; Xenophon's
Cyropaedia and Anabasis; the Tactics of Aelian, and the Stratagems of
Polyaenus8.
1 p. 1 1 4, n. 7 supra.
2 Lives of the English Poets, i 139, ed. Cunningham.
3 il>. i 91. 4 Todd's Milton, iv 506.
5 Todd's Milton, iv 363. 6 Hallam, iii 564.
7 Pattison's Milton, 41. 8 Todd's Milton, i 29.
CHAP. XX.] MILTON. 347
The Tractate on Education (1642) is mainly a scheme for the acquirement
of useful knowledge with the aid of Greek and Latin books. After suggesting
that the speech of his ideal students should be ' fashion'd to a distinct and
clear pronuntiation, as near as may be to the Italian, especially in the Vowels',
he would have 'some easie and delightful Book of Education' read to them,
such as ' Cebes, Plutarch, and other Socratic discourses', or ' the two or three
first Books of Quintilian'. 'The next step would be to the Authors of
Agriculture, Cato, Varro, and Columella'. 'The difficulties of Grammar being
soon overcome, all the Historical Physiology of Aristotle and Theophrastus
are open before them'. 'The like access will be to Vitruvius, to Seneca's
Natural Questions, to Mela, Celsus, Pliny, or Solinus'. 'Then also those
Poets which are now counted most hard, will be both facil and pleasant,
Orpheus, Hesiod, Theocritus, Aratus, Nicander, Oppian, Dionysius, and, in
Latin, Lucretius, Manillas, and the rural part of Virgil '. Thereupon ' their
young and pliant affections are led through all the moral works of Plato,
Xenophon, Cicero, Plutarch, Laertius, and those Locrian remnants'; 'some
choice Comedies, Greek, Latin, or Italian ; those Tragedies also that treat of
Houshold matters, as Trachiniae, Alcestis, and the like ' ; ' those extoll'd
remains of Grecian Lawgivers, Lycurgus, Solon, Zaleucus, Charondas, and
thence to all the Roman Edicts and Tables with their Justinian'. ' Then will
the choise Histories, Heroic Poems, and Attic Tragedies of stateliest and
most regal argument, with all the famous Political Orations offer themselves;
which, if they were not only read, but some of them got by memory, and
solemnly pronounc't with right accent, and grace, as might be taught, would
endue them even with the spirit and vigor of Demosthenes or Cicero, Euripides
or Sophocles'. Logic, also, 'so much as is useful', to be followed in due
course by ' a gracefull and ornate Rhetorick taught out of the rule of Plato,
Aristotle, Phaleretis, Cicero, Hermogenes, Longinus'; and, lastly, 'that
sublime art which, in Aristotle's Poetics, in Horace, and the Italian Com-
mentaries of Castelvetro, Tasso, Mazzoni, and others, teaches what the laws
are of a true Epic Poem, what of a Dramatic, what of a Lyric, what Decorum
is, which is the grand master-piece to observe'1.
Milton's copies of Pindar, Euripides, Lycophron, and Aratus
are still extant with marginal memoranda proving that he read the
Greek poets with the eye of a critic. His Pindar, the Saumur
edition of 1620, is now in the Harvard Library. His Euripides,
printed by Paul Stephens at Geneva in 1602, was bought in
1634, the year in which he wrote the Conius, and is now in the
possession of Mr W. W. Vaughan, head-master of Giggleswick2.
His Lycophron was once in the library of the late Lord
1 Todd's Milton, iv 384-9.
2 Emendations in Museum Criticum, 1814; cp. Bacch. 188 n, ed. Sandys.
348 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVII.
Charlemont ; his Aratus (1559) is now in the British Museum.
Milton's debt to the Classics is shown far less by any direct
adaptations of their phraseology than by the classical flavour that
pervades his poems. A tribute to his Latin scholarship was paid
by his appointment as Latin Secretary to the Council of State
from 1649 to 1659, and England's communications with foreign
powers lost none of their dignity by being couched in Miltonic
Latin. For the task of replying to the Eikon Basilike, the first
name suggested was that of Selden, but it was finally entrusted to
Milton. He also discharged the duty of answering the Defensio
regia of Salmasius, but the only passages of his Defence of the
People of England, and of his Second Defence, that retain their
original interest, are those that tell of the author's studies and
travels. When he had finished these pamphlets, there were many
to whom he was only a blind man that wrote Latin1. Paradise
Lost was not published until 1667, and 1670 saw the publication
of Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes. The latter is founded
on the earlier Attic models, the Chorus throughout takes part in
the dialogue, and, ' according to ancient rule and best example ',
the drama begins and ends ' within the space of twenty-four
hours '. Aristotle's famous definition of tragedy is quoted on the
title-page, but while the much-disputed term katharsis is there
translated by lustratio, the preface, probably composed under
the influence of the Italian commentators, is more in accord with
the best modern interpretation, when it states that tragedy is
'said by Aristotle to be of power by raising pity and fear, or
terror, to purge the mind of those and such like passions'2. This
aim is attained in Samson Agonistes, which finds its close in 'calm
of mind, all passion spent'.
As a Latin poet, Milton had been preceded in England by
Thomas May of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
(1595 — 1650), whose translations of the Classics3 are
praised by Ben Jonson, and whose skill in imitating the style of
Lucan is shown in his Latin continuation of the Pharsalia (1640).
1 Whitelock's Memorials (1656), p. 645 of folio ed. Cp. Pattison, 117.
2 Cp. vol. i 62.
3 Virgil's Georgia, 1622, 1628; and Lucan's Pharsalia, 1627, with a Con-
tinuation in English verse, 1630, and in Latin (Leyden), 1640.
CHAP. XX.] MAY. COWLEY. DUPORT. 349
As a Latin poet, not only May, but also Cowley (1618 — 1667), is
preferred to Milton by Dr Johnson1 ; but the merits of May, who
is a ' sonorous versifier ', ' accomplished in poetical declamation ',
are mainly those of a skilful parodist, while the metaphysical
conceits of Cowley are ill-adapted for the garb of
. . . Cowley
Latin verse2. A passing mention is due to Cowley's
Naufragium Joculare, and to his little volume De Plantis, in
which he discourses in Latin verse on the qualities of herbs, the
beauties of flowers, and the uses of trees. In the final couplet of
the Latin dedication of his English Poems to his Alma Mater, he
recalls the happy days of his quiet life beside the Cam : —
' Qualis eram cum me tranquilla mente sedentem
Vidisti in ripa, Came serene, tua'.
James Duport (1606 — 1679), who was the son of a Master of
Jesus, and was educated at Westminster and Trinity,
and elected Fellow in 1627, may well have known
Milton, who was only two years junior to himself, in Cambridge.
But this is only an inference from his omission of Milton's name
in his invectives against regicides. Duport was professor of Greek
from 1639 to 1654, and during the Civil War went on quietly
lecturing on the Characters of Theophrastus3. After the Restora-
tion he became Dean of Peterborough (1664) and Master of
Magdalene (1668-79). In contrast to the Cambridge Platonists
of his day, he was an adherent of Aristotle, but he devoted most
of his energies to the composition of Greek and Latin verse. His
models were Homer and Martial, but he allowed himself metrical
licences unrecognised by either. He broke into verse on the
slightest provocation. An episcopalian and a royalist, he could
not refrain from joining in celebrating the peace with Holland in
a collection of verses addressed to Cromwell. In his Horae Sub-
serivae he supplies us with a set of Latin elegiacs on the Trinity
1 Lives, i 12 f.
2 T. Warton, Preface to Milton s Minor Poems, xviii, ed. i.
3 The MS of his lectures was lent to Stanley, the editor of Aeschylus, on
whose death it came into possession of Moore, bishop of Ely ; the bishop lent
it to Peter Needham, who published it in his own edition (1712). Needham
assumed it had been composed by Stanley, until Bentley proved from internal
evidence that it was the work of Duport.
350 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVII.
fountain ', and represents the Master lamenting the death of the
Vice-Master in a grandiloquent series of Greek hexameters
addressed to a meeting of the Senior Fellows2. Essaying a far
longer flight, he rendered in Homeric verse the whole of the Book
of Job (1637), as well as those of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, and
the Song of Solomon (1646). In his Homeri Gnomologia (1660)
he collected all the aphorisms of the Iliad and Odyssey, and illus-
trated them from the Scriptures and the Classics3.
At the Restoration, Duport had been invited to resume the
Chair of Greek, which had been vacant for six years. He de-
clined the honour, and recommended that it should be conferred
on his favourite pupil, Isaac Barrow (16^0 — 1677).
Barrow
Barrow's inaugural oration opens with a brief review
of the earlier teachers of Greek in Cambridge, beginning with
Erasmus, Sir Thomas Smith and Sir John Cheke, and ending
with Downes and Creighton; but the lectures, which were so
auspiciously begun, were but scantily attended. 'I sit like an
owl', he says, 'driven out from the society of other birds'4. Within
four years he exchanged the Chair of Greek for the newly-founded
Lucasian Professorship of Mathematics. His introductory lecture
reveals him as a philosopher and a divine, as well as a scholar.
He confesses that 'though far from viewing with morose disdain
the amusing employment of verbal criticism, his warmest affections
have ever been given to the graver investigations of nature'; and
he reminds his hearers that the ancient Greek philosophers had
ever blended the study of philosophy with that of mathematics5.
He resigned the Lucasian Chair in favour of his pupil, Isaac
Newton (1669). As Master of Trinity (1672), he founded the
Library. He published a Latin text of Euclid before his election
as Professor of Greek, and a Latin text of Archimedes after his
1 318 f. 2 ib. 497-
3 Monk in Museum Criticum, ii 672, and Mullinger, Cambridge Charac-
teristics in the Seventeenth Century. Cp. Hallam, iii -248 f4. Quern Jupiter
vult perdere, elemental prius is the rendering in Duport's Gnomologia, 282, of
the tragic fragment, 8rav 5' 6 Sal^uv dvdpl -jropffuvrj KO.KO., rbv vovv tfi\a.\f/e irpCi-
TOV $ /SouXetferat (in Schol. on Soph. Ant. 620), subsequently rendered in
Joshua Barnes' Euripides (1694), Index Prior D, Deus quos vult perdcre,
dementat prius.
4 Opuscula, iv ut. B Mullinger, 191.
CHAP. XX.] BARROW. PEARSON. STANLEY. 351
appointment as Master of Trinity. He came to the end of his
great career as a scholar, a mathematician, and a divine at the
early age of forty-seven.
We have already noticed the names of Meric Casaubon (1599 —
I67I)1, and of Isaac Vossius2 (1618 — 1689). The early work of
the latter on the Letters of Ignatius attracted the
Pearson
interest of John Pearson (1613 — 1686), the author
of the 'Vindiciae Ignatianae,' of whose unfinished work on
Ignatius we find Bentley saying that 'the very dust of his writings
is gold'3. He was also an annotator on Diogenes Laertius, but is
now far better known as the author of the 'Exposition of the
Creed', as Master of Jesus and Trinity, Cambridge, and as Bishop
of Chester.
Thomas Stanley of Pembroke Hall (1625 — 1678), a barrister,
who, after travelling abroad, settled in London, was
Stanley
a descendant of the third earl of Derby, and a
cousin and intimate friend of Lovelace. At Pembroke, he was a
pupil of Fairfax, the translator of Tasso, and his ample means
enabled him to assist Sir Edward Sherburne (1618 — 1702), the
translator of Manilius (1675),, and of the tragedies of Seneca
(1701). His own translations included versions of Greek, as well
as Latin, poets4. His History of Philosophy, published in four
volumes (1655-62), is biographical rather than critical, and in-
cludes no name later than Carneades. It is mainly derived from
Diogenes Laertius, but there is also an account of the Platonic
philosophy, derived from Alcinoiis, the Peripatetic from Aristotle,
and the Stoic from various ancient authorities. At the time of its
publication, the field which it covered was almost untrodden
ground5. In the following year he produced his celebrated edition
of Aeschylus (1663). It was far superior to all its predecessors,
but at least 300 of the emendations that appear in the text were
appropriated, without acknowledgement, from the partly unpub-
1 p. 1 10 supra.
2 p. 322 supra.
3 Phalaris, c. 13 prope finem.
4 1647-51; edited by Brydges in 1814-5; his version of Anacreon reprinted
in 1893.
B Hallam, iii 303*.
352 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVII.
lished proposals of Dorat, Scaliger, and Casaubon1. It has served
in its turn as the great source of illustrations for all subsequent
editions of Aeschylus. It was described by Bentley as a 'noble
edition'2; it was republished in 1745, and afterwards revised by
Person and reprinted by Samuel Butler. Stanley's Adversaria
are still preserved in the University Library of Cambridge.
The study of the Classics in the seventeenth century may be
illustrated by the intellectual interests displayed by some of the
principal representatives of rational theology in that age. The
moderate and liberal churchman, Lucius Gary,
second Viscount Falkland (c. 1610 — 1643), wno
was admitted a member of St John's College, Cambridge3, and
also studied at Trinity College, Dublin, is described by his friend
Clarendon as having subsequently made 'prodigious progress' in
learning. 'There were very few classic authors in the Greek and
Latin tongue that he had not read with great exactness'4; while,
among the scholars of his own day, he had a singular admiration
for Grotius5. The 'ever-memorable' John Hales
(1584 — 1656), Fellow of Merton and lecturer in
Greek at Oxford, and Fellow of Eton from 1613 to 1649, had an
'exact knowledge of the Greek tongue', which enabled him to be
of special service to Savile in his famous edition of Chrysostom8.
Jeremy Taylor (1613 — 1667), Fellow of Gonville
and Caius College, Cambridge, and of All Souls,
Oxford, Bishop of Down and Vice-Chancellor of Dublin, was
described in his funeral sermon as 'a rare humanist', who was
'hugely vers'd in all the polite parts of Learning, and had
thoroughly concocted all the ancient Moralists, Greek and Roman,
Poets and Orators'7, while his own discourses are remarkable for
'an erudition pouring itself forth in quotation, till his sermons
1 C. J. Blomfield in Edin. Review, xix 494, and in Museum Crilicum, ii
498; Hallam, iii 250*. Stanley's own emendations are quoted by Davies on
Eum. p. 29 f.
2 Phalaris, 260 Wagner.
3 Falkland's Letter in Baker-Mayor, 532.
4 Life, 48.
5 Tulloch, Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy in England in the
xvii cent. (1872), i 91. Cp., in general, J. A. R. Marriott's Falkland (1907).
6 ib. i 172. 7 Dr George Rust, p. 13' (1670).
CHAP. XX.] FALKLAND. HALES. TAYLOR. MORE. 353
become in some places almost a garland of flowers from all other
writers, and especially from those of Classical antiquity'1. His
'Liberty of Prophesying' has for its explanatory title the formid-
able Greek designation : — av/u/Jo/W i^iKo-TroAe/xiKoi/.
One of the foremost of the 'Cambridge Platonists' of the same
century, Henry More (1614 — 1687), was known as
the 'Angel of Christ's College', where he led a Cambridge
° . . Platonists
secluded life, declining the office of Master, as well More
as a bishopric. 'For the perfecting' of his know-
ledge 'of the Greek and Latin tongue', he had been sent as a boy
to Eton, where he 'was wont sometimes with a sort of musical
and melancholic murmur to repeat' to himself those verses of
Claudian : —
' Saepe mihi dubiam traxit sententia mentem,
curarent super! terras, an nullus inesset
rector, et incerto fluerent mortalia casu'.
As a youthful Bachelor of Arts at Christ's, he studied the 'Platonic
writers, Marsilius Ficinus, Plotinus himself, Mercurius Trismegis-
tus, and the mystical divines'; and among his other favourite
authors in later life were Philo and Clement of Alexandria. His
'Philosophical Poems', beginning with his 'Psychozoi'a'and 'Psych-
athanasia', in which he endeavours to 'give some fair glimpse
of Plato's hid Philosophy', are purely Neo-Platonic conceptions
clothed in the fantastic garb of a poetry that is so far from lucid
as to call for the poet's 'notes' and 'interpretation general' to
illuminate its obscurities. In the most readable of his prose
works, the 'Divine Dialogue', he describes a dream of his youth,
in which he sees a 'very grave and venerable person', who presents
him with a silver key, inscribed with the sentence, Claude fenestras,
ut luceat domus, and a key of gold, bearing the motto, Amor Dei
Lux Animae. The dreamer is awakened by strange noises from
the outer world, but the full meaning of the golden and the silver
keys, and of their mottoes, is the theme of long debate in the
'philosophical bower' of the 'airy-minded Platonist', where the
scene of the 'Divine Dialogue' is laid2.
1 Hallam, ii 359*.
2 Tulloch, ii 305, 307, 309, 312—323.
S. II. 23
354 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVII.
More's contemporary, Ralph Cudworth (1617 — 1688), Fellow
of Emmanuel, and Master of Christ's from 1654 to
Cudworth
his death, is best known as the author of 'The true
Intellectual System of the Universe', and the 'Treatise concerning
Eternal and Immutable Morality'. He quotes freely from the
Neo-Platonists, and from their modern followers, Pico of Miran-
dola and Ludovicus Vives1.
The Cambridge Platonists, of whom More and Cudworth are
the most prominent representatives, show a lack of critical judge-
ment in their confusion of Platonism and Neo-Platonism. The
dialogues of Plato that chiefly interest them are the Theaetetus,
Sophistes, Parmenides, and, above all, the Timaeus. Nearly half
the second book of the 'Immutable Morality' consists of quota-
tions from the Theaetetus, and the discussion of the Platonic Trinity
in the 'Intellectual System' mainly rests on the Timaeus and on
the Neo-Platonists. Their favourite writers are Plotinus, and, in
a less degree, Proclus and Hierocles, Themistius, Damascius, and
Simplicius. 'They are', as Coleridge says, 'Plotinists rather than
Platonists'2.
Like Philo, and Clement of Alexandria, the ' Cambridge Plato-
nists' held that Plato derived his wisdom from
^Theophiius Moseg similariy Theophilus Gale (1628—1678)
of Magdalen College, Oxford, who left his library
to Harvard, maintained that all the Gentile philosophy was
borrowed from the Jews. This opinion is set forth at length in
his 'Court of the Gentiles' (1669-77), which is recognised as a
work of far wider learning than Stanley's History of Philosophy*.
His namesake Thomas Gale (c. 1635 — 1702), Scholar of West-
minster and Fellow of Trinity, was Professor of
Greek at Cambridge (1666-72), High Master of St
Paul's (1672-97), and Dean of York (1697 — 1702). His published
works include an edition of Timaeus Locrus, De Anima Mundi
(1670); the Opuscula Mythologica, Ethica, et Physica (1671); the
Historiae Poeticae Scriptores Antiqui (1675) and the Rhetor es
Selecti Graeci et Latini (1676). These were followed by the editio
princeps of lamblichus, De Mysteriis (1678), in the preface of
which he states that he had received from Isaac Vossius the
1 Tulloch, ii 201. 2 ib. ii 478 f. 3 Hallam, iii 303*.
CHAP. XX.] CUDWORTH. THE GALES. EVELYN. 355
original MS, 'quod nunc primum edo'. He also produced editions
of Herodotus and Cicero, and of the Latin historians of Britain
(1687-91). In 1695 we find Evelyn dining at St Paul's with Dr
Gale, 'who showed me many curious passages out of some ancient
Platonists' MSS concerning the Trinity, which this great and learned
person would publish, with many other rare things, if he was en-
couraged, and eased of the burden of teaching'1. Two years later
he became Dean of York, but no further work of his was published,
until his posthumous edition of the 'Antonine Itinerary' was pro-
duced in 1709 by his son Roger Gale, the antiquarian, who left
a large collection of his father's MSS to Trinity College, Cam-
bridge,— chief among which is the celebrated MS of the Lexicon
of Photius2.
The second half of the seventeenth century is marked by an
interest in Lucretius. In 1656 the first book was
Evelyn
translated into English verse by John Evelyn
(1620 — I7o6)3, with a lengthy but rather trivial commentary4.
Eighteen years later we find him writing to Meric Casaubon : —
'you may be sure I was very young, and therefore very rash, or
ambitious, when I adventured upon that knotty piece'. He adds
that, 'to charm his anxious thoughts during those sad and calami-
tous times', he had gone through the remaining five books, but
that his rendering 'still lies in the dust of his study, where 'tis like
to be for ever buried'5. A year later, a verse translation of the six
books was presented to the earl of Anglesey by Mrs
Lucy Hutchinson, far better known as the writer of Hutchinaon
the Life of Col. Hutchinson (1615 — 1664)" and of
the 'Principles of the Christian Religion'. In the latter 'there is
hardly any writer, sacred or profane, Jewish, Greek or Roman ;
hardly any schoolman or modern commentator, whose opinions
are not considered in greater or less detail'7. In her translation
1 Diary, 29 Oct. 1695 (ii 337).
2 M. R. James, Catalogue of Western MSS , ii Pref, and p. 190.
3 Diary -etc., i 314, iii 72-8.
4 Munro in Journ. Cl. and S. Philol. iv 124.
8 Diary etc. , iii 247.
6 Portraits of both in Peterhouse Library.
7 Munro, I.e. iv 122.
23—2
356 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVII.
of Lucretius, she denounces the poet as 'this Dog', and 'the
foppish casuall dance of attorns' as an impious and execrable
doctrine1. Her work remains in MS2. Seven years later a ren-
dering in verse was published by Thomas Creech
(1659 — 1700), Scholar of Wadham, Fellow of All
Souls, and head-master of Sherborne. His edition of Lucretius
(1695) was published by the Oxford Press, and, 'owing to the
clearness and brevity of the notes', remained long in use. The
compiler of this work has been described as 'a man of sound and
good taste, but... of somewhat arrogant and supercilious temper'3.
Besides editing and translating Lucretius4, he produced renderings
of Horace5, Theocritus and Manilius, with selections from Ovid,
Juvenal, and Plutarch.
Anacreon and Horace were edited by William Baxter (1650 —
1723), — Richard Baxter's nephew, who was educated
at Harrow, and became master of the Mercers'
school. Under the title De Analogia, seu arle Latinae Linguae
Commentarius (1679), he produced the first Latin Grammar of a
more than elementary type that had appeared in
England. John Hudson (1662 — 1719) of Queen's
College, Oxford, Fellow and Tutor of University and Librarian of
the Bodleian, edited Thucydides (1696), Josephus, and the minor
Greek Geographers (1698 — 1712).
The year 1697 was the date of Potter's Antiquities of Greece,
the early work of John Potter (c. 1674 — 1747),
Fellow of Lincoln, and afterwards editor of Clement,
bishop of Oxford, and archbishop of Canterbury. The same year
was the date of Evelyn's Discourse on Medals, and
Dryden
of Dryden's Virgil. The latter was keenly criticised
by Swift and Bentley. It contains many fine lines6; but, as a
whole, it is perhaps less successful than his renderings of Horace,
and of Persius and Juvenal, authors better suited to his strong
1 Munro, /. c. iv 128 f. 2 British Museum, Add. 19,333.
3 Munro's Lucretius, i i Js.
4 Cp. Prior's Satire on the Modern Translators in the Cambridge ed. of
Prior, ii (1907) 50.
6 Cp. Pope's Imitation of Ep. i 6.
9 Hallam, iii 488*.
CHAP. XX.] CREECH. DODWELL. BARNES. 357
and vehement style. The death of Dryden (1631 — 1700) coin-
cides with the close of the century.
Our present period ends in England with the names of Henry
Dodwell and Joshua Barnes. Dodwell (1641
J . H. Dodwell
— 1711), Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin, and
Camden Professor of History in Oxford from 1688 to 1691 (when
the fact that he was a non-juror led to the loss of his professor-
ship), is best known for his chronological works. On ceasing to
hold office, he produced his treatise De Cydis Veterum (1692 and
1701). This was followed by his 'Annals' of Velleius, Quintilian,
and Statius (1698), and of Thucydides and Xenophon (1702).
Joshua Barnes (1654—1712), of Emmanuel College, Cam-
bridge, began his literary career by producing a
fanciful little volume written in English, but inter-
spersed with Greek verses, called Gerania or 'News from the
Pygmies' (1675)*. Elected Fellow of Emmanuel three years
later, he became Professor of Greek at Cambridge in 1695. In the
previous year he had edited the whole of Euripides in a single
folio volume, an edition reprinted at Leipzig and Oxford. This
was followed by his Anacreon (1705), which attained a second
edition. Finally he embarked on an edition of Homer, for which
he failed to find a publisher. Its publication in 1710-1 was only
made possible by his persuading his wife, who had inherited a
small fortune from her first husband, that the real author of the
Homeric poems was Solomon2. With all its imperfections, it has
been recognised as a work of greater utility than any of its pre-
decessors, and ninety years elapsed before any distinctly superior
edition appeared3. The editor's facility in writing and in speaking
Greek was remarkable. When the Greek archbishop of Philippo-
polis visited Cambridge in 1701, Barnes, at the request of the
Vice-Chancellor, presented him for an honorary degree in a Greek
speech that is 'still preserved'4. In the preface to his poem on
1 This may well have inspired Swift with the idea of Gulliver's Travels (as
suggested to me by Mr P. Giles). It may at least have partly prompted him
to describe Gulliver as a student at Emmanuel, especially as it was the College
of Swift's former patron, Sir William Temple.
- Monk's Life of Bent ley, i 291 n. 3 ib. i 296 f.
4 ib.\ i52f. The archbishop's reply is bound up with a volume in Ee. 12. 10
358 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVII.
Esther, he tells us that he found it easier to write his annotations
in Greek than in Latin, or in English. There was nothing, how-
ever trivial, that he could not turn into Greek. Bentley, who fully
acknowledged his 'singular industry' and 'most diffuse reading'1,
used to say that he understood about as much Greek 'as an Athenian
blacksmith', presumably implying that he had rather the 'colloquial
readiness of a vulgar mechanic' than the erudition, taste and
judgement of a scholar2. In the year after the publication of his
Homer he died, and was buried at Hemingford Abbot in Hunting-
donshire. Greek Anacreontics were written for his monument,
but a Cambridge wit suggested a terser epitaph describing him as
felicis memoriae, expectans juditium*. Barnes, in his edition of
Euripides, had accepted the 'Epistles of Euripides' as the genuine
writings of the poet ; Dodwell, in his treatise De Cydis Veterum,
had followed the data presented by the ' Epistles of Phalaris ' in
determining certain points of chronology. The errors of both
were happily corrected when the spuriousness of the Epistles of
Phalaris and of Euripides was conclusively proved by Bentley, who
is the foremost representative of the next period of Scholarship.
in St John's College Library (Wordsworth's Univ. Life in xviiith cent., 320 f);
but the Greek speech of presentation is not to be found in the University
Library or at the Registry or at Emmanuel, or among the Covel papers in
the British Museum.
1 Dissertations, 558 Wagner.
2 Cumberland's Memoirs, 28, ' I do believe that Barnes had as much
Greek, and understood it about as well, as an Athenian blacksmith'. Cp.
Jebb's Bentley, 36. The Biographia Britannica (followed by Allibone's Diet.
and Wolf's Kl. Schr. 1052) wrongly has 'an Athenian cobler'.
3 Wolf, 1053. The phrase was borrowed from Menage (p. 299, n. i
supra). On Barnes, cp. Monk's Life of Bentley, i 52-4, 291-7; also Biogr.
Brit., and Allibone.
CHAPTER XXI.
GERMANY IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
GERMANY, as well as England and the Netherlands, may
claim a part in the career of Janus Gruter (1560 — •
1627). His father was burgomaster of Antwerp,
and it was there that Janus was born. His mother was a learned
and accomplished Englishwoman, and it was from his mother
that he learnt Latin. Owing to the troubled state of Antwerp
during the struggle of the Netherlands against the power of Spain,
his parents took refuge in England. From the age of seven he
lived in this country ; he was educated at Norwich Grammar
School, and in 1577 entered Gonville and Caius College, Cam-
bridge1. He continued his academic studies at Leyden, and
subsequently held professorships at Rostock and Wittenberg,
where he published nine books of Suspiciones, explaining or
emending numerous passages of Plautus, Apuleius, and Seneca
(1591). In 1592 he left for Heidelberg, where he gathered
around him a goodly band of eager pupils. At or near the
capital of the Palatinate he spent the remaining thirty-five years
of his life. In 1602 he was appointed Librarian. In the same
year he published his most important work, a Corpus of ancient
Inscriptions, begun at the suggestion of Scaliger, who not only
supplied a large part of the materials, but also devoted the
strenuous toil of ten months to the construction of twenty-four
admirably methodical Indices2. He produced editions of at least
seventeen Latin authors, including Tacitus, with the notes of
nine previous commentators (1607), Livy (1608), and Cicero
(1618), with the hitherto unpublished collations and conjectures
1 Cp. Venn's Annals, 410 f; Biogr. Hist, i 92.
2 Bernays, Scaliger, 67 f ; cp. Hallam, ii 290 f4.
JANUS GRUTER.
From a photograph of the portrait in the University Library, Heidelberg.
CHAP. XXI.] GRUTER. 361
of Guilielmus1, and with unjustifiable strictures on the text of
Lambinus. In his notes to the Historiae Augustae Scriptores
Minores (1611), he was the first to recognise the existence of the
' Saxon characters ' in a Palatine MS, written in what is now
known as the Beneventan script2. He was charged by Scaliger
with being indifferent to the merit of the authors edited, his only
aim being the production of a book. It was even said that he
never failed to publish one in every year, and sometimes even in
'every month'. All other scholars appeared 'mere drones in com-
parison with him'3. The six volumes of his Lampas (1602-12)
are only a collection of dissertations by scholars of centuries
xv — xvi. His collection of two hundred of the modern Latin
poets of Italy4 was published under the name of Ranutius
G(h)erus, an anagram of Janus Gruterus (1608). In 1622, when
Heidelberg was captured by the troops of Tilly, a large part of
his private library was destroyed, while the famous Palatine
library, which was under his charge, was assigned as the spoils
of war to Maximilian of Bavaria. By Maximilian it was presented
to Pope Gregory XV, who sent Leo Allatius to superintend its
transfer to the Vatican (1623). Hence it is that so large a
number of the Vatican MSS are still known as the codices Palatini*.
Some of them were afterwards carried off from Rome to Paris,
and then sent back to Heidelberg. The greater part of the
Palatine Anthology was thus restored to its former home. Gruter
never recovered from the blow that had befallen the library ; he
spent the last four years of his life cultivating his garden in a
rural retreat not far from the desolate university of the Palatinate6.
' His eulogists have given him credit for acumen and judgement,
and even for elegance, and an agreeable variety of style ; but his
reputation mainly rests on his laborious erudition'7. The merit
1 p. 272 supra. 2 Traube, in S. Ber. of Munich Acacl. 1900, 472.
3 Hallam, ii 28o4.
4 Also of France (1609), and Belgium (1614) ; those of Germany were col-
lected by A. F. G. G. (1612); those of Hungary by Pareiis (1619); while those
of Scotland were printed at Amsterdam (1637).
5 Graeci, cat. by H. Stevenson (1885); Latini, by H. Stevenson jun. and
De Rossi (vol. i, 1886).
6 Bursian, i 270-4. Cp. J. v. Hulst, Jean Grtiytere, Liege, 1847.
7 Hallam, ii 28o4.
362 GERMANY. [CENT. XVII.
of dividing the books of Livy into the chapters now in use belongs
to Gruter, who, in the preface to his last edition of that historian
(1627), states that he had done the same for other authors, and
that future editors were welcome to adopt the divisions which he
had suggested.
As custodian of the Palatine MSS, he had always been ready to
oblige scholars who publicly acknowledged his aid. The excerpts
from the MSS of Camerarius, which he sent to Taubmann (1565 —
1613) for his edition of Plautus (1605-12), were duly acknow-
ledged ; but he regarded with disfavour and endeavoured to
discredit the Plautine labours of Philipp Pareiis
Pareiis
(1576 — 1648), who, in his second edition of 1619,
printed the first accurate collation of the Palatine MSS. In the
third edition of Taubmann's text, Gruter attempted to reflect on
the accuracy of Pareiis by stating that the text of Taubmann had
been bona fide collated by the librarian himself with that of the
MSS1. Pareiis did permanent service to the study of Plautus by
the publication of his Lexicon (1614, 1634) and the evidence of
the Palatine MSS of Terence is carefully recorded in his edition
of that poet, which has a good Index (1619). He also edited
Sallust and Symmachus, and made useful contributions to Latin
lexicography. A full index is the main merit of his son Daniel's
edition of Lucretius (1631). Much of the father's best work was
done at Neustadt on the Hardt, where he was Rector of the
local School from 1610 until the capture of the town by the
troops of Spain drove him to Hanau, where he held a similar
position for nearly all the twenty-five remaining years of his life.
Among the scholars and controversialists connected with the Palatinate a
place must be found for Caspar Schoppe (1576 — 1649), who
was born in the upper Palatinate, near Nuremberg, and studied
at Heidelberg, Altdorf, and Ingoldstadt. He was still a student when he
produced, in 1596, a volume of Verisimilia on classical writers of Latin prose,
— a work evincing critical acumen and multifarious reading, as well as vanity
and shameless dishonesty. Part at least of this work was plagiarised from the
books to which he had access in the library of his master, Giphanius2. In the
following year his criticisms were continued in the form of a series of Letters
addressed to Scaliger and Casaubon in his Suspectae Lectiones, consisting mainly
1 Bursian, i 275 n. 2; and Ritschl's Opnsc. ii 125 f.
2 C. Nisard, Glcuiiafeurs, ii 12 f. Cp. p. 190 supra-
CHAP. XXI.] PAREUS. SCIOPPIUS. EARTH. 363
of conjectures on Plautus and Apuleius. In the same year, in his brief treatise
De Arte Critica, he illustrated the errors of the copyists by means of examples
taken from the MSS of Plautus and Symmachus. Having become a catholic at
Prague in 1598, he went to Rome, and served the papal cause in Germany,
Italy and Spain. Meanwhile he found time for criticising Apuleius, editing
Varro, De Lingua Lafina, and the Letters of Symmachus, and producing an
improved edition of the Minerva of Sanctius. In 1618-30 he lived in retire-
ment at Milan, where he wrote a ' philosophic ' Latin Grammar (T628)1, which
passed through several editions. He next attacked the Jesuits, and, to escape
from the enemies he had raised against him, fled for refuge to Padua, where he
spent the last thirteen years of his life. He wrote polemical treatises against
the great protestant scholars Scaliger2 and Casaubon3. 'The Protestants,
whom he had abandoned, and the Jesuits, whom he would not join, are equally
the objects of his anger'. As 'one of those restless and angry spirits, whose
hand is against all the world', he 'lived a long life of controversy'4. His
literary feuds earned him the title of the snarling scholar — the cants gram-
maticiis. It is possibly the same irritability of temper that is symbolised in the
' quills upon the fretful porcupine ' which is represented as resting on the table
beside which he stands in one of his portraits. Scaliger having inherited
from his father the championship of the cause of Cicero, Scioppius entered the
lists against the greatest orator of Rome. He also attacked the style of the
Jesuit Latinist Strada5, whose ' Italianisms' he exposed to view, while his own
style, at least in his earlier works, is disfigured with ' Germanisms ' 6. The
attack on Strada has, however, the merit of being accompanied by a valuable
treatise on historic style. In the course of the latter he attacks the Latinity of
Thuanus, Lipsius, Casaubon, and other recent writers.
Schoppe had a keen controversy with the Latin versifier, Caspar von Earth
(1587 — 1658), who, after travelling abroad for ten years, lived
mainly at Leipzig and Halle. His facility in Latin verse was
early proved in his Juvenilia (1607). In the same year he elaborately edited
the Pseudo-Virgilian Ciris. In 1612 he attacked Schoppe in his Cave Canem,
and edited Claudian. This was followed by his edition of the ' venatic and
bucolic' Latin poets, dedicated to Casaubon (1613). His Statius was not
published until 1664. Of the 120 volumes of his Adversaria, only 60 have
been printed, but these are enough; they extend to 1500 folio pages, and to
more than that number of chapters7. Mediaeval literature was one of his many
interests. He professes to have read as many as 16,000 authors of all kinds,
1 Hallam, ii 2854.
2 Scaliger hypobolimaeus, 1607; cp. Bernays, Scaliger, 85 f, 212 f.
3 Responsio ad Ep. Cazoboni, 1615.
4 Hallam, ii 285*.
5 p. 281 supra.
6 Infainia Famiani; cp. Nisard, ii 182 f.
7 Cp. Hallam, ii 28 14.
364 GERMANY. [CENT. XVII.
and he has been described by a contemporary scholar as a vir nniltae lectionis
sed exigui judicii1 . He is characterised by an extraordinary degree of vanity,
combined with a disregard for veracity. For a time he counted among his
friends the learned physician, Thomas Reinesius of Gotha
Remesius
('587 — 1667), who was in correspondence with many scholars.
Reinesius had studied medicine at Padua, and his residence in Italy had led
to his taking an interest in the collection of Latin Inscriptions, but it was not
until after his deatji that the results were published in a fine folio volume
dated 1682. His wide learning is attested by the 700 pages of his Variae
Lectiones (1640). At Padua in 1664 he produced a valuable edition of a con-
siderable fragment of Petronius, which had been found at Trau in Dalmatia
in 1640.
Thuringia was also the home of a meritorious scholar, Wolfgang Seber
(1573 — 1634), who published a complete vocabulary to the
Homeric poems, and editions of Theognis and Pollux. West
of Thuringia lay the birthplace of the theologian and orientalist Jacob Weller
(1602 — 1664), who in 1635 produced a Grammatica Graeca
nova, which deserved praise for its brevity and clearness, and
was widely used in Holland, as well as in Germany, down to the end of the
eighteenth century, especially in the edition prepared by J. F. Fischer, and
supplemented by the Syntax of Lambert Bos2.
The influence of Scaliger is exemplified by Heinrich Linden-
brog of Hamburg (1570 — 1642), who produced
a learned edition of Censorinus, which was re-
printed at Leyden and Cambridge; while his brother, Friedrich
(1573 — 1648), edited many other Latin authors, such as Ammi-
anus Marcellinus, Terence and Statius (with the scholia on both),
besides collecting the earliest Latin historians of Germany. Both
were pupils of Scaliger at Leyden (1594-6), and Heinrich was
specially interested in Latin Inscriptions3.
Another native of Hamburg, Lucas Holstein, or Holstenius
(1596 — 1661), after studying at Leyden, visited
Holstenius
England and Prance, joined the Roman com-
munion and went to Rome, where he lived from 1627 to his
death, as librarian of the Barberini palace and of ' the Vatican.
His published works include an edition of certain treatises of
Porphyry, and the editio princeps of Arrian's Cynegeticus (1644).
1 Burman's Sylloge, ii 763.
2 Bursian, i 301 ; cp. Hallam, ii 275*.
3 Zieharth, in Btitrage zttr Gelehrten-Geschichle des xz'ii Jahrh. (Hamburg,
?). 73—i6i.
CHAP. XXI.] LINDENBROG. HOLSTENIUS. MORHOF. 365
He formed the design of editing all the minor Greek Geographers,
and his familiarity with ancient Geography is proved by his
posthumously published notes on Stephanus of Byzantium. The
geography of Italy and of the ancient world in general was studied
by the Jesuit Athanasius Kircher (1601 — 1680),
Kircher
who was driven by the victorious Swedes from
Wiirzburg, and found a refuge in Rome, as a professor in the
Collegio Romano. One of his best works is his illustrated
historical and topographical account of Latium (1671). He is
famous as the founder of the Roman Museum of Antiquities
known as the Museo Kircheriano, which still includes his own
collection of antique Roman and Italian coins1.
The study of Latin style is exemplified in the works de Latini-
tate falso and merito suspecta (1665-9), published
by the Berlin schoolmaster and librarian, Johannes
Vorst (1623 — 1696). The history of literature is meanwhile repre-
sented by Jonsen (1624 — 1659), a master of the
Tonscn
school at Frankfurt, who in the last year of his
life produced a work De Scriptoribus Historiae Philosophicae,
worthy to stand beside that of Vossius on the Greek Historians.
Only the early portion of a literary history of the world was
completed in the same year by Peter Lambeck, of
Hamburg (1628 — 1680), a nephew of Holstenius.
In the course of his critical notes on the Nodes Atticae, he
conclusively proved that the author's name was A(ulus) Gellius,
and not Agellius, as had been supposed by mediaeval writers
and even in later times by Lipsius. He joined the Roman
Church, and, in the latter part of his life, became librarian at
Vienna, leaving behind him eight folio volumes on the history
of the MSS which had been under his charge from 1663 to his
death.
In contrast to the Prodromus Historiae Literariae (which
Lambeck failed to bring down any further than the times of Moses
and Cadmus), in contrast also to the fragmentary Tractatio de
Poly mat hia of Wowerius2, we have the completed fabric of the
Polyhistor of Daniel George Morhof of Wismar
(1639 — -1690), who left a professorship at Rostock
1 Bursian, i 310; Urlichs, •;$-. '2 p. 306 supra.
366 GERMANY. [CENT. XVII.
(1661-5) to be one of the first professors at the newly-founded
university of Kiel (1665-90). His Polyhistor, liferarius, philo-
sophicus, et practicus, is a great encyclopaedic work divided into
three parts. The early part alone was printed two years before
the author's death. The whole was edited by Moller in 1704,
and by the encyclopaedic author, J. A. Fabricius of Hamburg,
in 1731 and 1747. We are here concerned with the Polyhistor
literarins alone. This is a vast survey of classical learning, divided
into seven books, (i) bibliothecarius, on the history of literature,
on bibliography, and on libraries ; (2) methodicus, on the best
method of studying Greek and Latin ; (3) Trapao-Kcvao-riKo?, on
making notes and abstracts of the authors studied, together with
the first draft of a dictionary of metaphors, and lists of topics
for laudatory poems etc. ; (4) grammaticus, on language and
literature; (5) criticus, on writers on criticism and antiquities; (6)
oratorius, on rhetoricians and orators ancient and modern ; and
(7) poeticus, on ancient and modern writers on the art of poetry,
and ancient Greek and modern Latin poets, the ancient Latin
poets having already been reviewed in (4). In this great work
Morhof has embodied his teaching as a professor at Kiel ; he
reviews the books in every department of learning in an approxi-
mately chronological order ; supplies a brief but judicious notice
of each ; and, by his copious erudition, makes amends for certain
defects in the distribution of his subject1. In his minor works
he defended Livy from the charge of Patavinitas (1685), and
also wrote on purity of Latin style (ed. 1725)*.
His contemporary, Marquard Gude of Rendsburg in Schleswig-
Holstein (1635 — ^Sg), is less distinguished as a
Gudc
scholar than as a patron of learning and a collector
of MSS. During his travels in Italy he copied numerous inscrip-
tions that were finally published by Franz Hessel (1731). His
valuable collection of Greek and Latin MSS (including the Greek
lexicon known as the lexicon Gudianuni) now forms part of the
library at Wolfenbiittel3.
For a large part of the seventeenth century there was a flourish-
1 Cp. Hallam, i p. v; iii 55 14.
2 Bursian, i 304-6. 3 Bursian, i 323 f.
CHAP. XXI.] BERNEGGER. FREINSHEIM. BOEKLER. 367
ing school of Roman History at Strassburg, where a university was
founded in 1621. The editions of the Roman historians published
by this school were distinguished for the excellence of their
indices of subject-matter as well as language. The founder of the
school was Matthias Berneeger of Hallstadt (is 8 2
Bernegger
— 1640), who edited Justin, select Lives from
Suetonius, and the whole of Tacitus, with explanatory notes,
original and selected (1638). The model of this school was the
great editor of Tacitus, Justus Lipsius1. Bernegger's Tacitus
included many excellent notes and emendations due to his pupil
and son-in-law, Johannes Caspar Freinsheim (1608
. . Freinsheim
— looo), the foremost representative of the school.
Freinsheim lived at Upsala in 1642-51, and passed the last four
years of his life as an honorary professor at Heidelberg. He
produced excellent editions of Florus2, and of the first four books
of the Annals of Tacitus. In his edition of Curtius, he endeavours
to repair the loss of the first two books by a composition of his
own, which is the best of the three attempts to supply the
deficiency. A far more extensive work is his restoration of no
less than sixty of the lost books of Livy (1654), a work which,
although it lacks the charm of the historian's style, is stored with
an ample supply of facts, and rich in the fruits of careful research.
Even his posthumous edition of Phaedrus (1664) is inspired by
an interest in history, for each of the fables is illustrated by a
historical incident3. Another pupil of Bernegger,
Johann Heinrich Boekler (1610 — 1672), was an
influential teacher at Strassburg in 1631-48, and 1652-72, and
at Upsala in the interval between these two periods. He edited
Velleius Paterculus, and the Histories of Tacitus, produced a
commentary on Nepos, collated MSS of Polybius, and published
an edition of Herodian. His pupil and son-in-law,
Ulrich Obrecht (1646 — 1673), edited the Scriptores
1 Cp. Biinger (Strassburg, 1893).
2 1632, 1636, 1655, 1669.
3 For correspondence between Bernegger and Freinsheim (1629-36), see
E. Keller, in Beitriige zur Gelehrten-Geschichte des xvii Jahrh. (Hamburg,
1905), i — 72; Reifferscheid, Quellen zur Gesch.d, geistigen I.ebens... \ijahrh,,
p. 960.
368 GERMANY. [CENT. XVII.
Historiae Augustae, and the whole of Quintilian. Another pupil
of Boekler, Johann Scheffer (1621 — 1672), who,
like Boekler, became a professor at Upsala, where
he spent the last 31 years of his life, produced many editions of
Greek and Latin authors, including Hyginus, Petronius, Justin,
and Phaedrus, but he perversely opposed the ordinary opinion as
to the authorship of the first two of these works. His illustrated
treatises on the ships, the carriages, and even the necklaces of the
ancients, are in good repute ; he was also an artist, and wrote on
the history and the technique of ancient painting1.
The historical studies characteristic of Strassburg have their
counterpart at Helmstadt, near Magdeburg, in the
learned labours of Hermann Conring (1606 — 1681),
who was for half a century the ornament of the university of
Helmstadt, being successively professor of Physics, Medicine, and
Politics. Apart from encyclopaedic works on the first two of these
subjects, he produced, in connexion with the third of his varied
interests, an edition of the Germania of Tacitus, with excerpts
from other writers on German history. He also edited the
Politics of Aristotle, with many valuable suggestions on the Text,
and with a collection of the fragments of the lost TroXtTeiat2.
The work of Spanheim (1629 — 1710), who belongs to
Germany by his descent and also by his diplomatic services, has
already been noticed in connexion with his place of education in
the Netherlands3. While Spanheim had a wide knowledge of
classical literature as well as of numismatics, his comparatively
short-lived successor, Lorenz Beger of Heidelberg
Beger
(1653 — 1705), confined his researches to the
antiquarian field alone. He was the custodian of the cabinet of
antiques at Heidelberg, and of the collection of works of ancient
art at Berlin, and his Thesaurus Brandenburgicus (1696) contains
a large selection of ancient coins and gems, with an ample
commentary4.
The scholar and archaeologist Spanheim, and the eminent
jurist Thomasius, played an important part in promoting in 1694
1 Bursian, i 325—335 ; Urlichs, 752.
2 Bursian, i 336-8. s p. 327 supra.
* Bursian, i 342-7-
CHAP. XXL] SCHEFFER. CONRING. CELLARIUS. 369
the foundation of the university of Halle by Friedrich, Elector of
Brandenburg, who afterwards became the first King of Prussia.
The professorship of Eloquence and History, and the office of
University Librarian, were assigned to the many-sided scholar,
Christoph Cellarius (1638 — 1707), the author of
Cellanus
numerous works on Grammar and Style, and on
Ancient History and Geography. Among his most popular
works were his Antibarbarus, his Orthographia Latina, his new
edition of Faber's Thesaurus, and his Historia and Geographia
Antiqua. His most important work is his Notitia Orbis Antiqui,
in two quarto volumes (1701-6), with numerous maps. Several
of his fifteen editions of Latin historians and other authors were
accompanied by maps, which were then a novelty in classical
works. He also broke new ground in starting a Collegium
politioris doctrinae or elegantioris litteraturae, the precursor of the
Seminarium which has become an established institution in the
universities of Germany1.
In the early part of the century surveyed in the five preceding
chapters, the first enthusiasm aroused by the Revival of Learning
had already begun to languish in Italy and in other parts of
Europe. It was an exceptional indication of an interest in accu-
rate scholarship when a treatise on the Latin particles prepared
by the Italian Jesuit, Horatius Tursellinus (b. 1545), was printed
at Mainz in 1602 as the first of all the precursors of the elaborate
edition published by Hand three centuries after the birth of the
original author. During the seventeenth century the learning of
Italy was almost exclusively concentrated on local and general
archaeology2. It was partly in consequence of the predominating
influence of the Roman Church that Italy had been diverted
from the study of the pagan Classics, and that France had been
deserted by Scaliger in 1593, by Casaubon in 1610, and by Salma-
sius in 1631. In the land which they had left, those three great
protestant scholars were succeeded by Jesuits such as Sirmond,
Petavius and Vigerus3, and by jurists, such as Peiresc, Heraldus
1 Bursian, i 348 — 351; cp. Creuzer, Zur Gesch. der Phil. 120 f.
2 Chap. xvii.
3 To these may be added Rigault (1577 — 1654), editor of Onosander and
S. II. 24
370 RETROSPECT. [CENT. XVII.
and Valesius1, most of whom were surpassed in erudition, on the
catholic side, by the great lexicographer, Du Cange, and the
learned palaeographer, Mabillon2. The age of Louis XIV, the
founder of the Academy of Inscriptions (1663), was glorified in
1687-92 by Perrault, who, after a superficial survey of ancient
and modern learning, assigned the palm to the latter, and thus
gave the signal for a controversy which broke out once more in
the days of Bentley3. Meanwhile, in the Netherlands, classical
learning was ably represented by men like G. J. Vossius and
Grotius, by Daniel Heinsius and his distinguished son, by J. F.
Gronovius, Graevius and Perizonius4. In England the century
was adorned by the names of Savile and Bacon, Gataker and
Selden, More and Cudworth, Milton and Dryden, while, towards
its close, the errors in historical or literary criticism which had
marred the meritorious labours of Dodwell and of Barnes were
destined to be triumphantly refuted in the Dissertations on the
Epistles of Phalaris and of Euripides*. Lastly, in Germany, the
age of the Thirty Years War (like that of the Civil War in
England) was unfavourable to the peaceful pursuits of learning.
But, happily, the beginning and the end of the century were
marked by the notable names of the cosmopolitan scholars,
Gruter and Spanheim, both of whom had points of contact with
England, while, in its latter half, the name that perhaps lingers
longest in the memory is that of Morhof, the profoundly learned
author of the Polyhistor6. On the whole, it was a century of
multifarious erudition rather than minute and accurate scholar-
ship, a century largely concerned with the exploration of Latin
rather than Greek literature; but a new age of historical and
literary criticism, founded on a more intelligent study of Greek,
was close at hand with Bentley for its hero. We cannot, however,
forget that it was in this century that the principles independently
applied by Niebuhr to the critical study of early Roman History
were in part anticipated by the acumen of Perizonius7.
Artemidorus; the Scriptores Oneirocritici...Agrarii etc. (1614); Juvenal and
Sulpicia (1616); Tertullian (1635), Minucius Felix and Cyprian (1643).
1 Samuel Petit (1594 — 1643), author of the Leges Atticae (1635), belongs
to the same group.
2 Chap, xviii. 3 p. 403 infra. 4 Chap. xix.
5 Chap. xx. 6 Chap. xxi. 7 p. 331 supra.
BOOK IV.
THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
(a) Nobis et ratio et res ipsa centum codicibus potiores sunt.
(b) Noli Libraries solos venerari ; sed per te sapere aude, ut
singula ad orationis ductuin sermonisque genium exigens ita demum
pronunties sententiamque feras.
BENTLEY, on Horace, Carm. iii 27, 15, and Praef., 1711.
Conjecturas iugeniosas laudabat magis quam probabat; el nihil
magis quam dulces illas ingenii illecebras in judicando cavendum
monebat.
ERNESTI, De Gesnero ad Ruhnkenium, 1762.
Movebat ipsa Graecae linguae dignitas, ut pro viribus ad earn
illustrandam aliquid conferrem ; disciplinarum nempe et artium
omnium matrem, qua stante stcterunt omnia vitae rivilis ornamenta;
qua deficiente ilia quoquc dilapsa sunt.
MONTFAUCON, Palaeographia Graeca, Ep.\). 5, 1708.
Recte vir magnus statuebat, Latinam linguam Graecae sic
aplam et nexam esse, ut, qui alterant ab altera distrahat ac divcllat,
animi e.t corporis discidium inducere videatur.
RUHNKEN, Elogium Hemsterhusii, p. 43, I7892.
24 — 2
History of Scholarship in the Eighteenth Century.
Italy
France
Netherlands
England
Germany
Montfaucon
Le Clerc
Bentley
Leibnitz
1655-1741
1657-1736
1662—1742
1646 — 1716
Ficoroni
Burette
P. Burtnan I
Maittaire
J. A. Fabricius
1664—1747
1665-1747
1668—1741
1668-1747
1668—1736
Muratori
Uanduri
Kiister
Wasse
1672—1750
1671-1743
1670 — 1716
1672—1738
Maffei
C. Capperonnier
Bos
Ruddiman
1675-1755
1671-1744
1670—1717
1674-1757
Bouhier
Duker
S. Clarke
1673-1746
1670—1752
1675—1729
Sanadon
Davies
Hederich
1676—1733
1679—1732
1675—1748
Facciolati
Middleton
C. G. Schwarz
1682—1769
Forcellini
Olivetus
Havercamp
1683—1750
Pearce
I675—I75I
Bergler
1688—1768
1682—1768
1684—1742
1690—1774
1680—1746
Gori
Pellerin
Drakenborch Markland
Heinecke
1691—1757
1684—1782
1684—1748
1693—1776
1681—1741
Lami
Freret
Hemsterhuvs
Spence
Heumann
1697-1770
Lagomarsini
1688 — 1749
F&urmont
1685-1766
Wesseling
1699—1768
J. Taylor
1681—1794
Heusinger
1698-1773
1690—1745
1692—1764
1704—1766
1690—1751
Corsini
De Caylus
J. F. Re'tz
Heath
J. M. Gesner
1702—1765
1692—1765
1695-1778
1704—1766
1691 — 1761
Piranesi
Mariette
D'Orville
Dawes
Walch
1707—1778
1694—1775
1696—1751
170*— 1766
1693—1775
Rezzonico
D'Anville
Oudendorp
Toup
Funck
1709—1785
1697—1782
1696 — 1761
1713—1785
1693—1777
Paciaudi
J. Capperonnier
J. Alberti
Stuart
Brucker
1710—1785
1716-1775
1698—1762
1713-1788
1696 — 1770
Foggini
Bartheletny
Abresch
R. Wood
Kortte
1713-1783
1716-1795
1699—1782
1717—1771
1698-1731
Mingarelli
Brotier
P. Burman II
Revett
Damm
1722—1793
Bandini
1723-1789
Larchtr
1714-1778
Valckenaer
1720 — 1804
Tyrwhitt
1699^1778
J. F. Christ
1726—1803
Ignarra
1726—1812
Brunck*
1715-1785
Schrader
1730—1786
W. Hamilton
1700—1756
J. A. Ernesti
1728—1808
1729—1803
1722—1783
1730—1803
1707—1781
Lanzi
D'Agincourt
Ruhnken
M usgrave
Rei>ke
1732—1810
1730—1814
Oberlin*
1723-1798
Pierson
1732—1780
Twining
1716—1774
Winckelmann
1735-1806
I73I—17SB
1735—1804
1717—1768
Levesque
Koen
Home Tooke
Lessing
1736—1812
1736—1767
1736 — 1812
1729 — 1781
Morcelli
Gibbon
Heyne
I737—I82I
J737— '794
Townley
1729 — 1812
F. W. Reiz
1737-1805
I733—I790
R. Chandler
Raschc
1738—1810
1733-1805
Amaduzzi
Schweighauser*
Adam
Wieland
1742—1792
1742—1830
1741—1809
I733—I8I3
Marini
J. A. Capperonnier
Mitford
Scheller
1742—1815
Garatoni
1745—1820
Sainte-Croix
San ten
1744—1827
W. Jones
I735-I803
Eckhel
1743—1817
1746—1806
1746—1798
1746—1794
J737— 17&
Morelli
Luzac
Parr
Herder
'745—1819
1746—1807
1747—1825
1744-1803
E. Q. Visconti
Choiseul-Gouffier
Sluiter
Payne Knight
W. Heinse
1751—1818
1752—1817
1782—1815
1750—1824
1746—1803
Fea
Viiloison
Wyttenbach
H. Homer
Schiitz
1753—1836
1753—1805
1746 — 1820
I753—I79I
1747-1832
Gail
Wakefield
J. G. Schneider
1755—1829
1756 — 1801
1750 — 1822
Millin
T. Burgess
1759—1818
1756-1837
Bast*
Porson
F. A. Wolf
1771—1811
1759—1808
1759-1824
* Alsace.
CHAPTER XXII.
ITALY IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
IN the eighteenth century some of the greatest achievements
of Italian scholarship were connected with Latin lexicography
and the study of Cicero. Before the publication of Forcellini's
great lexicon in 1771, all the Latin dictionaries in general use in
Italy and elsewhere were founded more or less on 'Calepinus'.
The author, Ambrogio da Calepio, or Ambrosius Calepinus
(c. 1440 — 1511), was born at Calepio between Bergamo and
Brescia, entered the Augustinian Order at Bergamo, and published
his dictionary at Reggio in 1502, dedicating his work to the
Senate and People of Bergamo. He prepared a new edition in
1509, which he inscribed with the name of the Superior of his
Order, Egidio of Viterbo. In 1511 he died, and his corrections
were incorporated in an edition published in 1521. In his
preface he tells the Senate and People of Bergamo that ' for
many years he had extracted from authors, both catholic and
profane, interpretations of words rather for his own use than for
publication, preferring the learning of Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine,
to the cavils of Valla. He professes to excel all former writers
in copiousness, in exactness of citation, in the explanation of
prepositions ; but is notwithstanding conscious of innumerable
defects'1. His dictionary marked a great advance on the mediaeval
glossaries, and on the various vocabularies of the last quarter
of the fifteenth century2. It was widely used in Europe, and it
1 Ed. 1502, quoted by Prof. J. E. B. Mayor, Journal of Cl. and S. Philology,
ii 278.
2 Tortellius (1471), Junianus Maius (1475), Reuchlin (1475), Dionysius
Novariensis (1488).
374 ITALY. [CENT. xvm.
even added to the French language a new word Calepin, ' a note-
book, or common -place- book '. Edited again and again, and
overlaid with many additions, it was denounced as follows by the
learned Dane, Olaus Borrichius (1626 — 1690) : — Bonus ille
Calepinus Mies cactus et recoctus parum sapit1. In France,
Robert Estienne had been urged to reprint it in its original form,
but the proposal ended in his producing a Thesaurus of his own,
with the aid of Budaeus and others (i543)2. This was followed
by Faber's Thesaurus (1571), in which all the derivatives were
arranged under the words from which they were derived3. A
series of revisions of Calepinus, Estienne, and Faber, appeared in
Germany, culminating in J. M. Gesner's Novus Thesaurus (1749).
Meanwhile, the students of Latin in Italy were in general
content to rely on the successive editions of the work of their
countryman, Calepinus. In 1680 a library and a well-equipped
printing press were established at Padua by Cardinal Gregorius
Barbadicus, who in 1663 had been promoted from the bishopric
of Bergamo, the former home of Calepinus, to that of Padua, the
future home of Forcellini, whose fame was long unjustly obscured
by that of Facciolati.
Jacopo Facciolati (1682 — 1769) was born at Torregia in the
Euganean hills, and Aegidio Forcellini (1688 —
Facciolati
1768) at Campo Sampiero, near Treviso. Both
were of humble birth and of excellent abilities. From their
village-homes in the S.W. and the N.E. of Padua, they came to the
seminary of that place, Facciolati at the age of twelve, in 1694,
and Forcellini at that of sixteen, in 1704, the year in which
Facciolati took his first degree in theology. Facciolati was in
due time invited to superintend the studies of the seminary, and
the preparation of Greek, Latin and Italian lexicons for the use of
the students. In the preparation of the Greek lexicon, which was
a new edition of that of Schrevelius (1670), he had the aid of
Forcellini and others, but the name of Facciolati alone appears on
the title-page (1715). Again, the Italian lexicon was similarly
prepared by Forcellini (1718), but it was not until
Forcellini „. ., , ,
after a protest on the part of Forcellini s brother,
1 Dissert, de Lexicis Latinis.
- p. 1 73 supra. 3 p. 269 supra.
CHAP. XXII.] FACCIOLATI. FORCELLINI. 375
that Forcellini's name was mentioned in the preface to the
eighth edition (1741). Thirdly, at the revision of the Latin
lexicon of Calepinus, Forcellini worked, under Facciolati, for
three years, and the result appeared in 1718. Facciolati, who
seems to have really done a large part of the work, wrote the
preface but made no mention of Forcellini's name, merely
referring to him as strenuissimus adolescent.
Forcellini's experience in helping to edit ' Calepinus ' had con-
vinced him that an entirely new work was necessary. Late in
1718, by the command of the bishop and under the leadership of
Facciolati, the Studiorum Praefeetus, Forcellini began the Totius
Latinitatis Lexicon. In 1724, when he had reached the word
comitor, the bishop died, and, under his successor, Forcellini was
compelled to leave the seminary of Padua. For seven years he
was placed at the head of the seminary of Ceneda in the Venetian
Alps, but, on the arrival of a new bishop (Ottoboni), he was
recalled in 1731, and had proceeded as far as the word pone in
1742, when the bishop inconsiderately assigned him the laborious
duty of being Confessor to all the local clergy. The progress of
the lexicon was thus retarded until he was fortunately released
from that responsibility by a new bishop (Rezzonico) in 1751,
when he was enabled to continue his lexicographical work without
further interruption, starting afresh with the appropriate word
thesaurus, and reaching the last word in the lexicon in 1753.
After spending two more years in revising his manuscript, he
handed it over to Ludovico Violato for transcription.
Meanwhile he wrote his preface, in which he modestly states that his
master, Facciolati, 'a name illustrious in the commonwealth of letters', had
selected him to make the Latin Lexicon, not because of any special ability on
his part, but because he was regarded as a person of sound health and capable
of enduring even the most protracted labour. Thus, with his own hand, and
under the advice and aid of his master, the almost interminable toil of nearly
forty years had been brought to a close. He had added many gleanings from
unfamiliar authors, and from inscriptions and coins ; he had paid special attention
to orthography, to the proper arrangement of the several meanings of each
word, and to copious citation of examples, making a point of never quoting
any passage that he had not himself seen in its original context. He had spent
all his pains, strength and time on his task ; he was a young man when he set
hands to it, and had grown old in the course of its completion.
376 ITALY. [CENT. xvni.
When the vast undertaking was finished, Forcellini lived on for
some years in the seminary ; but, meanwhile, no one took any
steps for the printing and publication of his work. He was now
far advanced in life and broken down by his long labours, when
he bethought him of the village where he was born, and asked
permission to make the place of his birth the quiet haven of his
declining years. The permission was granted, and the great
lexicographer humbly handed over to the library of the seminary
the twelve last volumes of his own original draft of the lexicon
with the sixteen volumes of the fair copy, and on May-day in the
year 1765 left Padua for his old home at Campo Sampiero.
There, among his own people, he spent his time in peaceful rest
and in quiet contemplation of things eternal, till, three years later,
after a short illness, he passed away early in April, 1768, in the
Both year of his age. His body was laid without pomp or circum-
stance in the part of the village-church where priests were wont to
be buried, and it was not until many years had elapsed that any
epitaph whatsoever was placed on his tomb. The original manu-
script and the transcript of his great lexicon were still in the library
at Padua, when Cardinal Prioli became bishop. By his prompt
command it was sent to press early in 1769. The title, as it left
the hands of the transcriber, ran as follows : —
Latinitatis totius Lexicon in Patavino Seminario euro, et opera Aegidii
Forcellini elucubratum, iussu et auspiciis Antonii Marini Card, Prioli
episcopi edit um.
But Facciolati, who was still alive (being now in the 88th year of
his age), felt annoyed at finding no mention of his own name.
Accordingly, he caused the title to be recast as follows : —
Tothis Latinitatis Lexicon const/to el cura Jacobi Facciolati, opera et studio
Aegidii Forcellini, alumni Seminarii Patavini, lucubratum.
This title, which has unfortunately led many to believe that
the lexicon was, in a large measure, the work of Facciolati, was
retained until the publication of De-Vit's edition (1858 f).
Facciolati himself had, in 1756, written to the librarian of
St Mark's in Venice : — princeps huius operis conditor atque adeo
unus Forcellinus est; but, in publishing this letter in 1759 and
1765, he omitted this sentence1. Facciolati died in August, 1769.
1 De-Vit's Praef. p. xxxii.
CHAP. XXII.]
FORCELLINI.
377
The printing of Forcellini's lexicon was completed in four folio
volumes in 1771, having been seen through the press by Caietano
Cognolati, who wrote a full preface to the work. But the printer
had in hand a new edition of the old ' Calepinus ', which was
intended for publication in 1772. He accordingly kept back the
great lexicon for fear it should damage the sale of the other work.
A few copies, however, got abroad, and so large was the demand
that nearly the whole stock was soon exhausted. A new edition
appeared in 1805, followed by those of James Bailey (1825),
Furnaletto (1823-31), Schneeberg (1829-35), De-Vit (Prato,
1858-79), and Corradini (Padua, I864-90)1.
1 See De-Vit's Praefatio (1879), ri^ PP- '•> an& CP- J- E. B. Mayor, in
Journal of Cl. and S. Philology, \\ (1855) 271 — 290.
FORCELLINI.
Part of the Frontispiece to the London edition of 1825.
378 ITALY. [CENT. xvm.
While Forcellini deserves perpetual remembrance as 'the man
of one book', and that a true monument of gigantic industry, we
must, in fairness to his former master, add that Facciolati was the
author of the Fasti Gymnasii Patavini (1757) and many minor
works; that he edited Cicero, De Officiis etc. (1720), and was the
first to give a satisfactory form to the Lexicon Cieeronianum of
Nizolius (1738).
The study of Cicero is represented in the same century (i) by
Marcus Antonius Ferratius of Padua (d. 1748),
whose Epistolae (Venice 1699 and 1738) did much
for the right understanding of Cicero's Speeches1; and (2) by the
learned Jesuit, Girolamo Lagomarsini (1698 — 1773),
Lagomarsini * I'**
who collated all the MSS of Cicero accessible to him
in Florence and elsewhere, and was professor of Greek in Rome
for the last twenty-two years of his life.
These collations first became known to the world through
Niebuhr. They have since been used for the Verrine Orations by
K. G. Zumpt, the pro Murena by A. W. Zumpt, the pro Cluentio
by Classen, the pro Milone by Peyron, the Brutus and De Oratore
by Ellendt, and similarly by Baiter and Halm in the second edition
of Orelli. But not a single work of Cicero was edited by the
industrious collator himself2.
In the next generation about half of Cicero was edited by
Garatoni of Ravenna (1743 — 1817). During the
Garatoni
eleven years that he spent at Rome and Bologna
(1777-88) he published seventeen volumes of an edition, which
was to have extended to thirty-three, but the printing came to an
end owing to the bankruptcy of the publisher, and, for the rest of
the editor's life, nothing else appeared in connexion with Cicero,
except editions of the/r<? Plancio and pro Milonez. At an earlier
date a remarkable monument of the study of the
Rezzonico .»«*.. * •> • i r i- i
elder Pliny was produced in the two folio volumes
1 Orelli-Baiter, Onomaslicon, \ 437, ' liber quo Ciceronis interpres carere
prorsus nequeat'.
2 Cp. J. M. Parthenius, De Vita et Studiis Lagoinarsini, Ven. iSor,
§§ 82 — 98; Fabroni, Vilae Ifa/orum, xviii 146.
3 Dionysii Strochii de -vita et set: G. 1818 (Friedemann u. Seebode, Misc.
Crit. i 136 — 141 and ii i etc.).
CHAP. XXII.] CORSINI. BANDINI. 379
of the exceedingly diffuse Disquisitiones Plinianae (1763) of
Count Rezzonico (1709 — 1785).
In the same century we have two important catalogues of the classical MSS
of Florence. That of the library in the Kiccardi palace by Giovanni Lami1 of
Santa Croce was published at Leghorn in I7562, while that of the Laurentian
library, including a vast amount of information extracted from the MSS them-
selves and from other sources, was produced in eight folio volumes (1764-78)
by Angelo Maria Bandini of Florence (1726 — i8o3)3. In the field of Classics
a librarian of the Vatican, Pier Francesco Foggini of Florence (1713 — 1/83),
contented himself with producing a printed ' facsimile ' of the Medicean Virgil
(1741), and a satisfactory edition of the Fasti Praenestini of Verrius Flaccus
(1779). Catullus, Tibullus and Propertius were specially studied by Giannan-
tonio Volpi of Padua (1686 — 1766), an editor of Plautus, Lucretius and Lucan.
During this age Greek occupies a subordinate position. In
the first half of the century Greek studies are well
represented by Odoardo Corsini of Fanano (1702—
1765), whose Fasti Attici, published in four quarto volumes in
Florence (1744 — 56), laid the foundation for the chronology of
the Attic Archons, while his Dissertations of 1747 dealt with the
chronological and other problems connected with the panhellenic
games. He also published two folio volumes on the Greek abbre-
viations for words and numerals (1749). He was afterwards
general superior of the educational Order of Piarists, first in Rome
and afterwards in Pisa4. His great work on Greek chronology
was not followed up by any exactly similar work in Italy.
The first two of the fourteen years, that Bandini devoted to
the printing of the great catalogue of the Lauren-
0 . . Bandini
tian library5, were partly spent in publishing the
remains of five Alexandrian poets : — Callimachus, Nicander,
Coluthus, Tryphiodorus and Aratus (1764-5). Callimachus had
already been translated into Latin, and Nicander (as well as
Oppian) into Italian verse by Antonio Maria Salvini (1653 — 1729).
In 1766 Bandini published Theognis, Phocylides, and the golden
verses of Pythagoras, with translations into Latin and Italian,
1 1697—1770.
2 He also produced 18 vols. of Deliciac Eruditornm (1736-69), and 3 vols.
of Memorabilia Italonini eruditione pracsta ntinin, 1742-8.
3 Cp. Mazzuchelli, Scrittori </' Italia, II i 2 i 7 f .
4 Fabroni, Vilae Ilalorum, iii 88 — 148. 5 1. 5 supra.
380 ITALY. [CENT. xvm.
followed in 1770 by Theophrastus, De Historia Plantarum. He
was also interested in the literary history of Florence, as is partly
proved by his Lives of Ficino (1771) and Victorius
We need only mention two more Greek scholars, both of whom were
ecclesiastics: — Giovanni Luigi Mingarelli of Bologna (1722 —
1793), who produced a notable treatise on the metres of
Pindar (1773); and Jacopo Morelli of Venice (1745 — 1819),
who published the declamation of 'Aristides ' against Leptines, and other
Greek texts, from the library of St Mark's, which was under his care2.
Archaeological research was meanwhile promoted by the
foundation of learned societies such as the Etrus-
Archaeology .
can Academy of Cortona with quaintly styled
'Lucumons' at its head (1726), the 'Accademia di Ercolano' at
Naples (1755), and the 'Accademia di antichita profane' founded
on the Capitoline hill by Benedict XIV (i74o-58)3. The antiqui-
ties discovered by these Academies were added to the treasures
of ancient art stored in the Museum at Naples, and on the Capitol
and in the Vatican at Rome. Turning from societies to indi-
viduals, we find antiquarian and topographical research successfully
carried on by Ficoroni (1664 — 1747), whose name
is associated for ever with the exquisitely engraved
cista, which he discovered near Praeneste and presented to the
Museum in the Collegio Romano. His latest work, that on the
Vestiges of Ancient Rome (1744), supplies an instructive con-
spectus of the topography and the monuments. About the same
time the ruins of Rome were reproduced in bold and vigorous
engravings by Vasi and his distinguished pupil
Gianbattista Piranesi (I7O7-78)4. The youthful
Goethe was first inspired with a longing to see Italy by the very
copies of these engravings, which may still be seen at the Goethe-
Haus in Frankfurt. After the time of Ficoroni and before that of
Piranesi, we find Antonio Francesco Gori, a priest
and professor in Florence (1691 — 1757), publishing
the ancient Greek and Roman inscriptions of Etruria (1727 — 44),
and editing Doni's ancient inscriptions (1732), together with the
1 Mazzuchelli, II i 217 f.
2 Life by Moschini (1819) and Zendrini (1821).
3 Stark, i88f. 4 Stark, 241.
CHAP. XXII.] FICORONI. MURATORI. MAFFEI. 381
six volumes on coins, in the Museum Florentinum (1740—2), and
the three volumes on ancient ivory Diptychs (I759)1. Inscriptions
continued to be collected and studied in many parts of Italy, but
their study was attended with difficulty owing to the fact that
many of them were forgeries2. The latter are not excluded with
sufficient strictness even from the Thesaurus compiled by the
great historian Lodovico Antonio Muratori (1672 —
. . Muratori
1750), librarian at Milan from 1695 to 1700 and
afterwards for half a century at Modena, the most industrious and
the most widely learned Italian scholar of his time. He produced
six folio volumes of Antiquitates Italicae Medii Aevi\ in addition
to the twenty-seven folio volumes of his Scriptores, the eighteen
quarto volumes of his Anna/i, and the eight of his Anecdota
Latino, and Graeca. Even these are not all, as his total output
amounted to forty-six volumes folio and thirty-four volumes quarto.
By his calm and sober judgement, by his vast capacity for literary
research, and by his unfailing championship of good sense in
matters of scholarship, he exercised a most healthy influence on
historical and antiquarian studies in Italy. He stoutly resisted
the scholasticism of his day, successfully defended himself against
the Jesuits, who had the audacity to denounce him as a heretic,
and, as a parish priest and ultimately provost of Modena, was a
perfect pattern of devotion to the sacred duties of his office3.
To the school of Muratori belongs his contemporary and friend
Scipione Maffei of Verona (1675 — 1755), a scholar
of varied accomplishments, who combined an in-
terest in the drama, and in art and poetry in general, with the
local patriotism which prompted him to record the history of his
native place in his Verona Illustrata (1732), and to describe its
antiquities in his Museum Veronense (1749). In the latter the
extant inscriptions are carefully and correctly copied. His treatise
De arte critica lapidaria, published after his decease in the sup-
plement to Muratori's Novus Thesaurus, gives proof of his keen
and unsparing criticism of the inadequate work of other archaeo-
1 Stark, 116. 2 Stark, 119.
3 Vita, Ven. 1756; Fabroni, Vitae Ital. x 89 — 391; Schedoni, Elogio
(Modena, 1818); Braun, Ehrenrettung (Trier, 1838); Stark, 118; portrait in
Scritti Inediti (1872), reproduced in Wiese u. Percopo, 466.
382 ITALY. [CENT. xvm.
legists1. He travelled in Germany and England, spent four years
in Paris, and was thoroughly familiar with the Roman remains in
the South of France2.
Archaeology is represented in the next generation by Paolo
Maria Paciaudi of Turin (1710 — 1785), a pupil (and
also a strong opponent) of the Jesuits. Widely
known as an able preacher of the Theatine Order, he showed a
keen interest in sacred archaeology in his learned sermons on the
Saints. He spent part of his life in Naples and Rome, held high
office in his Order, was an eager collector of antiquities, and a
recognised authority on ecclesiastical archaeology and on numis-
matics. In his most important work, the Monumenta Peloponnesiaca
(Rome, 1761), he published, for the first time, the inscriptions,
reliefs and statues from the Peloponnesus and the Greek islands,
preserved in the Nani Museum at Venice, and applied to their
interpretation a sound and critical method3.
Some twenty years later, an admirable introduction to the
study of inscriptions was supplied by Stephano
Antonio Morcelli of Chiari (1737 — 1821), librarian
to Cardinal Albani, in his work cOn the style of Latin inscriptions'
(1780) and in his 'Select Inscriptions, with Comments' (1783).
The wide extent of his influence may be estimated by the fact that
he was the authority that inspired the Latin inscriptions of Dr Parr,
while the present writer has seen a copy of the second of the
above works in the little local library of the upland village of
Colle near Bordighera.
His contemporary, the eminent archaeologist, Gaetano Marini
(1742 — 1815), published the inscriptions of the
Albani Villa and Palace in 1785, and the great
expectations thereby aroused were completely fulfilled in the two
quarto volumes of the Inscriptions of the Fratres Arvales (1795),
in which those inscriptions (which were previously known) were
explained and emended, and no less than a thousand others
published for the first time4.
1 Hagenbach, Epp. Epigr. 1747, ap. Urlichs, too2.
2 Stark, 118. 3 Stark, 119.
4 Our knowledge of the Fratres Arvales has since been completed by
Henzen, Acta Fratrum Arvalium, 1874.
CHAP. XXII.] MORCELLI. MARINI. E. Q. VISCONTI. 383
The archaeological family of the Visconti, like that of the
former rulers of Milan, originally came from Sarzano near Genoa.
When Winckelmann left Rome in 1768, he was succeeded as
surveyor of antiquities by Giovanni Battista Visconti, who held
that office till his death in 1784. The most famous member of
the family was his son, Ennio Quirino Visconti
. . . E. Q. Visconti
(1751 — 1818), a precocious genius who published
at the age of 13 an Italian rendering of the Hecuba. Early in his
career he produced works on the Monuments of the Scipios
(1775), the inscriptions of the Jenkins collection (1783), the
excavations at Gabii, and the antiques in the Palace and Villa
Borghese (1796-7). Meanwhile he had succeeded his father in
the production of the celebrated work on the Museum Pio-
Clementinum, with illustrations and descriptions of that important
part of the Vatican Museum. Volumes n to vn (1784 — 1807)
are entirely his work. It was humorously said of him by the
Danish archaeologist, Zoega, who was then in Rome : — ' Visconti
is working at archaeology \vith as much distinction as ever, —
always equally ready with an explanation, whether the subject
admits of an explanation or not'. When the Roman Republic
was set up in 1798, Visconti, to the regret of his friends, allowed
himself to be made a Consul; and, in the following years, when
some of the finest works of art were carried off by Napoleon, he
accompanied them to Paris, where he held high office as Conser-
vateur des Antiques, and produced an admirable account of the
works of ancient sculpture entrusted to his charge1, besides
completing three important volumes on Greek Iconography2.
In 1814 he was one of the first to recognise the transcendent
importance of the Elgin marbles3. He is the embodiment of the
intelligent appreciation of the works of ancient sculpture awakened
in Italy by the influence of Winckelmann.
His brother, Filippo Aurelio (d. 1831), was distinguished as an editor of
the Museo Ckiaramonti* ; his nephew, Pietro, was secretary of the Roman
1 1800, 1817.
2 The finely-bound large-paper copy of this work, that once belonged to
Napoleon himself, has been seen by the present writer in the collection of
M. Gennadius in London.
3 Cp. Michaelis, Der Parthenon, 82 f. 4 vol. i (1808).
384 ITALY. [CENT. xvm.
Academy of Archaeology; his son, Ludovico Tullio (d. 1853), was an able archi-
tect in Paris, and a Visconti has since been at the head of the Archaeological
Commission in Rome1.
Among the Roman contemporaries of Ennio Quirino Visconti
was Carlo Fea of Pigna near Nice (1753 — 1836),
a member of the bar, who became librarian to the
Chigi, and, besides translating and annotating Winckelmann's
' History of Ancient Art ' in 1783-4, produced an important work
on the Ruins of Rome (1820). He not only gave proof of his
interest in Virgil (1797) and Horace (1811), but he superintended
the Roman excavations, which were begun in 1782 and became
peculiarly productive from 1813 to 1820. He preserved important
records of these discoveries in his Miscellanea (1790, 1836), and
published the new fragments of the Fasti Consulares in 1820.
He is the principal founder of the modern study of Roman
topography2.
The briefest mention may suffice for Alessio Simmacho
Mazzocchi Mazzocchi (1684 — 1 770, a commentator on the
ignarra Tabulae Heradcenses (1754), and Niccolo Ignarra
(1728 — 1808), who was highly esteemed by Ruhnken3 for his
corrections of the Homeric Hymn to Demeter (1784). Both of
these were Neapolitan ecclesiastics. Meanwhile, in
Lanzi
Florence, Luigi Lanzi (1732 — 1810) was writing on
ancient vases and on modern painting, and was editing Hesiod ;
and in Rome, a professor of Greek, Giovanni
Amaduzzi . . .
Cnstoforo Amaduzzi (1742 — 1792), was producing
his Vetera Monumenta and his Anecdota, which were followed by
a far slighter work, his edition of two of the Characters of Theo-
phrastus, published at Parma in 1786.
1 Stark, 243-4.
2 Jordan, Topogr. I i 96 (Stark, 242).
3 Opusc. ii 548 f.
CHAPTER XXIII.
FRANCE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
OUR first important name is that of Bernard de Montfaucon
(161515 — 1741), who was born at the chateau of
V . ' . Montfaucon
Soulage in Languedoc. After leaving school, he
read all the historical works in his father's library, beginning with
the French translation of Plutarch. Apart from the library, there
was a chest of books left in his father's care. The chest was
invaded by rats, but the young Montfaucon came to the rescue
by finding a key that would unlock the chest, thus saving its
contents from destruction, and finding fresh fields of literature
to explore. The reading of history led to his first becoming a
soldier; but after serving for two years in the army, he entered
the Benedictine Order at Toulouse in 1675. He subsequently
studied the language and literature of Greece for two years at
Soreze and for eight at Grasse. In 1686 he was diligently reading
Herodotus at Bordeaux. After removing to Paris in the following
year, he spent three years in Italy (1698 — 1701), exploring the
great collections of MSS, and devoting special attention to the
Laurentian Library. An account of his travels was published
under the title of the Diarium Italicum (1702), which was
translated into English. This includes a full description of the
topography of Rome, with some notice of earlier writers on the
subject, and a scheme for a more complete survey1. Some of the
results of this tour were embodied in the two volumes of fragments
of the Greek Fathers (1707). While Latin alone had been the
theme of Mabillon's treatise De Re Diplomatica, the foundations
1 Gibbon, c. Ixxi ad fuiun (vii 324 Bury).
S. II. 25
MONTFAUCON.
From a portrait by ' Paulus Abbas Genbacensis ' (1739), engraved by Tardieu
fils, and reproduced by Odieuvre in Dreux du Radier's UEtirope Illustre
(1777) vol. v.
CHAP. XXIII.] MONTFAUCON. 387
of Greek palaeography were laid in the Palaeographica Graeca
produced by Montfaucon in 1708, which, besides establishing
the principles of a new science, comprised a list of no less than
11,630 MSS. In 1715 he completed the Catalogue of the Biblio-
theca Coisliniana, a library belonging to the Due de Coislin, the
prince-bishop of Metz, and including that of his grandfather,
Se'guier, the whole of which was afterwards bequeathed to the
abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Pres, and was ultimately incorporated
in the Paris Library. His next great work, the Antiquite Expliquee,
a vast treasury of classical antiquities, was published by subscrip-
tion in ten folio volumes in 1719. Within two months the first
edition of 1,800 copies (or 18,000 volumes) was sold off, and a
new edition of 2,200 printed in the same year, followed by a
supplement in five volumes. All the fifteen volumes were trans-
lated into English. The Russian nobleman, Prince Kourakin,
had a complete set, sumptuously bound, and packed in a special
case to accompany him on his travels in Italy. The work had
been produced in haste, and the execution of the plates was far
from perfect, but it supplied a comprehensive conspectus of all
the antiquarian learning of the age, and it was long before it was
in any way superseded. A grand scheme for the exposition of the
civil and ecclesiastical archaeology of France was only partially
completed in the five volumes on the Monuments de la monarchic
francaise (1725-33). Montfaucon had published St Athanasius in
1698, and Origen's Hexapla in 1713; his great edition of Saint
Chrysostom in thirteen folio volumes, begun in 1715, was finished
in 1738. In the following year he produced in two folio volumes
his Bibliotheca Bibliothecarum, including all the catalogues of
Europe, which the author had collected in the space of forty
years. In 1741 he had gathered materials for the continuation
of his vast work on French archaeology, the second part of which
was to deal with the churches of France. When he read a paper
on this subject at the Academy of Inscriptions in the December
of that year, a foreign member, who then saw him for the first
time, asked him his age, and received the reply: 'In thirteen
years I shall be a hundred'. Two days later an unforeseen
attack of apoplexy carried off in a few hours the last of the great
scholars of the Congregation of Saint-Maur. His final resting-
25—2
388 FRANCE. [CENT. xvm.
place is in the same chapel of the abbey-church that contains the
remains of his great predecessor, Mabillon.
In his early surroundings at the chateau in Languedoc there
had been little to suggest that he would become a great scholar.
One of his brothers, who was an officer, writes him a letter
beginning : ' vous etes insupportable, mon cher frere, avec vos
racines grecques ' *. He not only became one of the best Greek
scholars since the Revival of Learning, but he also learnt Hebrew,
Syriac, Chaldee and Coptic, and only failed to learn Arabic.
The secret of his wide learning, and of the large number of
volumes that he produced, is revealed in a memorandum drawn
up at the age of eighty-five, in which he states that, for the last
forty-six years, he had always spent thirteen or fourteen hours a
day in reading or writing2. In learning, and in powers of work,
he rivalled Mabillon, whom he excelled in his wider interest in
classical antiquities, as well as in greater animation of manner.
He had a happy wit, and a keen appreciation of the work of
younger men. The scholars of his immediate circle were in-
formally known as the 'Academy of the Bernardins', and the best
of his pupils were proud to call themselves his sons3. In 1719,
when he was made a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, he
had already produced forty-four folio volumes. He had scholarly
friends in all Europe ; he was known to Englishmen as hominum
et amicorum oplimus*. One of the most frequent visitors at the
abbey was the poet and diplomatist, Matthew Prior, plenipotentiary
in Paris in 17 125. Another of the numerous foreign frequenters
of his rooms was the future author of a great work on Sicily,
Philippe d'Orville of Amsterdam (1726)". Among the most
learned and accomplished of his Italian correspondents were
1 E. de Broglie, i 205.
2 ib. ii 316.
3 Cp. his own account of his life and works, printed in E. de Broglie,
Bernard de Montfaucon et les Bernardins (1891), ii 311 — 323.
4 ib. i 22.
5 ib. i 137 f. In 1700 Prior had vainly applied on behalf of the Cambridge
Press for the use of the 'Greek matrices, cut by order of Francis I' (p. 175
supra]. Cp. MSS de la BibliothZque du fioi, 1787, I xciii f; Nichols, Lit.
Anted, iv 663 f ; Wordsworth, Schol. Acad. 383.
6 ib. i 277 — 283.
CHAP. XXIII.] CAPPERONNIER. 389
Muratori and Albani1. One of his younger friends at the abbey
was Dom Vincent Thuillier (1685 — 1736), who, besides editing
the posthumous works, and writing a summary of the controversy
with the Abbe de Ranee, produced a French translation of the
whole of Polybius at the request of an eager strategist, the
Chevalier de Folard, who had been inspired with an interest
in the art of war by reading the Commentaries of Caesar. The
Chevalier's commentary on Polybius, which accompanied the
Benedictine monk's translation, included so many personal
reflexions on his military contemporaries, that the first volume
alone was allowed to be published in France (1727), while the
remainder saw the light in Holland2. Among the greater literary
enterprises of the Benedictines of the Congregation of Saint-
Maur, those connected in different degrees with classical scholar-
ship are the earlier volumes of the twelve on the Histoire Literaire
de la France (1733-63), a great work resumed by the Institut de
France in 1814; the Art de verifier les dates in three folio volumes
(1783-87); and Toustain and Tassin's Nouveau Traite de diplo-
matique in six quartos (1750-65). Their other works are mainly
connected with the History of France and its Provinces3.
Among the French Latinists of the eighteenth century we
find three members of a single family. The first of
Capperonnier
these, Claude Capperonnier (1671 — 1744), editor
of Quintilian (1725) and the Rhetores Latini (1756), took part
in the revision of the Latin Thesaurus of Robert Estienne4.
Claude's nephew, Jean (1716 — 1775), edited Caesar and Plautus,
and Sophocles, with the scholia (1781). It was his transcript of
the Paris MS that was used by Ruhnken in his edition of the
Platonic Lexicon of Timaeus (i754)5. Lastly, Jean Augustin
(1745 — 1820) edited Virgil, Justin, Eutropius etc., and the
Academica of Cicero (1796). The second and third of the
Capperonniers were librarians in Paris, and all the three had
friendly relations with scholars in the Netherlands.
1 H>- i 324 f» and 338 f.
- i/>. \ 43, ii 41 — 1 10.
3 il>. ii 306.
4 Lefebure de S. Marc, Eloge, 1744.
5 Dupuy, jSlgtge in Hist. Acad. Inscr. xi 243.
390 FRANCE. [CENT. xvm.
Jean Bouhier (1673 — 1746), president at Dijon, edited Cicero
and the poem of Petronius On the Civil War. with
Bouhier
a French translation (1737) ; he also wrote treatises
on Herodotus, and contributed to Montfaucon's Palaeographia
Graeca an account of the ancient forms of the Greek and Latin
Alphabets. Horace was edited in 1715 by the Jesuit, Noel
Etienne Sanadon of Rouen (1676 — 1733), a Latin
Sanadon
versifier, who taught at Caen and Tours, and held
the office of librarian at the College de Louis XIV in Paris2.
Another Jesuit, Pierre Joseph de Thoulie, better
known as Olivetus (1682 — 1768), besides trans-
lating parts of Demosthenes and Cicero, produced an edition of
the whole of Cicero with selected notes in nine quarto volumes
(1742), which was reprinted in Geneva and London.
We may here mention a group of archaeologists including Bancluri (1671 —
1 743), the author of a vast work on the Eastern Empire and on
Fourmont the Antiquities of Constantinople ; Michel Fourmont (1690 —
Burette 1745)1 who collected a large number of inscriptions in the
Peloponnesus, but published his forgeries onlyr>; Burette
(d. 1747), who for half a century contributed to the Journal dcs Savants a
number of important papers on Greek Art and Greek Music; and Nicolas
Freret (1688 — 1749), *ne author of notable works on ancient geography and
history, who was sent to the Bastile for his unpatriotic memoir on the origin
of the Franks4. During his imprisonment he perused anew the Greek and
Latin Classics, and wrote a paper on the Cyrofaedeia.
Classical archaeology was ably promoted by the Comte de
Caylus (1692 — 1765), who, after a military career,
accompanied the French envoys to the East, spent
two months in Smyrna, made a perilous journey to Ephesus and
Colophon, visited the plain of Troy, and studied the monuments
of Constantinople and of Rome (1717). On his return to France
we find him intimate with men like Mariette and the Abbe
Barthelemy. Spending four-fifths of his large income on the
1 A. Collignon, Petrone en France, 94.
2 Harless, Vitae Philol. iv 58—73.
3 Cp. C. 1. G. i p. 61, R. C. Christie's Selected Essays, 58—91, and infra
c. xxix (on Boeckh), vol. iii 99 n. i.
4 Bougainville in Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxiii 314 — 337; Walckenaer, Examen
Critique.
CHAP. XXIII.] BOUHIER. OLIVETUS. CAYLUS. 391
patronage of archaeology, he filled his house with works of
ancient art three times over, and on each occasion presented the
contents to the royal collections. He was interested in Etruscan
and Egyptian, as well as Greek and Roman Art, and was attracted
to works that were interesting because they were instructive, and
not solely because they were beautiful. He published a large
number of monuments of ancient sculpture in the seven volumes
of his Recueil d'A ntiquites (1752-67). He here includes nothing
that he has not seen with his own eyes ; he tests the genuineness
of every item, and gives proof of an artistic discrimination superior
to that of Montfaucon. The numerous memoirs which he pre-
sented to the Academy, in and after 1744, deal with works of
ancient art in a scientific spirit, carefully interpreting and recon-
structing them in the light of the ancient authorities. He caused
the mural paintings found in the sepulchre of the Nasones to be
carefully reproduced by P. S. Bartoli in a rare and sumptuous
work, the Peintures Antiques (1757). He noted with interest
the new enthusiasm for Homer, and observed that impressions
derived from Homer were always enduring, because his ideas were
'just and grand'1. He advised artists to choose their subjects,
not from Ovid, but from Homer and Virgil, and, in the execution
of their works, to keep closely to the poet's description, thus
ignoring (as Lessing has shown) the essential difference between
painting and poetry2. Lastly, he took the keenest interest in the
exploration of Herculaneum and Veleia, and in the Roman camps
and Roman roads of France1'1.
Greek and Roman coins had been collected with eager enthusiasm by
Charles Patin (1633-94), J. F. F. Vaillant (1655 — 1708), and
Joseph Pellcrin (1684 — 1782); and ancient gems skilfully Vaillant
reproduced in the Pierres Gravees (17-12) of P. J. Mariette Pellerin
(1694 — 1775)4- Meanwhile, Ancient Geography was admir- n'^v'6 *fl
ably represented by the ' First Geographer of the King of
France', J. B. B. D'Anville (1697 — 1782), who published no less than seventy-
eight geographical treatises and two hundred and eleven maps, all of them
distinguished for their clearness and accuracy. Some of his best works were
on Ancient Gaul, Italy, and Kgypt.
1 Corresp. ii 67.
~ Tableaux, 1757; criticised in Laokoon, c. xi.
3 Stark, Handbiich, 147—151. 4 Stark, 146 f.
392 FRANCE. [CENT. xvm.
A popular type of Archaeology was represented by the anti-
quary, Jean Jacques Barthe'lemy (1716 — 1795), who
Barthelemy
was educated by the Jesuits, enjoyed the patronage
of the Due and the Duchesse de Choiseul, and travelled with
them in Italy, where he was keenly interested in the recent
discovery of the Herculanean papyri. He became keeper of the
royal cabinet of medals in Paris, was familiar with several oriental
languages, and was the founder of the scientific knowledge of
Phoenician, and of numismatic palaeography2. He is still more
widely known as the author of the Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis
en Grece (1789), a work that, for thirty years, occupied all the
authors leisure hours, and has long been held in high esteem as
a popular account of the manners and customs of ancient Greece.
It has even been translated into modern Greek.
In this work the youthful traveller is the counterpart of the author, while
two of his other characters correspond to his patrons the. Due and Duchesse
de Choiseul. The brief analysis of Aristotle's treatise on Poetry, included
in this work3, is apparently inspired by Marmontel; the account of Greek
Astronomy4 is a reminiscence of Fontenelle; the criticisms on the constitu-
tion of Sparta recall the paradoxes of the Abbe de Mably and of Rousseau ;
while the views on the Drama are suggestive of those of Voltaire. Even apart
from these anticipations of modern opinions, anachronisms are not wanting.
Thus we have an Athenian of the age of Philip giving us a definition of the
Eclogue which really belongs to the times of Theocritus. In the discussion
on Poetry5 the poetic imagination is described in terms far more precise than
those of Plato's Ion or Phaedrus, while the definition of the imagination as
the faculty of calling up images, whether in waking hours or in the hours
of sleep, is not the view of Aristotle, but that of Philostratus, five centuries
later6; and the author's views on 'the purgation of the passions' resemble
those of modern interpreters rather than the dimly suggested opinions of
Aristotle himself. Again, much is omitted that might well have found a place
in its pages. In the description of the popular songs of Greece, the swallow-
song of the boys and girls of Rhodes is absent7; and interesting traits might
have been borrowed from the Oeconomicus of Xenophon, and from the private
speeches of the Attic orators. But the author's glowing description of the
pan-hellenic festivals gives a new life to the poetry of Pindar ; he is prompted
by a happy inspiration when he describes Plato as unfolding to his disciples
1 Egger, Hellenisme, ii 404. 2 Stark, 175.
3 c. 71. 4 c. 30. 5 c. 80.
6 Egger, Hisloire de la Critique, c. 75. Cp. vol. i 722, 3342 stiprd.
7 Athenaeus, 360.
CHAP. XXIII.] BARTHELEMY. SEROUX D'AGINCOURT. 393
the cosmology of the Titnaeus on the crest of Sunium, where a violent storm
has just been succeeded by a perfect calm ; his story of the death of Socrates
is not unworthy of the Greek original in Plato, and his description of the
voyage of the sacred vessel bound for Delos might well have been written by
one who had long been familiar with the Cyclades. As a matter of fact, the
author had never been beyond the bounds of France and Italy, but in Italy
he had viewed the early excavations of Pompeii and had thus been enabled
to give a more vivid description of the visit of Anacharsis to the theatre of
Athens1. The work is accompanied by illustrative notes, and maps.
In the year that followed the publication of the Anacharsis^
the author produced a paper on the finances of Athens, suggested
by an Attic inscription that had recently reached the Louvre2.
The Anacharsis, which was published in 1789, on the very eve of
the French Revolution, supplies us with a pleasing picture of the
literary labours that were rudely interrupted by that appalling
event. Deprived of his official position and his Academic
functions, the keeper of the King's Cabinet of Coins, and the
member of the Academy of Inscriptions, was sent to prison. He
there wrote three memoirs including a delightful retrospect of his
career, which was not unclouded by fears for the future of the
studies to which he had devoted more than fifty years of his life.
He was released from prison owing to the influence of Danton ;
but, before the meetings of the Academy could be resumed, the
Abbe Barthelemy had already passed away3.
The archaeologist Seroux d'Agincourt of Beauvais (1730 —
1814) escaped the perils of the Revolution by
making Italy his home for thirty years, from 1778 d.Aerj°court
to 1809. A pupil of the Comte de Caylus, he
bequeathed to his own pupils a set of engravings of thirty-seven
antique terracottas, but it was not until 1823 that his great work
in six volumes was published, — a work that fills the interval
between the end of ancient and the beginning of modern art, and,
in its earliest portions, is of special value in connexion with
classical archaeology4.
While the travels of Seroux d'Agincourt and Barthelemy were confined to
1 c. ii.
2 Mem. deTAcad. des belles lettres (1792); C. I. G. no. 147.
3 Kgger, Hellenisme, ii 296—310.
4 Stark, 256.
394 FRANCE. [CENT. xvnr.
Italy, the manners and customs of the modern Greeks were carefully studied
at Constantinople, and elsewhere, by Pierre Augustin Guys
(1720 — 1799), a merchant and Secretary of State, who was
a member of the Academy of Marseilles, and who died at Zante1.
A more distinguished representative of France, the Comte de
Choiseul-Gouffier (1752 — 1817), the nephew of
GouffierCU Barthelemy's great patron, travelled in Greece and
Asia Minor from 1776 to 1782. In 1784 he
published a memoir on the Hippodrome of Olympia, and was
appointed ambassador of France at Constantinople. Three years
later he sent the artist Fauvel (who had already travelled in
Greece) to sketch the ruins of Athens, and obtained for the
Louvre a single metope of the Parthenon and a single slab of the
frieze. Of the two folio volumes of his Voyage Pittoresque en
Grece, the first alone (1782) appeared before the outbreak of the
Revolution. The author fled to St Petersburg, where he became
Director of the Academy and of the Public Libraries. He
returned to France in 1802, was made a Peer of the Realm in
1814, and died at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1817. It was not until 1822
that the second volume of his Voyage was published, a work that
aroused and maintained in France an increasing interest in the
glorious scenery and the memorable associations of Greece2.
The Jesuit Academician, Gabriel Brotier (1723 — 1789), is best
known in connexion with his edition of Tacitus
(1771), which has often been reprinted; he also
edited Pliny (1779) and Phaedrus (1783). Pierre
Henri Larcher of Dijon (1726 — 1812) was an Academician and a
Professor in Paris. His most important work was his translation
of Herodotus, accompanied with historical notes, in seven volumes
(1786), which has been repeatedly republished. He had pre-
viously translated the Electra of Euripides, the Cyropaedeia of
Xenophon, and the Greek romance of Chariton3.
We may here make separate mention of a group of four
Alsatian scholars : — Brunck, Oberlin, Schweighauser, and Bast.
Their surnames suggest German descent, but the first three were
1 Voyage Lilt, de la Grcce, ed. 2, 1776.
2 Stark, 256. 3 Boissonade, Notice, 1813.
CHAP. XXIII.] CHOISEUL-GOUFFIER. BRUNCK. 395
subjects of France, for Strassburg had been captured by the
French in 1681 and the rest of Alsace had already been annexed
in the course of the Thirty Years' War. Richard
Francois Philippe Brunck (1729 — 1803), born at
Strassburg, was educated by the Jesuits in Paris, and served in the
commissariat department during part of the Seven Years' War. On
his return from Germany in 1760, he devoted himself to classical
studies in Strassburg ; during the Revolution he was imprisoned
at Besangon ; and, on his liberation, sold his library in 1790,
thirteen years before his death1. His enthusiasm for the Greek
poets led to his devoting his leisure to the critical revision of their
texts. He had collations of MSS at his disposal, and ample means
for the editing of their works. Under the title of Analecta from
the Greek Poets, he published in three volumes a large number of
Epigrams from the Greek Anthology2 (classified under the names
of their authors), together with the Bucolic Poets and Callimachus
(1772-6). He also edited Anacreon and Apollonius Rhodius.
He was specially successful as a critic of the Greek drama. Thus
he edited three plays of Aeschylus8, seven of Euripides4, and the
whole of Aristophanes (1783) and Sophocles (1786-9). In his
recension of Sophocles he opened a new era by removing from
the text the interpolations of Triclinius, and by reverting to the
Aldine edition and especially to the Paris MS A (cent, xiii), with
which that edition generally agrees5. The Laurentian MS was
then practically unknown to scholars ; it was not collated by
Elmsley until 1820. Brunck was often led astray by the tempta-
tion to introduce conjectures of his own, and by an undue anxiety
1 Memoire (1803); Fr. Jacobs in Allg. Encycl. I vol. xiii 220-2, Halm in
A. D. />.;•' Lett res Inedites' in Annuaire,..des Eludes grefqiics, 1874;
Bursian, i 500.
2 Cp. Fr. Jacobs, Proleg. Breviora, p. xxi b Diibner, ' Inter ipsos belli
Borussici tumultus, graecis literis admotus, vix e limpidissimis illis fontibus
gustaverat, quum incredibili ardore dies noctesque hoc unum ageret, ut sitim
gustando excitatam largis haustibus restingueret. Forte in ejus manus apo-
grapha quaedam Antliologiae ineditae incidental' etc.
3 Prom., Persae, Sept em (1779).
4 Am/row., Or., Mcd., Hec., Plwen., Hipp., Bacchac (17791").
5 Jebb, Introduction to Facsimile of Latir. J\/S, p. 20; and to Text of
Sophocles (1897), xiii.
396 FRANCE. [CENT. xvm.
to accept the canon propounded by Dawes ; nevertheless, he fully
earned the credit of having laid the foundation for a better treat-
ment of the text and metre. He is far less well known for his
editions of Latin Classics, such as Plautus (1779 f), Virgil (1785),
and Terence (1797).
Jeremias Jacob Oberlin (1735 — 1806), who was born and bred
at Strassburg, passed his whole life as a member of
Oberlin
the staff of the gymnasium and the university, being
head of the former from 1787 to his death. He edited Vibius
Sequester, as well as Ovid's Tristia and Ibis, Horace, Tacitus,
and Caesar ; and was interested in archaeology, and palaeography,
and in the history of literature1.
Strassburg was also the place of the birth and education of
Tohann Schweighauser (1742 — 1830). who was
Schweighauser J
professor of Greek and Oriental Languages from
1778 to 1824. He took part in editing two of Brunck's earlier
editions of Greek plays, but his own studies were mainly confined
to the classical writers of Greek prose. Thus he edited Appian
(i 785)2, Polybius (1795), Epictetus and Cebes (1798), Athenaeus
(1798), and Herodotus (1810). He also produced excellent
lexicons to Herodotus and Polybius ; his Athenaeus (which
included the whole of Casaubon's commentary) extended to
fourteen volumes. His own notes invariably give proof of
extensive reading, and are characterised by the minutest accuracy.
In Latin prose he is only represented by an edition of Seneca's
prose works in five volumes (i8o8)3.
Schweighauser and Brunck were associated with the series known as the
editiones Bipontinae (1779 — 1809) begun at Zweibriicken, and
BiEontina<f continued in 1 798 at Strassburg. The Greek Classics included
were Herodotus, Thucydides, Plato, Aristotle, Diodorus,
Lucian, and the Serif tores Erotici. The Latin Classics extended to one
hundred and fifteen volumes, and included Brunck's edition of Plautus,
which marks a very different stage in the history of the text to that which
has since been attained. The series comprised independent recensions, to-
1 Fata literarum oinnis aevi tabulis explicata (1789).
2 For this ed. he used many excellent MSS (Opusc. Acad. ii 97 f), together
with unpublished notes by Musgrave.
3 L. Spach, Les deux Schweighaeuser, in Oeiivres Choisies, 1871, I7sf;
Ch. Rabany, Les Schiveighaeiiser, 1884, 128 pp.; Bursian, i 503.
CHAP. XXIII.] SCHWEIGHAUSER. BAST. VILLOISON. 397
gather with reprints from earlier commentaries. The enterprise was mainly
organised by G. C. Croll (1728 — 1790), editor of Terence, Sallust, Tacitus,
Velleius, and Cicero's Brutus, De Officiis, and Tusculan Disputations etc.,
and by his colleagues J. V. Embser (d. 1781), and F. C. Exter (1746 — 1817),
editor of Plato, Cicero (thirteen volumes), Seneca, and Tacitus1. Croll and
Exter were successively Rectors of the gymnasium at Zweibrticken2.
Our group of scholarly Alsatians closes with the name of
Friedrich Jacob Bast (1771 — 1811) of Buchsweiler,
which then belonged to the distant Duchy of
Hesse-Darmstadt. Bast, who was legal adviser to the Hessian
legation in Vienna and Paris, is best known in connexion with
the useful Commentatio Palaeographica, which he contributed to
Schaefer's edition of Gregorius Corinthius towards the close of
his brief life of forty years. At the time of his death he was
preparing an edition of Apollonius Dyscolus3.
Ancient History is represented in France by Pierre Charles Levesque
(1736 — 1812), who wrote a Critical History of the Roman
Republic, and discussed the Constitutions of Athens and <^^°^ •
o d i n L c - 1* ro l X
Sparta (1796 f); and by the Baron de Sainte-Croix (1746 — •
1806), a French officer living at Avignon and in Paris, whose works on the
Historians of Alexander the Great, on Ancient Federal Governments, on the
Cretan Constitution and on the Eleusinian Mysteries are still held in esteem4.
Both of these lived on into the age of Wolf, whose Prolegomena were published
in 1795 and were attacked by Sainte-Croix in a work described as a ' Refutation
of a paradox on Homer'5.
Homer was the theme of the most fruitful labours of Jean
Baptiste Gaspard d'Ansse de Villoison6 (1753 — •
Villoison
1805). As early as 1696, Kiister had mentioned
1 1792; ed. 2, 1798.
2 Butters, Editiones Bipontinae, Zweibriicken (1877), 53 pp.; Bursian,
i 504 f.
3 Mem. in Wyttenbach, Opp. Cp., on Elsass, Urlichs, n6'2.
4 Cp. Wyttenbach's Opuscula ; and Notices by De Sacy and Dacier.
5 Millin's Mag. Encyd. vol. v (1798).
6 His aristocratic name was regarded with disfavour in the age of the
Revolution. Finding it necessary, as a Member of the Academy, to obtain
permission to write a paper on some point of philosophy, he presented himself
before one of the revolutionary authorities, when the following dialogue
ensued : — Comment t'appelle-tu, citoycn? — De Villoison. — // ny a plus de De.
— He bien: soit Villoison. — // n'y a plus de Ville. — Comment faut-il done que
je niappclle? — Commune-Oison. Villoison himself greatly relished telling
398 FRANCE. [CENT. xvm.
the scholia of a MS of Homer in the Library of St Mark's in
Venice1; in 1781 Villoison drew attention to the importance of
this MS2. He was accordingly sent to Venice at the public
expense to collate MSS and to transcribe the scholia, which he
published with ample prolegomena in lySS3. Meanwhile, he had
visited the Court of Weimar, and had spent two years in Greece
(1785-7). During the Revolution he fled to Orleans; he was
afterwards Professor of Ancient and Modern Greek at the College
de France. His earliest work had been the Homeric Lexicon of
Apollonius (i773-4)4, followed by an edition of the Pastoralia
of Longus (1778). His publication of the Venetian scholia on
Homer supplied Wolf with arguments for his view that the
current text of Homer differed from that of the Alexandrian
critics. It is said that Villoison, who had hardly been conscious
of the supreme significance of these scholia, was alarmed at the
use to which they were put by Wolf in his attack on the
traditional opinions on Homer5. The last scholar of the old
school had unconsciously forged the weapons for the first scholar
of the new6.
this story to his Greek friend, Panagiotes Kodrikes (cp. Thereianos, Ada-
mantios Koraes, i 179, where the new name is further transformed into Ko/x-
/j.ovi>ova£u/v).
1 Historia Critica Homeri, p. in, ' Venetiis in Bibliotheca D. Marci
servalur Ilias cum scholiis ab editis multum differentibus'.
2 Anecdota Graeca (Venice, 1781), ii 184, '(Iliadis editio) quae cum hisce
signis criticis et aureis illis utriusque Codicis prodibit Scholiis'.
3 For details cp. Beccard, De Scholiis in Homeri Iliadein Venetis, i,
Berlin, 1850.
4 Since edited by Bekker, and Pluygers.
5 Dacier, Notice (1806), 15 f.
6 Egger, HelUtmme, ii 400-2; Nouvelle Biogr. Gen. xiii i — 13; Wytten-
bach, Opuscitla, ii 74 — 79; Boissonade in Mag. Encycl. iii 380; Urlichs, IO92.
RICHARD BENTLEY.
From Dean's engraving of the portrait by Thornhill (1710) in the Master's
Lodge, Trinity College, Cambridge (frontispiece of Monk's Life of
Bentley, ed. 2, 1833).
CHAPTER XXIV.
ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
IN the first half of the eighteenth century the greatest name
among the classical scholars of Europe is that of
Richard Bentley (1662 — 1742). Born at Oulton,
near Wakefield, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, he was educated
at Wakefield Grammar School, and at St John's College, Cam-
bridge. He was admitted a member of that College at the age
of fourteen years and four months, and took his degree as a high
Wrangler at the age of eighteen. It was at the same age that one
of his future opponents, Richard Johnson, had entered the College
in the previous year. As there was no vacancy in the only two
fellowships then open to natives of Yorkshire, Bentley was never
a Fellow of his College. The College, however, made him head-
master of Spalding ; a former Fellow, Stillingfleet, Dean of
St Paul's, appointed him tutor to his son ; and, in the library of
Stillingfleet, one of the largest private libraries of the time,
Bentley laid the foundation of his profound and multifarious
learning. When Stillingfleet had become bishop of Worcester,
and Bentley was his chaplain, a nobleman, who had met Bentley
at the bishop's table, said to his host immediately after : — •' My
Lord, that chaplain of yours is a very extraordinary man '; 'Yes',
replied Stillingfleet, ' had he but the gift of humility, he would be
the most extraordinary man in Europe". Meanwhile, he had
accompanied his pupil to Oxford, thus obtaining constant access
to the treasures of the Bodleian. At Oxford he published, as an
appendix to an edition of the Chronicle of John Malalas of
1 J. Nichols, in Gentleman 's Magazine, Nov. 1779 (Monk's Life of Bentley,
\ 48, eel. 1833).
S. II. 26
402 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVIII.
Antioch, his celebrated Letter to Mill (1691). In that Letter he
gave the learned world the first-fruits of his profound study of the
Attic Drama. The early dramatists of Athens are described by
the Chronicler as ' Themis, Minos, and Auleas ' ; under this dis-
guise, Bentley detected the names of Thespis, Ion of Chios, and
Aeschylus. He also announced his discovery of the metrical
continuity (or Synapheia) of the anapaestic system l. In less than
a hundred pages, he corrected and explained more than sixty
Greek or Latin authors. In recognition of this masterly per-
formance, he was hailed by two of his most erudite contemporaries
on the continent, as 'the new star of English letters'2. Seventy-
five years later, Ruhnken declared that, ' to ascertain the truth as
to the lexicon of Hesychius, the world had needed the learned
audacity of Bentley's Letter to Mill, — that wonderful monument
of genius and erudition, such as could only have come from the
first critic of his age'3.
In 1697, his learned correspondent, Graevius, published an
edition of the text of Callimachus, which had been prepared by
his short-lived son. The work was made memorable by the fact
that it was accompanied by an erudite commentary from the pen
of Spanheim, and by a remarkable series of some 420 fragments
collected by the industry and elucidated by the genius of Bentley.
This collection is a striking example of critical method, and is
characterised by sound judgement as well as undoubted brilliancy4.
It was described by Valckenaer as the most perfect work of its
kind6.
1 Dawes, Misc. Crit., p. 30, ed. Oxon., says : — "Hanc ffwafaiav (sic) in
anapaesticis locum habere primus docuit, non iam, uti ipse ad Hor. Carm.
iii 12, i asseverat, Cl. Bentleius, sed Terentianus : — 'Anapaestica fiunt ibidem
per (rwa<f>eiav '." But the knowledge of this fact had been lost, when it was
rediscovered by Bentley.
2 Graevius, Praef. ad Callimachum, 'novum sed splendidissimum Bri-
tanniae lumen'; Spanheim, in Julianum, p. 19, 'novum idemque iam
lucidum litteratae Britanniae sidus ' (Monk, i 31).
3 Ofuscula, i 192 (1766), ed. 1823.
4 Jebb's Bentley, 34.
5 Diatribe in Ear., p. 4 a, ' nihil in hoc genere praestantius prodiit aut
magis elaboratum ' ; and on Schol. Leyd. in II, xxii 398, ' opus perfectissimum '
"(Manly, n3f).
CHAP. XXIV.] BENTLEY. 403
Meanwhile, a controversy on the literary merits of the ancients
and the moderns, that had arisen in France, had found its way
to England. Perrault1 and Fontenelle2 had claimed the palm for
the moderns3. Sir William Temple, in his Essay upon Ancient and
Modern Learning, entered the lists as the champion of the ancients.
His challenge to a further conflict is given in the following terms :
' It may perhaps be further affirmed, in favour of the Ancients, that the
oldest books we have are still in their kind the best. The two most ancient
that I know of in prose, among those we call profane authors, are .^sop's
Fables and Phalaris's Epistles, both living near the same time, which was
that of Cyrus and Pythagoras. As the first has been agreed by all ages since
for the greatest master in his kind, and all others of that sort have been but
imitators of his original ; so I think the Epistles of Phalaris to have more race,
more spirit, more force of wit and genius, than any others I have ever seen,
either ancient or modern. I know, several learned men (or that usually pass
for such, under the name of critics) have not esteemed them genuine ; and
Politian, with some others, have attributed them to Lucian : but I think he
must have little skill in painting that cannot find out this to be an original.
Such diversity of passions, upon such variety of actions and passages of life
and government ; such freedom of thought, such boldness of expression ; such
bounty to his friends, such scorn of his enemies ; such honour of learned men,
such esteem of good; such knowledge of life, such contempt of death, with
such fierceness of nature and cruelty of revenge, could never be represented
but by him that possessed them. And I esteem Lucian to have been no
more capable of writing than of acting what Phalaris did. In all one writ,
you find the scholar or the sophist ; and in all the other, the tyrant and the
commander ' 4.
The challenge was partly taken up by Bentley's friend, William
Wotton, of St Catharine's, who had migrated to St John's in 1682.
In 1694, Wotton published, in his Reflections upon Ancient and
Modern Learning, a calm and judicious examination of Temple's
essay. On its appearance, Bentley assured his friend that the two
books, which Temple had termed the ' oldest ' and ' best ' in the
world, were in truth neither old nor good ; that the ' Aesopian '
Fables were not the work of Aesop, and that the Letters of
1 Le siecle de Louis le Grand (1687) ; Parallele des anciens et des tnoderncs
(1688-92).
2 Appendix to his Dissertation on Pastoral Poetry (1689).
3 Cp. Monk i 58 f; Macaulay's Essay on Sir William Temple, pp. 452-7
of £ssays, ed. 1861. Cp. H. Rigault, Histoire de fa Querelle des anciens et des
modernes (Paris, 1856), 490 pp.
4 In Miscellanea, part ii (1690) ; Works, i 166, ed. 1750.
26 2
404 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVIII.
Phalaris were a forgery of a later age. Meanwhile, a sudden and
unwonted demand for the Letters had been aroused by Temple's
splendid advertisement, and accordingly an edition was promptly
prepared in 1695 by a youthful scholar of Christ Church, Oxford,
a 'young gentleman of great hopes", the honourable Charles
Boyle. It must be remembered that the genuineness of the
Letters was never maintained by Boyle, who leaves it an open
question. It was Temple, who was committed to the opinion
that the author was Phalaris2. A new edition of Wotton's
Reflections was soon called for, and in 1697 Bentley contributed
his promised Dissertation on Aesop and Phalaris.
Bentley begins by attacking the chronology. Taking 550 B.C. as the latest
possible date for the age of Phalaris, he shows that, of the Sicilian cities
mentioned in the Letters, Phintia was not founded till nearly three centuries,
or Alaesa till more than 1 40 years, afterwards ; and that the potter of
Corinth, who gave his name to the ' Thericlean cups ' presented by Phalaris
to his physician, lived more than 120 years later. Again, the Letters ring the
changes on the names of Zancle and Messana, whereas Zancle was not known
as Messana until more than 60 years after the death of Fhalaris. Similarly,
they mention Tauromenium, though it was many generations before that name
was given to the Sicilian city of Naxos. The phrase, ' to extirpate like a
pine-tree ', which is used by the author, originated with Croesus, who began
his reign after the death of Phalaris ; another of his phrases, ' words are the
shadow of deeds ', was due to Democritus, more than a century later. The
author was familiar with later poets, Pindar, Euripides, and Callimachus ;
he even mentions ' tragedies ', a form of literature that came into being some
years after the tyrant's death.
Bentley next attacks the language, which is Attic Greek, whereas the King
of the Dorian colony of Agrigentura would naturally have written in the Doric
dialect. Even the coinage is of the Attic and not the Sicilian standard. ' Take
them in the whole bulk.... I should say they are a fardle of common-places,
without life or spirit from action and circumstance — You feel, by the emptiness
and deadness of them, that you converse with some dreaming pedant with his
elbow on his desk ; not with an active, ambitious tyrant, with his hand on
his sword, commanding a million of subjects ' 3.
Bentley also examines the Letters of Themistocles, Socrates, and Euripides,
and proves that they were forged many centuries after the death of their
reputed authors. Here, as before, his arguments turn on points of history
and chronology, and language. As to the ' Letters of Euripides ', a private
1 Bentley's First Dissertation, p. 68, ed. 1697.
2 Jebb's Bentley, 56, 58.
3 First Dissertation, p. 62, ed. 1697.
CHAP. XXIV.] BENTLEY. 405
communication from Bentley1 had not deterred Barnes from declaring in his
edition of 1694, that any doubt as to their having been written by Euripides
was a proof of either ' effrontery or incapacity '. The arguments urged in that
communication are here repeated with several additions.
The ' Aesopian Fables ' are ascribed by Bentley to a prose paraphrase of
the choliambics of Babrius executed by Maximus Planudes, the Byzantine
monk of the fourteenth century.
The attack on ' Phalaris ' was answered by a confederacy of
the friends of Boyle2. A second edition of the reply appeared in
a few months ; a third, in the following year. At first, and, indeed,,
for long afterwards, popular opinion was against Bentley. Early
in 1695, Pepys, after reading the first attack on Bentley in the
preface to Boyle's edition of the Letters, writes to a friend : —
' I suspect Mr Boyle is in the right ; for our friend's learning
(which I have a great value for) wants a little filing ; and I doubt
not but a few such strokes as this will do it and him good'3. In
1697 Swift, who was then living under Temple's roof at Moor
Park, attacked Bentley in his 'Tale of a Tub'4, and in his
'Battle of the Books'5. In April, 1698, Evelyn 'alone would
stand up ' for him, waiting till he had heard both sides". .
Early in 1699, Bentley answered Boyle and his friends by
producing an enlarged edition of his Dissertation. It is a work
that marks an epoch in the History of Scholarship. It is not only
a ' masterpiece of controversy ' and a ' store-house of erudition ' ;
it is an example of critical method, heralding a new era7. Yet it
was long before its mastery was recognised : many years elapsed
before Tyrwhitt could describe the opponents of Bentley as ' laid
low, as by a thunderbolt'8, or Porson pronounce it an 'immortal
dissertation'9.
Bentley was Master of Trinity from 1700 to his death in
1 22 Feb. 1693 (N. S.), Correspondence, i 64-9.
2 Bentley's Dissertations examined by Boyle (1698).
3 Bodleian MS (Monk, i 71 f).
4 pp. 51, 65, ed. 1869. Preface dated Aug. 1697; anonymously published,
1704.
6 pp. 101, 103, 105-9. Anonymously published, 1704.
6 Bentley's Correspondence, p. 167. ' Jebb's Bentlev, 83.
8 De Babrio (1776), quoted by Mahly, 117.
IJ Watson's Life of For son, 281
406 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVIII.
1742. We are not here concerned with the internal feuds and
controversies that marked his tenure of that office. His in-
troduction of written examinations for fellowships and of annual
elections to scholarships was a permanent advantage to the
College. During those forty-two years his many contributions to
classical learning included an appendix to the edition of Cicero's
Tusculan Disputations by John Davies, Fellow of Queens' (1709),
in which Bentley gives proof of his familiarity with the philosophical
works of Cicero and with the metres of the Latin Dramatists. In
the following year he produced under an assumed name his emen-
dations of 323 fragments of Philemon and Menander1. The next
year saw the publication of his memorable edition of Horace
(1711), in which the traditional text is altered in more than 700
passages2, a masterly work, which, however, does more credit to
the logical force of his intellect than to his poetic taste. It is
here that we find his celebrated dictum: — 'nobis et ratio et res
ipsa centum codicibus potiores sunt'3. A large part of the notes
was thrown off in the course of five months (July to November,
1711), 'in the first impetus and glow' of his thought. This
rapidity of production naturally landed him in occasional mistakes,
and his Latinitywas attacked by two of the schoolmasters of the
day, one of whom, John Ker4, drew attention to the fact that
Bentley in his preface had promised that, even in this hasty work,
his readers would not fail to find sermonis puritatem, whereas the
word puritas was in itself an example of impure Latinity. He
was similarly attacked by his contemporary at St John's, Richard
Johnson5, who begins with an interesting collection of Bentley's
sayings about himself and others. A rival edition of very uneven
merit was produced in 1721 by a Scottish friend of Burman and
Le Clerc, Alexander Cunningham (c. 1655 — 1730), whose editions
of Virgil and Phaedrus were posthumously published.
Bentley's skill in the restoration of Greek inscriptions was
exemplified in the case of inscriptions from Delos (i72i)6 and
Chalcedon (1728). In the latter, his corrections of the faulty
1 Utrecht, 1710; Cambridge, 1713; p. 442 infra.
2 Select list in Mahly, 131 f. 3 On Carm. Hi 27, 15.
4 Qiiaterttae Epistolae ( 1 7 1 3). 6 Aristarchus Anti-Bentleianus (1717).
6 Correspondence, p. 589; Monk, ii i6of.
CHAP. XXIV.] BENTLEY. 407
copies were completely confirmed by the original1. In 1722 he
supplied Dr Mead with a number of emendations of the Theriaca
of Nicander2. Early in 1726 he published an edition of Terence,
in which the text is corrected in about a thousand passages, mainly
on grounds of metre. The same volume includes an edition of
Phaedrus and of the ' Sentences ' of ' Publius Syrus '. The
preface is followed by a Schediasma on the metres of Terence,
and by a Latin speech delivered by Bentley in July, 1725, when he
had just been restored to the University degrees, of which he had
been deprived in 1715*. He here explains the significance of the
several symbols of the doctoral degree, the chair, the cap, the
book, and the gold ring, which is the emblem of liberty4.
Bentley has left his mark on the textual criticism of Plautus5,
Lucretius6, and Lucan7. In 1732-4 he was busy with an edition
of Homer, in which the text was to be restored with the aid of
MSS and scholia, and the quotations in ancient authors, and by the
introduction of the lost letter, the digamma. The discovery of
the connexion of this lost letter with certain metrical peculiarities
in Homer had been made by Bentley as early as 1713, and it is
mentioned in a note on Iliad xvi 172, in the posthumous second
volume of Samuel Clarke's Iliad (i732)8. In the same year he
introduced the digamma in two quotations from Homer in the
notes to his edition of Paradise Lost9. It was the strange
appearance of words such as FCOIKWS, in these notes, that prompted
Pope in March, 1742, to write the well-known lines in the fourth
1 Correspondence, 698 f; J. Taylor, De Inope Debitore (1741); Monk, ii
41 1 f; Jebb, 137 f.
2 Museum Criticum, \ 370 f, 445 f (1814) ; Monk, ii 170 f.
3 Jebb, i4r.
4 Cp. 'aureus annulus est Doctori' in Duport's Praevaficatio, 1631 (Chr.
Wordsworth's Scholae Academicac, 275 ; ib. 22 n. i). The present writer, as
a boy in the galleries of the Senate- House, saw this 'gold ring' still in use
in 1858. The rings have since been handed down from one Vice-Chancellor
to another unused ; their purpose has been forgotten, but they are faithfully
preserved by the University.
6 Sonnenschein's Captivi (1880), and Anccd. Oxon., 1883.
6 Ed. Wakefield (Glasgow, 1813); ed. Oxon. 1818.
7 Ed. 1760 and 1816; cp. Mahly, 150, and, in general, Jebb, v — vi.
8 Cp. Mahly, 79, 144^ 161 — 179.
9 iv 887, vi 832.
408 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVIII.
book of the Dunciad where the goddess of Dulness is addressed
as follows : —
1 Mistress ! dismiss that rabble from your throne :
A vaunt— Is Aristarchus yet unknown ?
Thy mighty scholiast whose unwearied pains
Made Horace dull and humbled Milton's strains.
Turn what they will to verse, their toil is vain :
Critics like me shall make it prose again.
Roman and Greek grammarians ! know your better,
Author of something yet more great than letter ;
While tow'ring o'er your alphabet, like Saul,
Stands our digamma, and o'ertops them all '.
In his ' Remarks ' on the ' Discourse of Free-Thinking ' by
Anthony Collins, he protests against the opinion that the Iliad
was an 'epitome of all arts and sciences', which Homer had
' designed for eternity, to please and instruct mankind '. He adds
his own view : —
'Take my word for it, poor Homer... had never such aspiring thoughts.
He wrote a sequel of songs and rhapsodies, to be sung by himself for small
earnings and good cheer, at festivals and other days of merriment ; the Ilias
he made for men, and the Odysseis for the other sex. These loose songs were
not collected together in the form of an epic poem till Pisistratus's time, above
500 years after ' 1.
Bentley's latest work was his recension of the astronomical
poet, Manilius (1739), a quarto volume with an engraving by
Vertue of Thornhill's portrait in the Master's Lodge of Trinity
College (1710).
His relations to his scholarly contemporaries in the Netherlands
are exemplified by his correspondence with the aged Graevius, who
was one of the first to hail the dawn of Bentley's fame (i697)2.
In 1696 he obtained for the University Press a new fount of type
from Holland3, which was used in printing Kiister's Sui'das in
1705. The criticisms on Aristophanes, which he sent to Kiister
in 1708, clearly prove how much might have been achieved by
Bentley in a complete edition of that author4. In the same year
he prompted the youthful Hemsterhuys to strengthen the weak
1 c. vii ; Works, iii 304 (Dyce). Cp. Jebb, 146^ 2 p. 402 supra.
3 Wordsworth's Scholae Academicae, 383 f.
4 His marginalia were first published in the Classical Journal, nos. xi — xiv.
CHAP. XXIV.] BENTLEY. 409
points in his knowledge of Greek metre1. With Pieter Burman
his relations were at first friendly. Burman's first letter informed
him of the death of their common friend, Graevius2 ; and it was
through Burman that he published his anonymous Elucidations of
Philemon and Menander3. In 1709 Burman sends Bentley a
presentation-copy of his Petronius4; next year, he consults him as
to a proposed edition of Valerius Flaccus5. In 1718 he laments
the interruption in their correspondence6, and in 1721 writes
about his edition of Ovid7. The publication of Bentley's Phaedrus
(in the Terence of 1726) led to a rupture with Burman, who had
already produced three editions, and soon added a fourth (1727),
in which he carefully balanced Bentley's readings with those of
Bentley's opponent, Hare ; and, in the same year, when Bentley, in
preparing his own edition of Lucan, applied to Burman for the
use of the collations and notes of N. Heinsius, Burman declined
to lend them, and announced an edition of his own, which did
not appear until i74o8.
The two centuries that elapsed between the call of Scaliger to
the university of Leyden (1593) and the publication of Wolf's
'Prolegomena to Homer' (1795) were an a8e °f m'gn distinction
in Dutch Scholarship, and during the first half of the seventeenth
century that Scholarship owed an incalculable debt to the healthy
and invigorating influence of Bentley. As a scholar, Bentley was
distinguished by wide and independent reading. He absorbed all
the classical literature that was accessible to him, either in print or
in manuscript ; but, unlike the humanists of Italy, he was not a
minute and scrupulous imitator of the style of the Latin Classics.
In textual as well as historic criticism, he had a close affinity with
the great Scaliger. His intellectual character was marked by a
singular sagacity. Swift and keen to detect imposture, he was
resolute and unflinching in exposing it. His manner was, in
general, apt to be haughty and overbearing, and his temper
sarcastic and insolent. One of his characteristic mottoes was : —
1 P- 449 >>'f>'a-
- 1/03; Correspondence, 206 f; Bentley's reply in Haupt's Opusc. iii 89 f.
3 p. 442 infra. 4 Carres f. p. 3/9f.
5 1710, il>. 391. 6 Monk, ii 118.
1 Corresf. p. 578 f. 8 Monk, ii 236-8.
410 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVIII.
aXXovs t£fvdpi£, diro 8' "E/cropos i(r\eo xetpas1. He had a Strong
and masterful personality, but his predominant passion was an
unswerving devotion to truth2.
Bentley's friends included Evelyn and Wren, Newton and
Locke. Evelyn's Discourse on Medals had appeared in 1697.
The influence of the Classics is illustrated by several other con-
temporaries of Bentley, who were not professional
Addison /
scholars. Addison (1672 — 1719), who was ten years
younger than Bentley, and died at the early age of 47, gives proof
of a refined and tasteful interest in the Classics, not only in his
Dialogues on Medals*, and his Remarks on Italy*, but also in his
Latin Poems5 and his literary criticisms on Homer6 and Virgil7.
Even his own writings have been described as ' sweet Virgilian
prose'8. Classical poetry also finds its echo in Pope
(1688 — 1744), the imitator of Horace's Satires and
the translator of the Iliad (1720) and the Odyssey ( 1 7 2 5 f ). Shortly
after the publication of Pope's Iliad, Bentley met the translator
at bishop Atterbury's table, and told Pope ' that it was a very
1 Monk, ii 50.
2 A Narrative of the Life and Distresses of Simon Mason, Apothecary
(Birmingham, s. a.), 76, says of Bentley: 'The Charities he did with his
right Hand, were not known to his left ; his Alms were done in Secret
that he might be rewarded openly'. On Bentley in general, cp. Life by
J. H. Monk, 1830; ed. 2, 1833; Correspondence, ed. C. Wordsworth, 1842 ;
six of Bentley's letters to Burman in 1703-24 in Haupt's Opuscula, iii 89 — 107
(reprinted in A. A. Ellis, Bentleii Critica Sacra, 1862); F. A. Wolf in
Lilt. Analekten (1816), reprinted in Kleine Schriften, ii 1030 — 1094; De
Quincey's Works, ed. 1863, vi 35 — 180; Hartley Coleridge, Worthies of
Yorkshire and Lancashire, 65 — 174 ; H. J. Nicoll's Great Scholars, 37 — 90;
G. Hermann, Opusc. ii 263-8; Bernays, in Rhein. MHS. viii i — 24; Jacob
Maehly, Leipzig, 1868; R. C. Jebb in English A/en of Letters, 1882 (with
literature in Prefatory Note), and in D. N. B. ', J. E. Sandys in Social
England, v 59 — 70. Bibliography by A. T. Bartholomew and J. W. Clark,
preliminary proof printed for private circulation, Cambridge, 1906.
8 Works, ed. 1862, i 253—355- 4 i 35<5— 538.
5 i 231—252.
6 e.g. in Taller, no. 152, and Spectator, nos. 273, 417.
7 Essay on the Georgics, 1693 ( Works, i 154 f) ; Taller, no. 154 ; Guardian,
no. 138; Discourse on Ancient and Modern Learning, v 214; Dissertatio de
Insignioribtis Rotnanis Poe'lis, vi 587 f.
8 Works, i 231 (a phrase of Dr Edward Young's).
CHAP. XXIV.] SPENCE. MAITTAIRE. RUDDIMAN. 41 1
pretty poem, but that he must not call it Homer \ and Bentley,
later in life, when asked the cause of Pope's dislike (as shown in
the Dunciad}, replied : — ' I talked against his Homer, and the
portentous cub never forgives'1. It has aptly been observed by
Matthew Arnold that ' between Pope and Homer there is in-
terposed the mist of Pope's literary artificial manner ' ; ' Pope
certainly had a quick and darting spirit, as he had, also, real
nobleness ; yet Pope does not render the movement of Homer'2.
The best-known line in the translation of the Odyssey is preceded
by one that owes its existence to the necessities of rhyme alone : —
' True friendship's laws are by this rule exprest,
Welcome the coming, speed the parting guest'3.
Joseph Spence (1699 — 1768), a friend of Pope, was a Fellow
of New College, Oxford, and travelled extensively
in Europe. He exchanged the Professorship of
Poetry for a sinecure Professorship of History, and devoted his
leisure to the preparation of his Fotytnefis*, a treatise on Classical
Art and Mythology, which Lessing frequently criticises in the
Laokoon, while he fully admits the author's learning and his
familiarity with extant works of ancient art5.
Among the minor contemporaries of Bentley was Michael
Maittaire(i668 — 1747), a native of France, educated
at Westminster and Oxford. As a master at West-
minster, he wrote on the Greek dialects (1706), and on the History
of Printing6, besides editing for scholastic purposes no less than
thirty-three volumes of the Greek and Latin Classics (iyn-33)7.
His northern contemporary, Thomas Ruddiman
. . Ruddiman
(1674 — 1757) of Aberdeen, a printer, bookseller
and librarian in Edinburgh, deserves honourable mention for his
Rudiments of the Latin Tongue (1714), and his Grawmaticac
Latinae Institiitiones (1725-31). The former work passed through
1 Monk, ii 372.
2 On Translating Homer, n, 68 ; also 19, 21 f, 66, ed. 1896.
3 Od. xv 74. " 1747; ed. -2, 1755.
5 pp. 90, 97, 103, 114, 124 IT, ed. Bliimner.
6 Stephanorum Historia, 1709; Hist, lypographorum Paris., 1717; Annales
Typographic^ 1719-25.
7 Charles, Dissertation, 1839.
412 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVIII.
fifteen editions during the author's life-time, and long remained in
use in the schools of Scotland. The second part of his Institutiones
was the best work of the time on the subject of Syntax. He also
wrote on the true method of teaching Latin (1733). His master-
piece in printing was his edition of Livy (1751). His edition of
the Latin works of Buchanan (1715) brought him into con-
troversy with those who agreed with that historian's political
opinions, which differed from his own ; but even controversy
failed to affect the serenity of his temper. ' In person he was
of middle height, thin and straight, and had eyes remarkably
piercing". In the opinion of the writer just quoted, he was 'one
of the best men who ever lived'2.
Among Bentley's immediate friends was Joseph Wasse (1672 —
1738), Fellow of Queens', the editor of Sallust3 and
Wasse
Thucydides4, of whom Bentley said : — ' When I am
dead, Wasse will be the most learned man in England'5. Bentley
survived him by four years ; and lived ten years longer than his
younger friend John Davies (1679 — 1732), Fellow
Davies
and afterwards President of Queens', who, besides
editing Caesar, Minucius Felix, and Maximus Tyrius, made his
mark as a commentator on many of the philosophical works of
Cicero6. To his edition of the Tusculan Disputations an important
Appendix was contributed by Bentley7, to whom he dedicated his
edition of the De Natura Deorum*. The De Oratore, De Officiis,
and 'Longinus' were ably edited by Zachary Pearce (1690 —
1774), Fellow of Trinity, and ultimately bishop of Rochester.
Among Bentley's contemporaries at Cambridge were William
Whiston (1667 — 1752), Fellow of Clare, a mathe-
wfiddieton matician and divine of ' very uncommon parts
and more uncommon learning, but of a singular
and extraordinary character'9, now best known as the translator
1 H. J. Nicoll, Great Scholars, 199. 2 Cp. Life by G. Chalmers, 1794.
3 1 710, founded on the collation of 80 MSS.
4 Incorporated in Duker's ed. (1731), p. 447 infra.
5 Nichols, Literary Anecaotes, i 263. ' Kuster, Burmnn, Wasse' in Pope's
Duitciad, iv 237.
6 Tusf. Disp., De Nat. Dear., De Divin., Acad., De Legibus, De Finibus.
7 p. 406 supra. 8 Monk, i 223, ii 115.
9 Nichols, i 494 — 506, with portrait.
CHAP. XXIV.] S. CLARKE. MARKLAND. 413
of Josephus, and Dr Conyers Middleton (1683 — 1750), one of
Bentley's opponents, the author of the Life of Cicero. Bentley
had friendly relations with Dr Samuel Clarke
S. Clarke
(l675 — !729) of Gonville and Caius College, who,
in two passages of his Caesar (1712), expresses his admiration of
the great critic1, and, in one of his latest notes on the Jliad,
draws attention to Bentley's discovery of the digamma*. Another
contemporary, Peter Needham (1680 — 1731),
Fellow of St John's, who had edited the Gevponica,
produced, with Bentley's aid, an edition of the Commentary of
Hierocles on the 'Golden Verses of Pythagoras' (1709), which
was partly superseded by that of Richard Warren, Fellow of
Jesus College (i742)3. Needham had meanwhile published a
variorum edition of the Characters of Theophrastus.
Bentley was on friendly terms with Jeremiah Markland
(1693 — 1776), Fellow of Peterhouse, who, in his
Markland
earliest work, the Epistola Cntica on Horace, shows
the highest appreciation of Bentley (i723)4. Markland produced
an important edition of the Sylvae of Statius (1728). In his
Remarks on the Epistles of Cicero to Bruttis (1745), he recorded
his entire agreement with the doubts as to the genuineness of
those Epistles, and of the Speeches post Reditum, which had been
expressed by James Tunstall (1708 — 1762), Fellow and Tutor of
St John's, and Public Orator5. Markland (besides contributing
to Taylor's Lysias) edited the Supplices of Euripides (1763) and
the two Iphigeneias (1768). He dedicated the first of these
three plays to Hemsterhuys and Wesseling, and wrote in his own
copy : — ' probably it will be a long time before this sort of
Learning will revive in England'". During his travels abroad, he
met D'Orville, the eminent geographer, in Amsterdam ; and he
was familiar with the works of J. M. Gesner, whom he closely
resembled in personal appearance. He twice declined the Regius
Professorship of Greek, and, at the age of sixty, withdrew to
1 Monk, i 336 f. 2 Monk, ii 263.
3 Monk, i 226 f. 4 Monk, ii 169.
5 Cic. ad Alt. et Q.fratrem (1741) ; 'Observations' on the correspondence
between Cic. and Brutus (1745). See, in general, Nichols, v 412-4.
8 Nichols, iv 288.
414 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVIII.
Milton Court, near Dorking, where he lived in feeble health for
the last twenty-five years of his life. His best work as a Scholar
was characterised by a peculiar combination of caution and
boldness1. In the opinion of Elmsley, who belongs to the next
generation,
' He was endowed with a respectable portion of judgment and sagacity.
He was very laborious, loved retirement, and spent a long life in the study of
the Greek and Latin languages. For modesty, candour, literary honesty and
courteousness to scholars, he is justly considered as the model which ought to
be proposed for the imitation of every critic '2.
Markland's Cambridge friend, John Taylor (1704 — 1766), was
Fellow of St John's and successively Librarian
Taylor
(1731-4) and Registrary (1734-51) of the university.
He is best known as an editor of Lysias3, and of part of
Demosthenes4. He was the first to publish and expound the
important inscription recording the accounts of the Delian Temple
m 377-4 B-c-5 For thirty years he resided continuously in
College. ' Taylor's friend ', George Ashby, says : —
' If you called on him in College after dinner, you were sure to find him
sitting at an old oval walnut-tree table entirely covered with books' ... ; 'and
he instantly appeared as cheerful, good-humoured, and dcgage, as if he had
not been at all engaged or interrupted.' 'He understood perfectly, as a
gentleman and a scholar, all that belongs to making a book handsome, as
the choice of paper, types, and the disposition of text, version, and notes.'
'He was grand in his looks, yet affable, flowing and polite.'6 Dr Johnson,
who was far less familiar with him, said : ' Demosthenes Tay/0r...\va.s the most
silent man, the merest statue of a man, that I have ever seen '7.
He was ordained at the age of 43, and was Rector of Lawford in
Essex from 1751 to his death. He left his MSS to Askew, and
1 F. A. Wolf, Kleine Schriften, 1104.
2 Quarterly Rev. 1812, 442. Cp. Nichols, Lit. Anecd. iv 272 — 362, 657 f,
with portrait, and vii 249 f (index). F. A. Wolf, /. f., 1096 — mo; E. H.
Barker, Parriana, ii 241 f.
3 410, 1739; 8vo> I74°-
4 vol. iii, 1748 ; ii, 1757 ; i never appeared.
6 Marmor Sandvicense (1743); now in the vestibule of Trinity Library;
cp. Nichols, iv 497 ; Hicks, Gk Hist. Inscr. no. 82.
6 Nichols, Literary Anecdotes, iv 490 — 535, 662 f (reprinted separately,
1819) ; R. F. Scott, St John's Coll. Admissions (1903), 339 f. Cp. E. H.
Barker's Parriana, ii 220 — 231.
7 Boswell, 25 Apr. 1778.
CHAP. XXIV.] TAYLOR. DAWES. 415
many of his books to his former school — Shrewsbury. He took
part in the English edition of the Latin Thesaurus of Robert
Stephanus, much augmented and amended by the Rev. Edm. Law,
Fellow of Christ's1, the Rev. T. Johnson, Fellow of Magdalene,
and Sandys Hutchinson, Librarian of Trinity (1735). In the
very next year Robert Ainsworth (1660 — 1743) produced his
' Compendious Dictionary of the Latin Tongue ', on the same
general plan as Faber's Thesaurus2. It passed through at least
five editions, the fourth being revised by William Young, the
original of Fielding's ' Parson Adams '.
Among the earliest productions of Richard Dawes (1709 — •
1766), Fellow of Emmanuel, was a Greek eclogue
on the death of George I (1727), followed by a
specimen of a proposed translation of Paradise Lost into Greek
hexameters (i736)3. In a note to the latter he adroitly applied
to the criticism of a passage in Bentley's singular edition of
Milton's great epic4 one of Bentley's own comments on Horace5.
He was a diligent student of Bentley's Terence and of the
accompanying schediasma. In 1/38 he became master of the
grammar-school at Newcastle upon Tyne, and in 1745 he had the
satisfaction of seeing his Miscellanea Critica published by the
Cambridge Press : —
The work is in five parts : — (i) corrections of Terentianus Maurus ;
(2) criticisms on Oxford editors of Pindar ; (3) Greek pronunciation ;
differences between Attic and Ionic futures, and between the subj. and
opt. ; and corrections of Callimachus ; (4) the digamma • (5) ictus in
Attic poets, and emendations of the Dramatists.
It is on this work that his reputation rests. His conjectures on
Aristophanes have left their mark on Brunck's edition, and many
of them have been confirmed by the Ravenna MS. He is best
known in connexion with ' Dawes's Canon ', which declared that
the first aorist subjunctive, active and middle, was a solecism
after oVw<; /A?;6 and ou p.tj7. In all such cases he insisted on
1 Educated at St John's ; afterwards Master of Peterhouse, and Bp of
Carlisle (cp. Nichols, Lit. Anecd. ii 65 — 72).
2 Nichols, v 248 — 254.
3 Cp. Kidd's ed. of the Misc. Crit. (1817), init.
4 P. L. i 249 f. B Carm. i 7, 27.
6 Misc. Crit. ed. Oxon. p. 227 (Ar. Nub. 822). 7 ib. p. 221 (Nub. 366).
ENGLAND. [CENT. XVIII.
altering the first aorist subjunctive into the. future indicative.
The fact is that, owing to the similarity in form between
these subjunctive aorists and the future indicative, the second
aorist was preferred to the first, if both were in use1. Dawes
repeatedly criticises Bentley2, who had died three years before
the publication of the work. It passed through five editions,
but the author failed to produce his promised recensions of
Homer and Pindar and the Attic poets. Meanwhile, he satiri-
cally described his former pupil, Anthony Askew of Emmanuel
(1722-74), as ' Aeschyli editionis promissor'3. Though Askew
never edited Aeschylus, he collected Greek and Latin inscriptions
and left behind him an extensive library of classical MSS and of
rare editions. As master of the school at Newcastle, Dawes
quarrelled with the Town Council (he even taught his boys that
the proper translation of ovos was Alderman], but he ultimately
retired on a pension in 1748. A stalwart man with flowing snow-
white hair, he spent most of his time in rowing on the Tyne, but
there is no record of his producing any classical work in the
eighteen years that elapsed between the date of his retirement
and that of his death4. He is honourably mentioned by Cobet,
together with Bentley and Person, Elmsley and Dobree, as one
of those Englishmen, from whose writings, ' non tantum locis
corruptis clara lux affulget sed paulatim addiscitur ars quaedam,
qua verum cernere et eruere et ipse possis'5.
His contemporary, James Harris (1709 — 1780), is well known
as the author of Hermes and of the Philosophical Inquiries.
Among the poetic translators of the age was Christopher Pitt
(1699 — 1748), of Winchester and New, who pro-
duced a successful rendering 'of the Aeneid (1740)
1 Goodwin, Moods and Tenses, § 363 f, and Trans. Arner. Philol. Assoc.
1869^ 46 — 55 ; cp. Hermann, Opusc. vi 91 f. 2 pp. 261, 313 etc.
3 Advt in Newcastle Coiirant, 10 Oct. to 14 Nov. 1747 (Giles, p. 66).
He collected all the editions, and, while still a student at Leyden, dedicated
to Dr Mead a Specimen of his proposed work (1746). He is regarded as one
of the founders of Bibliomania in England (Allibone, s. z>.). Cp. Nichols,
iii 494-7, iv 725. His portrait in Emmanuel is engraved in Dibdin's Typo-
graphical Antiquities, vol. ii.
4 P. Giles, in Emm. Coll. Mag., v (2) 49 — 69; Monk's Bentley, ii 367 f.
6 Or. Je Arte Interprelandi (1847), 136.
CHAP. XXIV.] HEATH. TOUP. 417
and an interesting version of Vida's Art of Poetry^. The poet,
Thomas Gray (1716 — 1771) of Eton and Peter-
house, who migrated to Pembroke in 1756, wrote
his Latin ode on the Grande Chartreuse during his early travels
abroad. His notes on Linnaeus were mainly written in Latin2.
As a scholar of a wide range of reading he was a specially diligent
student of Plato, and not a few of his notes3 are quoted in
Thompson's Gorgias. He was mentioned by Parr among the
few persons in England who ' well understood ' Plato. Another
of these was Floyer Sydenham (1710 — 1787), Fellow
of Wadham, the translator of the whole of Plato
(1759-80)". His contemporary, Richard Hurd (1720—1808),
Fellow of Emmanuel, produced an aesthetic commentary on
Horace's Ars Poetica (1749) and the Epistola ad Augustum
(1751), which was translated into German. The former date
marks the beginning of his friendship with Warburton (1698 —
1779), who discourses at large on the sixth Aeneid in connexion
with his paradoxical work on the Legation of Moses (1737-41),
and borrows largely from Meursius in his account of the Eleusinian
Mysteries.
We may next notice a group of three Greek Scholars, all of them
associated in various ways with Exeter. Benjamin
Heath (1704 — 1766), town-clerk of Exeter, pub-
lished notes on Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides in 1762,
and received an honorary degree at Oxford in the same year.
He has been recognised as one of the ablest of English editors of
Aeschylus5. The latest English editor of Sophocles has described
him as 'a critic of fine insight and delicate taste'6. He also left
manuscript notes on Latin poets, and was interested in the English
dramatists. Jonathan Toup(i7i3 — 1785) of Exeter
College, Oxford, did much for the criticism of
1 Nichol.s, ii 260 f. For Vincent Bourne, see Addendum on p. 439.
- C. E. Norton, Gray as a Naturalist, with facsimiles of his notes and
his drawings (Boston, 1903).
3 Gray's Works, ed. Gosse (1884), iv 67 — 338.
4 Field's Life of Parr, ii 358.
5 Eiim. ed. J. F. Davies, p. 32.
6 Jebb's Introduction to text of Soph. (1897), xli.
S. II. 27
418 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVIII.
Su'idas1, and produced an edition of the treatise On the Sublime
(1778), which gave Porson the first impulse to classical criticism.
He also contributed to Thomas Warton's Theocritus (1770).
Reiske contrasts the urbanity of Warton with the truculence of
Toupa, while Wyttenbach says of Markland and Toup, 'ilium
ratione, hunc ingenio Criticam factitare'3. 'He was less happy
in conjecturing than in defending his conjectures, and in this he
resembled his great master Bentley, whose very errors were
instructive'4. He was 'not wholly untinctured with that self-
complacency, which is the almost inseparable companion of too
much solitude'5. The tablet placed in the church at East Looe
by the Delegates of the Clarendon Press assures us that ' his
abilities and critical sagacity ' were ' known to the learned through-
out Europe '6. As a prebendary of Exeter for the last eleven years
of his life, he survived his younger contemporary, a physician of
Exeter, Samuel Musgrave (1732 — 1780), M.D. of
Musgrave
Leyden and Oxford, who counted Ruhnken7,
Ernesti8, and Schweighauser9 among his correspondents. He
visited Paris to collate* MSS for his edition of the Hippolytus
(i756)10, and his ' Exercitations ' on Euripides were published in
the same year as the notes of his fellow-townsman, Heath, on all
the Tragic poets (1762). He visited Paris again in 1763-4, and
was well known to the leading scholars there ; Jean Capperonnier
refers to him in terms of gratitude. Meanwhile, he had edited
the whole of Euripides in 1778. The popular edition of Sophocles
was that of Thomas Johnson (1675 — I75°)j °f Eton and Brent-
ford, a capable, diligent and careful scholar, who died in great
poverty11. This edition was published in three volumes (1705-46),
and was twice reprinted after his death. Musgrave's comments
on the poet were incorporated in the Oxford edition of 1800.
1 Emendationes, 1760-6; Ep. Crit. 1767; Cttrae Novissimae, 1775.
2 Reiske to Askew; Mant's Life of T. Warton, \ xlvi.
8 Vita Ruhnk. 218. 4 Gentleman's Mag. l.v 340.
5 Nichols, ii 341.
6 Nichols, ii 339 — 346, 427, iii 58; Barker's Parriana, ii 236 f; Johnstone's
Mem. of Parr, i 534.
7 Vita, 71, and Ep. 9 Jul. 1780.
8 Corresp. ed. Tittmann, 55 — 62. 9 Cp. Bibl. Crit. II ii i;7-
10 Nichols, iv 285. u Jebb, Introd. to text of Soph, xxxviii.
CHAP. XXIV.] MUSGRAVE. TYRWHITT. 419
Two years before Musgrave's death. Apollonius Rhodius had been edited
at Oxford in 1778 by Thomas Shaw, Fellow of Magdalen,
T. Shaw
who is said to have found the earliest recognition of his work
in a notice of one of his conjectures, followed by the words pittide Shavius^.
This is probably only a pleasantry of the Oxford wits of the day, who also
made sport of the Latin version of the name of his more distinguished name-
sake, the Fellow of Queen's and professor of Greek (i747-5i)2. The criticism
is not due to Brunck, who in his Apollonius Rhodius (1/80) is sufficiently
severe on the Oxford editor, but always calls him Shaw. The next year saw
the publication of an English commentary on the Ion and Bacchae (1781) by
Richard Paul Joddrell (1/45 — -1831), followed by the Alcestis
in 1790. The best part of these 'Illustrations of Euripides'
is the archaeological introduction to the Bacchae.
Oxford was far more ably represented in the same age by the
widely accomplished scholar, Thomas Tyrwhitt
(1730 — 1786). Educated at Eton and Queen's,
he was a Fellow of Merton (1755-62), and Clerk to the House
of Commons (1762-8). He is credited with an 'unlimited be-
nevolence ', and a knowledge of ' almost every European tongue ',
and is celebrated as an editor of Chaucer, a critic of Shakespeare,
and as the principal detector of the forgeries of Chatterton. He
contributed a critical appendix to Musgrave's ' Exercitations ' on
Euripides. In 1776, following in the track of Bentley, he detected
further traces of Babrius in the 'Fables of Aesop'. In 1781, he
boldly assigned to the age of Constantius (357) the Orphic poem
De L.apidibus, and his edition of that poem received the rare
distinction of a review by Ruhnken3. A cursory perusal of Strabo
led to his publishing a number of corrections of the text (1783).
Further, he was the first to publish, from a MS in Florence, the
Speech of Isaeus 'on the Inheritance of Menecles' (1785). He
also prepared an able edition of Aristotle's Treatise on Poetry,
with critical notes and Latin translation, which was first published
in 1794, eight years after his death. All his works are characterised
by wide reading, and by critical acumen4. It was partly in re-
1 Chr. Wordsworth's Scholae Academicae, 94 n. i ; Tuckwell's Reminis-
cences, 131 (where ' Boeckh ' is mentioned by an error of memory).
- Wordsworth, 168.
3 Bibliothcca Critica, iv 85 f; and Ep. 9 Jan. 1783 (Wordsworth's Scholae,
93 ". 5).
4 Gentleman 's Mag. LVI (2) 717; Nichol, iii 147 — 151 ; Wolf, Kl. Schr.
27 — 2
420 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVIII.
cognition of his own earlier work that, in 1786, he received from
Brunck the flattering assurance that England was ' le pays de
1'Europe ou la litterature grecque est la plus florissante".
Between Tyrwhitt's death in 1786 and the publication, in
1794, of his edition of Aristotle's treatise, an important English
translation of the same work with ' notes on the translation and
on the original ', and ' two dissertations on poetical, and musical,
imitation', was produced in 1789 by the Rev.
Thomas Twining (1735—1804), late Fellow of
Sidney Sussex, Cambridge, who had sole charge at Fordham,
near Colchester, from 1764, and was Rector of St Mary's,
Colchester, for the last sixteen years of his life. He had no
aptitude for the trade in tea for which his family has long been
famous, his main interest being in literature and music. Before
going to Cambridge, he had learnt Latin and Greek in the family
of a Colchester clergyman, where his sole fellow-student in those
languages was his tutor's daughter, his future wife. On his
marriage in 1766, he wrote his wife's name in the first leaf of the
household account-book, adding the date, and a quotation from
Tibullus : — ////' sint omnia curae, Et juvet in tota me nikil esse domo.
His English rendering and his suggestive notes on Aristotle were
prepared in his study at Fordham, an ' extremely cheerful and
pleasant' room, 'looking into a garden of sweets12. His boat on
the piece of water at the parsonage prompts him to write an
English imitation of the Dedicatio Phaseli of Catullus3. He is
delighted with the vignettes in a new edition of his favourite
Tibullus, which he describes as ' by far the most elegant German
book ' he had ever seen4. He says of Pindar : —
' There are here and there fine poetical strokes in him, and moral maxims
well expressed; but he is very unequal, often very tiresome, very obscure, and
to us moderns very uninteresting.... He is one of those ancient authors,
1111-3; and D.N.B. His portrait is prefixed to his quarto edition of
Chaucer.
1 Luard in Camb. Essays, 1857, 125.
2 Recreations and Studies of a Country Clergyman of the Eighteenth
Century, being selections from the Correspondence of Thomas Twining,
edited by his grand-nephew, Richard (1882-3).
3 ib. 240 f. . 4 ib. 71 (17/9).
CHAP. XXIV.] TWINING. PARR. 421
whose real merit falls short of their echoed character. He is sometimes
bombastic, and sometimes prosaic1'. 'There is no appearance of art in
Demosthenes: in Cicero a great deal too much'2.
He delights in Tyrwhitt's edition of Chaucer3. In preparing his
own work on Aristotle's Ars Poetica, he writes to Charles Burney
in 1786 : —
' The extreme depravation of the text, its obscurities and ambiguities, are
such that I have been forced to give up a greater portion of my comment to
philological disquisitions than I could have wished ; and a great part of my
pains have been employed in proving passages to be unintelligible. But what
then ? When people fancy they understand what they do not, it is doing
some good to show them that they do not. It is some use to pull down what
is wrong, if one can't build up what is right'4.
He sends Heyne a presentation copy of his translation, writes a
Latin letter suggesting a correction of Odyssey, xi 584, and
receives a flattering reply from the Gottingen professor5. His
English correspondence gives proof of his interest in the Greek
Drama and in Greek Music6, and in many other matters un-
connected with the Classics. His intimate friends included
Ur Burney and Dr Parr.
Parr wrote in his presentation copy of the Aristotle : — ' The gift of the
author, whom I am proud and happy to call my friend, because he is one
of the best scholars now living, and one of the best men that ever lived'7.
Parr also wrote his epitaph : — ' Viro, in quo doctrina inerat multiplex et
recondita, ingenium elegans et acutum, scribendi genus non exile spino-
sumque, sed accuratum et exquisitum, in rebus quae ad artem criticam
pertinent explicandis sermo sine aculeo et maledictis facetus et sapore paene
proprio Athenarum imbutus'8.
The writer of this tribute of friendship, Samuel Parr (1747 —
1825) of Harrow and Emmanuel, was head-master
of three schools in succession, at Stanmore, Col-
chester, and Norwich, and, from 1785 to his death, perpetual
curate and private tutor at Hatton in Warwickshire, where he
built himself a library, which contained more than 10,000 volumes.
i ib. 1 80 f (i 793). 2 il,. 193.
3 U>. 229. 4 ib. 140.
5 !/>. 246 — 257 (oreDro 5e di\f/duv iruflv, of'd' flxfv €\foOai).
6 ib. 14, 26. 7 ib. 10 (1790).
8 Johnstone's Memoirs of Parr, iv 597, viii 584 ; engraved portrait in
Sidney Sussex College.
422 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVIII.
He attained considerable distinction as a writer of Latin Prose.
His stately epitaphs and his other Latin inscriptions1 were con-
fessedly modelled mainly on the contemporary works of Morcelli2.
Writing to Edward Maltby, he says: — 'In Westminster Abbey
I do not know one inscription that is formed upon the models of
antiquity; and even in Oxford I have met only with one which
resembles them '3. 'It is all very well to say that So-and-so is a
good scholar ', said Samuel Parr to Samuel Butler of Shrewsbury,
' but can he write an inscription ?'* In 1 787 he reprinted a treatise
on Cicero written by William Bellenden (fl. i6i6)5, who had
apparently proposed to add an account of Seneca and the Elder
Pliny, and thus complete his work ' De tribus Luminibus Romano-
rum '. Parr prefixed to his reprint a long Latin preface on the
' Three Lights of Britain ', Lord North, Fox, and Burke. The
preface is modelled on Cicero and Quintilian, and references to
the numerous passages borrowed from those writers are added in
the margin6. In the generation immediately succeeding the
author's death, this preface used to be studied in Cambridge as
an accepted model of modern Latin Prose7. While Person was
still living, Sydney Smith called Parr ' by far the most learned
man of his day'; and Parr admitted Person's superiority to
himself in Attic Greek alone. ' Person ', he once observed to a
friend, with whom he was out riding, ' has more Greek, but no
man's horse, John, carries more Latin than mine'8. Another of
his well-known sayings was 'Person first, — Burney third'9. He
sent an able Latin scholar, Mr James Pillans of Edinburgh, a
1 94 in Johnstone's Memoirs, iv 558 — 655 ; cp. ib. 677 f, and viii 555 — 656;
also Barker's Parriana, i 524, 526; Johnstone's Memoirs, i 755 f; Blunt's
Essays, 244 f. Parr wrote his own epitaph in English.
2 p. 382 supra. See Johnstone's Memoirs, \ 758.
3 Johnstone, i 758. 4 S. Butler's Life and Letters, i 255 q. v.
5 Copied by Middleton in his Life of Cicero (1741) ; Nichols, v 414-7.
8 Parriana, i 523 n ; ii 147 — 152 ; Memoirs, i 180 — 206.
7 Pryme's Reminiscences, 136 ; Wordsworth's Scholae Academicae, 100.
My copy belonged to James Hildyard of Christ's in 1829, and to W. H.
Bateson, from 1848, the year of his election as Public Orator. F. A. Wolf,
Kl. Schr. ii 1 1 14 n, describes Parr as exhibiting, in his Latin prose, mehr echt-
Romische Farbe than most Englishmen. Parr himself preferred Ernesti's and
Ruhnken's Latin to that of Heyne (Parriana, ii 99).
8 Parriana, i 522. 9 ib. i 521 f; ii 723,
CHAP. XXIV.] PARR. H. HOMER. 423
monograph on the subjunctive mood1 which fills more than
twenty pages of print. It was by the advice of Parr that in 1791
Samuel Butler, then entered at Christ Church, was transferred to
St John's College, Cambridge ; it was also by his advice, supported
by that of Person, that, in 1805, another eminent head-master, of
the same surname, but of another family, George Butler, was
appointed Joseph Drury's successor at Harrow. Parr migrated
from Emmanuel to St John's, where one of his portraits is
preserved2. He was not satisfied with any of them: — 'All the
artists ', he remarked, ' fail in one feature — none of them give me
my peculiar ferocity'3. Notwithstanding his extensive erudition,
he accomplished little that was of permanent importance, but he
freely lavished his advice and his aid on others, and thus enabled
them to accomplish what they could not otherwise have done4.
Person spent the winter of 1790-1 at Hatton, enriching his mind
with the vast stores of Parr's library. ' As a classical scholar he
was supreme... Pre-eminent in learning, ...he was... most liberal
in communicating it '. Such is the language of the frank and
honest funeral-sermon preached by Samuel Butler ; he has since
been described by one, who has surveyed all the literature of the
subject, as ' one of the kindest hearted and best read Englishmen '
of his generation5; while Macaulay has characterised his 'vast
treasure of erudition ' as ' too often buried in the earth, too often
paraded with injudicious and inelegant ostentation, but still
precious, massive, and splendid '6.
One of his faithful friends was Henry Homer (1753—1/91), Fellow of
Emmanuel, who aided him in the revision of his preface to
Bellenden. lie was so modest a man that he never published
1 Works, ed. Johnstone, viii 533 — 554.
2 The author once showed this portrait (in 1891) to a lady (Miss Ilorner,
of Florence), who perfectly remembered ' sitting next to Dr Parr, at the
christening of her younger brother'.
3 Nicoll, 183. 4 ib. 187.
5 J. E. B. Mayor, in Baker-Mayor's History of St Johns Coll., Cambridge,
940. Cp. Johnstone's Memoirs etc., 8 vols. (1828) ; Life by Field, 2 vols.
(1828); E. H. Barker's Parriana, 2 vols. (1828) ; De Quincey, v 9 — 145 (ed.
Masson) ; J. J. Blunt, Quarterly Rev., Apr. 1829 (Essays, 172 — 249); and
II. J. Nicoll's Great Scholars, 139 — 187 ; Allibone's Diet. s. v. ; also L. Ste-
phen, in D. N. B.
6 Essays, 642, ed. 1861.
424 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVIII.
his distinguished name on the title-page of any of the handsome volumes of
his classical editions, which included Ovid's Heroidcs, Persius, and Sallust
(1789), and Pliny's Epistles, Caesar, and Tacitus (1790). His edition of Livy,
begun in 1787, was completed by his brother in 1794; and a variorum edition
of Horace was published after his death by his colleague, Dr Combe, with
readings from seven Harleian MSS (I792)1. This edition was attacked by
Parr2, who had aided Homer by his advice, but had apparently not been
courted with sufficient deference by Combe3. Parr, in the course of his review,
pays a striking tribute to Bentley, as an editor of Horace4, and writes as
follows on verbal criticism : —
' Verbal criticism has been seldom despised sincerely by any man who was
capable of cultivating it successfully; and if the comparative dignity of any
kind of learning is to be measured by the talents of those who are most
distinguished for the acquisition of it, philology will hold no inconsiderable
rank in the various and splendid classes of human knowledge '5. Dr Johnson
said of the same subject in his Preface to Shakspeare : — ' Conjectural criticism
demands more than humanity possesses, and he that exercises it with most
praise, has very frequent need of indulgence 'e.
The great powers of Parr 'were never directed to one great
object '. Of his contemporaries in England, some were his
superiors as critics of Attic Greek, — 'as universal Greek scholars,
perhaps none '. ' Porson could not have produced the notes on the
Spital Sermon ' (which exemplify the remarkable range of Parr's
philosophical and classical reading); 'nor could Parr have written
the Preface to the Hecuba '7.
At the close of the eighteenth century the greatest name
among English scholars was that of Richard Porson
Person
(1759 — 1808). The son of the parish clerk at
East Ruston, near North Walsham, in Norfolk, he gave early
proof of the most remarkable powers of memory. The liberality
of the future founder of the Norrisian Professorship made it
possible for him to enter Eton, while a fund started by an Etonian,
Sir George Baker, President of the Royal College of Physicians
enabled him to become a member of Trinity College, Cambridge,
1 D. N. B. ; and F. A. Wolf, Kl. Schr. 1 113-5.
2 British Critic, iii 8 (Blunt's Essays, 208 f ).
3 Parr, in Field's Life of Parr, ii 449 — 456 ; Johnstone's Memoirs, i 408 —
437 ; Nicoll, 166 f.
4 British Critic, iii 100 (Blunt, 211).
5 ib. iii 22. 6 Blunt, 212 f.
7 Blunt, 173, 246.
CHAP. XXIV.] PORSON. 425
in 1778. Elected to the Craven Scholarship in 1781, he was
First Chancellor's Medallist, and Fellow of Trinity, in 1782. Ten
years later he lost his Fellowship, solely because of his resolve to
remain a layman. But the generosity of his friends immediately
provided him with an annual income of £100, and, in the same
year, he was unanimously elected Professor of Greek, the stipend
at that time being only £40. He lived mainly in London, where
his society was much sought by men of letters. In 1806 he was
appointed librarian of the London Institution, and in 1808 he
died. He was buried in the ante-chapel of Trinity College, at the
foot of the statue of Newton. His bust, by Chantrey, is in the
same building ; a plaster cast of his face, taken immediately after
his death, was engraved by Fittler, and published in the Adversaria^.
His portrait, by Kirkby, is in the dining-room of Trinity Lodge ;
that by Hoppner, in the University Library, has been engraved by
Sharpe2 and by Adlard. According to his friend, Pryse Gordon,
he had a remarkably fine head ; an expansive forehead with his
shining brown hair smoothly combed over it ; a Roman nose,
with a keen and penetrating eye, shaded with long lashes ; a
mouth full of expression, and a countenance suggestive of deep
thought. He was nearly six feet high. Careless and slovenly in
his dress, when alone, and engaged in study, we are assured that,
on important occasions, when he put on his blue coat, white
waistcoat, black satin breeches, silk stockings, and ruffled shirt,
'he looked quite the gentleman'3.
His literary activity is mainly limited to the twenty years
between his reviews of certain editions of Aeschylus and Aris-
tophanes4, and his restoration of the Greek inscription on the
Rosetta Stone5 (1783 — 1803). The first work that made him
widely known was his Letters to Travis (1788-9), in which he
proved the spuriousness of the text on the ' three that bear
witness in heaven'", thus supporting an opinion which had long
been held by critics from Erasmus to Bentley7, and had recently
1 1812 (in large paper ed.).
- Reproduced on p. 426.
3 Personal Memoirs, i 288 (Watson, 132).
4 Kidd's Tracts, 4 — 37; cp. Watson, 37 — 44.
5 Kidd, 183. B i St John, v 7. 7 Monk, ii 18 f.
RICHARD PORSON.
From Sharpe's engraving of the portrait by Hoppner in the University
Library, Cambridge.
CHAP. XXIV.] PORSON. 427
been affirmed afresh by Gibbon, who regarded the work as ' the
most acute and accurate piece of criticism since the days of
Bentley'1. This was immediately followed by his preface and notes
to a new edition of Toup's Emendations on Su'idas (1790). It
was by a copy of Toup's Longinus, presented to him as a boy by
the head-master of Eton, that he (as we have already seen) had
been first drawn to classical criticism2. He also regarded Dawes
and Bentley as his greatest masters3. He contributed many
corrections to the folio edition of Aeschylus published by Foulis
at Glasgow in 1795*. Twelve years had passed since he had been
invited by the Syndics of the Cambridge Press to edit Aeschylus,
but his offer to visit Florence with a view to collating the
Laurentian MS was unfortunately rejected, Dr Torkington, Master
of Clare and Vice-Chancellor, gravely suggesting that ' Mr Porson
might collect his manuscripts at home'5. The Syndics had also
unwisely insisted on an exact reprint of the old and corrupt text
of Stanley, and Porson naturally declined the task. His masterly
edition of four plays of Euripides began in 1797 with \.\\Q Hecuba ;
it was continued in the Orestes (1798), Phoenissae (1799), and
Medea (1801), where the editor's name appears for the first time.
In 1796 Hermann, at the age of twenty-four, had produced a
treatise De Metris Poetarum. In the next year Porson published
his Hecuba, in the preface of which he settled certain points
connected with Greek metre in a sense contrary to that of
Hermann, but without complete proof. In 1800 Hermann brought
out a rival edition, attacking Person's opinions ; Porson replied in
his second edition (1802). The supplement to the preface has
been justly regarded as 'his finest single piece of criticism'6. He
there states and illustrates the rules of iambic and trochaic metre,
lays down the law that determines the length of the fourth
syllable from the end of the normal iambic or trochaic line,
tacitly correcting Hermann's mistakes, but never mentioning his
1 Gibbon, Aliscell. i 159. 2 p. 418 supra.
3 Watson, 27 f.
4 Cp. F. A. Wolf, Anal, ii 284-9 (Kleine Schriften, 1180-5).
5 Ki eld's Tracts, p. xxxvi ; F. Norgate in Athenaeum, 9 May, 1896,
p. 621.
6 Jebb, in D. N. B.
428 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVIII.
name1. After Person's death, Hermann, in a work published in
1816, honoured his memory .by describing him as vir magnae
accurataeque doctrinae'1'.
Person spent at least ten months in transcribing in his own
beautiful hand the Codex Galeanus of the lexicon of Photius ;
the transcript was destroyed by fire in 1 796 ; a second transcript
was prepared by Person and deposited in the library of his College,
and finally published by Dobree in 1822, fourteen years after
Person's death3. The library also possesses his transcripts of the
Medea and Phoenissae, written in the matchless hand that was
made the model for the Greek type that bore his name, but was
not used until after his death, when it first appeared in editions of
plays of Euripides produced by Cambridge scholars4.
It is to be regretted that he failed to finish his edition of
Euripides, and that he did not live to edit either Aristophanes or
Athenaeus. He would doubtless have achieved far more, if the
sobriety of his life had been equal to the honesty and truthfulness
of his character5.
His services to scholarship were chiefly in the domain of
textual criticism. In the study of Attic Greek, he elucidated
many points of idiom and usage, and established the laws of
tragic metre. He was singularly successful in conjectural emen-
dation; 'his emendations were the fruit of an innate acumen,
exercised on an extraordinarily wide range of reading, and aided
1 In a famous note on Medea, 675, he had made effective mention of that
name five times over in the phrase :-~yiiis praeter Herniannnm. See also
Watson, 167 — 183; Weston's Porsoniana, 14, and Wordsworth's Scholae,
112 f.
2 Elementa Doctrinae Metricae, p. xiii, ed. 1817 ; cp. Opusc. vi 93 f.
3 An inferior edition, published by Hermann in 1808, is criticised in
Edinburgh Kevieiv for July, 1813.
4 C. J. Blomfield's Prometheus, 1810, p. vi, 'litterarum Graecarum typos
ad Porsoni mentem cusos fuisse'; and Monk's Hippolytus (1811). Cp.
Wordsworth's Scholae Academicae, 392. On his handwriting, cp. Watson,
361, 422, and specimen opposite 260; also the collection of his note-books
preserved in the Library of his College.
5 Parr to Burney (1787), in Memoirs, vii 403, 'He is not only a matchless
scholar, but an honest, a very honest man ' ; Turton's Vindication, 348, he
'had no superior' in 'the most pure and inflexible love of truth' (Watson,
357)-
CHAP, xxiv.] PORSON. 429
by the resources of a marvellous memory". After he had made
many corrections of the text of Aristophanes, he was shown
Bentley's copy, and shed tears of joy at finding that a large
portion of Bentley's conjectures exactly coincided with his own2.
It has been said that ' in learning he was superior to Valckenaer,
in accuracy to Bentley'3. We have already noticed his relations
to Hermann, who, in an extant letter, asks his aid in connexion
with MSS of Plautus4. He consults Ruhnken on the fragments
of Aeschylus5; he approves of Heyne's receiving from Trinity
College a transcript of Bentley's Homeric notes and emendations6;
and he obtains for Villoison a presentation copy of the Grenville
Homer7, which included Person's collation of the Harleian
Odyssey (1801). Monk and Blomfield published his Adversaria
(1812) ; Kidd, his Tracts (1815) ; Dobree, his Aristophanica (\%>2<z)
and his transcript of Photius (1822); and Gaisford, his notes on
Pausanias (1820) and Sui'das (1834). His memory was also
perpetuated by Charles Burney (1757 — i8i8)8, who was one of
the trustees of the fund founded in his honour, a fund ultimately
devoted to the establishment of the Porson Prize and the Person
Scholarship in Cambridge. Of himself the great critic modestly
said : — ' I am quite satisfied if, three hundred years hence, it shall
be said that one Porson lived towards the close of the eighteenth
century, who did a good deal for the text of Euripides'9. 'For
Cambridge and for England he became in a large measure the
creator of that ideal of finished and exact verbal scholarship,
which prevailed for more than fifty years after his death'10. It was
Person's friend Burney who happily described Bentley, Taylor and
Markland, with Dawes, Toup, Tyrwhitt, and Porson, as forming
the constellation of the Pleiades among the English scholars of the
1 Cp. Jebb in D. N. B. 162 f; J. E. Sandys in Social England, vi 299.
2 Luard, in Cambridge Essays, 1857.
3 Luard, in Enc. Brit.
4 Luard's Correspondence of Richard Porson, 62 f.
5 Kidd's Tracts, xxxvi f. 6 Corrcsf. 29.
7 Corresp. 76—80.
8 Author of the Tentamen Criticnm on the Metres of Aeschylus (1809) ;
cp. Hermann, Opusc. vi 94.
9 Rogers, Table Talk, ' Porsoniana,' 334.
10 Cp. Jebb in D.N.B. 163; J. E. Sandys in Social England, vi 300.
430 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVIII.
eighteenth century1. Parr, in the list of his scholarly friends,
while he writes of Twining as TOV 'ATTLKWTO.TOV, and of Burney as
TOV KpLTlK(l)TO.TOV KOt TToXv/AatftOTaTOU, applies tO PorSOtt the epithet
TOU TTO.VV
Among the minor lights of the age was Gilbert Wakefield (1756 — 1801), a
Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge, who had attained the
second place in the Wranglers, the Chancellor's Medallists,
and the Members' Prizemen of his year. On leaving the Church of England
for the Unitarian body, he became a classical teacher and editor at Nottingham.
In matters of public policy he was inspired with a violent hatred of Pitt, and
in 1 799 his treasonable expression of a hope, that England would be invaded
and conquered by the French, led to his imprisonment for two years in
Dorchester gaol. During his imprisonment he continued to correspond with
Fox on points of scholarship3, and, shortly after his release, he died. In the
unduly partial opinion of Parr, who agreed with him in politics, he ' united
the simplicity of a child wth the fortitude of a martyr ' 4. Both as a politician
and as a scholar he was greatly lacking in judgement and in self-control5.
A passion for tampering with the texts of the Classics pervades all the five
parts of his Sylva Critica, as well as his editions of Horace6, Virgil, and
Lucretius. In his Lucretius (i796f) he aimed at producing a text founded on
manuscript authority alone, but his collations were incredibly careless, while
his notes displayed ignorance of the language and the philosophy of his author,
and were further disfigured by his attacking ' the most brilliant and certain
emendations of Lambinus ' ' with a vehemence of abuse that would be too
great even for his own errors'. Nevertheless, ' not a few certain corrections '
are due to Wakefield7. His Lucretius was completed in the same year as
Person's first edition of the Hecuba. Wakefield had proposed certain altera-
tions in the text of that play, which Person 'out of kindness' had forborne
1 Preface to Burney's Tentamen, of Porson, ' ultimus ille ev ry TWV /xaxa-
PITUV (parco enim viventium nominibus) Anglorum IlXeiciSi '.
2 Memoirs, i 526. Person's Life has been written in Cambridge Essays,
1857, and in Enc. Brit., ed. 9, by H. R. Luard, who edited his Correspondence
(Cambridge Antiquarian Society, 1867); also by J. S. Watson, 1861, and by
Jebb in D. N. B. Some of his Greek Iambics in Kidd's Tracts, p. 2 ; cp.
Barker's Parriana,\\ 652 — 671, 730 — 746. Cp. Hermann, Opusc. vi 92 — 95;
II. J. Nicoll, Great Scholars, 91 — 138 ; and J. E. Sandys in Social England,
vi 297 f.
3 Correspondence of W. with C. y. Fox, 1813.
4 Parriana, ii 549. 8 Watson's Porson, 248 f.
6 Cp. Parriana, ii 566 f.
7 Munro's Lucretius, i p. 19'; cp. Munro's criticism on Wakefield's render-
ing of 'The paths of glory lead but to the grave', 'Ad tumuli fauces ducit
honoris iter' (Macinilla)is Mag. Feb. 1875).
CHAP. XXIV.] WAKEFIELD. HORNE TOOKE. BURGESS. 43!
to mention, but his silence led to Wakefield's composing a violent and hasty
'Diatribe' teeming with injudicious and intemperate criticisms. On the eve
of its publication, Person being present at a party, in which every toast was
to be coupled with a quotation from Shakespeare, good-naturedly proposed
'My friend, Gilbert Wakefield, — "What's Hecuba to him, or he to Hecuba?" M.
Porson had a high opinion of the mental powers2 of his earlier con-
temporary, the politician and philologist, John Home Tooke
(1736 — 1812), of St John's College, Cambridge3. His re-
putation as a scholar rests on the 'Diversions of Purley' (i786)4, a work
which Lord Brougham regarded as ' one of the most amusing and even lively
of books '5, and John Hill Burton as ' one of the toughest books in existence ' a.
It certainly excited a new interest in matters of etymology, and it had the
special merit of insisting on the importance of the study of Gothic and Anglo-
Saxon7.
Porson professed a certain contempt for the scholarship of Thomas Burgess8
( [756 — 1837), Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, who,
early in his career, reprinted Burton's five Greek plays (1779),
and Dawes' Miscellanea Critica (i78i)9. Three years later, he was well
received by Ruhnken at Leyden10, and it was through Burgess that Wyttenbach
was induced to edit the Moralia of Plutarch for the Clarendon Press. As
bishop of St David's, he founded Lampeter College, and, as bishop of Salis-
bury, he attempted to defend the traditional text on the ' Three Heavenly
Witnesses' against the strictures of Porson, who was then no longer living.
The bishop of Salisbury was finally refuted in 1827 by Dr Turton, the future
bishop of Ely11.
An interest in Classical Archaeology was fostered by the
foundation of the Society of Dilettanti at the close
of 1733. It was founded by 'some gentlemen ^ociet"*1
who had travelled in Italy', who were 'desirous of
encouraging at home a taste for those objects which had con-
tributed so much to their entertainment abroad'12. One of the
few commoners among its earliest members was Spence, the author
of the Polymetis. The liberality of this distinguished Society has
1 Watson's Porson, 155 — 166, 239 — 249. 2 ib. 309.
3 Entered as John Home, he assumed the name of Tooke in 1782; see
R. F. Scott's Admissions (1903), 621 f.
4 Ed. 2, 1798 ; part 2, 1805, often reprinted.
6 Statesmen, Time of Geo. Ill, ii 105, ed. 1856.
6 Book- Hunter, Part ii. 7 Bust of Tooke in Fitzwilliam Museum.
8 \Vatson, 304. 9 Wordsworth, Scholae Academicae, 94^
iQ W7yttenbach, Vita Ruhnkenii, 189. n Watson, 82, 304.
12 Preface to Antiquities of Ionia.
432 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVIII.
produced a splendid series of archaeological publications, those
belonging partly or wholly to the eighteenth century being the
four folio volumes of Stuart and Revett's Antiquities of Athens
(1762 — 1816), the three of the Antiquities of Ionia (1769 — 1840),
as well as Chandler's Inscriptions and Travels (1774-6)'.
The first of the authors above mentioned, James Stuart
(1713 — 1788), the painter and architect known as
I. Stuart
'Athenian Stuart', visited Rome in 1741. In Rome
the erection of the obelisk on the Monte Citorio led to his
composing a monograph on that subject2. Ten years later he left
for Greece in the company of the architect and draughtsman,
Nicholas Revett (1720 — 1804). Their united labours at Athens
resulted in the production of a great work of permanent value,
the full title of which is The Antiquities of Athens measured and
delineated (i762)3. This work, which incidentally led to the
adoption of Greek Architecture in St James's Square, appeared in
a second edition in 1825-30 ; it was also translated into German,
and is still deservedly held in high esteem as containing the
earliest accurate reproductions of the monuments of Athens4.
One of the leading supporters of Stuart and Revett in their
proposals for the delineation of the remains of Athenian archi-
tecture, was the eminent traveller and politician,
R. Wood
Robert Wood (c. 1717 — 1771). He visited many
parts of France, Italy, Western Europe, and Asia Minor. His
travels in the remoter regions of Syria resulted in the publication
of important works on the ruins of Palmyra (1753) and of
Heliopolis (1757), while the ancient associations of the Troad
prompted him to compose his Essay on the original genius and
writings of Homer, with a comparative view of the ancient and
present state of the Troade*. It was in admiration of all these
three works that Goethe exclaimed : —
1 Michaelis, Ancient Marbles in Great Britain, 62-5; cp. Lionel Gust's
History of the Society of Dilettanti, ed. Sidney Colvin, 1898.
2 De obdisco Caesaris Augusti Campo Martis nttpcr effosso, 1750.
3 Vol. ii 1789; vol. iii 1794; vol. iv 1816; cp. Nichols, ix 57, 143 — 150.
4 Stark, 184-6.
6 Seven copies privately printed in 1769; posthumously published in 1775;
other editions 1776 and 1824.
CHAP. XXIV.] J. STUART. R. WOOD. 433
' With the exception of England, not one of the European nations of the
present day possesses that enthusiasm for the remains of classical antiquity
which spares neither cost nor pains in the endeavour to restore them to their
perfect splendour'1.
In his Essay Wood conjectures, in the course of a chapter on
' Homer's language and learning ', that the art of writing was not
introduced into Greece until about 554 B.C.2 His opinions on
this point were reviewed and defended by Merian in 1788, and
were partially accepted by F. A. Wolf in i7953. ^ ^s ^n tne same
work that Wood tells the story of his waiting as Under-Secretary
of State on the President of the Council, John Cartaret, Earl of
Granville, with the preliminary articles of the Treaty of Paris,
which closed the Seven Years' War in 1763. On that memorable
occasion the aged statesman recited some lines from the speech of
Sarpedon in the twelfth Iliad4, dwelling with a singular emphasis
on a line that recalled the distinguished part he had taken in
public affairs, and repeating the last word of the passage, io/xev,
several times with a calm and determinate resignation, before
declaring the approbation of a dying statesman 'on the most
glorious War, and most honourable Peace, this nation ever saw'5.
The above story has been quoted by Matthew Arnold mainly because of
its interest ' as exhibiting the English aristocracy at its very
height of culture, lofty spirit, and greatness ', towards the Stc ° ^ y
middle of the eighteenth century6. It was the century of
those great parliamentary orators, Chatham (1708 — 1/78) and Burke (1729 —
1797) and Fox (1749 — 1806) and Pitt (1759 — 1806). Passages of a thoroughly
Demosthenic type, as well as direct reminiscences of Demosthenes, may be
found in the speeches of all four of those statesmen7. The dictum of Sir
James Macintosh that Fox was 'the most Demosthenean speaker since Demos-
thenes' is opposed by Brougham, but a modern critic has noticed at least
ten characteristics of the oratory of Fox that bear a striking resemblance
to those of the great Athenian orator8. We find Payne Knight writing to
Parr from Whitehall : — ' Fox and I have been reading Lycophron '9. Chatham
1 Sdmmtl. Werke, xxxiii 21 (Stark, 187). 2 p. 258.
3 Proleg. ad Horn. c. xii. 4 322-8, w irtirov — tofjiev.
5 p. vii, ed. 1775. On Robert Wood, cp. Nichols, iii 81-6, viii 426 f, ix
i44f.
6 On Translating Homer, 18, ed. 1896.
7 Quoted in prefaces to Dem. Philippics, vols. i and ii, ed. Sandys.
8 C. A. Goodrich, Select British Eloquence, New York, 1852, p. 461.
9 Parr's Works, vii 304 (Jan. 1805?).
S. II. 28
434 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVIII.
caused his distinguished son, the younger Pitt, to acquire a wider command
of language by translating aloud, and at sight, passages from the Greek or
Latin Classics1. That excellent classical scholar, the Marquis of Wellesley,
described him as ' perfectly accomplished in classical literature, both Latin
and Greek', adding that Lord Grenville2 had 'often declared that Mr. Pitt
was the best Greek scholar he ever conversed with ' 3. During the peroration
of his great speech on the abolition of the slave-trade, even his opponents
listened to him as to one ' inspired ' 4. The debate had lasted through the
night, and the rays of the rising sun were streaming into the House, when
the orator closed a splendid period, on the coming dawn of a brighter day
for the natives of Africa, with the fine quotation from Virgil :—
'nosque ubi primus equis Oriens afflavit anhelis,
illic sera rubens accendit lumina Vesper'5.
Returning to the Classical Archaeologists of the century, we note the name
Archaeologists: of Sir William Hamilton (1730—1803), the British Minister
Sir Wm at Naples (1764 — 1800), who sent the Society of Antiquaries
an account of the early discoveries at Pompeii, and made
important collections of Greek vases and other antiquities, which were ulti-
mately sold to the British Museum (1772) and to Thomas Hope of Deepdene
(i8oi)6. His contemporary, Charles Townley (1737 — iSo.s),
who first visited Italy in 1765, struck up a friendship with
Hamilton at Naples, and afterwards spent four years in Rome, collecting
marbles, bronzes, coins, gems, and vases, which were removed to his house in
London in 1772, received many additions during the next twenty years, and
after his death were bought by the Museum7. The French adventurer,
' D'Hancarville', author of a fanciful work on the Arts of Greece (1785),
had a considerable influence on Townley and on Payne Knight, both of them
members of the Dilettanti Society. It was under the auspices of that Society
that Richard Chandler (1738 — 1810), of Magdalen College,
Oxford, the editor of the Marmora Oxoniensia (i763)8,
pursued those learned researches in Greece and Asia Minor, which were
published in his Antiquities of Ionia, and in his Inscriptions and Travels.
Under the influence of 'D'Hancarville', Richard Payne Knight (1750 —
~ „ 1824), who had visited Sicily in 1777, began in 178* the
Payne Knight
great collection of Greek and Roman bronzes and coins, which
he bequeathed to the British Museum. His ' Analytical Essay on the Greek
Alphabet' (1791) contains much that is fanciful on the subject of the digamma,
while it proposes a system of metrical quantity founded mainly on the practice
1 Stanhope's Life of Pitt, i 8, iii 413, ed. 1879.
2 Wm Wyndham Grenville (1759 — 1834). 3 Quarterly Rev. Ivii 488 f.
4 Life of Wilberforce, i 346; 2 April, 1792.
6 Virgil, Georg. i 250 f.
8 Michaelis, 109 — 112. 7 ib. 96 — 99.
8 Michaelis, 41, 540.
CHAP. XXIV.] PAYNE KNIGHT. GIBBON. 435
of Homer1. His didactic poem on the 'Progress of Civil Society' (1796)
owes its main inspiration to the fifth book of Lucretius. He also wrote the
introduction and text to the 'Specimens of Antient Sculpture in Great Britain'
(1809), mainly selected from his own collection and that of Townley, — a work
that forms a brilliant conclusion to the golden age of classic dilettantism in
England'2.
In 1808 he printed fifty copies of an edition of Homer with notes and
prolegomena3, the earliest work published outside of Germany in which the
views of Heyne and Welfare discussed4. It is reprinted in his later edition
of the Iliad (1820), in which he carries out Bentley's intention of restoring the
digamma to an extent far exceeding the limits which that great scholar would
doubtless have observed. Thus, he spells the Greek name of the Iliad as
FIAFIAS, and introduces the letter ten times in the first three lines of the
poem 5.
Constitutional Antiquities are represented in the latter part of
the eighteenth century by Alexander Adam (1741—
1809), rector of the Edinburgh High School, the
author of a work on Roman Antiquities (1791), which remained
long in use, and was even translated into German6. The greatest
representative of Ancient History in the same age
is Edward Gibbon (1737 — 1794)1 who, after spend-
ing fourteen ' unprofitable ' months at Magdalen College, Oxford,
embarked on an extensive course of reading at Lausanne, in-
cluding the whole of Cicero, and the Latin Classics in general,
from the time of Plautus ' to the decline of the language and
empire of Rome'. Finding it 'scarcely possible for a mind
endowed with any active curiosity to be long conversant with the
Latin Classics without aspiring to know the Greek originals'7, after
regretting that he had not begun with Greek, he worked through
1 Porson's interesting review is quoted in Watson's Parson, 118 — 121.
Payne Knight was the first to detect (in §§ 6, 7) the forgeries in the Greek
Inscriptions of the Abbe Fourmont, and Person accepted his proof as con-
clusive (Monthly Review, 1794); cp. R. C. Christie's Selected Essays, 80 — 85.
2 Michaelis, 119 — 123; cp. Stark, 251.
3 Reprinted in Class. Journ. (1813), and at Leipzig (1816).
4 Cp. Volkmann, Gesch. u. Kritik der Wolfischm Prolegomena, 166 — 172.
•' Dissen (1821), Kl. Schr. 277, describes this text aseine baare litterarischt
Lacker lichkeit, and Volkmann (1874) as eine dildtantische Grillenhaftigkeit
(167). Cp. Hermann (1821), Opusc. vi 73 f.
6 Life by Alex. Henderson, 1810.
7 Autobiography, 41 f, ed. 1869.
28 — 2
436 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVIII.
half the Iliad and a large part of Xenophon and Herodotus.
During his perusal of Livy he made an ingenious correction,
which was at once adopted by Crevier1. Returning to England
in 1758, he laid the foundation of a historical library by spending
£20 on the twenty volumes of the Memoirs of the French
Academy of Inscriptions, a series which, in Gibbon's opinion,
presents many discoveries in the field of ancient literature, and
sometimes, what is almost as valuable, 'une ignorance modeste et
savante'*. In his earliest work, his French Essay on the Study of
Literature, he proposes to prove that 'all the faculties of the mind
may be exercised by the study of ancient literature'3, and he
complacently considers that his own view of ' the patriotic and
political design of the Georgia is happily conceived'4. During
two and a half years of service in the Hampshire militia, he read
the modern Memoires Militaires of Quintus Icilius5, and it is in
this connexion that he writes : — 'The discipline and evolution of
a modern battalion gave me a clearer notion of the phalanx and
the legion; and the captain of the Hampshire grenadiers... has
not been useless to the historian of the Roman Empire'6. He
also studied Homer and 'Longinus'7, while (he adds) 'on every
march, in every journey, Horace was always in my pocket, and
often in my hand'8. After a short stay in Paris he began the
study of the great palaeographical works of Mabillon and
Montfaucon. At Lausanne he spent a year (1763-4) on the
topography of old Rome, the ancient geography of Italy, and the
'science of medals'9. All this was in preparation for his visit to
Italy, in the course of which he formed the design of the great
work of his life. In his first publication in English, the
Critical Observations on the Sixth Book of the Aeneid, published
anonymously in 1770, he argues against the opinion expressed in
Warburton's Divine Legation that, in the sixth Aeneid, Aeneas, 'in
1 otio for odio in xxx 44, 7 ; ' nee esse in vos odio vestro consultum ab
Romanis credatis, nulla magna civitas quiescere potest'; 'nee est cur vos otio
etc.' (Madvig).
2 Autob. 54; cp. 319 n. 5 supra. 3 ib. 55.
4 ib. 58. 8 i.e. C. T. Guischardt (1758).
6 Autob. 61. 7 Journal, 3 and 12 Sept. 1762.
8 Autob. 66. 9 Autob. 76 f.
CHAP. XXIV.] GIBBON. 437
the character of a lawgiver', is represented as having been initiated
in the Eleusinian mysteries. Heyne, who approves of Gibbon's
argument, styles the unknown author as doctus...et elegantissimus
Britannus1. In the fifteen years that elapsed between his Essay
on the Study of Literature (1761) and the publication of the
first volume of the Decline and Fall (1776), he continued to read
the Latin Classics and the original authorities on Roman History
from Dion Cassius to Ammianus Marcellinus, and to study coins
and inscriptions, as well as the great historical collections of
Muratori. After his return to London, and on the death of his
father (1770), he began the composition of his History. The first
impression of the first volume (1776) was exhausted in a few days.
The work had been warmly welcomed by the leading historians of
the day. ' The candour of Dr Robertson embraced his disciple.
A letter from Mr Hume overpaid the labour of ten years '2. On
the publication of the second and third volumes (1781), ending
with the fall of the Western empire, he hesitated for nearly a year
as to continuing the work, returning meanwhile to the reading of
Homer and Plato, and the Greek Historians and Dramatists.
Resuming his study of the age of Justinian, he had nearly finished
his fourth volume, when he left London for Lausanne (1783).
Four years later the composition of the last two volumes was
finished. ' It was at Rome, on the i5th of October, 1764', as he
' sat musing amidst the ruins of the Capitol, while the bare-footed
fryars were singing vespers in the temple of Jupiter, that the idea
of writing the decline and fall of the city first started to ' his
mind3; and 'it was on the. ..night of the 27th of June, 1787',...
that he ' wrote the last lines of the last page, in a summer-house '
in his garden at Lausanne, near the 'covered walk of acacias',
commanding ' a prospect of the country, the lake, and the
mountains'4. The fourth, fifth and sixth volumes of the original
quarto edition were published in 1788. Later historians have
traversed portions of the same vast field, and have treated those
portions with greater fulness and minuter detail ; but the work,
as a whole, has never been superseded. The survey of the
Roman Civil Law in the 44th chapter is well known as a masterly
monograph, while the account of the Revival of Greek Learning
1 ib. 84 f. - ib. 91. 3 ib. 79. 4 il>. 103 f.
438 ENGLAND. [CENT. XVIII.
in Italy which closes the 66th is a splendid and eloquent page in
the History of Classical Scholarship1.
While Gibbon was captain of the South Hampshire militia in
1760-2, the colonel of the same regiment was
Mitford
William Mitford (1744—1827), who had matricu-
lated at Queen's College, Oxford, in 1761. Like Gibbon he was
a Member of Parliament, but for many more years than the
historian of the Roman empire. It was at Gibbon's suggestion
that Mitford embarked on his History of Greece (1784 — 1810).
It was written in a spirited and lively style, but, in a work where
the history of Athens necessarily occupied a prominent place,
there was an obvious disadvantage in the fact that its author was
inspired by an invincible dislike of every form of democracy.
Two years after the History of Greece had been begun by
Mitford, and two years before that of Rome had been completed
by Gibbon, is the date that marks" the birth of the
Sirj™esiam study of Comparative Philology. William Jones
(1746 — 1794), who was educated at Harrow, and
became a Fellow o£ University College, Oxford, and enjoyed the
friendship of Burke and Gibbon and Parr2, studied the grammar
and the poetry of Persia, and in 1779 published an English
translation of the Speeches of Isaeus. In 1783 he was knighted
as Judge of the High Court at Calcutta, and in the following year
he founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal. He had passed from
English and Attic law to the law of India, and from the study of
Indian law to that of Sanskrit. In 1786, after the first glance at
that language, he made the memorable declaration : —
'The Sanscrit language, whatever may be its antiquity, is of a wonderful
structure ; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and
more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger
affinity, both in the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar, than could
have been produced by accident ; so strong that no philologer could examine
the Sanscrit, Greek, and Latin, without believing them to have been sprung
from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists. There is a
similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothic
1 Person's critique on Gibbon is reprinted in Watson's Parson, 85 f ; cp.
Traill in Social England, v 448 f.
2 For his Character of Parr (in the style of Theophrastus), see Parr's
Memoirs, i 478.
CHAP. XXIV.] MITFORD. SIR WILLIAM JONES. 439
and Celtic had the same origin with the Sanscrit. The old Persian may be
added to the same family'1.
In 1789 he pointed out the connexion between Sanskrit and Zend2.
He has thus earned the right (a right far stronger than that of
Giraldus Cambrensis3) to be regarded as the true 'father of
comparative philology '. His 'genius and learning', his 'virtues'
and his ' public services ' are commemorated by a monument in
St Paul's4, while the tablet in University College, Oxford, re-
cognises in him an ' ingenium scientiarum omnium capax'5. As
the far-sighted pioneer in the new field of comparative philology,
he fitly closes a century adorned in England by the names of
those who had triumphantly extended the boundaries of the
ancient empire of classical learning, — -Bentley and Person and
Gibbon.
1 Asiatic Researches, i 422 (1786), Works, iii 34 (1807), duly noticed in
Max Mailer's Lectures, i ifj5, Benfey's Gesch. dcr Sprac/iwissenschaft, 348, and
Thomsen's Sprogvidcnskabens Historic (Copenhagen, 1902), 46.
2 His translations of Kalidasa's Sakuntala and of Manu's Institutes, his
Commentaries on Eastern poetry, and his History of Nadir Shah, are well
known to Oriental scholars.
3 Freeman's Norman Conquest, v 579.
4 Nichols, iii 757. 5 ib. 242 f.
Addendum to p. 417, /. i.
Christopher Pitt's Cambridge contemporary, Vincent Bourne (1695 — 1747),
a Fellow of Trinity and a master at Westminster, published
in 1734 a volume of elegant Latin poems, some of which were Bourne*
translated into English verse by his pupil, Cowper, and by
Charles Lamb. Macaulay, in his Essay on Addison, has coupled the 'noble
alcaics of Gray' with the 'playful elegiacs' of Vincent Bourne, who celebrated
Addison's recovery from illness in a Latin poem worthy of the pen of Addison
himself.
CHAPTER XXV.
THE NETHERLANDS IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
IN the Netherlands the age that corresponds to that of Bentley
in England opens with the name of one .whose pretensions to
scholarship brought him into conflict with the great English critic.
Jean Le Clerc, or Clericus (1657 — 1736), the son of a
Greek Professor at Geneva, was educated at
Geneva, Grenoble and Saumur, and, after a brief
stay in England, settled for the rest of his life in the Nether-
lands. It was in 1683 that he took up his abode in Amsterdam ;
in the following year he was appointed to a Professorship in
the Arminian College, and he continued to reside there for
more than half a century. His published works extended over
the wide domain of theology, philosophy, and scholarship.
The last of these is represented primarily by his Ars Critica, a
work in three volumes, which was thrice reprinted1. He here
deals with the study, interpretation and criticism of the Classics,
ending with an examination of the historic credibility of Quintus
Curtius. It was regarded by J. M. Gesner as a liber quantivis
pretip. In Latin, he produced an edition of the grammarian
Festus, the poets C. Pedo Albinovanus and P. Cornelius Severus
(the reputed author of the Aetna], and, lastly, the whole of Livy.
In Greek, he edited Hesiod, the fragments of Menander and
Philemon (1709), and the Dialogues of Aeschines Socraticus.
He also published Greek scholia on Lucian, collected Latin in-
1 Joannis Clerici Ars Critica, in qua ad studia linguarum Latinae Graecae
et Ilebraicae via munitur; veterumque emendandorum, spuriorum scriptorum
a genuinis dignoscendorum et judicandi de eorum libris ratio traditur (1696 —
1700).
- Isagege, § 135. Cp. Van der Iloeven, De Joanne Clerico (1843), 151-4-
442 THE NETHERLANDS. [CENT. XVIII.
scriptions', and promoted the sale of a new issue of the Lexicon
Philologicum of Matthias Martinius (1623) by contributing a
brief Etymological Dissertation (1701), which agrees with that
Lexicon in the fatal error of deriving Greek from Hebrew. He
had a wide reputation as a reviewer, being the editor and principal
writer of the Bibliotheque successively designated Universelle
(1686-93), CSawfif (1703— 13), and Ancienne et Moderne (1714-27).
In these his chief aim was to give a careful summary of the
contents of the works reviewed, only occasionally indulging in a
'very gentle confutation'2. It was one of these reviews that is
supposed to have led to his memorable feud with Bentley.
Bentley was apparently nettled by the way in which his contributions to
Davies' Tusculan Disputations (1/09) had been noticed by Le Clerc in the
Bibliotheque Choisie*. A few months later, Le Clerc produced an edition of
the fragments of Menander and Philemon. He had collected these from the
Dramatic Excerpts of Grotius, and the Indices of Meursius and Fabricius, and
in the course of his work he had given abundant proof of his ignorance of
Greek metre, even printing passages of prose in lines outwardly resembling
those of verse. Thereupon Bentley immediately wrote out his own corrections
of 323 of the fragments, restoring the metre and exposing the many metrical
mistakes committed by Le Clerc. The MS, under the assumed name of
Phileleiitherus Lipsiensis, was sent to a Dutch scholar at Utrecht, Pieter
Burman, who had a feud with Le Clerc, and was only too glad to publish
the MS. As soon as the work appeared, its authorship was manifest, and,
within three weeks, the first edition of this exposure of the metrical demerits
of Le Clerc was completely exhausted (1710). Jacob Gronovius, who had
a feud with Bentley as well as with Le Clerc, wrote a pamphlet abusing both4;
and Jan Cornells de Pauw of Utrecht, under the name of Philargyrius Canta-
brigiensis, attacked Bentley in a pamphlet which was published with a
lengthy preface by Le Clerc5.
In 1711 Le Clerc printed an apologetic account of his
literary career, concluding with some letters addressed to himself
1 Van der Hoeven, i75f.
2 Life and Writings (1712), 19 ; cp. Hallam, ii 274, 548*.
3 xx (1710) 213 — 227~(the tone, however, is, on the whole, complimentary
and distinctly deferential).
4 Infamia Emendationum in Menandrutn nitper editarum. Cp. Mahly's
Bentley, 128.
6 For fuller details, see Monk's Life of Bentley, i 267 — 280; cp. Bentley 's
Correspondence, 397 — 411 Wordsworth, and Van der Hoeven, De Joanne
Clerico, 80 — 98 (1843) ; also Mahly's Bentley, 129, and Jebb's Benlley, \i$.
CHAP. XXV.] LE CLERC. BURMAN. 443
by Graevius and Spanheim1; and, when Bentley's Horace was
published, in the same year, Le Clerc wrote a review which is
liberal in its tone and reflects credit on its writer2. Though he
has obviously no claims to being a specialist on Greek metre,
he deserves the credit of being a courteous and well-informed
reviewer. He was helpful to Cambridge scholars such as John
Davies, and Wasse and Needham3; and he must be gratefully
remembered as the industrious editor of the ten folio volumes of
the standard edition of Erasmus4.
Pieter Burman (1668 — 1741), Bentley's ally in the feud with
Le Clerc, was a pupil of Graevius at Utrecht and
Burman
of Jacob Gronovius at Leyden. In 1696 he was
appointed professor of History and of 'Eloquence' (i.e. Latin)
at Utrecht, and in 1715 was transferred to the corresponding
Professorship at Leyden, where he passed the remaining twenty-
six years of his life. As an editor he confined himself to the
Latin Classics. Of the poets, he edited Phaedrus, Horace,
Claudian, Ovid, Lucan, and the Poetae Latini Minores, besides
producing a new edition of the Valerius Flaccus of N. Heinsius,
and leaving materials for an edition of Virgil posthumously
published by his nephew. Of the writers of prose, he edited
Petronius, Velleius Paterculus5, Justin, Quintilian, Suetonius. We
also have his Variae Lectiones and Observations Miscellaneae, his
Orationes and Poemata, and his Somm'um, sive Iter in Arcadiam
novam (1710). He owed his interest in the Latin poets, and his
skill in versification, to Broekhuyzen and Francius, and one of
his own poems commemorates the third Jubilee of Leyden
(1725)". He distinguished himself for a time at the bar. As an
editor of Latin poets, he was regarded by Ruhnken as equal to
1 Engl. Transl. 1712.
2 Bibl. Choisie, xxvi (1713) 260 — 279; Monk, i 332.
3 Van der Uneven, 98.
4 On Le Clerc, see his own Life (r7ii) and Parrhasiana (E. T. 1700),
and Van der Iloeven, DC Joanne Clcrico, 299 pp. (1843) ; also L. Miiller, 47 f.
5 Longius a Lipsii laiule abest ultimus Velleii editor, Petrus Burmannus,
praesertim in eo scriptore recensendo, in quo, propter crebras corruptelas, res
omnis ad acumen criticum, quo ilium minus valuisse scinius, rediret (Ruhnken,
Opnsc. 542, ed. 1823).
(i Peerlkamp, De Poetis La/., 489 f.; L. Miiller, 213.
PlETER BURMAN I.
CHAP. XXV.] KUSTER. 445
N. Heinsius in learning, but inferior in acumen and in emendatory
skill '. He had access to the unpublished notes of his predecessor,
but he is careless in his use of them2; he is less widely read in
Greek3; and his editions are overloaded by a mass of ill-digested
variants. As an industrious manufacturer of Variorum Editions
(which were not invented by him, but brought into vogue by his
example), he is naturally held in high esteem by his nephew,
Burman II, and by the other unwearied compilers who follow in
his wake4. In his Horace (1699) be reproduces the marginal
notes of John Bond of Taunton (1600), which in their turn were
mainly borrowed from Lambinus, but in 1712 he fully appre-
ciates the originality of Bentley's edition5. His introductions are
apt to be monotonous, but an exceptional interest attaches to his
preface to Lucan, in which he dwells on the literary characteristics
of the poet, while his preface to Ovid was so libellous that it
could not be printed in the life-time of the editor6. In his in-
troduction to Gruter's Inscriptions he is loud in his praise of the
generous aid afforded to Gruter by Scaliger7. His great powers
of endurance and his laborious patience have led to his being
described as the ' beast of burden ' of classical learning. The
five quarto volumes of his great Sylloge Epistolarum a Fin's
Illustribus Scriptarum are of permanent value in connexion with
the History of Scholarship in the Netherlands8.
In contrast to the distinctively Latin Scholarship of Burman
we have a representative of Greek in the person of
the Westphalian, Ludolf Kiister, or ' Neocorus '
(1670 — 1716). Educated at Berlin and at Frankfurt on the Oder,
he went to Utrecht at the age of twenty-six, and afterwards visited
Paris and Cambridge, having had the good fortune to be in-
1 Elogium Hctnst. 14.
2 MerkeFs Pref. to Ovid's Tristta, n — 16.
3 Harlesii De Vitis Philologormn, i 150 (L. Miiller, 55). Prof. Mayor,
however, tells me that, on Ovid, Ars Am. i 99, spectatum veniunt, veniunt
spectentur ut ipsae, he independently quotes a parallel from Aelian.
4 L. Miiller, 56 f.
6 Bentley's Correspondence, 439.
6 L. Miiller, 57 f. 7 Hallam, ii 29o4 f.
8 Harless, I.e., i 93 — 167; Saxe's Onomasticon, v 466 — 4/7; L. Miiller,
45 f. 54—59-
446 THE NETHERLANDS. [CENT. XVIII.
troduced to Bentley by Graevius. In the scarlet gown of a
Cambridge Doctor he was one of the representatives of that
university at the centenary of Frankfurt1. After a brief tenure
of the office of librarian and professor at Berlin, he returned to
the Netherlands, living mainly at Rotterdam. Towards the end
of his life he left for Paris, where he joined the Roman Church
two years before his death. His graphic and detailed description
of the Abbe Bignon's villa on an island in the Seine near Meulan
is one of the most interesting parts of his correspondence with
Bentley*. In 1696 he wrote a Historia Critica Homeri, which
was incorporated in Wolfs edition nearly a century later. In
1705 he produced an edition of Sui'das in three folio volumes,
published by the Cambridge Press. This was founded on the
editor's collation of three Paris MSS, together with corrections by
Bishop Pearson and other aid supplied by Bentley, and was
completed in the short space of four years3. Bentley offered to
promote a proposed edition of Hesychius, but Kuster was mean-
while engaged on the Lives of Pythagoras, by lamblichus and
Porphyry (1707). This was followed by his comprehensive folio
edition of Aristophanes, including the whole of the Greek scholia,
with a metrical version in a column parallel to the text, and a
collection of all the modern comments at the end of the volume,
including many original notes contributed by Bentley4 (1710). In
the same year he published a reprint of Mill's Greek Testament,
followed by a diatribe against Jacob Gronovius (who had attacked
his Sui'das), and by a treatise on the Greek Middle Verb. Finally,
he began an edition of Hesychius, half of which had been written
out for the press at the time of his death. In 1736 his MS was
handed over to Alberti5.
Greek Grammar occupied the attention of Kuster's short-lived
contemporary Lambert Bos (1670 — 1717), professor
at Franeker, the editor of Thomas Magister (1698)
and the author of a work on Ellipses Graecae (1700), twice
1 Monk's Life of Bentley, i 191 ; Correspondence, 233; Chr. Wordsworth's
Scholae Academicae, 98.
2 Correspondence, 491-4.
3 Monk's Life of Bentley, \ i54f, 190. * ib. i 193-6.
5 ib. i 402-5. Cp. Mahly's Bentley, 125 f; Bursian, i 364-7.
CHAP. XXV.] BOS. DUKER. DRAKENBORCH. 447
reprinted in the nineteenth century. He also produced a folio
volume on the spread of Greek learning by means of the colonies
of Greece (1704).
The Westphalian scholar, Karl Andreas Duker (1670 — 1752),
who ultimately became a professor at Utrecht
Duker
(1713-34), is best known as an editor of Thucy-
dides in two folio volumes, including the unpublished com-
mentary left in MS by the Cambridge scholar, Wasse (1731).
Duker's notes on Florus, and on the Latinity of the Roman
jurists, passed through three editions, while his memoranda on
Livy, Suetonius, Servius and Aristophanes were published in the
works of other editors of those authors. Thus his notes on Livy
were incorporated in the great edition of Arnold
Drakenborch
Drakenborch (1684 — 1748), who studied law at
Utrecht and Leyden, and was professor of History and of
'Eloquence' at Utrecht (1716-48). It was there that he pub-
lished the seven quarto volumes of his Livy (1738-46). This
had been preceded by a treatise De Praefcctis Urbi (which was
twice reprinted), and by an edition of -Silius Italicus1.
His contemporary, Siegbert Ilavercamp (1684 — 1742), is remembered as
the Leyden professor who, in editing the two large volumes of
Havercamp
his Lucretius (1725), failed to see the importance of the two
Leyden Mss, and was singularly careless in reporting their readings, besides
giving proof of his incompetence as a commentator2. His Orosius attained
a second edition, but he did less service by his own recensions of ancient
authors than by publishing the works of his predecessors, e.g. the numismatic
Thesaurus of Andreas Morell (1734), and the Sylloge of tracts on the pro-
nunciation of Greek (1736-40). In 1721 it was probably the baneful influence
of Burman that led to the appointment of Ilavercamp as professor of Greek at
Leyden instead of Hemsterhuys.
The honour of reviving the study of Greek in the Nether-
lands belongs to Tiberius Hemsterhuys (1685 —
Hemsterhuys
1766), who was educated at Gromngen under the
eminent mathematician, John Bernoulli, and at Leyden under
the learned editor of Aelian and of Curtius, Jacob Perizonius.
At Leyden he was entrusted by the Curators with the duty of
1 Portrait in first volume of his Livy ; life in Uhl's ed. of De Praefictis
Urbi.
2 Munro's Lncr. pp. 17 — i9:i.
448
THE NETHERLANDS. [CENT. XVIU.
rearranging the disordered MSS of the public library, and this
recognition of his early promise inspired the general hope that
he would at some future day be appointed to succeed Jacob
Gronovius as professor of Greek. He was hardly nineteen when
he was invited to fill the Professorship of Mathematics and
Philosophy at the Athenaeum of Amsterdam (1704). He there
counted among his pupils D'Orville, the future author of a
standard work on Sicily; and he came under the influence of
Broekhuyzen, the editor of Propertius, and Bergler and Kiister,
the future editors of Aristophanes. He afterwards contributed
to the criticism of both of those authors. In the year before his
arrival in Amsterdam, Lederlin, who had begun to edit Homer
and Pollux, left his publisher in the lurch by abandoning his
editorial undertakings at Amsterdam for a professorship in his
HEMSTERHUYS.
From an engraving by Schellhorn, published by Schumann, Zwickau.
CHAP. XXV.] HEMSTERHUYS. 449
native city of Strassburg. The edition of Homer was transferred
to Bergler. That of Pollux, by the advice of the veteran Graevius,
who died in that year, was assigned to the youthful Hemsterhuys.
Lederlin had already prepared for the press the first seven books, and we
still possess his letter to Bentley asking for his aid in the work1. Hemsterhuys
must have begun the last three before becoming professor at Amsterdam (1704),
for he had already spent two and a half years on the task when he wrote his
first letter to Bentley in July, 1705. At the suggestion of Kiister, he asked
for Bentley's opinion on ten passages in the last two books. Bentley, who
was busy with his Horace when the letter arrived, immediately laid aside his
work, seized his copy of Pollux, and promptly stated his opinion on most
of the passages in a vigorous reply that fills six pages of print2. Two of the
young Dutchman's letters of grateful thanks failed to reach Bentley; the third,
written in the spring of 1708, expressed the writer's regret that the edition
of Pollux, published in 1706, had been printed too soon to allow of Bentley's
suggestions being inserted. He promises to add them, with any further
criticisms, at some future opportunity3. Early in June, Bentley replied in a
letter filling twenty-four pages of print, in which he examines all the Comic
fragments in the tenth book, corrects the original text and the errors of the
editor, and restores the true reading by means of his mastery of Greek metre
and Attic usage. At the beginning of his letter he assures his correspondent
that his corrections occur to him so easily and spontaneously, that he has no
claim to any profusion of thanks for so trifling an effort ; at the end he adds
that he is weary of writing, and that it takes him far longer to set down his
emendations than to make them. He incidentally states that he had bought
the new edition of Pollux as soon as it appeared, and he congratulates the
youthful editor on his industry, learning, judgement, acumen and accuracy;
his only regret is that, in dealing with the quotations from the poets, the
editor had not shown a sufficient knowledge of metre, and this knowledge
he strongly urged him to acquire4. Hemsterhuys had been fully aware of
the importance of these poetical passages, and had spent considerable pains
upon them. Bentley's success in correcting them was the measure of his own
failure. So deep was his distress that he determined to abandon Greek for
ever, and for two months did not dare to open a Greek book. On reflexion,
however, it occurred to him that he had not been justified in comparing a
young scholar like himself with a veteran, who was the prince of critics;
he was soon reconciled to himself and to the literature of Greece, and he
resolved never to attempt the criticism of the Comic poets, until he had
mastered all their metres. He made Bentley his great example, placing
him above all the critics of his time, and never concealing his disapproval
1 Oct. 1702, Correspondence, 198 f.
2 Correspondence, 2i9f. 3 il>. 263 f.
4 il>. 270 — 293.
S. II. 29
450 THE NETHERLANDS. [CENT. XVIII.
of any who enviously depreciated the intellectual grandeur of one whom they
could not possibly rival1.
Two years after completing Pollux, Hemsterhuys edited some
select dialogues of Lucian, with the Tabula of Cebes and moral
maxims from Menander (1708), and a presentation copy was
acknowledged by Bentley as an elegantissimum munus*. In 1720
he undertook an edition of the whole of Lucian. Ten years later
the printing began ; in the next six years, the editor had only
translated and expounded a sixth part of the text, and had thus
filled 525 quarto pages. As the publisher desired to see the
work finished within the limits of his own life-time, he entrusted
its completion to J. F. Reitz, a schoolmaster at Utrecht, -who in
five years completed the remaining five-sixths of the work3.
In connexion with Aristophanes, Hemsterhuys contributed to
Kiister's edition a version of the Birds (1710), besides editing the
Plutus (1744). In the text of an Italian edition of Xenophon
Ephesius, he corrected many errors and restored many mutilated
passages, and his corrections and restorations were largely con-
firmed by the text published from a new MS by D'Orville. He
also contributed notes to the edition of Hesychius by Alberti and
Ruhnken, to Ruhnken's Timaeus, and Ernesti's Callimachus.
His notes on Propertius found their way into the edition by
Burman II, completed by Santen in 1780-4.
Meanwhile, in 1705, he had been promoted from his appoint-
ment at the Athenaeum of Amsterdam to a Professorship at the
university of Harderwyk. When Jacob Gronovius died at Leyden
(1716), it was generally hoped that Hemsterhuys would at once
be appointed to succeed him ; a year passed, and he became a
Professor at Franeker. Those at Leyden, who feared that his
appointment might throw their own merits into the shade4, suc-
ceeded in ultimately securing in 1721 the nomination of Haver-
camp6, who cast a cloud over the university for more than twenty
1 Ruhnken, Elogium Hemsterhusti, 24 — 27.
2 Correspondence, p. 270.
3 Four quarto vols. 1743-6 ; reprinted in ten octavo vols., Biponti, 1793.
4 Ruhnken, Elogium Hemst. 21 ; Burman is suspected by L. Miiller, 74 n.
(cp. Bergman's ed. of the Elogium, p. 315).
8 p. 447 supra.
CHAP. XXV.] HEMSTERHUYS. 45 1
years. At Franeker the most famous pupil of Hemsterhuys was
Valckenaer, but that small university, in its remote and isolated
position near the N.E. corner of the Zuyder Zee, could not
become a new centre for the learning of the Netherlands. At
last, in 1740, two years before the death of Havercamp, Hemster-
huys was called to Leyden, where, for a quarter of a century,
he kept the flag of Greek flying in the foremost of the Dutch
universities. He even rallied around it the sons of other lands.
Among his pupils was J. S. Bernard of Berlin (1718 — 1793), the
learned physician, who was interested in Greek to the end of his
life, but was compelled to allow his edition of Thomas Magister
to be completed and published by Oudendorp (1757). In 1743,
Hemsterhuys was joined by the most famous of his pupils,
Ruhnken, who had been assured at Wittenberg that, if he wanted
to study Greek, his best course was to go to the Netherlands.
In 1766, Hemsterhuys was succeeded as professor of Greek by
his Franeker pupil, Valckenaer ; meanwhile, on the death of
Oudendorp in 1761, the professorship of History and Latin had
been assigned to Ruhnken.
Hemsterhuys had obtained his eminence by specialising in
Greek. In the Netherlands (as in Germany) the professorial
teaching of Greek had been generally attached to the professor-
ship of Oriental Languages, including Hebrew and Arabic. In
contrast to the early Latinists of Holland, with their vast output
of variorum notes, the Greek scholars who succeeded them pro-
duced comparatively little, but the work of a Hemsterhuys was
worth whole bundles of the mechanically manufactured products
of a Burman1.
Hemsterhuys has had the supreme felicity of being immortal-
ised by a laudator eloqucntissiinus. The Elogium delivered in
1768 by his devoted pupil Ruhnken, on resigning the office of
Rector, is one of the Classics in the History of Scholarship. It
presents us with the living picture of the perfect critic.
The sagacity of the true critic is the rare and singular gift of nature. He
must also be endowed with a wide erudition, a keen intellectual faculty, a
vivid imagination, and a capacity for prompt and judicious decision. Meursius
and Spanheim had derived their learning from the fountains of Greek lore,
1 Cp. L. Miiller, 77 f.
29 — 2
452 THE NETHERLANDS. [CENT. XVIII.
but were inferior as critics. The younger Heinsius, and Burman, had spent
all their pains on elaborating the text of the Latin poets, rivalling one another
in learning, but unequal in acumen and in felicity of emendation. The know-
ledge and the natural powers required of a critic were so singularly united in
Hemsterhuys that one felt that Nature had aimed in producing in him the
perfect type. All the world wondered at the singular keenness of his eye-
sight, which resembled that of the lynx or the eagle1; but the keenness of
his mental vision was far more wonderful. His intellectual vigour remained
unimpaired to the eighty-second year of his age, which was also the last year
of his life. It was only his memory that would sometimes fail him, and that
solely if the name of some individual had to be suddenly recalled.
He had entered the university of Groningen at the age of fourteen ; and,
in after life, his face glowed and his eyes flashed with delight, whenever he
recalled the debt that he owed to the mathematical teaching of Bernoulli.
In studying the Greek poets, he followed the order of chronology, and he
recommended his pupils to do the same ; and similarly with the writers in
Greek prose. The familiarity, which he thus acquired with Thucydides,
enabled him to detect the passages in which that historian was imitated by
Polybius, Dionysius, and Plutarch.
He often regretted that mathematics and philosophy were no longer in-
cluded among the studio, humanitatis. Even in criticism and exegesis he owed
much to his mathematical training. He was also an accomplished student of
philosophy. In history, he lamented that modern critics had not resumed
the learned labours of Scaliger ; in his own historical studies, his model was
Polybius. He was interested in ancient art, and urged his pupils to give early
attention to drawing.
He regarded a perfect familiarity with the classical languages, and especially
with Greek, as the portal of all knowledge. Since the Revival of Learning,
'no better Greek scholar had arisen'2; he had even surpassed Casaubon. He
held that Latin was so closely connected with Greek, that to separate Greek
from Latin was like parting the mind from the body. Muretus had not
hesitated to say that those who were ignorant of Greek could not possibly
have a perfect knowledge of Latin3. Hemsterhuys derived from his knowledge
of Greek so much assistance in the interpretation of the Latin poets, that he
sometimes declared that students ignorant of Greek could not appreciate Latin
poets such as Propertius or Horace. Even the gentle Casaubon4 had been
roused to indignation by the saying of Lipsius5 that Greek was an ornament
to a scholar, but not a necessity. Happily that opinion had not prevailed.
Scaliger had founded in Holland the study of Latin combined with Greek, and
that tradition had been maintained by a Grotius, a Heinsius, a Gronovius,
and a Graevius. Subsequently, scholars who had neglected Greek, had once
1 Cp. portrait on p. 448. - p- 40. Cp. Creuzer, /. c., 183.
3 Var. Lect. ii 20. 4 Epf>. 291, 294.
5 Ep. 336, in Burman's Sylloge, i 376.
CHAP. XXV.] J. F. REITZ. WESSELING. 453
more begun to confine themselves to Latin. The need had arisen for another
Scaliger, and that need had been supplied by Hemsterhuys.
His early notes on Lucian had been admired for their terseness and pre-
cision, as contrasted with the loose profusion of a Salmasius. The foundation
for his criticism of any text had been laid in a thorough knowledge of the
author as a whole. In making emendations he had relied partly on his
familiarity with the various contractions used in MSS, but mainly on con-
siderations of sense. He was also masterly as a commentator ; and exemplary
in his relations towards other scholars, suffering even fools gladly. In his
home-life, he was conspicuous for his self-control ; once while he was enter-
taining some visitors for two days at Franeker, he heard of the decease of
a promising son in a distant land, but, like Xenophon on receiving the news
of the death of Gryllus, he would not allow his private sorrows to interfere
with his immediate duty. His knowledge of public affairs was derived from
the study of the history of his country, on which he lectured to his pupils in
the spirit of a Polybius or a Tacitus1.
From Hemsterhuys we turn to the scholar who completed his Lucian.
Johann Friedrich Reitz (1695 — 1778), born at the Castle of Braunfels on
the Lahn, and educated at Siegen and at Wesel on the lower
Rhine, studied at Utrecht, to which he returned after holding
a mastership at Rotterdam. He there became headmaster of the local School,
and ultimately, for thirty years, professor of History and Eloquence in the
University (1748 — 78). His treatise on ambiguous words and phrases (1736),
his edition of Maittaire's Greek Dialects (1/38), and his successful completion,
in 1742, of the great edition of Lucian begun by Hemsterhuys, were all prior
to his appointment as professor. The lexicon to Lucian in the fourth volume
of this edition was the work of his brother, Karl Conrad Reitz (1708 — 1773),
afterwards professor at Ilarderwyk.
Among those who came under the immediate influence of
Hemsterhuys was the Westphalian, Peter Wesseling
(1692 — 1764), who, after completing his early edu-
cation in the schools of his native land, became a student at
Leyden and at Franeker. After holding scholastic appointments
elsewhere, he was for twelve years professor of ' Eloquence ' at
Franeker, and, for twenty-nine, professor of History and Greek
at Utrecht. He is best known as the learned editor of Diodorus
(1746) and Herodotus (1763). In his wide erudition he was the
true pupil of Jacob Gronovius, under whom he had worked at
1 Ruhnken's Elogium Hemsterhusii, ed. 1768, 1789; ed. Frey, Teubner,
1875; annotated ed. Bergman, with Bentley's two Letters, and Wyttenbach's
'Life of Ruhnken,' Leyden, 1824. Cp., in general, L. Miiller, 74 — 82.
454 THE NETHERLANDS. [CENT. XVIII.
Leyden ; but, in systematical and methodical study, he owed
much to Hemsterhuys, having been admitted into his intimate
friendship immediately on his own appointment at Franeker.
From Hemsterhuys he learnt that no erudition, however varied
and copious, was of any real avail without criticism1. His learned
edition of Herodotus owed much to the grammatical and critical
element supplied by Valckenaer, the pupil of Hemsterhuys2.
It could only have been as a boy of eight or nine that Jacques Philippe
D'Orville (1696 — 1751) came under the notice of Hemsterhuys
at Amsterdam (1704). He had originally looked forward to
a mercantile career, but eventually he studied law at Leyden, where he made
the acquaintance of Burman. He travelled from 1723 to 1729; from 1730
to 1742 he was a professor at Amsterdam, where he continued to live for
nine years after resigning his professorship. His ample means and his extensive
travels in early life had enabled him to collect a considerable amount of new
material in the province of scholarship and of archaeology. His earliest work
was a scathing denunciation of the demerits of that arrogant scholar of Utrecht,
Jan Cornelis de Pauw3. This was followed by his edition of Chariton in two
quarto volumes (1750), founded on a bad copy of a MS of that author, and
marked by a want of clearness and precision, and by the intrusion of much
irrelevant matter. This last defect may be ascribed to the influence of Burman4.
The twelve volumes of Miscellaneae Observationes Criticae (1732-51), begun by
Burman, were continued by D'Orville, whose greatest work, that on Sicily,
in two folio volumes, was edited by Burman's nephew in 1762-4.
The last of the great Latinists of the third age of scholarship
in the Netherlands is Franz van Oudendorp (1696 —
Oudendorp
1761), a student of Leyden, who, for the last twenty-
one years of his life, was professor of 'Eloquence' and History at
Leyden. During all that time he was the Latin colleague of
Hemsterhuys, whose influence led to the appointment of Ruhnken
as the successor of Oudendorp. He produced in 1728 a quarto
edition of Lucan, with variorum notes, and with the modern
supplement by May, and this edition is generally preferred to that
of Burman (1740). He also edited Frontinus, Caesar, and Sue-
tonius. His Apuleius was published with a preface by Ruhnken
in 1761; his notes on Cicero's Letters, by Liebmann (1834-9), and
his Epistolae Criticae, by Hand (1850).
1 Ruhnken, El. Hemst. 60 f. " Wyttenbach, Vita Ruhnkenii, 85 f.
3 Critica Vannus in inanes J . C. Pavonis paleas, 1737.
4 L. Muller, 75.
CHAP. XXV.] OUDENDORP. BURMAN II. SCHRADER. 455
On the death of Oudendorp, the normal tradition of Latin
scholarship might have been maintained at Leyden
Burman II
by the appointment of Pieter Burman II, instead
of Ruhnken. Burman II (1714—1778), the nephew of the elder
Burman, was born at Amsterdam, and studied at Leyden. In
1736 he became professor of 'Eloquence ' and History at Franeker.
In 1 742 he was called to the Athenaeum of his native city, where
he continued to teach until near the end of his life. His most
important work was his edition of the Latin Anthology (1759-73).
His Propertius was completed by Santen (1780). His edition of
the Ad Herennium and De Invent io fie was twice reprinted. He
also edited Aristophanes with the notes of Bergler, and Claudian
with those of the elder Burman. He was only in a secondary
sense a pupil of Uuker and Drakenborch; he was primarily a pupil
of the elder Burman, to whom he was superior in his intellectual
attainments, and especially in his knowledge of Greek. He was
devoted to his uncle's memory, and scholars who were silent on
the merits of the elder Burman were subject to the suspicion and
even the vituperation of the nephew1. He has been eulogised
as a stimulating teacher2, and as an excellent Latin poet3.
At Franeker Johannes Schrader (1722-83), a pupil of Bur-
man II, and of Hemsterhuys and Valckenaer, was
professor of ' Eloquence ' and History for the last
thirty-five years of his life. His Musaeus, published at the age
of twenty, and reprinted in the following century, was inspired by
the influence of Hemsterhuys. His Obserrationes and Emenda-
tioncs and his Epistola Critica in Part II of Burman's Latin
Anthology give proof of a skill in emendation not unworthy of
N. Heinsius, combined with a higher degree of judgement. He
exhibits a sound knowledge of metre, and, in the preface to his
Ewcndationes, gives a long list of the metrical blunders of some
notable scholars4. His Latin poems include a spirited set of
1 L. M tiller, 56.
" Santen in Pref. to his cd. of lUirman It's Propertius , and I). J. van
Lennep's Laudatio H. Boschii, viii (il>. 98 n). His feuds with Saxe and Klotz
are recounted by G. C. Harless, De Vitis Philologoruni, i 95 — 234; cp. Saxe,
Onomasticon, vi 533-5 ; Bursian, i 446.
3 Peerlkamp, 512-5. 4 pp. 30 f.
456 THE NETHERLANDS. [CENT. XVIII.
elegiacs written in defence of the university of Franeker (1773)*.
He was an excellent teacher and had many pupils*.
Greek scholarship was meanwhile ably represented by Lode-
wyk K aspar Valckenaer (1715 — 1785), who was born
Valckenaer
at Leeuwarden and was educated there, and also at
Franeker and Leyden. At Franeker he was a pupil of Hemster-
huys, whom he twice succeeded as professor of Greek, first at
Franeker (1741-66), and afterwards at Leyden (1766-85). He
had previously produced an edition of Arnmonius, De Differentia
Adfinium Vocabulorum. As professor at Franeker, he edited
///Wxxii, with scholia (1747), and in the same year brought out
a new edition of Fulvio Orsini's Virgilius illustratus. His
masterly work on Euripides, begun at Franeker in his edition
of the Phoenissae (1755), was continued at Leyden in his Hippo-
fytus, and in his Diatribe on the Fragments (1768). This was
followed by his edition of Theocritus, Bion and Moschus. His
Fragments of Callimachus, and his treatise on the Alexandrian
impostor, the Jew Aristobulus, were published after his death by
Luzac. He was mainly devoted to the study of the Greek poets,
but his familiarity with the Latin poets is proved by his preface
to the Virgilius illustratus. He was also specially familiar with
hellenistic Greek3.
The ' Greek triumvirate ' of the Netherlands comprises the
names of Hemsterhuys, Valckenaer, and Ruhnken.
David Ruhneken, or Ruhkenius, commonly called
Ruhnken (1723-98), was a native of Northern Pomerania, who,
after being a schoolfellow of Kant at Konigsberg, went to study
for two years at Wittenberg under the Latin scholar, J. W. von
Berger, and the historian, J. D. Ritter. He completed his course
at Wittenberg by writing a dissertation on Galla Placidia (1743).
Finding from his professors that an accurate knowledge of Greek
hardly existed except in the Netherlands, he followed the advice
of Ernesti, who urged him not to resort to the teaching of J. M.
Gesner, at Gottingen, but to betake himself to Hemsterhuys at
1 Peerlkamp, 5i8f. 2 L. Miiller, 99 f.
3 Cp. Wyttenbach's Vita Ruhnkenii, 175 — 181 etc. ed. Bergman; J. T.
Bergman's Memoria (Utrecht, 1871); L. Miiller, 82 f; and Wilamowitz, Eur.
Heracles i 2,}!1 f, 'Er libertraf an Wucht der Gelehrsamkeit alle Zeitgenossen '.
CHAP. XXV.] VALCKENAER. RUHNKEN. 457
Leyden. Against the wishes of his parents, he left for the Nether-
lands. He was delighted with the dignity and courtesy with which
he was received by Hemsterhuys1, who thenceforth became his
sole model and example, and whose portrait he afterwards drew
as that of the ideal critic. Ruhnken began with Greek, and read
through all the Greek and Latin Classics in chronological order.
In Greek he used the Greek lexicographers themselves, with
Stephens' Thesaurus, and an interleaved copy of Scapula ; in
Latin, an interleaved Faber. The first-fruits of at least five years
of study were his two Epistolae Criticae, (i) on Homer and Hesiod,
dedicated to Valckenaer (1749), and (2) on Callimachus and
Apollonius Rhodius, dedicated to Ernesti (1751). Meanwhile,
he had begun to help Alberti, who had been led to undertake an
edition of Hesychius, owing to his interest in the ' sacred glosses '.
With a view to qualifying for a professorship in law, he prepared
a dissertation on the Greek Commentators on the Digest (1752).
His next work was his edition of the Platonic Lexicon of Titnaetis,
from a MS (in the Coislin library), a specimen of which had been
printed by Montfaucon. The transcript used by Ruhnken was
made by Jean Capperonnier through the kind offices of Dr Henry
Gaily, Canon of Norwich, whom Ruhnken had met while he
accompanied Alberti to Spa. Its publication, with the learned
notes of Ruhnken, drew the attention of scholars to the literary
interest of Plato. Wyttenbach and Brunck agreed in considering
this volume as at once the briefest and the most learned work that
had been published in connexion with Greek a.
Ruhnken had now been for ten years at Leyden. Ritter,
Berger, and Ernesti were eager that he should become a professor
in Germany, but nothing would induce him to leave the Nether-
lands. He enjoyed taking an occasional private tutorship in or
near Leyden, which would allow of a certain amount of leisure for
travelling and visiting foreign libraries. In 1755 he went for a
year to Paris, where he devoted a large part of his time to making
transcripts and extracts from MSS. In Paris, besides enjoying the
intellectual life of the place, he became acquainted with two
English scholars, Musgrave and Tyrwhitt3, while the circle of his
1 Wyttenbach, Vita Ruhnkenii.
2 1754; Wyttenbach, 59. :! //>. 71.
RUHNKEN.
From a portrait by H. Pothoven (1791), engraved by P. II. Jonxis (1792),
and lithographed by Oehme and Muller (Brunsv. 1827).
CHAP. XXV.] RUHNKEN. 459
French friends included Villoison, Larcher, and Sainte-Croix.
Hemsterhuys, however, advised him not to remain abroad too
long. On his return, he was appointed, in 1757, to assist
Hemsterhuys as Reader in Greek, and, four years later, succeeded
to the Latin Chair vacated by Oudendorp. His inaugural oration
De Doctore Umbratico, interesting in itself as showing by contrast
the professor's own ideal of the true scholar, gave offence to
certain pedants, and especially to certain head-masters, who
assumed that the portrait was meant for themselves. Accordingly,
when their pupils left them for Leyden, they suggested that it was
unnecessary for them to attend the lectures of the Latin professor.
Any foreigner holding a public position in Holland was regarded
with a jealous eye, and Burman II and Schrader may well have
thought that they had a better claim to the Latin Chair. On his
appointment, Ruhnken went once more through the Latin Classics,
and entered with vigour on his three courses of customary lectures,
(i) on Universal History, (2) on Roman Antiquities, and (3) on
' Eloquentia', i.e. the public exposition of a Latin author. In
this last his favourite subjects were Terence, Suetonius, Cicero,
ad Familiares, and Ovid's Heroides^. He was content with a com-
paratively small class, — a class larger, however, than that of
J. F. Granovius, who in the palmy days of Leyden sometimes
had scarcely ten pupils. He declined the Chair vacated by
Gesner at Gottingen, and recommended the appointment of Heyne
(1763). By 1765 he had completed Alberti's Hesychius. The
numerous renderings of extracts from the Greek Orators in
Rutilius Lupus led to his prefixing to his edition of that work an
elaborate Historia Critica Oratorum Graecorum (1768). He also
edited Velleius Paterculus and Cornelius Nepos. While reading
the Greek rhetoricians in connexion with Rutilius Lupus, he
noticed a sudden change of style in the Rhetoric of Apsines, and
thus discovered that the work of Apsines had been interpolated
with passages from another Rhetoric, which a quotation by
Joannes Siceliotes2 led him to identify as that of Cassius
Longinus8. In this connexion he wrote a treatise De Vita et
1 Cp. his Dictata in Ter., Sueton., and Ovid's Hcroides.
2 Rhetores Gr. ed. Walz, vi 119 (cp. v 451, ix p. xxiii).
3 Rhetores Gr. ed. Spengel, i 310, 10 — 15.
460 THE NETHERLANDS. [CENT. XVIII.
Scriptis Longini (1776), which Wyttenbach does not hesitate to
pronounce 'immortal'. 'Hie ejus libellus apud intelligentissimos
judices, triplicis artis, Historiae, Criticae, Eloquentiae, palmam
tulit'1. Shortly afterwards, C. F. Matthaei sent him from Moscow
a transcript of the lately discovered Homeric Hymns to Dionysus
and Demeter, and, within the space of two years, two editions of
the same were published by Ruhnken (1780-2). In 1784 he
began his complete edition of Muretus, whom he regarded as an
admirable model of modern Latin. In the same year he had a
welcome visit from Thomas Burgess, the editor of five Greek
plays and the future bishop of Salisbury2, and, two years later,
he saw much of Spalding, the future editor of Quintilian. Among
the latest works on which he was engaged was an edition of certain
scholia on Plato, with a revision of the Latin lexicon of Scheller.
In 1795 F. A. Wolfs 'Prolegomena to Homer' was dedicated
Davidi Ruhnkenio Principi Criticorum. For the author he had
the highest esteem, and it was with a peculiar pleasure that he
read this work, even when he differed from its conclusions. Three
years afterwards, while his mind was wandering during an illness
that proved fatal, he was heard to murmur broken snatches of
Greek and Latin, till, as he slumbered, 'at last Sleep laid him
with her brother, Death'. Thus, in the land of his adoption, the
German student who had left his home to learn Greek at Leyden,
passed away at the time when a new age of criticism was beginning
to dawn in the land of his fathers.
Ruhnken's portrait was drawn on an ample scale by his
favourite pupil, Wyttenbach, whose Life of his master is practically
a survey of the History of Scholarship during this age. Ruhnken
himself is there described as endowed with every grace of mind
and body, a well-built frame, a dignified bearing, a cheerful
countenance, skill in music and drawing, in riding and leaping,
and in the pursuits of the chase3.
1 Vita, 169 f. 2 p. 431 supra.
3 Vita (L. B. 1799; ed. Bergman, ?'£. 1824; ed. Frotscher, Friberg, 1846).
Opuscula, 2 vols, ed. 2 (1823); Orationes, Dissertations s et Epistolae, W. Friede-
mann, Brims., 1828; Epp. ad Wyttenbach., ed. Mahne (Altona, 1834); Select
Epp. etc. in H. H. Wolf's Edogae Latinae, 140 — 191 (1885). Cp. L. Miiller,
84—88, 101 f; and H. Petrich, in Z.f. Gymn. xxxiv (1880) 81 — in.
CHAP. XXV.] PIERSON. LUZAC. WYTTENBACH. 461
Before turning to Wyttenbach, the pupil and biographer and successor of
Ruhnken, we may briefly notice a few minor scholars, who, in the date of
their birth, fall between the two great scholars already mentioned.
Johann Pierson (1731 — 1759)5 a pupil of Valckenaer and Schrader at
Franeker, and of .Hemsterhuys at Leyden (1751), and for four
brief years Rector of the school at Leeuwarden (1/55-9),
published his Verisitnilia in 1752, and his edition of the lexicon of Moeris
four years later.
Gisbert Koen (1/36—1767), a native of Breda, studied at Franeker and
Leyden. After holding several head-masterships, he became
professor of Greek at Franeker in the last year of his life.
It was during the same year that his edition of Gregorius Corinthius was
published at Leyden.
Laurens van Santen of Amsterdam (1746 — 1798) studied under Burman II
at Leyden, where he became Curator of the university.
Santen
He completed Burman's edition of Propertius and edited
Callimachus' Hymn to Apollo, with Valckenaer's notes. His own edition
of Terentianus Maurus was completed by J. D. van Lennep (1825). His
collections for an edition of Catullus are preserved in the Royal Library at
Berlin. He was in good repute as a Latin poet J.
Jean Luzac (1746 — 1807), tne pupil and the son-in-law of Valckenaer,
studied law at Leyden, practised as a barrister at the Hague,
Luzac
and succeeded Valckenaer as professor of Greek from 1785
to 1/96, and again from 1802 to 1807. I"1 tms 'ast vear> he was one of the
many victims of a fatal explosion of a cargo of gunpowder on board a barge
in Leyden2. Besides editing Valckenaer's Fragments of Callimachus (1799)
and his Diatribe on Aristolnilus (1806), he was prompted doubtless by his
father-in-law's edition of the Hippolytus to include many criticisms on that
play in his Exereitationes Academieae (1792-3). He also contributed to
his pupil Janus Otto Sluiter's Lee ti ones Andocideae (1804). lie appears in
the light of a lawyer rather than a scholar in his Lectiones Atticae, edited
after his death by Sluiter, a professor of Greek and Roman literature at
Deventer, who died in 1815. In the first of the two periods of his pro-
fessorship, Luzac was overshadowed by Ruhnken, and in the second by
Wyttenbach3.
Daniel Wyttenbach (1746 — 1820), who was born at Bern, was
educated at Marburg, and studied for a time at the
Wyttenbach
universities of Marburg and Gottingen. Just as
Ruhnken left Wittenberg and neglected Gottingen, to become a
pupil of Hemsterhuys at Leyden, so Wyttenbach abandoned
Gottingen in 1770 to live at Leyden for one memorable year
1 Peerlkamp, 512-5. Cp. L. Miiller, 177, 186, 214.
'-' Cp. Mahne's IVyttenbach^ 153-9'". 3 ^. Miiller, 92 f.
WYTTENBACH.
From a photograph of the portrait in the Aula of the University of Leyclen.
CHAP. XXV.] WYTTENBACH. 463
under the tuition of Ruhnken. In the next twenty-eight years,
he held professorships at Amsterdam (1771-99), and then returned
to Leyden as Ruhnken's successor for seventeen years (1799 —
1 8 1 6). For the last four years of his life, he withdrew to a country-
house in the neighbourhood. He had lost his sight for some
time before his death in 1820.
His early studies at Gottingen are represented by his Epistola
Critica on passages in Julian, Eunapius, and Aristaenetus (1769)'.
It was addressed to Ruhnken. Wyttenbach had been reading
Xenophon, and was beginning Plato, when a friend, finding that
Ruhnken's edition of the Platonic Lexicon of Timaeus had nothing
to do with the Platonic dialogue of that name, handed over his
copy to Wyttenbach. The latter was soon lost in admiration of its
editor, who thus became to him novae veluti vitae aucior2. Heyne,
who owed his own professorship at Gottingen to the good-will of
Ruhnken, gave Wyttenbach an introduction to the great scholar
of Leyden. On entering that university, Wyttenbach worked
mainly under Ruhnken, but he also attended, and fully appre-
ciated, the lectures of Valckenaer. The first-fruits of the year
at Leyden were his edition of Plutarch, De sera Numinis vindicta
(1772). More than twenty years later this led to his undertaking
a complete edition of Plutarch's Moralia for the Oxford Press.
Six quarto volumes of Greek Text and Latin Translation (1795 —
1806) were followed by two volumes of Animadversions (1800-21)
and completed by an Index in two volumes of more than 1700
pages, published under Gaisford's superintendence in 1830. The
successive instalments of 'copy' were sent to the Press through the
British Minister at the Hague; the first arrived safely in 1794;
in 1798 (when Holland was at war with England) the next was
despatched in a box protected with pitch from the perils of the
sea, and was mislaid at the Hague for two years and a half; during
all this time the editor was anxiously uncertain as to its fate3.
On the death of Ruhnken, Wyttenbach became the most
influential scholar in the Netherlands. His influence was main-
tained and extended by the articles which he wrote for two
1 This Epistola, with notes, on Julian's Eulogy of Constantius, was
reprinted by G. H. Schaefer (1802).
2 Wyttenbach, Vita R. 148. 3 Mahne's Wyttenbach, \\i.-->-.
464 THE NETHERLANDS. [CENT. XVIII.
Classical Reviews in succession : — (i) the Bibliotheca Critica
(1777 — 1809), to which he was the principal contributor; and
(2) the Philomathia (1809-17), written entirely by himself. His
contributions were, however, not unfrequently distinguished
more for the elegance of their Latinity than for precise and
thorough treatment of the work reviewed. Both of these
periodicals give abundant proof of the friendly relations between
scholars in the Netherlands and in England1.
While Wyttenbach was still at Amsterdam, he had proved his
aptitude for attracting promising students, such as Hieronymus
de Bosch (1740 — 1811), the editor of the Greek Anthology,
Nieuwland (1764-94), the author of a treatise on Musonius Rufus,
and D. J. van Lennep (1774—1853), the editor of Hesiod, who,
together with de Bosch, followed him to Leyden. At Leyden his
influence was still greater. His pupils there included Alexander
Basse (d. 1844), and Philip Willem van Heusde (1778 — 1839).
All of them were formed on his own model, and, in their
devotion to Greek Philosophy and to Cicero, became ' miniature
Wyttenbachs'. It was an exception when their work, as in the
case of van Heusde's Specimen Criticum in Platonem, was con-
cerned with emendation and interpretation. Wyttenbach himself,
who began with an unbounded admiration for the critical works
of Ruhnken and Valckenaer, an admiration expressed in the
Epistola Critica of his time at Gottingen, found himself intellectually
further and further removed from them, the nearer he came under
their immediate and personal influence. Thus, his edition of the
Phaedo (1810), which has been far too highly praised, reflects the
influence of Heyne rather than that of Ruhnken. The grammatical
and critical method here gives .place to an aesthetic type of
commentary, full of charm and elegance, but only too apt to
ignore real difficulties, and not always distinguished by clearness
and simplicity of expression. His monographs on leading repre-
sentatives of Greek literature are far less elaborate in their method,
far less rich in their results, than the works of Ruhnken and
Valckenaer on similar subjects. Even his conclusive proof of the
spuriousness of the ' Plutarchic ' treatise, De Educations Puerorutn,
1 Chr. Wordsworth, Scholae Academicae, 93-6.
CHAP. XXV.] WYTTENBACH. 465
is inferior to Valckenaer's masterly exposure of the impostor
Aristobulus.
But his departure from Ruhnken's critical method was less
pronounced than his breach with the old Latin traditions of the
Netherlands. The unanimous voice of his scholarly con-
temporaries assures us that he had little taste for modern Latin
poetry, and, although this is not so grave a crime as it might
have seemed in the eyes of the pupils of Burman II and of
Schrader, Lucian Miiller demurs to the dictum of Peerlkamp,
that Wyttenbach is entitled to the gratitude of the scholars of the
Netherlands for ' suppressing the perverse study of Latin versifica-
tion'. Such gratitude would only be in place, if he had trans-
formed this ' perverse study ' into one that was sane and rational.
This he was neither able nor willing to do, and the 'suppression' of
Latin verse in the Netherlands has been accompanied by a decline
in Latin scholarship. He was more interested in the Greek poets,
but, strange to say, he does not apply that interest to the numerous
poetic passages imbedded in the prose of Plutarch. In fact, he
does not always detect their existence. Nevertheless, a permanent
value attaches to his edition of the Moralia, and to the efforts
aroused by himself and his pupils for the understanding of the
old philosophy, especially that of Plato and the Platonists. He
also helped to oppose the introduction of the modern Kantian
philosophy into Holland1. The highest praise must be assigned
to his Life of Ruhnken, a work of absorbing interest to his scholarly
contemporaries, which still retains its importance as a com-
prehensive picture of the Scholarship of the Netherlands, and not
the Netherlands alone, in the age of Ruhnken. Like Ruhnken
himself, he represents the close of the old order ; he had no
sympathy with the new direction that was being given to classical
studies by Wolf2.
1 L. Miiller, 91 — 96.
2 On Wyttenbach, cp. Mahne's Vita, Ghent, 1823 ; ed. Friedemann (with
Epp. iueditae), Braunschweig, 1825; Sclectae Epp., ed. Kraft (Altona, 1834);
Opuscula (Leyden, 1821) ; Epp. sex incditac (Marburg, 1839) > a'so Pattison's
Casanbon, 423, 439, 449- ; Praecepta philosophise logicae (Halle, 1820).
S. II. 30
466 RETROSPECT. [CENT. XVIII.
Thus far we have surveyed the progress of scholarship during
the eighteenth century in Italy and France, in England and the
Netherlands. We have seen that, in the two Latin nations, the
study of Latin continued to flourish by the side of the study of
archaeology. In Italy, Greek was in a subordinate position,
Corsini's Fasti Attic? being the only important product of Greek
learning, as contrasted with numerous publications connected with
the study of Latin, culminating in the great lexicon of Forcellini2.
In France, the study of Greek was well represented, in the early
part of the century, by Montfaucon's Palaeographia Graeca3, and,
towards its close, by Villoison's Venetian Scholia* — the armoury
from which Wolf drew some of the weapons for his .famous
Prolegomena. In England, Bentley's immortal Dissertation,
originally written to correct an indiscriminate admiration for all
the reputed works of the 'ancients'5, placed the sequence of
ancient literature in a proper historical perspective ; it also set an
effective example of critical method, while it incidentally proved
that, for the discussion of a complicated problem in Greek
literature, the artificial Latin hitherto in fashion was a less
adequate medium than the vigorous use of the mother-tongue6.
Bentley's influence as a Greek scholar had also a direct effect on
Holland, and, through Holland, on Germany. It was owing to
Bentley's encouragement that Hemsterhuys resolved on mastering
the defects in his knowledge of Greek7, and thus ultimately achieved
so great a reputation that Ruhnken left Germany to learn Greek at
Leyden8, just as, in the next generation, Wyttenbach went to learn
Greek from Ruhnken9. Lastly, we may recall the influence exerted
in Germany by Robert Wood's Essay10, which inspired Heyne with
a new interest in Homer, and supplied Wolf with part of the
materials for his Prolegomena. Our survey of the eighteenth
century in Germany is reserved for the first two chapters in the
next volume.
1 P- 379- 2 P- 375- 3 P- 387-
4 P- 397 supra; iii 56, 58 infra. 5 p. 403.
6 Cp. Wilamowitz, in Lexis, Die Reform des hbheren Schulwesens (1902),
i/4-
7 p- 449- 8 P- 456. 9 P- 461-
10 p. 43-2 supra; iii 41, $5 infra.
INDEX
Aberdeen, 249
Academy, French, 290 f; Academy
of Inscriptions, 297 f, 436 ;. Italian
Academies, 380; Florence, 81-89;
Naples, 89 ; Rome, 90-93 ; Venice
(Aldine) 98
Achery, Luc d', 295
Achilles Tatius, ed. pr. (Heidelb.
1601); ed. Salmasius (1640), 309
Achillini, Alessandro, 1 1 1
Acidalius, Valens, 273
Adam, Alexander, 435
Adamantius, 35
'Adams', 'Parson', 415
Addison, 281, 410
Adrian VI, 122, 137
Adrianus, Marcellus Virgilius, 135 n. $
Aegius, Ben., 105
Aeschines, trans, by Bruni, 46 ; ed.
pr. in Rlietores Graeci (Ven. 1513),
104; ed. H. Wolf (Bas. 1572);
Taylor (Camb. 1748-69), 414
Aeschines Socraticus, ed. Le Clerc,
44i
Aeschylus, Laur. MS, 36 f; ed. pr.
6 plays (Ven. 1518), 105; 7 pla)s
(Ven. 1552), 105; with Agam. 323-
1050 (Par. 1557), 105, 138, 176;
ed. Robortelli (1552), 141, 143 ;
Turnebus (1552), 186; Dorat, P. ^.
(1549), 187; Canter (1580), 216;
Stanley (1663), 351 ; Heath (1762),
417 ; Person (1795), 427
Aesop, transl. Valla, 69 ; Milan ed.
(c. 1478), 97, 104 ; transl. by
Faernus (1564), 148; Bentley on,
403-5
Aetna, 441
Agatharchides, 272
Agincourt, J. B. L. G. Seroux d',
393
Agostino, Antonio, 160; 154, 162
Agrippa, (i) Cornelius, 183 ; (2)
Rudolphus, 253; 62, 127, 211, 258
Ailly, Pierre d', 166
Ainsworth, Robert, 415
Alberti, (i) Leo Battista, 33, 61, 82;
(2) Johann, 446, 457, 459
Albinovanus, 441
Alciati, Andrea, 147, 160, 193
Aldrovandi, Ulisse, 154
Aleander, Hieronymus (Girolamo
Aleandro), 169
Alexander, (i) of Aphrodisias 104,
109 f, in; Gaza's transl. of his
Problems, 62 n. ; (2) Alexander VI,
90, 107, 115
Alfonso, the Magnanimous (1383-
1458), king of Aragon and Sicily
(1416-58), and king of Naples
(1442-58), 45, 62, 66, 69, 89
Allatius, Leo (Leone Allacci), 361
Alvarez (Alvarus), Emanuel, 163
Amaduzzi, Giovanni Cristoforo, 384
Amaltheus, Joannes Baptista, 114
Amantius, Bartholomaeus, 260
Ammianus Marcellinus, MS dis-
covered by Poggio, 29 f; ed. pr.
Rome (1474), (2) Augsburg (1533),
103 ; ed. Gelenius, Bas. (1533),
265 ; Valesius (1636), 287
Ammonius (1500, 1503), iO4;Valcke-
naer (1739), 456
Amyot, Jacques, 195 f; 197, 242
Anacreon, ed. pr. (Par. 1554), 1/6;
105
Analecta, Brunck's, 395
Anapaestic system, synaphcia of the,
402
Ancients and moderns, controversy
on the, 403
Ancona, Ciriaco dc' Pizzicolli d' (Cy-
riacus Anconitanus), 39 f
Ancyranum, Mori., 305
Andrews, St, 24 7 f
Andronicus Rhodius, ed. pr. (Augs.
J594). 105
Annius Viterbiensis. Joannes (Gio-
vanni Nanni), 154 n. 3
Anthologia Graeca (i) Planndca, ed.
30—2
468
INDEX.
pr. (Flor. 1494), 79, 97, 104 ; 330 ;
Chalcondyles' MS, 64; trans. Poli-
tian, 85, Grotius, 317 f; (2) Pala-
tina, 285, 361
Anthologia Latino, 35, 454
Antiquite Expliquee (Montfaucon's),
387.
Antonius (i) Liberalis, ed. pr. (Bas.
1568), 105; (2) Panormita (An-
tonio Beccadelli), 89
Anville, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon
d', 391
Apianus (Bennewitz or Bienewitz),
Petrus, 260
Apicius, MS, 35 ; ed. pr. (Milan, 1498),
'03
Apollodorus, Bibliotheca, ed. pr.
(Rome, 1555), 105
Apollonius, (i) grammarian, 270;
(2) lexicographer, 398 ; (3) mathe-
matician, 252; (4) paradoxographer,
ed. pr. (1568), 105 ; (5) poet, A.
Rhodius, Laur. MS, 36 f; ed. pr.
(Flor. 1496), 79, 97, 104; ed. Shaw,
419; Brunck, 395
Apostolius, Michael, 75 f
Appian, 70, 272 ; ed. pr. (R. Stephanus
(Par. 1551), 105, 175
Apsines, 459
Apuleius, ed. pr. (Rome, 1469), 97,
103; ed. Wowerius, 306; Ouden-
dorp, 454; Acidalius on, 273; De
Deo Socratis, ed. Mercier, 210
Aquinas, Thomas, 109 f
Aratus, ed. pr. in Astronomici Veteres
(Ven. 1499), 104; studied by Vic-
torius, 137; ed. Grotius (L. B.
1600) ; Bandini (1765), 379
Archaeology, classical, 38-40; 121,
145' '53 f> i6of, 279 f, 299,
327. 33'. 334. 380-384, 393 f,
43i f. 434
Archimedes, ed. pr. (Bas. 1544), 105;
Latin ed., Barrow, 349
Aretaeus, ed. pr. (Par. 1554), 105
Argyropulos, Joannes, 63 ; 75 f, 83,
221, 257, 274
Ariosto, 156
Aristaenetus, ed. pr. (Ant. 1566),
105; ed. Mercier, 210
Aristides, ed. pr. (Flor. 1517), 105
Aristobulus, 456
Aristophanes, ed. pr., 9 plays (Ven.
1498), 79, 98, 104; Thesm. Lys.
(Flor. 1516 N.S.), 104; ii plays
(Bas. 1532), 105 ; Bentley on, 408 ;
Person on, 429 ; ed. Brunck, 395 ;
Kiister, 446 ; Bergler, 455 ; Hem-
sterhuys (Plu/ns), 450
Aristotle, ed. pr. (Ven. 1495-8), 98,
104; ed. Erasmus (1531). '3';
Casaubon (1590), 208; Sylburg
(1584-7), 270; Hist. Anim. and
Mech. Probl. transl. by Gaza, 62 ;
De Caelo, 165, 274 ; De Gen. et
Corr. transl., 76; Ethics transl.
by Manetti, 45; Oec., Elk., Pol.
by Bruni, 46, 221 ; Eth., Pol.,
Oec., De An., De Caelo, by Argy-
ropulos, 63; Rhet. (1380, Poet.
(n\},Pol.,Eth. (138), ed.Victorius,
137; Eth., Oec., Top., Muretuson,
149 f; Met. transl. by Bessarion,
61 ; paraphr. by Flaminin, 119;
Poet. ed. pr. in Rhet ores • Gracci
(I5l$)' 98, 104, 133; ed. Robortelli,
141, 143; 188, 291, 313, 392, 419;
Fracastoro on, 119; its influence in
Italy, 133-5; definition of tragedy,
348 ; Rhetoric, ed. pr. (in Rhetores
Graeci), 98, 104; Rhet. and Probl.
transl. by Trapezuntius, 63 ; Rhet.
by Sigonius, 143, and Majoragius,
146; Rhet. i, ii transl. by Muretus,
150; Politics, Machiavelli, 89 ; 158,
165; ed. Conring, 368. Mediaeval
study of, 247 ; Petrarch's attitude
towards, 10; Boccaccio's know-
ledge of, 1 5 ; controversy on Aristotle
and Plato, 60, 7 1 , 74 f ; Italian study
of Aristotle, 109-112; Politian on,
84; Ramus on, i33f; the elder
Scaliger on, 135 ; Patrizzi on, 152 f;
Aristotelians of Padua, 10, 109 f;
Aristotelians attacked by Valla, 67;
Aristotelian influence in England,
314; Bacon and Aristotle, 338 f
Aristoxenus, ed. pr. (L. B. 1616), 311 ;
Meibom in MnsiciScriptores(i6;)i),
327.
Arlenius, Arnoldus (Paraxylus), 105,
265 n. i
'Arretinus', 'Joannes', 26
Arrian, Anabasis, transl. by Vergerio,
49 ; Anabasis and Indica, ed. pr.
(Ven. 1535), 105 ; Gerbel (Strassb.
1539) ; H. Stephanus (Par. 1575) ;
J. Gronovius (L. B. 1704); Cyne-
geticus, ed. pr., Holstenius (Par.
1644), 364
Arsilli, Francesco, 120
Arvales, Fratres, 382
Ascham, Roger, 234-6; 231 f, 238,
267 f, 269, 339
INDEX.
469
Ascoli, Enoch d', 33, 35
Asconius, 28, 162
Askew, Anthony, 416
Aspasius on Aristotle, ro
aspirate, Latin and Greek, 84
Astronomici Veteres, ed. pr. (Ven.
1499), 104
Athenaeus, ed. pr. (Ven. 1514), 79,
98, 104; ed. Basil. 1535; Casau-
bon (1597), 209; Schweighauser
(1801-7), 396
Athens, Antiquities of, 432 ; the
Parthenon, 299, 394
Athos MSS, 37
Augsburg MSS, 268, 272, 296
Augustine, De Civ. Dei, ed. pr.
(Subiaco, 1467), 103
Auratus (Dorat), j86 n. 4, 190
Aurelius, Marcus, ed. pr. (Zurich,
1558), 105
Aurispa, Joannes, 34, 36 f
Ausonius, studied by Petrarch, 6 ;
MS discovered by Boccaccio, 13;
ed. pr. (Ven. 1472), 103 ; Politian
on, 84; ed. J. A. Ferrarius (Milan,
1490); Ugoletus (Parma, 1499);
Phil. Junta (Flor. 1519); Auso-
nianarum Lectionum I. it, Scaliger
(1574), 201 ; Variorum ed., Tollius
(Amst. 1671)
Averroes, 109, in
Babrius, 405, 419
Bacon, Francis, 338 f
Baif, Lazare de, 194
Baldini, 134
Balzac (1594-1654), 139, 314, 326
Bandini, Angelo Maria, 379
Banduri, Anselmo, 390
(i) Barbaro, Francesco, 52 ; 26, 30,
33, 83 ; (2) Barbarus, Hermolaus,
83; 34, i [4, 226, 254, 257
Barbosa, Arias, 157, 162
Barclay, John, 341
Barlaam of Seminara, 8, 15
Barnes, Joshua, 357 f; 405
Baronius, Cardinal Caesar, 154, 207
Barrow, Isaac, 350
Baith, Caspar von, 363
Barthelemy, Jean Jacques, 3, 392 f
Bartoli, Pietro Santo, 280, 391
Barzizza, Gasparino da (Gasparinus
Barzizius), 23; 27, 31, 48, 55,
167 f
Basel, Council of, 34 ; Erasmus at,
1 29 ; univ., 262 ; printing presses,
262
Basil, St, 45, 158, 316
Basse, Alexander, 464
Bast, Friedrich Jacob, 397
Bateson, William Henry, 422
Batrachomyomachia, transl. in Latin
verse by Marsuppini, 47 ; ed. (c.
1474), 102 ; (1486), 97, 104
Baudius, Dominicus, 306
Baune, Jacques de la, 292
Baxter, William, 356
Bayer, Francesco I'erez, 162
Beaufort (Cardinal), Henry, 220
Bebel, Heinrich, 261
Beccadelli, Antonio (Antonius Panor-
mita), 89
Beccario, Antonio, 221
Becchi, Gentile de', bp of Arezzo, 64
Beger (Boeger), Lorenz (Daphnaeus
Arcuarius), 368
Bellay, Jean du, 182; Guillaume du,
183; Joachim du, 148 f, 188
Bellenden, William, 422
Bellori, Giovanni Pietro, 279
Bembo, Pietro, 112-115; 118, 121,
123; pupil of Const. Lascaris, 77,
112; 91, 93, in; portrait, 106 ;
his son Bernardo, 282
Bene, Bartolomeo del, 282
Benedictines of Saint-Maur, 389
Beni, Paolo, [35
Bentley, Richard, 401-410; 370;
portrait, 400 (cp. 408) ; ed. Horace,
406, 424, 445; Lucan, 407; Ma-
nilius, 408; Milton, 415 ; Phaedrus,
407, 409; Philemon and Menander,
406, 442 ; Terence, 407. Bentley
on Aesop, 403, 405 ; Aristophanes,
408 ; the digamma, 407 f ; Euripides,
Epp., 404; Greek inscr., 406;
Homer, 407 f, ^if), Journal of Phi-
Id, xiii. 122-163; Lucretius, 407 ;
Malalas, 410 f; Nicander, 407;
Phalaris, £/>/<., 403-5 ; Philostratus,
in Olearius' ed. (1709); Socrates,
Epp., 404; Synaphcia, 402; The-
mistocles, Epp., 404. Bentley on
Barnes, 358 ; Boyle, 404 ; Castel-
vetro, 134; Madame Dacier, 292
n. 2 ; J. F. Gronovius, 321; Jakob
Gronovius, 329; D. Heinsius, 314;
Huet, 292; Pearson, 351; Pope,
4iof; Scaliger, 203, 292; Stanley,
352; Temple, 403; \Vasse, 41 2; the
Vossian MSS, 322 f ; the three Hea-
venly Witnesses, 425. Bentley's
relations to Bui-man, 409, 442 ;
Graevius, 328, 402, 408; Hem-
470
INDEX.
sterhuys, 408, 449 ; R. Johnson,
406; Ker, 406; Kiister, 408, 446;
Le Clerc, 441-3; Spanheim, 402;
327 n. 3. Evelyn and Pepys on
Bentley, 405 ; Pope, 407 f ; Porson,
405, 427; Ruhnken, 402; Tyrwhitt,
405; Valckenaer, 402. J. E. B.
Mayor, Cambridge under Queen
Anne, 135-9, 421-436
Benvenuto on Dante, 13
Berauld, Nicolas, 173 n. 2
Bergler, Stephan, 448 f
Bernard, Johann Stephan, 451
Bern MSS, 192
Bernegger, Matthias, 367
Beroaldo, Filippo, (i) 86 f, 91; (2)
91, 103, 108
Bersuire, Pierre, 165, 194
Bessarion, 61 ; 37, 66, 71, 741", 77f
Beza, Theodorus, 180, i8r, 205
Bibbiena, Cardinal, 156
Biblia Sacra Graeca (1518), 105
Bibliotheca Bibliothecarum (Mont-
faucon's), 387
Bion, Moschus etc., ed. pr. (Ven.
1496 N.S.), 104; Bion, Moschus,
ed. Mekerch (Bruges 1565), 105.
Theocritus, Bion, Moschus, ed.
H. Stephanus (1579); Wakefield
.('795)
Biondo (Blondus), Flavio, 40 f; 32
Bipontinae, editiones, 396 f
Blomfield, Charles James, 429; iii 400
Bobbio, 35
Boccaccio, Giovanni, 11-16; irepj
•yevfa\oyias Deorum, 12, 16 ; De
Montium, Sylvaruin etc. nominibus,
12, 16; De Claris Mnlieribus, 12,
14; De Casibus Virorum II-
lustrium, 12 ; his study of Greek,
12, 15; his allegorical interpreta-
tions of ancient poets, 15; his study
of the Latin poets, i2f, and of
Livy, 13, and Tacitus, 13, 32 f ; his
Latin prose, 12; his relations to
Petrarch, uf; his influence on
Chaucer, 219, and Lydgate, 220
Bodin, Jean, 194
Bodley, Sir Thomas, 335
Boekler, Johann Heinrich, 367
Boethius, De Phil. Cons., ed. pr.
(Savigliano, c. 1470), 103
Boileau, Nicholas, 299
Bois, John, 337
Bois-le-Duc (Hertogenbosch), 127,212
Bologna, printing at, 97
Bond, John (1530-1612), 445
Bongars, Jacques, 192 ; 205
Boninus, Euphrosynus, ed. pr. Xeno-
phon (1516), Aristides (1517), iO4f
Borrichius, Olaus (Olaf Claudii von
Borch), 374
Bos, Lambert, 446
Bosch, Hieronymus (Jerome) de,
318 n. 4, 464
Bossuet, J. B. le, 292, 296
Bouhier (Buherius), Jean, 390
Bourne, Vincent, 439
Boyd, Mark Alexander, 249
Boyle, the Hon. Charles, 404 f
Bracciolini, Poggio (y.v.), 25-34; 38 f
Brant, Sebastian, 256
Brethren of the Common Life, 128,
21 I
Brisson, Barnabe, 193
Britannico, Giovanni, 87
Brixius, Germanus, 173 n. 2
Brodaeus (Brodeau), Jean, 265
Brotier, Gabriel, 394
Broukhusius, Janus (Jan van Broek-
huyzen), 329 f, 443, 448
Browning's Grammarian, 228
Brunck, Richard Fran£ois Philipp,
395 f, 420, 457
Bruni (Aretino) Leonardo, 45-47 ;
18, 19, 22, 27, 3r, 33, 37, 4o, 44,
47, 66, 221
Bruyere, Jean de la, 290
Buchanan, George, 243-6 ; 197, 249,
314, 412 ; portrait, 244
Buda, 275
Budaeus (Guillaume Bude), 170-173;
68, 78, 169, 177, 182, 196, 227;
portrait, 164
Bullock (Bovillus), Henry, 230 f
Buonaccorsi, Filippo, 259, 276
Buonamici, Francesco, on Ar. Poet.,
135
Buonarroti, Philip, 341
Burette, Pierre Jean, 390
Burgess, Thomas, 431, 460
Burke, Edmund, 433
Burman, Pieter, (i) 443-5 ; 409, 442,
447, 452, 454; portrait, 444; (2)
455 5 45°> 459
Burney, Charles, 429; 421
Burton, (i) John, Five Greek plays,
431 ; (2) Robert, Anatomy of
Melancholy, 340
Bury, Richard of, 219
Busbequius(Augher Ghislen Busbec),
3°5.
Busche (Buschius), Hermann von
dem, 261
INDEX.
47'
Busleiden, Jerome, 212
Bussi, Giovanni Andrea de', bp of
Aleria, 54, 97; Joannes Andreas
de Buxis, 103
Butler, Samuel, 422 f; iii 398 f
Byzantine historians, 268, 287, 289
Caesar ; his works studied by Petrarch,
8, and Guarino, 50 ; ed. pr. (Rome,
1469), 97, 103 ; ed. Fra Giocondo
('5 '3). 42; Golding's transl. (1565),
242 ; ed. Jungermann (1606); Grae-
vius (1697), 328; Cellarius (1/05);
Davies (Camb. 1706, 1727), 412;
Clarke (1712), 413; Oudendorp
(1737), 454
Caius, Dr John, 227
Cajetan, Cardinal, 109
Calcagninus, Coelius, 105 ; Celio
Calcagnini, 116
Calderinus, Dom., 103
Callierges, Zacharias, 80, 104, 107, 108
Callimachus, ed. pr. (Flor. 1495), 79,
97, 104; transl. by Politian, 85;
ed. Robortelli (1555), 141 ; Madame
Dacier (1675), 292; Th. Graevius,
Spanheim and Bentley (1697), 327,
402; Ernesti (1761), 450; Bandini
('.764). 379; Valckenaer (1799), 456
Callistus, Andronicus, 37, 75 f, 83
Callixtus III, 71, 90
Calpurnius (and Ausonius), ed. pr.
(Yen. 1472), 103
Calvi, Fabio, 121 f
Calvin, Jean, 116, 182
Calvisius (Kallwitz), Sethus, 203
Calepinus, Ambrosius, 173, 373 f
Cambridge, doctor's degree, symbols
of, 407 ; Erasmus, 129, 230 ; office
of Public Orator instituted, 231 ;
controversy on Greek and Latin
pronunciation, 232-4 ; study of
I atin prose, 422 ; the Cambridge
Platonists, 353 ; Cambridge prin-
ters, Siberch, 227, University
Press, 408, 427
Colleges, 238 f; Christ's, 345, 353 f;
Emmanuel, 357, 415, 421 ; Gon-
ville and Caius, 359 ; Pembroke,
35 r; Queens', 230; St John's,
227, 232, 336, 353,401,414,413,
431 ; Sidney Sussex, 420; Trinity,
338- 349 f. 355, 405, 425
Camerarius, Joachim, 266f; 261, 362
Camers, (i) Guarino, 107 n. 3 ; (2)
Johannes (Giovanni Ricuzzi Vel-
leni of Camerino), 1448-1546, a
Minorite who taught philosophy in
Padua, and died in Venice
Campanus (Giannantonio Campano),
64 n. 2, 72, 103
Cange, Charles du Fresne, Sieur du,
289 ; 287, 295 ; portrait, 288
Canisius, Cardinal Egidius, 122
Canter, (i) Willem, 2i6f; 105, 150,
199, 214; (2) Theodor, Var. Lect.
Antv. 1574
Canterbury, Christ Church, 220, 225
Capella, Martianus, ed. pr. (Vicenza,
1499); Modena, 1500; Vienna,
1516; Bas. 15/7; ed. Grotius
(L. B. 1599), 315
Caper, Flavius, 29
Capo d' Istria, Bart., 104
Capperonnier, Claude, Jean (457),
and Jean Augustin, 389
Car, Nicholas, 339
Caraffa, Cardinal, 115
Carpi, Gk printers of, 98, 104
Carrey, Jacques, 299
Carteromachus (Scipione Fortiguerra),
98, 104, 115
Casaubon, (i) Isaac, 204-210; 105,
i6r, 203 f, 304 f, 307, 335, 337,
352, 362 f, 452 ; on Salmasius,
285 ; portrait, 206 ; (2) Meric,
^ 210, 355
Castelvetro, Lodovico, 134, 141, 188
Castiglione, Baldassare, 93, 113, 114
Cato, the Elder ; Salutati, 1 7 ; Vic-
torius, 137
Catullus, rarely referred to by Pe-
trarch, 6; known to Salutati, 17,
and Guarino, 50; Catullus, Tibullus,
Propertius and Statius, Silvae, ed.
pr. (Ven. 14/2), 84, 103 ; Catullus
imitated by Bern bo, H4f; ed.
Muretus (1554), 150; Scaliger
(1577), 201 ; Passerat (1608), 191;
Isaac Vossius (1624), 322 f; N.
lleinsius on (1742), 325 ; Twining's
transl. of Phaselus, 420
Cavaleriis, Joannes Baptista de, 154
Caylus, Anne Claude Philippe de
Tubieres, Comte de, 390 f
Cebes, 309, 450
Cellarius, Christoph, 369
Celsus, Aurelius Cornelius, ^4, 50,
84 ; ed. pr. (Flor. 1478), 103
Celtes or Celtis (Pickel), Conrad,
259 f, 276
Cenci de' Rustic!, Agapito, 21
Cennini, Bernardo, 97
Censorinus, ed. pr. (place and date
472
INDEX.
unknown), with Latin transl. of
Cebes, Plutarch and Basil, De
Invidia et Odio, and Basil, De
Vita Solitaria ; ed. 2 (Bol. 1497),
with Cebes, Epictetus, Plutarch
and Basil, De Invidia et Odio, etc. ;
ed. Vinetus (Pictav. 1568); Aldus
Manutius (Ven. 1581); Carrio (Par.
1583) ; H. Lindenbrog (Hamb.
1614) etc., 364 ; Havercamp (L. B.
1743)
Cerda, Juan Luigi de la, 162
Cerretti, Luigi, 282
Ceva, Tommaso, 281
Chacon, Pedro and Alfonso, 161
Chalcedon, inscr. from, 406
Chalcidius, 9, 311
Chalcondyles, Demetrius, 64 f, 104,
i ro, 226 ; portrait, 58
Chandler, Richard, 434 ; 432
Chapelain, Jean, 314
Chapman, George, 241 f; 237
Charisius, 35
Chariton, 454
Charles V, 93, 122 ; (2) Charles V of
France, The Wise, i6sf; (3)
Charles VIII of France, 82, 108
Chartres, 32
Chastel, Pierre de, 173 n. 2
Chatham, William Pitt, first Earl of,
433
Chaucer, 219
Cheke, Sir John, 231 f; 236; elec-
trotype of medallion portrait,
ascribed to Cavino of Padua, pre-
sented to St J.ohn's Coll. Library,
1907
Chess, Vida on, 177, 250
Chiabrera, Gabriel, 281 f
Chicheley, Reynold, 222
Chigi, Agostino, 107
Choiseul-Gouffier, Comte de, 394
Chrestien (Christianus), Florent (1541-
1596), tutor and librarian to Henri
IV; ed. 'Empedocles' (1587), 105
Chrislias, Vida's, 1 1 7
Christina, queen, 286, 293, 317, 322 f,
327; iii 339-342
Chronicon Paschale, 289
Chrysostom, 283, 387 ; ed. Savile,
.334. 352
Ciacccnius, Petrusand Alphonsus, 161
Cicero, studied by Petrarch, 4, 6-8 ;
pro Archia and ad Atticum dis-
covered by Petrarch, 7 ; ad
Familiares discovered by Salu-
tati, 1 8 ; studied by Gasparino da
Barzizza, 23 ; pro Cluentio, Roscio
Amerino, Murena (T.$f),pro Cae-
cina, de lege agraria, two speeches
pro Rabirio, pro Roscio comoedo
and in Pisonem, discovered by
Poggio, 30 ; De Or. , Brutus and
Orator discovered at Lodi by
Landriani, 31, 53; Brutus copied
by Biondo, 40
Editiones principes ; De Of. (f.
1465), 103 ; De Off., Paradoxa
([465), 103; De Or. (1465), 97,
103; De Or., Brutus, Orator
(1469), 97, 103; ad Fam. (1467),
103 ; ad Att. (1470), 103 ; Rhe-
toric a (1470), 103 ; Philippics
(1470), 73, 97, 103 ; Orationes
(1471), 103 ; Opera (Milan,
1498-9), 103 ; Rhet. and Brutus
(15140, "8
Editors etc. ; Erasmus, 131 ; Vic-
torius, 137, 139 ; Paulus Manu-
tius, i oof; Nizolius, 146; Orsini,
154; Lambinus, 190; Guilielmus,
273; Graevius, 328; Gruter, 359;
Lagomarsini's collations, 378 ;
Garatoni, 378 ; Olivetus, 390
Ad Fam. , chronology of, 84 ;
Guarino's recension of Speeches,
50 ; palimpsest of Verrine Speeches,
73 ; De Or., Brutus, Or. ed.
Paulus Manutius, 100 ; Paulus
Manutius on pro Archia and ad
Atticum, too. Orator and De
Or. I, Majoragius, 147 ; Phil.,
pro Fonteio, pro Flacco, in
Pisonem, Faernus, 147 ; in Cat.,
Muretus, 1 50 ; post Reditum, 413;
£pp., 454; £pp. ad Brittwn,
413 ; De Inv., Burman II, 455 ;
De Am. and De Sen. transl. into
Gk by Gaza, 62 ; Academica,
J. A. Capperonnier, 389; De Off.
attacked by Calcagnini, 1 16, 147;
Paradoxa by Majoragius, 146 f;
Tusc. Disp. imitated, 82 ; book i,
ed. Muretus, 1 50 ; De Differentiis,
18; Fragments ed. Sigonius, 143;
Consolatio, 144
Ciceronianism, 85, 304 f; Bembo,
U3f; Sadoleto, 116; Longolius,
121 f ; Erasmus on, 177 ; Muretus
on, isof
Cinnamus, 287
Cintio, Giraldi, 134, 135
Ciriaco de' Pizzicolli d' Ancona, Cyri-
acus Anconitanus, 39 f
CORRIGENDUM.
In Index to vol. n, Chrysoloras, now placed after Crusim on p. 473,
should have been placed before Chrysostom on p. 473.
INDEX.
473
Clarke, Samuel, 413 ; 407
Classical curriculum in the school of
Vittorino, 53 ; survey of classical
learning by Wowerius, 306 ; classical
metres in English literature, 237
Classics, influence of the, in Italian
literature, isjf
Claudian, studied by Petrarch, 6 ; ed.
pr. (Vicenza, 1482), 103 ; ed.
Ugoleto (Parma, 1493) ; Joannes
Gamers (Vienna, 1510); Pulmannus
(Ant. 1571), 216; Dempster (1607),
340 ; N. Heinsius (1650), 325 ;
Barth (1650), 363'; Burman (1714),
443; Burman II (1760), 455
Clemanges, Nicolas de, 167
Clemens Alexandrinus, 137, 270
Clement VII, 108, 122, 137, 138;
(2) Clement VIII, 153; (3) Vincent
Clement, 221
Clenardus (Cleynaerts), Nicolaus, 158,
239
Clericus (Jean Le Clerc), 441 f
Cluni, I'oggio at, 25 f
Cluverius (Philipp Kluwer), 313
Cobet, C. G., 416; iii 282 f
Colet, John, 128, 129, 229, 239
Colin, Jean, 194
Colocci, Angelo or Angiolo, 153;
Angelus Collottius, 105
Colonna, Girolamo (Hieronymus Co-
lumna), of Naples, 1534-1586,
Ennii . . fraginenta (Neap. 1590)
Columella, 92 f ; ed. pr. in Scriptores
de Re Rustica (Ven. 1472), 103
Coltithus, 379
Combe, Charles, M.D., 424
Comitia, De Grouchy on, 144
Commelin, Jerome, 158
Comparative Philology, birth of, 438
Complutensian Polyglott, 105, 157
Conring, Hermann, 368
Constance, Council of, 19, 25, 49
' Constantine', ' Donation of, 66-68
Constantinople, fall of, 73, 74
Constantinus Porphyrogenitus, 161,
272
Conti, Maria Antonio, 147
Contoblacas, Andronicus, 256
Cordier (Corderius), Maturin, 173
Corfu MSS, 272
Corippus, 340
Corneille, 291, 341
Corsini, Odoardo, 379
Cortesi, Paolo, 85; Cortesius, 120
Corvey, 33, 36
Coryat on Latin pronunciation, 233
Coryciana, 120, n. 5
Cowley, Abraham, 349
Cowper, William, 439
Crashaw, Richard, 281
Cratander, Andreas (1532), 105, 262
Creech, Thomas, 356
Crete, immigrants from, 98
Crevier, Jean Baptiste Louis, 436
Crinitus, Petrus (Pietro Crinito), 154
n- 3
Critica, Ars, of Le Clerc, 441
Criticism, Art of textual, Robortelli,
i4if
Croke (Crocus), Richard, 231, 265 f
Croll, George Christian, 397
Cruquius (Jacob de Crusque), 2 [7
Crusius, Martin, 270
Chrysoloras, Manuel, 19-21, 44 f,
49 f» 55> 97. I29' 22of
Cudworth, Ralph, 354
Cujas (Cujacius), Jacques, 193 ; 192,
194, 201
Cunningham, Alexander, 406
Curtius, (i) Marcus, Sadoleto's poem
on, 116; (2) Quintus, studied by
Petrarch, 8 ; ed. pr. (Rome or Ven. ,
c. 1471), 102, 103; 93; ed. Eras-
mus (1518 etc.); Du Perron on,
198 ; Acidalius on (1594), 273 ;
Freinsheim (1640), 367; Loccenius,
(1637); Cellarius (1688); Snaken-
burg (L. B. 1724)
Cusanus, Nicolaus, 34
Cuspinianus (Spieshammer), Johann,
260
Cuypers (Cuperus), Gisbert, 331
' Cyril and Philoxenus ', 287, 289
Dacier, (i) Andre, 291 f ; (2) his wife
Anna (Lefebvre), 139, 291 f
Dalberg, Johann von, bp of Worms,
254. 259
Dalecampius, Jacques Dalechamps
(1513-1588), Latin transl. of Athe-
naeus (1583) ; ed. Plin. N. H.
(1587); Seneca, Phil, et Rhet.
(1627)
Daniel, Pierre, 191 f
Daniello, Bernardo, 133, 135
Danes, Pierre, 181, 195
Dante, Boccaccio on, 14; Landino
on, 82
Dares, 292 ; cd. pr. (Col. 1470) ; ed.
Mercier (1618); Anne Dacier (1680),
292 ; Obrecht (Strassb. 1691)
Darmarius, 161, 205
Davies (Davisius), John, 412; 406,
474
INDEX.
442 ; J. E. B. Mayor, Cambridge
under Queen Anne, 450-6
Dawes, Richard, 415/5 427, 431
Dazzi, Andrea, 135 n. 5
Decembrio, (i) Angelo, 50; (2) Pier(o)
Candido, 70, 221 ; (3) Uberto, 70
Delfini, Gentile, 153
Delos, inscr. from, 406
Delphin Classics, the, 292
Delrio (Del 'Rio), Martin Anton,
217; 203
Demetrius Cydonius, 19
Demetrius, De Elocutione, cd. fir. in
Rhetores Graeci (Yen. 1513), 104;
ed. Victorias (1562), 137
Demosthenes, Chrysoloras on, 21 ;
MS, 268 ; transl. by Bruni, 46, 69,
and Valla, 69 ; ed. pr. (Ven. 1 504),
98, 104; ed. Hervagius (Bas. 1532,
1547); Feliciano (Ven. 1543); Guil-
laume Morel, Lambinus, Benena-
tus (Par. 1570) ; H. Wolf (Bas.
1572), 268; Taylor (1748-57), 414;
De Pace, ed. Downes, 337 ; Olyn-
thiacs, transl by Wilson, 236
Dempster, Thomas, 340
Despauterius, Johannes (Jan van
Pauteren), 212
Devarius, Matthaeus, 78, 105
Deventer, 127, 211, 253, 331
De-Vit's ed. of Forcellini, 376 f
D'Ewes, Sir Simonds, 336 f
' D'Hancarville ', or Dancarville,
P. F. H., 434
Dictys Cretensis, ed. /;-.? (Col. 14/0);
(Milan, 1477), 103 ; ed. Mercier
(Par. 1618); Anne Dacier (1680),
292 ; Perizonius (1702), 331
Didymus, Homerica, ed. pr. (1517),
i°5; ('54i)» 267
Digamma, 407^, 413, 434
Dilettanti Society, 431
Diodorus Siculus, i-v, transl. by
Poggio (1472), 38, 66; Filelfo's MS,
56; ed. pr. xvi-xx (Bas. 1539); i-xx,
H. Stephanus(Gen. 1559), 105, 175;
Rhodomann (1604), 271 ; Wesseling
(Amst. 1746, Bipont. 1793), 453
Diogenes Laertius, transl. by T raver-
sari (ed. 1475 etc.), 44 ;*/./;-.( 1533),
105; H. Stephanus (Par. 1570);
Casaubon (1583, 1594), 208 ; Tom-
maso Aldobrandini (Rom. 1594);
J. Pearson (Lond. 1664), 351 ; M.
Meibomius (Amst. 1692), 327 ;
P. D. Longolius (1739, 1759);
Pierre Gassendi on book x, Lugd.
1649, 1675^) ; I. Bossius (Rom.
1788)
Diogenianus, Zenobius and Suidas,
proverbs, ed. pr. (Ant. 1612), 305
Dion Cassius, Latin transl. by Niccolo
Leoniceno (Ven. 1526); ed. pr. lib.
36-58, R. Stephanus (Par. 1548),
IO5> '73 > H. Stephanus, with Latin
transl. by Xylander (Gen. 1591);
Leunclavius, with epitome of lib.
60-80 by Xiphilinus ( Frank f. 1592,
Hanau, 1606)
Dion Chrysostom, ed. pr. (Ven. 1551),
105; F. Morel (Par. 1604, 1623)
Dionysius, (i) the Areopagite, 203 ;
(2) Dionysius of Halicarnassus, ed.
pr., R. Stephanus (Par. 1546), 105,
1 73 ; On Isaeus and Dinarchus, ed.
Victorius (1581), 137; Agostino's
fragments, 161 ; ed. Sylburg (1586,
1691), 270; Hudson (Oxon 1714);
(3) Periegetes, ed. pr. (Ferrara,
1512), 104; Aldus Manutius, with
Pindar etc. (1513); H. Stephanus,
in Poetae Gr. Principes (Par. 1560),
Edward Thwaites (Oxon. 1697)
Diophantus, Latin transl. ed. Xylander
(1575); ed.pr. (Par. 1621), 105; ed.
Fermat (Toulouse, 1670)
Dioscorides, transl. by Herm. Bar-
baras, 83; ed.pr. (Ven. 1499), IO4!
J. A. Saracenus (Frankf. 1598)
Diplomatica, De Re, Mabillon, 295
Dlugosz, Johannes, 276
Dobree, Peter Paul, 429 ; iii 399 ;
279, 286, 402
Dodwell, Henry, 357
Dolet, Etienne, 178-181 ; 130, i94f
Donati, Alessandro, 279
Dondi, 38
Doneau (Donellus), 193
Doni, Giovanni Battista, 279
Dorat (Auratus), Jean, i86f; 149 f,
195, 199, 352; portrait, 187
Dousa, Janus, and his sons, Janus and
Franciscus, 301
Downes (Dunaeus), Andrew, 336 f
Dracontius, 35
Drakenborch, Arnold, 447
Drant, Thomas, 241
Drummond of Hawthornden, 249
Dryden's Virgil etc., 356
Du Cange, Charles du Fresne, Sieur,
289; 287, 295; portrait, 288
Due, Fronton du, 283
Dlirer, Albrecht, i3of, 253
Duilius, 161
INDEX.
475
Duker, Karl Andreas, 447
Duport, James, 349 f
Eck, Johann, 258
Editiones principes, 97, 100, 102-5,
of Latin Authors, 103, of Greek
Authors, 104-5. *73- '75
Education, Renaissance ; Vergerio,
48 f; Guarino, 49-52; Vittorino,
53-55 5 Aeneas Sylvius, 72; Eras-
mus, 130; Vives, 2141"; Ascham,
235 ; Milton, 346 f
Einsiedeln, 29, 38
Elegantiae, Valla's, 68 f, 128
Eleusinian Mysteries, Meursius on
the, 3[r, 417
Elmsley, Peter, 395, 414; iii 394
Elzeviers, the, 331 f
Embser, J. V., 397
' Empedocles ', Sphaera, ed. pr. (Par.
1587), 105
England, 1370-1600, 219-250; 1600-
17°°, 333-358; 1700-1800, 401-
439; visited by Chrysoloras, 20;
Poggio, 32, 220; Aeneas Sylvius,
220; Erasmus, i28f; Casaubon,
207 f ; Isaac Vossius, 322 f; Kiister,
445 f ; England and the Netherlands,
i f, 409 ; Colleges and Schools, 238 f
English translations of the Classics,
, 239-243
Ennius, in Fragm. Vet. Poetarum
Lat. R. and H. Stephanus (Par.
1564); Ennius, Fragm., ed. Hieron.
Columna (Neap. 1590; Amst.
1707); Paulus Merula (1595), 306;
Fragm. Trag. in Delrio's Syntagma
(Ant. 1593; Par. 1607, 1619),
and in Scriverius, Collectanea vet.
Tragicorum (L. B. 1620)
Epictetus, trans., 66; Epictetus and
Simplicius, ed.pr. (Ven. 1528), 105 ;
ed. Schweighauser (1798 f), 396
Episcopius, Nicolaus, 262; 105 (1533)
Epistolae (i) Graecae, ed. pr., [04;
( 2 ) Obscurer ii m Vit 'orit »i, 257;
(3) Phalaridis, 403, Euripidis,
Sofra/ts, Themistoclis, 404
Epitaphs, i ir, 115, 139, 208, 247,
422
Erasmus, Desiderius, 127-132; in
Italy, 91, 98, 128; Ciceronian us,
129; 122, 177, 339; Dialogus de
Pronuntiatione, 232 ; on Education,
130; Epitome of Valla's Elegantiae,
69 n. i ; Testamentum Novitm,
104; on Musurus, 79 n. 8; at-
tacked by Robortelli, 140; and by
the elder Scaliger, 177 ; Letter to
Sadoleto, 123; portraits, 126, 132;
21, 65, 69, 71, 99, 1 16, 157, 169,
17 if, 181 f, 212, 228f, 253, 257^
262 f, 425 ; cp. Bywater, The Eras-
mi an Pronunciation of Greek, and
its Precursors (Oxford, 1908)
Erfurt, univ., 257 f, 262
Ernesti, Johann August, 418, 456
Erskine (of Dun), John, 247
Escurial, 161 f ; 152
Estienne (Stephanus), (i) Robert,
173-5. 374; portrait, 174; (2)
Henri, 175-7 ; 171, 205, 270, 334 ;
(3) Charles, 194
Etaples, Lefevre d', 198
1 Etymologicum Magnum'1 (Ven. 1499),
79 f, 104
Euclid, Latin transl. ed. pr. Ven.
1482 ; Vicenza, 1491 ; Ven. 1505,
1509; H. Stephanus (Par. 1516);
ed. Barrow, 350 ; Greek text, ed.
pr. Grynaeus (Bas. 1533) ; Briggs
(Lond. 1620) ; David Gregory
(Oxon. 1703)
Eugenius IV, 46
Euripides, four plays, ed. pr. (Flor.
c. 1495), 79, 97, 104; eighteen plays,
ed.pr. (Ven. 1503), 98, 104; Electra,
ed. pr. (1545), 138; ed. Barnes,
358; Markland, Suppl., Iph. Aul.,
I ph. Taur., 413; Musgrave, 418 f;
Person, 427, 429; Joddrell on Ion,
Bacchae, Alcestis, 419 ; Valckenaer
on Phoen., Hipp , Fragm., 456 ;
Italian transl., 155; Danae?, 271;
'Letters', 404; Euripides ranked
next to Homer by Petrarch, 10
Eusebius, (i) Praeparatio and Demon-
stratio Evangelica, ed. pr. R.
Stephanus (Par. 1544-6), 173 ; with
Latin transl. by Viger (1628, 1688);
(2) Eccl. Hist. ed. pr. R. Stephanus
(Par. 1549; 1612); Valesius (1659,
1668); W. Reading (Camb., 1720;
Turin, 1746-8); (3) Chronicon, ed.
Scaliger (L.B. 1606 ; Amst. 1658)
Eustathius, ed. pr. (Rome, 1542-50),
, 78, 105
Eustratius of Nicaea, 10
Eutropius, ed. pr. (Rome, 1471), 103 ;
ed. Egnatius (Ven. 1516); Schon-
hovius (Bas. 1546, 1562); Vinetus
(Pictav. 1554) ; Sylburg in Script,
hist. Rom. (Erankf. 1588) ; P.
Merula (L.B. 1592); Hearne (Oxon.
476
INDEX.
1703); Havercamp (L. B. 1729);
Gruner (Coburg, 1752, 1768);
Verheyk (L. B. 1762, 1793)
Eutyches, 29
Evelyn, John, 355; 322 f, 343, 355,
356, 4°5- 4io
' Evening of life', 'the', 318
Exeter, 417
experimentum in anima vili, 149
Exter, Friedrich Christian, 397
Faber, (i) Basilius, 269, 374, 457 ;
(2) Tanaquil (Tanneguy Lefebvre),
291, 321
Fabretti, Rafaello, 280
Fabricius (i) Georg (1516-1571), 268 ;
(2) Franz (1525-1573), 268; (3)
Johann Albert (1668-1736), 366
Facciolati, Jacopo, 374 f ; 146, 378
Faernus (Gabrielle Faerno), 147, 189
Falkland, Lucius Gary, Viscount, 352
Farnese, Cardinal Alessandro, 120,
153
Fasti Capitolini, or Fasti Consu lares,
discovered, 153; ed. Sigonius, 143;
ed. Robortelli, 141 f; Panvinio,
145; 384; F. Maffeiani, 101
Fava, Niccolo, 109
Fazio (Facius), Bartolommeo, 120
Fea, Carlo Domenico Francesco
Ignazio, 384; iii 219, 244
Felix Felicianus of Verona, 41 f
Ferrandus of Brescia, 102 f
Ferrara, 49 f, 59, 156, 223
Ferratius (Marco Antonio Ferracci),
378
Festus, Sextus Pompeius (i.e. the
epitome by Paulus Diaconus) dis-
covered at St Gallen, 29 ; studied
by Politian, 84, and Pomponius
Laetus, 93 ; printed at Milan
(1471) and Venice (1478) ; Nonius
Marcellus, Festus, Paulus, Varro,
ed. J. B. Pius and Conagus, Milan,
1510 (Paris, 1511, 1519; Ven.
I5'3); ed. Perotti, 71; Antonio
Agostino(Ven. 1559 0> I^°> Scaliger
(1575), 201 ; Orsini (Rom. 1581),
154; Dacier (Par. 1681), 291 ; Le
Clerc (1699), 441
Ficino, Marsilio (Marsilius Ficinus),
60, 75, 81 f, 83, 91, 105, 275, 380;
portrait, 58
Ficoroni, Francesco de', 380
Filelfo (Philelphus), Francesco, 55-
57 > 37 f. 46, 75. 96
Fisher, John, bp of Rochester, 1 29, 230
Flaminio, Marcantonio, 1 19 f
Flemming, (i) Abraham, 240; (2)
Robert, dean of Lincoln, 51
Fleury MSS, 192
Florence, Academy of, 81-89; 60;
Bruni on, 47; Council of, 59-61;
48; Early Medicean Age in, 43 f;
Libraries, 28, 36 f, 43, 56, 95, 108,
137; Printers, 97; Santa Croce,
96; Villa Paradisoand San Spirito,
r?
Florez, Enrique, 162
Florus, studied by Petrarch, 8; ed.
pr. (Par. 1471), 103, 168 ; ed.
Beroaldo (1505); Joannes Gamers
(1518); Elie Vinet (Pictav. 1554
etc.) ; Jo. Stadius (Ant. 1567 etc.) ;
Gruter (Heid. 1597) ; Gruter and
Salmasius(Heid. 1609); Freinsheim
(Strassb. 1632 etc.), 367; Graevius
(Utr. 1680); Duker (L. B. 1722
etc.)
Foggini, Pier Francesco, 379
Folard, Jean Charles, Chevalier de,
389
Fontenelle, Bern, le Bovier de, 403
Forcellini, Aegidio, 374-7 ; portrait,
377
Fortunatianus, 35
Foscolo, Ugo, 282
Fourmont, Michel, 390
Fox (i) Richard, bp of Winchester,
128; (2) Charles James Fox, 430,
433
Fracastoro, Girolamo, n8f; 135
France; 1360-1600, 165-210; 1600-
1700, 283-299 ; 1700-1800, 385-
398 ; the French period of Scholar-
ship, i ; introduction of printing,
167; Greek in, 168; literary
criticism in, 188; College de France,
172, 181
Francesco da Bologna, 99
Francis I, 78, 172, 181, 194 f
Francius, Petrus (Peter de Fransz),
33°, 443
Franeker, univ., 451, 456
Frankfurt on the Oder, 445 f
Free (Phrea), John, 51, 76, 223
Freinsheim, Johannes Caspar, 367
Freising MSS, 267
French, Greek words in, 165 ; French
translations of the Classics, 165,
180, 188, 194, 196, 198
Freret, Nicolas, 390
Freyburger, Gering, and Crantz,
167; 103 (1471)
INDEX.
477
Froben, (i) Johannes, 103, 104 (1516-
20), 262 f; (2) Hieronymus, 105
(1544), 262 f
Frontinus, studied by Petrarch, 8 ;
MS, 34 ; De aqttaeductibus, ed. pr.
(Rome, c. 1486), 103 ; R. Fabretti's
dissertationes tres (Rom. 1680)
reprinted with text in Graevius,
Thesaurus ; ed. Polenus (Patav.
1722) ; Strategeinaticon libri iv,
ed. pr. (Rome, 1487), 103 ; in
Veteres de Re Militari Script ores,
ed. Scriverius (L.B. 1607); Ouden-
dorp (1731, 1779), 454; Opera, ed.
Keuchen (Amst. 1661)
Fugger, Jakob, 268 f ; Raymund, 260
Fulda, MS of Ammianus Marcellinus,
3°
Fulvio, Andrea, 121
Gaetano da Thiene, 109
Gaisford, Thomas, 429; iii 395 f;
122, 279; portrait, 396
Galbiate, Giorgio, 35
Gale, (i) Theophilus, (2) Thomas,
354 (cp. J. E. B. Mayor, Cambridge
under Queen Anne, 448-450)
Galen, Latin transl. Ven. 1490 and
Ven. 1541 etc. ; Froben, Bas.
1542, 1549, and, with prolegomena
by Conrad Gesner, 1561 ; (Ven.
1562); Greek text, ed. pr. (Ven.
1525), 105 ; ed. Camerarius etc.
(Bas. 1538); Rene Chartier (Par.
1639-79) ; De Sanitate Tucnda,
Methodus Medendi, De Tempera-
menfisetc,, Latin transl. by Linacre
(1517-24), 227
Gallen, Poggio at St, 25-30
Gaily, Henry, 457
Garamond, Claude, 175
Garatoni, Gasparo, 378
Garda, Lago cli, antiquarian excur-
sion on, 41
Gardiner, Stephen, bp of Winchester,
^232
Gascoigne, George, 239
Gasparino da Barzizza (Gasparinus
Barzizius), 23; 27, 31, 48, 55, i67f
Gataker, Thomas, 34 if
Gaza, Theodorus, 62 ; 54, 56, 66,
74 f, 129, 131, 253
Gelenius (Siegmund Ghelen), 263
Gellius, Aulus, ed. pr. (Rome, 1469),
62, 97, 103; ed. H. Stephanus
and L. Carrion (Paris, 1585) ;
Lambecius, Lticubrationes (1647),
365; ed. J. F. Gronovius (1651,
1665) ; Variorum (L. B. 1 666, 1 687) ;
Variorum, ed. Jakob Gronovius
(L. B. 1706, Leipz. 1762)
Gembloux, MS of Manilius, 29
Gemistos Plethon, Georgios, 60 f
Gennadios, patriarch of Constanti-
nople, 6 1
German humanists, three schools of,
258; Germans in Italy, 123
Germanicus, Aratea ; Salutati, 1 7 ;
Bon. 1474; Ven. 1488, 1491; ed.
Grotius (L. B. 1600)
Germany ; 1350-1616, 251-273; 1600-
1700, 359-370 ; the German period
of Scholarship, 2
Gerson, Jean Charlier de, 166
Gesner, (i) Conrad, 269 ; 105, 265
n. i ; (2) Johann Matthias, 413
Ghirlandaio, fresco by, 58, 64 n. 6
Gibbon, 435-8 ; 427, 438
Giocondo (Jucundus, Joyatx), Fra
Giovanni del, 35, 42, 121
Giovanni di Conversino da Ravenna,
and Giovanni Malpaghini, 22
Giovio, Paolo (Paulus Jovius), 120;
89. 93, 123
Giphanius (Hubert van Giflen), 190,
362
Giraldi, Lilio (Giglio Gregorio), 120;
116, 118, 123
Glareanus (Heinrich Loriti, von
Glarus), 263
Glasgow, Univ., 247 f
Gnomagyricus, liber, 1 70
Goclenius (Conrad Gockelen), 215
Godefroy, (i) Denys (Dionysius
Gothofredus), 193 f; (2) Jacques,
193 f
Goethe on England, 432
Golding, Arthur, 242 ; 240
Gori, Antonio Francesco, 279, 380
Gourmont, Gilles de, 169 f
Graeca, Antkologia ([494), 104 ;
Epistolae Graecae (1499), 104 ;
Orationes Rhelorum Graecorum
(1513), 104; Palaeographia, 390;
Gracca, Montfaucon's, 387 ; Poetae
Graeci Principes (1566), 105 ;
Rhetores Graeci (1508-9), 104;
Scriptores Grammatici Graeci
(1496), 104, 108, n. i
Graevius (Johann Georg Graeve, or
Greffe), 327 f; 1^9, 161, 311, 402,
408 f
Grammar, Greek, Chrysoloras, 62,
97, 129 ; Gaza, 62 ; Const. Lascaris,
Hi 97 > (-) Latin, Leonicenus, 54 ;
Perotti, 71; Linacre, 227
478
INDEX.
Grammarians, ancient and mediaeval,
criticised by Valla, 68
Grammatici Graeci, Scriptores (1496),
104, 1 08 n. i ; Grammatici Latini,
ed. Putschius, 313
Granville, John Cartaret, Earl of,
433
Gratius, Ortwin, 257
Grattius (or Gratius) Faliscus ; his
Cynegcticon discovered by San-
nazaro, 35 ; ed. pr. Aldus Manutius,
with Ovid's Halieutica and Neme-
sianus (Ven. Febr. 1534) ; (Augsb.
Jul. 1534); in Burman's Poetae
Latini Minor es (L. B. 1731) ; text,
with Engl. transl. by Chr. Wase
(Lond. 1654)
Gravius, Barthelemy, 213
Gray, Thomas, 417
Gray (or Grey), William, bp of Ely,
51, 71, 222
Greek, decline of its study in Italy,
49, 143; its educational importance,
51, 116, 452; English interest in,
223 ; Erasmus on, 128 ; Gibbon on
the Revival of Greek learning,
4.37; hellenistic, 456; Lyric poets
(Orsini's selections), 153 ; MSS
brought to Italy, 36 f; mediaeval
Greek, 289 ; Muretus on the study
of Greek, 151 ; Greek words in
French, 165 ; Greek at Oxford and
Cambridge (c. 1519), 230 ; neglected
by Pomponius Laetus, 92 ; pro-
nunciation, 130, 232 f, 272, 447;
aorist and imperfect in signatures
of Greek sculptors, 84 ; Syntax, 62 ;
Greek Testament, Manetti, 45 ;
Valla, 69; ed. Erasmus (1516), 104,
132 ; in Complutensian Polyglott
(1514)!, 105; Greek type, 175, 334;
Greek verses, Filelfo, 56; Politian,
85; Duport, 350
Gregorius Corinthius, 461
Gregory XIII, 138, 161 ; XIV, 153
Grey, Lady Jane, 234
Grocyn, William, 228; 83, 226, 229
Gromatici, A uc tores, 35
Gronovius, (i) Johann Friedrich,
319-21; 326, 459, portrait, 320;
(2) Jakob, 329 ; 311, 446, 448, 453 ;
(3) Abraham, 329
Groot, Gerhard, 211
Grotius, Hugo, 315-9; 204, 286,
306 n. 3, 307, 321, 325, 341, 344 f,
352, 44*
Grouchy, Nicolas de, 144, 193, 197
Gruter, Janus, 359 f; 120, 145, 203,
207, 273, 285, 445 ; portrait, 360
Grynaeus, Simon, 263 ; 36
Gryphius (Sebastian Greiff), 182 ;
179
Guarino, (i) da Favera, 107 ; (2) da
Verona, 49-52 ; 19, 21, 32, 36, 53,
98, 104, 22 if, 252, 274 f; portrait,
52 ; (3) Battista, 51
Gude, Marquard, 366
Guerente, William, 197
Guidi, Carlo Alessandro, 282
Guilielmus, Janus, 272, 361
Guischardt, Charles Theophile (Q.
Icilius), 436 n. 5
Gunther's Ligurinus, 260
Gunthorp, John, dean of Wells, 51,
223
Gusmano, Nugno, 157
Guyet, Fran9ois, 283, 319
Guys, Pierre Augustin, 394
Guzman, Fernan(do), Nunez de
(Nonius Pincianus), 158
Hadley, William, 225
Hadrian, Mausoleum of, 92
Hadriano, Marcello, 135
Hadrianus Junius, (i) 216; (2) 329
Hahn, Ulrich, 97, 103 (c. 1470)
Hales, John, 352
Hamilton, Sir William, 434
Hand, Ferdinand Gotthelf, 369, 455
Hardouin, Jean, 298 ; 292
Hare, Dr Francis, 409
Harpocration, ed. pr. (Ven. 1503),
104 ; (Ven. 1527) ; ed. Maussac
(Par. 1614), 287 ; H. Valesius
Notae et Emendatioiies (287) in ed.
by N. Blancardus (L. B. 1683) ;
J. Gronovius (Harderwyk, 1696)
Harris, James, 416
Harvard College, 354
Harvey, Gabriel, 237
Havercamp, Sigbert, 447, 450
Heath, Benjamin, 41 7 f
Hegius, Alex., 255, 258
Heidelberg, 270 f, 285, 359, 361
Heimburg, Gregor, 252
Heinsius, (i) Daniel, 313 f; 203, 207,
319; portrait, 312; (2) Niklaas,
323-6; 321 f, 409, 443, 445, 452;
portrait, 324
Heliodorus, ed. pr. Vincentius Opso-
poeus (Heidnecker), Bas. 1534 ; ed.
Commelin (Heidelb. 1596) etc.;
1 Published c. 1522.
INDEX.
479
Daniel Paretis (Frankf. 1631) ;
Amyot's transl., 195
Hellenistifae, Funus linguae, 286, 311
Hemsterhuys, Tiberius, 447-453 ; 408,
4'3. 454, 456 f, 4595 portrait, 448
Heraldus (Didier Herault), 287
Herculaneum, 391
Heresbach, Conrad of, 181
Hermann, Gottfried, 427 f ; iii 89-95
Hermonymus of Sparta, 76, 78, 169
Herodian, (i) grammarian ; abstract
by Const. Lascaris, 77 n. 6 ; treatise
on numbers in Gaza's Introd.
Gramm. (Ven. 1495) ; three other
treatises in Scriptores Grammatici
(Ven. 1496); fragments on barbarism
and solecism in Valckenaer's Am-
monius (L. B. 1739); (2) historian,
transl. by Politian, 86
Herodotus, transl. by Valla (Ven.
1474), 69 ; ed. pr. (Ven. 1502), 98,
104 ; (Bas. 1541, 1557); H.
Stephanus (Par. 1570, 1592),
'Apology for Herodotus' (1566
etc.), 176; ed. Jungermann (Frankf.
1606, Gen. 1618, Lond. 1679) ;
Jakob Gronovius (L. B. 1715) ;
Wesseling and Valckenaer (Amst.
1763), 453; transl. by Larcher
(1786), 394; ed. Schweighiiuser,
with Lexicon (Strassb. 1806), 396
Hersfeld, 30, 33, 265
Hervagius (Herwagen), Johannes,
262 ; 105
Hesdin, Jean de, 165
Hesiod, Politian on, 84 ; Opera et
Dies, ed. pr. (Milan, 1493), 104 ;
Opera, ed, pr. (Ven. 1496 N.S.),
98, 104; (Flor. 1515, 1540); ed.
Trincavelli with scholia (Ven. 1537,
Col. 1542, Frankf. 1591); Schmied
(1603), 272 ; D. Heinsius (Amst.
1667), 313; Le Clerc (1701), 441 ;
Th. Robinson (Oxon. 1737)
Hessus, Helius Eobanus, 261 ; 267
Hesychius, ed. pr. (Ven. 1514), 79,
104; (Flor. 1520), (Hagenau, 1521);
ed. Schrevelius ( 1668) ; ed. proposed
by Kiister, 446 ; ed. Alberti and
Ruhnken (L. B. 1746-66), 450, 457,
459
Heusde, Philipp Willem van, 464
Ileyne, Christian Gottlob, 421, 429,
437, 463 ; iii 36-44
Hierocles, (i) commentator on the
golden verses of Pythagoras; transl.
by Aurispa (Patav. 1474, Rom.
1475 etc.); ed. pr. J. Curterius (Par.
1583), 105; J. Pearson (Lond.
1654 f); Needham (Cantab. 1709),
413; Warren (Lond. 1742), 413
(Mayor's Cambridge under Queen
Anne, 256); (2) author of 'Affreta,
ed. pr. Marq. Freher (Ladenburg,
1605); and in Pearson and Need-
ham's editions, u.s.
Hipparchus, on the Phaenomena of
Aratus and Eudoxus, ed. Victorius
(1567), 137
Hippocrates, transl. by Fabius Calvus
(Rom. 1525); ed. pr. (Ven. 1526),
105; ed. Hieron. Mercurialis (Ven.
1588); Foes (Frankf. 1595); Van der
Linden (L.B. 1665); Rene Chartier
(Par. 1639-79)
Histonae Augusfae Scriptores, Pe-
trarch, 8; ed. pr. (Milan, 1475),
103; (Ven. 1516, 1519); ed. Eras-
mus (Bas. 1 5 1 8 etc.) ; Gruter (Hanov.
1611), 361 ; Casaubon (Par. 1603),
209 ; Salmasius (1620), 285 ;
Variorum ed. (L.B. 1671); Obrecht
(Strassb. 1677), 367 f
Historicis Graecis et Latinis, G. J.
Vossius, De, 309
History, the first modern, 143
Hoeschel, David, 272 ; 105, 161, 203,
207
Holbein, 126, 130
Holes, Andrew, 222 n. 4
Holland, see Netherlands
Holland, Philemon, 243
Holstenius (Holstein), Lucas, 364 f;
345
Homer, Petrarch's Ms, 8 f, Latin
rendering by Leontius Pilatus, 9;
Codex Ven e( its A of the Iliad,
36, 398 ; Scholia, 79, 107, 398 ;
' epitaph ' in Chios, 40 ; Gaza's
two transcripts of the Iliad, 62 ;
MS in C.C.C., Cambridge, 225;
ed. pr. (Flor. 1488), 64, 97, 104 ;
(Ven. 1504) ; (Flor. 1537) ; Ba-
trachomyomachia (<-. 1474), 102 ;
(1486), 97, 104; //. i transl. by
Marsuppint, 47, 66 ; i-xvi, Valla,
69; i-v, x, Decembrio, 70 ; Poli-
tian on, 84 ; Od. and Hymns,
transl. (Ven. 1537); ed. H.
Stephanus in Poetae Graeci (Par.
1566); Giphanius (Strassb. 1572);
French transl. by Madame Dacier,
292; ed. Barnes (Cantab. 1711),
357; Samuel Clarke (1729-40),
480
INDEX.
413; the 'Grenville Homer'',
429
Homeric Hymns, Aurispa's MS, 37 ;
included in ed. pr. (Flor. 1488),
64, 97, 104 ; and in other early
edd. of Homer ; Bernard Martin,
Var. Lect. (Par. 1605) ; Hymns
in ed. Barnes (1711); D'Orville,
Critica Vannus, 1 737, xn&Journal
of Philology, xxv 250-260 ; and
Ruhnken's Ep. Critica (1749),
457, and Hymns to Dionysus
and Demeter (1780-2), 460
Homer and Virgil, the elder Scaliger
on, 178 ; the Homeric Question,
Bentley, 407 f ; R. Wood, 432 f ;
Payne Knight, 435 ; Homer and
Art, 391 ; Homeri Apotheosis,
33r
Homer, Henry, 423
Horace, Petrarch, 5 ; Landino, 82 ;
Codex Blandinius, 217; ed. pr.
{c. 1471), 103; edd. Milan, Ferrara,
Naples, 1474; Milan, 1476; ed.
with scholia of Acron and Por-
phyrion (1481); with comm. of
Landino (Flor. 1482); (Ven. 1501),
99; Navagero (Ven. 1519), 118;
Muretus (1555 etc.), 150; Lambinus
(1561, 1605), 189; Cruquius (1578
etc.), 217 ; John Bond (r6oo), 445 ;
Laevinus Torrentius (1608, 1620);
Burman (1699), 443, 445 ; William
Baxter (Lond. 1701, 1725); Bentley
(1711), 406; Ars Poetica followed
by Vida, 133 ; paraphrased by
Robortelli, 141 ; Italian imitators
of Horace, 281 f
Hotman, Francois, 193
Hroswitha, ed. pr. (1501), 260
Hudson, John, 356
Huet, Pierre Daniel, 292, 297
Humanitas, 71; studia hitmanitatis,
45*
Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, 46,
70, 22of
Hungary, 72, 273-5
Hunyady, Joannes, 274
Hurd, Richard, 417
Hutchinson, Lucy, 355 ; Sandys
Hutchinson, 415
Hutten, Ulrich von, 257, 258
Hyginus, Astronomica, ed. pr. Fer-
rara, 1475 ; Ven. 1475 etc.; Fabulae,
ed. pr. Micyllus (Bas. 153^). 267;
J. G. Scheffer (Hamb. 1674), 368;
both in the Mythographi Lalini of
Th. Muncker (Amst. 1681) and A.
van Staveren (L. B. 1742)
lamblichus, Vita Pythagoras and
Sermones Protreptici, ed. pr.
(Franeker, 1593) ; Vita Pytha-
gorae, ed. Kiister (Amst. 1707);
De Mysteriis, transl. by Ficinus
(Ven. 1483; Rome, 1556); ed. pr.
Thomas Gale (Oxon. 1678), 354
Icilius, Q., 436
Iconography, Orsini on, 153
Ignarra, Niccolo, 384
Illustrissimus, \ 50
Inghirami, Tommaso, 35
Innocent III, 90
Inscriptions, 38-41, 121, 145, 359
Isaeus, ed. pr. in Orationes Rhet. Gr.
(Ven. 1513); in Oratores Gr. H.
Stephanus (Par. 1575); transl. by
Sir William Jones (1779), 438 ; De
Menedis hereditate, ed. pr. Tyrwhitt
(1785), 419
Isocrates, Evagoras and Nicocles,
transl. by Guarino, 50 ; ed. pr.
(Milan, 1493), 65, 97, 103 ; in
Orationes Rhet. Gr. (Ven. 1513)
etc.; ed. H. Wolf (Bas. 1553, 1570
etc.); H. Stephanus (Par. 1593 etc.,
Lond. 1615, Cantab. 1686)
Italian Latin poets, ed. Gruter (1608),
361 ; Select a Poemata It alarum, ed.
Pope (1740) ; Carmina quinque il-
histriumpoetanim (Bergamo, 1 753) ;
see Latin; Italian literature, in-
fluence of the Classics on, 155 f
' Italic ' type, 99
Italy, 1321-1527, 1-123; 1527-1600,
133-156 ; 1600-1700, 279-283 ;
1700-1800, 373-384 ; Ascham on
Italy, 236
Jager, Johann (Crotus Rubianus), 257
Jandun, Jean de, 109
Jenson, Nicolas, 99, 103
Jerome (Hieronymus), Tractalus et
Epistolae, ed. pr. (Rome, 1468);
ed. 1470; Epp. Schoefler (Maintz,
1470); ed. Erasmus (Bas. 1516 etc.),
131 ; Marianus Victorinus (Rom.
1566) etc. ; Benedictine ed. (Par.
1693-1706); Vallarsi (Verona, 1734-
42 ; Ven. 1766) ; transl. of the
Chronicon of Eusebius, ed. Scaliger
(L. B. 1606, Amst. 1658), 202
Jesuits, 290 ; 283, 285, 287, 298, 305,
INDEX.
481
339. 34i, 363. 36y, 37»> 381 f, 39°'
394
Joddrell, Richard Paul, 419
Joensen, or Joensig (Jonsius), Johann,
365
John the Good, 165
Johnson, (i) Christopher, 241 ; (2)
Richard, 406 ; 401 ; (3) Samuel,
340, 346, 414, 424; (4) Thomas, 418
Johnston, Arthur, 248
Jones, Sir William, 438
Jonson, Ben, 314, 344, 348
Josephus, ed. pr. (Bas. 1544), 105 ;
Hudson (Oxon. 1720), 356; Haver-
camp (Amst. 1/26); transl. by
Whiston (Lond. 1737), 413
Julian, 327, 463
Julius Africanus, 202 f
Julius II, 90-94, 107, 117; III, 138
Junius, (i) Franciscus (Fran9ois du
Jon), 309 ; (2) Hadrianus (Adriaan
de Jonghe), 216; (3) Hadrianus
Junius, 329
Justin, studied by Petrarch, 8 ; ed. pr.
(Ven. 1470), 103 ; ed. Sabellicus
(Yen. 1490 etc.); Aldus (Ven. 1522);
Bongars (Par. 1581), 192; Graevius
(L.B. 1683); Hearne (Oxon. 1705);
Abr. Gronovius (L. B. 1719, 1760);
Burman (1722), 443
Justin Martyr, ed. pr. R. Stephanus
(Par. 1551) ; Sylburg (Heidelb.
1593) etc., 270; Prudentius Maranus
(Par. 1742)
Justinian's Pandects studied by Poll-
tian, 84
Juvenal, studied by Petrarch, 6 ;
Juvenal and Persius, ed. pr. (Ven.
c. 1470), 102 f; Jac. de Rubeis
(Ven. 1475); G. Valla (Ven. 1486);
Mancinellus (Ven. 1492); Aldus
(1501 etc.), 99; Britannico, Juv.
(1501), 87; Junta (Flor. 1513);
Colinaeus (Par. 1528 etc.); Gryphius
(Lugd. 1534 etc.); R. Stephanus
(Par. 1544, 1549); Pulmannus (Ant.
1565, 1585); Pithoeus (Par. 1585,
Heidelb. 1590), 192; index, ed. Par.
1602; F. Grangaeus (Par. 1614);
Nic. Rigaltius (Par. 1613, 1616);
Comm. by Angelus Sabinus and
Domitius Calderinus (Rome, 1474);
GeorgiusMerula(Ven. 14/8); Tarvis
(1478); Badius Ascensius (Lugd.
1498); Lubinus (Rostock, 1602);
Farnabius (1612), Prateus (Par.
1684); Henmnius (Utrecht, 1685;
S. II.
L. B. 169.5) ; Marshall (Lond.
1723) ; Coelius Curio in ed. Paris,
1528 and Bas. 1551; scholia in ed.
Pithoeus (Par. 1585); Engl. transl.
by Holyday (Oxon. 1673) anfl
Stapylton (Lond. 1660) ; Dryden
etc. (Lond. 1693)
Kendall, Timothy, 241
Ker, John, 406
Kidd, Thomas, 429
Kilianus, Cornelius, 214
Kinwelmersh, Francis, 239
Kircher, Athanasius, 365
Knight, Richard Payne. 434 ; 433
Koen, Gisbert, 461
Kiister (Xeocorus), Ludolf, 445 f;
397, 408, 448-450; Mayor, Cam-
bridge under Queen Anne, 328 f
Labbe (Labbaeus), Charles and
Philippe, 287
La Boetie, Estienne de, 198
Lactantius, ed.pr. (Subiaco, 1467), 103
Ladislas, king of Bohemia, 72
Laetus, Julius Pomponius (Giulio
Pomponio Leto), 92 f; 97, 103,
114, 156
Lafreri, Antonio, 155
Lagomarsini, Girolaino, 378
Lambeck (Lambecius), Peter, 365
Lambinus, Dionysius (Denis Lambin),
188-191; 151, 268, -445 ; portrait,
1 88
Lami (Lam ins), Giovanni, 379
Lamola, Giovanni, 34, 50
Lancelot, Dom Claude, 290
Landino, Cristoforo, 8 r f ; 83 : portrait,
58
Landriani, Gerardo, 31
Langen, Rudolf von, 255 ; 254, 258
Langres, Poggio at, 30
Lanzi. Luigi don, 384
Laocoon, Sadoleto's poem on, 1 1 5
Lapo da Castiglionchio (de Castel-
lione), Jacopo, 59 n. 2, 66, 221
Larcher, Pierre Henri, 394, 459
Lascaris, (i) Constantine, 76 f; 37,
162 ; (2) Janus, or Andreas Joannes,
78 f; 37, 78 f, 98, 104 f, 169 f
Lateran Council (1512), in
Latimer, William, 228; 226
Latin, an essential part of a liberal
education, 48 f; epistolary, 23,
1 67 f; grammar, 41 1 f; lexicography,
373-7 ; mediaeval, 289 ; modern,
273 ; metres of the Latin dramatists,
31
482
INDEX.
406; pronunciation, 184, 233, 304;
prose, Politian's, 85 (see also Cice-
ronianisni) ; Latin of silver age
studied by Politian, 83 ; Poetae
Latini Minores, 443 ; collections
of modern Latin verse, 361 n. 4;
modern Latin poets, Addison,
410; Bembo, ii4f; Bourne, 439;
Broukhusius, 329 ; Buchanan, 243 f;
Ceva, 281 ; Cowley, 349 ; Duport,
349; Flaminio, 119; Fracastoro,
118; Francius, 330; Grotius, 318 f;
D. Heinsius, 314 ; N. Heinsius,
325; Italians, 114-120, 280 f;
Jesuits, 281, 290; Johnston, 248;
Marullus, 87 ; May, 348 ; Milton,
346 ; Navagero, 1 18 ; in the Nether-
lands, 465 ; Owen, 250; Petrarch,
5 ; Politian, 84, 86 ; Pontano, 90 ;
Rapin, 291 ; Sadoleto, 115; Sainte-
Marthe, 198; Sannazaro, 90;
Scaliger, 199, 203; Sergardi, 281;
Strada, 280 ; Vida, 117; Latin
studied in the New World, 120
Latium, Kircher's, 365
Law, Edmund, 415
Lebrixa (Nebrissensis), Elio Antonio,
157, 162 ; cp. Hemeterio Suana,
Estudio Critico-biografico (Madrid,
1879), and Bywater, The Erasmian
Pronunciation of Greek, and its
Precursors (Oxford, 1908)
Le Clerc (Clericus), Jean, 441—3
Lederlin, Johann Heinrich, 448 f
Leibnitz, 146
Leland, John, 346
Lennep, (i) Jan Daniel van (1724-
1771)! (2) David Jacobus van
(i774-i853). 461, 464
Leo X, 107 f; 33, 78, 93, 113 f,
116-9, i*if
Leonicenus, (i) Niccolo Leoniceno,
115,226; (2) Ognibuono da Lonigo,
Omnibonus Leonicenus, 54 (Voigt,
i 429, ii 391)
Leonico Tomeo, no
Leptines, 'Aristides' against, 380
Le Roy (Regius), Louis, 19
Lessing, 391, 411; iii 24-30
Levesque, Pierre Charles, 397
Lexicography, (i) Greek, H. Junius,
216 n. 5; H. Estienne, 175 f;
Scapula, 176; (2) Latin, Calepinus,
373; R. Estienne, 173, 415; Faber,
269, 374 ? C. Gesner, 269 ; J. M.
Gesner, 374 ; Forcellini, 374-7 ;
Ainsworth, 415
Leyden, univ., 300 f; 217, 303, 306 f,
311, 321, 443, 451, 464; MSS, 28,
'89, 323
Libanius, ed. pr. (Ferrara, 1517), 105;
ed. F. Morel (Par. 1606-27); epp.
ed. J. C. Wolf (Amst. 1738)
Lignamine, Johannes Philippus de,
,97>. '°3
Ligorio (Ligori), Pirro, 154
Lily, William, 229
Linacre, Thomas, 225-8; 21, 83, 98,
229; Osier on ( r 908) ; portrait, 224
Lindenbrog (Tiliobroga), Heinrich
and Friedrich, 364
Lipsius, Justus (Joest Lips), 301-4 ;
139, 144, 197, 202, 204, 214, 216,
306 ; portrait, 302 (cp. 306)
Liviam, Consolatio ad, 35
Livy, studied by Boccaccio, 13 ;
emended by Valla, 69 ; ed. pr.
(Rome, c. 1469), 97, 103 ; ed.
Campano (Rome, c. 1470) ; Ven.
1470 ; ed. Sabellicus (Ven. 1491
etc.); Ascensius (Par. 1510 etc.);
Navagero (i-x), (Ven. 1518), 118 ;
Aldus (Ven. 1518-33) 5 vols. incl.
Florus, and Perotti's Latin transl.
of Polybius ; Lorsch MS, 263 ;
xli-xlv, ed. pr., Grynaeus and
Glareanus (Bas. 1531) ; Beatus
Rhenanusand Gelenius (Bas. 1535),
263, 265; Gryphius, Lyon, 1542,
Par. 1543 ; Sigonius (Paulus
Manutius, Ven. 1555 etc.), 143 ;
Gruter (Frankf. 1608 etc.), 359,
362 ; J. F. Gronovius (Variorum
ed., Amst. 1665, 1679), 321 ; Le
Clerc (Amst. 1710), 441 ; Crevier
(Par. 1735-41), 436; Drakenborch
(L.B. 1738-46), 447 ; French transl.
by Bersuire, 165 ; Livy and
Machiavelli, 88; Robortelli (142)
and Glareanus (263) on Livy's
chronology ; Engl. transl. by
Philemon Holland, 243 ; the lost
books, 32, 46 ; Freinsheim's con-
tinuation (Holmiae, 1649 etc.),
36.7
Lodi, 31
Loisel, Antoine, 194
London, Chrysoloras in, 20 ; Erasmus
in, 128, 229; St Paul's, Latin transl.
of Thucydides, 220; St Paul's
School, 1 29 ; Greek architecture
in, 432
'Longinus' irepi i/^ow, ed. pr.,
Robortelli (Bas. 1554), 141, 143;
INDEX.
483
105 ; Paulus Manutius (Ven. 1555) ;
Franciscus Portus (Gen. 1569); G.
Langbaine (Oxon. 1636 etc.); T.
Faber (Saumur, 1663) ; transl. by
Boileau (Paris, 1674 etc.); Tollius
(Utrecht, 1694); Hudson (Oxon.
1710 etc.); Pearce (Lond. 1724
etc.), 412; N. Morus (Leipzig,
17690; Toup (Oxon. 1778, 1789,
1806), 418 ; Bodoni (Parma, 1793).
Longinus, Cassius, 459
Longolius (Gilbert de Longueil), 113,
121 f, 178
Longus, 196
Lonigo, Ognibene, or Ognibuono,
da (Omnibonus Leonicenus), 54
Lope de Vega, 141
Lorsch, 36, 263
Lou vain, univ., 212, 217; Erasmus
and the Collegium Trilingue, z28f,
212; Lipsius, 301, 303
Loyola, Ignatius de, 182
Lucan, studied by Petrarch, 6; ed. pr.
(Rome, 1469), 97, 103, 156; Aldus
(Yen. 1502) ; Pulmannus (Ant. 1564
etc.) ; Bersmannus (Leipzig, 1584) ;
Grotius (Ant. 1614, L. B. 1626),
317 ; Cortius (Leipzig, 1726) ;
Oudendorp (L. B. 1728), 454;
Burman (L.B. 1740), 443; Bentley
(1760), 407, 409; Renouard (Par.
1795); Index by Maittaire (Lond.
1719); book i transl. by Marlowe
(Lond. 1600) ; translated and con-
tinued by May, 348, 454
Lucian, translations by Guarino, 50 ;
ed. pr. (Flor. 1496), 79, 97, 104 ;
Aldus (Ven. 1503,1522); Bourdelot
(Par. 1615; Saumur, 1619); Le
Clerc (Amst. 1687), 441 ; Hem-
sterhuys and J. F. Reitz (Amst.
1743); Index, K. K. Reitz (Utrecht,
1746), 450, 453; Schmidt (Mittau,
1776-80); ed. Bipont. (1789-93);
Dialogi Selecti, Leedes (Lond.
1678, 1704, 1710, 1726, 1728),
Mayor's Cambridge under Queen
Anne, 2541; Colloquia Se/ecta, ed.
Hemsterhuys (1708, 1732); transl.
by Micyllus, 267 ; Engl. transl. by
Dr Franklin, I78of
Lucilius, in Fragmenta Poetarum
Vetemtn Latinoriim, R. and H.
Stephanus (Par. 1564) ; ed. Fr.
Dousa (L. B. 1597), 301, reprinted
by the brothers Volpi (Patav. 1735)
and the Havercamps (L. B. 1743);
also in Maittaire's Corpus '(Lond.
1713), in the Bipont Persius (1785)
and in that of Achaintre (Par.
1811)
Lucretius, known to Petrarch through
Macrobius, 6 ; MS discovered by
Poggio, and copied by Niccoli, 29;
ed, pr. (Brescia, c. 1473), 103 ;
studied by Politian, 84, Manillas,
87, and Pontano, 90 n. i ; Verona,
1486; ed. Lycinius, Ven. 1495;
ed. Avancius, Ven. 1500; J. B.
Pius, Bol. 1511; Petrus Candidus,
Flor. 1512; Navagero (Ven. 1516
N.S.), 118, 156; Gryphius, Lugd.
1534, 1540 ; Vossian MSS, now at
Leyden, 189, 323; Lambinus (Par.
1564,1565,1570), i89f ; Giphanius
(Ant. 1566), 190; D. Pareiis, with
index (1631), 362; Pierre Gassen-
di's Syntagma philosophiae Epicuri
(Hag. i658,etc.);T. Faber (Saumur,
1662), 291 ; Bentley and the Vossian
MSS, 323, 407 ; Creech (Oxon. 1695),
356; Lond. 1712; Havercamp's
Variorum ed. (L. B. 1/25), 447 ;
\Vakefield (Lond. 1796 with Bent-
ley's notes in Glasg. ed. 1813,
Lond. 1821), 430; Bentley 's notes
in new ed. of Creech (Oxon. 1818) ;
English translations, 355 f
Luder, Peter, 252
Luisini, Francesco, 189
Lupus, Rutilius, ed. pr. with Aquila
Romanus, Zoppinus (Ven. 1519);
in Fr. Pithou's Antiqui Rhetores
Latini (Par. 1599); e<^- Ruhnken
(L. B. 1768), 459
Luther, 258 f, 269, 273, 339
Luzac, Joan, 456, 461
Lycophron, ed. pr. (Ven. 1513), 104;
ed. pr. of the scholia (Bas. 1546),
265 n. i ; ed. Potter (Oxon. 1697,
1702) ; studied by Fox, 433
Lycurgus, ed. pr. in Orationes Rhet.
Gr. (Ven. 1513); with Dem. Mei-
dias, ed. Taylor (Cantab. 1743)
Lydgate, John, 220
Lyly's Euphues, 235
Lysias, Filelfo's translations from
(Froben, Bas. 1522), 55 ; cd. pr.
in Orationes Rhet. Gr. (Yen. 1513),
104 ; H. Stephanus in Oratores
Gr. (Par. 1575) ; Jodocus van der
Heyclen (Hanov. i6i5,Marb. 1683) ;
Taylor (Cantab. 1739), 414 ; Or.
i, ed. Dowries (1593), 337
31— 2
484
INDEX.
Mabillon, Jean, 293-8; 289, 436;
portrait, 294
Macault, transl. of Cicero and
Diodorus, i94f
Machiavelli, Niccolo, 88
Macrobius, Saturnalia and Cotnmen-
tariits, ed. pr. (Ven. 1472), 103 ;
ed. Camerarius (Bas. 1535); Carrio
(H. Stephanus, Par. 1585) ; J. I.
Pontanus (L. B. 1597, 1625 ; Jakob
Gronovius (L. B. 1670, Lond. 1694,
Patav. 1736, Leipzig 1774) ; De
Differentiis, ed. pr. H. Stephanus
(Par. 1583) ; J. Obsopaeus (Par.
1588) ; and in Putschius, Gramm.
Lat. (Hanov. 1605)
Madrid, MSS of Janus, 37, and Con-
stantine Lascaris, 77 ; Asconius,
Manilius, Valerius Flaccus, 29 n. 4 ;
Statius, Silvae, 29 n. 4, 31, 162 ;
Escurial (near Madrid), i6if
Maffei, Scipione, 381
Maggi (Madius), V., 134, 147
Magliabecchi, Antonio, 297
Maittaire, Michel, 411
Majoragio (Majoragius), Marcantonio
(Maria Antonio Conti), 147; 146
Malalas, Chronicle of John, 401
Malatesta, Sigismondo, 61
Maltby, Edward, bp of Durham, 422
Manchester, Rylands Library, 102
Manetho, ed. pr. (1689;, 329;
Perizonius on, 331
Manetti, Giannozzo, 45 ; 37, 47, 95
Manilius, MS discovered by Poggio,
29 n. 4, 162 ; ed.pr., Regiomontanus
(Norimb. 1472), 103, 252; L. Bonin-
contrius (Bol. 1474), Dulcinius
(Milan, 1489), Molinius (Lyon,
155'. r556) J Scaliger (Par. 1579,
1590; L. B. 1600), 202; Bentley
(Lond. 1739), 408
Manso, Giovanni Battista, 345
Mantegna, Andrea, 41
Mantua, 53 f
Mantuanus (Spaguuoli), Baptista, 243
Manutius Romanus, Aldus Pius .
(Theobaldo or Aldo Manuzio),
98-100; 79, 91, 97, 102 f, 104,
226, portrait, 94; Paulus Manutius,
Aldi films, 100 ; i5of ; Aldus Ma-
nutius, Pauli films, 101
Maps in classical text-books, 369
Marburg, univ., 262
Mariette, Pierre Jean, 391
Marini, Gaetano Luigi, 382
Markland, Jeremiah, 413
Marliani, Bartolomeo, 154, 182
Marlowe, Christopher, 241
Marot, Jean, 194
Marsham, Sir John, 331
Marsiliers, Petrus de, 248
Marsilius, Ludovicus (Luigi de'
Marsigli), 10, 17
Marsuppini, Carlo, 47 f; 19, 22, 38 f,
45> 66
Martens, Dierik, 213
Martial, studied by Petrarch, 6 ; MS
discovered by Boccaccio, 13; ed. pr.
(Venice or Rome, c. 1471), 102 f;
Ferrara, 1471 ; Ven. 1475; Milan,
1478 ; ed. Calderinus (Ven. 1474
etc.); Aldus (Ven. 1501; Perotti,
71; Aeneas Sylvius on, 72; imitated
by Bern bo, 114, and detested by
Navagero, 118; ed. Junius (Bas.
I559) J Gruter (Frankf. 1602) ;
Scriverius (L.B. 1619, Amst. 1621,
1629), 307; Rader (Maintz, 1627;
Col. 1628) ; Schrevelius, Variorum
ed. incl. the notes of J. F. Gronovius
(L. B. 1670), 321
Martianus Capella, 315; see Capella
Martin, Jean, transl. of Vitruvius, 194
Martinius (Martini), Matthias, 442
Marullus, Michael Tarchaniota, 87
Matthaei, Christian Friedrich, 460
Matthias Corvinus, 275 ; 214, 252, 274
Maussac, Philippe Jacques de, 287
Maximianus, 1 7
Maximus Tyrius, ed. pr. (Par. 1557),
105; ed. D. Heinsius (L. B. 1607,
1614) ; Davies (Cantab. 1703, 1740)
May, Thomas, 348 ; 326, 454
Mazzo, Angelo, 282
Mazzocchi, Alessio Simmacho, 384
Medici, (i) Cosimo de', 39, 43 f, 60,
65, 81, 95; (2) Lorenzo de', 81 f ;
37, 78, 83 f, 86, 88 ; (3) Cardinal
Giovanni, see Leo X ; (4) Cardinal
Ippolito, 93 ; (5) Alessandro, 137 ;
(6) Cosimo I, 137 ; (7) Francesco,
138
Meibomius (Maybaum), Marcus, 327
Meigret, Louis, 194
Mela, Pomponius, ed. pr. (Milan,
1471), 103; ed. Vadianus (Vienna,
1518; Bas. 1522), 260; Vinetus
(Par. 1572), Schott (Ant. 1582) ;
Isaac Vossius (Hag. 1658), 323;
Jac. Gronovius (L.B. 1685, 1696);
Abr. Gronovius (L.B. 1722, 1728)
Melanchthon (Schwarzerd), Philipp,
265 f; 116, 227; portrait, 264
INDEX.
485
Melville, Andrew, 247 f
Memnon, historian, 272
Menage, Gilles (Aegidius Menagius),
290; 291, 299 n. i, 326, 358.11. 3
Menander, Fragm. ed. pr. in the
Sententiaeoi Guillaume Morel (Par.
J553)> IO5 5 Hertelius (Bas. 1560) ;
H. Stephanus (Par. 1569) ; Nic.
Rigaltius (Par. 1613) ; Grotius in
Excerpta (Par. 1626) ; Winterton
in Poet. Min. Gr. (Cantab, and
Lond. 1653 etc.) ; Hemsterhuys
(1708), 450; Le Clerc (Amst. 1709
etc.), 441 f; Bentley (1710), 409
Mendoza, (i) envoy of Charles V,
162, 265 n. i ; (2) bishop of Burgos,
162
Mercier (Mercerius), Josias des
Bordes, 210
Merian, 433
Merula, (i) Georgius (Giorgio Mer-
lani), 35, 85 n. i, 86, 103 ; (2)
Paulus (Paul van Merle), 306
Metrical blunders of notable scholars,
455.
Meursius (Jan de Meurs), 311; 319,
417 ; portrait, 310
Michael of Ephesus, 10
Micyllus (Jacob Molsheym), 267 ; 261
Middleton, Conyers, 413
Milan, printing at, 97
Milton, 344-8 ; his copies of Pindar,
Euripides, Lycophron and Aratus,
347 f; Milton and Salmasius, 286;
Milton on education, 346 f ; on
Latin pronunciation, 234 ; proto-
types of Lycidas, 114 n. 7, 346
Mingarelli, Giovanni Luigi, 380
Minturno, Ant. Sebastiano, 135, 188
Mirandola, (i) Giovanni Pico clella,
82, 98, 113, 214; (2) Gianfrancesco
Pico della, 113
Mitford, William, 438
Modius, Franz, 217
Modoin, bp of Autun, 2
Moliere, Vadius in the Fewines
Sarantes of, 290
Molyneux, Adam de, 220
Monk, (i) General, 326 ; (2) James
Henry, 429
Montaigne, 197 f; 148; on Amyot,
196 ; on Turnebus, 186
Monte Cassino, Boccaccio at, 13;
Poggio at, 34
Montefeltro, Guidobaldo da, 113
Montepulciano, Bartolomeo da, 26,
27, 28, 29
Montfaucon (Montefalco, Montefal-
conius), Bernard de, 385-9 ; 436,
457 ' portrait, 386
Montreuil, Jean de, 166
Morcelli, Stefano Antonio, 382, 422
More, Sir Thomas, 229; 128, 178,
182, 212, 215, 226, 228, 230
Morel, Federic, (i), 105; (2) 105, 207
Morell, Andreas, 447
Morelli, Jacopo, 380
Morhof. Daniel Georg, 365 ; 139 n. 7,
34°
Moschus, (i) translations by Politian,
85 ; ed. pr. of idyll i in Lascaris,
Gk Gr. ed. 3 (Vicenza, 1489) ; ed.
pr. (Ven. 1496 N.S.), 104; (2) De-
metrius Moschus, 158
Mosellanus, Petrus (Peter Schade), 265
Miiller, Johann (Regiomontanus), 252
Munro on Stephen Gardiner, 232
n. 3; on Lambinus, igof
Muratori, Lodovico Antonio, 381 ;
'44> 437
Muretus (Marc Antoine Muret), 148-
152; 114, 191, 196-8, 201, 204,
301, 460; portrait, 148
Murmellius, Johannes, 255
Musaeus, ed. pr. (c. 1494-5), 98,
]04;ed.Kroinayer(i72i); Schrader,
(1742), 455
Musgrave, Samuel, 418 ; 457
Musurus, Marcus, 79 ; 78, 98, 104,
107, 129
Mutianus Rufus, 2^7 ; Conrad Muth,
258
Muzio, Girolamo, 135
Nanni, Giovanni (Annius Yiter-
biensis), 154
Nannius, Petrus (Pieter Nanninck),
215
Naples, Academy of, 89
Nardini, Famiano, 279
Nash, Thomas, 240
Navagero (Naugerius), Andrea, 118;
"9. '37
Neander, Michael, 269; 271
Nebrissensis, Antonius (Elio Antonio
Cala Ilarana del Oio, of Le Brixa),
127 ; see Lebrixa
Needham, Peter, 413 (Mayor, Cam-
bridge under Queen Anne, 256)
Nemesianus, discovered by Sannazaro,
35; ed.pr. (Ven. 1534): in Burman's
Poctae Lat. Min. (L. B. 1731)
Neo-Platonism of Gemistos Plethon,
60 f; of Cambridge Platonists, 354
486
INDEX.
Nepos, Cornelius, unknown to Pe-
trarch, 8; known at Milan to abp
Pizzolpasso and Pier Candido
Decembrio (Sabbadini, Spogli Am-
brosiani Latini, 1903, 31 3f); Lives
of Atticus and Cato, discovered by
Traversari (1434), 34; xx Lives
(Aemilii Probi de vita excellentium],
ed. pr. (Ven. 1471); Life of Atticus
ascribed to Nepos in ed. Strassb.
1506; all the Lives ascribed to
Nepos by Aulo Giano Parrasio
(1470-1584), and by Lambinus (ed.
Par. 1569), 190 ; Schott (Frankf.
1609), Gebhard (Amst. 1644),
Boekler (Strassb. 1648), J. A. Bose
(Jena, 1675), Van Staveren (L, B.
I734, '55> '73; ed. Bardili. Stutt-
gart, 1820) ; ed. Ruhnken, 459
Nerli, (i) Bernardo 64, 104 ; (2)
Neri, 64
Netherlands, 1400-1575, 211-218;
1575-1700, 300-332 ; 1700-1800,
441-465 ; Netherlands and Eng-
land, i f, 464 ; materials for history
of scholarship in, 445
Nevizanus, Johannes, 183
Nicander, ed. pr. (Ven. 1499), 104;
Ven. 1523; ed. Bandini (1764),
379 ; Bentley, 407
Niccoli, Niccolo de', 47 f; 14, 19, 27,
29, 32, 36 f, 39, 44, 47
Nicolas V(Tommaso Parentucelli), 37,
.38, 45, 55, 57, 65-67, 71-73, 95 f
Nicolaus Cusanus, 211
Niebuhr, 331, 378; iii 77 f
Nieuwland, Pieter, 464
Niphus, Augustinus (Agostino Nifo),
112
Nizolius (Mario Nizzoli), 146; 150,
378
Nonius Marcellus, ed. pr. (1471),
103 ; 32, 71, 93, 97 ; ed. Hadrianus
Junius (Ant. 1565), 216; Mercier
(Par. 1583, 1614), 210
Nonius Pincianus (Nunez de Guzman),
158
Nonnus, Dionysiaca, ed. pr. (Ant.
1569), 105; Hanau 1605 ; L. B. 1610
(with diss. by D. Heinsius and em.
by Scaliger); Paraphrasis, ed. pr.
(Ven. 1501); seven more edd. by
1566; ed. D. Heinsius (L. B. 1627)
North, Sir Thomas, 242
Nunnesius (Pedro Juan Nufiez), 159
Oberlin, Jeremias Jacob, 396
Obrecht, Ulrich, 367
Obsopaeus. See Opsopoeus
Olesnicky, Sbignew, 275
Olivetus (Olivet) (Pierre Joseph de
Thoulie), 390
' Ols ', ' Messer Andrea ', identified,
222, n. 4
Omnibonus Leonicenus (Ognibuono
da Lonigo), 54
Opera, origin of Italian, 86
Opitz, Heinrich (1642-1712), 314
Oporinus (Herbster), Johannes, 105,
262
Oppian, MS, 265 n. i ; Halieutica,
ed. pr. (Flor. 1515), 104 ; Halieutica
and Cynegetica (Ven. 1517); Cyne-
getica (Par. 1549)
Opsopoeus, (i) Vincentius (Heid-
necker, d. 1539), ed. Diodorus,
xvi-xx (Bas. 1539), 105 ; (2) Johann
(d. 1596), ed. Macrobius, De
Di/erentiis (Par. 1588), and Ora-
cula, 1 590-9
Oresme, Nicole, 165, 195
Orestes, tragedy of, 35
Orfeo, Politian's, 86
Orosius, studied by Petrarch, 8 ; 447
'Orpheus', 86, 90; ed. pr. (1500),
104 ; six more edd. down to 1606 ;
ed. Eschenbach (Utrecht, 1689)
Orphic poem De Lapidibus, 419
Orsini, Fulvio (Fulvius Ursinus),
i53f; 1 60, 189, 456
Orville, Philippe d', 388, 413, 448, 454
Osorio, Jeronymo, 163 ; Osorius, 339
Oudendorp, Franz van, 454 ; 451, 459
Ovid's Ibis, discovered by Boccaccio,
13 ; Heroides and Halieuticon, 35 ;
Politian, 84; ed. pr. (Bol. 1741),
97, 103; ed. Rome, 1471; first
Aldine (Ven. 1502); ed. Navagero
(Ven. 1516), 118 ; Bersmann (Leip-
zig, 1582); D. Heinsius (L.B. 1629),
314; N. Heinsius (Amst. 1652),
325; Cnipping's Variorum ed.
(LJJ. 1670); Delphin (Lyon, 1689);
Burman (Amst. 1727), 409, 443 ;
imitated by Bern bo, 114, and
Francius, 330 ; French translations,
194; Mercier's ed. of Ibis (1568),
210; Tristia and Epp. ex Ponto,
ed. J. Pontanus (Ingolst. 1610);
Crispin, with Index (Cantab. 1703);
Met., with Ibis, ed. J. Pontanus
(Ant. 1618); Fasti, ed. C. Neapolis
(Ant. 1639); Halienticon, in Ulitius,
venatio novantiqua (L. B. 1645) ;
INDEX.
487
Heroides, ed. Crispin, with Index
(Lond. 1 702). English transl., Met.,
Arthur Golding( 1567), 240; George
Sandys (Lond. 1626), 241 ; Dryden,
Addison, Gay, Pope (ed. Garth,
Lond. 1717); Amores, Marlowe (c.
1597), 241 ; fferoides, Turberville
(1567), 241
Owen (Audoenus), John, 250
Oxford; Duke Humphrey, 221 ;
Erasmus, 128, 229; Vives, 214;
Bentley, 401 f; 'Greek lecturers',
168 ; Colleges, 238 f ; C.C.C., 230 ;
Magdalen, 435; Merton, 227, 333-5,
419; Queen's, 28; University, 439;
the Arundel Marbles, 342 f ; the
Clarendon Press, 418, 463
Paciaudi, Paolo Maria, 382
Padua, Aristotelians of, 10, 109; 110,
114, 121, 237
Palaeographica, Coinmentatio, Bast's,
397
Palaeologus, Manuel, 19
Paleario, Aonio, 155, 330
Palingenius, Marcellus, 243
Palmerius (Jacques Le Paulmier), 287
Palmieri, Matteo, 48
Panciroli, Guido, 154
Pandects; Budaeus, 171; Politian, 84
Fanegyrici Latini, MS of, 34 ; ed.
Cuspinianus (1513); Beatus Rhena-
nus (Bas. 1520); Lavinaeus (Ant.
1599); Ritterhusius (Frankf. 1607);
Cellarius (Hal. 170:5); de la Baune
(Yen. 1728)
Pannonius, Janus (JohannvonCisinge),
274; 51, 76
Pantagato (Pacato), Ottavio, 145
Panvinio, Onofrio, 145
Paolo, (i) da Perugia, 15 ; (2) Vineto,
109
Parentucelli, Tommaso, 65, 96 ; see
Nicolas V
Pareiis (Johann) Philipp, 362
Paris, university of, 16;; ; Sorbonne,
167, 181, 184, 210; College de
France, 172, 181 ; Place Maubert,
1 80 ; Saint - Germain - des - Pres,
295-8
Pariitui, Mannor, 343
Parr, Samuel, 421-4; 582, 417, 4^0,
438.
Parrasio, Aulo Giano, 35
Pasquier, Estienne, 198
Passerat, Jean, 191 ; 206
Patin, Charles, 391
Patrizi of Siena, Francesco, bp of
Gaeta 1460-94, his epitome of Quin-
tilian, 53 n. 2
Patrizzi (Patricius), Francesco ^529-
97). 152 f
Paul II, 62, 92 ; III, 116
Paulus Diaconus, 29
Pa lifer o, 151 n. 2
Pausanias, ed. pr. (Veil. 1516), 79,
104 ; ed. Xylander and Sylburg
(1583, 1613), 270; Kiihn (Leipzig,
1696); Person on, 429
Pauvv (Pavo), Jan Cornelis de, 454
Pazzi, Alessandro de', 133 f
Pearce, Zachary, 412
Pearson, John, bp of Chester, 322 f ;
35i, 446
Pedibtis ire in sentenliam, 69
Peiresc, Nicolas Claude Fabre de,
285; 287, 316, 342 f
Peletier (or Pelletier), Jacques, 188,
194
Peloponnesiaea, Man., 382
Pepys, Samuel, 405
Perizonius (Voorbroek), Jacob, 330;
37°. 447
Perotti, Niccolo, 71 ; 54, 75
Perrault, Charles, 370, 403
Persius, studied by Petrarch, 6 ;
Juvenal and Persius, ed. pr. (Rome,
1470), iO2f; Fontius in ed. Ven.
1480 ; Britannico, ed. Brescia,
1481 ; scholia of ' Cornutus ' in ed.
Ven. 1499 ; 17 other edd. before
1500 ; ed. 1501, 99 ; ed. Casaubon
(Par. 1605), 209
Petavius Dionysius (Denys Petau),
283; 290, 327
Petit, Samuel, 370 n. i
Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca), 3-1 r ;
his study of the Latin Classics, 4-9;
his interest in Greek, 9; his hand-
writing, 99 ; Landino on, 81 ; Pe-
trarch and the Averroists, 109 ;
165-7, iigf, 251
Petronius, MS at Cologne, 32 ; ed. pr.
(Ven. 1499); ed, Thanner (Leipzig,
1500): Janus Dousa (L. B. 1585);
ed.pr.oiCena Tri»ialc/iionis, Pierre
Petit (Patav. 1664; Par. 1664);
' Satyi'ifon cum frngmentis Albae
Graecae recuperatis ', forged by
Fraii9ois Nodot (Col. 1691, etc.);
ed. Burman (Utrecht, 1709, Amst.
1743), 409, 443; Carmen de Bello
Civili, ed. Busche (Leipzig, 1500);
261 ; Fr. transl. of Carmen by
488
INDEX.
Bouhier (1737), 390; on the Trau
MS, see A. C. Clark in Cl. Rev.
Aug. 1908
Petty, Sir William, 342
Peuerbach, Georg, 252
Peutinger, Conrad, 260
Phaedrus, ed. pr., Pierre Pithou
(Troyes, 1596), 192 ; 103 ; ed.
Freinsheim (1664), 367; Variorum
ed. , J. F. Gronovius (1669), 321 ;
Burman (Amst. 1698, etc.), 443 ;
N. Heinsius, notae (1745) ; ed.
Bentley (1726), 409
Phaer, Thomas, 240
Phalaris, Epistles of, ed.pr. 1498, 104 ;
Bentley on, 403-5
Phavorinus, 107 n. 3
Philemon and Menander, 406, 409 ;
see Menander
Philips, Ambrose, 281
Philoponus, ed. pr. Ven. (i) De
quinque Dialectis in the Thesaurus
(1476) ; (2) In Analytica Post.
(1504), 104 ; (3) De Gen. Animal.
(1526); (4) De Gen. et Interim
(1527); (5) De Anima (1535);
(6) De Aeternitate Mundi (iS35);
(7) In Physica (1535); (8) In
Meteor. (1551); (9) In Metaphysica,
transl. into Latin by Fr. Patricius
(Ferrara, 1583) ; (10) Collectio
Vocum quae pro diversa significa-
tione Acc'entum diversum accipiunt,
ed. Erasmus Schmid (Witt. 1615)
Philosophicae, Jonsen De Scriptorilnis
Historiae, 365
Philostratus, Vilae Sophislarum, Hero-
icus and Imagines, ed. pr. (Flor.
1496); Vita Apollonii (Ven. 1504),
100, 104 ; Opera, F. Morel (Par.
1608); Olearius (Leipzig, 1709),
including conjectures by Bentley
Philoxenus, Glossary of, ed. H.
Stephanus (Par. 1573); Vulcanius
(L. B. 1600)
Phlegon, ed. pr. (Bas. 1568), 105 ;
Meursius (L. B. 1620)
Phocylides, 379
Photius, Bibliotheca, ed. pr. Hoeschel
(Augs. 1601), 272 ; 105 ; ed. Schott
(Augs. 1606; Gen. 1612; Rouen,
!653)» 305; Lexicon, 201; codex
Galcanus, 355, 428; ed. Hermann
(1808), 428 n. 3; Porson (ed.
Dobree, 1822), 428
Phreas, John, 223
Phrynichus, Ecloga, ed. Z. Callierges
in ed. pr. (Rome, 1517) and in the
Thesaurus of 1523; in Aldine
Lexicon (Ven. 1524), and in Vas-
cosan's ed. (Par. 1532); ed. Nun-
nesius (Bare. 1586), 159; Hoeschel
(Augs. 1601), 272 ; Pauw (Utr.
1739)
Piccolomini, Aeneas Sylvius, 72 f ;
see Sylvius and Pins II
Piccolomini, Alessandro, on Ar. Poet.,
'34
Pichena, Curzio, 303
Pierson, Johann, 461
Pighius (Pighe), (Stephan Wynants),
217
Pilatus, Leontius, his Latin rendering
of Homer, 8 f , 15
Pillans, James, 422
Pincianus, Nonius, 158
Pindar, ed. pr. (Ven. 1513), 98, 104,
118, 195; (Rome, 1515), 80, 107;
Vatican MS, 154 ; ed. Schmied
(Witt. 1616), 272 ; Jo. Benedictus
(Saumur, 1620) ; Oxon. 1697 ;
Twining on, 420 ; metres of, 380 ;
imitators of, 281 f
Piranesi, Gianbattista, 380
Pirkheimer, Wilibald, 259
Pisanello, Vittore, 54, 70
Pithou (Pithoeus), Pierre, 191 f;
Phaedrus,^./;-. (1596), 103; 194,
205
Pitt, (i) Christopher, 416; (2) William,
.
Pius II (Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini),
55, 72 f, 90 ; III, 90
Pizzolpasso, Francesco, 35
Plantin, Christopher, 213 ; 105
Planudes, Maximus, 405
Platina (Bartolomeo de' Sacchi), 92 f
Plato, Petrarch's MS, 9 f ; Republic-,
transl. by Chrysoloras and De-
cembrio, 20, 22 1 ; Phaedo, Gargias,
Crilo, Apology, Phaedrus and
Letters, by Bruni, 46 ; Laws and
Parmenides, by Georgius Trape-
zuntius and Theodoras Gaza, 63 ;
Charrnides, by Politian, 86 ; the
whole, by Ficino, 81
ed. pr. (Ven. 1513), 79, 98, 104;
(Bas. 1534 and 1556) ; Lysis,
ed. Victorius, 137 ; Muretus on
Rep. i, ii, 150 ; ed. H. Stephanus
(Par. 1578), 175 f; ed. Bipont.
(1781-6); jr^0//rt(Ruhnken), 460;
Phaedo, ed. Wyttenbach (1810),
464
INDEX.
489
Controversy on Plato and Aristotle,
74 f; 60, 71 ; Gemistos Plethon,
60 ; the Platonic Academy of
Florence, 81 ; Plato and Virgil,
82; the Platonist Patrizzi, 152;
the Cambridge Platonists, 353
Plautus, studied by Petrarch, 6; codex
Ursinianus, 34, 50 ; Niccoli's MS,
43 ; ed. pr. (Ven. 1472), 103 ; edd.
Beroaldo, Buccardus, Britannico,
87 ; imitated by Machiavelli, 88 ;
performances in Italy, 92, and the
Netherlands, 212; influence on
Italian literature, i5sf;ed. Came-
rarius (Bas. 1558), 266; Janus
Dousa on, 301 ; Acidalius on, 273 ;
Lipsius on, 304 ; ed. Lambinus
(Par. 1576), 190 ; Taubmann
(Witt. 1605), 362 ; Pareus (1610),
362 ; J. F. Gronovius (1664), 321 ;
Bentley on, 407 ; ed. JeanCapperon-
nier (1759), 389
Pleiades, Burney's, 429
Plethon, Georgios Gemistos, 60
Pliny, (i) the elder, studied by Pe-
trarch, 8 ; text revised by Guarino,
50, and Perotti, 71; transl. by
Landino, 82; ed. pr. (Ven. 1469),
97, 103; Cotnm. by Beroaldo
(1476), 86; Castigationes by Her-
molaus Barbarus (1492), 83 ; ed.
Erasmus (152?), 131 ; em. Beatus
Rhenanus (1526), 263; ed. Gelenius
(i535). 265 ; Dalecampius (1587);
Nonius Pincianus in Commelin's
ed. (1593), 158 ; Salmasius on
(1629), 285; ed. J. F. Gronovius
(1669), 321 ; Hardouin (1685), 298;
Count Rezzonico on (1/63), 379;
Engl. transl. by Philemon Holland
(1601), 243
Pliny, (2) the younger, unknown to
Petrarch, 8 ; a MS discovered by
Guarino, 50 ; ed. pr. Epp. , libri
viii (Ven. 1471), 103 ; Rome, 1474 ;
ed. Pomponius Laetus, Rome, 1490;
libri t'jc, ed. Fra Giocondo (Ven.
1508), 42, 99 ; II. Stephanus (Par.
1591); Gruter (1611); Veenhusen
(L. B. 1669) ; Cellarius (Leipzig,
1693, 1700); G. Cortius (Amst.
1 734J 5 J- M- Gesner (Leipzig, 1 739,
1 770) ; Correspondence with Trajan,
36 ; Panegyric, 34 ; ed. pr. (c. 1482),
103; ed. Lipsius (Ant. i6ooetc.),3O4
Plotinus, transl. by Ficino (1492),
82 ; ai. pr. (Bas. 1580), 105
Plutarch, Vitae, Latin translations by
Bruni, 46, Guarino, 50, Filelfo, 55,
Campano, 73 ; Latin transl. of
Vitae (Rome, 1470) ; Guarino's
transl. of Plutarch, On Education,
53; ed. pr., Moralia (Ven. 1509),
98, 104; Vitae (Flor. 1517), 105;
Bryan (Lond. 1729); Opera (Gen.
1572), 105 ; French transl. by
Amyot (1559), 195 f, quoted by
Montaigne, 197 ; Lives, Engl.
transl. by North (1612), 242,
Dryden (1683 f), and the Lang-
hornes (1770); Moralia, ed. Wyt-
tenbach (1795-1821), 463
Poetry, Italian criticism of, 133-5 ;
the elder Scaliger on, 178; G. J.
Vossius on, 309 ; D. Heinsius on
tragic poetry, 314
Poggio Bracciolini, 25-34; 3^ ! '8,
21 f, 157, 162, 220, 274
Poland, 275 f
Politian (Angelo Poliziano), 83-86 ;
3S» 63!", 76, 115, 160, 226; portrait,
58
Pollux, Filelfo's MS, 56; ed.pr. (Ven.
1502), 104; (Flor. 1520), 227;
ed. Grynaeus (Bas. 1536); Seber
(Frankf. 1608); Hemsterhuys(Amst.
1706), 449
Polyaenus, ed. pr., Casaubon (Lyon,
1539), 208; 105; ed. Maaswyck
(Leyclen, 1690) ; Mursinna (Berl.
1756)
Polybius, noticed by Vergerio, 49 ;
transl. by Bruni, 46, and Perotti, 71
(Rome, 1473); studied by Machia-
velli, 89 ; ed. pr. De Militia
Romano, with transl. by Lascaris
(Ven. 1529); ed. pr. i-v (Ilagenau,
1530), 105; i-iv and Epitome of
vii-xvii, ed. Arlenius (Bas. 1549),
265 n. i ; Excerpta de Legationibus,
ed. Ursinus (Ant. 1582); ed.
Casaubon (1609), 209 ; Excerpta
de Virtutibus d Vitiis, ed. Valesius
(1634), 287 ; Jakob Gronovius
(Amst. 1670; ed. Ernesti, Leipzig,
1763^, 329; Schweighauser, with
Lexicon (Leipzig, 1789-95; Oxon.
'823), 396: Thuilliers French
transl., 389; Thucydides and Poly-
bius, 452
Pompeius on Donatus; Salutati, 18
(Keil, Gr. Lat. v)
Pompeius (Festus), Sextus, ed. Perotti,
71, see Festus
490
INDEX.
Pomponazzi (Pomponatius), Pietro,
108-112, 118
Pomponius Laetus, 92 f ; see Laetus
Pomponius Mela ; see Mela
Pontano, Giovanni Gioviano, 90
Pope, Alexander, 117, 122, 40 7 f,
4iof
Porphyrio on Horace, 35 ; in Horace,
ed. 1481, and in ed. G. Fabricius
(Bas. 1555)
Porphyrius, the syllogisms (of his
Introduction to Aristotle's Cate-
gories) denounced by Petrarch, 10 ;
Homerica, ed. pr. (Rome, 1518),
105, 107 ; Scholia on the Iliad,
added to Valckenaer's ed. (1747)
of Ursinus' Virgil; De Abstinetitia,
ed. Victorius (1548), 137
Porson, Richard, 424-430; 405, 418,
422 f, 431 ; portrait, 426
Portraits, ancient, 163
Port-Royal, Jansenists of, 290
Portugal, 1 62 f
Portus, Aemilius, 271 ; Franciscus,
271; 205
Potter, John, 356; 329
Pozzo, Cassiano and Antonio dal, 279
Premierfait, Laurent de, 166
Priapeia, Boccaccio's transcript, 13
Prideaux, Humphrey, 343
Printers of classical works in Italy,
77-80, 95-105; France, 167-170;
Netherlands, 2i3f, 331 f; England,
227; Germany, 262 f
Printing, Maittaire's history of, 411
Prior, Matthew, 388
Priscian, 28, 68 ; ed. pr. (Ven. 1470),
103; ed. Putschius in Gramni. Lat.
(Hanov. 1605), 313
Probus, Aem. (i.e. Nepos), ed. pr.
(1471), 103; see Nepos
Probus, grammarian, Ars Minor or
Institutio Artium, discovered by
Poggio, 29 f; Catholica, discovered
by Merula, 35 ; Pseudo-Probus on
Juvenal, ed. pr., G. Valla (Ven.
1486), 103
Proclus, Chrestornathia, ed. Schott
(Hanov. 1615), 305
Proclus, Sphere of, trans. Linacre, 98
Procopius, Aurispa's MS, 36; transl.
by Bruni, 45 (Foligno, 1470; Ven.
1471), and Grotius (1655), 3'7:
part of Bellum Gothicum in
Pithoeus, Codex Legiim Wisigo-
thorum (Par. 15/9); ed. Hoeschel
(Augs. 1676) ; Vulcanius (L. B.
1597, 1617); De Aedificiis, ed. pr.
(Bas. 1531); Hist or ia Arcana ed.
pr. (Lyon, 1623)
Propertius ; Petrarch, 6, 1 7 ; Salutati,
17; ed. pr. (1472), 103, Politian's
copy, 84; ed. Beroaldo (1487), 87;
imitated by Valeriano, 122 ; ed.
Muretus (1558), 150; Scaliger
(1577), 201; Broukhusius (1702),
330; N. Heinsius on (1742), 325;
Volpi (1755), 379; Barth (1778);
Hemsterhuys, 450, in Burman Il's
ed. (1780), 455
Prosody, Latin; Perotti on, 71
Prosper, Chronicon, MS of, 73 ;
Epigram mata, ed. 1494, Maintz ;
ed. 1502, Ven., 103
Prostasius, bp, 252
Prudentius, 35, 325 ; ed.pr. (Deventer,
1472); Weitzius (Hanov. 1613);
Chamillard (Par. 1687); Cellarius
(Hal. 1703, '39); Teolius (Parm.
1788); Faustinus Arevalus (Rome,
i788f)
Ptolemy, (i) on Astronomy, /j.eyd\T]
tnWa£«, Almagest, Latin epitome
by Regiomontanus (Ven. 1496), 252;
ed. pr. of Gk text, Grynaeus (Bas.
'538); Catalogue of stars, Latin
transl. (Col. 1537), end of vol. iii
in Hudson's Geogr. Gr. minores
(Oxon. 1698-1712); (2) Tetrabiblon
and Centiloquium, ed. Camerarius
(Norimb. 1535), and Melanchthon
(Bas. 1553); (3) De Apparentiis et
Significationibus inerrantium stel-
larum, in Petau's Uranologium
(Par. 1630) ; (4) De Analemmatc
(Rome, 1572); (5) Planisphaerium
(1507 f, and Veil. 1558); (6) Har-
monica (Ven. 1562), ed. Wallis
(Oxon. 1682, '89); (7) on Geo-
graphy, yfwypa<fnK7) vipriyijffis, Latin
transl. (Rome, 1462 etc.), Servetus
(Lyon, 1541); ed. pr. of Gk text,
Erasmus (Bas. 1533; Amst. 1605;
L. B. 1619; Ant. 1624), 131 ; 105
Pufendorf, 311
Pulmannus (Theodor Poelman), 216;
214
Punic War, First ; Bruni's history
of, 46
Purple dye, Politian on, 84
Puteanus, Erycius (Hendrik van Put),
3°5» 3i6
Putschius (Heliasvan Putschen), 313;
105
INDEX.
491
Pythagoras, golden verses of, 379 ;
Lives of, 446
Querolus (fourth cent, imitation of
the Aulularia of Plautus), ed.
Daniel (1564), 191
Quintilian, imperfect MS possessed by
Petrarch, 8, 27; complete MS dis-
covered by Poggio, 27 ; first modern
introduction, by Vergerio, 48 ; in-
fluence of, in the Renaissance, 48,
53 n. 2, 116; Valla, 67; Politian,
83 f ; Pomponius Laetus, 93 ; In-
stitutio Oratoria, ed. pr., Campano
(Rome, 1470), 73, 103 ; ed. 2,
Giov. Andrea de' Bussi (Rome,
1470), 97 ; ed. 3 (Yen. 1471) ; ed.
Navagero (Ven. 1514), 118; Cl.
Capperonnier (1725), 389; Inst.
Orat. and Dec/, ed. Burman (1720),
443 ; ed. pr. of Dedamationes Hi
(Rome, 1475), xix (Ven. 1481),
cxxxviii (Parma, 1494), 103
Quintus Smyrnaeus, discovered by
Bessarion, 37 ; transcribed by Const.
Lascaris, 77; ed. pr. Aid. (Ven.
1504-5) ; ed. Rhodomann (Hanov.
1604), 271
quisquis and quanqitam, pronunciation
of, 184
Rabelais, Francois, 182-4
Rabstein, Johann von, 252
Racine, 290, 314
Radewyns, Florentius, 211
Raimondi, Cosimo, 31
Ramus, Petrus (Pierre de la Ramee),
184; 133, 198, 238, 247, 268
Ranee, Artnand de, 297
Raphael, 90, 115, 12 if
Rapin, (i) Nicolas (1540-1608), 206;
(2) Rene (1621-1687), 291; 290;
his Reflexions sur FArt Poetiqite
(FAristdte, translated by Thomas
Rymer (1674), cp. Springarn's
Critical Essays of the \-tth Cent.
(1908), ii 163 f
Ravenna, John of, 22
Regiomontanus, Johannes (Johann
Miiller of Konigsberg), 252; 103
Reichenau, MSS, 28 f, 296
Reinesius, Thomas, 364
Reitz, Johann Friedrich and Karl
Conrad, 453
Renaissance, 2 f
Rescius (Rutger Ressen), 213
Resende, Luis Andrea de, 162
Reuchlin (Capnion), Johann, 256 f;
63 f, 169, 211, 258
Revett, Nicholas, 432
Rezzonico della Torre, Antonio
Giuseppe conte, 379
Rhenanus, Beatus(BildevonRheinau),
263; 36, 79 n. 4, 103
Rhetores Latini, 389 ; Graeci, ed. pr.
(Ven. 1508-9)1 98, 104; Orationes
Rhetorum Graecorum,ed. pr. (Ven.
Rhetoric, G. J. Vossius on, 307
Rhodomann, Lorenz, 271
Riccoboni, Antonio, 134, 144
Rienzi, 38
Riescio of Poggibonsi, Giorgio, 137
Rigault (Rigaltius), Nicolas, 283
Rinucci, 66 ; Rinutius, transl. of
Aesop (c. 14/8), 104
Rivius, Johann, 268
Robortelli, Francesco, 140-143 ; 105,
!34> '39. '52
Rollock, Hercules, 249
Roman Antiquites, 121; Savile on,
334; chronology, 143; early his-
tory criticised by Perizonius, 331 ;
Orsini's fragments of Roman his-
torians, 154; Sigonius on legal
rights of Roman citizens, 143 ;
Orsini and Agostino on Roman
families, 154; Robortelli (140 f),
Sigonius (143) and Panvinio (145)
on Roman names. See also Fasti
Rome, ruins of, 92 ; topography of,
154, 279; Academy of, 90-93, 123;
printing-press in the palace of the
Massimi, 97 ; Greek press on the
Quirinal, 79 (Monte Caballo, 105,
107); Vatican Library, 34, 66, 90,
92, 154; sack of (1527), 122 f; 93,
121, 133 .
Ronsard, Pierre de, 149, 176, 187 f,
190, 195
Rosetta Stone, 425
Rossfeld (Rosinus), Johann, 340
Rossi, Roberto de', 19
Rubens, 306
Rubianus, Crotus (Johann Jager of
Dornheim), 257
Rucellai, Bernardo, 88
Ruddiman, Thomas, 411
Rue, Charles de la, 292
Ruhnken (originally Ruhneken),
David, 456-460; 151, 304, 389,
402, 418 f, 429, 431, 443, 45 if,
454 ; portrait, 458
Rustica, Scriptores de Re, Guarino,
492
INDEX.
84; ed. pr. (1472), 103; Sylburg,
270
Rustic!, Cencio, 26
Rutilius Lupus, 459 ; see Lupus
Rycke, Theodorus de, 328
Sabellicus, Marcus Antonius (Marc-
antonio Coccio), 92, 154 n. 3
Sabinus, Franciscus Floridus, 179
Sadoleto, Jacopo, 115; 91, 93, nsf,
1 1 8, 123, 247
Sainte-Croix, Guillaume Emmanuel
Joseph, Baron de, 397, 459
Sainte-Marthe, Scevole de, 198
Salel, Hugues, 194
Saliat, Pierre, 195, 197
Sallust, studied by Petrarch, 8 ; one
of Politian's models, 85 ; ed. pr.
(Rome, 1470), 103 ; ed. Pomponius
Laetus (1490), 93; Muretus on,
150; ed. Rivius (1539), 268; Vic-
torius (1576), 137
Salmasius (Claude de Saumaise), 285,
309; 207, 210, 307, 316, 318, 322,
453 ; portrait, 284
Salutati, Coluccio, 17 f; 7, 27, 166,
276
Salviati, Leonardo, 134, 140
Sambucus, Johann, 238; 105
Sanadon, Noel Etienne, 390 ; 290
Sanctius Brocensis (Francisco San-
chez) ; Alinerva, 159; 69 n. r ,
33°. 363
Sandys, George, 241
San Gallo, Giuliano da, 42
Sannazaro, Jacopo (Actius Sincerus
Sannazarius), 90; 35, 115, 117,
J>9> 33°
Sanok, Gregor of, 276
Sanskrit, 438 1
Santen, Laurens van, 461 ; 450, 455
Santeul (Santolius), Jean Baptiste, 290
Savile, Sir Henry, 333-6 ; 207 f, 352
Savonarola, Girolamo, 87
Scala, Bartolomeo, 85, 87
Scaliger (della Scala, de L'Escale),
(1) Julius Caesar, the elder Sca-
liger (1484-1558), 135; 177 f;
117, 119, 130, 148, 1 80, 198
(2) Joseph Justus (1540-1609),
199-204, 305; leaves France for
Leyden (1593), 283 ; at Leyden,
305 f ; his pupils D. Heinsius
and Grotius, 319 ; his influence
on Cluverius, 313, Fr. Dousa,
301, and H. Lindenbrog, 364 ;
aids Gruter, 359, 445, and
Wowerius, 306; is aided by
Casaubon, 207, emulated by
Savile, 336, visited by an English
scholar at Leyden, 234 ; his
style, lid; his table-talk, 344;
his portrait, 200 ; epigram by
Grotius on his portrait, 318 ;
Scaliger on Aldus Manutius II,
101, Budaeus, 171, Casaubon,
205, 208, 209, Dorat, 187,
Grotius, 315, Gruter, 361, Lam-
binus, 190, Lipsius, 304, Muretus,
151, Pithou, 192, Turnebus, 186,
Victorius, 139, 176, 186, Vossius'
Rhetoric, 307 ; Menage on Scali-
ger's Greek verses, 290; Scaliger
and Melville, 247, Delrio, 203,
Scioppius, 203, 362 f; his chro-
nology defended by Perizonius,
331 ; Casaubon, 205, and Hem-
st'erhuys, 452, on Scaliger; Scali-
ger and Bentley, 409
Scapula, Johann, 176, 457
Scarparia, (i) Giacomo da, 19; (2)
Angeli da, 36
Schedel, Hartman, 253; 40
Scheffer, Johann, 368; iii 341
Schlettstadt, 255
Schmied. Erasmus, 272
Scholarship, History of; its four
principal periods, i f
Schoolmen, Savile on the, 333
Schott, Andreas, 305
Schrader, Johannes, 455, 459
Schrevelius (Kornelis Schrevel), 374
Schweighauser, Johann, 396, 418
Scioppius (Schoppe), Caspar, 362 ;
203, 281
Scot, Alexander, 146
Scotland, 243-250
Scriverius, Petrus (Peter Schryver),
307. 3^6
Seber, Wolfgang, 364
Secundus, Joannes (Jan Everaerts),
216, 307
Sedulius, 35 ; earliest dated ed. (Ven.
1502), 103; ed. Cellarius (1704,
'39), Arntzen (1761), Arevalus
(1794)
Segni, Bernardo, 134
Seguier, Pierre, 287 ; Lexica Segue-
riana, 287
Selden, John, 342-4; 203, 315
Selling, William of, 223-5
Seneca, his Letters studied by Petrarch,
4, 7 ; MSS collated by Salutati, 18 ;
Moralia et Epp.> ed. pr. (Naples,
INDEX.
493
!475). i03.;ed.Erasmus(i5i5), 131;
ed. Nonius Pincianus, 158 ; quoted
by Montaigne, 197; translated by T.
Lodge (Lond. 1614); Opera omnia
ed. Lipsius (Trag. 1598; Op. phil.
1605), 304 ; both the Senecas, ed.
Gronovius (1649-58), 321 ; De
Morte Claudii, ed. Beatus Rhenanus
(1515), 263; Seneca's Tragedies
studied by Petrarch, 6 ; transcribed
by Regiomontanus, 252; ed. pr.
(Ferrara, c. 1474-84), 103 ; their
influence on Italian literature, 155;
text corrected by Acidalius, 273
Sepulveda (Gordulensis), Genesio, 158
Sergardi, 281
Seripando, Cardinal, 142
Servius on Virgil, studied by Filelfo,
56, and Rabelais, 183 ; ed. pr.
(Flor. 1471-2), 97; R. Stephanus
(Par. 1532) ; Daniel (Par. 1600) ;
Maaswyck (Leeuwarden, 1717) ;
and in Burman's Virgil (Amst.
1746)
Seyssel, Claude de, 194
Sforza, Francesco, 56; Hippolyta, 77
Shakespeare, 196, 240, 243
Shaw, Thomas, 419
Sherburne, Sir Edward, 351
Siberch, John, Cambridge printer,
_227
Sidney, Sir Philip, 304
Sidonius, Apollinaris, ed. Sirmond,
283
Sigeros, Nicolaus, 8
Sigonius (Carlo Sigone or Sigonio),
143-5 ; his feud with Robortelli,
141-3 ; his contention, that the
Consolatio was the work of Cicero,
refuted by Guilielmus, 273, Kicco-
boni, 144, and Lipsius, 304
Silius Italicus, MS discovered by
Poggio, 29 f; ed. pr. (Rome, 1471),
97, 103; Grotius (1636), 317;
Cellarius (1695) ; Drakenborch,
(1717), 447 ; N. Heinsius on (1742),
325
Simplicius on Aristotle's Categories,
ed. pr. (Ven. 1499), 80, 104 ;
Simplicius, with Epictetus, ed. pr.
(Ven. 1528), 105; ed. D. Heinsius
(L.B.i6i i); Schweighauser(i799f),
396
Sirmond, Jacques, 283
Sixtus IV, 90, 92
Sluiter, Janus Otto, 461
Smetius, Martin (d. 15/8), 14;
Smith, Sir Thomas, 231 f
' Socrates ', Letters of, 404
Solinus, 285, 309
Sophocles, Laur. MS, 36f, 137; ed.pr.
(Ven. 1502), 98, 104; ed. Simon
Colinaeus (Par. 1528), 170; Juntine
ed., Victorius (Flor. 1547) ; Turne-
bus (Par. 15530; H. Stephanus
(Par. 1568); W. Canter (1579),
216; Johnson (1705-46), 4 18; Heath
on (1762), 417; ed. Jean Capperon-
nier (1781), 389; Brunck (1786-9),
395; Musgrave on (1800), 418;
scholia, ed. pr. (1517-8), 79, 107;
Italian .trans!., 155
Soroe, univ., 327
Spain, 157-162
Spalding, Georg Ludwig, 460
Spanheim, Ezechiel, 327; 402
Spence, John, 411, 431
Spenser, Edmund, 237, 240, 243
Spira, Jo. de, 97, 99, 103 ; Vinde-
lin de, 103
Spon and Wheler, 299
Stanley, Thomas, 351, 427
Stanyhurst, Richard, 240
Statesmen, scholarly, 433
Statins, Thebais and Achilleis, studied
by Petrarch, 6; ed. pr. c. 1470.
Silvae discovered by Poggio, 3 1 ;
Madrid MS, 162 ; ed.pr., with Tib.,
Prop., Cat. (Ven. 1472), 103;
Politian's copy of this ed., 84 ; ed.
Dom. Calderinus (Rome, 1475) ;
T. F. Gronovius on (1637), 321 ;
ed. Markland (1728; ed. Sillig,
1827), 413. ed.pr. of Opera omnia,
Tliebais, Achilleis and Silvae (Ven.
1475-83), 103; ed. Bernartius (Ant.
1595); F. Lindenbrog (Par. 1600);
Gev'artius (L. B. 1616); J. F.
Gronovius (Amst. 1653); Marolles
(Par. 1658); Barth (1664), 363
Statins, Achilles, 163, 189
Stephanus Byzantinus, ed. pr. (Ven.
1502), 104; Flor. 1521; ed. Xy-
lander (Bas. 1568); Thomas de
Pinedo (Amst. 1678); Salmasius,
Gronovius and Berk elius(L.B. 1688,
1694)
Stephanus (Estienne), Robertus, 173;
105, 415; portrait, 174; Henricus,
175-7; IO?; Carolus, 105
Stillingfleet, Edward, 401
Stobaeus, Florilegium, ed. pr. Trin-
caveli (1535), 105; ed. Conrad
Gesner (1543 etc.), 269; transl. by
494
INDEX.
Grotius, 316; Eclogae, ed. pr. Canter
(r575)' IO5> Florilegiu wand Eclogae
(Gen. 1609)
Strabo, transl. by Guarino, 50, 66;
ed. pr. (Ven. 1516), 104; ed. Xy-
lander (Bas. 1571), 270; Casaubon
(Gen. 1587, Par. 1620; ed. Alme-
loveen, Amst. 1707), 208
Strada, Famianus, 280 f; 363
Strassburg, 255, 263, 267, 296, 367 f,
395 f
Strozzi, Palla, 19, 37, 43, 46, 63, 76
Stuart, James, 432
Sturm, Johannes, 267 ; 235, 238, 339
Subiaco, 96
Suetonius, studied by Petrarch, 8 ; ed.
pr. Campano (Rome, 1470), 73,
97, 103; ed. Erasmus (1518), 131;
Achilles Statius on, 163; ed.
Casaubon (Gen. 1595; Par. 1610),
209; Schild (L. B. 1647); Burman
(Amst. 1736), 443; Oudendorp
(L.B. 1751), 454; transl. by Phile-
mon Holland (1606), 243; MS of
Suetonius, de gram, et rhet., 35
Suidas, ed. pr. (Milan, 1499) 65, 102,
104; ed. Aldus (Ven. 1514; Bas.
1544); H. Wolf (Bas. 1564, 1581),
268; Aem. Portus (Gen. 1619,
1630); Kiister (Cantab. 1705), 446;
408 ; Porson on, 429
Sulpicia, 35
Sweynheym and Pannartz, 96, 103
Swift, Jonathan, 405
Sydenham, Floyer, 417
Sylburg, Friedrich, 270; 203
Sylvester I, Valla on Pope, 67
Sylvius Piccolomini, Aeneas (Pius II),
72 f; 220, 251 f, 273, 276
Symmachu's, Epp. ed.pr. (c. 1508-13),
103; Strassb. 1510; Bas. 1549; Par.
1580 etc.; Juretus (Par. 1604);
Scioppius (Maintz, 1608)
Syncellus, Georgius, 202
Synesius, ed. pr. Turnebus (Par.
r553); Petavius (Par. 1612, 1633,
1640), 283
Syrus, Publius, Sententiae, ed. pr.
Erasmus (Strassb. 1516); Fabricius
(i 55°) ;Gruter(r6o4);Velser (1608);
Havercamp (1708, 1727); Bentley
(1726), 407
Tabula Isiaca, 114
Tacitus, unknown to Petrarch, 8 ;
studied by Boccaccio, i3f, 32 f;
MSS of Annals, i-v, 108 ; Annals,
xi-xvi, and Hist., 14, 33, 36;
Agricola, Germania and Dialogits,
33 f> 35 ? *&• Pr- °f Ann. xi-xvi,
Hist., Germ., Dial. (Ven. c. 1470),
103; Agricola (c. 1482), 103;
Opera Omnia, ed. Beroaldo (Rome,
1515), 103, 108; quoted by Machia-
velli, 89; Muretus on, 150; ed.
Beatus Rhenanus (Bas. 1519-33),
263 ; Muretus on, 150 ; ed. Lipsius
(1574 etc.), 303 ; Boccalini on, 88 ;
ed. Gronovius (1672), 321; Brotier
(Par. 1771), 394; Germania, ed.
Conring (1652), 368 ; Annals and
Germania, transl. by Grenawey ;
Histories and Agricola by Savile,
333
Talbot, Robert, 334
Tarragona, Antonio Agostino, abp of,
1 60, 154
Tasso, 156
Taubmann, Friedrich, 273, 362
Taylor, (i) Jeremy, 352; (2) John,
4H; 337
Telesio, Bernardino, 153
Temple, Sir William, 403
Terentianus Maurus, 35, in Putschius,
Gram. Lat. ; ed. Santen and Van
Lennep (Utr. 1825)
Terence, studied by Petrarch, 6 ;
Boccaccio's MS, 12; Politian, 84;
Bembo's MS, U2, 114, 154 ; ed. pr.
(Milan, c. 1470), 103 ; ed. Britan-
nico (1485), 87; Navagero (1517),
118; Erasmus (1532), 131 ; Muretus
(1555 etc.), 150; Faernus (Flor.
1565), 147; Victorius em. (1565),
137 ; F. Lindenbrog (Par. 1602 ;
Frankf. 1623), 364; Pareiis, with
index (Neustadt, 1619), 362 ;
Bentley (Cantab. 1726 etc.), 407;
Westerhof (Hag. 1727 etc.); MS of
Donatus on, 34 f ; Bembo on
Terence, 114; influence of Terence
on Italian literature, 156
Testi, Fulvio, 282
Themistius, transl. by Hermolaus
Barbarus (Ven. 1481), 83 ; MS of,
1 58 ; Paraphrases, and 8 Orations,
ed. pr. (Ven. 1534); 13 Orations,
ed. H. Stephanus (1562); Petavius
(1613-18); Hardouin (1684)
' Themistocles ', Letters of, 404
Theocritus, ed. pr., Id. i-xviii (Milan,
c. 1493), 97, 104; i-xxx (Ven. 1496
N.S.), 98, 104; (Rome, 1516), 80;
Latin verse transl. by Eobanus
INDEX.
495
Hessus (1531), 26 if; Casaubon on,
209; ed. Thomas Warton (1770)
with scholia ; Brunck's Analecta
(X772). 395 : Valckenaer (1779-81),
456
Theognis, ed. pr. (Ven. 1496 N.S.),
104; Par. 1537, 1543; Camerarius
(Bas. 1551); Melanchthon (Witt.
1560); Seber (Leipzig, 1603, 1620);
Sylburg, PoetaeGnomifi((3tr, 1651,
1748); Just (1710); Fischern (1739);
Bandini (Flor. 1766), 379 ; Brunck,
Poetae Gnomici (Strassb. 1784,
1817)
Theophrastus, Hist. Plant., transl. by
Gaza, 62, 66; ed. pr. (Ven. 1495-8),
104; ed. D. Heinsius (1613); Ban-
dini (1770), 380. Characters, ed.
Pirkheimer (i 527) ; Casaubon (i 592,
1599, 1612), 208 ; Duport, 349 ;
Needham (1712), 413; Pauw (1737);
Fischer (1763); Amaduzzi (1786),
384
Thesaurus Cornucopiae (Ven. 1496),
108 n. i ; Thesauri of Robert, 173,
and Henri Estienne, 175; Graevius,
328, and Jakob Gronovius, 329
Thomas Magister, ed. pr. (Rome,
1517), 80; in the Aldine Dictiona-
rium Gr. (Ven. 1525); with Phry-
nichus and Moschopulus (Par. 1532);
ed. N. Blancardus (Franeker, 1690);
Bos (Franeker, 1698), 446; Bernard
(L.B. i 757), 451 ; Orationes et Epp.
ed. L. Norrman (Ups. 1693)
Thuanus (Jacques Auguste de Thou),
199, 20 r, 204 f, 206 f
Thucydides, Valla's transl., 69 ;
Bruni's transl., 89 ; Latin transl.
at St Paul's, 220 ; Machiavelli,
88 f; ed. pr. (Ven. 1502), 98, 104 ;
ed. H. Stephanus (1564); Hudson
(1696), 356 ; Wasse, 412, and
Duker (1731), 447 ; French transl.
by Seyssel (1527); English transl.
by Hobbes (1629)
Thuillier, Vincent, 389
Tiara, Petreius, 301
Tibullus, excerpts alone known to
Petrarch, 6 ; Tibullus, Properties,
Catullus, Statius, Silvae, ed. pr.
(Ven. 1472), 84, 103 ; Politian's
copy, 84; ed. 2 (Ven. 1475) ;
Tibullus, ed. Bernardinus Cyllenius
Veronensis (Rome, 1475); imitated
by Bembo, 112, 114; ed. Mure-
tus (1558), 150; Achilles Statius
(i566f), 163; Catullus, Tibullus,
Prop., ed. Scaliger (1577, 1582,
1600), 201 ; Passerat (1608), 191 ;
Broukhusius (Amst. 1708), 330;
Volpi (Patav. 1710, 1749), 379;
Heyne (ed. 1777), 420; cp. Car-
tault, A propos du Corpus Tibiilli-
amim (1906), i — 74
Tifernas, Gregorius (Gregorio da
Citta di Castello), 66 n., 168
Timaeus, Platonis, Lexicon of, ed.
Ruhnken, 450, 457, 463
Tiptoft, John, earl of Worcester, 63,
221
Tiraqueau, Andre, i82f
Tissard, Francois, 170
Titian, 106, 136, 139
' Titus Livius of Forli ', 220
Tolemei, Claudio, 93
Torrentius (van Beeck), Hermann, 216
Tortellius (Giovanni Tortelli), 68
Tooke, John Home, 431
Tory, Geoffroy, 1 95
Toup, Jonathan, 417; 427
Toussain (Tusanus), Jacques, i8r, 195
Townley, Charles, 434
Trajan's column, 280
Trapezuntius, Georgius, 63 ; 54, 66, 75
Trappe, La, 297
Traversari, Ambrogio (Ambrosius
Camaldulensis), 44 f; 19, 34, 36
Triclinius, 395
Trincaveli, or Trincavelli, Vettore
(1491-1593), ed. Arrian's Epictetus
(printed by J. F. Trincavelli, Ven.
1535), 105; ed. Aristotle's Poetic
(>536), 133
Trissino, Giovanni Giorgio, 282
Trithemius (of Trittenheim), Johannes,
259; 258, 296
Tryphiodorus, 379
Tubingen, 270
Tunstall, (i) Cuthbert, 170; (2) James,
4'3
Turberville, George, 241
Turnebus (Tournebu, Tournebus,
Tournebou), Adrianus, i85f; [39,
150, 189 f, 193, 197 f, 268, 340;
portrait, 185
Tursellinus, Horatius (Orazio Torsel-
lino), 369
Twining, Thomas, 420 f
Twyne, Thomas, 240
Tyrwhitt, Thomas, 419; 405, 457
Ulpian, on Demosthenes, ed. pr.
(Ven. 1503), 104
496
INDEX.
'Unity of Time1, 188; the 'Three
Unities', 291
Urbano da Bologna, 109
Urbino, Federigo, duke of, 54, 95 f
Urceus, Codrus (Antonio Urceo),
9i
Ursinus, Fulvius (Fulvio Orsini), 153 ;
160, 189, 456
Vacca, Flaminio, 155
Vadianus (Joachim von Watt), 260
Vagetius (Heinriclv Vaget), De Stylo
Latino, 69 n. i
Vaillant, Jean Fra^ois Foy, 391
Valckenaer, Lodewyk Kaspar, 456 f;
402, 451, 457, 461
Valdarfer, Christopher, 99, 103
Valeriano, Piero, 122
Valerius Flaccus, MS discovered by
Poggio, 27 ; Poggio's autograph
copy, 24, 29, 162 ; Laur. MS, 28 ;
ed. pr. (Bol. 14/4), 103 ; ed. Jo.
Bapt. Pius (Bologna, 1519); Lud.
Carrio (Ant. 1565^; N. Heinsius
(Amst. 1680), 325 ; Burman (Utr.
1724), 443 ; 409
Valerius Maximus, studied by Pe-
trarch, 8 ; ed. pr. (Strassb. c. 14/0),
103; ed. 1502, 99; Leonicenus on,
54 n.; ed. Pighius (Ant. 1567 etc.),
217 ; Lipsius (Ant. 1585), 304 ;
Vorst (Berl. 1672); A. Torrenius
(L. B. 1726)
Valerius, Cornelius (Kornelis Wou-
ters), 216 ; 305
Valesius, (i) Henricus (Henri de
Valois), 287 ; 295, 335 ; (2) Hadria-
nus (Adrien de Valois, 1607-92),
De Cena Trimalehionis, Par. 1666
Valla, Laurentius (Lorenzo della
Valle), 66-70; 128
Valla, Georgius (Giorgio della Valle),
133
Varchi, Benedetto, 135
Varchiese, Antonio Francesco, 227
Varinus (Guarino da Favera), 107
n. 3 ; see Gamers
Variorum editions, 445
Varro, quoted by Boccaccio, 13;
Filelfo's MS, 56 ; De Lingua
Latina, ed. pr. (Rome, 1471), 93,
97, 103; ed. Perotti, 71; Agostino
(Rome, 1554), 160 ; Scioppius
(Ingolst. 1605), 363 ; De Re
Rustic a, ed. pr. in Script ores de
Re Rustica (Ven. 1472), 103; ed.
Victorius (Lyon, 1541), r37
Vavasseur, Francois (Franciscus Va-
. vassor), 289
Vegetius, studied by Petrarch, 8 ; MS
discovered at St Gallen, 29; earliest
dated ed. (Rome, 1487), 103; ed.
Scriverius (Ant. 1585 etc.) ; N.
Schwebel (Norimberg. 1 767) ; Ou-
dendorp and Bessel (Strassb. 1806);
also in Veteres de Re mililari Scrip-
tores (Wesel, 1670)
Veleia (S. of Piacenza), exploration of,
39 !
Velius Longus, 35
Velleius Paterculus, 36 ; ed. pr. Beatus
Rhenanus (Bas. 1520), 263; 103;
Acidalius (Patav. 1590), 273; Lip-
sius (L. B. 1591 etc.), 303 ; Gruter
(Frankf. 1607); G. F. Vossius
(L. B. 1639); Boekler (Strassb.
1642), 367'; Thysius (L. B. 1653);
N. Heinsius (Amst. 1678), 325 ;
Hudson (Oxon. 1693) ; Burman
(L. B. 1719), 443 ; Ruhnken (L. B.
I779). 459
Velletri on Valla, 69 n. i
Venice, Academy of, 98 ; printing
at, 97
Vercelli, 18
Vergara, Francisco, 159
Vergecio, Angelo, 175
Vergerio, Pietro Paolo, 48 ; 20, 251,
274
Vernet, Jacob, 299
Vernias, Nicoletto, 109 f
Verona, MS of Cicero ad Atlicuin etc.
discovered at, 7
Verrius Flaccus, 160, 291; see Festus
Vespasiano da Bisticci, 95 f; 221
Vianello, Francesco, 144
Vibius Sequester, studied by Boc-
caccio, 1 2
Victorius, Petrus (Piero Vettori),
135-140; 105, 176, 186, 380;
portrait, 136
Vida, Marco Girolamo, 117, 133;
9L 4r7
Vienne, Council of, 168
Vigerus (Francois Vigier), 287
Villoison, Jean Baptiste Gaspard
d'Ansse de, 397 f; 429, 459
Vio, Thomas de, 109
Virgil, Medicean MS, 379 ; Bembine
MS, 154; Petrarch and Virgil, 5;
Virgil and Plato, 82 ; allegorical
significance of Virgil, 82 ; Landino,
82 ; Politian, 84 ; ed. pr. (Rome or
Strassburg, c. 1469), 97, 102, 103 ;
INDEX.
497
Pomponius Laetus, 93 ; Aldine ed.
(1501), 99 ; ed. Navagero (1514),
118; Cerda (1608 f), 162; N.
Heinsius (1664), 325 ; Maaswyck
(Leeuwarden, 1727) with Servius,
Philargyrius etc.; Burman (1746),
443 ; Martyn's Bucolics and Georgics
(1741-9), iii 429; Vida's imitation
of Virgil, [17; Virgil, Vida's model
of epic verse, 133 ; Bembo's apos-
trophe, 115; Orsini's illustrations,
153 ; Virgil's influence on Italian
literature, 156 ; Aeneid, transl. in
Scottish verse by Gawin Douglas
(ed. 1553); transl. Dryden (1697),
356 ; Chr. Pitt (1740), 416 ; Bucolics
and Georgics, Jos. Wart on ; Appen-
dix Vergiliana, discovered by Boc-
caccio, 13 ; Bembo on Culex, 114;
Catalecta, ed. Scaliger (15/3), 201;
Ciris, ed. Barth, 363
Virgi-lius, or Vergilius, 84
Virgilius, Marcellus, 89
Virulus, Carolus, 212
Visconti, Ennio Quirino ; Filippo
Aurelio ; Pietro ; Ludovico Tullio ;
383 f
\itez, Joannes, 274, 276
Vitruvius, 28, 42 ; ed. pr. (Rome,
c. 1486), 103 ; Era Giocondo (Ven.
1511), 42 ; study of, 93, 122
(Raphael) ; transl. by Martin, 194
Vittorino da Eeltre, 53-55; 71, 183;
portrait, 54
Vives, Juan Luis, 2i4f; 158; cp.
Bonilla y San Martin, Luis Vives y
lafilosofia del renacitnento, 814 pp.
(Madrid, 1903), with portrait, re-
produced in Revue Hispanique, xii
(I9.05)» 373-412
Volpi (Vulpius), Giannantonio, 379
Volusenus, Elorentius, 247
Vorst, Johannes, 365
Vossius, (i) Gerardus Johannes, 307—
9? 3°r> 3 '6; portrait, 308; (2)
Isaac, 322 ; 355
Vulcanius (De Smet), Bonaventura,
301
Wakefield, (Gilbert, 430
Wales, 250
Warburton, William, 417, 436
Warham, William, 128
Warton, Thomas (1728-1790), 3 ; ed.
Theocritus, with scholia (1770),
418
Wasse, Joseph, 412, 447
Watson, Thomas, (r) bp of Lincoln,
237; (2) poet, of Oxford?, 241
Watt (Vadianus), Joachim von, 260
Webbe, William, 237, 240
Wedderburn, David, 249
Weingarten, abbey of, 29
Weller (von Molsdorff), Jacob, 364
Wellesley, Marquis (1760-1842), 434
Welser, Marcus, 272
Wessel, Johann, 211
Wesseling, Peter, 453; 413
Westphalia, John of, 213
Whiston, William, 412
Wilson, Sir Thomas, 236
Wimpheling, Jacob, 255, 258
Winckelmann, Johann Joachim, 279,
384; iii' 2 1-24
Winterton, Ralph (1600-1636), Poetae
Afinores Graeci (Cantab., 8 edd.
between 1635 and 1700)
Wittenberg, univ., 265^ 272, 456
Wolf, (i) Frieclrich August, 397 f,
433, 435, 446, 460, 465 ; iii 51-60;
(2) Hieronymus, 268f; 272 ; (3) Jo-
hann Christian, 210
Wolfenbiittel MSS, 21, 35, 366
Wood, Robert, 432
Wotton, William, 403 f
Wouters, Kornelis (Corn. Valerius),
216
Wowerius, Johannes (Jan van der
Wouwer), 306, 365
Wyttenbach, Daniel, 461-5 ; 327,
418, 431, 457, 460; portrait, 462
Xenophon, De Re Equestri, Aurispa's
MS, 36 ; f Heron and Hellenica,
transl. by Bruni, 46; Cyrop., Ages.,
Lac. Resp., by Filelfo, 55 ; Mem.
by Bessarion, 61 ; Oeconomicits, by
Lapo, 66 ; Hellenica, ed. pr. (Ven.
1503), 98, 104 ; Opera, ed. Boninus
(Klor. 1516), 104; Apologia, Agesi-
latts, Hieroti, ed. Reuchlin (Hage-
nau, 1520); Opera (Ven. 1525),
105 ; ed. Brylinger (Bas. 1545);
Ment. ed. V'ictorius (Flor. 1551),
137 ; Opera, II. Stephanus (Par.
1561, Gen. '8 1 ) ; Cyrop. , Savile (1615)
Xenophon Ephesius, ed. pr. Antonio
Cocchi (Lond. 1726); Hemsterhuys
on, 450
Ximenes, Cardinal, 157 f; 105
Xylander (Wilhelm Holtzmann), 270;
498 INDEX.
Young, (i) Thomas, 344 ; (2) William, I497)> 104 ; Vincentius Opsopoeus
415 (Hagenau, 1535) ; Schott (Ant.
1612)
Zabarella, Jacopo, 109 Zimara, Marcantonio, 109
Zend, 439 Zomino (Sozomeno) da Pistoia, 26, 28
Zenobius, proverbs of, ed. fr. (Flor. Zonaras, 289
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