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A   HISTOEY 


DOMINION   OF  CANADA. 


J.'ntfrrd  for  C<tjniri,jht  in  the  Ojfitr  of  the  Aliniiter 

of  Agriculture,  according  to  Act  of  Parliament  of 

Canada,  by  A.  &  \V.  MACKINLAT.  1898. 


A  HISTOBY 


OF   THE 


DOMINION  OF  CANADA. 


BY 


JOHN  B.  CALKIN,  M.A. 

PRINCIPAL  OF  THE  NORMAL  SCHOOL,    TRURO.    U.S. 


Z3TI 


_J 


'  Let  all  the  ends  thou  aim'st  at  be  thy  country's, 
'J  hy  God's,  and  truth's.' 


A,    &    W.    MACKINLAY, 

HALIFAX,  N.S. 
1338. 


F 

51 


NOTK. — -The  author  desires  here  to  express  his 
thanks  to  those  friends  who  have  in  various  ways 
aided  him  in  the  preparation  of  this  book.  He  would 
also  recogni/e  his  indebtedness  to  the  following  works  : 
Parkmati's  Histories,  Kingsford^s  History  of  Canada, 
The  Life  of  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald,  by  G.  Mercer 
Adam  ;  Hon.  Alexander  MacKcnzie,  His  Life  and 
Times,  by  William  Buckingham  and  Hon.  George 
Ross ;  Discovery  of  America,  by  John  Fiske ;  McCarthy^ 
History  of  our  Times,  and  McMasters  History  of  the 
People  of  the  United  States. 


MUG  3  01965 


i  0-  0  4  i  I  f 


CHAPTER    L 


INTRODUCTION. 


Extent  of  the  .Dominion    .   . 
Condition     Four     Hundred 

Years  ago 
Early  Inhabitants 


PAGB 
1 


Present  Inhabitants 
Mother  Country   . 
British  Empire 
France  . 


PAGE 
3 
4 
4 
5 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE    DISCOVERY    OF    AMERICA. 


The  Northmen      ...  7 
The   Route   of   Trade   with 

India  ...        .         .  8 

Strange  Notions  .        ,         .  8 

Portuguese  Navigators          .  9 

Columbus      ....  10 

Form  of  the  Earth  11 


Size   of   the    Earth    under- 
estimated .        .        .        .  11 
Queen     Isabella    aids     Co- 
lumbus               .         .         .12 
Provision  for  the  Voyage      .  12 
The  Voyage  ....  13 
Discoveries  of  Columbus  14 


CHAPTER  III. 


EARLY    EXPLORERS. 


TheCabots   .        .  .  .       1C 

Americus  Vespucius  .  .       IN 

Discovery    of     the  Pacific 

Ocean        .        .  .  ' .       19 

Magellan       .        .  .  .19 

Francis  I.      .         .  .20 

De  LeVy         .         .  .  .21 

Verrazano     .         .  .  .21 

Jacques  Cartier    .  .  .21 


Cartier's  Second  Voyage      .  23 

Carder's  Third  Voyage         .  24 

Troubles  in  France       .        .  25 

Fisheries       ....  25 
Fur  Trade      .         .         .         .26 

De  la  Roche .        .  26 

Ciiauvin  and  Pontgrav^        .  27 

Aymar  de  Chastes        .        .  27 

Champlain    ....  28 


VI 


CONTKNTS. 


CIIAITKU  IV. 

FIHST    CHAPTER    IN    TUK    IIISloUY    OF    A  CAD  IK. 


FAQI 

DC  Monts  .--ails  for  Acadie    .  3O 

1'ort  Koyal     .         .         .  31 

St.  Croix        ....  .'JU 

Port  Koyal  founded      .         .  .'52 

Poutrincourt          .         .         .  33 

Ix!scarbot      ....  33 

Order  of  the  "  Good  "  'J'iine  .'14 

Port  Koyal  in  KJoT        .         .  3! 


Port  Koyal  abandoned          . 
Keturn  to  Port  Koyal    . 
Troubles        . 

J:ime«town  . 

Port  Royal  destroyed    . 
No* a  Scotia  nnd  Sir  William 
Alexander 


PAOE 

35 
35 
36 
36 
37 


CIIAITKR  V. 


CANADA    UNDKIt   CHAMPLAIN. 


De  Monts's  New  Kit-Id  .  3D  i 
Quebec  founded  .  .  .  .'>'.» 
Ji:<lian  Tribes  .  .  .40 
Th..-  Algonquins  .  .  .40 
The  Iroquois  .  .  .  41 
The  llurons  .  .  .  .42 
Champlain's  Difficulties  .  44  | 
Better  Prospects  .  .  .  44 
Foiav  against  the  Iroquois  .  44 
The  Battle  ....  45 
Champlain's  l'urj>o.se>  .  .  45 
The  Site  of  Montreal  selected  46 


In  Search  of  a  Northern  Sea       46 
'1  he     Kccollets     ;irrive      in 

Canada  .  .  .  .47 
Champlain  visits  the  Huron.s  47 
War  with  the  Iioquois  .  47 

Champlain  amon^  the  Hurons    48 


Condition  of  the  Colony 
The  Company  of  New  France 
Shattered  Hopes  . 
Capture  of  Quebec  by  Kirk  . 
Treaty  of  St.  Germain . 
Champlain's  Death 


CIIAITKU  VI. 


THE    UUI.K    OK   THE    HUNDRED    ASSOCIATES. 


Chief  Features      .         .         .  53 

Montmajrny  ...  53 

Character  of  the  Age    .         .  54 

Jesuit  Missionaries       .        .  54 

The  Three  Marys  .         .  55 

Founding  of  Montreal .         .  55 

Hostility  of  the  Iroquois      .  56 

The  Huron  Missions      .         .  57 

The  Huron  Villages  attacked  5<S 

St.  Joseph      ....  58 

St.  Louis  5« 
The   Hurons  abandon  their 

Country     ....  51) 

New  England  W) 
Proposed  Tr  aty  .         .         .61 


the 


Domestic  Quarrels 
Laval      .... 
Liquor  Traffic 
Heroism  at  Long  Satilt 
Close   of   the    Kulc    of 

Hundred  Associates. 
Earthquakes 
Rival    Governors    in     Nova 

Scotia        .... 
Fort  la  Tour  captured  . 
De   la   Tour  and    D'Aulnay 

Charni>e    .... 
Le  Borgne    . 

Acadie  seized  by  the  English 
Treaty  of  Breda    . 


48 
49 
50 
51 
51 
51 


62 
63 
63 
64 

65 
C>5 

65 
67 

68 
68 
CO 
6'J 


CONTENTS. 


Vll 


CHAPTER  VI  [. 


ROYAL     GOVERNMENT. 


Officers  of  Government 

Laval  and  Mczy    . 

Mezy's  Recall 

New  Officers 

New    York    taken    by    the 

English      .... 
Courcelle's  Expedition 

against  the  Mohawks 
The  Mohawks  chastised 
Improvements  under  Talon . 


PAGE 
70 
71 
71 
71 


PAGE 

Obstacles  to  Progress  .        .  74 
The  Liquor  Traffic  and  Bush- 
rangers     ....  75 

Trade 75 

Jesuit  Missions     ...  76 

Extension  of  Territory          .  76 

Feudal  Tenure  in  Canada    .  76 

Duties  of  the  Seignior .        .  77 

Obligations  of  the  Vassal     .  78 

Doing  Homage     ...  78 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

CANADA    UNDER    FRONTENAC. 


A  New  Governor  ...  79 

Discovery  of  the  Mississippi  79 

Fort  Frontenac  founded      .  81 

LaSnlle        ....  81 

Frontenac  recalled  .  .  83 
LaBarre  .  .  .  .83 
Rivalry  between  French  and 

English     ....  84 


Hudson's  Bay  Company 

organized  ....  85 

Dennonville           ...  85 

War  against  the  Senecas      .  86 

Prospect  of  Peace         .        .  87 
The     "Rat"     kills     the 

Peace         ....  88 

Massacre  at  La  Chine  .  89 


CHAPTER  IX. 

BORDER  WARFARE  BETWEEN  FRENCH  AND  ENGLISH. 


Frontenac's  Return       .        .  90 

Raids  against  the  English    .  91 

Retaliation    ....  91 

Phips  takes  Port  Royal        .  92 

Phips  fails  to  take  Quebec  .  93 

Expedition  against  Montreal  95 


Acadie  under  Villebon .        .  95 

Hannah  Dustan    ...  96 

Ravages  of  Ben  Church        .  97 

Treaty  of  Ryswick        .        .  97 

Death  of  Frontenac      .         .  97 

De  Callieres  and  the  Indians  98 


CHAPTER  X. 

QUEEN  ANNE'S  WAR 


How  the  War  began 
Deerfield 
Retaliation    . 
Privateering          . 
Restrictions  removed 


100 
101 
101 
102 


Colonel  March  at  Port  Royal  103 

A  False  Alarm      ...  104 

Capture  of  Port  Royal.        .  104 

Sir  Hovenden  Walker  .        .  107 

The  Treaty  of  Utrecht         .  108 


Vlll 


CONTENTS. 


CHAITKK  XI. 

THE    8TKI  (JCil.E    COXTINL'EI). 


Vaudrenil      . 

Reauliarnois 

Hi \alry  between  the  French 

and  Enpli.-h 

Louisburg  founded        .         . 
Nova  Scotia  . 
Acadian  Settlements     . 
Treatment  of  the  Acadian*  . 
Government . 


I'AflK 

100 


110 
111 


PAOI 

Annapolis  besieged       .        .  114 

Capture  of  Ixmisburg  .        .  115 

D'Anville'0  Expedition         .  116 

Rami  say  at  Beaabaasin        .  11K 

Massacre  at  Grand  Pr^         .  119 
The  Acadinns  between  Two 

Fires          ....  120 

Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle     .  120 


CIIAPTKK    XII. 
8KTTI.KMKNT    <>K  HALIFAX. 


A  New  Scene  at  Chebucto 

Making  a  Hotnc 

The  Acadians  lefuse  O.-ith  of 

Allegiance 

Hostility  of  the  Indians 
Evil  Influences 


Summary  of  Events 

Governors 

The  Ohio  Valley    . 

George  Washington 

Reinforcements  from 

land  and  France 
Plan  of  the  Campaign 
Hiaddock's  Defeat 
Dieskau  at  Lake  George 


icto    .      1 

"12 

Li:nenburg  sottle<l    by  Ger- 

.      1 

'_'!! 

mans  ..... 

127 

lath  of 

Boundaries    .... 

127 

.     1 

LM 

The  Limits  of  Nova  Scotia  . 

128 

us         .      1 

IT) 

?'ort  Beaus^jour    .        .        . 

128 

.      1 

'-'(I 

Fort  Lawrence      .         .         . 

129 

CHAP  TI- 

R   X  I  I  L 

THE 

YEAH     1755. 

.    1 

30 

Shirley    fails    to    take   Nia- 

.    1 

:  o 

para    

137 

.    1 

31 

C;ipttirc  of  Iteau.-ejour  . 

137 

.    1 

:<•_' 

Expul.-inn  of  tlie  Aradians  . 

138 

Enp 

(Jiand  Pie  and  Canard 

13!> 

.    1 

32 

A  Sad  Scene           .         .         . 

140 

.    1 

:;."> 

Ami;i|»'lis  and  C'liitrnecto 

140 

.    1 

:{:! 

Koult.s  .         .... 

140 

re       .     1 

:<t; 

Character  of  i  he  Measure 

141 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

THK    SEVEN    YEAKs'    WAH. 


Parties,    Place.",    and    Condi- 
tions   

Officers          .... 

Capture  of  Oswego 

London   and    Holhourne    at 
Halifax      .... 

Fort   William    Henrv    taken 
by  the  French  . 


Policy  of  William  Pitt  . 


1-14       Frontennc  and  Dnquc-ne 


146 
146 


Second  Siege  of  Lou  isburg  . 
St    John's   Island   taken  by 

tlio  Enclish  .  .  .  HD 
The  Sf.  John  River  .  .149 
Uiiti-h  defeated  at  Ticonde- 


JT.O 


CONTENTS. 


IX 


CHAPTER  XV. 


THE    END    OF    FRENCH    RULE    IN    AMERICA. 


PAGE 
152 
153 
153 


Dark  Days  .... 
The  British  Plan  of  Conquest 
Character  of  Officers  . 
Lake  Champlain  and  Niagara  154 
The  Siege  of  Quebec  .  .  154 
The  French  Dofences  .  .  156 
Policies  of  Montcalm  and 

Wolfe  ,  .  .  .157 
Fire-ships  ....  157 
Advance  Movements  .  .157 
Failure  of  July  31  .  .  158 
The  English  move  up  the 

River.         .  .      159 


PAGE 

A  Bold  Scheme  .  .  .151) 
The  English  on  the  Heights  160 
Montcalm's  Decision  .  .  161 
The  Battle  .  .  .  .102 
Death  of  Wolfe  and  Mont- 

calm 163 

The  Surrender       .        .        .     165 
Too  Late       .         .        .        .166 
The  British  occupy  Quebec  .     166 
Efforts    to    recapture    Que- 
bec      16G 

The  Closing  Scene  .  .  167 
Surrender  of  Montreal .  16& 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


LAYING    NEW    FOUNDATIONS. 


Provisional  Government  .  169 
The  Inhabitants  of  Canada  .  169 
Pontiac's  Conspiracy  .  .170 
Treaty  of  Paris  .  .  .172 
Government  of  Canada  .  172 
Privileges  of  the  "  New  Sub- 
jects" ....  174 
French  Canadians  dislike 

English  laws      .        .        .174 
The  Quebec  Act    .        .        .175 


First     Assembly     in     Nova 

Scotia  »  .  ' .  .  .177 
New  England  Colonists  in 

Nova  Scotia  .  .  .177 
County  of  Sunbury  .  .  178 
The  Island  of  St.  John  .  179 
The  Island  made  a  separate 

Province  .  .  .  .180 
An  Alarm  181 


CHAPTER  XVII. 


THE    AMERICAN    REVOLUTION. 


British  American  Colonies    .     182 
.Conditions    .        .         .        .183 
Restrictions  ....     183 
Taxes   without   Representa- 
tion   .        .        .     •    .        .183 
The  Boston  Tea  Party  .     184 

The  Continental  Congress  .  185 
The  War  begins  .  .  .186 
Invasion  of  Canada  .  .  186 
Seizure  of  Montreal  187 


Carleton's  Narrow  Escapes  .  187" 
A  Feeble  Hold  .  .  .188 
Montgomery's  Failure  and 

Death        .         .        .        .189 
Retreat  of  the  Enemy  .        .ISO 
Privateers  and  Plunderers    .     191 
Independence  of  the  United 
States  recognised  by  Great 
Britain  191 


CONTENTS. 
CHAITKK  XVIII 

THK    UNITED    KMIMIIK    U)V AI.IST.S. 


CotCdiiion  of  the  Loyalists    .  11  2 

Aid  for  the  Loyaliala    .        .  I'.i:: 

The  Loyalists  in  Nova  Scotia  11. II 

The  LoyalUts  in  Ontario       .  1D4 

Loyal  Indians        .         .         .  \'.)~> 
New  Brunswick  a  sc[>aratc 

Province    .  195 


The  Province  of  Cape  Bre- 
ton    196 

Lord  Dorchester  Ihc  Gover- 
nor-General .  .  .  1% 

Desire  for  Change         .         .  197 

The  Constitutional  Ad  197 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

THE    BK<;iXXING    OH    1'AUI.IAMKNTAKY    GOVERNMENT. 


Interest  in  Public  Affairs 
The  Government  and  Legi» 

lature 

Parliamentary  Cu.-toms 
Governor  Wentwoith    . 
Royal  Visitors 
King's  College 


!!»!•       The  Maroons 


•JOO 
1101 
202 
201 
204 


Now  Brunswick     .         .         . 
1'rince  Edward  Island  . 
Lower  Canada 
I'pper  Canada 
Customs   and  Social  Condi- 
tion   . 


205 
205 
20f> 
207 
210 

212 


CHAPTER  XX. 

THE     W  A  It     OK     1  H  1  2. 


State  of  Affairs     .         .         .215 
Causes  of  the  War         .         .  21»> 
Officers          .        .        .        .220 
Macliiilimackinac    and    De- 
troit    222 

Niagara  Frontier  .         .         .  222 
The  Enemy  along  the  Nia- 
gara    224 

Battle  of  Qneenston  Heights  225 

The  Army  of  the  North         .  220 

Simimaty       ....  22t> 

The  War  continued       .         .  227 

Tnc  Capture  of  York    .         .  228 
The  Niagara  Frontier  given 

up  to  the  Enemy        .         .  229 

Stony  Creek          .        .        .  229 

Beaver  Dams         .                 .  230 

Sackett's  Harbour                  ,  231 


Capture  of  the  ('hetapcake  .  231 
Defeat  of  British  on  Lake 

Erie 232 

Battle  of  Moravian  Town  .  232 

Battle  of  Chateaugay  .  .  233 

Battle  of  Chrystler's  Farm  .  235 

Towns  burned  .  .  .  235 

Effects  of  the  War  .  .  236 
Effects  of  the  War  in  the 

United  States  .  .  .  237 
The  War  in  1S14  .  .  .237 

L  icolle— Port  Dover  .  .  238 

Oawego— Maine  .  .  .  238 

Chippcwa — Lundy's  Lane  .  238 

Capture  of  Washington  .  240 

Plattsburg  ....  240 

New  Orleans  .  .  .  .  241 

Treaty  of  Ghent  .  .  241 


CONTENTS. 


XI 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

PROGRESS   AND    AGITATION". 


Hard  Times  . 
New  Settlers 
The  Cholera  . 
Agriculture  . 
Education 
Public  Roads 
The  Royal  William 


PAGE 
243 
244 
244 
245 
245 
248 
249 


PAGE 

Cape  Breton          .        .        .  219 

Miramichi  Fire     .         .         .  250 

Grievances    ....  250 

The  Clergy  Reserves     .        .  252 

Lower  Canada       .         .         .  253 

Catholic  Emancipation         .  253 

Prince  Edward  Island  .         ,  254 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

BRITISH    FUR    TRADERS    IX    THK    NORTH. 


English  and  French  Rivalry  257 
The  North-West  Fur  Company  257 
The  Partners  .  .  .  259 
Headquarters  .  .  .  259 
Explorers  1  260 

Fur  Traders  on  the  Coast          262 


Cook  and  Vancouver  .  .  2G2 
Astoria  .  .  .  .  .  263 
Rivalry  between  the  Com- 
panies ....  263 
Red  River  Settlement  .  .  2G3 
Union  of  Rival  Companies  .  265 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

AGITATION    FOR    REFORM    IN    CANADA. 


Tories  and  Reformers  .  .  266 
Upper  Canada  .  .  .  266 
Gourlay,  MacKenzie,  Baldwin  267 
Leaders  in  the  Government 

Party          .         .         .        .270 
Sir  John  Colborne  ,     270 


Sir  Francis  Bond  Head  .  271 
Lower  Canada  .  .  .  272 
The  Earl  of  Dalhou?ie  .  .  273 
Louis  Papineau  .  .  .274 
Redress  ....  275 
The  Storm  Breaks  out  Anew  276 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

AGITATION    FOR    REFORM    IN    THE    MARITIME    PROVINCES. 


New  Brunswick    .        .         .  277 

The  King's  Property     .         .  278 

Important  Concessions         .  278 

Nova  Scotia ....  279 

Joseph  Howe         .         .         .  CL'O 


Changes  in  the  Council  .  282 

Unsuccessful  Efforts    .  .  283 

Disputed  Territory       .  .  284 

Prrgres-;  in  Great  Britain  .  285 

Queen  Victoria     .         .  .  287 


Xll 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

KKBELLION. 


Lower  Canada      ,         ...  290 

Rebellion  in  Lower  Canada  .  291 

The  Earl  of  Durham     .        .  292 

Renewed  Insurrection  .  294 

Up|>er  Canada       .         .         .  294 

Failure  of  the  Plot  295 


Aid  to  the  Rebels  from  the 

United  States    .        .         .  296 

Navy  Island          .         .         .  1.96 

The  End  of  the  Rebellion     .  297 

Papineau  and  Mackenzie     .  298 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 


RESPONSIBLE   OOVKKNMEST. 


Karl  of  Durham's  Report      .  L'9!t 
Union  of  I'pper  and  Lower 

Canada      .         .         .         .,  .'««) 

The  New  Constitution  .         .  3  >1 

Lord  Sydenham    .         .         .  302 

The  Fir-t  Ik-form  Ministrv  3<>2 

Lord  Metrnlfe      .         .     "   .  3<>:{ 

Rebellion  Losses  .         .         .  3O4 

Lord  El'jin    ....  304 

Immiei   tion          .         .         .  305 

Mot  ovi-r  Rebellion  Losses  .  30T> 

Farliatiii-nt  Houses  burned  .  30<j 


Nova  Scot  ia  Government  .  307 

Coalition  Government .  .  307 

The  Coalition  broken  up.  .  309 

Responsible  Government  .  310 

New  Brunswick    .        .  .311 

The  Ashburton  Treaty.  .  313 

Responsible  Government  in 

New  Brunswick         .  .  314 

Prince  Edward  Island  .  .  314 

Executive  Council         .  X15 

Responsible  Government  .  316 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 


OLD    QfKSnoNS    SETTLED    AND    NF/.V    SCHEMES    PHOPO8ED. 


The  Seat  of  Government  .  31S 
Progre.-s  in  C.-m.-xla  .  .  .'Us 
Education  ....  319 
Commerce  ....  '.'>'20 
Railways  ....  320 
Clergy  Reserves  .  .  .321 
Seigniorial  Tenure  .  .  322 
Reforrrer<  divided  .  .  323 
The  liincks  Morin  Govern- 
ment   324 

The  Reciprocity  Treaty   .     .  32"i 
The   M'Nab-Morin   Govern- 
ment.                 .         .         .  32f> 
Settlement  of  Burning  Ques- 
tions .                                  .  327 


The  Macdonald-Cartier  Min- 
istry   328 

Representation    by    Popula- 
tion   ..."..     329 
Ottawa  the  Seat  of  Govern- 
ment  329 

The  "Double  Shuffle"          .     331 
Visit     of     the     Prince     of 

Wales  ....  331 
Death  of  Prince  Albert  .  332 
Mason  and  Slidell  .  .  332 
Defeat  of  the  Cartier-Mac- 

donald  Government  .        .     333 
Liberals  and  Conservatives 
nnite.  .     334 


CONTENTS 


Xlll 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

THE    MARITIME    PROVINCES    UNDER    RESPONSIBLE    GOVERNMENT. 


General  Features . 

Railways        . 

Conservative  Government  in 

Nova  Scotia 
Mines  and  Minerals 


PAGE 
385 
336 

337 
337 


The  Atlantic  Cable 
The  Liberals  again  in  Power 
Free  Schools  in  Nova  Scotia 
Prince  Edward  Island  . 
Landlords  and  Tenants 


PACK 

339 
339 
341 
343 
343 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

BRITISH    COLUMBIA. 


Oregon  .....  345 
The  Boundary  Disputes  .  346 
Fort  Victoria"  .  .  .346 
The  Boundary  settled  .  .  347 
Colonisation  of  Vancouver  .  347 
Discovery  of  Gold  .  .  348 


British   Columbia  a   Crown 

Colony       ....     349 
The  Boundary  Question  again    349 
San  Juan       .         .         .         .350 
British  Columbia  and  Van- 
couver united    .  .     351 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

CONFEDERATION. 


Union  Movement  in  the  Mari- 
time Provinces.        .  352 
The  Charlottetown  Conven 

tion    ....  353 

The  Quebec  Convention  354 

Reception  of  the  Scheme  354 

An  Unexpected  Change  355 


Union  accomplished     .        ,  356 

The  Canadian  Constitution  .  357 
Difficulties    between    U.   S. 

and  G.  B 360 

Termination  of  the  Recipro- 
city Treaty         .         .         .  363 
Fenian  Invasions  .                 .  363 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 


THE    DOMINION    ORGANIZED    AND    EXTENDED. 


The  Ministry  .  .  .366 
The  Opposition  .  .  .  366 
Fir-t  Parliament  .  .  .  368 
D'Arcy  Magee  .  .  .368 
Repeal  Agitation  in  N.  S.  .  369 
Acquisition  of  the  Nortli- 

West 370 

Rebellion  in  Red  River  Settle- 
ment.        .         .         .         .     373 
Province  of  Manitoba  .         .     375 


The  Rebellion  ended    .        .  375 
Riel   and    Governor    Archi- 
bald    377 

British  Columbia  enters  the 

Union         .         .         .         .377 

The  Washington  Treaty       .  379 

The  New  Brunswick  Schools  380 

P.  E.  I.  enters  the  Union     .  382 

Death  of  Cartier  and  Howe  383 

Ontario                                   .  383 


XIV 


CONTKNTS. 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

TUB    MA<  KKN/.IK    ADMINISTUATloN. 


I'ACiK 

Tlic  Pacific  Railway  Scandal     :{s5 

3s  7 


Government         . 
Alexander  MacKenzie  .         . 
The  Pacific  Railway      .         . 
Di.-satiofartiun     in     British 
Columbia  .... 


Ini[>ortant  Measures 
The  Scott  Act 
Governor  Letellier 
The  Nai  ion.-il  Policy 
Firo  in  St.  John,  N.  15. 
The  North- West    . 


I    V.K 

3;*) 
390 

35)1 
392 
.T.13 
393 


CHAITKK  XXXIII. 

THE  DOMINION  CONSOI.IDATKD. 


A  New  Regime 

The  Marquis  of  Lome  and 
Princess  Louise 

The  boundary  between  On- 
tario and  Manitoba  . 


The  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  390 

Rebellion  in  t  he  North- West  39ft 

The  Queen's  Jubilee     .        .  403 

The  Jesuits'  Estates  Act       .  403 

Death  of  Canada's  Premiers  405 


CHAPTKR  XXXIV. 


KKCKXT    EVKNTS. 


Premier  Abbot      .         .         .  407 

M'Greevy  and  Mercier.         .  407 

Mr  John  Thompson  Premier  40H 

The  Colombian  Exhibition  .  4ox 

Hei  ing  Sen  Arbitration         .  410 

Manitoba  Schools          .         .  IP 

The  Intercolonial  Conference  1 14 

Death  of  Sir. John  Thompson  115 


The  Bowel!  Administration  .  417 

Election  of  1MMJ   .         .         .  4LO 

The  Laurier  Government      .  422 
Settlement      of      Manitoba 

School  Question         .         .  423 

Changes  in  the  Tariff  .        .  423 

TheQueen's  Diamond  Jubilee  424 
Klondike       .                           ,424 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 

THE    PROVINCES    SINCE    CONFEDEKATION. 


Nova  8c<  tia  .  .  425 

Education  in  Nova  Scotia  .  427 

New  JJn;jiMv  ii  k    ,         .  .  428 

Prince  Edward  Island  .  .  429 


Quebec 

Ontario 

Manitoba 

British  Columbia  . 


.     429 

'.     430 


THE 

DOMINION  OF  CANADA 

CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTION. 

THE  Dominion  of  Canada   stretches  from  Ocean   to 
Ocean.      On    the    east,    between    it    and 

n  T  i  «    i  i  Extent. 

iiiiirope,  lies  the  Atlantic ;  on  the  west, 
the  broad  Pacific  separates  it  from  Japan  and  China 
in  Eastern  Asia.  On  the  south,  it  is  bounded  by  the 
United  States,  from  which  it  is  separated  in  part  by 
the  Great  Lakes :  northward  it  loses  itself  in  the 
islands  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  The  sun,  which  makes 
the  circuit  of  the  earth  in  twenty-four  hours,  is  five 
hours  in  crossing  this  wide  land  from  east  to  west ; 
so  that  when  it  is  noon  in  Vancouver  Island  it  is  five 
o'clock  in  the  evening  in  Cape  Breton. 

This  vast  country  has  an  area  of  3,4V  0,000  square 
miles,  comprising  nearly  one-third  of  the  territory  in 
the  British  Empire  and  about  one-fifteenth  of  the 
land  surface  of  the  earth.  It  includes  several  political 
divisions  united  under  the  central  government  at 
Ottawa.  On  the  east,  washed  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
are  the  Atlantic  Provinces,  Nova  Scotia,  New  Bruns- 

A 


THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

wick,  and  Prince  Edward  Island :  farther  west,  lying 
along  the  River  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Great  Lakes, 
are  the  larger  provinces,  Quebec  and  Ontario :  still 
more  remote  from  the  sea  are  the  midland  province 
Manitoba,  the  districts  AssinUxuu,  AUnTta,  Saskatch- 
ewan, and  Athabasca :  in  the  extreme  west,  between 
the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Par i tic  Ocean,  is  British 
Columbia:  and  on  the  north  of  these  provinces  are 
North -West  Territory,  Keewatin,  and  North -East 
Territory. 

The  history  of  some  countries  goes  back  for  thou- 
sands  of   years    into    the   shadowy    past, 
Hundred  until  we  tind  it  hard  to  tell  what  is  truth 

Years  Ago.  .        .  .  .  .  •        i     i 

and  what  is  notion  m  the  mingled  story. 
But  even  the  oldest  of  the  provinces  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada  are  comparatively  new  countries.  Four 
hundred  years  ago  nearly  all  this  broad  land  was  one 
unbroken  forest,  without  roads,  or  cities,  or  cultivated 
fields.  Save  the  wild  animals  which  roamed  through 
its  forests,  its  only  inhabitants  were  a  race  of  savages 
scattered  thinly  over  the  country.  How  these  people 
came  here,  whence  they  came,  or  how  long  ago, 
nobody  can  tell.  They  had  no  history  or  written 
language.  They  lived  in  rough  dwellings  formed  of 
poles  covered  with  the  bark  of  trees.  Some  of  them 
cultivated  Indian  corn,  pumpkins,  beans,  and  tobacco, 
in  a  rude  way,  but  for  the  most  part  they  lived  by 
hunting  and  fishing.  They  were  a  roving  people, 
remaining  but  a  short  time  in  one  place.  When  they 
travelled  they  went  on  foot,  or  they  glided  along  the 
rivers  and  lakes  in  light  bark  canoes.  The  different 
tribes  wort-  often  engaged  in  war  with  each  other. 
Their  weapons  were  bows  and  arrows,  clubs  and  stone 


INTRODUCTION.  3 

hatchets.  Before  a  battle  they  held  a  grand  feast, 
followed  by  wild  war  dances,  during  which  they  filled 
the  air  with  hideous  shouts  and  yells.  Prisoners 
taken  in  war  they  tortured  to  death  and  then  feasted 
on  their  bodies. 

There   are   indeed  evidences  that   North  America 
had  earlier  inhabitants  than  the  Indians,  Earijerin- 
a   people  of  higher   rank   in    civilisation,  habltants- 
who   had   disappeared   before    the    discovery   of   the 
country  by  Europeans.     Mounds  of  earth  are  found 
in    various    places,    from    which    have    been    taken 
articles  of  pottery,  tools   made  of  stone  and  copper, 
and  other  articles  fashioned  with  much  skill  and  taste. 

At  the  present  time  the  Dominion  of  Canada  is 
the  home  of  about  h've  millions  of  people,  The  Present 
engaged  in  the  various  pursuits  of  civilised  Inhabitants- 
life.  These  people,  with  the  exception  of  those  in 
the  Province  of  Quebec,  are  generally  of  British  origin 
and  speak  the  English  language.  The  great  majority 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Quebec  are  of  French  descent 
and  speak  the  French  language.  There  are  many  in 
the  other  provinces  also  whose  ancestors  came  from 
France.  The  county  of  Lunenburg  in  Nova  Scotia 
and  several  counties  in  Ontario  are  peopled  largely 
by  descendants  of  German  settlers.  Manitoba  has 
a  mixed  population.  When  it  was  formed  into  a 
province  its  few  inhabitants  were  principally  half- 
breeds  of  French  and  Indian  descent ;  but  the  older 
provinces,  especially  Ontario,  have  since  contributed 
largely  to  the  settlement  of  this  new  country.  Indians 
are  scattered  through  all  the  provinces,  but  they 
are  most  numerous  in  BritiLh  Columbia  and  the 
North-West. 


4  THE    DOMINION    OF   TAN  A  DA. 

The  British  Islands,  the  ancestral  home  of  so  many 
The  Mother  Canadians,  and  hence  often  called  the 
Country.  ,*  >[otjier  Country, '  lie  eastward  beyond 

the  Atlantic  Ocean,  over  three  thousand  miles  away. 
These  Islands  are  small  compared  with  the  Do- 
minion, their  united  area  being  only  al»out  two-thirds 
the  size  of  the  Province  of  Quebec.  They  have,  how- 
ever, a  population  seven  times  greater  than  the  whole 
Dominion. 

The  British  Isles  have  a  wonderful  history.  They 
The  British  were  once  the  seat  of  many  petty  states 
Empire.  which  were  almost  always  at  war  with  each 

other.  Finally  they  were  united  under  a  common 
sovereign  and  government,  forming  one  strong  king- 
dom. The  inhabitants  were  enterprising  and  pros- 
perous. They  sent  their  ships  abroad,  discovered 
new  lands,  formed  colonies,  and  made  conquests, 
until  they  had  established  the  largest  and  most 
populous  empire  that  ever  existed  on  the  face  of 
the  earth.  Thus  the  British  Empire,  of  which  the 
Dominion  of  Canada  forms  so  large  a  portion,  com- 
prises about  one-Htth  of  the  land  surface  of  the  earth 
and  about  one-fourth  of  its  inhabitants. 

It  is  not  on  the  land  alone  that  (ireat  Britain  has 
established  her  power.  Her  ships  sail  on  every  sea, 
some  for  the  protection  of  her  scattered  subjects,  and 
others  to  carry  from  her  shores  her  vast  and  varied 
manufactures  to  distant  lands,  or  to  bring  from  these 
lauds  the  raw  material  for  her  busy  artisans.  The 
navy  and  *!_'  "lerchant  ships  of  Great  Britain  far 
surpass  those  or  any  other  nation.  Canada  may  well 
be  proud  ot  her  relationship  to  this  great  empire. 
The  ancient  Roman  found  safety  in  his  citizenship. 


INTRODUCTION.  0 

In  like  manner  the  most  humble  British  subject  may 
rest  secure  under  his  nation's  flag,  knowing  that  he 
can  invoke  the  whole  power  of  the  empire  against  any 
foe  that  may  assail  him. 

On  the  south  of  the  British  Isles,  across  a  narrow 
channel  of  water,  lies  the  sunny  land  of 

.  ,  France 

France,      rrom  this   land   came  the  an- 
cestor* of  manv  of  our  Canadian  people.      Like  Grea> 


THE   BRITISH   FLAG. 


Britain,  France  ranks  as  one  of  the  "  Great  Powers ' 
among  the  nations  of  the  world.  It  has  vast  foreign 
possessions,  scattered  over  different  parts  of  the  earth, 
but  principally  in  Africa  and  Asia.  In  former  times 
England  and  France  wrere  keen  rivals,  and  often  waged 
war  with  each  other.  We  shall  see,  in  the  following 
pages,  how  for  a  century  and  a  half  they  struggled 
with  each  other,  by  sea  and  land,  for  the  possession 


6  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

of  Canada.  It  is  pleasant  now  to  realise  that  tho 
memory  of  this  great  conflict  stirs  up  no  bitter  strife 
or  awakens  no  old  feeling  of  hostility  against  each 
other  among  the  children  of  these  fatherlands.  The 
sons  of  Englishmen  and  the  sons  of  Frenchmen  are 
alike  true  and  loyal  Canadians.  As  brothers  of  one 
great  family,  they  live  together  in  peace,  and  work 
harmoniously  for  the  prosperity  of  their  Canadian 
home. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE    DISCOVERY    OF    AMERICA. 

IN  the  early  times,  as  now,  the  people  of  Norway,  who 
are  known  in  history  as  Northmen,  were 

f        •>      r-    -i  mi          in  i  •        i  The  Northmen. 

fond  of  the  sea.  1  hey  had  a  colony  in  that 
cold  northern  island  called  Iceland,  which  they  visited 
frequently  in  the  summer  months.  It  happened  on 
one  occasion,  as  some  of  them  were  on  their  way  to 
this  island,  that  they  fell  in  with  an  adverse  wind,  and 
were  blown  far  from  their  destination.  They  were 
carried  to  Greenland.  Then,  it  was  not  very  long 
until  they  found  their  way  to  Newfoundland  and 
Labrador.  It  is  supposed  that  after  this  they  visited 
various  places  on  the  coast  farther  south,  including 
Nova  Scotia  and  Massachusetts.  They  do  not  seem 
to  have  made  any  permanent  home  on  this  side  of  the 
ocean,  and  after  a  time,  from  some  unknown  cause, 
they  ceased  to  visit  America. 

These  discoveries  do  not  appear  to  have  been  heard 
of  in  the  countries  of  Central  and  Southern  Europe. 
This  is  not  very  remarkable.  The  art  of  printing  was 
not  known  at  this  time,  and  there  was  little  inter- 
course among  different  countries.  Besides,  in  their 
voyages  across  the  ocean,  the  Northmen  took  a 
northerly  route  by  way  of  Iceland  and  Greenland. 
The  mariner's  compass  was  not  then  known  in- 


THK    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

Europe,  and  long  voyages  out  of  sight  of  land  were 
impracticable. 

In    the    fifteenth    century   the    people  of    Western 
Europe  had  their  faces  turned  easterly  to- 

The  Route  of  .  *         .  . ,  .          .  .        .        *     .     . 

Trade  with        wards  Asia,    r  or  cent  urics  t  hey  had  earned 

Indii  .  ,          •til-'  i 

on  a  lucrative  trade  with  India, exchanging 
their  woollens  and  other  manufactures  for  the  spiees, 
silks,  ivory,  pearls,  diamonds,  and  other  products  of 
that  rich  land.  This  trade  was  carried  on  overland 
by  caravans  between  India  and  the  eastern  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean,  and  thence  over  this  inland  sea 
to  Venice,  Genoa,  and  other  ports.  The  long-used 
route  of  trade  was  now  obstructed  by  the  hostile 
Turks,  who  had  recently  taken  possession  -of  Con- 
stantinople. The  merchants  of  Italy,  Spain,  and 
Portugal  were  wishing  for  some  new  and  safer  route 
to  India.  Some  of  them  were  beginning  to  think 
that  possibly  the  desired  road  lay  around  the  south 
of  Africa:  but  what  were  the  difficulties  and  the 
perils  of  that  way,  if  such  a  way  existed,  nobody 
knew. 

In  these  early  times' the  people  of  Western  Europe, 
strange  though  they  lived  along  the  shores  of  the 

Atlantic,  knew  very  little  of  the  character 
and  extent  of  this  ocean.  They  spoke  of  it  as  the 
Dark  Ocean.  Mariners,  dreading  that,  some  iniayi- 

o  o 

nary  evil  might  befall  them,  were  afraid  to  sail  out 
upon  it  beyond  sight  of  land.  They  had  a  super- 
stitious notion  that  the  remote  and  unknown  parts 
of  the  world  were  peopled  by  Gorgons,  Hydras,  and 
all  sorts  of  horrid  monsters,  ever  ready  to  seize  and 
destroy  any  human  briny  who  should  be  so  unfor- 

•  .  o 

turut.i!  as  to  come  within  their  reach.     They  believed 


THE    DISCOVERY   OF    AMERICA. 

that  far  south  there  was  a  fiery  atmosphere  in  which 
no  human  being  could  live,  and  that  down  in  the 
southern  seas  there  were  steaming  whirlpools,  which 
would  swallow  up  vessels  coining  within  their  influ- 
ence. They  had  observed  that  when  a  vessel  sailing 
out  upon  the  ocean  disappears  from  sight,  it  seems  to 
be  going  down  hill,  and  they  feared  to  sail  far  along 
an  unknown  declivity,  lest  they  might  not  be  able  to 
return. 

One  of  the  first  and  most  noted  explorers  of  this 
age  was  Prince  Henry  of  Portugal,  often  portugUeSe 
called  Henry  the  Navigator.  This  prince,  Navi&ators- 
who  was  a  cousin  of  King  Henry  V.  of  England,  erected 
an  observatory  and  established  a  school  at  a  seaport 
of  Portugal  near  Cape  St.  Vincent  for  the  instruction 
of  noblemen's  sons  in  mathematics,  astronomy,  and 
navigation.  The  mariners  trained  in  Prince  Henry's 
school  were  inspired  with  much  of  his  enthusiasm. 
In  1418  they  discovered  the  Madeira  Islands,  and 
later  they  explored  part  of  the  west  coast  of  Africa, 
proceeding  to  a  point  much  farther  south  than  had 
been  previously  reached.  Navigators  had  been  for 
some  time  exploring  this  coast,  very  cautiously  ho\v- 
ever,  and  not  venturing  very  far  on  the  downward  road 
towards  the  burning  zone  and  the  boiling  whirlpools 
which  were  supposed  to  lie  in  this  direction.  They 
thought  it  specially  dangerous  to  pass  Cape  Nun, 
which  was  then  regarded  as  the  utmost  limit  of  the 
earth.  This  cape  always  seemed  to  say  "  No 
farther  "  to  the  timid  mariner.  But  in  the  year  1433 
one  of  Henry's  mariners,  more  daring  than  his  pre- 
decessors, passed  without  harm  the  forbidden  limit. 
At  length,  in  1487,  Bartholomew  Diaz,  while  exploring 


10 


THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 


this  const,  was  driven  southerly  by  a  violent  wind 
until  he  had  passed  the  extreme  limit  of  Africa. 
Not  knowing  where  he  was,  he  turned  easterly,  then 
northerly,  and  by  lucky  accident  found  himself  on 

the  east  side  of 
the  Continent. 
On  his  way  back 
he  named  the 
most  southerly 
point  of  the  land 
Stormy  Cape : 
but  on  his  return 
to  Portugal,  the 
King  said  the 
point  should  be 
called  the  Cape 
of  (rood  Hope, 
as  there  was 
good  reason  to 
believe  that  a 
new  route  to 
India  would  be 
found  to  lie 
around  that 
oape.  And  so 
it  proved. 

Meanwhile  a 
bolder     scheme 
had   been    sug- 
gest (id   to  the   King  of  Portugal  than  sailing  around 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.     He  was  told  that 
a  shorter  and  better  route  to  the  Indies  lay 
westward  over  the  dark  and  unknown  Atlantic  Ocean. 


CliUlblui'UEK  COLUMBIA. 


Columbus. 


THE    DISCOVERY    OF   AMERICA.  11 

It  was  Christopher  Columbus  who  proposed  this  idea 
to  King  John  II.  of  Portugal.  Columbus  was  an 
Italian,  born  in  or  near  the  city  of  Genoa,  but,  with 
his  younger  brother  Bartholomew,  he  had  removed 
to  Portugal.  He  was  not  of  high  birth,  but  he  was 
one  of  nature's  noblemen — a  man  of  commanding 
presence,  courtly  bearing,  and  charming  conversa- 
tional powers.  He  was  large-hearted,  noble-minded, 
and  energetic  in  action.  What  he  undertook  he  gave 
his  whole  heart  to,  and  he  was  not  easily  discouraged 
by  the  difficulties  which  lay  across  his  path.  Much 
of  his  life  had  been  spent  on  the  sea,  in  merchant 
voyages,  in  contests  with  the  Mohammedan  pirates 
on  the  Mediterranean,  and  in  exploring  adventures 
alcng  the  African  coast. 

The  earth's  spherical  form  had  been  known  from 
the  time  of  Aristotle  by  men  learned  in 

i  •  rr.i   •  i        T       i     i  The  Earth's 

physical   science.      I  his    truth    had   been  Spherical 
established  by  various  proofs,  such  as  we 
at  the  present  day  are  acquainted  with.      But  while 
the  earth's  spherical  form  had  been  known  for  eighteen 
centuries  or  more,  it  required  the  genius  of  Columbus 
to  make  this  knowledge  an  active  force  in  directing 
the  destiny  of  the  world.     He  was  a  man  of  action  : 
he  could  do  as  well  as  think. 

Columbus  had  a  very  erroneous  idea  of  the  distance 
to  India  by  a  westerly  route.    He  estimated  The  Circmn. 
the  distance  from   Portugal  to  Japan  at   E™rtheunder- 
something  less   than  3000  miles.     If  he  estimated- 
had  known  that  it  was  four  times  as  far,  he  never 
could  have  persuaded  the  men  of  his  day  to  favour 
his  enterprise.      His    error    seems    to    have   had   its 
origin  in  the  opinion  favoured  by  a  statement  in  the 


12  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

Book  of  Esdras,  that  the  land  surface  comprises  six- 
sevenths  of  the  entire  breadth  of  the  earth.  Taking 
the  circumference  of  the  earth  in  the  latitude  of 
Lisbon  to  be  18,000  geographical  miles,  and  allowing 
one-seventh  of  this  as  the  breadth  of  the  ocean,  he 
made  the  distance  from  Portugal  to  Japan  about 
2600  geographical  miles. 

Columbus  had  not  means  to  carry  out  his  cherished 
Queen  Isabella  s^heme.  The  recounting  of  all  his  ditti- 
a,d.>  Columbus.  (.ujtj(,s  jn  trying  to  secure  the  aid  of  some 
royal  patron  would  be  too  long  a  story  to  tell  here. 
For  ten  years  his  efforts  were  unavailing.  He  tried 
the  republic  of  Genoa,  then  that  of  Venice:  but 
without  success.  He  offered  his  services  to  the  King 
of  Portugal.  The  council  of  wise  men,  called  by  this 
sovereign  to  consider  the  matter,  pronounced  the 
scheme  visionary.  Columbus  then  sent  his  brother 
Bartholomew,  who  had  just  returned  with  Diaz  from 
that  first  voyage  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  to 
the  courts  of  England  and  France.  Meanwhile  he 
himself  went  to  Spain,  to  seek  assistance  from  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella,  the  sovereigns  of  the  two  king- 
doms into  which  that  country  was  then  divided.  For 
a  long  time  there  seemed  little  to  hope  for  here,  but 
Columbus  persevered.  Finally,  through  the  aid  of 
Mendoza,  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  and  other  persons  of 
influence,  he  secured  the  interest  of  Queen  Isabella. 
This  noble  woman  even  pledged  her  crown  jewels  in 
raising  money  lor  the  project. 

The  means  provided  were  very  small  for  such  an 
Provision  for  undertaking.  The  little  fleet  comprised 

the  Voyage.  ^}TQe    ^j^     tj|(J     ^^     J/,,,.,,,      t|ie     />/n/a> 

and   the    Nina.      The   first    named    was   a    fair -sized 


THE    DISCOVERY    OF   AMERICA.  13 

vessel,  but  the  other  two  were  very  small,  and  were 
without  decks.  It  was  hard  to  find  sailors  willing 
to  risk  their  lives  on  such  a  perilous  adventure  over 
the  dark  ocean.  Debtors  were  released  from  their 
obligations,  and  criminals  were  pardoned,  as  an  in- 
ducement to  enlist  in  the  service.  In  this  way  three 
motley  crews,  comprising  in  all  ninety  men,  were 
obtained.  After  a  solemn  religious  service  Columbus 
set  sail  from  Palos  on  Friday,  August  3,  1492. 

As  the  little  fleet  sailed  out  of  the  harbour  of 
Palos,  the  friends  of  those  on  board,  stand- 
ing on  the  shore,  gave  them  a  sad  farewell, 
never  expecting  to  see  them  again.  Columbus  ran 
first  to  the  Canary  Isles,  intending  to  sail  thence  due 
west  to  the  coast  of  Japan.  Until  they  reached  the 
Canaries,  all  went  well ;  for  thus  far  the  sea  was 
familiar.  But  when  the  last  of  these  Isles  disap- 
peared in  the  eastern  horizon,  there  arose  a  wail  of 
despair  from  the  sailors.  They  wept  and  sobbed  like 
children.  Columbus  thought  it  not  prudent  to  allow 
his  men  to  know  the  distance  sailed.  He  accordingly 
kept  two  reckonings,  a  correct  one  for  himself,  and 
a  false  one,  giving  less  distance,  for  his  men. 

As  they  passed  over  the  unknown  waters,  new 
grounds  of  fear  added  to  the  distress.  First,  there 
was  an  unaccountable  change  in  the  compass  needle. 
It  had  been  pointing  a  little  to  the  right  of  the 
pole-star :  but  as  they  sailed  westerly  the  variation 
became  less,  until  at  last,  when  they  had  crossed  the 
line  of  no  variation,  it  swayed  to  the  other  side  and 
pointed  to  the  left  of  the  pole-star.  When  about 
800  miles  from  the  Canaries  they  entered  a  re- 
markable portion  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  now  known 


14  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

as  the  Sargasso  Sea — a  vast  extent  of  ocean,  over- 
grown with  a  mass  of  sea  we  o  .1,  presenting  the  appear- 
ance of  a  prairie.  As  there  was  but  little  wind  tc 
urge  them  on,  the  vessels  were  so  impelled  by  the 
tangled  weeds  that  they  could  make  but,  little 
progress,  and  the  sailors  feared  they  would  stiek 
fast.  But  soon  the  freshening  north-easterly  breezes 
dispelled  this  fear  and  became  themselves  a  souree 
of  alarm.  Day  after  day  the  north-cast  wind  kept 
blowing,  and  the  vessels  glided  steadily  onward. 
This  was  all  very  well  t  >  carry  them  to  the  shores 
of  Asia,  but  how  should  they  ever  get  ba;-k !  They 
were  in  the  North-Kast  Trade  Wind. 

Two    months    had    passe;!    since    Columbus    sailed 
from  Spain.      Theiv  was  no  appearance  of 

Land.  . 

laud,  but  only  a  wide  waste  ot  waters  on 
all  sides.  The  crews  were  becoming  mutinous  and 
almost  unmanageable.  Hitherto  the  course  had  been 
due  west.  Columbus  thought  lie  might  be  sailing 
past  Japan  on  the  north :  he  accordingly  changed 
his  course  two  points  to  the  south.  Five  days  after 
this  there  was  the  shout  of  "Land,  land!"  A  few 
hours  later  the  ships  were  lying  at  anchor  on  the 
shore  of  an  unknown  island,  while  Columbus  and 
his  men  were  making  the  acquaintance  of  its  un- 
civilised inhabitants.  This  was  on  the  morning  of 
October  1 2,  ten  weeks  after  they  left  Palos.  The 
island  was  one  of  the  Bahamas,  but  which  one  of 
this  numerous  group  is  doubtful. 

Columbus  remained  for  nearly  three  months,  ex- 
ploring the  islands  which  he  had  discovered.  Besides 
several  of  the  Bahamas,  he  visited  Cuba  and  Hayti. 
Here  he  had  a  serious  mishap.  The  Mint  a  Maria 


THE    DISCOVERY    OF   AMERICA.  15 

struck  upon  a  sand-bank  on  the  coast  of  Hayti,  and 
soon  became  a  total  wreck.  The  captain  of  the 
Pinfa  had  previously  deserted  him,  so  that  Columbus 
had  only  the  L'abi/  (Nina)  remaining.  He  could  not 
carry  all  his  men  in  this  little  vessel,  so  with  their 
full  consent  he  left  a  colony  of  forty  on  the  island 
of  Hayti. 

On  his  return  to  Spain,  Columbus  was  received 
at  court  with  distinguished  honour.  He  was  allowed 
to  sit  in  the  presence  of  the  King  and  Queen,  a 
privilege  not  usually  accorded  to  a  subject.  He 
found  it  easy  enough  now  to  obtain  money  and  men, 
so  that  he  was  able  to  proceed  on  a  second  voyage 
with  a  fleet  of  seventeen  vessels  and  1 500  men. 

In  all  Columbus  made  four  voyages  across  the 
Atlantic,  but  he  died  in  ignorance  of  having  found  a 
New  AVorld.  He  simply  believed  that  he  had  dis- 
covered a  westerly  route  to  India,  and  that  the  islands 
which  he  had  visited  were  off  the  coast  of  Asia. 
Hence  these  islands  were  afterwards  named  the 
West  Indies,  and  the  aborigines  of  America  were 
called  Indians. 


CHAPTER  III. 

EARLY     KXI'LOKERS. 

Tn 'INGS  of  the  wonderful  discovery  made  by  Colum- 
bus   soon    set    all    Western    Euroi>e    astir. 

The  Cabots  .    .  .   .  * 

Neither  India,  China,  nor  Japan  had  yet 
been  reached,  but  they  surely  were  not  far  from  the 
newly  discovered  islands.  So  thought  Columbus,  and 
the  leading  men  of  his  time  were  of  the  same  opinion. 
These  lands  had  the  reputation  of  |x>ssessing  un- 
bounded wealth,  and  the  navigator  who  should  oj>eu 
up  to  them  a  new  and  easy  route  would  l»e  on  the 
high  road  to  fortune.  Henry  VII.  of  England  was 
a  prudent-going  king,  but.  like  the  sovereigns  of  more 
southerly  climes,  he  could  be  dazzled  by  the  prosj>ect 
of  adding  the  empire  of  these  pagan  lands  to  his 
dominion  and  their  wealth  to  his  treasury.  And  so 
he  was  not  unwilling  to  become  the  patron  of  a  voyage 
of  discovery  across  the  western  waters.  He  found 
suitable  navigators  to  carry  out  his  project  in  John 
Cabot  and  his  son  Sebastian. 

Like  Columbus,  John  Cabot  was  a  native  of  Genoa. 
From  this  place  he  had  removed  to  Venice,  and  had 
Hnally  settled  in  Bristol,  then  the  chief  seaport  of 
England.  Under  royal  charter,  he  set  sail  in  the 
ship  Matthew  on  his  first  voyage  in  May  1497,  in 
search  of  a  westerly  route  to  China  and  India.  All 


EARLY   EXPLORERS.  17 

lauds  that  he  might  discover  were  to  belong  to  the 
English  Crown.  Cabot  was  to  have  sole  right  of 
trade  with  such  countries,  and  he  was  to  give  one- 
fifth  of  the  profits  to  King  Henry.  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella  of  Spain,  hearing  of  Henry's  project,  warned 
him  that  they  had  exclusive  rights  to  the  territories 
beyond  the  western  waters ;  but  Henry  gave  little 
heed  to  their  remonstrance. 

At  the  end  of  three  months  Cabot  returned.  He 
had  discovered  land  which  he  thought  was  a  part  of 
the  Chinese  coast.  It  is  matter  of  dispute  as  to  the 
exact  place  visited  by  Cabot,  the  rival  claimants  being 
some  point  on  the  coast  of  Labrador,  a  headland  on 
the  east  of  Newfoundland,  or  some  place  on  the  Island 
of  Cape  Breton.  King  Henry  is  said  to  have  rewarded 
the  explorer  with  a  gift  of  £10.  In  the  following 
year  he  and  his  son  Sebastian  made  a  second  voyage, 
during  which  they  explored  a  large  part  of  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  North  America.  Nothing  further  is  heard  of 
John  Cabot,  and  it  is  supposed  that  he  died  upon  the 
voyage,  leaving  the  command  to  Sebastian. 

The  glory  of  discovering  the  continent  of  North 
America  thus  belongs  to  the  Cabots,  though  it  seems 
probable  that  at  the  time  these  mariners  believed  they 
were  sailing  along  the  coast  of  Asia.  Little  gain, 
however,  came  to  King  Henry  from  these  discoveries. 
His  ships  returned  without  gold  or  silver  to  fill  his 
treasury,  nor  had  they  found  the  desired  route  to  the 
Indies.  The  expedition  involved  large  outlay  and  no 
profit,  so  that  his  ardour  for  discovering  new  lands 
soon  cooled.  England,  however,  afterwards  based  her 
claims  to  a  large  portion  of  North  America  on  the 
discovery  of  the  Cabots. 

B 


18 


THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


Yet  smother  Italian,  best  known  \ty  his  Latin  name 
Vev  Americas  Vospucius,  claims  distinction  as 
a  notecj  curjv  explorer.  He  crossed  the 
Atlantic  several  times,  and  explored  j>ortions  of  the 
coast  of  South  America.  The  early  explorers,  includ* 


PART    OK    LEONARDO    DA     VINCl's    MAP,    dr.    1514. 
Earliest  kiwim  Map  irith  the  name  "America." 

ingVespucius  himself,  had  little  idea  that  the  lands  they 
had  found  formed  one  continuous  continent.  They  sup- 
posed that  these  lands  were  islands  or  projecting  points 
of  Asia,  and  they  eagerly  sought  for  some  channel  be- 
tween them,  through  which  they  could  cass  to  India. 


EARLY    EXPLORERS.  19 

The  name  America  seems  to  have  been  first  given 
to  Brazil,  which  was  discovered  by  Yespticius.  .  After- 
wards, when  this  country  was  found  to  be  connected 
with  other  lands,  forming  the  southern  continent,  the 
name  America  was  applied  to  the  whole  territory. 
At  a  later  date  when  it  was  discovered  that  the  lands 
on  the  north  also  formed  a  great  continent,  the  name 
was  similarly  extended  so  as  to  include  the  two  great 
divisions  of  the  NCAV  World.  The  earliest  map  showing 
the  double  continent  under  the  name  America,  was 
published  in  1541.  The  author  of  this  map  was  the 
distinguished  Kaufmann,  a  native  of  Flanders,  better 
known  by  his  Latin  name  Mercator. 

The  first  foreshadowing  of  the  knowledge  of  a  great 
ocean  between  the  newly  discovered  lands 


and  Asia  was  the  glimpse  had  of  this  ocean  thepciifc0 
ly  Vasco  Nunez  Balboa  from  a  mountain- 
peak  in  Darien.  This  noted  Spaniard  introduced  him- 
self to  the  world  in  rather  ignoble  fashion.  To  escape 
his  creditors,  he  had  himself  sealed  up  in  a  cask  and 
smuggled  on  board  a  ship  about  to  sail  from  San 
Domingo.  Afterwards,  while  at  Darien,  he  heard  of 
the  wealth  of  Peru,  the  land  of  the  Incas,  where  gold 
was  said  to  be  almost  as  plentiful  as  the  stones  in  the 
field.  At  the  head  of  one  hundred  men  he  set  oi.t 
for  this  land.  As  already  told,  while  crossing  the 
isthmus  he  got  his  first  glimpse  of  the  Pacific  O<T:UI. 
As  the  water  he  saw  lay  to  the  south,  the  whole  ocean 
was  long  known  as  the  South  Sea. 

But    it    remained    for    the    Portuguese    navigator, 
Ferdinand  Magellan,  one  of  the  first  navi- 

,,     ,  .   °  ,         Magellan 

gators    ot    his    age,    to    demonstrate    the 

vastness  of  the  ocean  that  separated  the  lands  dis- 


20  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

covered  l»v  Columbus  from  the  Indies  which  he 
Supposed  lie  hud  reached.  Magellan  hud  visited  indiu 
by  way  of  the  ('ape  of  (rood  Hope.  \Vliile  there  he 
determined  to  seek  u  westerly  route  from  Europe  to 
this  country.  Returning  home  he  submitted  Iris 
scheme  to  the  King  of  Portugal.  Receiving  no  en- 
couragement, he  ottered  his  services  to  the  young 
Emperor  Charles  V.  of  Spain,  under  whose  Hug  he 
made  his  great  voyage.  The  account  of  this  voyage 
across  the  Atlantic,  along  the  east  coast  of  America, 
through  the  Strait  wliich  now  bears  his  name,  and 
thence  across  the  wide  and  till  then  untra versed  ocean, 
is  a  thrilling  story.  When  he  first  entered  this  great 
ocean  he  found  its  waters  so  peaceful,  compared  with 
the  stormy  sea  he  had  just  passed  through,  that 
he  named  it  the  Pacific  Ocean.  In  March  1521, 
Magellan  reached  the  Philippine  Islands.  He  did  not 
live  to  complete  the  full  round  voyage.  Engaged  in 
a  conflict  with  the  natives  of  one  of  the  islands,  his 
men  were  put  to  flight  and  he  was  killed. 

The  rulers  of  Spain  and  Portugal  seemed  to  think 
Francis  i.  of  lMilt  a"  newly  discovered  and  all  undis- 
covered lands  belonged  to  them,  and  to 
prevent  quarrels  between  them  over  these  lands,  it 
was  agreed  that  a  meridian  three  hundred  and  seventy 
leagues  west  of  the  Madeira  Islands  should  be  "  the 
line  of  demarcation."  All  those  lands  east  of  that  line 
were  to  belong  to  Portugal,  and  all  to  the  west  of  it  to 
Spain.  Francis  I.  of  France  thought  otherwise.  He 
is  said  to  have  asked  the  kings  of  those  countries  by 
'.vhat  right  they  claimed  the  whole  world.  If  father 
Adam  had  made  them  his  heirs,  they  should  at 
least  produce  the  will.  While  they  were  looking  up 


EARLY    EXPLORERS.  21 

the   document,   he  proceeded   to  fake   a   portion  for 
himself. 

Indeed,   before   Francis   came   to   the   throne,    the 
Baron    de    Lery    had    in    a    feeble    way 

-11          •    i  /•    1-1  i        -XT    "      ^e  Lery,  1-18. 

asserted  the  rights  ot  France  m  the  New 
World  by  trying  to  establish  a  colony  on  Sable 
Island.  This  little  strip  of  land,  with  which  the  ser 
is  ever  waging  war,  is  situated  about  one  hundred 
miles  to  the  south  of  Cape  Breton  Island.  The 
dangerous  sand-bars  on  its  coast  have  wrecked  t,o 
many  ships  that  the  island  has  been  called  the 
"  graveyard  of  the  Atlantic."  A  few  wild  cattle  found 
on  the  island  many  years  after  seem  to  have  been  the 
most  permanent  remains  of  De  L.'ry's  colony. 

King  Francis  I.  had  in  his  service  an  Italian  named 
Verrazano,  who  had  made  himself  famous  verrazano, 
by  seizing  a  Spanish  treasure-ship  on  its  IS24" 
way  from  Mexico  to  Spain.     The  King  now  sent  him 
in   search    of   that   long-sought   westerly   passage   to 
China.     Verrazano   failed    to    find  China,  but   he    is 
said    to  have  explored  the  coast   of  North  America 
from  Cape  Fear  to  the  Gulf  of  St.   Lawrence.      He 
named  this  vast  country  New  France,  and  iook  formi:! 
possession  of  it  in  behalf  of  the  French  Crown. 

The   disastrous  wars  of  Francis  with    Charles  V., 
who    ruled    over    both    Spain    and    Ger-  jacques  Car- 
many,  prevented  any  immediate  measures  tier- 1534- 
for  building   up   this  French    dominion    beyond   the 
Atlantic.      Ten  years  later,  however,  Jacques  Carticr, 
a  renowned  mariner  of  the  seaport  town  of  St.  Malo, 
was  sent  to  make  further  explorations  in  New  France. 
He    came   direct   to    Newfoundland,    passed    through 
the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle,  and  proceeded  as  iar  as  Bav 


THK    DOMINION    OF    <  'AN  A  DA. 


Chaleur.  At  Gaspe  ho  erected  a  wooden  cross  thirty 
feet  high,  bearing  a  suitable  inscription,  showing  that 
he  claimed  the  country  tor  Christ  and  the  King  ot 
France.  The  Indians  of  the  place  told  him  of  a 

great  water- road 
l»y  which  he 
could  sail  tar  up 
into  the  interior 
of  the  country. 
But  the  season 
was  too  far  ad- 
vanced for 
further  explora- 
tions and  Car- 
tier  sci  out  for 
France  with  high 
hope  that  he  had 
found  the  long- 
sought  route  to 
India  and  China. 
Before  leaving  ho 
kidnapped  two 
Indians,  whom 
he  carried  with 
him  to  France. 

In  the  follow- 
ing year  C 'artier 
.1. \njrKs  r.vKTiKK.  came  again,  ami 

sailed     up     the 

great  river  which  the  Indians  had  told  him  of  on  his 
former  visit.  To  this  river  he  gave  the  name  St. 
Lawrence.  Where  the  city  of  Quebec  now  stands 
Cartier  found  <,n  Indian  village  named  Siadacona. 


EARLY   EXPLORERS.  23 

Its  old  chief  Donnacona  gave  him  a  kindly  greeting, 
and  told  him  of  a  larger  village,  named 

,,        ,  .    c  ,   .    ,      Cartier's 

Hochelaga,   farther   up   the    river,    which  Second 

.  .       Voyage. 

Cartier  determined  to  visit.     The  beauti- 
ful island  near  Stadacona,  now  known  as  Orleans,  he 
called  Tsle  Bacchus,  on  account  of  the  abundance  of 
wild  grapes  which  it  produced. 

Donnacona  tried  to  dissuade  Cartier  from  visiting 
Hochelaga.  But  leaving  his  larger  vessels  and  part 
of  his  crew  near  Stadacona,  Cartier  set  out  for  the 
distant  Indian  village,  at  which  he  arrived  early 
hi  October.  This  place  comprised  about  fifty  dwell- 
ings simply  constructed  of  poles  covered  with  bark. 
They  were  of  rectangular  form,  about  one  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  in  length.  Each  of  these  long  houses 
was  a  sort  of  tenement  house,  being  divided  into 
several  rooms,  each  room  being  occupied  by  a,  distinct 
family.  The  whole  village  was  fortified  after  the 
Indian  fashion  by  a  palisade  formed  of  the  trunks  of 
trees  set  upright  in  the  ground.  Around  the  inside, 
next  the  palisade,  was  a  sort  of  gallery  from  which 
stones  could  be  hurled  upon  a  foe  coming  up  from 
the  outside.  The  Indians  of  Hochelaga  received 
Cartier  with  great  respect,  even  regarding  him  as 
possessed  of  superhuman,  powers,  enabling  him  to 
heal  the  sick  by  the  touch  of  his  hand.  Around  the 
village  Cartier  saw  fields  of  maize,  from  which  the 
Indians  derived  part  of  their  food.  Before  leaving 
Hochelaga,  Cartier  visited  the  beautiful  mountain 
which  tourists  still  so  much  admire.  He  named  it 
Mont  Royal,  from  which  has  come  Montreal,  the  name 
of  the  great  commercial  city  now  occupying  the  site, 
of  the  Indian  Hochelaga. 


21  THK    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

Cartier  spent  the  winter  in  a  palisaded  fort  on  the 
bunks  of  the  St.  Charles,  nnir  Stadacona.  It  was  u 
dreary  winter,  whose  rigours  those  who  had  been 
accustomed  to  the  Denial  climate  of  France  were  ill 
fitted  to  endure.  A  fell  disease,  known  as  scurvy, 
brought  on  by  bad  food,  broke  out,  carrying  oh4' 
twenty-live  men  and  prostrating  many  more.  The 
Indians  showed  the  French  much  kindness,  which 
was  ill  requited.  Karly  in  the  spring,  when  the  frost 
had  relaxed  its  hold  of  the  river,  Cartier  sailed  lor 
France,  carrying  oft'  by  force  Donnacona  and  other 
Indian  chiefs. 

The  war  with  Spain  again  interrupted  the  French 
Cartier  s  Third  king's  plans  for  colonising  Xcw  France, 
Voyage.  s<)  ^^.^  ^ vo  yeurs  passed  before  (.'artier 

returned  to  the  country.  But  now  new  interest  was 
awakened  in  the  far-off  land.  Sieur  do  Roberval,  a 
nobleman  of  high  rank,  was  appointed  Viceroy  of 
Canada.  Cartier,  second  in  authority,  with  the  title 
of  Captain-General,  was  sent  out  first  with  rive  ships, 
bearing  colonists  and  supplies.  Roberval  was  to 
follow.  The  object  of  the  enterprise  was  discovery, 
settlement  of  the  country,  and  the  conversion  of  the 
Indians.  In  the  royal  charter  Canada  was  described 
as  forming  "  the  extremity  of  Asia  toward  the  west." 
The  Indians  of  Stadacona,  remembering  how  their 
chiefs  had  been  carried  away,  were  less  friendly  than 
formerly.  Cartier  and  his  colonists  spent  a  miserable 
winter  at  Cap  Rouge,  a  little  above  where  Quebec 
now  stands.  Cold  and  disease  and  the  hostility  of 
the  natives  awakened  in  his  people  fervent  longings 
for  the  home  they  had  left  beyond  the  ocean.  There 
was  no  sign  of  the  VTiceroy  whom  they  were  anxiously 


EARLY  EXPLORERS.  25 

awjilting.     So  when  spring  came,  Cartier,   gathering 
the  survivors  on  board  his  vessels,  sailed  for  France. 

Meanwhile  Roberval  had  sailed  for  Canada  with 
three  ships  and  two  hundred  colonists.  On  his  way 
he  called  at  St.  John's,  Newfoundland.  Imagine  his 
surprise  when,  shortly  after  his  arrival,  he  saw  Carrier's 
ships  entering  the  harbour,  and  his  rage  when  he 
found  next  morning  that,  under  cover  'of  the  night, 
( 'artier  had,  in  opposition  to,  his  orders,  proceeded  on 
his  way  to  France.  Roberval  went  on  to  Cap  Rouge, 
where  his  experiences  were  similar  to  those  of  Cartier. 
He  had  made  scant  provision  for  the  winter.  Famine, 
disease,  and  mutiny  were  among  the  ills  which  he  had 
to  contend  with,  and  before  spring  came  death  had 
swept  oft'  one-third  of  his  men.  The  colony  was  short- 
lived. In  the  summer  of  1543  the  King  sent  Cartier 
to  bring  them  all  back  to  France. 

France   was    now   passing   through   stormy   times. 
Some  of  its  people  were  Roman  Catholics  Troubles  in 
and  some  were  Protestants,  or  Huguenots,  France 
as  they  were  called,  and  they  had  little  love  for  each 
other.      Religious  strife,  persecution,  and  civil  war  so 
distracted  and  weakened  the  kingdom  that  there  was 
little  spirit  or  energy  for  foreign  enterprise.      For  over 
half  a   century  no   attempt   was   made   to   establish 
colonies  in  Canada. 

Meanwhile,  however,  every  summer  fleets  of  fishing- 
vessels  sailed  from  the  western  ports  of 
France  for  the  banks  of   Newfoundland.  ofNewfound- 
Nor  had  the  passion  for  discovery  lost  its 
power.     Navigators  were  still  exploring  the  bays  and 
rivers  on  the  eastern  coast  of  America  in  search  of 
some  passage  to  China  and  India. 


26  THE    DOMINION    OK   CANADA. 

Soon,   also,  it    became   known   that    the   forests  of 
Xew   France   imssessed   sources  of  wealth 

The  Fur  Trade.     •.,•..,•  •         , 

in,  their  fur- bearing  animals  even  more 
lucrative  than  the  treasures  of  the  ocean.  The  fur 
trade  with  the  Indians  awakened  the  keenest  rivalry 
among  the  merchants  of  the  seaport  towns  of  France. 
It  was  a  barter  trade.  In  exchange  tor  furs,  which 
brought  a  high  price  in  Kuroj>ean  markets,  the  traders 
gave  the  Indians  knives,  hatchets,  cloth,  brandy,  beads, 
and  various  trinkets.  They  were  not  satisfied  with 
having  the  trade  free  and  open  to  all,  but  some  com- 
pany or  individual  obtained  from  the  King  letters 
patent,  securing  to  the  holder  sole  right  of  trade  within 
certain  specified  limits. 

Henry  IV.,  who  now  held  the  throne  of  France, 
DC  u  Roche,  gave  the  Marquis  de  la  Roche  a  patent 
1598  of  this  kind.  This  nobleman  was  made 

Lieutenant-General  of  Canada  and  adjacent  lands,  and 
was  granted  exclusive  right  of  trade  within  his  terri- 
tory. He  set  out  to  take  possession  of  his  dominion. 
The  enterprise  did  not  look  very  hopeful.  As  colonists 
could  not  be  obtained  from  other  quarters,  the  Marquis 
was  permitted  to  take  convicts  from  the  public  prisons 
to  make  up  the  required  number.  The  vessel  in  which 
they  sailed  was  so  small  that  those  on  lx>ard  could,  by 
leaning  over  the  side,  wash  their  hands  in  the  sea. 
Having  crossed  the  Atlantic,  De  la  Roche  left  forty  of 
his  convicts  on  Sable  Island  until  he  should  find  a 
suitable  place  for  settlement.  Shortly  after  he  en- 
countered a  violent  storm,  by  which  he  was  driven 
back  to  the  coasts  of  France.  He  returned  home,  to 
find  that  through  the  influence  of  rivals  his  commis- 
sion was  cancelled,  his  power  gone,  and  himself  in 


EARLY    EXPLORERS.  27 

disgrace.  He  was  deeply  in  debt,  and,  unable  to 
make  payment,  he  was  thrown  into  prison.  For  five 
long  years,  while  De  la  Roche  lay  in  prison,  the 
wretched  men  on  Sable  Island  strove  with  cold  and 
hunger  and  disease  and  with  each  other,  until  only 
twelve  remained  alive.  Then  the  King,  learning  hoAv 
they  had  been  left,  sent  Chetodel,  De  la  Roche's  pilot, 
to  bring  them  home.  It  was  a  sorry  spectacle  the 
surviving  convicts  made  when  brought  into  the  King's 
presence,  with  their  swarthy  faces,  long  beards,  and 
shaggy  clothing  made  of  the  skins  of  wild  animals. 
The  King  was  so  touched  with  their  wretched  appear- 
ance and  the  story  of  their  sufferings,  that  he  par- 
doned their  past  offences  and  bestowed  on  each  a  gift 
of  fifty  crowns. 

A  naval  officer  named  Chauvin,  and  Pontgrave,  a 
merchant   of  St.    Malo,    now   obtained   a 

..  ,  .  /•     -ri  •     •  Chauvin  and 

patent  from  the  King  of  France,  giving  Pontgrave, 
them  exclusive  right  to  the  fur  trade  in 
Canada.  The  charter  required  them  to  establish  five 
hundred  colonists  in  the  country.  Their  principal 
trading  post  was  Tadoussac,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Saguenay.  Here  they  erected  store-houses  and  a 
few  rude  huts.  They  derived  large  profits  from  the 
fur  trade ;  but  as  regards  colonists,  they  brought  out 
only  sixteen,  and  these  they  sadly  neglected.  Indeed, 
but  for  the  help  of  the  Indians,  the  poor  fellows  would 
have  died  of  starvation. 

Henry  IV.  of  France,  known  as  Henry  of  Navarre, 
had  to  fight  his  way  to  the  throne.   Aymar  Avmarde 
de  Chastes,  Governor  of  Dieppe,  had  ren-   c""stes- 
dered  the  King  important  aid  in  his  struggle  for  t ^e 
crown.     Now  an  old  man,  he  desired  to  round  ouv 


28 


TUB    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


his  service  of  God  un<l  the  King  by  planting  the  cross 
ami  the  flriir  tie  //.s  in  Canada.  Henrv.  willing  to 
gratify  him,  gave  him  patent  rights  to  the  fur  trade. 
l)e  ('hastes,  having  formed  a  company  of  leading 

merchants  to 
carry  out  his 
plans  of  settle- 
ment and  trade, 
selected  I'ont- 
gravc  to  explore 
the  country. 

There  was  at 
this  time  Chfm 
at  the  **D 
French  court  a 
young  man  who 
stood  high  in 
the  Kin  g's 
favour,  and  who 
during  the  next 
thirty  years 
took  a  promi- 
nent part  in 
the  affairs  of 
Canada.  This 
was  Samuel  de 
Champlaiu.  He 
had  just  re- 
turned from  the 

West  Indies  and  Mexico,  whither  he  had  gone  to 
gratify  his  love  of  adventure.  He  now  became  a 
member  of  the  new  company,  and  with  the  King's 
permission  accompanied  1'ont  grave  to  Canada. 


*AMI'KI.    11K    (HAMI'I.AIN 


EARLY    EXPLORERS. 


Pontgrave  and  Champlain  crossed  the  Atlantic 
with  two  small  vessels,  one  of  fifteen  tons,  the  other 
of  twelve.  They  visited  the  grounds  which  Cartier 
had  occupied  sixty  years  before.  Things  had  greatly 
changed.  The  Indian  towns  of  Stadacona  and  Hoche- 
laga  had  entirely  disappeared,  and  only  a  few  wan- 
dering Algonquins  were  now  found  in  the  country. 
Having  finished  their  explorations  they  returned  to 
France.  In  the  meantime  De  Chastes  had  died,  and 
this  led  to  a  reorganisation  of  the  company  under 
Pierre  du  Guast,  Sieur  de  Monts,  the  Governor  of 
Pons.  De  Monts  was  made  Lieutenant-General  of 
Acadie,  a  vast  territory  extending  from  the  fortieth 
to  the  forty-sixth  degree  of  north  latitude.  The 
company's  exclusive  right  to  the  fur  trade  within  this 
territory  was  secured  by  royal  charter. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THK  FIRST  CHAPTER  IN  THE  HISTORY  OF  ACADIE. 

IN   the  spring  of  1001-  I)e  Monts  sailed  for  Acadie. 
His  colonists  formed  a  motley  company. 

De  Monts  ill'  1  V        II 

sails  for  On    board    his   vessels    were   men   ot    all 

Acadie,  1604.  .  .  ...  . 

classes  and  conditions,  from  those  ot 
highest  rank  and  character  to  the  common  labourer 
and  the  vilest  criminal.  Among  the  leading  men 
who  accompanied  him  were  Pontgravc.  Baron  de 
Poutrincourt,  and  Champlain.  As  to  religion,  some 
were  Catholics  and  some  were  Huguenots.  The 
motives  which  took  them  over  the  seas  were  as 
varied  as  their  character  and  condition.  Some  went 
for  love  of  gain,  some  for  love  of  God  to  carry  the 
Gospel  to  the  poor  Indian  :  and  yet  others  went  for 
love  of  adventure.  Some  went  to  extend  the  power 
and  glory  of  France ;  and  again,  others  were  dragged 
on  board  by  force,  to  make  the  required  number. 
Accompanying  the  expedition  were  Roman  Catholic 
priests  and  Huguenot  ministers.  During  the  voyage 
these  messengers  of  peace  debated  religious  questions 
with  such  heat  that  they  sometimes  came  to  blows. 
De  Monts  was  a  Huguenot,  but  he  gave  pledges  thai 
the  Indians  should  be  instructed  in  the  Catholic 
faith. 

Dreading  the  severe  winter  in  the  country  border- 

30 


THE    HISTORY    OP   ACADIE.  31 


.  ing  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  De  Monts  steered  for  a  more 
southerly  point.  The  first  land  he  sighted  was  Cape 
la  Have  on  the  south  of  Nova  Scotia.  In  the  little 
bay  now  known  as  Liverpool  Harbour  he  found  a 
fellow-countryman  engaged  in  buying  furs  from  the 
Indians.  As  this  was  a  violation  of  his  rights,  De 
Monts  seized  the  vessel  and  cargo.  Shortly  after, 
Pontgrave',  who  had  been  exploring  the  coast  farther 
east,  arrived  with  the  spoils  of  four  traders  whom  he 
found  trespassing  near  Canso.  Pontgrave  then  sailed 
for  Tadoussac  to  carry  on  the  fur  trade  with  the 
Indians,  while  De  Monts  proceeded  westerly  in  search 
of  a  suitable  place  to  establish  his  colony. 

At  St.  Mary's  Bay  a  party,  including  a  priest  named 
Aubry,  and  a  Huguenot  minister,  went  ashore  for  a 
stroll  through  the  forest.  On  their  return  to  the 

O 

vessel  the  priest  was  missing.  Search  for  the  lost 
man  was  unavailing,  and  the  Huguenot  was  suspected 
of  having  killed  him.  Sixteen  days  after  an  explor- 
ing party  returned  to  St.  Mary's  Bay.  While  at 
anchor  near  the  coast  they  heard  a  feeble  cry  as  of 
one  in  distress.  Looking  towards  the  shore  they  saw 
a  man  waving  his  hat.  It  was  Aubry.  Stopping  to 
drink  at  a  spring,  he  had  laid  his  sword  on  the 
ground  and  forgotten  to  take  it  again.  Afterwards 
returning  to  get  it,  he  lost  his  way.  For  over  two 
weeks  he  had  lived  on  berries,  and  he  was  now  nearly 
exhausted  from  hunger. 

The  southern  shores  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy  are  for 
the  most  part  guarded  by  high  clift's  of 

o    -r  4u      vV  t\  '  „  Port  Royal. 

trap  rock.     Sailing  up  the  bay  De  Monts 

observed  an  opening  in  the  rock}'  wall,  through  which 

the  sea  found  an  inlef.     Passing  through  this  narrow 


THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

gateway,  he  beheld,  stretching  away  to  the  eastward, 
the  beautiful  land-locked  water  now  known  as  Anna- 
polis Basin.  The  placid  waters,  glittering  with  silvery 
sheen,  dotted  here  and  there  with  an  islet,  and 
bordered  ;ill  around  with  the  leafy  forests,  like  a  mirror 
set  in  emerald,  tilled  the  beholders  with  delight.  On 
the  north  shore  near  Goat  Island,  where  land  and 
water  mingle  all  their  charms,  a  site  was  chosen  for 
a  town.  This  place,  honoured  with  the  kindly  name 
Port  Royal,  l.)e  Monts  bestowed  on  Poutrincourt. 

Leaving  Port  Royal,  De  Monts  and  his  colonists 
continued  their  voyage  up  the  bay.  They  sailed 
around  Tape  Blomidon  into  Minas  Basin:  then,  re- 
turning, they  entered  a  large  river  flowing  into  the 
bay  from  the  north.  It  was  the  21th  of  .lime,  and  in 
honour  of  the  day  they  named  the  river  St.  .John. 

It  was  time  to  seek  winter  quarters.  A  place  was 
selected  on  a  small  island  in  Passama- 

St  Croix.  iiii  i  i         c      i         ._. 

quoddy  Bay,  near  the  mouth  01  the  St. 
Croix  River.  Here,  at  considerable  cost,  they  erected 
dwellings,  placing  them  around  an  ojx'n  square  or 
court.  The  site  had  not  been  well  chosen,  and  the 
little  colony  suffered  greatly  during  the  winter.  The 
cold  was  intense,  wood  and  water  were  scarce,  and  the 
food  was  bad.  Disease  broke  out,  which  carried  off 
thirty-nine  men  before  spring  came.  Pontgravc  and 
Poutrincourt  had  returned  to  France  in  the  autumn : 
but  the  stout-hearted  C'hamplain  remained,  a  source 
of  strength  and  hope  to  the  little  colony. 

Early  in  the  spring  De  Monts  and  C'hamplain  went 
Port  Royal  farther  west  along  the  coast  .:eeking  a  site 
founded,  ,6oS.  t-or  tneir  c.0],my?  hut  no  pia(.e  pleased  so 

well  as  Port  Royal.      Thither,  accordingly,  all  returned, 


THE   HISTORY    OF    ACADIE.  33 

with  them  the  materials  of  which  their 
houses  were  made.  But  scarcely  were  they  well 
settled  when  bad  news  came  from  France.  Rivals 
\vriv  plotting  against  De  Monts,  trying  to  persuade 
the  King  to  cancel  his  charter.  De  Monts,  therefore, 
at  once  proceeded  to  France,  leaving  Pontgrave,  who 
had  recently  returned  from  that  country,  to  take 
charge  of  the  colony,  and  Champlain  to  explore  new 
territory. 

De  Monts  could  do  little  to  maintain  his  position 
in  Acadie.  His  enemies,  jealous  of  his  poutrincourt 
monopoly,  asserted  that  he  had  neglected  returns- 
missionary  work  ainong  the  Indians ;  his  friends,  dis- 
satisfied with  the  small  profits  on  their  investments, 
failed  to  give  him  active  support.  Poutrincourt,  how- 
ever, was  enthusiastic  over  his  new  estate,  and,  assisted 
by  De  Monts,  he  prepared  to  return  to  Port  Royal. 
He  sailed  from  Rochelle  in  May  1606.  His  arrival 
at  Port  Royal  was  opportune,  for  the  little  colony  had 
been  reduced  to  extremities.  Two  Frenchmen  and 
;ni  old  Indian  chief  occupied  the  fort.  Pontgrave 
had  gone  with  the  others  to  obtain  supplies  from 
tisl ling- vessels  which  they  might  find  on  the  coast. 
Learning  of  Poutrincourt's  arrival,  he  soon  returned. 
It  was  a  joyous  reunion.  To  add  to  the  good  cheer, 
Poutrincourt  placed  a  hogshead  of  wine  in  the  open 
square,  and  invited  all  to  drink  at  their  pleasure. 

Poutrincourt   was   accompanied    by  a  young   man 
named    Marc    Lescarbot,   who   proved   an 
invaluable  aid  to  the  colony.      Lescarbot 
was   by  profession   a   lawyer,  but   he    was  a  man  of 
varied  talents  and  accomplishments.      He  encouraged 
the  cultivation  of  the   soil,  looked    after   the  public 

c 


34  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

health,  and  su|>erintended  the  building  of  a  water- 
power  mill  tor  making  flour  in  place  of  the  hand 
mill  previously  used.  He  was  the  historian  of  the 
colony,  and  he  also,  after  a  fashion,  wrote  poetry, 
with  which  he  was  wont  to  amuse  his  friends. 

The  fallowing  winter  passed  pleasantly.  There 
L'Ordrede  were  fifteen  principal  men  in  the  colony. 
Bon  Temps  At  tiie  SUggesti,m  of  ('hamplain,  they 

formed  themselves  into  a  club  called  the  Order  of 
the  (rood  Time.  Day  about  each  held  the  office  of 
Grand  Master,  whose  duty  it  was  to  provide  for  the 
table  and  to  furnish  amusement  for  his  day  of  office. 
Each,  as  his  turn  came  to  cater  for  the  club,  strove 
to  outdo  his  predecessor,  while  stream  and  forest 
yielded  their  choicest  luxuries  of  fish  and  game  to 
enrich  the  bill  "of  fare.  At  the  appointed  hour  the 
Grand  Master,  wearing  the  insignia  of  office,  entered 
the  dining-hall,  followed  by  the  members  of  the  order, 
each  bearing  a  dish  for  the  table.  Welcome  guests 
at  the  festive  board  were  the  Indian  chiefs,  most 
honoured  of  whom  was  the  aged  Membertou,  whose 
head  was  now  whitened  by  a  hundred  winters.  After 
dinner  the  members  of  the  club  drank  their  wine, 
smoked  their  lobster-claw  pipes,  sang  French  songs, 
and  listened  to  the  old  chiefs  Indian  tales. 

When  spring  came,  the  colonists,  stimulated  and 
Port  Royai  guided  by  the  versatile  Lescarbot,  set 
about  cultivating  the  soil.  In  this  agri- 
cultural life  of  the  colony  lay  its  chief  promise  of 
permanence ;  but  there  was  an  element  of  weakness 
which  even  this  feature  could  not  overcome.  The 
colonists  had  not  come  to  Acadie  to  make  a  home 
for  themselves  and  their  families.  They  were  simply 


THE    HISTORY   OF    ACADIE.  35 

dependents  of  a  company  whose  interests  all  centred 
in  the  fur  trade.  The  culture  of  the  soil  was  a 
pastime  and  not  a  vocation. 

And  now  came  the  day  of  trial.     De  Monts  failed  to 

withstand  the  clamour  of  his  rivals.      His 

n    i       mi  >     Port  R°yai 

charter   was    cancelled.      I  he    Company  s  abandoned, 

monopoly  of  the  fur  trade  having  been 
taken  away,  the  expenses  of  the  colony  would  exceed 
the  income.  Poutrincourt  was  accordingly  instructed 
to  break  up  the  settlement  and  return  with  all  the 
colonists  to  France.  And  so,  much  to  the  grief  of  the 
^  Indians,  especially  of  theold  chief  Membertou,  Port  Royal 
was  abandoned.  Reluctantly  did  Poutrincourt  leave 
the  place  in  which  he  had  taken  so  much  interest. 

Poutrincourt  did  not  lose  his  love  for  Port  Royal. 
Three  years  elapsed,  however,  before  he  Retlirn  to  Port 
was  able  to  return.  The  Indians  of  Roya1'  1<5l°- 
Acadie,  ever  friendly  to  the  French,  gave  him  a 
hearty  welcome.  In  confirming  his  title  to  the  place 
from  De  Monts,  the  King  insisted  that  he  should 
provide  means  for  instructing  the  natives  in  the 
Catholic  religion.  Poutrincourt  had  brought  with 
him  a  priest,  Father  Fleche,  for  this  purpose.  The 
Indians  were  very  docile  under  their  teacher.  The 
old  chief  Membertou,  his  family,  and  his  clan  gave 
assent  to  the  faith,  and  received  Christian  names  at 
their  baptism.  Membertou  was  called  Henry,  after 
the  King  of  France,  and  his  squaw  Mary,  after  the 
Queen.  Biencourt,  the  youthful  son  of  Poutrincourt, 
was  sent  to  France  to  report  to  the  King  this  success 
in  missionary  work.  But  before  he  arrived,  King 
Henry  had  fallen  by  the  hand  of  an  assassin  as  he 
was  driving  through  the  streets  of  Paris. 


3f>  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

The  religious  order  known   :is  the  Jesuits  at  this 
time  stood   hi«;h   in  favour  and  influence 

Troubles.  ,  .     , ,  .  .  .       . 

at  the  Court  01  France.  Many  ol  the 
French  people,  however,  were  strongly  opposed  to  the 
order.  Poutrincourt  shared  in  this  feeling,  and  he 
used  every  available  means  to  keep  its  menil)ers  out 
of  his  colony.  In  spite  of  these  e Moris,  two  Jesuits, 
Biard  and  Masse,  accompanied  Bieneoiirt  on  his  re- 
turn to  Port  Royal.  Troubles  now  came  thick  ujxjn 
Poutrincourt.  He  went  to  France  to  look  after  the 
interests  of  his  colony,  leaving  Biencourt  in  charge. 
Rivals  plotted  against  him.  He  was  burdened  with 
debt  and  was  thrown  into  prison,  where  he  fell  ill. 
In  the  meantime  affairs  got  on  badly  at  Port  Royal. 
Food  was  scarce,  and  the  colonists  had  to  forage  in 
the  forest  to  keep  them-^lves  from  starving.  There 
were  constant  quarrels  between  Biencourt  and  the 
Jesuit  fathers.  But  now  a  new  enemy,  worse  than 
all  others,  appeared  on  the  scene. 

The    settlement    of    Jamestown,    on    the    coast    of 
Virginia,    formed    in    1<><>7.    wsis   the    first 

Jamestown.  i-        r    i  i  ,  •  i 

hnglish  colony  in  America.  It  was  as- 
tablished  by  a  company  acting  under  authority  of 
King  James  I.  of  England.  The  territory  of  the 
company  extended  northerly  to  the  (iulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence, and  included  Port  Hoyal.  The  hero  of  the 
colony  was  Captain  John  Smith,  whose  adventures 
and  hair- breadth  escapes  in  various  parts  of  the 
world  give  interest  to  the  story  of  his  life.  He 
now  added  to  his  fame  by  abducting  from  her  forest 
home  an  Indian  chiefs  daughter,  the  beautiful  and 
tender-hearted  Pocahontas. 

At  Jamestown  was  one  Captain  Argall,  a  daring, 


THE    HISTORY    OF   ACADIE.  37 

unscrupulous  man,  ready  for  almost  any  enterprise. 
He  was  sent  north  in  an  armed  vessel  portRoyaide- 
by  the  Governor  of  Jamestown  to  expel  str°yed'  I6'3- 
any  Frenchmen' whom  he  might  find  within  the 
limits  of  the  Company's  territory.  He  first  attacked 
a  little  colony  just  established  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Penobscot  River,  making  prisoners  of  the  colonists 
and  seizing  their  property.  Shortly  after,  the 
Governor  of  Virginia  sent  him  against  Port  Royal. 
When  he  arrived  at  this  place  Biencourt  and  part 
of  his  men  were  absent ;  others  were  reaping  their 
grain  in  the  fields.  Argall  plundered  the  fort  and 
then  laid  it  in  ashes,  setting  fire  even  to  the  grain 
in  the  harvest-field.  Poutrincourt  once  more,  in  the 
following  spring,  visited  Port  Royal,  to  find  it  in  ruins, 
and  his  son  a  homeless  "wanderer  in  the  forests.  Re- 
turning to  France,  he  shortly  after  fell  in  battle.  His 
son  Biencourt  remained  in  Acadie.  He  built  a  rude 
fort  near  Cape  Sable,  on  the  south  coast,  giving  it  the 
name  of  Fort  Louis.  There  was  with  him  a  Huguenot 
of  some  note,  named  Claude  de  la  Tour,  who,  together 
with  his  son  Charles,  had  come  to  Port  Royal  in  1610 
with  Poutrincourt.  On  the  death  of  Biencourt  in  1623 
Charles  de  la  Tour  succeeded  as  lieutenant,  making 
his  home  at  Fort  Louis.  Meanwhile  Claude  de  la 
Tour  proceeded  to  France  to  seek  the  royal  favour 
for  his  son. 

The  kings  of  England  at  this  time  had  much  more 
power  than  belongs  to  the  sovereign  in  our  Nova  Scotiai 
day,  and  they  sometimes  made  liberal  gifts  I6"- 
to  their  friends.     James  I.,  who  now  held  the  throne, 
claimed,  in  virtue  of  Cabot's  discovery,  a  large  part  of 
North  America,  including  the  French  Acadie.      This 


38  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

country  he  now  bestowed  on  a  Scottish  knight  named 
Sir  William  Alexander.  In  Sir  William's  charter, 
given  in  1621,  the  country  was  called  Nova  Scotia. 
Four  years  later,  to  aid  Sir  William  in  settling  the 
country,  Charles  I.,  who  had  succeeded  to  the  English 
throne,  created  an  order  of  knighthood  for  Xova 
Scotia.  There  were  to  be  one  hundred  and  fifty 
knights  baronets  of  Nova  Scotia,  and  each  knight 
was  to  receive  a  barony  in  the  colony  on  condition  of 
taking  thither  a  certain  number  of  colonists.  Through 
Sir  William's  efforts  a  small  Scotch  settlement  was 
formed  in  the  part  of  the  country  now  called  Granville. 
Hut  Sir  William's  plans  did  not  prosper,  and  he  soon 
abandoned  the  scheme. 


CHAPTER  V. 

CANADA    UNDER    CHAMPLAIN. 

DE  MONTS  did  not  abandon  his  purpose  of  founding 
a  colony.  Leaving  Port,  Royal  to  Pou-  De  Monts-s 
trincourt,  he  chose  the  country  of  the  St.  NewField 
Lawrence  as  a  field  of  operation.  He  had  sufficient 
influence  at  court  to  secure  a  renewal  of  his  monopoly 
of  the  fur  trade  for  one  year.  Accordingly,  with  the 
threefold  object  of  founding  a  colony,  making  money 
by  the  fur  trade,  and  exploration,  he  fitted  out  two 
ships  for  the  St.  Lawrence.  Pontgrave,  having  com- 
mand of  one,  proceeded  to  Tadoussac  to  carry  on 
the  fur  trade  with  the  Indians.  Champlain,  who, 
as  lieutenant-governor,  had  charge  of  the  other,  was 
to  care  for  the  colony  and  explore  the  country,  They 
left  France  hi  the  spring  of  1608. 

A  short  distance  above  the  Island   of  Orleans,  a 
small  river  from   the   north,  named  the  Quebec 
S  .  Charles,  enters  the  St.  Lawrence.     On  founded 
the  angle  between  the  rivers  is  a  rocky  promontory, 
whose  highest  point,  called  Cape  Diamond,  rises  to 
the  height  of  350  feet  above  the  water.     A  narrow 
:  trand  lies  between  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  cliffs. 
Here,  under  the  shadow  of  the  lofty  Cape,  on  the  site 
of  the   Indian  Stadacona,  Champlain  erected   a  few 
wooden  houses,  which  he  protected  by  a  strong  wall 


40  THK    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

of  logs.  On  tlie  outside  of  the  wall  was  a  moat,  and 
on  the  inside  a  gallery,  on  which  he  mounted  his 
cannon.  Such  was  the  rude  beginning  of  the  city 
and  fortifications  of  Quebec,  which  in  the  course  of 
years  became,  and  still  continues  to  be.  the  strongest 
fortress  in  America. 

The   story  of  Champlain's   rule  in  Canada,  as  well 
as  the  succeeding  history  of  the  country, 

Indian  Tribes        .  .  i  •   i        i  •  11- 

has  much  to  do  with  the  native  Indian 
tribes.  Hence,  to  make  the  story  plain,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  give  some  account  of  these  people.  At  this 
time  the  Indians  of  Canada  and  the  neighbouring 
territories  comprised  three  principal  divisions  -  the 
Algonquins,  the  Iroquois,  and  the  Hurons.  More 
properly  they  may  be  included  in  two  families,  for 
the  two  last-named  were  of  the  same  stock,  and  are 
often  called  the  Huron-Iroquois.  Each  of  these  divi- 
sions included  various  tribes.  At  the  time  of  ('ham- 
plain's  arrival  the  Indian  villages  of  Stadacona  and 
Hochelaga  had  entirely  disappeared,  nor  were  there 
in  the  country  any  Indians  of  that  family  which 
Cartier  met  seventy  years  earlier.  Those  of  Cartier's 
time  were  of  the  Hnron-Iroqiiois  stock,  and  the  country 
was  now  occupied  by  Algonquin*. 

The  Algonquin  family  was  widespread,  lieing  thinly 
The  scattered  over  a  large  part  of  the  Atlantic 

Algonquin*  sjono  ()f  yortn  Aincricn.  It  included  the 
Indians  on  the  Ottawa,  on  the  Lower  St.  Lawrence, 
and  iu  the  territory  now  comprised  in  the  Atlantic 
Provinces.  Many  of  them,  especially  in  the  east,  lived 
by  hunting  and  fishing,  wholly  neglecting  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  soil.  They  were  more  roving  in  habit; 
than  the  others. 


CANADA    UNDER    CHAMPLAIN. 


41 


The  Iroquois 


The  Iroquois  occupied  the  territory  now  included 
in  Central  New  York.  In  the  early  times 
they  comprised  five  tribes — the  Mohawks, 
the  Oneidas,  the  Onondagas,  the  Cayugas"  and  the 
Senecas,  from  which  they  came  to  be  called  the 
"  Five  Nations."  At  a  later  period  they  were  joined 
by  the  Tuscaroras  from  South  Carolina,  and  they  then 


THE   HURON  MISSION. 


became  known  as  the  "  Six  Nations."  The  Iroquois 
held  a  much  higher  position  in  the  scale  of  humanity 
and  the  arts  of  life  than  the  Algonquins.  They  had 
better  dwellings,  and  cultivated  the  soil,  though  in  a 
very  rude  sort  of  way.  Their  chief  products  w6re 
Indian  corn,  beans,  pumpkins,  tobacco,  and  sunflowers. 
They  were  also  more  skilful  in  war  as  it  was  prac- 


42  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

tised  by  the  Indians,  and  they  were  very  cruel  to  such 
of  their  enemies  as  they  captured,  often  putting  them 
to  death  with  extreme  refinement  of  torture :  and 
yet,  to  increase  their  own  numbers,  they  sometimes 
adapted  their  captives  as  mcml>ers  of  the  tribe. 
Their  habit  was  to  make  rapid  incursions,  by  way  of 
the  rivers  and  lakes,  into  the  country  of  the  Algon- 
quins  and  Hurons,  swooping  upon  their  unsuspecting 
victims,  plundering  and  killing  them,  or  carrying  oft' 
those  whom  they  could  capture  alive.  Although  the 
Algonquins  were  much  more  numerous  than  the 
Iroquois,  yet  such  dread  had  they  of  this  foe  that  they 
made  their  home  far  back  in  the  depth  of  the  forest, 
occasionally  visiting  certain  points  on  the  rivers  for 
trade.  The  Iroquois  usually  entered  the  country  of 
the  Algonquins  by  way  of  the  Richelieu  River,  which 
was  at  this  time  called  the  River  of  the  Iroquois. 
The  Hurons,  as  already  stated,  properly  belonged 
to  the  Iroquois  familv,  but  they  were 

The  Hurons  i     <•  i  •«  *      i  • 

separated  from  the  other  tribes  ot  this 
family  by  a  deadly  feud.  They  inhabited  the  country 
between  Georgian  Bay  and  Lake  Simcoe,  now  forming 
the  northern  part  of  Simcoe  County  in  Ontario.  In 
Champlain's  time,  and  later,  there  were  over  thirty 
villages  in  this  small  district,  with  a  total  population 
said  to  be  at  least  twenty  thousand.  As  regards  in- 
telligence and  mode  of  living  they  stood  highest 
among  the  Indians  of  Canada. 

The  dwellings  of  the  Hurons  were  long  houses  like 
those  which  Cartier  found  at  Hochelaga,  about  thirty- 
five  feet  in  length  and  the  same  in  breadth,  although 
some  <>f  them  were  over  two  hundred  feet  long.  They 
were  often  constructed  by  planting  two  parallel  rows  of 


CANADA    UNDER    CHAMPLAIN. 


43 


tall  saplings,  bending  these  inwards  until  they  over- 
lapped, and  binding  them  together,  thus  giving  the 
structure  an  arched  form  at  the  top.  Cross-poles  were 
then  lashed  to  these  uprights,  and, the  whole  was 
covered  with  bark,  except  an  opening  about  a  foot 
wide  along  the  centre  running  the  whole  length  of  the 
dwelling.  This  opening  served  the  double  purpose  of 
a  window  and  a  chimney.  Each  dwelling  was  occupied 


rrrn 


96  FT 
GROUND-PLAN   OF   LONG   HOUSE. 


INDIAN   LONG   HOUSE. 


by  several  families.  The  Hres  were  on  the  ground  along 
the  middle  of  the  house,  directly  under  the  opening 
at  the  top,  one  h're  serving  for  two  adjoining  families. 
In  winter,  men,  women,  and  children  slept  close  packed 
ground  the  h're.  In  summer  their  sleeping-place  was 
a  sort  of  scaffold  along  each  side  of  the  dwelling,  made 
of  poles  covered  with  bark  and  skins  of  animals.  The 
Hurons  lived  principally  on  Indian  corn,  which  they 


44  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

stored  up  in  large  quantities,  buried  deep  in  the  ground. 

They  also  cultivated  tobacco,  pumpkins,  and  sunflowers. 

Matters  did  not  at  first  run  smoothly  with  Chain- 

Ch«mpiain's       plain.     Scarcely  was  he  settled  when  some 

Difficulties.  ()j-     njs     ,|ien     forme<l     a    plot      to     kill     hj,,, 

The  conspiracy  was  discovered  in  good  time,  the  ring- 
leader was  hanged,  and  his  three  chief  accomplices 
were  sent  in  ftons  to  France.  Scurvy,  dread  foe  of 
the  early  colonists,  broke  out  and  sadly  thinned  the 
little  colony.  Before  the  winter  was  past  only  eight 
men  out  of  twenty-eight  remained  alive. 

Hut  with  the  spring  came  health  and  renewed  hope. 
Better  Pontgnivt',  who  had  gone  to  France  in  the 

Prospects  aut uiun,  returned,  bringing  with  him  more 
colonists.  C'hamplain  was  eager  to  begin  his  explora- 
tions, and  a  way  now  opened  which  seemed  to  favour 
his  purpose.  The  Algonquin*  and  Hurons,  impressed 
with  his  superior  equipments  for  war,  invited  him  to 
join  them  in  a  foray  against  the  Iroquois.  Champlain 
accepted  the  invitation,  and  thus  excited  against  him- 
self and  his  countrymen  the  bitter  and  undying  hostility 
of  the  fiercest  and  most  warlike  savages  in  America. 

The  allied  forces  comprised  sixty  Indians  and 
Foray  against  twelve  Frenchmen,  including  Champlain. 

the  Iroquois  'pj)c     ^^     lay   |,y   wuy   ()f    ^    waters    nQW 

known  as  the  River  Richelieu  and  Lake  C'hamplain. 
The  Indians  had  canoes;  the  French  went  in  a  boat, 
as  they  had  been  told  by  the  Indians  that  they  could 
sail  up  to  the  headwaters  of  the  lake  without  obstruc- 
tion. All  went  well  until  they  came  to  the  rapids 
of  the  Richelieu.  The  boat  could  go  no  farther. 
Accordingly  nine  of  Champlaiu's  men  were  sent  back 
with  it  to  Quebec.  The  Indians,  having  carried  the 


CANADA    UNDER   CHAMPLAIN.  45 

canoes  on  their  shoulders  over  the  portage  to  the 
smooth  waters  above,  took  Champlain  and  his  two 
remaining  men  in  with  them. 

At  last,  on  the   shores   of  Lake   Champlain,  pro- 
bably near  the  site  of  Ticonderoga,  sooner 

J  The  Battle. 

than  they  had  expected,  they  met  the  toe 
they  were  seeking — a  band  of  Iroquois  two  hundred 
strong.  At  first  Champlain  kept  out  of  sight.  When 
he  stepped  to  the  front,  clad  in  the  armour  which 
warriors  of  that  day  were  accustomed  to  wear,  the 
Iroquois  were  filled  with  wonder,  and  when  he  fired 
upon  them,  killing  two  of  their  chiefs  and  mortally 
wounding  a  third,  panic-stricken  they  flung  down  their 
weapons  and  fled.  Champlaiii  gained  an  easy  victory  ; 
but  it  was  a  more  difficult  matter  to  restrain  the  fierce 
passions  of  his  Indian  allies.  In  spite  of  his  remon- 
strances, they  scalped  their  prisoners  alive,  and  tortured 
them  with  every  cruelty  which  their  savage  nature  could 
invent.  The  victors  now  turned  back — Champlain  to 
Quebec,  his  Indian  allies  to  their  home  on  the  Ottawa. 
Various  French  noblemen,  for  a  short  time,  held 
in  succession  the  office  of  Viceroy  of  New  Champiain's 
France.  Champlain, however, acting  as  lieu-  Purp°ses- 
tenant  under  each,  was  the  life  of  the  colony,  and  he  made 
several  visits  to  France  to  awaken  interest  in  its  welfare 
and  to  secure  means  for  its  support.  Two  leading  objects 
he  kept  ever  before  him — the  conversion  of  the  Indians 
and  the  discovery  of  a  route  to  China.  Except  as  it 
might  provide  means  to  carry  out  these  objects,  he 
cared  little  for  the  fur  trade.  To  satisfy  the  merchants 
who  cried  out  against  monopoly,  he  offered  them  a 
share  in  the  traffic.  Some  of  them,  however,  preferred 
to  carry  on  a  rival  trade  in  defiance  of  his  charter. 


46  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

Chainplain  saw   that  the  success  of  Ins  Company 
required  a  fortified  jxjst  at   some  ix>int  oil 

The  Site  of  '  .    , 

Montreal  the  St.  Lawrence,  which  would  be  of  easy 

selected,  1611  .  .. 

access  both  to  the  trading-vessels  and  to 
the  Indians  of  the  interior.  The  Island  of  Montreal, 
situated  at  the  head  of  ship  navigation  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Ottawa,  ottered  these  advantages.  With  much 
good  judgment  Chainplain  chose  for  his  post  the 
site  where  Montreal,  the  great  commercial  capital  of 
the  Dominion,  now  stands.  He  cleared  the  ground, 
but  for  some  cause  failed  to  erect  the  fort.  Little 
more  was  done  at  the  place  for  thirty  years.  The 
Indians,  however,  were  accustomed  to  gather  here 
every  year  to  sell  their  furs  and  to  plan  schemes  of 
war  against  their  enemies. 

A  Frenchman  named  Vignau,  who  had  spent  some 
months  among  the  Indians  on  the  Ottawa, 

In  Search  of  ,,     .       .         T..  .      . 

a  Northern         then  called  the  Kiver  of   the  Algonquins, 

Sea,  1613  .   .  .          11,.. 

reported,  on  his  return,  that  lie  had  visited 
a  great  northern  sea  beyond  the  headwaters  of  that 
river,  and  that  he  had  seen  the  wreck  of  an  Knglish 
ship  on  its  shores.  Chainplain  believed  that,  this  was 
the  long-sought  route  to  India  and  China.  Accord- 
ingly, accompanied  by  Vignau,  four  other  Frenchmen, 
and  an  Indian  guide,  he  made  a  long  and  perilou; 
journey  up  the  Ottawa  in  search  of  the  sea.  Finally 
the  man  confessed  that  his  story  was  a  hoax :  he  had 
found  no  such  sea.  Much  disgusted  with  the  im- 
postor, whom  he  had  promised  to  pardon  in  order 
to  gain  confession,  Champlain  made  his  way  back  to 
Quebec. 

Champlain,  returning  from  France,  which  he  often 
visited,  brought   with  him   four  monks  of  the  order 


CANADA    UNDER    CHAMPLAIN.  47 

called  Rtcollets,  distinguished  for  the  strictness  of 
their  rules  and  their  self-denying  manner 

,.  ....  _,.  ,       ,,     ,  j  j  Recollets come 

of  hie.      I  he  arrival  ot  these  devoted  men  to  Canada, 

,          •,.  .         1615. 
was    an    important  era   in    the    religious 

history  of  the  colony.  Two  of  them  remained  in 
Quebec,  while  the  other  two  went  among  the  Indians 
—one  to  the  wandering  Algonquins,  and  the  other, 
Joseph  le  Caron,  to  the  far- distant  Hurons. 

Champlain's  Indian    allies  urged  him  to  aid  them 
again    in    a    war     against    the    Iroquois. 

,?.    ,  ,.  ,      .  Champlain 

Yielding    to    their    entreaty,    he    set   out  visits  the 

i'  -i  C-ITF  i  Hurons. 

tor  the  country  ot  the  Hurons,  where 
the  forces  were  to  be  mustered.  His  route  was 
long  and  arduous.  He  and  a  few  companions,  mostly 
Indians,  went  up  the  Ottawa,  rowing  against  the 
strong  current,  and  carrying  their  canoes  around 
falls  and  rapids.  Ascending  the  river  to  the  Mata- 
wan,  they  struck  across  to  Lake  Nipissing,  and 
thence  passed  down  French  River  to  Georgian  Bay. 
There  was  great  rejoicing  among  the  Hurons  over 
Champlain's  arrival.  Especially  was  he  welcomed  by 
Le  Caron,  the  Recollet  missionary.  Nowhere  among 
the  Indians  had  Champlain  seen  such  marks  of  in- 
telligence. The  dwellings  were  long  houses  occupied 
by  several  families,  such  as  Cartier  found  at  Montreal, 
and  were  surrounded  by  palisades  in  some  cases 
thirty-five  feet  high. 

The  warriors  assembled  at  their  chief  town,  com- 
prising two  hundred  dwellings,  near  where   War  ^^  ^ 
Orillia  now  stands.     Having  feasted  and   Iro<iuois 
danced  the  war-dance,  they  shouldered  their  canoes 
and   set  out  for  the  enemy's  country.     Their  route 
was  across  Lake  Simcoe  and  along  the  valley  of  the 


48  THE  DOMINION  OK  (ANAPA. 

Trent  by  lake  and  stream  to  Quinte  Hay.  Thence 
they  crossed  Lake  Ontario  and  man-he  1  inland  to  the 
country  of  the  Lroquois.  The  enemy  retreated  from 
their  fields  and  took  shelter  behind  the  palisades  of 
one  of  their  rhief  towns  on  the  south  of  Lake  Oneida. 
The  Iroquois  warriors  ocnipie  1  a  gallery  inside  the 
palisades,  where  they  were  exposed  to  little  danger 
from  the  besiegers.  The  Hurons,  regardless  of  Cham- 
plains  counsel,  exposed  themselves  to  needless  danger. 
Manv  of  them  were  killed,  and  on  the  whole  they  had 
the  worst  of  the  fight,  ('hamplain  received  a  wound 
in  the  knee  from  an  arrow,  which  so  disabled  him  that 
for  several  days  lie  had  to  l>e  carried  in  a  basket  on 
the  back  of  an  Indian.  Finally  the  Hurons  l>eeame 
discouraged,  and.  in  spite  of  ( 'hamplain  s  remonstrance, 
gave  up  the  contest  and  set.  out  for  home. 

.The   failure   of  the   attack   on    the  Iroquois   rather 
lessened  ('hamplain  s   prestige   among   his 

Champlain  ' 

winters  amon^     Indian  allies.       He  was  not  so  powerful  as 

the  Hurons.  .         ....  . 

they  had  supposed.  \N  hen  lie  asked  them 
to  send  him  to  Montreal  according  to  promise,  they 
refused.  Xor  would  they  furnish  him  with  boats  for  the 
journey.  He  was  thus  obliged  to  remain  among  them 
through  the  winter,  v. hidi  he  spent  in  hunting  and 
in  visiting  the  different  villages.  In  the  spring,  after 
a  tedious  journey  of  forty  days,  he  returned  to  Quel»ec. 
There  was  great  joy  over  his  arrival,  for  his  jwoplc 
had  given  him  up  for  dead. 

Meanwhile  the  colony  at  Quebec  was  making  little 
Condition  of       progress    either    as    regards    numbers    or 

general  prosperity.  Its  inhabitants  did 
not  exceed  one  hundred,  and  many  of  them  spent 
their  time  in  idleness  or  something  worse.  The  cul- 


CANADA    UNDER    CHAMPLAIN.  49 

tivation  of  the  soil  was  almost  wholly  neglected,  and 
the  few  who  engaged  in  this  occupation  did  so  rather 
for  pastime  than  as  a  means  of  livelihood.  The  mer- 
chants set  Champlain's  authority  at  defiance,  and  the 
Company  failed  to  supply  the  colonists  with  the  neces- 
saries of  life.  The  Iroquois,  in  their  turn,  invaded 
the  country,  descending  even  to  the  very  neighbour- 
hood of  Quebec.  Indeed,  some  of  Champlain's  Indian 
allies  showed  by  acts  of  violence  that  they  could  not 
be  trusted.  Changes  in  the  viceroyalty  brought  no 
gain  to  the  colony,  and  transferring  the  trade  privi- 
leges from  the  old  Company  to  two  Huguenots,  named 
Caen,  only  introduced  religious  strife.  The  policy  was 
the  same  -  to  make  as  much  money  as  possible  out  of 
the  fur  trade.  A  change  was  needed. 

( 'urdinal  Richelieu  was  now  the  real  ruler  of  France. 
Through  the  influence  of  this  great  states- 

0  The  Company 

man  a  new  company  was  termed.  It  con-  of  New  France, 
sisted  of  one  hundred  associates,  and  was 
called  the  Company  of  New  France,  or  the  Company 
of  One  Hundred.  Associates.  It  had  under  its  con- 
trol a  vast  country  from  Hudson  Bay  to  Florida,  and 
from  Newfoundland  to  the  sources  of  the  St.  Lawrence. 
Within  this  territory  it  had  a  monopoly  of  the  fur 
trade  and  of  all  other  trade  for  fifteen  years.  During 
the  period  that  the  Huguenots  had  control  of  business 
affairs  there  arrived  at  Quebec  three  Jesuit  priests, 
Lalemant,  Brebeuf,  and  Ma,sse,  and  two  lay  brothers  of 
the  same  order.  They  were  not  very  warmly  received 
by  the  Huguenots,  who  regarded  them  with  suspicion. 
The  Company  was  under  pledge  to  bring  out  immedi- 
ately two  or  three  hundred  colonists,  and  to  increase 
the  number  to  four  thousand  within  the  next  fifteen 

D 


50  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

years.  All  colonists  must  be  French  and  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion.  Thus  the  Huguenots  were 
excluded.  These  colonists  the  Company  was  bound  to 
support  for  three  years,  and  at  the  end  of  this  time 
to  give  them  such  cleared  lands  as  would  enable  them 
to  support  themselves.  Richelieu  himself  was  at  the 
head  of  the  Company.  Champlain  still  had  charge 
of  the  colony  as  lieutenant-governor. 

The  new  Company  began  well.  A  fleet  of  trans- 
Shattered  ports,  accompanied  by  four  armed  ships, 
Hopes.  bearing  supplies  and  new  colonists,  was 

sent  out  from  France.  Safely  it  made  its  way  across 
the  Atlantic,  and  was  now  in  the  St.  Lawrence,  within 
a  few  hours'  sail  of  Quebec.  The  starving  inhabitants 
were  eagerly  watching  for  its  arrival.  Alas  for  their 
hopes !  An  enemy  lay  concealed  at  Tadoussae,  also 
on  the  lookout.  Civil  war  h-ul  broken  out  in  France. 
The  Huguenots,  long  persecuted,  were  in  revolt,  and 
Charles  I.  of  England  sent,  aid  to  the  rebels.  War 
between  England  and  France  awakened  to  new  life 
Sir  William  Alexander's  project  of  colonisation.  In- 
fluenced by  him,  a  company  of  London  merchants, 
under  authority  of  King  Charles,  sent  out  a  fleet  to 
drive  the  French  from  North  America.  The  fleet  was 
under  the  command  of  three  brothers  named  Kirk  — 
David,  Lewis,  and  Thomas.  They  had  made  an  easy 
conquest  of  Port  Royal,  and  they  were  now  ready  for 
business  in  the  St.  Lawrence. 

David  Kirk,  who  was  chief  in  command,  sent  a 
message  to  Champlain,  demanding  immediate  sur- 
render. Champlain  was  in  sorry  case  for  lighting. 
His  fort  was  all  out  of  repair,  he  had  only  fifty  pounds 
of  gunpowder,  and  his  stock  of  provisions  was  low. 


CANADA    UNDER   CHAMPLAIN.  51 

But  his  courage  was  equal  to  the  occasion.  He  would 
hold  the  fort.  He  placed  each  man  at  his  post,  de- 
termined to  fight  it  out.  But  no  foe  appeared.  The 
English  were  deceived  by  his  boldness,  and  for  the 
present  let  him  alone.  They  captured  all  the  French 
transports,  however,  and  seized  the  supplies  which 
Cham  plain  so  much  needed. 

There  was  great  suffering  in  Quebec  during  the 
following  winter.  The  colonists  were  on  capture  of 
the  verge  of  starvation.  At  last  their  Quebec-  l6a»- 
only  food  was  acorns  and  roots  of  Solomon's  seal  and 
other  wild  plants.  One  day  in  July,  when  all  were 
out  in  search  of  food,  Champlain  alone  remaining  in 
the  fort,  three  ships  appeared  ascending  the  river. 
Shortly  after  they  dropped  anchor  before  Quebec. 
The  Kirks  had  returned.  Resistance  was  useless,  and 
the  English  flag  was  soon  flying  over  the  fort.  Cham- 
plain  was  taken  to  England  by  his  captors. 

Peace  had  already  been  made  between  England  and 
France  before  the  surrender  of  Quebec.  The 

-.  ,    .  Treaty  of  St. 

trench  Government  accordingly  claimed   Germain-en- 

,  ,         ,  iiii  Laye,  163*. 

that  the  captured  places  should  be  re- 
stored. It  is  said  that  King  Charles  was  influenced 
by  French  gold  to  respect  the  claim.  However  this 
may  be,  by  the  treaty  of  St.  Germain-en-Laye,  Quebec, 
Port  Royal,  and  Cape  Breton  were  given  back  to 
France. 

In  the  spring  of  1G33  the  Company  of  One  Hun- 
dred Associates  took  possession  of  their  ChamPiams 
vast  domain.     At  the  same  time  Cham-  Death- I63S- 
plain,  accompanied  by  a  band  of  new  colonists,  re- 
turned to  Quebec  as  governor.     With  his  accustomed 
energy  and  unswerving  integrity  he  devoted  himself 


52  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

to  the  building  up  of  tin-  colony.  His  can-  for  the 
morals  and  the  religious  training  of  his  people  was 
most  unwearied.  Nor  had  his  concern  for  the  con- 
version of  the  Indians  at  all  ahated.  The  Kecollet 
missionaries,  who  with  so  much  devotion  had  begun 
the  work,  did  not  return  with  Champlain.  The  Jesuits, 
whose  wonderful  heroism  will  IK?  descrilx-d  in  suc- 
ceeding chapters,  came  instead.  Hut  except  as  the 
influence  of  his  life  and  character  impressed  itself  on 
those  who  came  after  him,  Champlain  s  work  was 
done.  On  Christmas  Day  HIT*  this  greatest  and 
best  of  the  e.irly  explorers  of  Canada  passed  away. 
Over  a  quarter  of  a  century  had  elapsed  since  Cham- 
plain  planted  his  colony  on  the  banks  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  and  yet.  with  all  the  fidelity  and  energy 
with  which  he  had  worked,  he  had  done  comparatively 
little  to  build  up  a  French  dominion  in  America. 
Save  the  little  settlements  at  (^uel»ec  and  Three 
Hivers,  New  France  was  still  a  vast  unbroken  forest. 
In  all.  the  colonists  did  not  exceed  two  hundred, 
and  the  prospect  before  them  was  by  no  means 
encouraging. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE    RULE    OF    THE    ONE    HUNDRED    ASSOCIATES. 

THE  rule  of  the  One  Hundred  Associates  began  in 
effect  with  the  return  of  Champlain  to  chief  Features, 
Quebec.  The  Company  obtained  its  I633- 
charter  five  years  earlier,  as  stated  in  the  preced- 
ing chapter.  Great  things  were  expected  of  the 
Company  in  the  way  of  colonisation  and  in  strength- 
ening the  power  of  France  in  America.  It  really  did 
little  for  either  of  these  objects.  The  chief  features 
of  the  period  were  missionary  work  among  the  Hurons 
and  the  troubles  with  the  Iroquois. 

Montmagny  was  Chainplain's   successor      He   be- 
longed to  a  military-religious  order  called 

i          -tr    '    i  /•     ni-    i  11-  i      •       Montmagny. 

the  Knights  or  Malta,  noted  tor  their 
courage  and  enthusiasm  in  the  wars  carried  on  in 
the  Middle  Ages  by  the  Christian  nations  of  Europe 
against  the  Turks.  He  was  distinguished  for  his 
fidelity  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  and  for  his 
strictness  in  enforcing  its  rules.  His  first  acts  on 
landing  at  Quebec  showed  his  great  religious  zeal. 
As  he  climbed  the  steep  path  which  led  to  the  fort 
of  St.  Louis,  he  fell  devoutly  on  his  knees  before  a 
cross  which  stood  by  the  way ;  then,  attended  by 
priests  and  officers,  he  proceeded  to  the  church,  where 
a  Te  Deum  was  chanted  for  his  safe  arrival.  He  then 


54  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

went  to  ;t  hovel  to  act  as  sponsor  at  the  baptism  of  a 
dying  Indian. 

Great  religions  zeal  was  characteristic  of  the  age. 
Character  of  'n  France  men  and  women  were  ready 
theA*e.  ^  ^jvo  i]w'ir  money  for  the  building  up 

of  the  Church  at  home  and  abroad,  and  members  of 
various  religious  orders  were  eager  to  devote  their 
lives  to  mission  work  among  the  Indians  of  the  New 
World.  Much  of  this  fervour  was  due  to  the  activity 
of  the  Jesuits,  a  remarkable  religious  order  which  had 
its  origin  in  Spain  about  one  hundred  years  earlier. 
Under  the  rule  of  the  new  Company,  members  of  this 
order  were  brought  to  Canada  in  place  of  the  Recol- 
lets,  the  pioneer  missionaries  among  the  Hurons. 
The  influence  of  the  Jesuits  in  determining  many 
civil  and  religious  questions  in  Canada,  as  in  most 
lauds  where  they  have  obtained  a  foothold,  has  been 
a  factor  of  vast  potency. 

The  work  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries  among  the 
Jesuit  Mission  Indians  in  Canada  commands  the  highest 
admiration.  These  self-denying  men  were 
impelled  by  a  burning  desire  to  bring  the  savages 
under  the  power  of  the  Cross.  To  reach  the  remote 
abodes  of  the  Indians,  they  travelled  through  pathless 
forests,  paddled  their  canoes  along  the  rivers,  or  IHHV 
them  on  their  backs  over  portages.  They  lodged  in 
smoky,  filthy  wigwams,  suffered  from  cold  and  hunger 
and  fatigue,  and  many  of  them,  falling  into  the  hands 
of  the  Inxjuois,  were  tortured  and  killed  in  the  most 
cruel  manner.  Very  properly  the  Jesuits  attached 
high  value  to  the  education  of  Indian  children.  They 
had  been  in  Canada  but  a  short  time,  when,  through 
funds  raised  in  France,  they  established  a  seminary 


THE  RULE  OF  THE  ONE  HUNDRED  ASSOCIATES-      55 

for  the  training  of  Huron  boys.     At  this  early  period 
also  the  Jesuit  College  was  founded  at  Quebec. 

In  this  missionary  work  there  were  French  women 
also  no  less  distinguished  for  the  ardour  The  Three 
of  their  enthusiasm.  Conspicuous  among  Mafys- 
these  were  Madame  de  la  Peltrie,  Mary  Guyard,  better 
known  as  Mary  of  the  Incarnation,  and  Mary  of  St. 
Bernard.  In  1639  these  devoted  women  came  to 
Quebec  to  establish  an  institution  for  the  instruction 
of  French  and  Indian  girls.  In  this  way  arose  the 
Convent  of  the  Ursulines,  of  which  Madame  de  la 
Peltrie  was  the  founder,  and  Mary  of  the  Incarnation 
was  Lady  Superior.  Another  lady  of  high  rank,  the 
Duchess  of  Aiguillon,  about  the  same  time  endowed  a 
hospital  for  the  care  of  the  sick.  This  institution  was 
called  the  Hotel  Dieu. 

Montreal  owes  its  origin  to  the  missionary  move- 
ment of  the  time.  A  few  persons,  men  pounding  of 
and  women  in  France,  burning  with  re-  Montrea1'  x6*»- 
ligious  zeal,  formed  themselves  into  an  association  for 
mission  work  among  the  Indians.  Having  obtained 
a  grant  of  the  Island  of  Montreal  from  the  One  Hun- 
dred Associates,  they  resolved  to  make  the  place  a 
centre  of  operation.  The  Company  was  called  La 
Suciet^  de  Notre  Dame  de  Montreal.  A  hospital  and  a 
seminary  were  considered  essential  equipments.  A 
large  sum  of  money  was  raised  to  meet  expenses, 
teachers  were  selected  for  the  seminary,  and  Sieur  de 
Maisonneuve,  a  man  of  great  courage  and  piety,  was 
appointed  governor  of  the  mission  station.  With  a 
company  of  forty  men  and  four  women,  Maisonneuve 
sailed  for  Canada.  Conspicuous  among  them  was 
Mdlle.  Mance,  a  lady  of  good  family  who  had  from. 


56  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

early  years  consecrated  her  lite  to  the  service  of  God, 
and  who  afterwards  became  head  of  the  Hotel  Dieu 
of  Montreal. 

'Remote  from  any  French  settlement,  and  on  the 
great  highway  of  the  Iroquois  in  their  incursions 
into  Canada,  the  place  selected  was  a  dangerous  one. 
Ifontmagny  j>omted  out  its  perils,  and  tried  to  per- 
suade Maisonneuve  to  take  instead  the  Island  of 
Orleans.  The  reply  showed  the  character  of  the 
man :  "  I  have  not  come  here  to  deliberate,  but  to 
act.  It  is  my  duty  and  my  honour  to  found  a  colony 
at  Montreal,  and  I  would  go  if  every  tree  were  an 
Iroquois. "  And  so  Maisonneuve  with  his  mission 
band  proceeded  on  his  way.  Landing  on  the  Island 
of  Montreal,  the  devout  leader  and  his  companions 
fell  on  their  knees  and  sang  a  hymn  of  thanksgiving. 
Then  followed  a  solemn  religious  ceremonial,  con- 
ducted by  the  Jesuit  Vimont,  ending  with  an  in- 
vocation of  Heaven's  blessing  on  the  colony.  "  You 
are  a  grain  of  mustard-seed,"  were  the  prophetic 
words  of  the  priest,  "  that  shall  rise  and  grow  till  its 
branches  overshadow  the  earth.  You  are  few,  but 
your  work  is  the  work  of  God.  His  smile  is  on  you, 
and  your  children  shall  fill  the  land."  Thus  on  May 
18,  1642,  was  founded  Ville  Marie  de  Montreal. 

For  some  months  the  Iroquois  did  not  discover 
Hostility  of  the  t^ie  new  settlement  at  Montreal.  The 
iroquo.s.  colonists  meanwhile  nuule  good  use  of 

their  time  in  building  fortifications.  It  was  well 
they  did.  for  when  the  Iroquois  found  them  out  they 
showed  that  their  old  enmity  to  the  French  was  un- 
abated. Having  obtained  firearms  from  the  Dutch 
traders  on  the  Hudson  River,  they  were  now  a  much 


THE  RULE  OF  THE  ONE  HUNDRED  ASSOCIATES.      57 

more  formidable  foe  than  when  they  fled  in  terror 
before  three  armed  Frenchmen  on  the  shores  of 
Lake  Champlain.  Their  usual  route  into  Canada 
was  by  way  of  Lake  Champlain  and  River  Richelieu, 
altho  gh  they  sometimes  came  across  the  east  end  of 
Lake  Ontario.  They  seldom  ventured  on  open  Avar, 
but  lay  in  ambush  along  the  routes  of  travel,  or  lurked 
in  the  forests  near  the  settlements,  watching  for  de- 
fenceless Hurons  or  Frenchmen.  The  colonists  of 
Montreal  were  in  the  greatest  danger.  If  one  ventured 
outside  the  fort,  it  was  at  the  risk  of  his  life.  With 
horrid  yells  the  savages  sprang  upon  their  victim, 
dragging  him  into  the  forest  for  cruel  torture ; 
or,  striking  him  down,  they  hastily  tore  oft'  his 
scalp  and  left  the  bleeding  body  where  it  fell. 
Sometimes  only  two  or  three  Iroquois  would  be 
seen  prowling  around ;  but  when  the  unsuspecting 
Frenchmen  pursued  them  into  the  forest,  suddenly 
hundreds  of  wild  savages  started  up  from  their  hiding- 
places. 

The  Hurons  formed  the  most  hopeful  field  of  mis- 
sionary work.     The  Jesuits  had  eighteen 

.      .  J        .  .  .      .  Mission  Work 

missionaries  in  then-  populous  villages  among  the 
around  the  western  lakes.  They  wrought 
unceasingly  in  faith  and  patience.  The  Hurons  at 
first  were  slow  to  accept  the  doctrine  of  their  new 
teachers.  They  even  thought  the  missionaries  a 
source  of  evil,  bringing  on  them  sickness,  bad  harvests, 
and  ill-luck  in  war.  Nor  was  the  heaven  described 
by  their  teachers  such  a  place  of  bliss  as  the  un- 
tutored savage  felt  he  could  enjoy.  But  the  Jesuits 
never  became  discouraged  or  lost  hope.  Finally  their 
labours  were  rewarded.  Manv  of  the  Hurons  embraced 


58  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

the  Christian  religion,  and  in  various  ways  showed  its 
power  over  their  lives. 

In  the  midst  of  promise  came  utter  ruin.     There 
was    no    good    reason    why    the    Huroiis 

The  Huron 

vnuees  should  not  have  l>cen  more  than  a  match 

for  their  hostile  kinsmen.  They  seem  to 
have  lost  spirit.  It  is  impossible  to  give  here  the 
full  story  of  the  savage  warfare  by  which  the  Iroquois 
carried  out  their  purpose  of  destruction — the  burning 
of  Huron  villages,  the  cruel  tortures  inflicted  on  the 
captives,  the  shocking  deaths  to  which  they  were 
subjected.  The  relentless  foe  was  equally  hostile  to 
priest  and  people.  One  or  two  examples  will  suttice. 
St.  Joseph,  a  Huron  village  of  about  two  thousand 
st.  Joseph,  inhabitants,  was  situated  on  the  borders 
1648  of  Lake  Simcoe,  near  where  the  town  of 

Barrie  now  stands.  The  Iroquois,  taking  advantage 
of  the  absence  of  the  Huron  warriors  on  a  hunting 
excursion,  rushed  upon  the  defenceless  people  as  they 
were  assembling  in  their  chapel  for  religious  service. 
Pore  Daniel  who  had  for  many  years  been  their 
teacher  and  spiritual  guide,  could  now  only  counsel 
them  in  their  extremity  with  a  few  hasty  words: 
"  Fly,  brothers,"  said  he ;  "  as  for  me,  I  must  die 
here.  We  shall  meet  in  heaven."  And  so  it  was. 
A  shower  of  bullets  and  arrows  pierced  his  breast 
and  he  fell  dead.  Having  completed  their  work  of 
murder,  the  savages  set  tire  to  the  chapel  and  flung 
Daniel's  body  into  the  flames. 

In  the  following  year  about  a  thousand   Iroquois 

attacked  the  village  of  St.  Louis,  situated 

near  the  site  of  the  modern  Orillia.     A 

fearful   massacre  ensued.     Some  of  the  victims  the 


THE  RULE  OF  THE  ONE  HUNDRED  ASSOCIATES.      59 

cruel  savages  reserved  for  torture.  Among  these 
were  the  Jesuits  Brebeuf  and  Lalemant,  who  could 
have  escaped,  but  who  chose  rather  to  die  with  their 
people.  Unmindful  of  themselves,  they  encouraged 
those  around  them  to  endure  their  sufferings  with 
patience.  The  fortitude  of  the  priests  only  enraged 
the  Iroquois  and  stimulated  their  ingenuity  to  invent 
new  modes  of  torture.  They  hacked  their  bodies, 
pulled  out  their  finger-nails,  and  hung  collars  of  red- 
hot  hatchets  around  their  necks.  Brebeuf,  being  more 
unyielding,  excited  their  fiercest  passions.  Maddened 
by  his  words  of  comfort  to  his  friends  and  of  warning 
to  themselves,  they  cut  off  his  lips  and  thrust  hot 
irons  down  his  throat.  Then,  in  mockery  of  the  rite 
of  baptism,  they  tore  off  his  scalp  and  poured  boiling 
water  on  his  head.  Finally  they  tore  out  his  heart 
and  devoured  it,  hoping  thus  to  acquire  the  courage 
and  heroism  of  their  victim.  The  mangled  bodies  of 
the  missionaries  were  afterwards  found  by  their  friends. 
The  skull  of  Brebeuf  was  taken  to  Quebec,  where  it 
was  enclosed  in  a  silver  bust  sent  out  from  France, 
and  it  is  still  preserved  among  the  precious  relics  in 
the  Hotel  Dieu. 

The  once  prosperous  country  of  the  Hurons  was 
thus   laid    in    ruins,   and   the   persecuted 

...  ,        ,,     ,     .  ,,      ,.  The  Hurons 

remnant   ot   its   people   fled  in  all  direc-  abandon  their 

,,  .     J  ,.      ,  ,         Country. 

tions.  tor  a  time  many  ot  them  sought 
refuge  on  Isle  St.  Joseph,  now  known  as  Charity 
Island,  at  the  entrance  of  Matchedash  Bay ;  but 
everywhere  they  were  pursued  by  their  relentless  foe. 
Those  who  escaped  death  from  the  hands  of  the 
savage  were  fast  falling  victims  to  famine  and  pesti- 
lence. Overwhelmed  with  despair,  they  besought  the 


60  THK    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

Jesuits  to  take  them  to  some  place  of  safety.  In 
great  perplexity  the  missionaries  prayed  in  turn  with- 
out ceasing  during  forty  hours  for  Heaven's  guidance. 
Then  they  gathered  the  scattered  fragment  of  their 
stricken  people  and  tied  from  the  country.  They 
brought  about  three  hundred  of  them  to  Quebec  and 
placed  them  on  the  Island  of  Orleans.  The  Hurons 
were  afterwards  removed  to  Lorette,  near  Quebec, 
where  their  descendants  still  live. 

Meanwhile  the  English  had  been  forming  colonies 
in  North  America.  Jamestown  has  al- 
ready been  mentioned  The  New  England 
colonies  were  established  a  few  years  later  along  the 
Atlantic  coast  on  the  south  ot  Canada.  The  early 
settlers  came  here  seeking  the  enjoyment  of  religious 
liberty,  which  was  denied  them  in  Old  England. 
King  James  I.  tried  to  compel  all  his  subjects  to  use 
a  prescribed  form  in  their  church  service.  The  Puri- 
tans, so  called  on  account  of  their  strict  morals  and 
severe  manner  of  life,  refused  to  comply  with  the 
laws  tor  the  regulation  of  public  worship  They  held 
their  religious  meetings  secretly  in  private  houses 
and  other  places  where  they  could  worship  as  they 
pleased.  Often  the  secret  meetings  were  discovered 
by  the  authorities,  and  then  the  worshippers  were 
subjected  to  bitter  persecution.  "Some  of  the  Puri- 
tans sought  refuge  in  Holland,  where  they  were  made 
welcome.  Hut  though  badly  treated  these  people  had 
no  desire  to  give  up  their  connection  with  England, 
or  have  their  children  become  aliens  to  the  mother 
country  and  strangers  to  their  native  tongue.  They 
accordingly  conceived  the  plan  of  forming  a  New 
England  in  the  wilds  of  America.  Returning  to 


THE  RULE  OF  THE  ONE  HUNDRED  ASSOCIATES.      61 

England,  they,  joined  by  a  few  others,  embarked  on 
the  Mayflower  to  seek  a  new  home  beyond  the 
Atlantic. 

It  was  Christmas  Day  1620  that  this  little  baud, 
known  in  history  as  the  Pilgrim  Fathers,  landed  on 
Plymouth  Rock.  They  made  what  shelter  they  could 
against  the  winter's  cold  and  storm.  It  was  a  hard 
struggle  for  life,  and  before  spring  half  of  the  colonists 
found  graves  in  the  wilderness.  But  the  little 
remnant  did  not  lose  heart.  They  were  joined  from 
time  to  time  by  others  from  the  old  homeland  the 
colony,  struggling  with  many  difficulties,  grew  apace. 
In  the  course  of  a  few  years  several- little  centres,  of. 
civilised  life  were  established  Thus  sprang;  up  the 
colonies  of  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut, 
and  New  Hampshire.  At  the  end  of  the <  first  fifty 
years  of  their  existence  these-  colonies  had  a  popula- 
tion of  about  fifty  thousand. 

The  New  England  colonies  proposed  to  the  Governor 
of  Canada  that  they  should  form  an  alliance  proposed 
with  each  other,  agreeing  to  take  no  part  Treaty- 
in  the  wars  of  the  mother  countries,  but  to  trade 
with  each  other  and  live  in  peace.  The  French 
Governor  refused  to  enter  into  such  an  alliance  unless 
the  Iroquois  were  held  as  a  common  enemy.  To 
this  condition  the  English  would  not  agree ;  for  the 
Iroquois  were  on  friendly  terms  with  them  and  lived 
along  their  borders.  Thus  the  effort  to  secure  a 
treaty  proved  a  failure.  When  the  Iroquois  heard 
what  the  French  had  asked  for,  they  were  provoked 
to  greater  hostility.  There  followed  a  reign  of  terror. 
Montreal,  being  most  exposed,  escaped  utter  extinction 
as  if  by  miracle^ 


62 


THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 


Domestic 


It  was  not  the  Iroquois  aloiie  that  disturbed  the 
peace    of    Canada    at    this     time.      The 

QuarreU.  French  quarrelled  among  themselves.    The 

Governors  of  Quebec  and  Montreal  were  scarcely  ever 

on  good  terms 
with  each  other. 
The  Governor  01 
Quebee  dainud 
that  as  Gover- 
nor-General his 
authority  ex- 
tended over  the 
whole  country  : 
a  claim  which 
the  Governor 
of  Montreal  was 
slow  to  re- 
cognise. There 
were  unseemly 
disputes,  too, 
between  the 
Jesuits  and  the 
Sulpicians,  who 
had  taken 
charge  of  the 
mission  at  Mon- 
treal. Then,  to- 
wards the  close 
of  the  rule  of  the 

One  Hundred  Associates,  a  serious  strife  arose  between 

the  governors  and  the  clergy. 

The  strife  l>etween  Jesuits  and  Sulpicians  grew  hot 

over  the  choice  of  a  bishop  for  Canada.     Each  party 


lilSHDP   LAVAL. 


THE  RULE  OF  THE  ONE  HUNDKED  ASSOCIATES.      63 

wanted  its  man.     In  this  matter,  as  in  most  others, 
the  Jesuits  finally  triumphed.      They  did 

,     •    J       A  *U  •.       *          Laval,  1659. 

not  indeed  secure  the  appointment  of  a 
Jesuit ;  for  the  laws  of  their  founder  did  not  allow  a 
member  of  the  order  to  hold  this  office.  But  they 
got  a  man  thoroughly  devoted  to  their  interests. 
This  was  the  Abbe  Laval.  Although  he  bore  the  title 
of  Bishop  of  Petrsea,  yet,  for  certain  reasons  which 
need  not  be  stated,  he  was  not  made  bishop  till  some 
ten  years  later :  in  the  meantime  he  held  the,  office  of 
Vicar  Apostolic.  This  distinguished  prelate,  who  was 
of  the  noble  family  of  Montmorency.  was  noted  for  his 
piety  and  austere  manner  of  life.  He  was  a  man  of 
strong  will,  and  he  held  decided  views  as  to  the 
supreme  authority  of  the  Church  over  the  civil  ruler. 
For  thirty  years  Laval  controlled  religious  matters  in 
Canada,  and  had  much  influence  in  civil  affairs  as 
well.  His  name  has  ever  been  held  in  honour  by 
French  Canadians,  and  it  is  perpetuated  in  the  name 
of  the  Catholic  University  at  Quebec. 

There  were  frequent  changes  of  governors  at  Quebec, 
but  the  changes  added  little  to,  the  wel-  The  Liquor 
fare  of  the  colony.  Affairs  went  on  from  Traffic- 
bad  to  worse.  The  liquor  traffic  became  a  serious 
evil.  It  was  a  source  of  profit  to  the  traders,  many 
of  whom  were  men  of  influence.  The  Indians  were 
fond  of  brandy,  and  when  intoxicated  they  were  like 
infuriated  wild  beasts.  The  clergy  fought  against 
the  traffic,  and  finally  succeeded  in  securing  prohibi- 
tion. The  penalty  for  violation  of  the  law  was  death, 
and  two  men  were  shot  for  selling  liquor.  Then  there 
came  reaction,  and  matters  were  worse  than  ever. 

The  French  found  safety  nowhere  outside  the  forts 


64  THE    DOMINION    OF  CANADA. 

of  Montreal,   Three    Rivers,  ami    Qud>ec.      And  now 
there  was  a  rumour  that  twelve  hundred 

Heroism  at  T  .  i         »      j         •  i 

LongSauit.  Iroquois,  who  had  wintered  among  the 
forests  of  the  Ottawa,  were  descending 
upon  these  places  to  sweep  them  out  of  existence. 
Montreal  would  he  the  Hrst  point  of  attack.  All  hearts 
were  trembling  with  tear.  A  little  hand  of  seventeen 
resolved  to  drive  hack  the  foe  or  perish  in  the  attempt, 
Daulac,  or  Dollard,  Sieur  des  Orineaux,  a  young  man 
of  twenty-five,  was  the  leader,  and  the  others,  like 
himself,  were*  youthful.  Maisouneuve  gave  his  con- 
sent. The  heroes  prepared  themselves  as  if  for  death 
— made  their  wills,  confessed  their  sins,  and  received 
the  sacrament.  They  bound  themselves  by  an  oath 
to  stand  by  each  other  and  by  their  purpose  :  then 
they  bade  their  friends  a  solemn  farewell.  They 
ascended  the  Ottawa  to  the  foot,  of  a  rapid  known  as 
the  Long  Sault,  which  the  Iroquois  would  need  to 
pass.  Here  they  took  up  their  position  in  an  old 
palisade  fort  made  by  some  Indian  war  party.  While 
waiting  for  the  Iroquois  they  were  joined  by  about 
forty  Hurons  and  Algonquins. 

They  had  not  long  to  wait.  In  a  day  or  two  the 
scouts  brought  in  word  that  the  enemy  wjus  descend- 
ing the  rapids.  Soon  the  struggle  began  in  all  its 
fury.  For  eight  days  the  heroes  resisted  their 

*/  O  v 

assailants,  who  outnumbered  them  twenty  to  one. 
The  Iroquois  were  beaten  back  again  and  again,  until 
they  were  well-nigh  ready  to  give  up  the  contest.  They 

•/  O  v      .        w  v 

called  to  their  aid  five  hundred -of  their  warriors  who 
were  waiting  lor  them  at  the  mouth  of  the  Richelieu. 
With  the  exception  of  five  who  remained  faithful,  all 
Daulac  s  Indian  allies  deserted  to  the  enemy.  Finally 


THE  RULE  OF  THE  ONE   HUNDRED  ASSOCIATES.      65 

the  Iroquois  came  up  under  thick  wooden  shields, 
cut  their  way  into  the  fort,  and  shot  down  its  valiant 
defenders.  Every  Frenchman  was  killed.  The  de- 
serters gained  nothing  by  their  cowardice.  With  the 
exception  of  five,  who  escaped  to  tell  the  tale  of  the 
brave  defence  and  of  their  own  baseness,  all  were  put 
to  death.  But  Montreal  was  saved.  The  Iroquois 
saw  how  Frenchmen  could  fight ;  their  victory  had 
cost  them  too  dear,  and  they  retreated  to  the  forests. 
The  rule  of  the  Company  of  One  Hundred  Asso- 
ciates had  utterly  failed.  Their  colonists 

, .  ,  i J  Close  of  the 

did    not   exceed   two   thousand,  and    the  Rule  of  the 

,  ,  „       ,  One  Hundred 

principal    settlements    were    at    (Quebec,  Associates, 
Three  Rivers,  and  Montreal.     Outside  the 
forts  of  these  places  there  was  no  safety.     Indeed  the 
Iroquois  passed    under  the  very  guns  of  Quebec  to 
attack  the  feeble  remnant  of  the  Hurons  on  the  Island 
of    Orleans.      The    King    accordingly   cancelled    the 
charter  of  the  Company,  and  established  a  new  form 
of  government  under  the  direct  control  of  the  crown. 
The  year  1663  was  remarkable  for  earthquakes  in 
Canada.     They  occurred  at  short  intervals 

.,  .  Earthquakes. 

from  February  until  August.     Loud  noises 


66  THE    DOMINION    OH    CANADA. 

the  period  relates  chiefly  to  the  quarrels  of  the 
French  governors. 

On  board  one  of  the  French  transports  captured  by 
the  Kirks  in  1628  was  Claude  de  la  Tour,  of  whom 
mention  has  been  made.  He  had  visited  France  and 
was  returning  with  supplies  to  Acadie.  Taken  to 
London  as  a  prisoner,  he  was  soon  on  good  terms  with 
his  captors  and  was  ready  to  unite  his  fortune  with 
theirs.  He  married  a  lady  of  the  English  Court,  and 
received  from  the  King  the  title  of  Knight-baronet  of 
Nova  Scotia.  He  also  secured  the  same  honour  for 
his  son  Charles,  promising  on  his  behalf  immediate 
submission  to  the  Crown  of  England.  Joining  an 
expedition  fitted  out  by  Sir  William  Alexander  for 
the  support  of  his  colony,  Sir  Claude,  accompanied 
by  his  wife,  set  out  for  Acadie.  He  had,  however, 
miscalculated  his  influence  over  his  son.  Charles 
could  be  moved  neither  by  English  honours  nor  by 
paternal  entreaty,  and  when  his  father  tried  the 
power  of  shot  and  shell,  Fort  St.  Louis  proved  as 
unyielding  as  its  commander.  The  baronet  was  now 
in  trouble.  From  England  he  could  expect  only 
disgrace;  from  France  a  traitor's  punishment.  Hard 
fortune  compelled  him  to  accept  from  his  sou  a  home 
at  Cape  Sable. 

Meanwhile,  the  King  of  France  had  made  Isaae  de 
Launay  de  Kaxilly  Governor  of  Acadie.  Ha/illy  made 
his  headquarters  at  La  Heve,  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 
He  broke  up  the  Scotch  colony  at  Granville,  and  soon 
after  his  career  was  cut  short  by  death.  His  successor 
was  the  Chevalier  d'Aulnay,  who  made  his  home  at 
Port  Royal,  which  he  rebuilt  on  the  site  of  the  present 
town  of  Annapolis,  the  original  Port  Hoyal  having 


THE  RULE  OF  THE  ONK   HUNDRED  ASSOCIATES.      67 

been  farther  west  on  the  north  side  of  the  basin. 
Charles  de  la  Tour  also  removed  from  Fort  Louis  to 
the  mouth  of  the  St.  John  River,  where  he  built  a 
fort,  making  it  the  headquarters  of  his  fur  trade.  He 
and  D'Aulnay  were  bitter  foes,  and  in  the  petty  war- 
fare which  they  waged  against  each  other,  D'Aulnay 
had  the  advantage  of  possessing  the  King's  favour. 
La  Tour,  however,  gained  such  help  from  the  English 
at  Boston  as  enabled  him  to  keep  his  rival  in  check. 

Madame  la  Tour,  who  was  a  woman  of  much 
ability,  went  to  France,  hoping  to  influence  the  King 
in  her  husband's  behalf.  Failing  in  this  endeavour, 
she  crossed  over  to  England.  Here  she  took  passage 
in  a  vessel  bound  for  Boston,  the  captain  agreeing 
to  land  her  at  her  home.  While  cruising  off  the 
coast  of  Nova  Scotia,  D'Aulnay  fell  in  with  the  Boston 
vessel.  He  came  on  board,  but  Madame  la  Tour 
escaped  capture  by  hiding  in  the  hold.  The  captain 
refused  to  call  at  Fort  la  Tour  as  he  had  agreed  to 
do,  and  on  arriving  in  Boston  Madame  la  Tour 
brought  an  action  against  him  and  recovered  damages 
to  the  amount  of  two  thousand  pounds. 

Learning   that   La  Tour,   with  many  of  his  men, 

(was   absent  on  some   trading  expedition,  FortiaTour 
D'Aulnay   hastened    to    besiege    his  fort.  caPtured- 
Madame  la  Tour,  with  the  small  remaining  force,  for 
three  days  maintained  a  successful  defence.     When, 
betrayed  by  a  Swiss  sentry,  she  saw  the  enemy  scaling 
the  walls,  she  rallied  her  little  band  and   showed  so 
much  strength  that  D'Aulnay,  fearing  defeat,  proposed 
honourable  terms  of  surrender.     Thinking  she  dealt 
with  a  man  of  honour,  Madame  la  Tour  commanded 
her  men  to  lay  down  their  arms  and  open  the  gates 


68  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

of  the  fort.  When  D'Auhmy  saw  her  defenceless 
condition,  he  charged  her  with  having  deceived  him, 
and  basely  ordered  all  her  garrison  to  be  hung.  One 
man  alone  purchased  his  life  by  acting  as  executioner 
of  his  comrades,  while  Madame  la  Tour,  with  a  halter 
around  her  neck,  was  compelled  to  witness  the  scene. 
The  wretched  spectacle  was  too  much  for  her,  and  she 
died  broken-hearted  before  her  husband's  return. 
Ruined  and  hopeless,  La  Tour  left  the  country.  Nor 
did  D'Aulnay  long  enjoy  the  fruits  of  his  ill-gotten 
victory.  Three  years  later  he  was  accidentally 
drowned  in  the  Annapolis  River. 

D'Aulnay  left  his  estates  greatly  encumbered  with 
debt.  His  principal  creditor,  Emmanuel 
le  Borgne,  a  merchant  of  Rochelle,  failing 
to  secure  payment  of  his  claims,  seized  his  debtor's 
effects  in  Aeadie.  He  established  himself  at  Port 
Royal  and  proceeded  to  enforce  his  claims  to  the 
whole  country.  He  destroyed  a  little  colony  planted 
at  St.  Peter's  in  Cape  Breton  by  Nicholas  Denys,  and 
earried  on"  Denys  to  Port  Royal.  He  seixed  the  fort 
at  La  Hcve  and  placed  his  sou  in  command.  About 
to  extend  his  power  still  farther,  he  was  himself  com- 
pelled to  yield  to  a  stronger  hand. 

Meanwhile,  La  Tour  has  appeared  again  on  the 
scene,  and  good  fortune  is  smiling  upon  him  once  more. 
He  is  again  in  favour  with  the  Court  of  France,  and 
holds  a  royal  commission  as  Governor  of  Aeadie.  He 
makes  a  romantic  ending  to  the  old  feud  by  marrying 
D'Aulnay  s  widow,  and  he  has  his  home  again  at  the 
mouth  of  the  St.  John. 

The  Puritans,  both  in  Old  and  New  England,  had 
never  been  satisfied  with  the  giving  of  Nova  Scotia 


THE  RULE  OF  THE  ONE  HUNDRED  ASSOCIATES.      69 

to  France  in  1632.     Oliver  Cromwell,  who  now  ruled 
over   Great    Britain,   and   who   made   his 

.....  .  .      ,  -.  Acadie  seized 

power  telt  both  at  home  and  abroad,  sent  by  the  English, 

out  a  fleet  to  attack  the  Dutch  settlement 

of  Manhattan.      A  portion  of  this  fleet,  under  Major 

Sedgewick,  was  sent  from  Boston  against  Nova  Scotia, 

of  which  it  made  an  easy  conquest ;    and   now   the 

English  flag  once  more  waved  over  the  fort  at  Port 

Royal. 

Charles  de  la  Tour  had  now  outgrown  the  patriotism 
which  had  led  him  to  scorn  the  appeals  of  his  father 
and  to  refuse  English  honours.  He  proceeded  to 
London  and  petitioned  Cromwell  to  reinstate  him  in 
his  Acadian  territory.  His  application  was  successful, 
Sir  Thomas  Temple  and  William  Crowne  being  asso- 
ciated with  him  in  Cromwell's  commission.  Shortly 
after  La  Tour  sold  his  right  to  Sir  Thomas  Temple, 
reserving  the  fort  at  St.  John,  where  he  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life. 

Temple  did  not  disturb  the  French  colonists  who 
were  settled  in  the  country.  His  chief  The  Treaty  of 
concern  was  the  fur  trade,  from  which  he  Breda>  l66?- 
expected  large  profits.  To  protect  himself  against 
intruders  he  spent  a  large  sum  of  money  in  repair- 
ing the  forts ;  but  his  hope  of  gain  was  not  realised. 
Meanwhile,  Charles  II.  succeeded  to  the  throne  of 
England.  Setting  little  value  on  Nova  Scotia,  he  was 
not  unwilling  to  give  it  away  for  small  consideration. 
The  people  of  New  England  protested,  and  Sir 
Thomas  Temple  urged  his  claims,  but  without  avail. 
By  the  treaty  of  Breda,  Nova  Scotia  was  once  more 
ceded  to  France. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

ROYAL    COVERNMENT. 

HITHERTO  Canada  had  been  governed  by  fur  traders. 
Officers  of  ^ ne  °^  ora<er  was  now  changed,  and  the 
country  was  made  a  crown  colony.  The 
government  was  vested  in  a  Council  of  which  the 
three  principal  members  were  the  Governor,  the 
Bishop,  and  the  Intendant.  The  Governor  had  com- 
mand of  the  forces  and  looked  after  the  cjefence  of 
the  country :  the  Bishop  had  charge  of  all  matters 
relating  to  the  Church;  and  the  Intendant  had  the 
oversight  of  civil  affairs,  including  the  expenditure  of 
public  money  and  the  administration  of  law.  Indeed, 
the  authority  of  this  last-named  officer  had  a  very 
wide  range,  giving  him  the  ]x>wer  to  interfere  in 
matters  which  at  the  present  time  are  regarded  as 
belonging  to  the  private  rights  of  the  individual. 
He  was  a  general  superintendent  or  overseer.  Though 
in  rank  below  the  Governor,  he  had  more  to  do  in 
the  management  of  public  affairs.  The  respective 
duties  of  the  different  officers,  however,  were  not 
very  clearly  define* I,  and  this  left  room  for  un- 
seemly disputes  resulting  in  frequent  appeals  to  the 
King.  The  general  law  adopted  for  the  cx>louy  was 
the  French  code  known  as  '  the  Custom  of  Paris." 

Bishop  Laval  had  great   influence  with  the  King  of 
France,  and  he  was  allowed  to  select  a  governor  to  suit 


kOYAL    GOVERNMENT*.  .ft 

himself.     His  choice  fell  upon  SafTray  de  Mezy,  a  man 
in  whose  piety  and  in  whose  loyalty  to  him-   Laval  and 
self  he  thought  he  could  place  the  fullest  Mezy- 
confidence.     For  a  time  Laval  had  things  pretty  much 
his  own  way.      But  this  state  of  matters  did  not  last. 
By-and-by  Mezy  awoke  to  a  sense  of  his  dignity  as  the 
King's  representative,  and  he  then  had  a  way  of  his  own. 
The  Governor  and  the  Bishop  had  joint  powers  in 
the   appointment    of   the    Council.      But 

_r  ,  ,  .  ..  .    ..     .         .   .  .        Mezy's  Recall. 

Mezy,  becoming  dissatisfied  with  certain 
members  of  this  body,-  dismissed  them  and  appointed 
others  in  their  place  without  the  consent  of  the 
Bishop.  In  other  matters  also  he  bore  himself  to- 
wards the  Bishop  in  a  most  offensive  and  even  defiant 
manner.  He  forgot  that  he  owed  his  appointment 
to  the  Bishop,  and  that  the  power  that  made  him 
Governor  could  unmake  him.  Laval  deprived  him  of 
Church  privileges  and  reported  matters  to  the  King. 
The  unhappy  Governor  was  forthwith  ordered  to 
France,  but  before  he  could  obey  the  command  he 
was  taken  suddenly  ill  and  died  at  Quebec. 

Mezy's   successor  was  Daniel   de  Remy,  Sieur  dc 
Courcelle.     Jean  Baptiste  Talon,  the  first 

.   .        .  New  Officers. 

lutendant,  came  to  Canada  with  the  new 
Governor.  Another  distinguished  officer  arrived  ;  I 
Quebec  about  the  same  time.  This  was  the  Marqui:. 
de  Tracy,  who,  with  the  title  of  Lieutenant-Genera  1, 
had  the  authority  of  Viceroy  throughout  the  French 
possessions  in  America.  He  brought  with  him  a 
regiment  of  veteran  soldiers  known  as  the  regiment 
of  ( larignan-Salieres. 

An  event  occurred  about  this  time  which  materi- 
ally affected  the  subsequent  history  of  ConfMitt     The 


THK    DOMINION    OF  CANADA. 

English  claimed  the  larger  portion  of  North  America 
in  virtue  of  the  discoveries  of  ( 'abot  and 

The  English 

take  New  ot  such  later  explorers  as  Henry  Hudson. 
Charles  II.,  the  sovereign  of  England  at 
this  time,  gave  to  his  brother  James,  Duke  of  York 
and  Albany,  a  grant  of  extensive  territory  on  the 
Hudson  River.  Portions  of  this  territory  had  been  for 
many  years  occupied  by  the  Dutch.  The  principal 
Dutch  settlements,  New  Amsterdam,  afterwards  called 
New  York,  and  Fort  Orange,  afterwards  called  Albany, 
were  captured  by  an  English  fleet.  Keen  rivalry  now 
sprang  up  between  the  English  and  French  colonists, 
the  former  seeking  to  divert  the  fur  trade  from  the 
St.  Lawrence  to  the  Hudson.  In  this  way  began  a 
strife  which  continued  for  a  century  between  the  two 
peoples,  culminating  in  the  great  struggle  which  re- 
sulted in  the  conquest  of  Canada  by  the  English. 

The  presence  of  regular  soldiers  in  Canada  had 
March  against  g°°fl  effect  on  the  Iroquois.  Except  the 
the  Mohawks.  Mohawks  rtn,i  Qneidas,  who  kept  up  their 
warlike  attitude,  the  Iroquois  seemed  disposed  for 
peace.  Courcelle,  the  Governor,  determined  on 
measures  for  improving  the  temper  of  the  hostile- 
tribes.  Accordingly,  at  the  head  of  five  hundred 
men,  he  set  out  for  the  Mohawk  villages,  alx>ut  five 
hundred  miles  distant.  It  was  mid-winter.  But 
with  blankets  and  provisions  strapped  to  their  backs, 
and  snow-shoes  to  their  feet,  Courcelle  and  his  men 
pursued  their  long  tramp.  Their  way  lay  along  the 
St.  Lawrence,  the  Richelieu,  and  Lakes  Champlain 
and  George,  which  were  covered  with  a  solid  floor  of 
ice.  Day  after  day  they  strode  on  amid  the  driving 
storms  and  the  biting  frosts.  At  night  they  bivoii- 


ROYAL    GOVERNMENT.  73 

acked  in  open  air,  lying  close  packed  on  beds  of 
spruce  around  a  central  tire  of  logs.  Striking  across 
the  country  from  Lake  George  to  the  Hudson,  they 
lost  their  way,  finally  arriving  at  a  Dutch  village. 
Here  they  learned  that  the  enemy  they  were  after 
had  gone  oft'  on  some  foray  against  another  tribe. 
Courcelle  was  now  in  a  bad  case.  The  spring  rains 
were  setting  in,  and  soon  the  way  home  would  be 
impassable.  His  men  were  half-starved  and  were 
suffering  from  frost-bitten  limbs.  Then  the  English 
authorities,  recently  established  in  the  country,  were 
demanding  his  reasons  for  invading  the  territories  of 
His  Royal  Highness  the  Duke  of  York.  In  no  very 
comfortable  mood  he  retreated  as  rapidly  as  possible 
and  found  his  way  back  to  Quebec. 

In  the  following  autumn  a  force  of  thirteen  hundred 
men  left  Quebec  for  the  country  of  the  The  Mohawks 
Mohawks;  De  Tracy,  the  Viceroy,  had  chastised-  / 
command.  It  was  a  tedious  journey  over  river  ana 
lake  and  through  wild  forests.  Food  grew  scarce, 
and  the  half-famished  men  were  at  times  compelled 
to  stay  their  hunger  by  feeding  on  chestnuts.  Tracy, 
old  and  infirm,  was  seized  with  gout,  and  sometimes 
had  to  be  borne  along  the  way  by  his  soldiers.  But 
in  spite  of  difficulties  the  French  pushed  forward. 
Panic-stricken  the  savages  fled,  leaving  their  strong- 
holds and  their  stores  of  Indian  corn  to  the  invaders. 
De  Tracy,  having  reduced  the  whole  to  ashes,  returned 
to  Quebec  before  winter  set  in.  The  Indians  suffered 
greatly  from  the  loss  of  their  houses  and  corn.  For 
twenty  years  they  gave  the  French  no  further  trouble. 

Canada  now  made  much  progress   in  the  arts  of 
peace.     Talon,  the  Intendant,  was  energetic  and  un- 


74  THE    DOMINION    OK    CANADA. 

wearied  in   his  efforts  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the 
colony.       He   encouraged   the  cultivation 

Progress.  f      ,  . .        .          .  .  -  e 

or  the  soil,  the  domestic  manufacture  ol 
coarse  woollens  and  linens,  the  export  of  lumber  and 
fish  to  the  West  Indies,  and  the  importing  of  cattle, 
horses,  and  sheep  from  France.  Every  year  new 
hands  of  colonists  came  to  the  country.  Many  of 
the  soldiers  were  disbanded  and  settled  on  lands 
which  had  been  allotted  by  the  Government  to  their 
officers.  To  furnish  wives  for  the  unmarried  colonists, 
ship-loads  of  young  women  of  various  social  ranks 
were  sent  out  from  France.  These  girls,  placed  under 
the  care  of  a  matron,  were  taken  to  Quebec  or  Mon- 
treal. Men  in  want  of  wives  came  to  one  of  these 
places  and  made  choice  according  to  their  liking. 
Bounties  were  given  by  the  King  on  early  marriages 
and  on  large  families,  while  fathers  who  failed  to 
marry  off  their  sons  and  daughters  at  an  early  age, 
and  bachelors  who  obstinately  refused  to  be  enticed 
into  wedlock,  were  heavily  fined. 

Louis  XIV.  and  his  able  minister  Colbert,  who  then 

guided  the  affairs  of  state  in  France,  meant 

Obstacles.  11.  i  /-, 

to   do    the    best    they  could    for   Canada. 
They   did    not,   however,   always   fall    on   the   wiy 
measures  to  carry  out  their  good  intentions.     On  the 
one  hand  there  was  too  much  coddling :  on  the  other, 
in.,  much  restriction.     Scarcely  was  the  new  form  ol 
•government  established,  when  the  tnufe  of  the  country 
was  handed  over  to  a  great  corporation  known  as  the 
West   India  Company.      Talon   protested  against   ihi. 
monopoly,  and  at  length  some  of  the  Company's  privi- 
leges were  withdrawn.     The  people  were  all 
part  in  making  the  Laws  by  which   thev  unv   (•>  U> 


ItnVAL    GOVERNMENT.  75 

governed,  and  they  had  little  freedom  of  action.  A 
public  meeting,  even,  could  not  be  held  without  leave 
of  the  Government.  Trade  with  the  English  colonies 
was  prohibited,  nor  was  any  one  allowed  to  visit  these 
colonies  without  a  passport.  Even  the  number  of 
horses  a  man  might  keep  was  regulated  by  law. 

Two  gigantic  evils  marred   the  well-being   of  the 
colony :  these  were  the  liquor  traffic  and  Two  Great 
the  bush-rangers.     Stringent  laws  against  Evils- 
the  sale  of  brandy  to   the   Indians  seemed  of  little 
avail.     There  were  then,  as  now,  ways  and  means  by 
which  such  laws  could  be  violated  with  impunity. 

The  other  evil  is  one  the  force  of  which  at  the 
present  day  it  is  difficult  to  understand.  Free,  wild 
life  in  the  forests  had  a  fascinating  power  over  young 
men  of  that  day.  Hundreds  of  them  abandoned  their 
homes  and  roamed  through  the  distant  forests,  living 
with  the  Indians  and  adopting  their  modes  of  life. 
They  threw  off  all  restraint  and  became  even  more 
lawless  than  the  savages  themselves. 

One  of  the  most  noted  characters  of  the  time  was 
the  Baron  de  St.  Castine,  who  came  from  France  with 
the  Marquis  de  Tracy.  After  remaining  in  Canada  a 
short  time,  he  made  his  home  at  Pentagoet,  on  Penob- 
scot  Bay.  He  adopted  the  wild  life  of  the  Indians, 
married  a  squaw,  and  exercised  the  powers  of  a  chief 
among  the  Abenaquis  Indians. v^^ 

AH  forms  of  activity  in  the  colony  seemed  to  revolve 
around  the  beaver.  The  trade  in  beaver 

.  ,   .          rv  .  Trade. 

skins  kept  everything  in  motion.     A  great 
annual  fair  was  held  in  Mxmtreal,  to  which  gathered 
the  Indians  with  their  furs  from  all  quarters.      Hither 
al.;»  cann-  the  merchants  from  Qiiebee.  bringing  their 


76  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

various  wares.  The  trade  was  carried  on  in  booths.  It 
was  chiefly  a  barter  trade,  tor  there  was  little  money  in 
the  country.  The  beaver  skin  was  the  chief  currency. 

Meanwhile  the  Jesuits  were  pursuing  their  mission- 
Jesuit  work  with  unabated  ardour.  After  the  dis- 
Missions.  astrous  failure  of  the  Huron  mission,  they 
chose  a  new  field  among  the  scattered  tribes  of  the 
North  and  West.  They  had  several  stations  along  the 
borders  of  the  Great  Lakes,  the  chief  of  which  were  at 
Sault  Ste.  Marie,  near  the  outlet  of  Lake  Superior, 
and  at  La  Pointe,  near  the  western  extremity  of  that 
lake.  > 

Talon,  the  ever-active  Intendant,  was  as  energetic 
Extension  of  'm  ms  endeavours  to  extend  the  bounds 
Territory.  ^of  (jantw|a  .^  he  was  in  developing  its 
industries.  His  policy  was  to  confine  the  English  to 
the  narrow  coast  country  which  they  then  occupied, 
and  to  hold  the  whole  interior  for  France.  To  carry 
out  this  purpose,  he  sent  agents  to  explore  the 
northern  and  western  territories  and  secure  the  good- 
will and  homage  of  the  Indians.  At  a  grand  council 
of  chiefs  held  at  the  mission-station  of  Sault  Ste. 
Marie,  a  royal  commissioner,  Sieur  St.  Lusson,  received 
the  various  tribes  of  the  West  under  the  protection  of 
Louis  XIV.  He  also  asserted  the  authority  of  his 
sovereign  over  the  country  by  setting  up  on  a  cedar 
post  the  royal  arms  of  France. 

A  curious  feature  of  the  age  was  the  manner  of 
holding  lauds,  known  as  the  Feudal 

Feudal  Tenure. 

System.  It  had  been  the  custom  in 
Europe  for  several  centuries,  and  it  still  prevailed 
in  France.  Shorn  of  some  of  its  features  the 
system  was  introduced  into  Canada.  The  King 


ROYAL    GOVERNMENT.  77 

granted  extensive  tracts  of  land  to  military  officers 
and  other  persons  on  certain  specified  conditions. 
These  owners  of  land  were  called  Seigniors,  and  they 
parcelled  out  their  lands  to  others  under  them  called 
vassals  or  habitants,  who  paid  homage  to  the  Seignior. 
The  domain  of  a  Seignior  generally  fronted  on  the  St. 
Lawrence,  the  Richelieu,  or  other  river,  sometimes 
extending  several  miles  along  the  river.  It  was  cut 
up  into  narrow  strips  giving  a  river  frontage  to  each 
tenant.  As  the  farms  were  narrow,  the  houses  in  a 
settlement  or  Seigniory  were  not  far  apart.  In  the 
more  exposed  places,  for  purpose  of  defence  against 
the  Indians,  the  houses  were  built  together  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  palisade,  making  a  fortified  village.  In 
such  places  the  habitants  or  tenants  had  to  travel 
some  distance  to  their  farms.  They  had,  however,  a 
convenient,  ready-made  road  in  the  river,  which  flowed 
past  their  lands.  The  Seigniory  generally  took  its 
name  from  the  Seignior  or  feudal  chief.  The  names 
of  many  places  in  the  Province  of  Quebec  had  their 
origin  in  this  way. 

The  Seignior  was  required  to  render  military  aid 
in  defence  of  the  country.  He  was  also  Duties  of  the 
required  to  clear  a  certain  proportion  of  S61*010^ 
his  lands  within  a  definite  time,  and  he  was  not 
permitted  to  sell  any  portion  of  his  uncleared  lands. 
He  could,  however,  give  these  lands  to  subordinate 
seigniors  for  a  small  rental,  who  in  turn  parcelled 
them  out  to  their  tenants.  It  was  his  duty  to  build 
a  fort,  a  chapel,  and  a  mill.  The  mill  was  an  irn- 
ponant  matter.  It  was  usually  built  of  stone  and 
furnished  with  loopholes,  so  that  it  could  serve 
the  double  purpose  of  a  mill  and  a  fort  or  block- 
house. In  some  cases  the  Seignior  was  too  poor  to 


78  THE    DOMINION    OK    CANADA 

erect  a  mill,  and  his  people  were  then  compelled  to 
grind  their  grain  in  hand  mills.  The  Seignior  exer- 
cised the  duties  of  a  magistrate  in  settling  petty 
disputes  among  his  tenants. 

Under  the  Feudal  System  as  it  existed  in  Europe 
Obligations  of  m  tne  Middle  Ages,  the  vassal  was  bound 
the  Vassal.  to  rcn(ier  military  service  to  the  Seignior. 
This  was  not  the  case  in  Canada.  The  tenant  paid  a 
small  rental  tor  the  lands  he  occupied.  This  rental 
was  either  in  money  <>r  in  produce  or  partly  in  b.ilk. 
A  common  rental  was  half  a  sou  and  half  a  pint 
of  wheat  yearly  for  each  arpent  of  land — an  arpeni 
being  about  an  acre.  Live  capons  often  formed  pan 
of  the  payment.  In  such  cases  on  pay-day,  which  was 
usually  on  St.  Martin's  day,  there  was  a  lively  scene  in 
the  Seignior's  barnyard  when  the  tenants  brought  in 
their  fowls.  The  tenant  was  also  required  to  labour  for 
his  Seignior  a  certain  number  of  days  in  the  year,  to 
give  one  rtsh  out  of  every  eleven  (taught  in  the  river, 
to  grind  his  grain  in  the  Seigniors  mill,  giving  one- 
fourteenth  in  payment.  An  obligation  seldom  insisted 
on  was  to  bake  his  bread  in  the  Seigniors  oven. 

When  a  Seigniory  changed  owners,  as  at  the  death 
Doing  of  a  proprietor,  the  tenant  was  obliged  to 

Homage  (jo  homage  to  the  new  Seignior.     This  was 

a  curious  ceremony,  and  was  performed  according  to  a 
prescribed  form.  The  tenant  came  to  the  door  of  the 
manor-house,  and  there,  divested  of  sword  and  spurs, 
with  bare  head,  he  fell  upon  his  knees  l>ei'ore  the 
Seignior,  and,  repeating  his  name  three  times,  ac- 
knowledged in  due  form  his  faith  and  homage.  On 
the  death  of  a  tenant,  his  laud  passed  to  his  heirs. 
But  in  the  case  of  sale  by  a  tenant,  one-twelfth  of 
the  price  was  given  to  the  Seignior. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

CANADA    UNDER    FRONTENAC. 

DE  COURCELLE  and  Talon  were  recalled.  The  new 
Governor  was  Count  de  Frontenac.  He  A  New 
was  a  man  of  much  energy  and  force  of  Governor'  l6?2- 
character ;  he  was  an  excellent  soldier ;  and  next  to 
Champlain  he  was  the  greatest  of  the  French  governors 
of  Canada.  He  had  no  equal  in  his  ability  to  manage 
the  Indians.  In  dealing  with  them  he  assumed  an 
air  of  dignity,  and  bore  himself  in  such  manner  as  to 
impress  them  with  a  sense  of  his  superiority.  During 
his  rule  the  Iroquois  were  kept  well  in  check.  But 
Frontenac  had  grave  faults.  He  was  hot-tempered, 
imperious,  and  intolerant  of  any  rival  authority.  He 
treated  the  members  of  his  council  with  scant  courtesy, 
giving  little  heed  to  their  opinions.  He  and  Bishop 
Laval  often  came  into  collision,  the  chief  cause  of 
disagreement  being  the  sale  of  brandy  to  the  Indians, 
which  the  Governor  rather  encouraged,  despite  the 
Bishop's  strong  opposition  and  fearless  protest. 

The  Indians  from  the  Far  West,  who  visited  the 
mission-stations  on  the  Great  Lakes,  told 

,  1-1       Discovery  of 

jf  a  great  river  in  their  country,  which  the  Mississippi, 
flowed    southerly   for   hundreds   of  miles 
through  a  vast  plain.       Two  ardent  explorers,  Mar- 
quette,  a  Jesuit  missionary,  and  Jolliet,     a  fur  trader 


80 


THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


of  Quebec,  accompanied  by  five  or  six  men,  set  out  in 
search  of  this  river.  From  Luke  Michigan  they  pro- 
ceeded by  way  of  snwll  streams  and  lakes  and 
portages  to  the  Wisconsin  River.  Launching  their 

bark  canoes  on 
this  stream,  they 
were  borne  on- 
wards to  the 
object  of  their 
search,  the 
great  Father 
of  Waters,  the 
Mississippi.  As 
they  descended 
the  majestic 
river  a  rich 
prospect  greeted 
their  admiring 
eyes.  Stretch- 
ing away  to  the 
distant  horizon 
were  boundless 
prairies  covered 
with  tall  grass 
and  bright 
flowers, the  feed- 
ing grounds  of 
KRONTEXAC.  in u  u in  e  r  a  b  1  e 

herds  of  buffalo. 

At  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas  they  turned  back, 
leaving  it  for  others  to  trace  the  river  onwards  to  the 
ocean. 

For  the  purpose  of  guarding  the  entrance  of  the 


CANADA  UNDER  FRONTENAC.        81 

St.  Lawrence  against  a  foe  from  beyond  the  lakes,  and 
of  controlling  the  fur  trade,  Frontenac  Fort 
built  Fort  Cataraqui,  afterwards  called  Fort  Frontenac 
Frontenac,  near  the  site  of  the  present  city  of  King- 
ston. He  superintended  the  erection  of  the  fort  in 
person,  bringing  with  him  an  armed  force  of  tour 
hundred  men.  At  the  same  time  he  summoned  the 
Iroquois  to  meet  him  at  this  place.  They  came 
obedient  to  his  call.  In  order  to  impress  them  with 
a  due  sense  of  his  power,  Frontenac  drew  up  his  men 
in  martial  array.  He  then  harangued  the  assembled 
savages,  calling  them  children,  and  telling  them  that  he 
had  not  come  to  harm  them,  but  that  he  would  punish 
them  if  they  were  bad.  Thus  by  stern  threatening,  duly 
attempered  with  judicious  flattery  and  many  presents, 
he  awed  them  to  submission  and  won  their  hearts. 

Jolliet's     story  of  the  Mississippi  awakened  to  new 
life  the  spirit  of  discovery.     Some  people 
believed  that,  in  its  lower  course,  the  river  Explorations, 

1660-1684. 

turned  away  to  the  westward  and  finally 
flowed  into  the  Gulf  of  California.  At  this  time 
there  lived  in  Canada  a  young  Frenchman  named 
Robert  Cavalier,  better  known  as  La  Salle,  a  name 
borrowed  from  his  family  estate  in  France.  He  was 
a  man  of  strong  will  and  great  power  of  endurance, 
though  not  always  noted  for  wise  forethought  in 
planning  his  schemes.  For  a  short  time  La  Salle 
held  a  Seigniory  at  the  western  end  of  Montreal 
Island,  given  him  by  the  priests  of  the  Seminary  of 
St.  Sulpice.  In  1669  he  went  on  an  exploring 
journey,  during  which  he  discovered  the  Ohio  and 
the  Illinois  rivers.  A  little  later  he  obtained  from 
the  King  of  France  a  grant  of  Fort  Frontenac,  which 

F 


82  THE    DOMINION    OK    <  'AN  A  DA. 

fort  he  rebuilt  of  stone  and  made  it  the  base  of  a 
fur  trade  with  the  western  Indians. 

Late  in  the  autumn  of  H57H,  with  a  company  of 
followers,  among  whom  was  an  Italian  officer  named 
De  Tonty,  and  the  Hecollet  friar  Louis  Heunepin, 
La  Salle  set  out  for  the  west.  He  sjx>nt  the  winter 
at  Cayuga  Creek,  a  short  distance  alnwe  Niagara 
Falls,  where  he  built  a  small  vessel.  Karly  in  the 
spring,  in  this  vessel,  named  the  UriJ/in,  the  first  to 
navigate  the  Great  Lakes  above  the  Falls,  he  sailed 
up  into  Lake  Michigan.  Here  he  loaded  the  (fnjji.n 
with  a  cargo  of  furs  and  sent  her  back  to  Niagam. 
But  nothing  was  ever  heard  afterwards  of  either 
vessel  or  crew. 

La  Salle  now  crossed  the  country  from  Lake 
Michigan  to  the  Illinois  River,  v/here  he  built  a 
fort  which  he  named  Crevecour.  His  purpose  was 
to  explore  the  Mississippi  to  its  mouth,  but  his 
difficulties  were  only  beginning.  In  order  to  obtain 
supplies,  twice  he  was  compelled  to  return  to  Mon- 
treal, distant  a  thousand  miles  or  more.  Sometimes 
he  travelled  on  foot  through  the  dense  forests,  some- 
times he  sped  along  lakes  and  rivers  in  light  canoes. 
During  his  absence  part  of  his  men  whom  he  had 
left  at  the  fort,  under  the  faithful  Tonty,  mutinied, 
stole  his  goods,  and  deserted.  Finally,  however, 
La  Salle  triumphed  over  all  obstacles.  Coursing 
down  the  Illinois  in  canoes,  he  and  his  party  reached 
the  Mississippi  and  continuing  down  this  great  river, 
they  reached  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  in  April  1<>82.  The 
country  through  which  he  had  passed  La  Salle  claimed 
for  France,  naming  it  Louisiana  in  honour  of  Louis  XIV. 

On   returning   to   Canada    La    Salle    proceeded    to 


CANADA  UNDER  FRONTENAC.        83 

France,  where  he  was  received  with  great  distinction. 
And  now,  fitted  out  by  the  King,  he  sailed  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  for  the  purpose  of  exploring  more 
fully  the  country  which  he  had  discovered,  and  of 
founding  a  colony.  But  the  expedition  ended  in 
disaster,  and  cost  La  Salle  his  life.  The  vessel  bear- 
ing his  supplies  was  cast  away.  He  failed  to  find 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  and  landed  his  colonists 
farther  west,  on  the  coast  of  the  present  State  of 
Texas.  He  spent  two  miserable  years  wandering 
about  the  Gulf  coast ;  and  finally,  reduced  to  great 
want,  he  set  out  by  an  overland  route  for  Canada. 
But  before  he  had  gone  far  on  the  journey  he  was 
murdered  by  some  of  his  men,  and  his  body  was  left 
without  burial,  a  prey  to  wild  beasts. 

In  the  meantime  affairs  had  been  getting  on  badly 
at    Quebec.       Frontenac    quarrelled   con-    Frontenac 
stantly    with    the    Bishop,    with    the    In-    recalled 
tend  ant,   and    with    other   members   of  the    Council. 
Besides,    he    gave    great     offence    to    the    clergy    by 
encouraging    the     sale     of    brandy    to    the     Indians. 
Bishop  Laval  and  others  complained  to  the  King,  and 
the  final  outcome  was  the   recall   of  Frontenac  and 
the  appointment  of  La  Barre  governor  in  his  stead. 

When   La  Barre  arrived  at  Quebec  he  found  the 
colonists  in  trouble.      A  fire  had  just  laid 

i  i      i  <•      i         T  m  -.1  La  Barre,  1682. 

the  whole  of  the  Lower  lown  m  ashes, 
leaving  a  large  number  of  people  homeless.  There 
was  much  alarm  also  on  account  of  a  threatened 
invasion  of  the  Iroquois.  The  hostility  of  these  old 
enemies  of  the  French  was  encouraged  by  Dongan, 
the  Governor  of  New  York.  The  English  in  this 
colony  wished  to  secure  thfe  fur  trade  in  the  territories 


THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

around  the  Western  Lukes,  occupied  by  the  Indian 
allies  of  the  French,  and  they  use<l  the  Iroquois  as 
their  agents  in  currying  out  their  purpose,  l^a  Barre 
mustered  a  force  of  French  and  Indians  for  the 
purpose  of  chastising  the  Iroquois.  But  while  he 
delayed  at  Fort  Frontenac  many  of  his  men  were 
taken  ill  of  fever,  and  he  thought  it  prudent  to  patch 
up  a  peace  with  the  warlike  savages.  The  treaty 
showed  great  weakness  on  the  part  of  La  Barre ; 
and  the  King,  on  learning  its  conditions,  ordered  him 
to  return  to  France,  and  sent  out  the  Marquis  of 
Dennonville  jus  his  successor. 

The  rivalry  l>etweeu  the   French  and  the  English 
was  becoming  keener,  and  was  assuming 

Rivalry  be  .  . 

tween  French  a  wider  range  than  the  tur  trade  with  the 
Indians.  The  struggle  for  the  ownership 
of  the  continent  was  looming  up  in  the  not  very 
remote  distance.  The  French  aimed  to  confine  the 
English  to  the  narrow  Atlantic  coast  :  the  English,  on 
the  other  hand,  would  rest  rift  the  French  to  the 
valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  Dougan,  the  (rovernor  of 
New  York,  claimed  that  the  Iroquois  were  subjects  of 
his  master,  .lames  II.  of  England,  and  he  covertly 
endeavoured  through  them  to  extend  the  power  of 
England  south  of  the  (ireat  Lakes  westerly  to  the 
Mississippi.  Then,  through  the  same  agency,  he  was 
working  with  the  'Indian  trilx's  around  the  (treat 
Lakes  to  draw  them  from  their  alliance  with  the 
French.  Moreover,  the  New  England  colonists  were 
extending  eastwardly  the  limits  of  the  scene  of  the 
coming  struggle  by  their  plans  to  drive  the  French 
from  Acadie. 

In   the   far    North,   too,  the   English    had   planted 


CANADA    UNDER   FRONTENAC.  85 

themselves,  and  were  tapping  the  fur  trade  at  its 
sources.  In  1668  the  first  English  trad-  Hudson's  Bay 
ing  post  was  established,  by  a  few  mer-  organised', 
chants  of  London,  on  the  shores  of  Hudson  l6?0 
Bay.  Two  years  later  the  great  fur- trading  company, 
usually  known  as  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  was 
organised  by  a  charter  granted  by  Charles  II.  of 
England.  According  to  the  terms  of  its  charter,  the 
Company  secured  exclusive  right  of  trade  throughout 
the  country  watered  by  the  rivers  flowing  into  Hudson 
and  James  Bays.  The  country  was  called  Rupert's 
Land,  in  honour  of  its  first  Governor,  Prince  Rupert, 
the  King's  cousin.  The  Company  claimed  that  its 
territory  extended  westerly  to  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
including  the  valley  of  the  Saskatchewan.  It  had  the 
right  to  govern  its  domain  by  officers  of  its  own 
appointment. 

Within  a  few  years  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
established  five  trading  posts  on  the  shores  of  Hudson 
Bay,  of  which  York  Fort,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nelson 
River,  was  headquarters.  To  these  posts  the  Indians, 
by  boat  and  canoe,  brought  down  their  furs,  which 
they  bartered  for  various  articles  of  merchandise 
supplied  by  the  Company's  agents.  Once  a  year, 
when  the  ice  had  left  the  bay  and  strait,  ships  came 
from  England  to  York  Fort,  bringing  new  supplies  of 
merchandise,  and  carrying  away  the  furs  which  had 
been  collected  by  the  year's  trade.*' 

For  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  Royal 
Government  there  was  domestic  peace  in 

_..  -i-ri  Dennonville 

Canada.    Governor,  Bishop,  and  Intendant  takes  Active 

-  ,      ,  .   _•  Measures. 

were  in  accord,  and  the  common  aim  was 

to  humble  the  foe  on  their  borders.     Dennonville  saw 


86  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

that  he  must  strike  a  blow  at  once.  He  knew  well 
that  in  the  hostility  of  the  Iroquois.  Dongan  was 
behind  the  scenes :  but  as  England  and  France  were 
at  peace,  he  could  not  make  war  <m  him.  He 
resolved  to  deal  the  blow  at  his  agents,  the  Iroquois. 
He  ventured,  however,  to  authorise  an  attack  on  the 
English  fur  traders  in  the  far-ott'  territory  around 
Hudson  Bay.  A  company  of  eighty  or  a  hundred 
men  set  out  for  this  northern  territory  with  evil 
purpose  against  their  rivals.  A  lon&  toilsome  journey 
it  must  have  been  up  the  Ottawa,  and  then  through 
pathless  forests,  by  lake  and  stream,  to  the  traders' 
forts.  The  journey  completed,  however,  they  made 
an  easy  conquest  of  the  English,  and  packed  them  oft' 
to  England  in  one  of  the  Company's  vessels  which 
had  just  arrived. 

Dennonville  mustered  a  strong  force  for  war  against 
War  against  the  Senecas.  Besides  regular  troops  and 
the  Senecas.  militia,  he  invited  his  Indian  allies  around 
the  Western  Lakes  to  join  him  on  the  southern  shore 
of  Lake  Ontario.  NVhile  halting  at  Fort  Frontenac 
he  took  part  in  a  measure  which  did  him  and  the 
Intendant  little  credit.  The  King  wanted  strong  men 
for  oarsmen  on  the  royal  galleys,  and  he  instructed 
Dennonville  to  send  him  Iroquois  for  this  service. 
The  Iroquois  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Fort  Frontenac, 
who  had  been  living  on  good  terms  with  the  French, 
were  invited  to  a  feast  within  the  fort.  Having 
accepted  the  invitation  in  good  faith,  the  men,  to  the 
number  of  about  Hfty.  were  basely  seixed  and  sent  to 
France  as  galley  slaves. 

At  the  appointed  place  on  the  borders  rf  the  Seneca 
count rv,  Dennonvillo  met  the  Indian  warriors  whom 


CANADA  UNDER  FRONTENAC.         87 

he  had  summoned  from  the  West.  He  had  now  a 
force  of  nearly  three  thousand  men.  The  Senecas, 
hearing  of  his  movements,  lay  concealed  in  a  dense 
wood  through  which  he  had  to  pass.  .  Starting  up 
from  their  ambush  as  the  French  approached,  they 
fought  with  desperation ;  but  they  had  not  counted 
on  so  numerous  a  foe,  and  soon  gave  up  the  contest. 
When  Dennonville  came  to  their  villages  he  found 
them  deserted.  He  burned  their  stores  of  Indian 
corn  which  he  found  in  their  granaries,  and  cut  down 
their  growing  crop,  but  he  thought  it  not  prudent 
to  pursue  the  savages,  who  had  fled  to  the  forests. 
His  victory  was  not  worth  what  it  cost.  A  friendly 
Indian  is  said  to  have  told  him  before  he  set  out, 
that  it  was  dangerous  to  disturb  a  wasp's  nest  without 
killing  the  wasps. 

By  disturbing  one  wasp's  nest  Dennonville  angered 
the  wasps  of  the  whole  country-side.  The  prospect  Of 
Iroquois  were  all  enraged  over  his  treat-  Peace- 
ment  of  the  Senecas,  and  they  threatened  vengeance. 
They  made  raids  into  Canada,  and  .there  was  no  safety 
above  Three  Rivers  outside  the  forts.  In  this  hostility 
they  had  the  sympathy  of  the  Governor  of  New  York. 
Dennonville  was  greatly  alarmed,  and  desired  to  pacify 
the  savages.  He  sent  delegates  into  their  country, 
bearing  presents  and  making  overtures  of  peace. 
Among  the  terms  demanded  by  the  Iroquois  was  the 
restoration  of  the  captives  sent  to  the  French  galleys. 
Dennonville  was  forced  to  yield,  and  he  wrote  to  the 
King,  begging  him  to  send  back  the  prisoners.  It 
was  finally  arranged  that  the  Iroquois  should  send 
delegates  to  Montreal  to  conclude  the  peace. 

The   Iroquois  were  not  willing  to   include,  in 


THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

treaty  of  peace  the  Indian  allies  of  the  French 
The -Rat  urouiul  the  Western  Lukes.  Among  these 
kills  the  Peace,  tfifos  was  a  remnant  of  the  Hurons, 
living  at  Mackinaw,  near  Lake  Michigan.  Their 
chief,  Kondiaronk,  known  among  the  Indians  as  the 
"  Rat,"  held  a  high  position  in  the  councils  of  his 
people,  and  he  was  mighty  in  war  as  he  was  wise 
in  counsel.  Coming  down  the  lakes  with  a  band  of 
warriors  to  make  a  raid  against  the  Iroquois,  he 
called  at  Fort  Frontenac,  where  he  heard  of  the 
treaty  between  the  French  and  the  Iroquois.  He 
saw  that  the  treaty  meant  destruction  to  the  Hurons, 
for  they  could  no  longer  count  on  the  French  to 
protect  them.  "  We  shall  see,"  he  said,  as  he  left 
Fort  Frontenac,  bent  on  breaking  up  the  treaty. 
Intercepting  the  Iroquois  delegates,  he  made  them 
all  prisoners,  telling  them  that  he  was  acting  on 
Dennonville's  instructions.  When  the  delegates  told 
him  that  they  were  on  an  errand  of  peace,  he 
assumed  an  air  of  indignation  against  the  French 
for  making  use  of  him  to  carry  out  their  base  pur- 
poses. Detaining  one  of  his  prisoners,  as  he  asserted, 
to  supply  the  place  of  one  of  his  men  killed  by  the 
Iroquois,  he  set  the  others  free,  bidding  them  go 
home  and  tell  the  story  of  French  perfidy.  "  I  have 
killed  the  peace,"  said  the  "  Rat "  exultingly.  But 
his  work  was  not  yet  complete.  He  returned  to  the 
fort  at  Mackinaw,  and  handed  over  his  prisoner  as  a 
spy  to  the  French  officer  in  command,  who  had  not 
yet  heard  of  the  treaty  between  the  French  and  the 
Iroquois.  The  captive  asserted  that  he  was  a  peace 
delegate  on  his  way  to  Montreal,  and  appealed  to 
Kondiarouk  to  confirm  his  story.  But  the  wily  "  Rat  " 


CANADA    UNDEU    FRONTENAC.  89 

shook  his  head,  said  that  the  story  was  pure  invention, 
and  that  the  fear  of  death  had  turned  the  fellow's  brain. 
The  poor  Iroquois  was  accordingly  shot  as  an  enemy. 
There  was  still  another  scene  in  the  "  Rat's  "  acting. 
In  the  fort  was  an  old  Iroquois  prisoner.  Kondiaronk 
set  him  free,  and  told  him  to  go  home  and  tell  his 
people  how  the  French  had  treated  their  delegate. 
Dennonville  sent  explanations  to  the  Iroquois.  Months 
passed  and  all  was  quiet ;  but  the  savages  were  mean- 
while nursing  their  wrath  for  a  day  of  vengeance. 

It  was  in  the  month  of  August  that  the  revengeful 
Iroquois  let  loose  their  rage.  The  fearful  Massacre  of 
blow  fell  on  La  Chine,  at  the  west  end  of  La  Chine' I689< 
Montreal  Island,  six  miles  from  the  city.  At  the 
midnight  hour,  when  deep  slumber  had  hushed  the 
disquietudes  of  life,  twelve  hundred  savages  rent  the 
air  with  the  war-cry,  and  with  torch  and  tomahawk 
began  their  work  of  slaughter.  The  annals  of  the 
country  tell  no  tale  so  sad.  Many  of  the  inhabitants 
were  slain  on  the  spot ;  others  made  captive  were 
reserved  for  torture  worse  than  death.  For  over  two 
months  the  Iroquois  ravaged  the  open  country,  kill- 
ing, taking  prisoners,  and  destroying  property  without 
opposition.  The  French  seem  to  have  been  paralysed 
with  fear.  Dennonville  had  forces  at  his  command 
which  should  have  been  able  to  drive  the  invaders 
from  the  country.  Instead,  to  the  great  disgust  of 
some  of  his  officers,  he  strictly  enjoined  defensive 
measures  only.  By  his  orders  Fort  Frontenac  was 
blown  up  with  gunpowder  and  abandoned.  Quebec, 
Three  Rivers,  and  Montreal  alone  offered  safety  to  the 
fear-stricken  colonists.  As  winter  approached,  the 
Iroquois  withdrew  of  their  own  accord. 


CHATTER  IX. 

BORDER    WARFARE    BETWEEN    FRENCH    AND 
»   ENGLISH. 

AMID  the  gloom  which  overshadowed  Canada  there 
Frontenac's  shone  a  ray  of  hope.  Frontenac  was  again 
Return,  1689.  rnade  Governor.  The  .colonists  hailed  his 
arrival  with  delight,  and  the  members  of  the  (Council, 
once  so  glad  to  get  rid  of  him,  were  now  ready  to 
receive  him  with  every  mark  of  honour.  His  im- 
perious manner  and  irritable  temper  were  forgotten : 
his  power  over  the  Iroquois  made  him  welcome.  He 
at  once  set  about  repairing  the  ruined  fortunes  of  the 
country.  The  task  was  a  hard  one.  Seven  years  had 
passed  since  his  recall,  and  he  was  now  seventy  years 
of  age.  Successes  had  made  the  Iroquois  insolent, 
and  the  friendly  Indian  tribes  had  lost  confidence  and 
respect.  Even  the  Hurons  of  the  West  were  seeking 
alliance  with  the  enemies  of  Canada.  Frontenac  h'rst 
tried  to  make  peace  with  the  Iroquois.  He  had 
brought  back  the  survivors  of  Dennonville's  captives, 
of  whom  but  thirteen  remained  alive.  These  he  sent 
home,  bearing  pleasant  memories  of  his  kindness.  Hut 
the  Iroquois  were  not  easily  won. 

Not  without  reason,  Frontenac  believed  that  the 
English,  not  the  Iroquois,  were  the  chief  obstacle  to 
the  tranquillity  of  the  country.  On  the  other  side  of 


BORDER    WARFARE.  91 

the  Atlantic,  England  and  France  were  not  on  good 
terms  at  this  time.  James  II.  of  England  Raids  against 
had  recently  been  driven  from  the  throne  the  Ensllsh- 
by  his  angry  subjects,  and  William  and  Mary  ruled  in 
his  stead.  The  King  of  France  supported  the  cause  of 
the  dethroned  monarch,  and  he  instructed  Frontenac 
to  make  war  upon  the  English  colonists  in  America ; 
and  so  the  Governor  sent  three  war  parties  against 
his  English  neighbours.  It  was  not  open  war  on  the 
battlefield  that  he  planned,  but  the  sudden  irruption, 
the  stealthy  approach  at  midnight,  and  the  indiscrimi- 
nate slaughter  of  men,  women,  and  children,  charac- 
teristic of  Indian  warfare.  In  midwinter  three  bands 
of  French  and  Indians,  after  many  days  of  toilsome 
marching  through  forests,  came  stealthily  by  night 
upon  the  unsuspecting  colonists  of  New  York,  New 
Hampshire,  and  Maine.  They  burned  the  dwellings, 
killed  and  scalped  the  inhabitants,  or,  what  was  worse, 
they  dragged  them  into  captivity.  Schenectady,  in  New 
York,  Salmon  Falls,  in  New  Hampshire,  and  the  settle- 
ment at  Saco  Bay  were  among  the  places  thus  attacked. 
These  measures,  though  worthy  only  of  savages,  were 
carried  out  with  such  vigour  and  success  that  the 
Canadian  colonists  were  animated  with  new  hope. 

The  English  colonists  of  New  York  and  New  Eng- 
land were  deeply  indignant  over  these  rnas- 

1   J  3  Retaliation. 

sacres.  A  congress  ot  delegates  met  at 
New  York  to  consider  what  measures  should  be  taken, 
in  the  circumstances.  It  was  arranged  that  a  land 
force,  raised  by  the  different  colonies,  should  proceed, 
by  way  of  Albany  and  Lake  Champlain,  against  Mon- 
treal, and  that  a  naval  force  from  NCAV  England  should 
attack  Quebec.  The  colonies  asked  England  to  help 


92  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

them  drive  the  French  from  America.  At  that  time, 
however,  King  William  was  not  very  Hrmly  established 
ou  t-lie  throne,  and  he  needed  all  his  forces  at  home. 

Meanwhile  Massachusetts  undertook  a  little  mili- 
p.iipstakes  tlir>r  exploit  on  her  own  account.  French 
Port  Royai.  cruisers,  making  their  headquarters  at  Port 
Royal,  had  for  some  months  been  preying  ou  her  com- 
merce, and  she  determine:!  to  rid  herself  of  this  an- 
noyance by  seizing  their  place  of  rendezvous.  Seven 
or  eight  small  vessels,  and  about  eight  hundred  men, 
sailors  and  militia,  were  soon  in  readiness  for  the  ex- 
pedition. The  command  was  given  to  Sir  William 
Phips,  a  colonist  of  humble  birth  and  little  education, 
but  possessed  of  great  ambition  and  energy.  Early  in 
May,  Phips  appeaiVd  before  Port  Royal  and  summoned 
Menueval,  the  governor,  to  surrender.  Meuneval  saw 
that  with  his  small  garrison  and  dilapidated  fort  he 
had  little  chance  of  resisting  an  attack,  but  by  put- 
ting on  a  bold  air  he  adroitly  concealed  his  weakness, 
and  thus  gained  letter  terms  from  the  enemy.  Phips 
agreed  to  send  the  garrison  to  Quebec,  and  to  allow  the 
inhabitants  to  hold  their  property.  All  the  cannon, 
military  stores,  and  money  belonging  to  the  King 
were  to  be  given  up  to  the  English.  When  Phips 
entered  the  fort  and  saw  its  weak  condition  he  was 
annoyed  that  he  had  granted  such  favourable  terms 
of  surrender.  He  was  therefore  well  pleased  to  find 
some  excuse  for  breaking  the  agreement.  The  French 
soldiers  carried  otV  some  of  the  property  which,  by  the 
treaty,  had  been  given  up  to  the  Knglish.  Thereupon 
Phips  charged  Menneval  witli  violating  his  part  of 
the  bargain,  sent  him  and  his  garrison  prisoners  to 
Boston,  and  allowed  his  soldiers  to  plunder  the  town. 


BORDER   WARFARE.  93 

Having  seized  several  other  French  settlements  in 
Nova  Scotia,  Phips  returned  to  Boston  with  his 
booty. 

The  martial  spirit  was  now  fully  aroused  in  Massa- 
chusetts. Emboldened  by  the  success  at  Phips  fails  to 
Port  Royal,  the  colony  resolved  to  under-  take  Quebec- 
take,  single-handed,  the  capture  of  Quebec.  Prepara- 
tions were  made  with  due  secrecy,  in  the  hope  ol 
taking  the  French  by  surprise.  The  force  comprised 
thirty-two  vessels,  large  and  small,  and  about  two 
thousand  men,  including  sailors.  As  a  matter  of 
course,  the  command  was  given  to  the  hero  of  Port 
Royal.  Meanwhile  a  rumour  of  what  was  going  on  in 
Boston  reached  Quebec,  and  caused  the  wildest  alarm. 
Frontenac  was  at  Montreal.  He  came  with  all  haste 
to  the  capital,  and,  with  characteristic  energy,  set  the 
town  in  order  for  defence.  For  the  most  part,  nature 
had  fortified  the  place  on  the  south  and  east  by  the 
high  cliffs  along  the*  St.  Lawrence  and  its  tributary 
the  St.  Charles.  Barricades  of  timber  were  placed  at 
three  weak  points  in  this  natural  wall.  The  rear  of 
the  town  was  protected  by  palisades,  a  c}itch,  and  an 
embankment. 

Phips  was  too  long  in  getting  ready,  and  after  he 
set  sail  the  winds  were  unfavourable.  It  was  in  the 
month  of  October  that  the  fleet  passed  Orleans  and 
came  in  sight  of  Quebec.  An  officer  with  a  flag  of 
truce  was  at  once  sent  ashore  from  the  admiral's  ship 
to  demand  a  surrender.  Blindfolded,  he  was  led 
through  the  city  to  the  palace  of  the  Governor.  Ad- 
mitted into  Frontenac  s  presence,  he  handed  him  a 
letter  from  Phips,  and,  taking  out  his  watch,  he  de- 
manded in  the  name  of  King  William  the  surrender 


94  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

of  the  town  in  one  hour.  Killed  with  rage,  the 
haughty  Count  replied  :  "  I  will  not  keep 'you  waiting 
so  long.  Tell  your  general  that  I  acknowledge  no 
King  of  England  hut-  King  .lames.  The  Prince  of 
Orange,  who  calls  himself  King,  is  a  usurper  of  a 
throne  which  he  longs  to  his  father-in-law."  When 
asked  by  the  messenger  if  he  would  send  Phips  a 
written  answer,  Frontenac  replie:!  :  "  Xo,  I  will  answer 
him  hy  the  mouth  of  my  cannon."  Phips  then  opened 
fire  on  the  town,  hut  with  little  effect.  He  landed 
thirteen  hundred  men  on  the  Beauport  shore.  In-low 
the  mouth  of  the  St.  Charles,  with  the  view  of  crossing 
this  stream  and  attacking  the  town  in  the  rear.  But 
the  opposing  force  was  too  strong,  and  this  hope  failed 
also.  The  men  hastily  re-embarked,  leaving  h've  ol 
their  cannon  in  the  mud  on  the  Beauport  shore.  Phips 
called  a  council  of  war.  in  which  it  was  decided  to 
abandon  the  siege.  Matters  had  been  badly  managed. 
It  is  said  that  if  Phips  had  arrived  a  week  earlier,  or 
remained  a  week  later,  he  might  have  taken  Quebec. 
In  the  first  case  he  would  have  found  the  French  un- 
prepared for  defence :  in  the  other  he  would  have 
starved  them  into  surrender,  for  there  was  little  food 
in  the  town.  Deeply  chagrined,  Phips  sailed  away  to 
Boston,  bearing  the  first  tidings  of  his  defeat.  There 
was  now  great  rejoicing  in  Quebec.  In  memory  of 
the  deliverance  of  the  city,  the  King  of  France  had  a 
medal  struck,  with  the  inscription,  "  Francia  in  Xovo 
Orbe  Victrix  Kebec  Liberata,  A.D..  MDCXC. 

Meanwhile  the  force  which  was  to  proceed  against 
Montreal  had  been  mustered  at  Albany,  under  \Viu- 
throp.  It  was  not  a  strong  force  at  first,  and  it  was 
weakened  by  lack  of  provisions,  by  the  ravages  of 


BOUDEK    WARFARE.  95 

smallpox,  and  by  want  of  harmony.   Winthrop  marched 
as  far  as  Lake  Champlain,  when,  becoming 

.     f      The  Expedition 

discouraged,  he  gave  up  the  undertaking  against  MOD- 
and  returned  to  Albany.     A  small  detach- 
ment of  his  men,  however,  proceeding  down  the  lake 
and  the  Richelieu,  made   an  attack,  in  true   Indian 
fashion,  on  the  settlement  of  La  Prairie,  killing  and 
taking    prisoners    both    men    and    women,     burning 
houses,  and  destroying  property  of  all  kinds. 

Acadie,  which  comprised  Nova  Scotia,  New  Bruns- 
.wick,  and  the  eastern  portion  of  Maine,  was  .  \S 
the  scene  of  much  of  the  petty  warfare 
between  the  French  and  the  English.  When  Phips 
captured  Port  Royal,  he  left  no  garrison  in  the  fort  to 
hold  the  country,  and  the  inhabitants  soon  came  to 
regard  themselves  as  French  subjects  again.  A  Cana- 
dian named  Villebon  was  appointed  governor  of  the 
country.  Among  the  important  French  settlements 
in  Acadie  at  this  time,  besides  Port  Royal,  were  Beau- 
bassin,  on  the  head  waters  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy ; 
Grand  Prc  and  Minas,  on  Minas  Basin  :  and  La  Heve 
and  Canso,  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  Thinking  Port 
Royal  too  much  exposed  to  attack  from  English 
cruisers,  Villebon  made  his  headquarters  on  the  Nash- 
waak,  a  tributary  of  the  St.  John.  Here,  in  his  forest 
retreat,  he  gathered  around  him  bands  of  Indians 
whom  he  encouraged  in  acts  of  outrage  against  the 
English.  Baptiste,  a  noted  sea  rover,  who  preyed  on 
the  commerce  of  New  England,  also  found  refuge  for 
himself  and  sale  for  his  plunder  in  Villebon's  fort. 
As  a  protection  against  the  French  and  Indians,  Mas- 
sachusetts had  built  a  stone  fort  at  Pemaquid,  called 
Fort  William  Henry.  After  a  short  siege,  the  French, 


96  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA 

under  a  famous  French-Canadian  named  Iberville, 
aided  by  St.  Castin  and  his  Abenaqnis  Indians,  took 
this  fort  and  levelled  its  walls  to  the  ground.  Iber- 
ville then  sailed  to  Newfoundland,  which  was  claimed 
by  the  French.  -Here  he  made  an  easy  conquest  of 
St.  John's,  and  laid  it  in  ashes.  He  then  proceeded 
along  the  coast,  among  the  English  fishing  settle- 
ments, pillaging  and  burning  as  he  went.  Iberville 
now  set  sail  for  Hudson  Bay,  where  he  took  Fort 
Nelson,  the  most  important  centre  of  the  English  fur 
company  of  that  northern  territory. 

The  Indians  of  Acadie  and  New  England  were  not 
Hannah  DUS  so  rrue^  as  tne  Iroquois  :  but  yet  they  gave 
tan-  many  proofs  that  they  were  true  savages. 

One  example  will  show  their  method  of  falling  upon 
unprotected  settlers.  In  the  spring  following  the 
capture  of  the  fort  at  Pemaqnid,  they  came  suddenly 
in  early  morning  upon  the  village  of  Haverhill,  Mas- 
sachusetts, attacking  the  farm-houses  on  the  outskirts. 
The  men  were  absent  at  work  in  the  neighbouring 
fields.  The  only  occupants  of  one  of  the  houses  were 
Mrs.  Dustan,  her  infant  child,  and  the  nurse.  The 
savages  set  fire  to  the  dwelling,  killed  the  infant, 
and  carried  oft'  the  two  women  into  the  forests,  a 
hundred  miles  or  more  from  their  home.  From 
time  to  time  they  added  to  the  terror  of  their  cap- 
tives by  describing  to  them  the  tortures  which 
they  had  in  reserve  for  them.  The  women  decided 
on  bold  measures,  which  they  successfully  carried 
out.  In  the  middle  of  the  night  they  and  a  boy, 
who  was  a  fellow-captive,  took  each  a  hatchet  and 
killed  their  captors  to  the  number  of  ten,  two  only, 
an  Indian  woman  and  a  boy,  escaping.  Mrs.  Dustan 


BORDER    WARFARE.  97 

and  her  companions  then  made  their  way  back   to 
Haverhill. 

On  their  part  the  English  colonists  of  Massachusetts 
sought  reprisals  and  retaliation  in  every  Ravagesof 
possible  way.       A  fitting   instrument  for  BenChurch- 
this  work  of  revenge  was  found  in  sturdy  old  Ben 
Church,  who  had  many  years  before  gained  renown 
in   the   wars  against  the  Indians.     With   a   fleet   of 
"whale  -  boats,   well  manned  by  hardy  New  England 
fishermen,  Church  sallied  forth  like  an  angel  of  de- 
struction, laying  waste  every  Acadian  settlement  from 
Passamaquoddy  Bay  to  Cumberland  Basin. 

But  there  came  a  short  breathing  spell  in  this 
foolish  and  destructive  warfare  between  Treaty  of  Rys. 
the  English  and  French  colonists.  Eng-  wick>  l6yj- 
land  and  France,  after  eight  years  of  fighting  with 
each  other,  arranged  terms  of  peace  by  the  Treaty  of 
Ryswick,  and  they  also  directed  their  colonies  in 
America  to  stop  fighting.  It  was  agreed  that  all 
places  taken  by  either  nation  during  the  war  should 
be  restored  to  the  original  owner.  There  was  great 
joy  in  Quebec  when  the  news  was  received,  and  on 
the  following  Sunday  the  Te  J)eum  was  sung  in  the 
cathedral  in  the  presence  of  the  dignitaries  of  the 
land.  There  followed  in  the  evening  a  formal  dinner, 
at  which  were  delegates  from  New  York,  and  toasts 
were  drunk  in  honour  of  the  sovereigns  of  the  father- 
lands. 

Frontenac's  last  conflict  soon  followed.     He  died,  in 
the  seventy-eighth  year  of  his  age,  in  the  Death  of  Fron. 
autumn  after   the   peace   was   concluded.  tenac- 
Ho  had  been  a  man  of  war.     The  English  and  the 
Iroquois  on  his  borders  gave  him  little  respite;  the 


08  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

[ntendant  and  the  Hergy  within  his  dominion  had 
contributed  their  full  share  to  the  strife  which  fell  to 
his  lot.  He  was  self- willed  and  irascible ;  but  his 
strong  hand  had  upheld  Canada  during  a  period  of 
weakness  and  peril.  He  left  many  ardent  admirers 
and  some  bitter  foes.  His  wife,  who  was  a  lady  of 
the  Kind's  Court,  never  came  to  Canada.  In  his  will 
he  directed  that  his  heart  should  be  sent  to  her  for 
burial  in  France. 

Frontenac  had  laboured  to  make  peace  with   the 
Indians  on  the  borders  of  Canada,  a  task 

Treaty  with          .  .  111  i 

the  Indians.  m  which  he  would  liave  been  more 
successful  but  for  the  rivalry  of  the 
English.  His  policy  towards  them  secured  their 
respect,  and  did  much  to  break  down  the  enmity 
which  his  predecessors  had  aroused.  Oe  Callieres, 
who  succeeded  him  as  Governor,  wished  to  finish  the 
work  thus  begun.  He  invited  all  the  Indian  tribes, 
far  and  near,  to  meet  him  in  a  grand  council  at 
Montreal.  He  wanted  the  tribes  to  make  peace 
with  each  other  as  well  as  with  the  French,  and  he 
urged  them  to  bring  with  them  all  their  captives  for 
restoration  to  their  own  people.  They  came  at  his 
call  —deputies  from  the  Five  Nations,  from  the  tribes 
of  the  North,  and  from  those  of  the  far  West. 
Fleets  of  canoes,  bearing  chiefs  and  captives,  came 
over  the  lakes  and  down  the  St.  Lawrence  to  Mon- 
treal. Twelve  hundred  Indian  warriors  in  their  paint, 
their  furs,  and  their  feathers,  came  to  the  great 
council.  The  Governor  and  his  Council  were  present, 
and  a  large  assembly  of  the  leading  colonists.  Long 
speeches  were  made  by  Indian  orators :  presents  were  ] 
given;  the  pipe  of  peace  was  smoked,  the  Governor  I 


BORDER    WARFARE.  99 

taking  the  lead ;  and  then  followed  feasting  and 
hilarity.  The  council  lasted  several  days.  Old 
Kondiaroi^k,  the  "  Rat,"  was  present ;  but  in  the 
middle  of  his  speech  he  took  ill,  and  he  died  before 
the  council  closed.  The  treaty  was  duly  signed,  the 
chiefs  making  the  symbols  of  their  respective  tribes 
— a  spider,  a  calumet,  a  forked  stick,  a  bear,  a  beaver, 
or  something  else. 


CHAPTER  X. 

gt'KKN  ANNK'S  WAR. 

PEACE  between  (ireat  Hritain  and  France  was  soon 
HOW  the  War  broken.  Louis  XIV.  hud  all  along  taken 
b«iran,  170..  sj(jes  wjtij  ju,lics  i|.  whoin  the  English 

pe«>j)le  had  driven  from  the  throne:  and  now,  on  the 
death  of  .James,  Louis  recognised  his  son  as  the 
rightful  King  of  England.  The  English  were  in- 
dignant that  a  foreign  power  should  interfere  with 
their  freedom  in  choosing  a  king.  This  a<;tion  of 
the  French  king,  with  some  other  causes  which  need 
not  be  spoken  of  here,  led  to  a  new  war  l>etween  the 
two  nations  which  lasted  about  ten  years.  It  does 
not  seem  that  the  colonies  in  America  should  have 
quarrelled  on  account  of  the  renewal  of  hostilities 
on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic :  but  the  old 
feeling  of  rivalry,  which  had  scarcely  been  allowed 
to  slumber,  was  easily  aroused.  Queen  Anne  was 
the  sovereign  of  England  at  this  time,  and  the  war, 
which  was  carried  on  throughout  the  greater  part  of 
her  reign,  was  known  in  America  as  "  Queen  Anne's 
War."  The  war  between  the  colonies  consisted  chiefly 
of  raids  made  by  small  parties  on  border  settlements, 
and  of  privateering  on  the  coasts  of  New  England 
and  Acadic.  For  some  time  the  Inxjuois  remained 
neutral,  taking  side  with  neither  English  nor  French. 


QUEEN  ANNE'S  WAR.  101 

The  kind  of  warfare  practised  during  this  conflict 
was  most  barbarous,  and  was  wholly  un- 

......       ,  .  Deerfield. 

worthy  ot  civilised  nations.  One  or  two 
examples  will  show  its  character.  In  midwinter  a 
party  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  or  three  hundred 
French  and  Indians  came  suddenly  by  night  upon 
the  village  of  Deerfield,  in  Massachusetts.  The  car- 
nage went  on  until  about  fifty  persons  were  killed, 
over  one  hundred  were  taken  prisoners,  and  a  large 
part  of  the  village  was  laid  in  ashes.  Many  of  the 
prisoners  were  afterwards  ransomed  by  their  friends, 
some  were  got  back  in  exchange  for  French  prisoners 
held  by  the  English,  and  others  were  never  recovered. 
Among  the  captured  were  a  clergyman  and  his  family 
named  Williams.  The  husband  and  his  wife  were 
soon  separated  by  their  Indian  captors.  Mrs.  Williams 
was  not  able  for  the  long  tramp  through  the  deep 
snow.  Faltering  by  the  way,  she  was  struck  down 
by  a  blow  of  an  Indian  tomahawk,  and  her  lifeless 
body  was  left  where  it  fell.  Williams  and  his 
children  were  also  separated.  He  was  held  a  prisoner 
in  Canada  for  about  two  years,  when  he  was  given 
up  to  the  English  in  exchange  for  the  noted  sea 
rover  Captain  Baptiste.  Thirty-five  years  after  the 
capture,  one  of  Williams's  daughters,  now  the  wife 
of  an  Indian  chief,  visited  her  relatives  at  Deerfield. 
No  entreaty,  however,  could  induce  her  to  remain 
with  them,  but  after  a  few  days  she  returned  to  her 
wigwam  and  the  wild  life  which  she  had  adopted. 

It  was  not  easy  for  Massachusetts  to  punish  the 
real  offenders.     Between  her  borders  and 
the  Canadian  settlements  lay  vast  forests 
occupied  by  the  Indian  allies  of  Canada.     She  made 


102  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

reprisail,  however,  against  the  colony  of  Acadie  down 
by  the  sea,  which  she  could  reach  more  easily  and 
with  less  danger,  lien  Church,  the  famous  tighter 
of  Indians,  though  now  sixty-Hve  years  of  age,  was 
st.ill  full  of  Hre  and  fury.  With  a  force  of  over  seven 
hundred  militia  and  Indians,  lie  proceeded  along  the 
siiores  of  Acadie,  avenging,  in  what  measure  he  was 
able,  the  cruelties  of  Deertield  on  the  unoffending 
inhabitants  of  Passainaquoddy,  Minas,  and  Bcaubassin. 
He  burnt  their  dwellings  and  barns,  broke  down  their 
dikes  and  let  the  tide  in  upon  their  growing  crops, 
killed  their  cattle,  and  made  prisoners  of  such  inhabit- 
ants as  failed  to  escape  to  the  woods. 

The  fishermen  of  Massachusetts  in   vast  numbers 
invaded  the  coast  waters  of  Acadie.      Not 

Privateering.  .    .  ,  .  .    .       . 

content  with  a  share  of  the  rich  harvest 
which  these  waters  yielded  then  as  now,  they  made 
such  havoc  with  their  privateers  among  the  Acadian 
fishermen  that  they  nearly  drove  them  from  their 
own  grounds.  But  this  was  a  business  that  both 
sides  could  take  a  hand  in.  French  privateers,  too, 
were  generally  hovering  around  the  coast,  on  the  look- 
out for  merchant  vessels  of  Massachusetts,  pursuing 
them  sometimes  even  into  Boston  harlwur.  Amid 
all  this  strife,  however,  there  were  times  when  trade 
was  brisk  between  Boston  and  Port  Royal:  for  it  was 
found  that  an  exchange  of  English  goods  for  Acadian 
furs  was  advantageous  to  both  colonies. 

With  a  country  of  countless  resources  the  colonists 
Restrictions       °*    Canada    yet    looked    to    the    mother- 
country     for    food,    clothing,    and    many 
necessaries  of  life  which   they  could  easily  have  pro- 
vided for  themselves.     For  this  state  of  matters  the 


QUEEN  ANNE'S  WAR.  103 

blame  was  not  theirs.  In  order  to  provide  a  market 
for  home  products,  the  Government  of  France  would 
not  allow  the  colonists  to  carry  on  manufactures,  even 
forbidding  them  to  make  cloths  of  the  coarsest  kind. 
It  happened,  while  the  war  was  going  on,  that  a  fleet 
of  merchant  vessels,  carrying  supplies  to  Canada,  was 
captured  by  the  British.  This  left  the  colonists  with- 
out clothing  and  many  other  necessary  things.  It 
was  then  seen  that  Canada  should  make  these  goods 
for  herself.  Accordingly,  some  of  the  unwise  restric- 
tions were  removed  by  the  French  Government,  and 
the  colonists  began  the  manufacture  of  cloth  and 
many  other  needful  things.  They  also  gave  more 
attention  to  agriculture  and  were  able  to  export  grain 
to  other  countries. 

French  privateers  caused  great  loss  to  the  mer- 
chants of  Boston.  They  made  their  head-  March's  Expe- 
quarters  at  Port  Royal,  dashing  out  as  dition>  170?- 
occasion  offered  to  seize  English  trading  vessels. 
Massachusetts  determined  to  rid  herself  of  these 
plunderers  by  taking  from  them  their  place  of  refuge. 
Aided  by  the  other  New  England  colonies,  she  sent  a 
fleet  with  about  a  thousand  men,  under  Colonel  MarcL, 
for  the  capture  of  Port  Royal.  The  fort  in  the  old 
Acadian  capital  was  in  weak  condition  and  its  gar- 
rison was  small.  The  force  sent  against  it  should 
have  been  able  to  take  it  with  ease.  Indeed,  tl.e 
people  of  Boston  were  so  sure  of  victory,  that  they 
made  preparation  for  a  great  celebration.  But  the 
fort  was  under  the  command  of  an  able  and  experi- 
enced officer,  Subercase,  the  last  French  Governor  of 
Acadie.  On  the  other  hand,  the  English  officers  were 
very  incompetent,  and  the  men  were  not  well  dis- 


104  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

ciplinod.  The  exposition  failed  wholly,  and  March, 
ashamed  to  return  to  lloston,  sailed  into  Casco  Hay. 
The  Governor  of  Massachusetts  ordered  him  to  renew 
the  attack:  but  feeling  unequal  to  the  task,  he  gave 
up  his  command.  The  fleet  was  sent  back  under 
another  officer,  but  with  no  tatter  success. 

Startling  news  reached  Quebec  in  the  autumn  of 
17Ui>.      It  was  rumoured  that  the  English 

A  False  Alarm.  .  ' 

were  planning  the  conquest  ot  Canada. 
An  army  of  Hfteen  hundred  men  under  Colonel 
Nicholson,  the  Lieutenant-Governor  of  New  York, 
was  reported  to  be  near  Lake  Champlain,  ready  to 
advance  against  Montreal,  and  a  naval  force  was  to 
proceed  from  Boston  against  Quebec,  as  soon  as  ex- 
pected help  should  arrive  from  England.  Humours 
of  these  warlike  measures  caused  great  alarm  at 
Quebec.  At  the  command  of  the  Clovernor,  the 
Marquis  de  Vaudreuil,  the  men  in  the  neighbour- 
ing settlements  came  to  help  in  defence  of  the  city, 
while  their  women,  children,  and  cattle  were  sent 
to  a  safe  hiding-place  in  the  forest.  It  was  need- 
less alarm.  England,  requiring  all  her  forces  for 
the  war  in  Europe,  failed  to  send  the  aid  she  had 
promised,  and  as  the  colonies  did  not  feel  able  to 
go  on  alone,  they  abandoned  the  undertaking  for  the 
present. 

The   New    England    colonists   were    thoroughly   in 
earnest  in  the  matter  of  conquering  their 

Capture  of  .  _,  ,  ° 

Port  Royal,  r rcnch  noigmKwrs.  I  hey  resolved  on 
M  another  effort  to  take  Port  Royal.  With 
all  their  population  and  resources  they  should  not 
have  thought  this  a  very  serious  undertaking:  and 
yet  they  went  again  to  Queen  Anne  for  help.  At 


QUEEN  ANNE'S  WAR.  105 

the  same  time,  partly  for  effect  on  the  people  of 
Great  Britain,  and  partly  to  impress  the  Five  Nations 
with  a  due  sense  of  her  greatness,  five  Mohawk  chiefs 
were  sent  over  to  England.  The  chiefs  were  given  a 
grand  reception.  They  were  clad  in  fine  attire  and 
presented  to  the  Queen.  They  were  lodged  and 
feasted,  driven  about  London  in  coaches,  and  -waited 
on  by  liveried  servants — all  at  the  public  expense. 
The  final  outcome  was  a  plan  for  the  capture  of  Port 
Royal  and  promise  of  the  help  asked  for.  The  Queen 
took  great  interest  in  the  enterprise,  and  gave  money 
from  her  private  purse  for  the  fitting  out  of  four  New 
England  regiments.  Nicholson  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  expedition,  and  Colonel  Vetch, 
who  had  for  some  time  taken  an  active  part  in  colonial 
affairs,  was  second  in  command. 

It  was  midsummer  when  the  English  ships  for  the 
attack  on  Port  Royal  arrived  in  Boston,  and  it  was 
the  middle  of  September  when  the  equipments  were 
completed.  The  force,  comprising  about  two  thousand 
men  besides  the  sailors,  was  larger  than  the  occasion 
required.  The  fort  at  Port  Royal  was  greatly  out  of 
repair,  the  garrison  consisted  of  only  about  three 
hundred  and  fifty  men,  and  the  stock  of  provisions 
was  low.  Subercase,  the  Governor  of  Port  Royal, 
made  a  fair  show  of  resistance,  but  he  was  humane 
as  well  as  courageous.  Early  in  the  siege  he  sent  a 
messenger  with  a  letter  to  Nicholson,  asking  him  to 
take  under  his  protection  some  French  ladies  of  the 
fort,  who  were  alarmed  by  the  bursting  of  shells 
thrown  by  the  English.  Nicholson  sent  a  courteous 
reply,  stating  that  his  sovereign  had  not  sent  him  to 
nuilic  war  against  women,  and  offering  to  provide 


106  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

comfortable  quarters  for  the  ladies  whom  Subercase 
might  place  under  his  care. 

Subercase  soon  saw  that  resistance  would  be  un- 
availing, and  he  proposed  to  surrender  on  honourable 
conditions.  The  terms  of  surrender  were  soon  arranged. 
Two  lines  of  English  soldiers  were  placed  before  the 
gate  of  the  fort,  and  the  French  inarched  out  between 
the  ranks,  with  shouldered  arms,  drums  beating,  and 
colours  flying,  saluting  the  English  commander  as 
they  passed.  An  English  garrison  took  possession  of 
the  fort,  and  Colonel  Vetch,  who  had  been  appointed 
Governor  of  Nova  Scotia,  assumed  command.  Thus 
Port  Royal,  and  with  it  Xova  Scotia,  passed  finally 
into  the  hands  of  the  English,  its  name  being  changed 
to  Annapolis  Royal,  in  honour  of  its  new  sovereign. 
The  highest  courtesy  was  observed  by  l>oth  English 
and  French  commanders.  Nicholson  attended  care- 
fully to  the  comfort  of  those  whom  he  had  conquered, 
and  Subercase  complimented  the  English  command*  r 
on  his  bravery  and  kindness.  It  was  provided  that 
the  French  officers  and  soldiers  should  be  sent  to 
France  in  British  transports.  The  Acadians  living 
within  three  miles  of  the  fort  were  allowed,  on  taking 
the  oath  of  allegiance  to  Great  Britain,  to  remain  two 
years  on  their  lands;  those  living  outside  this  limit 
were  declared  prisoners  of  war.  All,  however,  were 
left  in  undisturbed  possession  of  their  property,  and 
in  the  full  enjoyment  of  the  freedom  and  the  privi- 
leges which  had  been  accorded  to  them  under  French 
rule. 

In  the  summer  following  the  capture  of  Port  Royal, 
the  war  cloud  again  appeared  above  the  horizon  of 
Canada.  Through  the  influence  of  the  colonies,  Great, 


QUEEN  ANNE'S  WAR.  107 

Britain  resolved  on  the  conquest  of  the  whole  country, 
and  made  preparations  which  seemed  fully 

,  .  .  .  T*    •    •   i       Canada 

equal  to  the  object  m  view.  A  British  threatened 
fleet  under  Sir  Hovenden  Walker,  and  a 
land  force  of  seven  veteran  British  regiments  under 
General  Hill,  arrived  in  Boston,  where  the  force  was 
increased  by  the  addition  of  fifteen  hundred  colonists 
under  the  command  of  Colonel  Vetch,  the  Governor 
of  Nova  Scotia.  Thus  there  set  out  for  Quebec  nine 
warships  and  about  sixty  transports,  carrying  about 
twelve  thousand  men,  including  sailors.  At  the  same 
time  a  land  force  of  about  two  thousand  men,  colonists 
and  Indians,  under  Colonel  Nicholson,  was  proceeding 
against  Montreal  by  way  of  Lake  Champlain.  Vau- 
dreuil,  the  Governor  of  Canada,  was  informed  of  the 
movements  of  the  English,  and  he  made  what  pre- 
paration he  was  able  to  receive  them.  The  expedition 
looked  formidable,  and  might  well  excite  alarm.  In 
number  it  was  equal  to  nearly  one-half  the  entire 
population  of  Canada.  It  had,  however,  an  element 
of  weakness  wrhich  brought  dire  disaster  on  its  pro- 
moters. State  affairs  in  England  were  at  this  time 
seriously  mismanaged.  The  sovereign  then  had  much 
more  control  over  public  matters  than  at  the  present 
time,  and  Queen  Anne,  who  was  rather  weak-minded, 
was  much  influenced  by  favourites  of  her  own  sex. 
Hence  it  came  about  that  men  were  appointed  to 
important  positions  because  they  were  the  friends  of 
the  Queen's  favourites,  rather  than  on  account  of  their 
fitness  for  office.  Walker  and  Hill  were  wholly  in- 
competent for  the  command  entrusted  to  them. 

The    fleet,   having    no    pilot   to   guide    it    up    the 
St.  Lawrence,  ran  out  of  its  course  in  a  dense  fog, 


108  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

and  several  of  the  trausjxirts  were  wrecked  on  the 
reefs  of  the  Egg  Islands.  Nearly  a  thousand  men, 
soldiers  and  sailors,  were  drowned.  Hill  and  Walker 
were  completely  unnerved  by  the  disaster,  and  could 
see  nothing  but  destruction  in  any  further  attempt 
to  reach  Quebec.  A  council  of  war  was  called,  and, 
though  no  warship  had  been  lost,  and  the  number  of 
men  left  exceeded  the  whole  population  of  Quebec, 
it  was  decided  to  abandon  the  enterprise.  Thus 
ingloriously  ended  this  attempt  to  conquer  Canada. 

The  long  war  between  Great  Britain  and  France 
The  Treaty  of  was  brought  to  a  close  by  a  treaty  signed 
Utrecht,  .713.  at  Ttrecht,  a  small  town  in  Holland. 
The  treaty  provided  that  Nova  Scotia,  Newfoundland, 
and  Hudson  Bay  Territory  should  belong  to  Great 
Britain.  France  still  retained  possession  of  Canada, 
Cape  Breton,  then  called  Isle  Royal,  and  St.  John's 
Island.  Louis  XIV.  gave  up  Nova  Scotia  very 
unwillingly.  He  oftered  in  exchange  for  it  two  or 
three  islands  in  the  West  Indies,  and  in  addition  he 
oven  proposed  to  give  up  the  fishing  privileges  in 
Newfoundland  waters,  which  Frenchmen  had  enjoyed 
for  two  hundred  years.  But  Great  Britain  was  deter- 
mined to  keep  Nova  Scotia. 


CHAPTER  XL 

THE   STRUGGLE   CONTINUED 

AFTER  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  for  over  thirty  years 
Canada  had  peace.  Even  the  Iroquois,  Peace  ^ 
who  since  the  time  of  Champlain  had  Pro*ress- 
been  the  scourge  of  the  country,  now  gave  little 
trouble.  Vaudreuil  was  Governor  of  the  colony 
until  his  death  in  1725,  when  he  was  succeeded  by 
the  Marquis  de  Beauharnois,  who  held  the  office  for 
over  twenty  years.  During  this  period  the  country 
made  much  progress  in  many  ways.  Agriculture, 
trade,  shipbuilding,  and  domestic  manufactures  ad- 
vanced greatly.  Attention  was  also  given  to  the 
construction  of  public  roads,  so  that  in  1734  wheeled 
vehicles  passed  from  Quebec  to  Montreal.  Among 
the  important  industries  established  should  also  be 
mentioned  the  ironworks  at  Three  Rivers.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  were  lacking  some  things  which,  at 
the  present  day,  are  thought  necessary  to  the  well- 
being  of  a  country.  Education  of  the  common  people 
was  neglected ;  there  was  no  printing-press  in  all  the 
land;  and  the  people  had  no  voice  in  the  government. 
The  seigniorage  system  of  holding  land  was  also 
unfavourable  to  the  highest  progress. 

During  this   period  the  population   of  Canada  in- 
creased to  forty  or  fifty  thousand.     The  chief  settle- 


110  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

incuts  wore  on  I  lie  hunks  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  here 
and  there  along  the  river,  from  below  Quebec  to 
Montreal.  The  principal  places  in  the  West  were 
Forts  Frontenac,  Niagara,  Detroit,  and  Mackinaw. 
Ambitions  of  extending  their  power  over  the  whole 
continent,  the  French  were  at  this  time  forming  a 
colony  in  the  vast  country  then  called  Louisiana,  in 
the  Mississippi  Valley.  Adventurers  were  also  ex- 
ploring the  country  between  the  Mississippi  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  with  the  hope  of  finding  an  over- 
land route  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Among  the  more 
noted  explorers  were  the  Verendryes,  father  and  sons, 
who  made  their  way  north  of  the  watershed  which 
divides  the  great  central  plain  of  North  America, 
proceeding  as  far  as  the  Forks  of  the  Saskatchewan, 
and  establishing  trading  posts  in  the  territory  now 
included  in  Manitoba  and  the  North-West. 

Although  there  was  at  this  time  no  open  war 
Rivalry  between  the  French  and  English  colonies, 

F^cfiVnd6  they  did  not  regard  each  other  with  very 
English.  friendly  feeling.  There  was  still  keen 

rivalry  between  them  in  the  fur  trade.  The  English 
of  New  York  established  a  trading  house  and  fort  at 
Oswego,  on  Lake  Ontario.  The  French  erected  forts 
at  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point,  on  Lake  Champlain, 
to  protect  themselves  from  invasion  by  the  English 
along  that  route.  Meanwhile,  also,  the  Indian  allies 
of  the  French  on  the  south,  known  as  the  Abenaquis, 
continued  their  attacks  on  the  outlying  settlements  of 
New  Kngland. 

French  Canada  was  an  inland  country,  and  the 
St.  Lawrence,  its  grand  highway  to  the  ocean,  was 
blocked  with  ice  several  months  in  the  year.  On  this 


THE   STRUGGLE    CONTINUED.  Ill 

account  especially,  the  King  of  France  had  desired 
to  regain  possession  of  Nova  Scotia,  and,  Louisburg 
failing  in  this,  he  now  set  high  value  on  founded- 
Cape  Breton,  or  Isle  Royal  as  it  Avas  then  called. 
English  Harbour,  on  the  south-east  coast  of  the 
island,  was  chosen  for  a  naval  station,  and  the  name 
of  the  place  was  changed  to  Louisburg,  in  honour  of 
the  reigning  sovereign.  To  this  place  came  many  of 
the  French  colonists  of  Newfoundland,  as  that  island 
had  now  fallen  to  the  English.  Some  of  the  Acadian^, 
also,  removed  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Louisburg ;  but 
most  of  them  did  not  care  to  leave  their  fertile 
marshes,  and,  by  hard  toil,  make  for  themselves  a 
new  home  among  the  forests  of  Cape  Breton.  Louis- 
burg was  built  on  a  tongue  of  land  between  the 
harbour  on  the  east  and  Gabarus  Bay  on  the  west. 
The  French  Government  spent  over  $7,000,000  on  its 
fortifications,  so  that  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  it 
became,  next  to  Quebec,  the  most  strongly  fortified 
town  in  America.  It  was  protected  on  the  land  side 
by  stone  walls  thirty  feet  high,  on  the  top  of  which 
were  parapets  or  towers.  Outside  the  wall  was  a  deep 
raoat  or  ditch  eighty  feet  wide.  Seaward  the  town 
was  guarded  by  a  fortified  rocky  islet  called  Battery 
Island.  So  strongly  fortified  was  Louisburg,  built  to 
guard  the  approaches  to  Canada,  that  it  was  calltd 
the  Dunkirk  of  America.  It  was  the  chief  American 
naval  station  of  France,  and  the  headquarters  of  her 
fishermen  that  thronged  American  coasts. 

Meanwhile  affairs  in  Nova  Scotia  were  not  in  a  very 
satisfactory  state.     Great  Britain  claimed 
it  as  hers,  and  yet  she  did  little  to  promote 
its  welfare  or  to  show  that  she  thought  it  of  any  value. 


112  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

With  the  exception  of  a  small  fishing  settlement  at 
Canso  and  a  few  families  at  Annajxdis,  there  were  no 
English  people  in  the  country,  and  for  some  years 
there  seemed  little  indication  that  any  were  intending 
t>  make  it  their  home.  The  garrison  at  Annapolis 
was  very  small,  the  fort  was  much  broken  down,  and 
supplies  were  scanty.  Governor  Vetch  asked  aid  from 
Great  Britain,  but  his  application  received  little  atten- 
tion. Such  neglect  of  the  country  on  the  part  of  its 
new  owners  led  the  French  to  believe  that  Acadie 
would  soon  be  restored  to  her  former  sovereign. 

The  Acadiaus  showed  much  judgment  in  choosing 
Acadian  their  lauds  in  Nova  Scotia.  Their  chief 

Settlements.  settlements  were  in  the  most  fertile  parts 
of  the  country,  along  the  Annapolis  Valley,  at  C'anard, 
Minas,  Grand  Piv,  Pi/iquid  (Windsor),  Cobequid 
(Truro),  and  Beaubassiu,  at  the  head  of  Cumberland 
Basin.  In  these  districts  they  cultivated  the  rich 
marshes  which  they  had,  by  strong  dikes,  reclaimed 
from  the  sea,  Their  wealth  consisted  in  cattle,  horses, 
sheep,  and  swine. 

Great  Britain  w»is  disposed  to  treat  the  Acadians 
in  a  liberal  manner.  According  to  the 

The  Acadians. 

terms  agreed  on  when  Nova  Scotia  was 
ceded  to  her,  the  Acadians  could  have  been  expelled 
from  the  country,  but  Queen  Anne  gave  orders  that 
they  should  be  treated  in  all  respects  as  British  sub- 
jects. If  they  had  been  left  alone  there  would  have 
been  little  trouble.  At  first  those  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Annapolis  seemed  disposed  to  submit  cheer- 
fully to  the  new  order  of  things.  Soon,  however,  the 
French  authorities  at  Quebec  and  Louisburg  sent 
agents  among  them  to  dissuade  them  from  becoming 


THE   STRUGGLE   CONTINUED.  113 

British  subjects.  A  few  of  the  Acadians  then  removed 
to  Cape  Breton,  and  some  went  to  Prince  Edward 
Island,  which,  under  the  name  of  St.  John's  Island, 
still  belonged  to  France.  But  as  they  were  unable  to 
sell  their  lands,  and  they  had  no  means  for  moving 
their  personal  property,  most  of  them  still  'remained 
in  the  country.  Thus,  while  the  Acadians  continued 
to  occupy  their  lands  in  Nova  Scotia,  they  refused  to 
become  British  subjects.  They  said  that  in  case  of 
war  between  France  and  Great  Britain,  they  would 
join  neither  side,  they  would  be  neutrals.  Many  of 
them,  no  doubt,  honestly  and  faithfully  kept  their 
pledge  of  neutrality ;  but  their  refusal  to  take  the 
oath  of  allegiance  caused  them  to  be  regarded  with 
suspicion.  Moreover,  the  Indians  in  Nova  Scotia,  who 
were  still  openly  hostile,  were  believed  to  be  under  the 
influence  of  the  French,  and  to  receive  encouragement 
from  them  in  their  attacks  on  the  English. 

For  nearly  half  a  century  after  Nova  Scotia  came 
under  British  rule  the  government  of  the 

,    .        '     „  ,          Government. 

country  was  vested  in  a  Governor  and  a 
Council  of  twelve  members  appointed  by  the  Gover- 
nor. As  already  stated,  Colonel  Vetch  was  the  first 
English  Governor.  He  was  succeeded  by  Colonel 
Nicholson.  In  1717  Colonel  Phillips  became  Gover- 
nor. He  held  the  office  for  thirty-two  years,  though 
during  the  greater  part  of  this  time  he  resided  in 
England,  the  duties  of  his  office  being  discharged  by 
a  Lieutenant-Go vernor.  The  most  noted  of  the  Lieu- 
tenant-Governors was  Paul  Mascarene,  a  French  Pro- 
testant, whose  family  had  been  driven  from  France  by 
religious  persecution. 

The  question  as  to  who  should  rule  over  Austria 

H 


114  TFIK    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

now  brought  on  another  war  between  Great  Britain 
and  France.  The  colonies  in  America 
probably  cared  very  little  about  this 
matter ;  but  the  old  feeling  of  hatred  had  only  been 
.slumbering,  and  needed  but  slight  cause  to  awaken  it 
to  now  life.  Diujuesnel,  the  Governor  of  Louisburg, 
heard  of  the  war  in  Kurope  before  the  news  reached 
his  English  neighlxmrs,  and  he  resolved  to  take  them 
by  surprise.  He  at  once  sent  a  force  under  Duvivier 
against  the  fishing  settlement  of  Causo,  at  the  east 
of  Nova  Scotia.  Having  captured  the  block-house 
and  burned  all  the  dwellings  at  this  place,  Duvivier 
sent  the  garrison  to  Louisburg.  He  then  sailed  to 
Bay  Verte  and  inarched  overlapd  to  Annapolis,  taking 
this  route  probably  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  recruits 
from  the  Acadians.  The  Acadians,  however,  were 
faithful  to  their  pledge  of  neutrality,  and  gave  Duvi- 
vier little  assistance.  At  Annapolis  Duvivier  was 
joined  by  about  three  hundred  Indians  who  had  for 
some  time  been  hovering  about  the  place.  As  the  fort 
was  weak  and  the  garrison  small,  Mascarene,  who  was 
in  command,  could  not  have  withstood  a  vigorous 
siege.  But  Duvivier  had  no  artillery,  and  his  mode 
of  warfare  consisted  of  skirmishing  and  night  attacks 
on  the  garrison.  Failing  to  make  any  impression  on 
the  fort,  he  had  recourse  to  stratagem.  He  informed 
Mascarene  that  he  was  expecting  strong  reinforcement 
from  Louisburg,  and  that  surrender  before  the  arrival 
of  this  force  would  secure  more  favourable  terms.  The 
officers  of  the  garrison  were  disposed  to  yield,  but  Mas- 
carene remained  firm,  determined  to  hold  his  ground 
until  compelled  to  submit  to  superior  force.  Finally 
Duvivier  withdrew  ami  ni:irolKd  back  to  Minas. 


THE    STRUGGLE    CONTINUED.  115 

As  a  place  of  refuge  to  privateers,  Louisburg  had 
become  a  source  of  much  annoyance  and 
damage  to  New  England.  It  was  thus  Louisburg, 
regarded  with  no  very  friendly  feeling  by 
the  English  colonies.  The  recent  attack  upon  Nova 
Scotia  caused  great  irritation,  especially  in  Massa- 
chusetts. Shirley,  the  Governor  of  this  colony, 
convened  the  Legislature,  and  having  bound  the 
members  to  secrecy  by  a  solemn  oath,  proposed  a 
scheme  for  the  capture  of  Louisburg.  It  is  said  that 
one  of  the  members,  at  his  private  devotions,  praying 
for  guidance  in  giving  his  vote  on  the  question,  spoke 
so  loud  that  he  was  overheard  in  an  adjoining  room. 
Either  in  this  way  or  by  some  other  means  the 
scheme  was  soon  made  public.  After  much  hesita- 
tion it  was  decided  to  enter  upon  the  bold  under- 
taking, and  the  other  colonies  were  invited  to  join  in 
the  expedition.  Four  thousand  volunteers,  untaught 
in  the  art  of  war,  but  full  of  enterprise  and  daring, 
were  enrolled  in  the  different  colonies,  Massachusetts 
taking  the  lead.  The  command  was  given  to  William 
Pepperell,  a  colonel  in  the  militia. 

Early  in  April  the  fleet  arrived  at  Canso.  Gabarus 
Bay  was  full  of  ice,  and  Pepperell  had  to  wait  three 
weeks  before  he  could  approach  Louisburg.  In  the 
meantime  his  force  was  strengthened  by  Commodore 
Warren  of  the  British  navy,  who  arrived  with  a  small 
fleet  from  the  West  Indies.  The  siege  was  carried 
on  with  much  vigour  from  both  sea  and  land  while 
the  defence  was  maintained  with  equal  spirit  Mean- 
while a  warship  from  France,  bringing  recruits  and 
supplies,  was  captured  by  the  English.  At  the  end  of 
seven  weeks  Duchambon,  the  Governor  of  Louisburg, 


116  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

hung  «>ut  the  white  flag.  Next  day  terms  were  agreed 
on.  Tin.1  French  garrison  marched  out  with  colours 
Hying,  and  Pepperell  took  possession  of  the  fort.  The 
French  soldiers  aud  such  of  the  citizens  as  desired  it, 
about  four  thousand  in  all,  were  sent  to  France  in 
British  ships.  For  several  days  the  French  Hag  was 
kept  Hying  at  Louisburg  for  the  purpose  of  decoying 
French  merchant  ships.  Three  ships  of  great  value, 
thus  deceived,  sailed  into  the  harbour  and  were 
captured  by  the  English. 

The  news  of  the  fall  of  Louisburg  caused  great 
rejoicing  in  Boston  and  in  London.  Colonel  Peppcrell 
was  rewarded  with  the  honour  of  knighthood,  aud 
Warren  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  admiral.  But  all 
did  not  go  well  with  the  captors  of  Louisburg.  The 
men  of  New  England  had  conquered  the  French  ;  but 
there  remained  a  foe  before  which  many  of  them  fell. 
Among  the  supplies  which  came  into  their  hands  was 
a  quantity  of  rum.  Every  day  scores  of  drunken 
men  staggered  through  the  streets.  Unbridled  appe- 
tite was  followed  by  deadly  fever,  and  before  spring 
twelve  hundred  of  Pepperell's  men  tilled  graves  in  the 
conquered  soil. 

The  Frencli  felt  much  chagrin  over  the  loss  of 
Louisburg,  and  they  took  immediate  stem 

DAnville's  ^ 

Expedition,  to     gCt     it     back.          1  llC)'    resolved     also     to 

inHict  severe  punishment  on  New  England. 
A  powerful  fleet  was  sent  out  from  Rochelle,  under 
the  command  of  Due  d'Anville.  It  was  the  grandest 
force  that  had  ever  crossed  the  Atlantic.  With  dis- 
may the  citizens  of  Boston  heard  of  the  preparations 
which  had  been  made  to  invade  their  land  and  lay 
their  homes  in  ruins.  By  fasting  and  prayer  they 


THE    STRUGGLE    CONTINUED.  117 

sought  the  interposition  of  Heaven  to  save  them  from 
threatened  destruction.  Never  was  expedition  more 
fruitless  or  ill-fated  than  that  of  D'Anville.  Not 
a  single  victory  did  it  gain;  it  did  not  even  meet 
the  foe  it  came  to  destroy.  Disaster  followed  disaster, 
until  there  were  left  only  scattered  fragments  of  the 
once  proud  fleet.  Two  of  D'Anville's  ships  were  taken 
by  the  English  while  yet  on  the  coast  of  France ; 
some  were  cast  away  on  Sable  Island :  others  were 
driven  by  storms  far  off  their  course  and  never 
reached  the  place  for  which  they  sailed.  After  a 
three  months'  voyage  D'Anville  arrived  at  Chebucto 
Harbour  with  a  helpless  remnant  of  his  great  force. 
Disease  had  broken  out  during  his  long  voyage,  carry- 
ing oft'  many  of  his  men ;  others  were  ill  and  dying. 
His  misfortunes  weighed  heavily  on  his  spirits  and  he 
died  suddenly.  D'Estournel,  the  next  in  command, 
arrived  on  the  day  of  D'Anville's  death.  Disheartened, 
he  urged  the  abandonment  of  the  undertaking  and 
immediate  return  to  France ;  but  his  advice  was  over- 
ruled by  the  other  officers.  Then  he  fell  ill,  and  in 
the  delirium  of  fever  killed  himself  with  his  sword. 
La  Jonquiere,  who  had  recently  been  appointed 
Governor  of  Canada,  and  was  then  on  his  way  to 
Quebec,  now  took  command.  It  seemed  useless  to 
attack  Louisburg,  but  La  Jonquiere  thought  his  force 
was  sufficient  for  the  capture  of  Annapolis.  For  this 
place  accordingly  he  set  sail ;  but  off  Cape  Sable, 
where  many  a  vessel  has  since  been  cast  away,  a 
violent  storm  so  shattered  the  fleet  that  the  last  hope 
was  abandoned.  It  was  now  resolved  to  return  to 
France. 

In    the    following    year    France   sent  out    another 


118  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

strong  force  for  the  recovery  of  her  lost  possessions 
in  America.  Hut  while  yet  on  the  coast  of  Europe 
this  force  was  intercepted  by  a  British  fleet,  many 
of  the  French  ships  were  captured,  and  the  expedition 
was  completely  broken  up.  Among  the  prisoner? 
taken  by  the  English  was  Jonquiere,  the  (rovernor  of 
Canada. 

Meanwhile  a  force  of  about  seven  hundred,  under 
Ramesay,  had  been  sent  from  Quebec  for 

Forces  from  ,  .  .   ,    .  ...    , 

Suebec  and       the  purpose  ot  co-operating  with  I  >  An vi lie  s 
oston.  .  -, 

neet.  Kamesay  landed  at  Bay  V  erte,  and 
marched  overland  by  way  of  Cobequid  and  Grand  Pro 
to  Annapolis.  Having  waited  in  vain  for  the  fleet,  he 
attempted  to  take  the  fort :  but  failing  in  this,  he 
marched  back  to  Beaubassin,  where  he  resolved  to 
spend  the  winter.  Mascarene,  who  was  then  in 
command  at  Annapolis,  fearing  another  attack,  applied 
to  Governor  Shirley  of  Massachusetts  tor  assistance. 
Five  hundred  men,  under  Colonel  Noble,  were  im- 
mediately sent  from  Boston.  Their  orders  were  to 
sail  up  the  Bay  of  Fundy  and  post  themselves  at 
Grand  Pr/-  for  the  purpose  of  intercepting  Ramesay 
in  case  he  should  return.  Before  they  reached  Nova 
Scotia  winter  set  in,  and  on  account  of  the  ice  they 
were  unable  to  enter  Minas  Basin.  They  accordingly 
landed  on  the  shore,  far  down  the  Bay  of  Fundy, 
and  marched  overland  to  Grand  Piv.  They  were 
quartered  in  private  houses,  a  few  in  a  place,  among 
the  Acadians  of  the  settlement.  Here  they  were 
remaining  in  the  utmost  security,  little  suspecting 
the  approach  of  an  enemy  in  the  severe  winter 
months. 

Ramesay  heard  of  the   arrival  of  Colonel   Noble, 


THE    STRUGGLE    CONTINUED. 


119 


and  resolved  to  take  him  by  surprise.     Soon,  under  the 
leadership  of  Coulon  de  Villiers,  six  hun- 

-_.'•  ...  .  ..      The  Massacre 

dred  1  rench  and  Indians,  fitted  out  with  at  Grand  Pre, 
snow-shoes  and  hand-sleds,  were  on  the 
move  for  Grand  Pre.  The  march  occupied  seventeen 
days.  On  approaching  Grand  Pre,  Coulon  divided  his 
men  into  small  companies  for  the  purpose  of  attack- 
ing, at  the  same  moment,  the  various  houses  where 


MAGAZINE  AT  ANNAPOLIS. 


the  English  were  lodged.  Then,  under  cover  of  night 
and  a  blinding  snowstorm,  the  French,  led  by  Acadian 
guides,  crept  stealthily  upon  the  foe.  Killing  the 
sentinels,  they  rushed  into  the  houses  where  the 
English,  all  unconscious  of  danger,  were  sleeping. 
Some  were  slain  in  their  beds;  others,  and  among 
them  Colonel  Noble,  fell  fighting  in  their  night- 
clothes.  At  daybreak  the  French  wer,e  masters  of 


120  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

the  place,  and  the  carnage  ceased.  On  the  morrow 
the  English  buried  their  dead,  about  eighty  in 
number,  in  one  grave.  Then,  with  six  days'  pro- 
visions on  their  backs,  they  marched  oft'  sadly  fjr 
Annapolis,  leaving  behind  over  fifty  of  their  comrades 
as  prisoners  of  war. 

Ramesay,  much   elated  over  the  victory  at  Grand 
Pre,  sent  circular  letters  to  the  Acadians, 

The  Acadians  .  . 

between  announcing  that,  as  Nova  Scotia  had  been 

Two  Fires.  ,   ,         ,        „  ,        , 

reconquered  by  the  trench,  they  were  free 
from  all  allegiance  to  Great  Britain,  and  commanding 
them  under  severe  penalties  to  remain  faithful  to 
France.  On  the  other  hand  the  English  showed 
little  disposition  to  abandon  the  country.  Governor 
Shirley  of  Massachusetts  lost  little  time  in  sen. ling 
another  force  to  Grand  Pre  to  take  the  place  of  tl.o.sc 
who  had  been  driven  out.  The  government  of  that 
colony,  also,  was  already  urging  upon  the  British 
Ministry  the  propriety  of  expelling  the  Acadian*  from 
the  country  as  rebels  against  King  George.  The.se 
unfortunate  people,  thus  threatened  by  dangers  on 
either  hand,  were  much  perplexed  as  to  what  measures 
of  safety  they  could  adopt,  and  their  difficulty  was  all 
the  greater  from  the  fact  that  neither  power  offered 
them  any  protection  against  the  other. 

For  three   years,   while   the  war  was  going  on   in 
Europe,  Great  Britain   held  the  island  of 

Treaty  of  Aix-  ,  ,  ,  .          ,  , 

u-chapeiie.       (  ape   Breton :   but  her  ownership  snowed 

1748. 

itself  in  little  else  than  in  the  military 
occupation  of  Louisburg.  She  did  nothing  in  the 
way  of  colonising  the  island  or  in  improving  its 
condition.  Both  Great  Britain  and  France  were  now 
tired  of  fighting,  and,  by  a  treaty  signed  at  Aix-la- 


THE   STRUGGLE   CONTINUED.  121 

Chapelle,  each  nation  agreed  to  restore  its  conquests, 
leaving  the  ownership  of  places  as  it  was  before  the 
war.  Thus,  to  the  great  annoyance  of  Massachusetts, 
Cape  Breton  was  given  back  to  France.  To  pacify 
the  offended  colony  Great  Britain  refunded  the  money 
which  had  been  expended  in  the  capture  of  Louisburg. 
The  restoration  of  Cape  Breton  was  regarded  by  many 
in  England  as  a  national  dishonour,  and  especially  so 
from  the  fact  that  two  English  noblemen  Avere  sent 
to  the  French  Court  as  security  for  the  fulfilment  of 
the  bargain. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

THK    SETTLEMENT    OF    HALIFAX. 

THREE  years  have  passed  away  since  D'Anville's 
A  New  Scene  shattered  Heet  lay  moored  in  Chebncto 
atChebucto.  Harbour,  and  liis  soldiers  who  had  escaped 
the  perils  of  the  sea  lay  dying  on  its  shores.  And 
now  ships  are  again  arriving  from  beyond  the  eastern 
waters,  and  joyously  the  strangers  whom  they  have 
borne  hither  are  taking  possession  of  the  land.  These 
are  not  French  soldiers  sent  for  the  capture  of  forts 
and  the  destruction  of  human  life,  but  English 
colonists — men,  women,  and  children — come  to  make 
homes  for  themselves  in  the  forest  country. 

The  British  Government  had  now  begun  to  see 
that  the  true  policy  for  strengthening  its  power  in 
Nova  Scotia  consisted  in  settling  the  country  with 
English  people.  Accordingly,  as  a  first  step  in  this 
direction,  measures  were  taken  to  establish  a  fortified 
town  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  The  Government  adver- 
tised for  colonists,  ottering  free  passage,  free  grants  of 
land,  a  year's  provisions,  and  various  other  things 
needful  to  new  settlers.  Two  hundred  thousand 
dollars  were  voted  from  the  public  funds  to  meet 
expenses.  Those  who  responded  to  the  invitation  of 
the  Government  included  many  officer;  and  private 
men,  discharged  from  the  army  and  navy  at  the  close 


THE    SETTLEMESfT    OF    HALIFAX.  123 

of  the  late  war;  there  were  also  farmers,  mechanics, 
and  merchants.  Counting  women  and  children,  they 
numbered  in  all  two  thousand  h've  hundred  and 
seventy-six.  The  Hon.  Edward  Cornwallis  was  ap- 
pointed Governor  of  Nova  Scotia.  The  colony  was 
promised  a  representative  legislature  as  soon  as  it 
had  grown  populous  enough  to  elect  its  members ; 
in  the  meantime  the  civil  government  was  placed  in 
the  hands  of  the  Governor  and  a  Council  of  twelve 
members  to  be  appointed  by  the  Governor. 

Colonel  Cornwallis  arrived  in  Chebucto  Harbour 
on  the  21st  of  June  1749,  and  he  was  Mafeinga 
followed  within  a  few  days  by  transports  Hcme- 
bearing  the  colonists.  The  hillside  on  the  west  of 
the  harbour  was  selected  as  the  site  of  the  new  city, 
which  was  named  in  honour  of  the  Earl  of  Halifax, 
the  President  of  the  Lords  of  Trade  and  Plantations. 
Soon  after  his  arrival  the  Governor  choj:e  his  Council, 
a  leading  member  of  which  was  Paul  Mascarene,  who 
for  many  years  had  held  the  office  of  Lieutenant- 
Governor  at  Annapolis.  And  now,  through  the  summer 
and  autumn,  Halifax  presented  a  busy  scene.  The 
forests,  which  grew  to  the  water's  edge,  were  cleared 
away,  and  dwellings  were  erected.  A  few  frame 
houses  were  built  of  material  brought  from  Boston ; 
but  most  of  the  dwellings  were  rude  cabins,  formed 
of  upright  poles  stuck  in  the  ground  and  roofed  over 
with  the  bark  of  trees.  On  the  summit  of  the  hill, 
now  called  Citadel  Hill,  a  square  fort  was  built.  Two 
rows  of  palisades,  constructed  of  trunks  of  trees,  as  a 
defence  against  the  Indians,  extended  from  the  fort 
to  the  water. 

According  to  some  authorities  there  were  at  this 


124  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

time  between    12,000   and    13,000  Acadians  in  Nova 
Scotia.     Their  chief  settlements  were  at 

The  Acadian*.  , 

Annapolis,  Canard,  drain!  Ire,  Minos, 
Piziquid  (Windsor),  Coin-quid  (Trnro),  Beaubassin, 
Chiguecto,  Bay  Verte,  Shc]>ody,  and  on  the  St.  John 
Hiver.  Shortly  after  his  arrival  Cornwallis  addressed 
to  them  a  proclamation,  reminding  them  of  the  privi- 
leges which  they  enjoyed  under  British  protection, 
charging  them  with  disloyally  aiding  the  King's 
enemies,  and  ottering  to  condone  all  past  otfence  if 
they  would  now  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  and 
become  faithful  subjects  of  King  George.  Delegates 
from  some  of  the  Acadian  districts  were  sent  to 
Halifax  to  explain  their  |x>sition  and  make  inquiries 
as  to  the  intentions  of  the  Government.  They  re- 
ported that  their  people  would  refrain  from  all  hos- 
tility against  Great  Britain,  but  that  they  would  not 
take  an  oath  which  would  bind  them  to  tight  against 
France.  They  asserted  that  such  allegiance  would 
subject  them  to  outrage  from  the  Indians,  who  were 
opposed  to  the  occupation  of  the  country  by  the 
English.  They  asked  if  the  Acadians  would  l>e  allowed 
to  sell  their  lands  and  other  property  in  case  they 
removed  from  the  country.  Cornwallis  assured  them 
that  he  could  accept  no  conditional  or  half-way 
allegiance,  and  he  pointed  out  to  them  that  it  was 
not  the  oath  of  allegiance  which  made  them  British 
subjects.  Many  of  the  Acadians  were  bora  in  the 
laud,  others  had  enjoyed  the  protection  of  the  British 
Government  for  over  thirty  years,  by  virtue  of  which 
they  were  already  bound  under  the  strongest  obliga- 
tions of  loyalty.  Cornwallis  told  the  delegates  that 
the  desire  of  the  Acadians  to  leave  the  province  gave 


THE    SETTLEMENT    OF    HALIFAX.  125 

him  great  pain.  He  did  not  wish  to  interfere,  with 
their  freedom  ;  a  forced  service  was  worth  nothing, 
and  a  subject  compelled  to  be  so  against  his  will  was 
not  far  from  being  an  enemy.  They  and  their  fathers 
had  cultivated  their  lands,  and  they  had  a  right  to 
enjoy  the  fruits  of  their  labours.  This  was  the  King's 
desire.  Everything  had  been  done  to  secure  to  them 
the  occupation  and  ownership  of  their  lands  for  ever, 
and  every  assurance  had  been  given  them  of  free  and 
full  exercise  of  their  religion.  But  he  assured  them  that 
according  to  British  law  nobody  could  possess  houses 
or  lands  in  the  province  who  would  refuse  to  take 
the  oath  of  allegiance  when  required  to  do  so.  Then 
he  told  them  that  they  themselves  knew  that  there 
were  ill-disposed  and  mischievous  persons  among  them 
who,  regardless  of  their  best  interests,  were  corrupt- 
ing their  minds.  The  course  they  were  pursuing  was 
the  result  of  bad  advice  which  through  their  inexperi- 
ence they  were  unable  rightly  to  estimate.  He  told 
them  that  he  could  not  at  that  time  give  them  per- 
mission to  leave  the  province,  because  so  soon  as  they 
crossed  the  frontier  they  would  be  compelled  by  the 
French  and  Indians  to  take  up  arms  against  the 
English.  But  whenever  this  danger  was  removed  by 
the  restoration  of  peace  and  order,  he  would  allow 
them  full  freedom  to  go  where  they  pleased.  The 
delegates  went  back  to  their  people  for  fresh  instruc- 
tions, and  returned  several  times,  but  no  agreement 
was  arrived  at. 

The  Indians  were  very  hostile  to  the  new  colony, 
and  kept  it  in  constant  alarm.     They  were. 
ever  lurking  in  the  woods  on  the  borders  <1 
of  the  settlements,  ready  to  kill  and  scalp,  or  to  carry  off 


126  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

those  who  came  within  their  reach.  Knglish  captives 
were  often. taken  to  Louishurg  and  sold  to  the  French, 
from  whom  they  were  afterwards  ransomed  by  their 
friends.  Dartmouth,  which  was  settled  in  the  year 
after  the  founding  of  Halifax,  suffered  most  from  their 
ravages.  Six  men  belonging  to  this  place  were  at- 
tacked while  cutting  wood  in  the  forest :  four  of  them 
were  killed  and  one  was  taken  prisoner.  A  few  months 
afterwards,  the  Indians,  creeping  upon  the  settlement 
during  the  night,  killed  and  scalped  several  of  the 
inhabitants.  The  screams  of  the  terrified  women  and 
children  were  heard  across  the  harl>our  in  Halifax. 
Similar  outrages  occurred  at  Halifax,  Canso,  and  other 
parts  of  the  province.  The  Governor  and  Council, 
unwisely  adopting  the  barbarous  customs  of  the 
savages,  offered  large  rewards  for  Indian  prisoners  and 
scalps. 

The    conduct    of   the   Acadians    and    Indians   was 
largely  due  to  the  influence  of  the  autho- 

Eril  Influences.       ."..,..  _, 

rities  ot  Louisburg  and  (Quebec.  Ihe 
settlement  of  Halifax  cut  off  their  long -cherished 
hope  that  Nova  Scotia  would  yet  be  restored  to 
France,  and  they  too  readily  adopted  any  measure 
which  seemed  calculated  to  annoy  the  English. 
Through  their  agents  they  advised  the  Acadians  to 
refuse  the  oath  of  allegiance,  and  they  threatened 
them  with  severe  consequence's  if  they  failed  to  follow 
this  advice.  They  encouraged  the  Indians  in  their 
hostility  to  the  English,  and  applied  them  with  arms 
and  ammunition  to  carry  out  their-  evil  purpose. 
Among  the  agents  employed  by  the  Government  of 
Quebec  in  stirring  up  this  spirit  of  opposition  to  Eng- 
lish rule  was  the  Abb-  Ic  Loutre,  whose  intense  zeal 


THE   SETTLEMENT   OF    HALIFAX.  127 

i'.r  the  ascendency  of  the  power  of  France  led  him  to 
pursue  measures  alike  dishonourable  to  himself  and 
ruinous  to  the  Acadians. 

The  British  Government,  anxious  for  the  more  rapid 
colonisation  of  Nova  Scotia,  invited  people 

~_     .  ,         The  Germans. 

to  come  from  Germany,  offering  them  the 
same  privileges  as  had  been  conferred  on  English  colo- 
nists. Many  accepted  the  invitation,  coming  at  various 
times,  so  that  within  two  or  three  years  nearly  two 
thousand  Germans  arrived  in  Halifax.  They  were 
mostly  farmers.  Differing  from  the  other  colonists 
in  language  and  customs,  they  chose  to  form  a  settle- 
ment by  themselves.  Accordingly,  in  the  year  1753, 
most  of  them  removed  to  Lunenburg.  Here  they 
underwent  many  hardships,  and,  like  the  English 
colonists,  suffered  greatly  from  the  ill-will  of  the 
Indians.  A  few  months  after  they  went  to  Lunen- 
burg, certain  evil-minded  persons  spread  a  report  that 
some  of  the. supplies  sent  out  for  them  from  England 
had  been  withheld.  This  caused  great  excitement, 
and  the  place  was  for  several  days  under  mob-rule. 
Colonel  Monckton  went  down  from  Halifax  with  a 
few  soldiers,  and  soon  restored  order  without  using 
any  harsh  measures. 

The  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  settled  nothing  as 
regarded  affairs  in  America  :  it  simply  left 

,  mi  .•  f    Boundaries. 

matters  as  they  were.  Ihe  question  of 
boundary-lines  between  the  British  and  the  French 
possessions  had  long  be'eji  in  dispute.  The  treaty  left 
the  question  for  future  adjustment,  and  commissioners 
were  appointed  for  this  purpose.  They  met  in  Paris, 
but,  after  debating  the  matter  for  three  years,  they 
failed  to  agree.  In  the  meantime  the  Governors  of 


128  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

Canada  undertook  to  settle  the  question  by  right  of 
possession.  The  dispute  was  not  confined  to  any  one 
portion  of  the  boundary,  but  related  to  nearly  the 
whole  line  from  Nova  Scotia  to  the  extreme  western 
limits  of  the  adjoining  territories  of  the  two  nations. 
The  conflict  which  arose  over  the  matter  was,  how- 
ever, restricted  chiefly  to  Nova  Scotia,  the  Lake 
Region,  and  the  Ohio  Valley. 

The  French  maintained  that  the  territory  ceded  to 
The  Limits  of  Great  Britain  in  1713,  under  the  name  of 
Nova  Scotia.  Acadic,  included  only  the  peninsula.  In- 
deed, at  times,  they  conceded  even  less  than  this, 
asserting  that  it  comprised  only  the  western  portion 
of  the  peninsula.  This  theory  suited  their  wish  to 
have  a  continuous  land  route  between  Quebec  and 
Louisburg.  On  the  other  hand,  the  English  claimed 
that  the  territory  comprised  not  only  the  whole  of  the 
peninsula,  but  also  the  territory  now  forming  New 
Brunswick,  extending  westerly  to  New  England. 

The  settlement  of  Halifax  alarmed  the  French,  and 
Fort  Beause-  tney  determined  on  active  measures  to 
restrict  the  English  within  narrow  limits. 
They  asserted  that  a  little  river  called  the  Missa- 
quash,  at  the  Isthmus  of  Chignecto,  formed  the 
boundary  between  their  territory  and  that  of  (ireat 
Britain.  On  the  south  of  this  river  was  the  large 
Acadian  settlement  of  Beauhassin.  Partly  to  assert 
French  claims  to  the  country  on  the  north  of  the 
Missaquash,  and  partly  to  encourage  disaffection  in 
the  Acadians  and  Indians  towards  the  English,  the 
Governor  of  Canada  sent  a  small  body  of  troops,  under 
La  Corne,  to  Chignecto.  On  a  low  ridge  of  land, 
within  sight  of  Beaubassiu,  La  Corne  built  a  strong 


THE   SETTLEMENT    OF   HALIFAX.  129 


fort,  which  he  named  Beausejour.  Here  the  Acadians 
and  Indians  were  supplied  with  guns  and  ammunition. 
Regular  communication  was  kept  up  between  this 
place  and  Louisburg  by  way  of  Bay  Verte.  Influenced 
by  Le  Loutre,  many  Acadians  left  their  homes  in  the 
peninsula  and  crossed  the  Missaquash,  some  remaining 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Beausejour,  others  going  to 
Prince  Edward  Island  or  to  Cape  Breton.  Le  Loutre 
also  encouraged  the  Indians  in  their  hostility  by  pay- 
ing them  for  English  scalps,  and  he  kept  the  Acadians 
under  his  influence  by  threatening  that  he  would  send 
the  Indians  to  destroy  their  property  if  they  did  not 
obey  him. 

Governor  Cornwallis  sent  a  force  under  Major  Law- 
rence to  Beaubassin,  to  watch  the  move-  Fort 
inents  of  the  French.  Influenced  by  Le  Lawrence- 
Loutre,  the  Acadians,  at  the  approach  of  Lawrence, 
fled  across  the  Missaquash  to  La  Corne.  Le  Loutre 
and  his  agents  then  set  fire  to  their  dwellings,  re- 
ducing the  whole  settlement  of  Beaubassin  to  ashes. 
Lawrence  fortified  his  position  with  earthworks  and 
palisades,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Fort  Lawrence. 
La  Corne  and  Lawrence,  being  thus  near  neighbours, 
\\rre  for  some  time  on  friendly  terms  with  each  other. 
But  all  good  feeling  was  brought  to  an  end  by  the 
treacherous  shooting  of  Captain  Howe  of  Fort  Law- 
rence. Howe  went  out  under  a  white  flag  to  hold  u 
pai -Icy  with  a  man  in  the  dress  of  a  French  officer, 
when  he  was  shot  down  by  Indians  lying  in  ambush. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

THE  YEAR  1755. 

THE  year  1755  is  a  memorable  one  in  the  history  of 
Summary  of  Canada.  Among  its  events  are  the  struggle 
for  the  possession  of  the  Ohio  Valley,  the 
conflict  in  the  Lake  Champlain  district,  the  capture  of 
Fort  Beausejour,  and  the  expulsion  of  the  Acadians. 
But  before  describing  these  events  it  will  be  necessary 
to  speak  of  some  things  of  an  earlier  date. 

It   has  been  already   stated   that  the    Marquis    la 
Jonquiere,  on  his  way  out  from  France  to 

Governors.  ,.  , 

assume   the    office   of   Go  vernor  -  General, 
was    taken    prisoner    by    the    English.       During    an 
interval  of  two  years  which  elapsed  before  his  arrival 
in  Quebec,  the  office  was  rilled  by  Count  Galissoniere, 
who  was  a  most  energetic  officer,  possessed  of  much 
intelligence    and    sound   judgment.       Jonquiere    was 
charged   with   having   used  his  office  as  a  means  of 
securing   gain   for   himself.      Holding  a  monopoly  of; 
the  liquor  traffic,  he   is  said   to  have  realised  large 
profits  from  the  sale  of  brandy  to  the  Indians.     He 
was,  however,  far  surpassed  in  greed  by  Francis  Bigot 
who  held  the  office  of  Intendant  during  the  closii 
years  of  French  rule  in  Canada.     Having  charge 
the  expenditure  of  public  money  in  the  colony,  thif 
officer  robbed  the  Government  in  the  most  shamef 

130 


THE    YEAR    1755.  131 

manner.  The  Marquis  Duquesne  succeeded  to  the 
office  of  Governor-General  in  1752.  He  was  noted 
for  the  vigour  with  which  he  pushed  the  claims  of 
France  to  the  disputed  territories,  and  for  his  develop- 
ment of  the  military  resources  of  the  country.  '  With 
great  care  he  organised  and  drilled  the  militia,  and 
drew  away  the  able  men  to  defend  the  forts  on  thev 
borders.  The  result  of  this  military  policy  was 
neglect  of  agriculture  and  scarcity  of  food  in  the 
country. 

Both  French  and  English  claimed  the  territory 
drained  by  the  Ohio  and  its  tributaries,  The  Ohio 
usually  known  as  the  Ohio  Valley.  The  Valley- 
French  prized  it  as  a  connecting-link  between  Canada 
and  their  colony  of  Louisiana,  and  they  based  their 
claim  to  the  country  on  its  discovery  by  La  Salle. 
The  English  claimed  the  territory  on  the  ground  that 
it  belonged  to  their  subjects  the  Iroquois  ;  and  they 
valued  it  chiefly  on  account  of  the  fur  trade  which 
the  Ohio  Company,  composed  of  English  and  colonial 
merchants,  was  now  carrying  on  in  the  country. 
The  French  set  up  a  boundary  of  their  own  frcni 
Lake  Erie  to  the  Ohio,  marking  the  line  by  leaden 
plates  with  suitable  inscriptions,  which  they  buried  in 
the  ground  at  certain  intervals,  and  by  tin  shields 
bearing  the  arms  of  France,  which  they  attached  to 
the  trees.  Still  later  the  Marquis  Duquesne  asserted 
more  decidedly  the  rights  of  France  by  placing  de- 
tachments of  soldiers  in  a  chain  of  forts  erected  along 
the  line.  The  French  warned  English  traders  not  to 
enter  the  country  west  of  the  Alleghanies,  and  they 
seized  the  furs  of  those  who  disregarded  the  warning. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  English  gave  similar  warning 


132  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

to  the  French,  and  they  sent  a  military  force  to 
protect  their  traders.  They  began  to  hiiild  a  tort 
at  the  junction  of  the  Alleghany  and  Monongahela 
rivers,  on  the  site  of  the  present  eity  of  Pittsburg. 
The  French  came  upon  them  with  a  stronger  foree, 
drove  them  away,  and  completed  the  fort,  which  they 
named  Duquesne  in  honour  of  their  Governor. 

The  Governor  of  Virginia  sent  a  small  force, 
George  under  George  Washington,  into  the  dis- 

WasfiWton.  pUted  territory.  Washington  erected  a 
fort  on  the  Monongahela,  which  he  named  Fort 
Necessity.  Falling  in  with  a  French  officer,  named 
.lumouville,  at  the  head  of  a  small  body  of  tnx>ps, 
Washington  ordered  his  men  to  Hre.  .Jumonville 
and  several  of  his  men  were  killed.  The  French 
asserted  that  Jumonville  had  no  intention  of  making 
an  attack  upon  the  English,  but  that  he  was  sent 
with  a  letter  of  warning  to  Washington,  which  he 
was  about  to  deliver  when  he  was  shot.  They  now 
sent  a  stronger  force,  and  compelled  Washington  to 
retire  from  the  Ohio  Valley. 

Without  any  formal  declaration  of  war.  and.  iu- 
Reinforce-  <leed,  while  messages  of  peace  were  pass- 
Engiand°™d  mX  between  the  two  Courts,  warlike 
France.  measures  were  thus  being  taken  on  l»oth 

sides.  It  was  the  beginning  of  the  final  struggle 
on  this  continent  between  the  two  great  powers. 
Both  nations  sent  out  reinforcements.  In  the 
spring  of  1755  eighteen  ships,  carrying  three  thou- 
sand soldiers  under  command  of  Huron  Dieskau, 
left  France  for  America.  There  went,  also  a  new 
Governor  for  Canada,  the  Marquis  Vaudreuil.  the 
last  of  Champlain's  successors  in  New  Franc 


THE    YEAR    1755.  133 

About  the  same  time  warships  were  sent  from 
England  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  the  French 
fleet  while  crossing  the  ocean.  In  this  hope  they 
failed,  for  the  French  reached  Quebec  in  safety. 
Great  Britain  also  sent  two  regiments  of  soldiers, 
under  General  Braddock,  to  Virginia,  to  aid  the 
colonists  in  the  war  they  were  waging  in  the  Ohio 
Valley. 

Braddock  and  several  of  the  governors  of  the 
English  provinces  met  to  devise  a  plan  Plan  of  the 
of  attacking  the  enemy.  The  expulsion  Campaign,. 755- 
of  the  French  from  the  Ohio  Valley  was  assigned 
to  Braddock  himself;  Governor  Shirley  of  Massa- 
chusetts was  to  proceed  against  Niagara ;  Colonel 
William  Johnson  was  to  attack  Crown  Point ;  and 
Colonel  Monckton  was  entrusted  with  the  task  of  ex- 
pelling the  French  from  the  Isthmus  of  Chignecto. 

Braddock  was  a  good  soldier  of  much  experience 
in  regular  warfare  as  it  was  practised  Braddocks 
in  Europe ;  but  he  knew  nothing  of  Defeat- 
fighting  in  the  forests  or  of  Indian  tactics,  nor 
was  he  disposed  to  learn  of  those  who  could  have 
given  him  counsel.  Both  he  and  his  men  despised 
colonial  officers  and  troops  with  whom  they  were 
to  co-operate.  Benjamin  Franklin  warned  him  that 
the  French  and  Indians  would  not  meet  him  in 
open  field,  but  would  lurk  in  ambush,  and  fire  upon 
him  under  cover  of  trees  and  rocks.  But  Braddock 
thought  his  Majesty's  troops  easily  a  match  for  wild 
Indians  and  untrained  French  militia.  For  the  mili- 
tary ability  of  George  Washington  he  had  some 
respect,  and  he  invited  him  to  join  the  expedition 
as  an  officer  of  his  stafj. 


134 


THK    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


Early  in  June  Braddork  set  out  for  Fort  Duquesne, 
the  headquarters  of  the  French  in  the  Ohio  Valley. 
It  was  a  tedious  inarch  of  one  hundred  and  twenty 
miles,  through  douse  forests  and  across  the  Alleghanies. 


J 


OHIO   VALLET. 


Three  hundred  axemen  led  the  way,  felling  trees,  and 
clearing  a  road  twelve  feet  wide  for  the  pack-horses, 
artillery,  and  waggons  laden  with  military  stores,  the 
whole  torn  ling  a  train  four  miles  in  length.  The 


THE    YEAR    1755.  135 

soldiers  marched  through  the  woods  on  either  side 
of  the  waggon  road.  Progress  was  slow,  sometimes 
not  exceeding  four  miles  a  day. 

The  French  learned  from  scouts,  who  were  ever 
on  the  alert,  that  the  English  were  advancing,  and 
about  nine  hundred  men,  two-thirds  of  whom  were 
Indians,  set  out  from  Fort  Duquesne  to  meet  them. 
On  the  9th  of  July,  when  about  eight  miles  from 
Duquesne,  as  Braddock  was  advancing  with  little 
thought  of  danger,  the  startling  Indian  war-cry  and 
a  shower  of  bullets  revealed  the  presence  of  the  foe. 
Skulking  behind  the  trees,  the  French  and  Indians 
made  deadly  havoc  of  the  EngHsh.  Braddock's  men 
fought  bravely,  but  their  valour  counted  for  little. 
They  could  scarcely  see  an  enemy,  and  their  shot 
fell  vainly  on  trees  and  rocks.  Bewildered,  they 
huddled  together,  and  were  mowed  down  with  fear- 
ful slaughter.  At  length  the  survivors,  flinging  away 
their  arms  and  abandoning  their  wounded  com- 
panions, fled  in  disorder  from  the  scene  of  conflict. 
Three-fourths  of  the  officers  and  eight  hundred  men 
were  either  killed  or  wounded.  Braddock  had  five 
horses  shot  under  him  during  the  engagement,  and 
at  last  fell  mortally  wounded.  Washington  had 
a  narrow  escape :  four  bullets  passed  through  his 
coat,  but  he  came  out  of  the  battle  without  a 
wound.  For  the  time  the  French  were  left  in  pos- 
session of  the  Ohio  Valley,  and  hordes  of  savages 
were  let  loose  upon  the  defenceless  outlying  settle- 
ments of  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania. 

William  Johnson,  who  was  elevated  to  the  rank 
of  major-general,  and  placed  in  command  of  the  ex- 
pedition against  Crown  Point,  knew  nothing  of  war 


136 


THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


the    Iroquois.      In    t'uct,  its 


having  neither  military  training  n«>r  experience:  but 
he    was  one  of    those    favourites  of    ibr- 
de'foated  »t        tune   who  succeed   at   whatever  they   put 
their  hand.       He  hail  great  influence  over 
h«     spoke    the    Mohawk 
tongue    fluently,    and 
as     his     wife,      Molly 
Brant,  was  sister  of  a 
noted    Mohawk   ehief, 
the     Iroquois     almost 
regarded   him   as   one 
of     themselves.       But 
for  Johnson's  influenee 
over  the  Iroquois  they 
would    have    deserted 
the  English  in  a  l»ody 
after    Braddock's    de- 
feat.     Wlu'ii  Johnson 
was   appointed   to    the 
command  of  the  forces, 
hefoiv       leaving      his 
home,  "Fort  Johnson,' 
near      the       Mohawk 
River,     he      called     a 
council    of    the     Mo- 
hawks.      The    assem- 
bled   savages    ate    his 
beef,  drank  his  whisky, 
made    long    speeches, 
and  danced   the  war-dance.      He  had  some  difficulty, 
however,  in  persuading  them  to  go  on  the  warpath, 
so  much  had  the  English  lost  their  confidence. 

At  the  southern  extremity  of  Lake  George,  Johnson 


I.AKK    (  HAMPI.AIN    DISTIIICT. 


THE    YEAR    1755.  137 

• 

was  attacked  by  the  French  under  Dieskau,  whom 
he  repulsed  and  forced  to  fall  back  on  their  fort  at 
Ticonderoga.  Dieskau  was  severely  wounded  and 
taken  prisoner.  As  he  was  lying  in  Johnson's  tent, 
after  his  wounds  had  been  carefully  dressed  by  an 
English  surgeon,  several  Mohawks  entered  the  tent. 
There  followed  a  keen  dispute  in  the  Mohawk 
language  between  them  and  Johnson.  After  they  had 
gone  out,  Dieskau  asked  what  they  wanted.  "  What 
did  they  want  ? "  said  Johnson.  "  They  wanted  to  kill 
you,  to  eat  you,  to  smoke  you  in  their  pipe.  But 
never  fear ;  you  shall  be  sate  with  me,  or  else  they 
shall  kill  us  both."  Johnson,  feeling  unable  to  dis- 
•  lodge  the  French  from  Ticonderoga,  strengthened  his 
position  by  erecting  Fort  William  Henry  near  the 
place  where  he  had  gained  his  victory.  The  King 
of  England  rewarded  him  for  his  services  by  con- 
ferring on  him  the  honour  of  knighthood.  He  failed, 
however,  to  take  Crown  Point,  which  was  the  object 
of  his  expedition. 

Shirley's  task  was  the  capture  of  Niagara.     He  set 
out  from  Albany  and  proceeded  as  far  as  Shirley  fails  to 
Oswego.     Here  he  learned  that  his  plans  take  Niagara, 
had  become  known  to  the  French,  through  some  of 
Braddock's  papers  which  had  fallen  into  their  hands, 
and  that  the  enemy  had  taken  such  measures  as  made 
further  progress  on  his  part  inadvisable.     He  accord- 
ingly abandoned  the  expedition. 

Meanwhile  the  British  had  made  an  easy  conquest 
at    Chignecto.      Early    in    June,   Colonel  capture  of 
Monckton,  with  a  force  of  two  thousand  Beaus^our- 
men,  fitted  out  in  Boston,  landed  near  Fort  Lawrence. 
Opposed  by  Acadians  and  Indians,  he  fought  his  way 


138  THE    DOMINION    OK    CANADA. 

across  the  Missuqnash  and  opened  fire  on  Beausejour. 
Vergor,  who  then  held  command  of  the  fort,  sent  a 
hasty  message  to  Drucour,  the  Governor  of  Louisburg, 
seeking  aid,  but  a  British  squadron  off  the  coast  pre- 
vented the  French  ships  leaving  the  harbour.  He 
also  called  to  his  aid  the  Aeadians  of  the  surrounding 
country,  who,  having  hidden  their  women  and  children 
in  the  woods,  obeyed  the  summons.  But  they  brought 
little  strength  to  the  fort.  Seeing  the  English  at  close 
quarters,  they  became  alarmed  and  began  to  desert. 
When  the  siege  had  lasted  four  days,  Vergor  thought 
it  best  to  surrender.  His  soldiers  were  allowed  to 
retire  with  the  honours  of  war,  and  were  sent  to 
Louisburg.  He  was  afterwards  suspected  of  having 
given  up  the  fort  too  readily,  and  was  tried  by  court- 
martial  for  failure  in  duty,  but  the  charge  was  not 
sustained.  Mouckton  changed  the  name  of  Beause- 
jour to  Fort  Cumberland,  and  placed  in  it  a  small 
garrison.  Le  Loutre,  who  was  in  the  fort  when  the 
siege  began,  fled  in  disguise  before  the  surrender,  and 
made  his  way  to  Quebec. 

The  conduct  of  the  Aeadians  at  Beausejour  aroused 
indignation  on  the  part  of  the  Government 

Expulsion  of  if   i-/»  ii-Vrv  •  •/?• 

the  Aeadians      at  Halifax,  and  this  feeling  was  intensified 

decided  on.  .  ..  ,  .  ,c  r»       -i  i      i  » 

by  the  joy  they  showed  over  Braddocks 
defeat.  Major  Lawrence,  who  had  succeeded  Corn- 
wallis  as  Governor  of  Nova  Scotia,  called  his  Council 
together  to  determine  on  the  line  of  action  which 
should  be  taken  with  respect  to  them.  The  stern 
decision  arrived  at  was  the  removal  of  the  offending 
people  from  the  province.  But  first  one  more  chance 
of  redeeming  themselves  was  granted.  The  Aeadians 
were  called  on  to  send  delegates  to  Halifax,  with 


THE    YEAR    1755.  139 

power  to  act  for  the  whole  people.  The  oath  of  alle- 
giance was  submitted  to  them,  but  they  still  refused 
to  take  any  oath  which  would  bind  them  to  aid  the 
British  against  the  French.  And  now  Lawrence  sent 
instructions  to  the  officers  commanding  the  forts  at 
Annapolis,  Grand  Pre,  Piziquid,  and  Chignecto,  direct- 
ing them  to  seize  all  the  Acadians  and  place  them  on 
board  vessels  provided  for  their  removal.  The  Aca- 
dians were  to  be  allowed  to  take  their  money  and 
such  household  furniture  as  the  vessels  could  carry ; 
their  lands,  cattle,  and  other  property  were  forfeited. 

The  task  of  removing  the  Acadians  from  Canard, 
Minas,  and  Grand  Pre  was  entrusted  to  Grand  Pns  and 
Colonel  Winslow.  He  did  his  work  Canard- 
thoroughly.  Without  making  known  his  object,  he 
commanded  the  men  and  boys  to  assemble  in  the 
church  at  Grand  Pre  on  the  oth  of  September.  When 
all  were  gathered  the  church  was  surrounded  by  armed 
soldiers.  Then  Winslow,  standing  at  the  altar,  re- 
minded the  Acadians  of  the  kindness  which  had  been 
shown  their  people  for  half  a  century,  and  upbraided 
them  with  their  ingratitude,  closing  his  address  with 
•the  startling  announcement  that  they  were  the  King's 
prisoners,  and  that  vessels  were  waiting  in  the  harbour 
to  carry  them  out  of  the  country.  A  guard  was  sta- 
tioned around  the  church  to  prevent  any  from  escap- 
ing. Their  families  were  notified  to  send  them  food, 
and  to  get  ready  to  leave  their  homes  without  delay. 
A  few  days  later  all  were  placed  on  board  the  trans- 
ports in  the  mouth  of  the  Gasperaux. 

It  must  have  been  a  wretched  scene  in  the  church 
at  Grand  Pre  on  that  September  evening,  and  many 
a  sad  household  was  there  around  the  Basin  of  Minas. 


140  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

The   morning  had  dawned    with   bright    prospects  on 
those  homes  around  which  clustered  many 

A  Sad  Scene.  .    J 

warm  affections  and  nappy  memories. 
God's  blessing  had  rewarded  the  hand  of  the  diligent. 
The  barns  were  bursting  with  the  freshly  gathered 
harvest,  and  the  orchards  were  colouring  with  crimson 
and  gold.  A  cloud  of  sadness,  deeper  and  darker  than 
evening  shadows,  now  hung  over  every  hearthstone 
and  gloomed  every  heart.  Imagine  you  see  these 
poor  people — men,  women,  and  children— with  fune- 
real step  and  mien,  wending  their  way  to  the  vessels 
which  would  soon  l>ear  them  to  the  land  of  exile. 
And  now,  when  they  are  all  gone,  see  the  smoking 
ruins  of  houses  and  barns  which  complete  the  picture 
of  desolation. 

The  work  of  expulsion  was  less  successful  in  other 
Annapolis  and  parts  of  the  country.  At  Annapolis,  when 
chignecto.  ^e  Acadians  saw  the  vessels  entering  the 
basin,  they  fled  to  the  woods.  Some  were  brought 
back;  others  eluded  pursuit.  The  prisoners  on  board 
one  of  the  transports,  having  taken  possession  of  the 
vessel,  sailed  into  St.  John  Harbour  and  escaped. 
The  worst  scenes  were  enacted  at  Thigneeto.  Some 
of  the  men  fled  to  the  woods,  leaving  the  women  and 
children  behind :  others,  joined  by  Indians,  turned 
upon  the  soldiers,  some  of  whom  they  killed. 

It  is  computed  that  at  least  three  thousand  Aca- 
dians were  thus  banished  from  Nova  Scotia. 

Results.  . 

Ihey  were  scattered  a  tew  hundreds  in  a 
place,  from  Massachusetts  to  North  Carolina — some 
even  to  Louisiana.  In  some  cases  families  were  broken 
up,  and  the  children  were  bound  out  as  apprentices 
or  servants.  Many,  with  ardent  longing  for  their  old 


THE    YEAR    1755.  141 

homes,   in    the   face   of    numerous   difficulties    found 
their  way  back  to  Nova  Scotia. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  pronounce  here  on  the  abso- 
lute justice  or  injustice  of  the  stern  measure  character  of 
to  which  Great  Britain  resorted  to  secure  the  Measure 
for  herself  the  permanent  possession  of  Nova  Scotia. 
The  action  should  be  viewed  in  its  relation  to  a  great 
and  long- continued  struggle  then  taking  place  between 
two  powerful  nations  for  the  possession  of  a  continent. 
The  Acadians  had  little  claim  on  the  Government  at 
Halifax.  They  had  repeatedly  refused  to  take  the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  Great  Britain — some  of  them 
had  even  given  direct  aid  to  the  enemy.  It  should 
also  be  remembered  that  the  English  in  Nova  Scotia 
were  not  strong  enough  to  deal  generously  with  those 
on  whose  sympathies  and  aid  they  could  not  rely. 
The  authorities  at  Halifax  had  several  causes  for 
alarm.  The  Indians  were  dangerous  enemies,  and 
there  seemed  little  hope  of  their  becoming  friendly 
while  the  Acadians  held  themselves  aloof.  The  French 
were  strongly  intrenched  in  Quebec  and  Louisburg, 
and  they  had  recently  gained  important  victories  in 
the  West.  In  event  of  their  making  another  attempt 
to  obtain  Nova  Scotia  the  Acadians  might  give  them 
active  support.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  no  matter 
for  wonder  that  the  Acadians  should  be  unwilling,  by 
a  direct  oath  of  allegiance  to  Great  Britain,  to  separate 
themselves  formally  from  the  great  nation  with  which 
they  were  connected  by  race,  language,  and  religion.' 
The  punishment  inflicted  on  them  was  severe,  and 
one  may  well  regret  that  some  milder  method  of 
securing  the  peace  of  the  country  was  not  considered 
practicable. 


CHA1TKH  XIV. 

THE    SEVEN    YEARS'    WAR. 

THE  great  conflict  known  in  history  jis  the  "  Seven 
Parties, Places,  Veurs'  War"  begun  in  175G.  Great  Bri- 

and  Conditions.     tam   jm(j    prnssia  were  t]lc  aj}jcs  on  t)le   t)Qe 

side :  on  the  other  were  France,  Austria,  and  Russia. 
War  was  waged  simultaneously  in  Europe,  Asia, 
America,  and  on  the  wide  ocean.  The  story  will  be 
told  here  only  as  it  relates  t;>  the  conflict  of  Great 
Britain  and  France  in  America.  The  American  colo- 
nies of  (ireat  Britain  had  at.  this  time  a  population  of 
about  three  millions,  and  they  were  comparatively  pros- 
perous. The  French  in  Canada  numbered  only  about 
eighty  thousand,  and  their  condition  was  one  marked 
with  hardship  and  suffering.  War  had  taxed  them 
severely.  Their  able-bodied  men,  from  sixteen  to 
sixty  years  of  age,  were  often  drawn  away  for  military 
service,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  fields  was  left 
largely  to  the  women.  Crops  had  failed,  and  often 
transports  bearing  supplies  from  France  had  been 
captured  by  British  cruisers.  The  people  thus  suf- 
fered from  lack  of  fcxxl. 

During  the  first  two  years  of  the  war  the  French 
gained  all  the  victories.    This  came  mainly 

Officers.  °  ,.  J 

from  two  causes — centralisation  of  power 
and  superiority  of  oftic(Ts.     Colonial  militia  formed  an 


THE    SEVEN    YEARS'    WAR.  143 

important  element  in  the  forces  with  which  the  war 
was  carried  on.  In  the  English  colonies  there  was  no 
central  authority  to  levy  troops,  The  legislatures  of 
.the  different  colonies  were  suspicious  of  Great  Britain 
and  jealous  of  each  other.  They  failed  to  aot 
promptly  or  together,  or  they  did  not  act  at  all.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  Governor-General  of  Canada  was 
not  dependent  on  votes  of  popular  assemblies,  but  he 
could  call  the  colonists  into  service  as  he  saw  occa- 
sion, and  send  his  forces  where  he  pleased.  The 
French  had  excellent  officers  in  command  of  their 
forces.  The  Marquis  de  Montcalrn,  who  was  Com- 
mander-in-chief, was  an  experienced  and  able  gene- 
.  ral ;  and  the  Chevalier  de  Levis,  the  second  in 
command,  was  scarcely  less  distinguished.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  war  the  Earl  of  London  was  Com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  British  forces,  and  Admiral 
Holbourne  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  fleet — two 
singularly  incompetent  officers.  Referring  to  London's 
activity  without  accomplishing  anything,  a  wit  said  of 
him,  "  He  is  like  the  figure  of  St.  Georga  on  a  tavern 
sign,  always  on  horseback  and  never  riding  on." 

Montcalm's  first  success  was  the  capture  of  Fort 
Oswego,  an  important  position  on  Lake  capture  of 
Ontario.  With  this  fort  there  fell  into  Osw^°- 
his  hand  sixteen  hundred  prisoners  and  much  booty, 
comprising  camion  and  other  war  material,  provisions, 
and  money.  These  supplies  greatly  aided  the  French, 
especially  as  food  was  scarce  in  Canada.  The  English 
felt  severely  the  loss  of  Oswego.  They  had  no 
other  position  on  Lake  Ontario,  and  they  intended  to 
make  it  the  base  of  operations  against  Niagara  and 
Duquesne.  Montcalm  burned  the  fort  and  every- 


144  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

thing  of  value  which  he  could  n«»t.  (tarry  away.  The 
captured  flags  he  hung  up  in  the  churches  of  Mon- 
treal as  trophies  of  his  victory. 

The  capture  of  Louisburg  was  the  first  measure  on 
the    Knglish    programme.       Karlv    in    the 

Loudon  and  '  '  "      .      . 

Holbourneat  SUIllllHT  LoiUlOD  came  trolll  NOW  1  ork  to 
Halifax,  1757.  .  . 

Halifax,  bringing  with  him  about,  five 
thousand  veteran  troops.  Shortly  after  Admiral  Hoi- 
bourne  arrived  from  Kngland  with  a  strong  fleet  and 
additional  troops.  These  officers  had  now  a  force  of  at 
least  ten  thousand  troops  and  sixteen  ships  of  the  line. 
Still  they  hesitated.  They  learned  that  Louisburg  had 
a  strong  garrison,  and  was  guarded  by  a  fleet  equal  to 
their  own.  Prudent  counsels  prevailed.  Six  weeks 
were  spent  in  drill,  naval  review,  and  mock  sieges.  A 
wag  remarked  that  they  spent  the  summer  in  sham 
fights  and  raising  cabbages:  the  last  referring  to  the 
culture  of  vegetables  by  the  soldiers  as  food  to  protect 
them  from  scurvy.  London  returned  to  New  York 
with  his  troops  without  seeing  Louisburg.  Melbourne 
spent  the  remaining  part  of  the  summer  in  sailing 
back  and  forth  between  Halifax  and  Louisburg,  but 
had  no  engagement.  Finally  a  violent  storm  overtook 
him,  made  a  total  wreck  of  one  of  his  ships,  and  dis- 
abled most  of  the  others.  In  the  autumn  he  returned 
to  England. 

Meanwhile   the    French   had    taken   Fort    William 

Henry,    on    the   south    of    Lake    George. 

Fort  William  . 

Henry  taken         LOUQOD    drew   aWRV   the    best    OI    Ills   trOODS 

by  the  French.  ,.    .'  .  . 

for  the  expedition  against  Louisburg, 
leaving  the  border  defences  weak.  Montcalm  saw 
his  opportunity,  and  with  despatch  he  collected  his 
forces,  regulars,  militia,  and  Indians,  to  the  number  of 


THE    SEVEN    YEARS'    WAR.  145 

eight  thousand,  at  Montreal.  The  savages  of  various 
tribes  from  far  and  near  formed  nearly  a  fourth  of 
the  whole.  They  wore  enthusiastic  over  Montcalm, 
and  had  been  eager  to  see  him.  "  We  wanted  to  see 
the  famous  man  who  tramples  the  English  under  his 
feet,"  said  one  of  their  orators,  addressing  the  General. 
"  We  thought  we  should  find  him  so  tall  that  his 
head  would  be  lost  in  the  clouds.  But  you  are  a 
little  man,  my  father.  It  is  when  we  look  into  your 
eyes  that  we  see  the  greatness  of  the  pine-tree  and 
the  fire  of  the  eagle." 

Fort  William  Henry  was  held  by  Colonel  Munro, 
with  a  militia  force  of  twenty-two  hundred  men. 
Before  the  siege  began  Montcalm  sent  a  note  to 
Munro,  asking  him  to  surrender,  stating  that  he  then 
had  power  to  control  the  Indians  in  his  ranks,  which 
he  might  not  be  able  to  do  later  after  some  of  them 
had  been  killed.  But  Munro,  who  had  hoped  for 
aid  from  Colonel  Webb,  of '  Fort  Edward,  on  the 
Hudson,  replied  that  he  would  defend  the  fort  to 
the  last.  Webb  wrote  him  that  he  had  no  men  to 
send  him,  and  told  him  to  make  the  best  terms  he 
could.  The  Indian  who  bore  the  letter  was  captured 
and  killed  by  Montcalm's  Indians.  The  letter,  found 
adroitly  concealed  on  his  person,  was  taken  to  Mont- 
calm. After  reading  it  Montcalm  sent  it  to  Munro, 
hoping  it  might  lead  him  to  lay  down  his  arms,  but 
the  brave  officer  still  continued  the  defence.  Finally, 
however,  seeing  his  inability  to  hold  out,  he  gave  up 
the  fort.  His  men  were  to  be  allowed  to  march  out 
with  their  giuis,  and  were  to  be  conducted  to  Fort 
Edward  by  an  escort  of  French  soldiers  as  a  protection 
against  the  Indians.  It  is,  however,  sad  to  relate, 

K 


116  THK    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

that  this  protection  was  not  afforded.  Little  effort 
was  made  to  restrain  the  savages,  and  a  fearful  mas- 
sacre ensued.  The  bloodthirsty  Indians  fell  upon  the 
English  as  they  inarched  from  the  fort,  killing  some 
on  the  spot,  and  reserving  others  tor  cruel  torture,  not 
even  sparing  the  women  and  children. 

A  master  mind  in  the  councils  of  a  nation  is  a 
Change  at  the  tower  of  strength.  Such  was  William 
Helm.  Pitt,  who  now  became  Minister  of  War 

in  the  British  Cabinet.  Through  lack  of  vigour  on 
the  part  of  those  in  command,  the  great  military 
resources  of  the  nation  had  been  of  little  avail.  Pitt's 
wise  measures  and  splendid  executive  ability  soon 
changed  the  aspect  of  affairs  throughout  the  empire. 
Officers  were  not  given  positions  of  trust  because  of 
their  rank,  their  politics,  or  the  influence  of  their 
families,  or  even  because  of  their  long  service ;  but 
men  were  placed  in  command  over  the  army  and 
navy  on  account  of  their  ability,  energy,  and  such 
other  personal  qualities  as  fitted  them  for  the  grave 
duties  entrusted  to  them.  The  result  of  this  distin- 
guished Minister's  administration  was  the  complete 
overthrow  of  French  power  in  America.  The  details 
of  his  scheme  comprised  the  capture  of  Louisburg, 
Ticonderoga,  Niagara,  Duquesne,  Quebec,  and  all 
Canada. 

Louisburg  was  the  chief  naval  station  of  the  French 
The  Second  m  America,  and  its  position  enabled  it 
Louisburg,  to  guard  niost  effectively  the  ocean  ap- 
I758-  preaches  to  Canada.  The  capture  of  this 

"  Dunkirk  of  America  "  was  the  first  part  on  the  pro- 
gramme. "  For  its  conquest  came  a  large  fleet  of  war- 
ships and  transports,  bringing  over  twelve  thousand 


THE     SEVEN     YEARS      WAK. 


147 


148  THE    DOMINION'    OF    CANADA. 

troops.  General  Amherst  was  commander'-in-chief, 
and  under  him  were  the  brigadier*  Lawrence,  Went- 
worth,  and  Wolfe.  On  the  2nd  of  June  1758  the 
fleet  arrived  in  (ialmrns  Hay.  A  wild  storm  was 
raging,  and  for  nearly  a  week  the  angry  surf  kept 
the  troops  from  landing.  Meanwhile  the  Freneh  at 
Louisburg  were  busy  fortifying  tin;  shore.  With 
the  first  lull  the  Hritish  soldiers,  arranged  in  three 
divisions,  advanced  boldly  in  their  Inwts  in  the  face 
of  a  brisk  Hre  from  the  enemy.  Wolfe,  now  only 
thirty-two  years  of  age,  distinguished  himself  through- 
out the  siege.  As  the  boats  drew  to  the  shore  he 
leaped  into  the  water,  and  was  the  first  to  gain  the 
land.  The  Freneh  fought  bravely,  but  they  were 
forced  to  take  refuge  behind  the  ramparts  of  the 
town. 

Louisburg  was  not  prepared  for  a  siege.  The 
stonework  of  the  ramparts  had  in  many  places  fallen 
into  the  ditches,  the  earthen  embankments  were 
broken  down,  and  many  of  the  cannon  were  mounted 
on  carriages  so  rotten  that  they  could  not  bear  the 
shock  of  discharge.  The  garrison  comprised  al>out 
three  thousand  five  hundred  men :  the  harlxmr  was 
guarded  by  several  warships.  Drucour,  the  Governor 
of  Louisburg.  gathered  all  his  forces  within  the  ram- 
parts, and  resolved  to  defend  his  post.  For  i>ver 
seven  weeks  the  siege  went  on,  and  Drucour  saw 
with  dismay  the  widening  breaches  in  his  walls.  The 
terror-stricken  inhabitants  of  the  town  urged  him  to 
give  up  the  contest.  He  proposed  to  surrender  with 
the  honours  of  war,  but  General  Amherst  would  grant 
no  conditions,  and  Drucour  was  compelled  to  yield. 
The  soldiers  of  the  garrison  marched  out  as  prisoners 


THE    SEVEN    YEARS'    WAR.  149 

of  war  their  arms,  ammunition,  and  provisions 
having  been  given  up  to  the  victors.  The  citizens 
who  desired  it  were  allowed  to  remove  to  France. 
The  captured  flags  were  sent  to  England,  and  placed 
in  St.  Paul's  Church,  London. 

At  different  times  after  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht, 
Acadians  who  were  unwilling  to  submit  Prince  Edward 
to  British  authority  had  sought  a  home  Island- 
in  Isle  St.  John  (Prince  Edward  Island).  The  largest 
emigration  to  the  island  was  in  1 755,  on  the  capture 
of  Beausejour  and  the  expulsion  of  the  Acadians. 
In  1758  the  population  was  estimated  at  about 
four  thousand.  There  were  many  well-tilled  farms, 
yielding  large  crops  of  wheat,  and  well  stocked  with 
cattle.  After  the  taking  of  Louisburg,  General 
Amherst  sent  Lord  Hollo  with  a  detachment  of 
soldiers  to  take  possession  of  the  island.  Fort  le 
Joye,  near  the  present  Charlottetown,  readily  sub- 
mitted, and  the  soldiers  of  the  garrison  were  made 
prisoners.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  left  the  island, 
some  crossing  over  to  Gaspe,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
St.  Lawrence,  others  going  to  France. 

Another  small  force  under  Monckton  was  sent  to 
the  River   St.  John,   where   the   French  The  st  John 
still  held  a  small  fort.     Monckton   took  Rlver 
possession  of  the  fort,  and  then  sailed  up  the  river 
to  a  French  settlement  on  the  banks  of  the  Jemseg. 
At  his  approach  the   inhabitants  fled  to  the  woods, 
Monckton  seized   such  property   as   he  could  cariy 
away,  and  burned  the  dwellings.     Similar  measures 
were   taken   against   the    French   settlement   on   the 
Peticodiac. 

Meanwhile  the  British  had  been  defeated  at  Lake 


150  THE   DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

I'hamplaiu.  General  Abercrombie,  an  ofiicer  of  the 
The  British  °^  regime  who  had  been  allowed  to 
T^conderoga.  remain  in  command,  marc-hod  from  Al- 
J«iy«7sB  bany  with  the  largest  army  yet  seen  in 

America  —  between  fifteen  and  sixteen  thousand 
militia  and  regulars  —  to  attack  Montcalm,  who 
guarded  the  gateway  of  Canada  at  Ticonderoga. 
Montcalm's  force  comprised  only  about  three  thou- 
sand five  hundred  men.  His  intrenchment  was 
formed  of  squared  beams  of  wood  pinned  together, 
in  front  of  which  were  placed  rows  of  fallen  trees 
with  their  larger  branches  sharpened  and  pointing 
outwards.  The  defence  was  good  against  musket 
shot,  but  it  could  have  been  easily  swept  away  by 
cannon.  Abercrombie  had  made  the  fatal  mistake  of 
leaving  his  artillery  at  Fort  Edward,  on  the  Hudson, 
and  he  now  rashly  ordered  an  attack  on  the  fort. 
His  men  advanced  boldly  and  fought  well ;  but 
unable,  in  the  face  of  the  enemy's  fire,  to  force  their 
way  through  the  trees,  they  were  repulsed  with  ter- 
rible1 slaughter.  Finally  they  retreated,  leaving  nearly 
two  thousand  dead  and  wounded  before  the  fort. 

The  easy  capture  of  Frontenac  and  Duquesne  was 
Frontenac  an  offset  for  the  disaster  at  Ticonderoga. 
aad  Duquesne.  j,-ort  Frontenac,  though  a  position  of  great 
importance  to  the  French,  was  protected  by  a  very 
small  garrison.  After  the  defeat  at  Ticonderoga, 
Abercrombie  sent  Colonel  Bradstreet  with  three 
thousand  men  to  invest  the  place.  After  two  days' 
siege  and  without  losing  a  man,  Bradstreet  took  the 
fort  and  burned  it  to  the  ground. 

Later  in  the  season,  Duquesne,  prized  so  highly 
for  its  command  of  the  Ohio  Vallev  and  of  the 


THE    SEVEN    YEARS'    WAR.  151 

western  country  beyond,  fell  to  the  English.  At 
the  head  of  six  thousand  men,  the  gallant  General 
Forbes,  though  so  ill  that  he  was  borne  on  a  litter, 
led  his  army  across  the  Alleghanies  to  the  distant 
fort.  At  his  approach  the  French  abandoned  the 
place  without  a  struggle.  In  honour  of  the  Minister 
of  War,  the  name  Duquesne  was  changed  to  Fort 
Pitt,  which  was  afterwards  changed  to  Pittsburg. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

THE    END    OF    FRENCH    RULE    IN    AMERICA. 

AFFAIRS  in  Canada  now  wore  a  gloomy  aspect.  The 
men  were  drawn  away  so  much  to  serve 
as  soldiers  that  the  farms  were  neglected, 
and  supplies  sent  from  France  were  often  seized  on 
the  way  by  British  cruisers.  Thus  food  became  very 
scarce,  and  there  was  great  destitution  in  the  country. 
The  militiamen  had  their  nit-ions  given  them,  but, 
unlike  the  regular  soldiers,  they  received  no  pay  tor 
their  service.  Indeed1,  they  were  often  given  short 
allowance  of  bread,  and  had  horse-flesh  in  place  of 
beef.  Worst  of  all,  the  officers  sent  by  the  King  to 
govern  the  country,  who  lived  in  luxury,  plundered 
and  robbed  the  people.  The  Intendant  Bigot  and  his 
agents  enriched  themselves  at  the  public  expense. 
They  bought  supplies  for  the  troops,  forcing  the 
persons  from  whom  they  purchased  to  sell  for  less 
than  value,  and  charging  the  King  exorbitant  prices. 
In  like  manner,  when  Bigot  employed  men  to 
convey  troops  from  one  part  of  the  country  to  an- 
other, he  paid  them  much  less  than  he  received  for 
the  service. 

Pitt  was  determined  to  wrest  Canada  wholly  from 
France,  and  so  with  the  return  of  spring  he  set  his 
Machinery  of  war  in  motion.  In  arranging  the  cam- 


END   OF    FRENCH    RULE    IN    AMERICA.         153 

paign  for  this  year  he  made  a  threefold  division  of 
the    work — the  expulsion  of  the  French 

r  r     i  *•« '  i    •  i  i-    The  British 

from    Lake    Champlam,    the    capture    or  Plan  of 

-n          -H.T-  f  /-\      i  Conquest. 

r  ort  Niagara,  and  the  conquest  ol  Quebec. 
General  Amherst  was  appointed  commander-in-chief 
of  the  army,  which  consisted  of  regular  troops  and 
colonial  militia.  In  the  further  distribution  of  the 
work,  operations  on  Lake  Champlain  were  entrusted 
to  General  Amherst;  the  expedition  against  Niagara 
was  given  to  General  Prideaux,  Sir  William  Johnson 
being  second  in  command ;  and  the  siege  of  Quebec 
was  entrusted  to  General  Wolfe.  Under  Wolfe  the 
most  important  officers  were  Generals  Monckton, 
Townshend,  and  Murray.  The  fleet  sent  to  Quebec, 
comprising  about  fifty  sail,  warships  and  transports, 
was  under  the  command  of  Admiral  Saunders,  who 
was  ably  assisted  by  Admiral  Holmes. 

Pitt  generally  chose  his  men  wisely.  The  chief 
officers  just  named  were  .able  men.  Am-  character  of 
herst  was  energetic  and  cautious,  though  officers- 
perhaps  rather  slow.  The  hero  of  the  campaign,  the 
man  one  always  thinks  of  as  the  chief  instrument  in 
the  conquest  of  Canada,  was  General  Wolfe.  Not 
yet  thirty- three  years  old,  he  was  the  youngest  of  the 
leaders  named.  He  was  not  inexperienced,  however, 
in  the  art  of  war,  having  entered  the  service  when  he 
was  fifteen  years  of  age.  It  is  said  that  he  did  not 
look  much  like  a  hero.  His  bodily  frame  was  not 
built  for  strength  or  endurance,  nor  did  the  features 
of  his  face  indicate  great  power.  Only  his  clear,  keen 
eye  revealed  the  inextinguishable  fire  of  his  spirit. 

Marching  from  Albany,  at  the  head  of  eleven  thou- 
sand men,  Amherst  sought    to    seize  the  "  Gateway 


151  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

of    Canada."      Remembering    the    defeat    of    Aber- 
crombie,    he    advanced     cautiously    upon 

Lake  Chun-  i    r 

plain  and  ficonderoga.       After  a   vigorous  defence 

Niagara.  /•  i  /•  i         t-»  i         i 

for  three  or  four  days,  the  rrencn  aban- 
doned the  fort  and  also  Crown  Point,  retreating  to  a 
strong  position  on  Isle-aux-Xoix,  at  the  northern  end 
of  Lake  Chainplaiu.  Through  lack  of  transports, 
Amherst  was  unable  to  follow  them.  He  accord- 
ingly stayed  at  Crown  Point  during  the  remainder 
of  the  season,  which  he  spent  in  building  vessels, 
strengthening  the  fort,  and  making  roads. 

Meanwhile  Niagara  had  been  taken  by  the  English. 
Early  in  the  siege  Prideaux  was  killed  by  the  pre- 
mature bursting  of  a  shell  fired  by  his  own  men.  Sir 
William  Johnson  succeeded  to  the  command,  and 
though  not  a  very  skilled  soldier  he  soon  gained  pos- 
session of  the  fort. 

The  siege  of  Quebec  was  the  chief  feature  of  the 
Wolfe  before  campaign.  It  was  towards  the  last  of 
Quebec.  june  wjien  the  nrjtisn  fleet  anchored  off 

the  west  end  of  the  Isle  of  Orleans  in  full  view  of  the 
city.  Wolfe  landed  his  troops,  numbering  about  eight 
thousand  five  hundred,  on  this  island,  which  he  made 
his  headquarters.  Before  proceeding  with  the  story 
we  may  pause  for  a  moment  and  with  him  survey  the 
scene  of  his  exploits  during  the  next  eleven  weeks. 
Before  him,  about  seven  miles  distant,  on  the  northern 
banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  two  hundred  feet  above 
water,  is  the  city  of  Quebec,  perched  like  an  eagle's 
nest  on  the  rocks.  Up  and  down  for  several  miles  the 
coast  is  protected  by  a  rocky  wall,  in  many  places  too 
steep  to  climb,  and  in  all  places  so  difficult  that  a  few 
men  could  guard  effectively  against  the  approach  of 


END    OF    FRENCH    RULE    IN    AMERICA.        155 

an  army.  Immediately  below  the  city  on  the  east  is 
the  river  St.  Charles,  which  here  joins  the  St.  Law- 
rence. About  eight  miles  farther  down,  the  Mont- 
morency,  after  swirling  through  its  deep  chasin  and 
making  its  great  leap  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
over  the  rocks,  contributes  its  waters  to  the  main 
river.  Between  the  St.  Charles  and  the  Montmorency 
is  the  curved  and  elevated  shore  of  Beauport,  and 


MAP  OF   THE   SIEGE   OF   QUEBEC,    1759. 

along  the  river  are  mud  flats  and  shallows  known  as 
the  Shoals  of  Beauport.  From  Wolfe's  standpoint  on 
the  Isle  of  Orleans  the  shore  above  Quebec  was  hidden 
by  the  promontory  on  which  the  city  stands ;  but  for 
another  eight  miles,  to  Cap  Rouge,  it  is  high  and  rocky. 
On  the  heights  behind  the  city,  less  than  a  mile  dis- 
t;mt,  are  the  Plains  of  Abraham,  where  the  great 
conflict  which  determined  the  destiny  of  Canada 
took  place.  Nearly  opposite  Quebec,  on  the  south 


156  THE  .DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

side    of    the    river,    is    the    headland    called    Point 
Levis. 

When  Wolfe  looked  up  and  down  along  this  great 
The  French  natural  fortress,  he  saw  that  the  French 
Defences.  |la(j  uot  been  negligent  in  taking  advan- 
tage of  the  favourable  position  in  which  they  were 
placed.  Except  the  forces  on  Lake  Champlain  and 
at  Niagara,  the  whole  available  strength  of  Canada 
was  concentrated  at  Quebec.  All  the  men  from  six- 
teen to  sixty  years  of  age  had  been  summoned  for  the 
defence  of  their  homes  and  their  hearths,  their  country 
and  their  religion,  and  they  had  come  at  the  call. 
There  joined  the  camp  even  lads  under  sixteen  and 
old  men  of  four  score.  Over  a  hundred  cannon  were 
mounted  on  the  walls  of  Quebec,  and  the  garrison 
within  the  city  comprised  nearly  two  thousand  men. 
The  whole  line  of  river-bank  from  the  city  to  Mont- 
moreucy  was  a  succession  of  earthworks,  redoubts,  and 
batteries,  defended  by  fourteen  thousand  men.  In 
addition  to  this  force,  about  one  thousand  Indians 
had  come  with  their  scalping-knives  to  lend  their  aid. 
Gunboats,  floating  batteries,  and  fire-ships  occupied 
the  harbour.  The  mouth  of  the  St.  Charles  was  pro- 
tected by  a  boom  of  logs  chained  together,  and  by 
heavy  guns  placed  on  sunken  vessels.  As  to  guarding 
the  banks  above  the  city,  that  was  at  first  deemed 
unnecessary,  for  it  was  not  supposed  that  any  British 
ship  would  venture  to  pass  the  guns  of  the  fort. 
Later,  during  the  siege,  a  strong  force  under  Bou- 
gainville was  sent  to  guard  these  heights.  Directing 
all  this  machinery  of  war  were  the  distinguished 
ottii-rrs  Montcalm,  Levis,  Bougainville,  and  the  Gover- 
nor-Geqeral  Vuudreuil,  with  others  of  less  distinction. 


END    OF   FRENCH    KULE    IN    AMERICA.        157 

Montcalm,  secure  in  his  munition  of  rocks,  quietly 
vet   closely  watched   the   enemy,  but  he 

J  (.-,./  Policies  of 

would   not   come   out   or   his   fastness  to  Montcalm 

.  ,          .         .  ,,T   ,„  ,  ,.11  and  Wolfe. 

risk  a  battle.  Wolie  wanted  to  hght,  but 
he  could  not  get  at  the  foe.  He  was  greatly  per- 
plexed by  the  difficulties  of  his  position,  at  times 
almost  despondent.  He  wrote  to  his  mother :  "  The 
Marquis  of  Montcalm  is  at  the  head  of  a  great 
number  of  poor  soldiers.  I  am  at  the  head  of  a  small 
number  of  good  ones  that  wish  for  nothing  so  much 
as  to  fight  him ;  but  the  wary  old  fellow  avoids  an 
action,  doubtful  of  the  behaviour  of  his  army." 

The  chief  offensive  action  of  the  French  was  an 
attempt   to   destroy  the   British  fleet   by 

f  a          I,'  r\  A      1        •    -U4-     • 

means  ol  nre-ships.  On  a  dark  night  six 
ships  tilled  with  all  sorts  of  combustibles  and  ex- 
plosives, with  slow  matches  attached,  were  set  adrift 
in  the  river,  that  they  might  float  down  among  the 
British  ships  and  set  them  on  fire.  The  explosion 
occurred  before  the  fire-ships  reached  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  fleet.  The  thundering  crash  of  the 
explosion  and  the  glaring  flames  that  lit  up  the 
darkness  startled  the  British  tars ;  but  they  launched 
their  boats  and  with  grappling-hooks  and  poles  turned 
away  the  fire-ships  so  that  no  damage  was  done. 

A  few  days  after  his  arrival  Wolfe  obtained  pos- 
session   of    the    heights    of    Point    Levis,  Advance 
opposite   Quebec.      From    this    important  Movera*nts. 
position  he  could  command  the  harbour  and  bombard 
the  city,  which  was  only  about  a  mile  distant.     General 
Monckton  with  a  body  of  troops  was  placed  in  charge. 
By  shot  and  shell  he  soon  laid  much  of  the  city  in 
ruins,  utterly   destroying   the    Lower    Town,   so    that 


158  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

most  of  the  inhabitants  not  engaged  in  the  defence 
fled  to  the  country. 

Wolfe's  next  movement  was  to  hind  three  thousand 
men  at  the  Montmorency,  below  the  point  where  that 
river  joins  the  St.  Lawrence.  His  object  was  to  lead 
them  across  the  Montmorency  higher  up,  and  thus 
come  upon  the  French  from  the  real'.  The  landing 
was  effected  with  no  great  difficulty  :  but  Lt'vis,  who 
occupied  the  right  bank  of  the  Montmorency,  guarded 
the  fords  so  closely  that  Wolfe  was  unable  to  carry 
out  his  purpose. 

Wolfe  now  took  a  bolder  course  and  determined  to 
Failure  of  tight  the  enemy  from  the  front.  The 
•*uly3'  point  of  attack  was  General  L.-vis's  camp 

on  the  west  of  the  Montmorency.  While  the  cannon 
of  the  British  warships,  of  the  batteries  of  Point 
Levis,  and  of  the  battery  on  the  east  of  tlio  Mont- 
morency stormed  the  French  redoubts,  a  flotilla  of 
boats  bore  the  troops  to  the  flats  on  the  Beau  port 
shore.  At  the  same  time  two  thousand  men  from 
the  east  of  the  Montmorency  were  (Tossing  over  by 
the  fords  below  the  falls  to  act  in  concert  with  those 
landing  from  the  boats.  Those  who  first  gained  the 
land,  eager  for  the  contest,  instead  of  waiting  for  the 
others  coming  up  to  join  them,  rushed  forward. 
Struggling  up  the  bank,  which,  difficult  at  best,  was 
slippery  from  a  sudden  shower  of  rain,  they  were  met 
by  the  destructive  lire  which  the  enemy  jxnired  down 
upon  them  from  the  heights.  For  a  time  they 
buffeted  the  storm,  and  then,  giving  way,  they  re- 
treated to  their  boats,  leaving  over  four  hundred  of 
their  number  dead  on  the  rugged  bank.  Wolfe  was 
of  feeble  physical  constitution ;  his  sensitive  and 


END   OF    FRENCH    RULE    IN    AMEHICA.         159 

ambitious  spirit  chafed  under  this  disaster,  and  brought 
on  a  raging  fever,  of  which  he  lay  ill  for  days. 

With  the  view  of  seeking  a  more  favourable  point 
of  attack,  Admiral    Holmes,  passing   the 

The  Englisk 

batteries  ot  Quebec  without  much  damage,  move  up 

r     ,        n  the  River. 

conducted  a  portion  ot  the  fleet  above  the 
city.  To  co-operate  with  him,  a  land  force  of  twelve 
hundred  men  under  General  Murray  was  taken  up 
along  the  south  shore  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  Murray 
was  also  able  to  intercept  supplies  of  food  for  Quebec, 
which  came  by  the  river  from  Montreal  and  Three 
Rivers.  For  the  purpose  of  guarding  the  banks 
above  the  city,  Montcalm  sent  Bougainville  with 
fifteen  hundred  men  taken  from  the  camp  at  Beau- 
port.  Admiral  Holmes  drifted  with  the  tide  up  and 
down  the  river,  between  Cap  Rouge  and  Quebec,  and 
Bougainville,  who  had  been  commanded  to  watch  his 
movements,  was  compelled  to  follow  him  along  the 
shore  in  order  to  defeat  any  attempt  to  land  his  forces 
at  some  undefended  point.  Meanwhile  the  Canadian 
militia,  many  of  whom  were  farmers,  whose  crops 
were  ready  for  harvesting,  began  to  desert  in  large 
numbers.  The  defences  of  Quebec  were  weakened 
too  by  the  loss  of  the  able  officer  General  Levis, 
who  was  sent  to  Montreal  for  aid  against  any 
attack  on  that  place  that  might  be  made  by  General 
Amherst. 

At  a  council  of  war  held  near  the  end  of  August, 
General  Townsheud  proposed  that  an  at-  A  Bold 
tempt  should  be  made  to  land  troops  a  Scheme- 
little  above  the  city  and  take  them  up  the  steep  bank 
to  the  Plains  of  Abraham.     The  scheme  seemed  rash 
and  one  that  might  end  in  utter  defeat;    but  only 


160  tHE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

desperate  measures  were  available,  and  Wolfe  sulopted 
the  proposed  plan  without  hesitation.  The  troops  of 
the  Montrnorency  encampment  were  placed  on  lx>ard 
Admiral  Holmes's  ships,  which  were  in  the  river 
above  Quebec :  others  marched  up  from  Point  Lt'-vis 
along  the  south  shore  to  a  spot  agreed  on,  from  which 
they  could  be  taken  across  the  river.  Nearly  five 
thousand  men  were  then  ready  for  the  movement. 
The  place  selected  for  the  ascent  was  that  now  known 
as  Wolfe's  Cove,  where  a  nigged  pathway  was  found 
leading  up  the  almost  precipitous  banks.  Twenty- 
four  volunteers  were  readily  obtained  to  lead  the 
way  up  the  difficult  and  dangerous  path.  The  early 
morning  of  the  l-3th  of  September  was  chosen  for 
carrying  out  the  bold  scheme. 

During  the  night  succeeding  the  12th  of  Septem- 
The  English  on  ">cr  barges  laden  with  British  soldiers 
the  Heights.  dropped  down  the  river  to  the  landing- 
place.  As  they  floated  along  silently  with  the  current, 
Wolfe,  who  was  in  one  of  the  boats,  quieted  his 
mind  by  reciting  Grays  "Elegy  in  a  Country  Church- 
yard," then  recently  published,  remarking  as  he  finished, 
"  I  would  rather  be  the  author  of  that  poem  than  the 
conqueror  of  Quebec."  Little  thought  he  at  the  time 
that  the  end  of  his  own  career  would  so  soon  illus- 
trate the  verse — 

"The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  giave." 

The  time  chosen  for  the  landing  was  fortunate.  A 
convoy  of  boats  bearing  provisions  for  the  French 
army  at  Beauport  was  expected  to  pass  down  the 
river  that  night,  and  the  sentry  on  the  shore  mistook 
the  English  boats  for  their  own.  Moreover;  Wolfe  so 


END    OF    FRENCH    RULE    IN    AMERICA.         161 

artfully  concealed  his  purpose  that  his  principal  object 
was  not  suspected.  While  his  troops  were  stealthily 
landing  and  clambering  up  the  steep  pathway,  the 
cannon  of  the  battery  at  Point  J/evis  and  of  the  ships 
in  the  harbour  were  blazing  away  at  the  city  and  the 
Beauport  shore,  as  if  the  whole  event  were  to  be 
determined  at  these  places.  Wolfe's  success  was  in 
part  due  to  lack  of  vigilance  in  the  French.  A  guard 
was  stationed  on  the  heights  near  the  end  of  the 
pathway ;  but  its  chief  officer,  Vergor,  who  gave  up 
Bcuiisi-jour  to  the  English,  was  asleep,  and,  on  being 
aroused  by  the  sudden  appearance  of  the  enemy, 
made  slight  resistance.  Thus  when  the  sun  rose, 
Wolfe  with  four  thousand  eight  hundred  men, 
formed  in  line  of  battle,  stood  on  the  Plains  of 
Abraham, 

General  Montcalm,  who  was  at  Beauport,  could 
scarcely  believe  the  messenger  who  came  Montcaim's 
in  hot  haste  to  tell  him  that  the  British  Dedsion- 
had  gained  the  heights.  With  all  despatch  he  crossed 
the  St.  Charles  and  entered  the  city,  followed  by  a 
portion  of  the  army.  Vaudreuil  and  the  troops  of 
his  division  remained  at  Beauport ;  Bougainville  and 
the  troops  under  his  command  were  at  Cap  Rouge. 
.Montcalm,  however,  was  able  to  muster  a  force  of 
about  seven  thousand  five  hundred  men,  and  he  re- 
solved to  fight  the  enemy  on  the  open  field.  He  has 
been  blamed  for  not  remaining  within  the  city  and 
acting  on  the  defensive  behind  his  ramparts.  The 
question  was  a  difficult  one.  Every  hour's  delay 
enabled  Wolfe  to  fortify  himself  and  bring  up  more 
troops  from  the  river :  besides,  the  English  could  now 
cut  off  all  supplies  from  Quebec. 

L 


162 


THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 


The   Frcucli    troops  wore  eager  for  the  fray,  and 
they    rushed    forward    rapidly,    firing    as 

The  Battle.  .   ,  \        J  *     . 

soon   as   they   came    within    range.      I  he 
English   stood   firm   us  a  wall,  wasting  no  shots,  and 

moving  only  to 
fill  the  gaps 
made  by  the 
fallen :  for  they 
had  been  ordered 
not  to  fire  until 
the  enemy  were 
within  forty 
paces.  But  when 
the  word  "Fire!" 
ran  along  the 
lines,  every  gun 
was  levelled  as 
by  a  single  arm, 
and  one  simulta- 
neous and  over- 
whelming volley 
swept  across 
the  opposing 
columns.  Fear- 
ful was  the  havoc 
among  the 
French.  The 
WOLKK.  dead  and  woun- 

ded strewed  the 

plain,  and    the   broken  ranks    were    completely    dis- 
organised.     Then    came    the    order    "  Charge ! ' 
which    some    of   the    English    rushed    forward    witl 
fixed  bayonets :  others  kept  firing  as  they  advanced ; 


END   OF   FRENCH    RULE    IN    AMERICA.         163 

while  the  Scottish  Highlanders  with  their  broad- 
swords fought  their  way  through  the  ranks  of  the 
foe.  The  French  militia  fled  in  disorder.  The 
regulars,  animated  by  the  gallant  Montcalm,  strove 
manfully ;  but 
they  could  not 
withstand  the 
impetuous 
charge  of  the 
column  which 
bore  down  upon 
the  in.  The 
battle  was  short 
and  decisive. 
Some  of  the 
French  were 
driven  across 
the  St.  Charles; 
others  took  re- 
fuge within  the 
city  walls.  Their 
lous  was  between 
twelveandrifteen 
hundred  men. 
The  loss  of  the 
British  in  killed 
and  wounded 
was  about  six  MONTCALM. 

hundred. 

The   two   commanders  threw  themselves  into  the 
jfcmggle    with    whole-souled    valour,    and  woifeand 
b:>ih  fell  mortally  wounded.     Wolfe  real-  Montcalm- 
ised  that  he  had  staked  everything  on  the  issue  of 


164  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

the  day.  It  was  victory  or  ruin.  In  the  early  part 
of  the  engagement  he  moved  hen-  and  there  among 
his  men,  cheering  them  by  his  presence  and  his 
words.  He  was  soon  seriously  wounded  in  the  wrist, 
but  he  tied  his  handkerchief  around  the  wound  and 
made  no  complaint.  When  he  gave  the  order  to 
charge,  placing  himself  at  the  head  of  his  grenadiers, 
he  led  the  attack.  Pressing  on  in  the  thickest  of  the 
battle,  he  received  a  fatal  wound  in  the  brejist.  He 
asked  for  the  support  of  the  officer  near  him.  that 
the  soldiers  might  not  see  him  fall.  As  he  was  borne 
to  the  rear  he  heard  the  words,  "  They  run  ! "  "  \Vho 
run  ?  "  eagerly  asked  the  dying  hero.  "  The  enemy, 
sir,"  was  the  reply.  Then,  after  sending  a  messenger 
with  orders  to  one  of  his  officers.  Wolfe  uttered  his 
hist  memorable  words— "(Jod  b^  praised!  I  die  in 
peace."  In  the  autumn,  when  the  British  fleet  sailed 
away,  one  of  its  ships  bore  the  embalmed  remains 
of  Wolfe  to  the  mother-laud.  Montcalm  was  still 
trying  to  rally  his  fugitive  soldiers,  when  he  received  a 
fatal  wound.  Supported  on  his  horse  by  two  soldiers, 
he  Wiis  borne  into  the  city.  The  surgeon  who  at- 
tended him  pronounced  the  wound  fatal,  and  told 
Montcalm  that  he  had  but  few  hours  to  live.  "  I 
am  glad  of  it,"  said  the  patriot  soldier:  "  I  shall  not 
live  to  see  the  surrender  of  Quebec.'1  Before  the 
morning  dawned  he  had  passed  away.  Coffined  in  a 
rough  box.  he  was  buried  with  little  ceremony  under 
the  floor  of  the  chapel  of  the  I'rsuline  Convent. 

In  Mxmtcalm's  last  moments,  when  his  thoughts 
were  turned  chiefly  to  the  objects  which  were  dear  to 
his  heart — his  beautiful  home  far  away  in  France, 
with  its  unfading  vision  of  mother,  and  wife,  and  '4 


END    OF    FBENCH    RULE    IN    AMERICA.          165 

children — and  to  the  great  concerns  of  the  future  life, 
he  did  not  forget  those  who  had  been  his  companions 
in  arms,  and  the  Canadian  people,  whom  he  could  no 
longer  serve.  Their  place  in  his  latest  thoughts  is 
shown  by  the  following  note  which  he  sent  to  General 
Townshend  :— 

"  MONSIEUR, — The  humanity  of  the  English  sets 
my  mind  at  rest  concerning  the  fate  of  the  French 
prisoners  and  the  Canadians.  Feel  towards  them 
as  they  have  caused  me  to  feel.  Do  not  let  them 
perceive  that  they  have  changed  masters.  Be  their 
protector  as  I  have  been  their  father." 

General  Monckton  stood  next  to  Wolfe  in  rank, 
but  he  being  seriously  wounded,  the  com- 
mand fell  to  General  Townshend.  Before 
making  an  assault  on  the  town,  this  officer  proceeded 
to  strengthen  his  position,  and  bring  up  such  supplies 
from  the  ships  as  would  enable  him  to  carry  on  the 
siege.  But  no  further  blow  was  needed.  Quebec 
was  a  mass  of  ruins,  and  had  little  means  of  defence. 
The  greater  part  of  the  defeated  troops  had  retired  to 
Jacques  Cartier,  some  thirty  miles  distant,  whither  the 
Governor  and  the  Intendant  had  also  betaken  them- 
selves. Thus  there  were  but  few  regular  soldiers  in 
the  city,  and  the  militia  could  not  be  depended  on. 
War  material  was  nearly  exhausted,  provisions  within 
the  city  sufficed  for  only  a  week  on  half  rations,  and 
further  supply  was  cut  off.  Accordingly,  four  days 
after  the  battle,  Ramesay,  the  commandant  of  the 
garrison,  sent  an  officer  bearing  a  white  flag  to  the 
English  camp,  to  ask  for  terms  of  surrender.  Matters 
were  soon  arranged,  and  Quebec  was  given  up  to  the 


166  THE    DOMINION*    OF    CANADA. 

English.  The  soldiers  were  allowed  to  inarch  out 
with  the  honours  of  war,  and  the  citizens  were  assured 
of  protection  for  themselves  and  their  property,  and 
of  the  enjoyment  of  their  religion. 

Meanwhile  De  Lcvis,  who  had   been   at   Montreal, 
hearing  of  the  disastrous  battle,  hastened 

Too  Late.  ,  .  . 

to  the  rescue.  On  Ins  arrival  at  Jacques 
Cartier  he  rallied  the  army,  inspired  Vaudreuil  with  new 
resolution,  and  woke  up  Bigot,  so  that  they  were  soon 
on  the  march  for  Quebec  to  retrieve  their  lost  honour. 
On  the  way  they  learned  that  Quebec-  had  surrendered. 
The  British  Hag  now  waved  over  the  citadel  in  the 
The  British  capital  of  New  France.  Quelicc  was  a 
occupy  Quebec.  ,|mss  of  nims  .  disorder  prevailed;  the 

inhabitants  were  famished  and  destitute.  General 
Murray  was  chief  in  command,  Townshend  having 
returned  to  England.  The  severe  Canadian  winter 
which  followed  was  keenly  felt  by  the  British  soldiers, 
especially  by  the  kilted  Highlanders,  whose  costume 
gave  them  scant  protection.  The  French  nuns 
showed  them  much  kindness,  knitting  long  hose 
to  (-over  their  bare  legs,  and  nursing  the  sick  with 
great  care  and  tenderness.  Indeed,  the  friendly  feel- 
ing and  kind  offices  shown  in  Quebec  during  the 
winter  by  French  and  English  towards  each  other 
afforded  an  earnest  of  that  harmony  with  which,  for 
the  most  part,  the  two  races  have  since  occupied  their 
Canadian  home. 

Early  in  the  following  spring  De  Levis.  at  the  head 
of  eight  or  nine  thousand  men,  attempted 

Efforts  to  .  ¥          ,  .  .          , 

recapture          to  retake  Quebec.      In  tins  eitort  lie  was 

very  nearly  si u-cessful.     M 1 1 rray  was  young 

and    impulsive.     Disease   had   greatly    weakened  his 


END    OF    FRENCH    RULE    IN    AMERICA.        167 

army,  and  he  could  bring  only  three  thousand  men 
into  the  field,  yet  he  imprudently  marched  out  to 
meet  the  enemy.  In  explaining  his  action  after- 
wards he  said,  "  Our  little  army  was  in  the  habit  of 
beating  that  enemy."  The  struggle  was  a  severe  one, 
and  in  the  end  Murray,  after  losing  over  a  third  of  his 
men,  was  forced  to  take  refuge  in  the  city.  He  now 
did  much  to  make  amends  for  his  blunder  by  the 
wonderful  energy  he  showed  in  placing  the  city  in  a 
state  of  defence.  Order  and  confidence  were  thus 
restored,  and  the  enthusiasm  and  spirit  of  the  soldiers 
revived.  Levis  was  also  an  able  general,  and  he  was 
making  preparations  for  a  vigorous  siege.  It  was 
difficult  to  predict  the  issue.  Both  sides  were  expect- 
ing reinforcements  from  Europe,  and  the  one  first  to 
receive  help  from  the  mother-country  seemed  likely 
to  win  the  prize.  So  when  a  ship  was  seen  coming 
up  the  river,  it  was  with  feverish  anxiety  that  all  eyes 
watched  her  approach.  When  she  unfurled  the  red 
cross  of  St.  George,  cheers  of  exultation  rang  out  from 
behind  the  ramparts.  A  British  squadron  arriving 
a  day  or  two  later,  the  fate  of  the  city  was  decided. 
De  Levis  made  a  hasty  retreat,  leaving  behind  him 
his  cannon,  ammunition,  baggage,  and  all  the  sick 
and  wounded  of  his  army. 

The  British  forces  now  set  out  from  three  separate 
points,  widely  distant  from  each  other,  for  The  Closing. 
Montreal,  where  the  French,  under  Van-  Scene>  I76°- 
dreuil  and  De  Levis,  had  made  a  final  stand.     General 
Amlierst,  collecting  an  army  of  ten  thousand  men  at 
O:;v/ego,  crossed  Lake  Ontario  and  proceeded  down  the 
St.  Lawrence.     Haviland,  with  three  thousand  men, 
advanced  from  Crown  Point  by  way  of  Lake  Cham- 


108  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

1. 1. HI i  and  the  lii<-li<  lii-u.  and  Murray  came  from 
Quebec,  receiving  the  submission  of  the  inhabitants 
as  ho  passed  through  the  country.  The  only  hope 
for  Vaudreuil  and  De  L'-vis  was  in  fighting  these 
divisions  separately  before  they  concentrated  their 
Btrength  at  Montreal.  This  they  tailed  to  do.  Indeed, 
they  luid  little  righting  ability.  Their  army  consisted 
largely  of  Canadian  militia,  who  had  lost  all  spirit  for 
war,  and  were  thinking  rather  of  their  homes  and 
their  starving  families.  And  now,  when  the  Cana- 
dians saw  an  army  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  thousand 
men,  including  Indians,  encamped  before  Montreal, 
they  deserted  almost  to  a  man.  Indeed,  many  of  the 
regulars  went  with  them.  There  remained  only  about 
twenty-four  hundred  men. 

Thus  reduced,  Vaudreuil  and  De  Levis  ottered  to 
surrender.  General  Amherst  demanded 
that  they  give  up  their  arms  and  stan- 
dards. Vaudreuil  and  De  Levis  thought  this  too 
hard,  and  they  pleaded  for  terms  less  humiliating: 
but  Amherst,  charging  them  with  having  encouraged 
the  Indians  in  their  acts  of  outrage,  would  abate 
nothing.  De  L'vis  stood  out  decidedly  against  com- 
plying with  the  conditions,  and  secretly  burned  his 
colours  rather  than  submit  to  the  dishonour  of  giving 
them  up  to  the  enemy.  According  to  the  terms  of 
surrender,  the  troops  were  to  be  sent  to  France  under 
pledge  of  not  serving  again  in  the  existing  war :  the 
inhabitants  who  chose  to  remain  were  assured  of  pro- 
tection for  their  persons,  their  property,  and  their 
religion.  Amherst  especially  enjoined  on  Ins  men  to 
refrain  from  all  inhumanity  and  plunder,  and  to  treat 
the  Canadians  in  every  respect  as  British  subjects. 


CHAPTEK  XVI. 

LAYING    NEW    FOUNDATIONS. 

PEACE  was  not  concluded  between  Great  Britain  and 
France  for  over  two  years  after  the  sur-  provisionai 
render  of  Montreal.     Meanwhile  Canada  Government, 
was  placed  under  the  rule  of  military   officers.     It 
was  divided  into  three  districts,  each  having  its  own 
Lieutenant-Governor  :— 

The  District  of  Quebec,  under  General  Murray. 
The     District    of    Three     Rivers,    under     Colonel 

Burton. 
The  District  of  Montreal,  under  General  Gage. 

The  inhabitants  of  Canada,  at  this  time  estimated 
at  sixty-two  thousand,  were  settled  chiefly  The  Inhabi. 
along  the  St.  Lawrence,  between  the  Gulf  tants- 
and  Montreal ;  from  this  to  Detroit  the  country  was 
a  wilderness  without  inhabitants.  For  the  most  part 
the  peasantry  remained  in  the  country  after  the  con- 
quest. They,  no  doubt,  were  to  some  extent  suspicious 
of  the  English,  and  felt  a  certain  degree  of  discomfort 
under  the  rule  of  those  whom  they  had  been  wont 
to  regard  as  bitter  enemies;  but  generally  they  ac- 
cepted the  new  order  of  things  with  good  grace. 
They  could,  indeed,  scarcely  grieve  very  much  over 
the  removal  of  a  power  which  kept  them  under  such 
rulers  as  the  avaricious  Bigot.  The  severe  exactions 


170  THE    DOMINION    <>F   CANADA. 

of  the  government  had  reduced  them  to  the  lowest 
poverty.  The  men  had  been  drawn  away  from  their 
usual  occupations  tor  military  service,  and  the  scanty 
products  of  their  farms  which  they  were  able  to  dis- 
pose of  had  been  sold  to  the  Government  for  paper 
money,  which  was  now  worthless,  or  at  least  of  very 
doubtful  value.  The  English  governors,  especially 
General  Murray,  treated  them  with  much  considera- 
tion, and  sought  to  reconcile  them  to  the  change 
which  had  come  upon  them  so  suddenly.  In  some 
important  ways  the  condition  of  the  common  people- 
was  greatly  improved.  They  were  no  longer  called 
upon  for  service  in  war,  and  they  could  cultivate 
their  farms  without  fear  of  disturbance. 

The  officers  of  the  civil  government,  some  of  the 
French  noblesse,  and  many  of  the  merchants  re- 
moved to  France.  Vaudreuil,  Bigot,  and  several 
others,  on  their  return  to  France,  were  thrown  into 
the  Bastile,  and  were  afterwards  brought  to  trial 
for  fraud  against  the  Government.  Vaudreuil  was 
acquitted.  Bigot,  who  had  enriched  himself  by 
shameless  plundering,  was  compelled  to  give  up  hiu 
ill-gotten  wealth.  All  his  property  was  confiscated, 
and  he  was  exiled  for  life. 

Indian  wars  had  not  yet  wholly  ceased.  Shortly 
Pontiac's  after  the  conquest  of  Canada  the  tribes 

Conspiracy.  of  tju,  vvest  formed  a  great  conspiracy 
against  the  English.  The  French  had  gained  their 
goodwill  by  living  amongst  them,  adopting  their  wild 
life,  and  giving  them  presents.  The  agents  of  the 
French  Government  now  told  them  that  the  English 
would  drive  them  from  their  hunting-grounds  and 
seize  the  whole  of  their  lauds.  This  plot,  which  was 


LAYING   NEW    FOUNDATIONS.  171 

a  most  serious  affair,  has  been  known  as  "  Pontiac's 
Conspiracy,"  so  called  from  one  of  its  principal  actors, 
Pontiac,  a  noted  Indian  chief  of  the  Ottawa  tribe. 
The  forts  around  the  Great  Lakes  and  in  the  Ohio 
Valley  had  all  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  English, 
and  were  held  by  small  garrisons.  Pontiac  sent  his 
messengers  through  all  the  tribes,  and  arranged  for  a 
simultaneous  attack  on  these  forts.  The  story  cannot 
be  fully  told  here.  It  must  suffice  to  say  that,  by 
cunning  stratagem  or  by  open  assault,  the  savages 
seized  nine  forts,  and  cruelly  put  the  English  to  death 
or  dragged  them  into  captivity. 

At  Mackinaw,  on  Lake  Michigan,  they  invited  the 
officers  to  witness  a  game  of  La  Crosse.  The  gates 
of  the  fort  were  left  open,  and  when  all  were  excited 
over  the  game,  at  a  given  signal  the  Indians  seized 
the  hatchets  which  the  squaws  had  concealed  under 
their  blankets,  rushed  into  the  fort,  killed  part  of  the 
garrison,  and  made  prisoners  of  the  rest.  At  Detroit 
the  stratagem  was  less  successful.  The  wily  Pontiac, 
accompanied  by  sixty  warriors,  each  with  a  short  gun 
concealed  under  his  blanket,  sought  admission  to  the 
fort  to  smoke  the  pipe  of  peace.  But  the  English 
had  received  timely  warning,  and,  to  Pontiac's  sur- 
prise, he  was  met  by  soldiers  ready  for  battle.  This 
Indian  war  lasted  for  many  months,  when,  largely 
through  the  good  management  of  Sir  William  John- 
son, the  savages  were  pacified.  Many  of  those  who 
had  been  dragged  into  captivity  by  the  Indians  were 
now  restored  to  their  friends,  while  some,  having  be- 
come attached  to  wild  Indian  life,  refused  to  return 
to  their  old  homes. 

Due  in  large  measure  to  the  wise  policy  of  William 


172  THE    DOMINION    OK    CANADA. 

Pitt,  the    last  part  of  the  reign  of  <  Jeorge    II.  was  a 
The  Peace  of     ln'illiiiiit  period  in  the  history  of  Kngland. 

The  Seven  Years'  War  brought  success 
to  the  arms  of  Great  Britain  and  glory  to  her  Hag. 
George  ILL,  who  eame  to  the  throne  in  1 7b'<),  was 
very  different  from  his  grandfather,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded. His  mother  hml  always  been  saying  to  him, 
"George,  b»-  a  king!"  and  when  his  turn  came  to 
rule,  lie  had  high  notions  of  a  kings  rights.  He  did 
not  want  a  Minister  who  had  a  policy.  It  thus  hap- 
pened that  Pitt  was  not  in  power  when  the  war  closed, 
otherwise  some  things  would  have  been  done  differ- 
ently. The  treaty  which  settled  affairs,  known  in 
history  as  the  Peace  of  Paris,  ceded  to  Great  Britain 
all  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  Cape  Breton,  the  Island  of 
St.  John,  and  Newfoundland :  in  fact,  all  the  French 
possessions  in  America  east  of  the  Mississippi  except 
New  Orleans.  France  was  allowed  the  right  of  fish- 
iug  in  Newfoundland  waters,  and  of  drying  Hsh  on 
certain  parts  of  the  cojust  of  that  island.  She  also 
retained  the  islands  of  Miquelon  and  St.  Pierre  as 
fishing  stations.  Pitt  strongly  opposed  this  conces- 
sion of  fishing  privileges,  as  he  foresaw  that  some  day 
it  would  be  a  source  of  trouble:  but  his  opposition 
was  of  no  avail. 

In    17Go   Canada,  under  the  name  of  the   Province 

of  Quebec,  was,  by  roval  proclamation,  dc- 

The  Govern-  .  .  .      .    .    ,  .  . 

mentofthe         dared    a   British    possession,  and   General 

Province.  ,t  ,          ,  ,  ,      , 

Murray  was  made  Governor  ol  the  whole 
country.  The  Governor  was  authorised  to  call  a 
representative  assembly  for  the  enacting  of  laws 
whenever  he  thought  the  province  ready  for  this 
step.  As  Hi-man  Catholics  were  at  that  time  not 


LAYING   NEW   FOUNDATIONS.  173 

allowed  to  vote,  an  assembly  would  have  represented 
a  comparatively  small  portion  of  the  inhabitants.  In 
the  meantime,  accordingly,  the  laws  were  made  and 
the  government  of  the  province  was  carried  on  by 
the  Governor  and  a  Council  chosen  by  himself.  The 
power  of  levying  duties  on  imported  goods,  and  of 
imposing  general  taxes,  was  reserved  to  the  British 
House  of  Commons.  Town  authorities,  however, 
were  allowed  to  tax  citizens  for  the  repair  of  the 
streets  and  for  other  local  objects.  The  rights  of 
the  Indians  to  their  hunting-grounds  were  carefully 
guarded  in  the  King's  proclamation.  No  private 
person  was  allowed  to  buy  their  lands.  Purchase 
could  be  made  only  by  the  Governor  or  other  high 
official,  and  the  purchase  could  not  be  made  in  any 
private  way,  but  only  from  the  Indians  assembled  in 
council.  English-speaking  people  were  encouraged 
to  settle  in  the  province  by  the  offer  of  free  grants 
of  land.  Among  the  noted  features  of  progress  was 
the  introduction  of  a  printing-press  in  the  city  of 
Quebec.  On  the  21st  of  June  1764  was  issued  the 
Quebec  Gazette,  the  lirst  paper  published  in  Canada. 

Governor  Murray  found  the  English  settlers  very 
troublesome.  Although  they  did  not  exceed  live 
hundred  in  number,  they  insisted  that  he  should 
call  an  assembly,  by  which  they  would  have  gained 
full  control  of  the  country.  Failing  to  -secure  their 
object,  they  petitioned  King  George  III.  to  re- 
move him  from  office.  Murray  proceeded  to  Eng- 
land to  meet  the  charges  brought  against  him.  He 
did  not  return  to  Canada,  but  for  a  year  and  •  a 
half,  while  residing  in  England,  he  held  his  office 
of  Governor. 


174  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

Although  the  "  New  Subjects,"  as  French  Canadians 

were  called,  were  promised  the  same  treat- 
Privileges  of  ' .  .  ,  .  . 
the-NewSub-  im'iit  as  other   British  subjects  as  tar  as 

itcts  " 

the  laws  of  Great  Britain  would  allow,  they 
had  not  equal  privileges  with  the  English  people  who 
had  come  into  the  province.  The  laws  of  Great 
Britain  at  that  time  excluded  Roman  Catholics  from 
all  important  public  ottiees.  Candidates  for  these 
ottie.es  were  required  to  take  what  was  called  the  test 
oath,  denying  certain  doctrines  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion.  The  French  Canadians  were  quite  willing  to 
take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  Sovereign  of  Great 
Britain,  but  they  would  not  disown  their  religion  for 
the  honours  or  emoluments  of  oftice.  They  were 
allowed  full  freedom  in  religious  matters,  but  their 
priests  were  forbidden  to  take  any  part  in  political 
affairs. 

The  French  and  the  English  could  not  agree  at  all 

as  regards   the    laws  which    they  desired. 

The  Laws. 

Tlie  French  did  not  like  the  English  cus- 
tom of  trial  by  jury,  but  preferred  the  simple  decision 
of  the  judge.  Trial  by  jury,  in  which  the  agreement 
of  all  was  required  before  a  verdict  could  be  given, 
seemed  to  them  a  contest  to  try  the  jurymen's  power 
of  holding  out,  rather  than  a  suitable  means  to  decide 
the  merits  of  a  cause.  Then  the  French  laws  relating 
to  the  ownership  and  transfer  of  lands  were  very  unlike 
those  of  England.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the 
feudal  system  of  holding  lands  was  introduced  at  an 
early  period  into  Canada.  The  peasant  paid  an  annual 
rent  for  his  land  to  the  Seignior,  and  when  he  sold  his 
land  he  had  to  give  one-twelfth  of  the  price  to  the 
Seignior.  This  tended  to  hinder  improvement,  for  the 


LAYING    NEW    FOUNDATIONS.  175 

more  valuable  laud  became,  the  greater  was  the  tax. 
But  the  habitants,  being  illiterate  and  unacquainted 
with  business,  could  look  to  the  Seignior  as  protector. 
Their  lauds,  being  under  the  guardianship  of  the 
Seignior,  could  not  be  seized  lor  debt.  Another  pecu- 
liarity in  the  French  system  was  the  absence  of  regis- 
tration of  deeds  and  mortgages.  The  people  were 
much  opposed  to  the  English  custom,  thinking  that 
it  involved  needless  expense ;  and  as  they  could  not 
read,  they  were  suspicious  that  written  records  might 
b^  used  as  a  means  of  concealing  fraud.  Their  system, 
however,  often  led  to  bad  results.  One  could  mort- 
gage his  land  to  different  persons,  one  mortgagee  not 
knowing  that  it  was  mortgaged  to  another.  The 
owner  could  thus  realise  more  on  his  land  than  it  was 
worth,  or  he  might  sell  mortgaged  land  for  its  full 
value,  and  the  purchaser  not  know  of  the  encumbrance 
at  the  time  of  purchase.  The  laws  relating  to  hus- 
band and  wife  were  also  unlike  those  of  the  English. 
In  the  matter  of  property  the  marriage  relation  was 
a.  sort  of  partnership  in  which  each  had  equal  interest. 
If  the  wife  died  before  the  husband,  her  heirs  were 
entitled  to  her  half  of  the  property. 

In  1 768  Sir  Guy  Carleton  succeeded  General  Murray 
as  Governor  of  Canada.    He  found  matters  The  Quebec 
in  a  very  unsatisfactory  condition.     The  Act>  I774- 
French  inhabitants  did  not  understand  the  English 
laws,  and  they  disliked  these  laws  so  much  that  it  was 
difficult  to  enforce  them.     The  courts  had  in  some 
matters   adopted   the   old   French   laws,  which  gave 
offence  to  the  English  people.     There  was  much  con- 
fusion as  well  as  murmuring.     Governor  Carleton  went 
to  England  for  the  purpose  of  securing  some  better 


176  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

basis  of  government  tor  the  province.  Accordingly, 
after  some  delay,  the  British  Parliament,  in  1771, 
passed  what  is  known  as  the  Quebec  Act,  which  came 
into  force  in  the  following  year.  This  Act  extended 
the  bounds  of  the  province  to  the  Mississippi  on  the 
west,  to  the  water-shed  of  Hudson  Bay  on  the  north, 
and  to  the  Ohio  on  the  south.  It  established  the  use 
of  French  civil  law  and  Knglish  criminal  law.  It 
removed  all  civil  disabilities  from  the  French  in- 
habitants arising  from  their  religion,  and  it  secured 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  the  tithes  from  their 
own  people,  which  they  had  been  accustomed  to  col- 
lect under  French  rule.  The  Act  did  not  give  the 
province  a  representative  assembly,  but  left  the  govern- 
ment, as  before,  with  the  Governor  and  a  Legislative 
Council  appointed  by  the  Crown.  The  Hrst  Council 
comprised  twenty-three  members,  eight  of  whom  were 
Roman  Catholics.  It  had  power  to  make  laws,  sub- 
ject to  the  approval  of  the  Governor.  The  French 
were  well  pleased  with  the  Act.  Not  so  the  English. 
They  objected  to  the  French  civil  code  and  to  the  pro- 
vision made  for  the  support  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion.  The  extension  of  the  bounds  of  Canada  gave 
offence  to  some  of  the  other  provinces. 

Meanwhile  some  important  events  had  taken  place 
in   Nova   Scotia.     The   colonists  in   that 

The  First  As-  .  ,  . 

sembiy  in  Nova   province    had    been    promised    a    repre- 

Scotia,  1758  .          . 

sentative  legislature,  and  the  laws  made 
by  the  Governor  and  Coimo.il  were  considered  by 
legal  authorities  to  be  of  doubtful  validity.  Governor 
Lawrence  was  accordingly  instructed  by  the  British 
Government  to  call  on  the  people  to  elect  a  House  of 
Assembly.  Fearing  that  such  a  body  might  assume 


LAYING    NEW    FOUNDATIONS.  177 

too  much  power  and  cause  him  trouble,  the  conser- 
vative Governor  obeyed  the  order  somewhat  unwill- 
ingly. The  first  Assembly,  consisting  of  twenty-two 
members,  met  in  the  Court  House  in  Halifax  on  the 
2nd  of  October  1758.  Roman  Catholics  were  not 
allowed  to  sit  as  members  or  to  vote  at  elections.  By 
the  death  of  King  George  II.,  in  1760,  the  House  was 
dissolved. 

Better  days  now  began  to  dawn  on  Nova  Scotia. 
Governor   Lawrence   invited   colonists   to 

.  .  ,.  New  Colonists 

come   from    New   England,   offering   tree  in  Nova  Scotia, 

c  ^T-     i_    i.  i     j  •     ^T.  •          '760-1773- 

grants  or  the  best  land  in  the  province. 

Many  families  of  old  Puritan  stock  from  Connecticut 
and  Rhode  Island  accepted  his  invitation,  and  settled 
on  the  fertile  farms  in  Annapolis,  Cornwallis,  Horton, 
Windsor,  Truro,  Onslow,  and  Cumberland,  from  which 
the  Acadians  had  been  expelled.  The  Lords  of  Trade 
in  England  were  not  pleased  with  the  action  of  the 
Governor  in  this  regard,  as  they  thought  to  reserve 
these  lands  for  such  officers  and  soldiers  as  might 
wish  to  settle  in  the  country  on  the  close  of  the  war 
in  Canada,  Lawrence  assured  them  that  there  was 
abundance  of  land  equally  good  on  the  St.  John 
River  and  elsewhere,  but  at  the  same  time  he  frankly 
told  them  that  soldiers  did  not  make  good  colonists 
for  a  new  country.  Many  of  the  soldiers  who  had 
come  to  Nova  Scotia  soon  went  away,  and  a  large 
number  of  those  who  remained  resorted  to  the  liquor 
traffic  for  a  livelihood.  The're  came  also  a  few  fami- 
lies from  Philadelphia,  who  formed  the  first  English 
settlement  hi  Pictou.  These  people  endured  great 
hardships,  getting  much  of  their  food  for  a  year  or 
two  by  hunting  and  fishing.  A  few  years  later,  in 

M 


178  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

1773,  there  came  to  Pictou  a  snuill  Scotch  colony. 
These  hardy  pioneers  had  time  only  to  build  rude 
cabins  before  winter  set  in.  To  prevent  their  families 
from  starving,  the  men  went  to  Truro,  forty  miles 
distant,  and  dragged  home  flour  and  potatoes  on 
hand-sleds.  It  thus  happened  that  there  was  estab- 
lished in  the  western  part  of  the  province  a  popula- 
tion of  New  England  origin,  while  in  the  east  the 
people  are  generally  of  Scottish  origin.  These  colo- 
nists in  the  east  and  west,  di tiering  from  each  other  in 
many  ways,  but  alike  intelligent,  moral,  and  thrifty, 
made  a  marked  impress  for  good  on  the  subsequent 
character  of  the  province. 

In  1755  many  of  the  Acadians  fled   to    the  north 

The  County  of  s'(^c  °^  tno  ^a.v  (>^  Fundy,  some  of  them 
Sunbury,  1765.  scttlmg  near  Fort  La  Tour  at  the  mouth 
of  the  St.  John,  others  at  St.  Anne's  and  Jemseg. 
Acadian  settlements  were  also  formed  on  the  Mira- 
michi,  Nepisiquit,  and  the  Restigouche.  During  the 
late  war  attempts  were  made  to  expel  them.  Fort 
La  Tour  was  captured,  and  its  name  was  changed  to 
Fort  Frederick.  The  poor  Acadians  were  greatly 
harassed,  and  in  some  cases  they  were  driven  from 
their  settlements,  but  for  the  most  part  they  still 
remained  in  the  country.  In  1765  an  important 
colony  of  about  eight  hundred  people  from  Massa- 
chusetts settled  on  the  St.  John  River.  Three  years 
after,  their  settlement  was  formed  into  the  County  of 
Sunbury,  with  the  privilege  of  sending  one  member 
to  the  Assembly  at  Halifax. 

As  already  stated,  the  Island  of  St.  John  (Prince 
Edward)  formed  a  part  of  the  territory  ceded  to 
Great  Britain  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris.  As  the  island 


LAYING    NEW    FOUNDATIONS.  179 

now  conies  into  prominence  it  demands  a  place  in 
our  story.  The  name  St.  John  is  said  The  Island  of 
to  have  been  given  to  it  by  Champlain.  St-J°hn- 
For  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  the  island  received 
little  attention.  In  1663  it  was  granted  to  a  French 
captain  named  Doublet,  who  made  it  headquarters  of 
his  fisheries  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  But  the 
fishermen  had  no  thought  of  settling  here ;  they 
simply  had  little  huts  at  certain  harbours  where  they 
cured  their  tish,  and  they  carne  and  went  as  suited 
their  business.  Not  until  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  had 
given  Nova  Scotia  to  Great  Britain  was  the  island 
regarded  as  a  suitable  place  for  settlement.  Some  of 
the  Acadians,  preferring  their  old  flag,  now  crossed 
the  strait  and  made  their  home  here.  As  the  soil 
was  found  to  be  fertile  and  the  climate  agreeable,  the 
French  people  were  attracted  to  the  island  from  time 
to  time  as  the  years  went  by.  But  the  great  acces- 
sion to  the  population  was  in  1755,  on  the  occasion  of 
the  capture  of  Beausejour  and  the  expulsion  of  the 
Acadians  from  Nova  Scotia.  The  population  was  now 
increased  to  about  four  thousand.  The  island  had 
its  Governor,  whose  headquarters  were  at  Fort  La 
Joye,  near  the  site  of  the  present  city  of  Charlotte- 
town.  As  already  stated,  this  fort  was  taken  by  the 
English  after  the  second  capture  of  Louisburg,  and 
the  Avhole  island  then  fell  to  Great  Britain.  Shortly 
aiter  the  Treaty  of  Paris  the  island  was  placed  under 
the  Government  of  Nova  Scotia.  But  in  the  mean-- 
time nearly  all  the  French  people  had  moved  away, 
so  that  there  were  now  only  about  one  hundred  and 
lii'ty  inhabitants  remaining. 

By  order  of  the  British  Government  the  Island  of 


180  THE  DOMINION  OF  CANADA. 

St.  John  was  divided  into  Townships  or  Lots,  of  which 
there  were  sixty-seven.  These  townships  were  given 
to  certain  officers  of  the  army,  and  other  persons,  who 
were  thought  to  have  claims  on  the  Government  for 
some  service  rendered.  To  prevent  disputes  and 
charges  of  partiality,  the  distribution  was  made  by 
drawing  numbers  from  the  ballot-box,  thus  determin- 
ing by  lot  the  division  each  should  have.  Certain 
conditions  were  specified  on  which  the  lands  were  to 
be  held.  The  grantees  were,  within  ten  years,  to 
settle  at  least  one  inhabitant  for  every  two  hundred 
acres  of  land.  These  settlers  were  to  be  Protestants, 
and  they  were  not  to  be  taken  from  the  British  Isles. 
Thus  did  the  Government  guard  against  depleting  the 
population  at  home.  After  the  first  five  years  the 
proprietors  were  to  pay  to  the  Government  a  rental 
or  tax  known  as  quit-rent.  The  conditions  were  in 
very  few  cases  (tarried  out.  At  the  end  of  ten  years 
forty-eight  of  the  sixty-seven  lots  haul  no  settlement. 
This  disposal  of  the  island  residted  in  a  system  of 
non-resident  landlords,  which  afterwards  caused  much 
trouble. 

Very  soon  the  proprietors,  many  of  whom  were  men 
The  island  °^  influence,  began  to  petition  the  King 
ra*eVroSv£ce,  *°r  il  separation  of  the  Island  of  St.  John 
'"°-  from  the  Government  of  Nova  Scotia. 

This  was  done  in  1770,  when  it  was  formed  into  a 
distinct  province,  with  Walter  Patterson,  one  of  the 
proprietors,  as  its  first  Governor.  At  this  time  there 
were  but  five  resident  proprietors  in  the  province,  amd 
the  total  number  of  inhabitants  was  al>out  two  hun- 
dred. The  first  Assembly  wais  elected  in  1773. 

In  the  summer  preceding  the  restoration  of  peace 


LAYING   NEW    FOUNDATIONS.  181 

the  French  took  St.  John's,  the  capital  of  Newfound- 
land, and   held    it   about    three    months. 

-__,  ft  i       i     An  Alarm,  1762 

When  the  news  or  the  capture  reached 
Halifax,  the  wildest  alarm  seized  the  people  lest  the 
enemy  should  attack  Nova  Scotia.  Councils  of  war 
were  held,  forts  were  repaired,  martial  law  was  pro- 
claimed, and  the  militia  were  brought  from  the  country 
to  defend  the  capital.  The  panic  extended  to  the 
country.  Many  Acadians  who  were  employed  in 
repairing  the  dikes  in  Annapolis,  Cornwallis,  and 
Horton,  were  seized  and  sent  to  Halifax  as  prisoners. 
These,  together  with  other  Acadians  brought  from 
different  parts  of  the  province,  were  sent  to  Boston. 
The  Governor  of  Massachusetts  would  not  allow  them 
to  land,  but  ordered  that  they  be  sent  back  to  Nova 
Scotia.  They  were  kept  some  time  as  prisoners  in 
Halifax,  when  some  of  them  were  sent  to  the  West 
Indies.  Suspicion  of  the  Acadians,  however,  gradually 
died  away,  and  in  1764,  by  order  of  the  King,  they 
were  permitted,  on  taking  the  oath  of  allegiance,  to 
settle  on  lands  granted  to  them  in  various  parts  of 
the  province.  Many  descendants  of  the  old  Acadians 
now  live  in  Nova  Scotia,  and  they  are  as  loyal  to  the 
British  Crown  as  are  their  neighbours  of  other  races. 


CIIAPTEK  XVII. 

THK    AMKKK'AN    RKVOIA'TION. 

AT  the  close  of  the  war  with  France,  (treat  Britain 
had   an  unbroken  territory  along  the  At- 

British  Ameri-  .  vr        r          Ji        i 

can  Colonies  in     JaUtlC      irolll      >  OWIOUlullallU      to     (jrCOrgia. 

There  were  in  all  seventeen  colonies,  each 
having  its  own  government:  Newfoundland,  St.  John's 
Island,  Nova  Scotia,  Quebec,  Massachusetts,  New 
Hampshire,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  Xew  York, 
New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Vir- 
ginia, North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia. 
The  "Peace  of  Paris"  seemed  to  have  settled  the 
long-disputed  question  of  empire  in  North  America 
and  to  have  made  (treat  Britain  mistress  of  the 
Continent.  But  George  III.  had  not  ceased  to  re- 
joice over  his  conquests  when  the  last-named  thirteen 
colonies  rose  in  rebellion  and  claimed  their  independ- 
ence. In  fact  it  was  the  completeness  of  his  victory 
which  opened  the  way  for  rebellion  and  made  the 
independence  of  these  provinces  possible.  With  hos- 
tile French  and  Indians  beside  them,  ever  ready  to 
invade  their  homes,  they  could  rightly  value  their 
connection  with  Great  Britain:  but  now  when  there 
was  no  enemy  to  fear,  they  could  lightly  cut  them- 
selves loose  from  the  mother-land. 

At    the   time  of  the   rebellion,  or   the   '•  American 


THE    AMERICAN    REVOLUTION.  183 

« 

Revolution,"  as  it  is  called,  the  Government  of  Great 
Britain  was  not  wisely  directed.  George  III. 

-.•/1  11-1  Conditions. 

was  honest  and  wanted  to  do  his  duty ; 
but  in  his  narrow-mindedness  and  obstinacy  he  had 
surrounded  himself  with  ministers  who  were  ready 
to  advise  the  course  which  he  desired.  More- 
over, by  some  means,  perhaps  not  always  honest,  his 
ministers  found  parliaments  foolish  enough  to  carry 
out  their  measures.  One  blunder  followed  another, 
until  half  a  continent  was  lost  to  the  empire. 

Principles   of  government  were  not  then  so  well 
understood  in  Great  Britain  as  they  are  at 

„,,  ,.  /.     ,  ,.  -,     Restrictions. 

present.  1  he  policy  or  the  times  favoured 
restriction.  Especially  were  the  colonies  hampered  in 
matters  of  trade  and  manufacture.  They  were  pro- 
hibited from  trading  directly  with  foreign  countries, 
but  were  required  to  import  tea,  sugar,  spices,  and 
other  articles  of  foreign  production  from  Great  Britain. 
This  not  only  caused  delay,  but  greatly  increased  the 
cost  of  the  goods.  It  also  led  to  smuggling,  and  this 
again  to  seizure  of  merchandise  and  vessels  by  Govern- 
ment officers.  The  owners  of  smuggled  goods  often 
resisted  the  officers,  and  unseemly  riots  occurred.  In 
order  to  protect  the  industries  of  England  the  colonists 
were  not  allowed  to  manufacture  certain  articles. 

The  indignation  of  the  colonies  was  aroused  most 
of  all  by  the  taxes  imposed  on  them  by 

.^  •      Taxes' without 

the  British   Government.     Perhaps   they  Representa- 
did  not  fully  consider  the  fact  that  Great 
Britain  had  spent  vast  sums  of  money  for  their  pro- 
tection and  defence,  or  that  the  people  of  the  British 
Isles  were  now  heavily  taxed  to  raise  money  for  the 
payment  of  the  nation's  debts  thus  incurred.    To  some. 


184  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

minds  it  did  not  seem  unreasonable  that  the  colonists 
should  bear  a  portion  of  the  burden.  The  tax  in  itself 
was  not  oppressive,  but  the  colonists  objected  to  the 
authority  through  which  it  was  imposed  rather  than 
to  the  amount.  They  held  that  British  subjects  should 
not  be  taxed  by  a  legislature  in  which  they  had  no 
representation.  The  principle  w;is  an  important  one 
and  was  worth  contending  for,  but  perhaps  with  a 
little  more  patience  the  colonists  could  have  secured 
their  rights  without  rushing  into  civil  war.  Many 
people  in  England,  including  distinguished  statesmen, 
disapproved  of  the  tax. 

The  first  burden  of  this  kind  was  that  imposed  in 
1765  by  the  Stamp  Act,  by  which  it  was  provided 
that  certain  legal  documents,  as  drafts  and  notes  of 
hand,  must  be  written  on  paper  with  a  Government 
stamp  affixed  to  render  them  valid.  The  excitement 
was  not  at  first  very  general.  A  few  hot-headed  men 
made  a  great  ado.  They  said  this  was  only  the  thin 
end  of  the  wedge ;  more  oppressive  measures  would 
follow;  soon  they  and  their  children  would  be  re- 
duced to  slaver}-.  The  feeling  was  most  intense  in 
Boston,  New  York,  and  Philadelphia.  The  church 
bells  were  tolled,  flags  were  hung  at  half-mast,  and  in 
some  instances  those  appointed  to  sell  stamped  paper 
were  so  roughly  treated  that  they  were  forced  to  resign 
their  offices. 

The  British  Parliament  repealed  the  Stamp  Act, 
The  Boston  but  passed  another  Act  equally  offensive. 
Tea  Party.  ^  small  duty  was  placed  on  tea,  glass, 
paints,  and  some  other  articles,  and  the  amount  thus 
raised  was  applied  to  the  payment  of  the  salaries  of 
judges  and  other  public  officers.  The  colonists  now 


THE    AMERICAN    REVOLUTION.  185 

resolved  that  they  would  not  use  articles  on  which 
duty  was  imposed  by  the  British  Parliament.  King 
George's  ministers  would  gladly  have  got  out  of  the 
difficulty,  but  they  had  asserted  the  right  of  the 
Government  to  impose  taxes  on  the  colonies,  and  it 
seemed  humiliating  to  recede  from  the  position  they 
had  taken.  They  accordingly  removed  the  duty  from 
everything  bat  tea,  on  which  five  cents  per  pound 
were  required  to  be  paid.  People  then,  as  now,  were 
fond  of  tea,  and  they  would  use  it  so  long  as  they 
could  obtain  it.  But  the  leaders  of  the  opposition 
were  determined.  A  ship  laden  with  tea  arrived  in 
Boston,  and  they  decided  that  the  cargo  should  not 
ba  landed.  Accordingly  about  fifty  men,  disguised  as 
Indians,  went  on  board  and  threw  the  tea  into  the 
harbour.  The  British  Government  retaliated  by  closing 
the  port  of  Boston,  allowing  no  vessels  to  load  or  un- 
load in  its  harbour.  The  custom-house  was  removed 
to  Salem. 

A  convention,  called  the  "  Continental   Congress," 
composed  of  delegates  from  the  disturbed 

•  ™  -ill!-  i-  The  Conti- 

provmces,  met  at  Philadelphia  to  discuss   nentaicon- 

,      .  .  j     ,  i  gress,  1774. 

their  grievances  and  to  resolve  on  some 
course  of  action.  A  memorial  was  sent  to  the  King, 
expressing  loyalty,  recounting  grievances,  and  asking 
redress.  The  Congress  also  sent  letters  to  the  Pro- 
vinces of  Quebec  and  Nova  Scotia,  asking  them  to 
unite  in  the  movement  against  the  British  Govern- 
ment. The  letter  addressed  to  the  people  of  Quebec 
tried  to  excite  ill  feeling  by  showing  the  injustice  of 
the  Queb3c  Act  in  not  giving  them  a  representative 
Assembly. 

There  was  little  thought  in  England  of  any  general 


186  THE    DOMINION    <>F    CANADA. 

rising  in  the  colonies,  and  no  measures  were  taken 
The  War  against  such  an  emergency.  The  first  hos- 
b«gtns,  1775.  tilities  occurred  near  Boston.  The  Gover- 
nor of  Massachusetts,  learning  that  anus  and  ammu- 
nition had  been  stored  at  Concord  by  opponents  of 
the  Government,  sent  a  body  of  men  by  night  to  seize 
these  military  stores.  The  movement  was  to  be  kept 
secret,  but,  in  some  way  knowledge  of  it  got  abroad. 
As  the  soldiers  returned  to  Boston  they  were  attacked 
all  along  the  way  and  many  of  them  were  killed.  A 
little  later  in  the  same  year  the  historic;  forts  of 
Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point,  on  Lake  Champlain, 
were  seized  by  a  small  body  of  colonists  collected  in 
Vermont  under  Ethan  Allen  and  Srth  Warner.  Thus 
began  the  Revolutionary  War,  which  lasted  six  years. 
The  letter  addressed  to  the  people  of  Quebec;  failed 
invasion  of  to  secure  the  desired  result,  and  it  was 
Canada,  i775  determined  to  try  the  effect  of  armed 
forces.  There  was  probably  little  thought  that  much 
fighting  would  be  recuiired.  The  Congress  believed 
that  Canada  would  be  ready  to  make  common  cause 
with  the  other  provinces  if  a  little  encouragement 
were  given  to  start  the  movement.  Two  invading 
forces  were  accordingly  sent  into  the  country  by 
different  routes.  Benedict  Arnold  set  out  from  Casco 
B.iy,  proceeding  through  the  forests  by  way  of  the 
Kennebec,  Lake  Megantic,  and  the  Chaudiere,  to 
Quebec.  General  Schuyler  advanced  against  Mon- 
treal by  way  of  Lake  Champlain.  Sehuyler  soon 
retired  from  the  command,  and  was  succeeded  by 
General  Montgomery.  The  movement  against  Canada 
was  bold,  even  rash,  and  yet  there  were  conditions 
which  warranted  some  hope  of  success.  The  French 


THE    AMERICAN    REVOLUTION.  187 

inhabitants  at  this  time  could  not  be  supposed  to  have 
any  great  love  for  Great  Britain  or  for  British  institu- 
tions ;  the  English-speaking  inhabitants  were  mostly 
from  the  revolting  provinces,  and  being  dissatisfied 
with  the  Quebec  Act,  many  of  them  weje  disposed  to 
favour  the  rebellion.  The  regular  troops  in  the  pro- 
vince, on  whom  alone  Great  Britain  could  depend, 
did  not  exceed  eight  hundred  men. 

Montgomery  proceeded  along  Lake  Champlain  and 
down  the  Richelieu.  Two  strong  posi-  seizure  of 
tions,  Chambly  and  St.  John's,  were  on  Montreal- 
his  route.  Chambly  should  not  have  been  easily 
taken,  but  for  some  cause  not  very  clear  it  soon  sur- 
rendered. St.  John's  held  out  nobly  for  a  time,  but 
was  forced  to  yield.  Governor  Carleton  was  in  com- 
mand at  Montreal.  He  had  both  courage  and  ability, 
but  he  lacked  means  of  defence,  and  he  saw  that  effort 
to  hold  the  place  would  be  useless.  He  accordingly 
decided  to  withdraw  with  the  few  troops  he  had  to 
Quebec.  He  had  eleven  vessels.  Embarking  with 
his  men,  he  proceeded  down  the  river.  On  the  fol- 
lowing day  Montgomery  took  possession  of  Montreal. 
A  few  days  later  the  inhabitants,  learning  that  Mon- 
treal had  been  abandoned  by  Carleton,  sent  delegates 
to  Montgomery,  placing  themselves  in  his  hands. 

Arriving  at  Sorel,  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  Carleton 
found  his  way  blocked  by  batteries  of  carieton's  Nar- 
provincial  forces  on  the  Island  of  St.  rowEscaPes 
Ignace.  Whatever  might  befall  his  vessels,  or  even 
his  men,  it  was  of  the  utmost  consequence  that  he 
should  reach  Quebec  in  safety.  On  him  chiefly  de- 
pended the  defence  of  the  province.  Accordingly, 
under  cover  of  the  night,  he  moved  down  the  river 


188  THE    DOMINION    OF   TAN  A  DA. 

in  a  small  Ixwt  propelled  by  muffled  oars.  As  he 
approached  the  island,  his  men  dropped  their  oars 
and  used  instead  the  palms  of  their  hands,  and  thus 
softly  he  stole  past  the  batteries.  At  Three  Rivers 
he  learned  that  another  danger  lay  in  his  way 

— a  provincial  force  was  encamped  at  Point- aux- 
Trembles.  He  hastened  forward,  however,  reaching 
Quebec  in  safety.  His  vessels  and  men  that  he  left  at 
Sorel  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  Much  excite- 
ment was  prevailing  in  the  city  when  Carleton  arrived. 
After  six  weeks'  march  through  the  forests,  Arnold 
had  unexpectedly  made  his  appearance  before  its  walls 
and  demanded  its  surrender.  His  summons  had  re- 
ceived no  answer,  and  he  had  thought  it  advisable 
before  taking  further  action  to  wait  for  Montgomery. 

It  was  Arnolds  encampment  which  Carletou  had 
passed  at  Point-aux-Trembles. 

Great  Britain  now  held  Canada  by  a  slender  thread. 
The  Knidish-speakini;  inhabitants  were  for 

A  Feeble  Hold. 

the  most  part  disloyal:  the  rreuch  pea- 
santry were  disposed  to  be  neutral,  scarcely  knowing 
on  which  side  were  their  friends.  As  a  rule  the 
higher  classes  of  the  French  people  and  the  clergy 
were  loyal.  Of  the  chief  places  in  the  province  the 
city  of  Quebec,  which  was  defended  by  a  garrison  of 
less  than  three  hundred  men,  alone  remained  under 
British  rule.  There  was  disloyalty  even  here,  and 
some  of  the  inhabitants  were  urging  surrender.  Carle- 
ton  promptly  expelled  all  such  persons  from  the  city. 
He  then  strengthened  his  position  in  every  possible 
way.  The  men  of  a  war  vessel  in  the  harbour  were 
brought  in  for  the  support  of  the  garrison,  and  the 
crews  of  merchant  vessels  were  impressed  into  service. 


THE    AMERICAN    REVOLUTION.  189 

Volunteers  from  the  French  and  English  population 
increased  the  defending  force  to  fifteen  or  sixteen 
hundred. 

Embarking  his  soldiers  in  the  vessels  captured  at 
Sorel.  Montgomery  proceeded  to  Quebec. 

•  .  .  Montgomery's 

He  met  Arnold  near   the    city.      It   was  Failure  and 

«•  i        •  Death. 

now  the  month  or  December,  and  winter 
was  setting  in.  The  work  demanded  despatch.  But 
Montgomery  expected  little  trouble  in  taking  the  city. 
Indeed,  he  thought  he  had  only  to  show  himself 
before  its  walls  and  the  joyful  citizens  would  open 
their  gates  to  receive  him.  He  was  surprised  to  find 
that  his  friends  were  all  outside,  and  that  the  gates 
were  locked  against  them.  By  the  hands  of  an  old 
woman  he  sent  an  impudent  letter  to  Carleton,  stating 
what  evils  would  befall  the  city  if  resistance  were 
attempted.  His  threats  had  no  effect.  Through  the 
month  of  December,  from  the  batteries  which  he  had 
erected  in  the  suburbs,  he  continued  to  bombard  the 
Upper  Town.  Finally,  on  the  morning  of  New  Year's 
Day,  before  dawn,  amid  a  driving  snowstorm,  an  at- 
tempt was  made  to  take  .the  city  by  assault.  While 
the  batteries  on  the  heights  made  pretence  of  attack 
on  the  Upper  Town,  Montgomery  and  Arnold  tried 
to  force  an  entrance  into  the  Lower  Town.  Those 
who  defended  the  city  were  ready  to  meet  their  as- 
sailants. Montgomery  was  killed,  and  his  men  tied 
in  disorder,  leaving  his  body  to  be  covered  by  the 
falling  snow.  Arnold  was  wounded  and  was  borne 
from  the  field.  Some  of  his  men,  having  forced  their 
way  into  the  city,  after  sharp  fighting  in  the  streets, 
were  overpowered,  and  three  hundred  and  forty  of 
their  number  were  taken  prisoners. 


100  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

The  besiegers  remained  before  Quebec  during  the 
Retreat  of  the  winter,  but  they  made  no  further  attempt 
Enemy  to  take  the  city.  They  suffered  much 

from  the  severe  cold,  and  many  of  them  died  of 
smallpox.  Throughout  the  winter  Carleton  kept  close 
within  his  walls.  On  the  arrival  of  reinforcements 
in  the  spring  he  made  a  sortie  on  the  enemy,  who 
fled  in  confusion,  leaving  behind  them  their  ariil- 
lery,  ammunition,  and  provisions.  Congress,  greatly 
desiring  to  hold  its  position  in  Canada,  sent  new  re- 
lays of  troops  into  the  country.  Three  delegates  from 
this  body,  one  of  whom  was  the  distinguished  Benjamin 
Franklin,  came  to  Montreal  tor  the  purpose  of  gaining 
the  friendship  and  co-operation  of  the  Canadians.  It 
was  a  fruitless  mission.  By  the  arrival  of  more  troops 
under  General  Burgoyue  early  in  the  summer,  the 
British  forces  in  Canada  were  increased  to  between 
nine  and  ten  thousand  men.  As  this  strong  army 
ascended  the  St.  Lawrence  the  invaders  retreated, 
abandoning  one  post  after  another,  until  they  made 
a  final  stand  on  Lake  Champlaiu.  At  St.  Johns,  on 
the  Richelieu,  through  lack  of  means  of  transport, 
Carleton  s  progress  in  the  pursuit  was  arrested  for 
three  months.  Having  built  several  vessels  at  this 
place,  he  followed  the  retreating  foe  to  Lake  Cham- 
plaiu, where,  in  a  naval  engagement,  he  gained  a 
complete  victory.  Arnold  abandoned  Crown  Point, 
and  gathered  all  his  forces  at  Ticouderoga.  In  the 
following  summer  he  was  compelled  to  yield  this  fort 
also.  Thus  ended  the  attempt  to  force  Canada  to 
join  the  revolting  provinces* 

During  the  war  the  coast  settlements  of  Nova 
Scotia  were  kept  in  constant  alarm  by  privateers 


THE    AMERICAN    REVOLUTION.  191 

from  New  England.  Yarmouth,  Annapolis,  Corn- 
wallis,  Limenburg,  and  the  settlements  privateers  and 
at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  John  were  Plunderers- 
plundered,  by  these  freebooters.  At  Annapolis  the 
invaders  seized  the  block-house,  spiked  the  cannon, 
and  carried  off  whatever  they  found  of  value  in  the 
shops  and  dwellings. 

On  the  4th  of  July  1770,  the  Congress  at  Phila- 
delphia   declared    the    revolting    colonies 

.      ,L  ,  /•    n  T>   -.L    •  •  Independence 

independent  ot  Great  Britain,  assuming  of  the  United 
for  their  country  the  name  of  the  United  nised  by  Great 
States  of  America.  But  the  struggle 
continued  for  several  years.  The  leader  in  the 
revolution,  and  the  man  on  whom  its  success 
largely  depended,  was  'George  Washington.  During 
the  war  he  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces, 
and  at  its  close  he  became  the  first  President  of 
the  Republic.  France  was  avenged  on  her  great 
rival  by  sending  aid  to  the  rebellious  colonies.  King 
George  III.  was  so  resolutely  set  on  subduing  his  dis- 
obedient subjects  that  for  a  long  time  he  rejected  all 
advice  in  favour  of  recognising  their  independence. 
But  he  finally  yielded  to  public  sentiment  in  Eng- 
land as  expressed  by  the  House  of  Commons.  It 
has  boen  estimated  that  Great  Britain  expended 
in  the  war  $500,000,000  and  lost  fifty  thousand 
men. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

THE    UNITED    EMPIRE    LOYALISTS. 

THE  treaty  of  peace  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
Condition  of  the  United  States  was  not  very  carefully  drawn 
Loyalists.  Up  ^K  wo  s|la]|  see  later  on,  it  left  room 

for  disputes  in  the  matter  of  the  boundary-line  between 
the  adjoining  territories  of  the  two  nations.  By  some 
strange  oversight,  also,  it  failed  to  secure  the  rights 
of  those  persons  in  the  United  States  who  had 
throughout  the  war  remained  loyal  to  Great  Britain. 
These  people,  who,  on  account  of  their  desire  to  keep 
the  empire  from  being  broken  up,  were  known  as 
"  United  Empire  Loyalists,"  were  very  badly  treated 
by  their  fellow-countrymen.  While  those  who  re- 
belled against  Great  Britain  took  for  themselves  the 
name  of  patriots,  they  called  the  Loyalists  Tories  and 
traitors.  The  feeling  against  the  Loyalists  was  even 
more  bitter  than  against  the  British  soldier  who  was 
sent  into  the  country  to  put  down  the  rebellion.  For 
while  the  soldier  was  regarded  as  a  tyrant's  instru- 
ment of  oppression,  the  Loyalist  was  treated  as  a 
despicable  traitor  to  his  country.  His  property  was 
confiscated,  and  he  was  looked  upon  as  an  outcast. 
The  great  sacrifice  made  by  these  people  rather  than 
violate  their  sense  of  right  entitles  them  to  high  rank 
on  the  roll  of  honour.  Homeless,  destitute,  and  per- 


192 


THE    UNITED    EMPIRE    LOYALISTS.  193 

secuted,  they  could  now  only  turn  for  help  to  Great 
Britain.  Among  them  were  clergymen,  judges,  and 
others  who  had  held  high  official  positions  before 
the  war. 

The  British  House  of  Commons  voted  a  sum  of 
money  equal  to  about  $16,000,000  for  Aidforthe 
the  relief  of  the  Loyalists.  Free  grants  L°yalists 
of  land  were  made  in  the  Provinces  of  Nova  Scotia 
and  Quebec,  two  hundred  acres  being  given  to  each 
Loyalist,  and  the  same  to  each  son  on  coming  of  age, 
and  to  each  daughter  on  her  marriage.  The  British 
Government  also  gave  them  farming  tools,  food,  cloth- 
ing, and  other  necessaries,  and  sent  ships  to  convey 
to  their  new  homes  those  who  travelled  by  water. 
About  thirty  thousand  people  were  thus  provided  for. 
Poor  and  dependent  as  they  were,  yet  through  their 
intelligence,  social  rank,  and  moral  character  they 
exercised  an  important  influence  in  shaping  the 
destiny  of  the  provinces  to  which  they  emigrated. 
Sir  Guy  Carleton,  the  former  Governor  of  Quebec, 
who  commanded  the  British  forces  in  New  York  at 
the  close  of  the  war,  showed  much  interest  in  the 
Loyalists,  and  aided  them  greatly  in  their  removal  to 
Canada.  Notwithstanding  the  care  taken  to  provide 
for  them,  many  of  these  people  suffered  greatly  while 
making  for  themselves  a  new  home  in  the  wilderness 

About  twenty  thousand   of  these    "Refugees,"  in- 
cluding disbanded  soldiers,  came  to  Nova 

0         .    f       .     .  ,     Loyalist  Settle- 

ocotia.    it  is  estimated  that  five  thousand  ments  in  Nova 
settled  on  the  St.  John  River  on  the  north 
of  the  Bay  of  Fundy.     Of  these  the  first  arrived  on 
the  1 8th.  of  May  1 783.     The  settlement  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river  was  called  Parrtown,  in  honour  of  Governor 

N 


194  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA.     . 

Parr  of  Nova  Scotia.  The  largest  colony  of  Loyalists 
in  Nova  Scotia  was  at  Port  Haxoir,  on  the  Atlantic 
coast.  Previous  to  their  arrival  this  place  had  few 
inhabitants ;  but  it  now  suddenly  became  a  city  with 
a  population  of  twelve  thousand.  Governor  Parr 
visited  the  place  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Shelburne, 
in  honour  of  a  British  statesman  of  that  name.  Other 
Loyalists  settled  in  various  parts  of  Nova  Scotia. 
Many  also  found  homes  in  Cape  Breton  and  in  the 
Island  of  St.  John. 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  trading  posts  and  forts 
Loyalists  in  nere  all(^  there,  the  territory  which  now 
Ontario.  forms  the  Province  of  Ontario  had  up  to 

this  time  remained  unsettled.  About  ten  thousand 
Loyalists,  disbanded  soldiers,  and  half-pay  officers  now 
made  it  their  home.  They  settled  chiefly  along  the 
Upper  St.  Lawrence,  on  the  north  of  Lake  Ontario,  on 
the  Niagara  River,  and  on  the  Detroit.  Some  also 
made  their  home  in  that  portion  of  the  Province  of 
Quebec  now  known  as  the  Eastern  Townships.  Many 
of  them  came  from  New  York,  which,  being  held  by 
Great  Britain  until  the  close  of  the  war,  became  a 
place  of  refuge  for  the  persecuted  Loyalists.  Their 
common  route  of  travel  to  their  new  homes  was  by 
the  Hudson  River  and  its  tributaries,  some  of  them 
coming  to  Oswego  and  crossing  Lake  Ontario,  others 
taking  the  lake  at  Sackett's  Harbour,  opposite  King- 
ston. Thus  the  "  Pilgrim  Fathers  "  of  Ontario,  in  the 
spirit  of  sacrifice  for  principle,  laid  the  foundation  of 
this  great  province.  They  still  further  showed  then- 
loyalty  to  George  III.  by  naming  their  settlements 
for  his  children. 

Nor  did  Great  Britain  fail  to  provide  for  her  faith- 


THE    UNITED    EMPIRE    LOYALISTS.  195 

ful  Indians  of  the   "  Six   Nations."     The   Mohawks, 
who,  with  tlioir  distinguished  chief,  Joseph 
Brant,  had  been  especially  loyal,  received 
large  grants  of  land  on  the  Bay   of  Quiute  and  on 
Grand  River,  where  many  of  their  descendants  still 
reside.     The  Mohawk  Church,  built  here  in  1786,  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  church  erected  in  Ontario. 
The  Loyalists  on  the  St.  John  soon  became  dis- 
satisfied.    They  complained  to  Governor 

r>  .LI  .LI      •      i        111  L    r.  The  Province 

Parr  that  their  lands  had  not  been  sur-  ofNewBruns- 
veyed,  and  that  they  had  not  proper 
representation  in  the  Assembly  at  Halifax.  The 
Governor,  in  turn,  blamed  them  for  unwillingness  to 
assist  the  surveyors,  and  he  stated  that  his  instruc- 
tions from  England  disallowed  any  increase  of  mem-, 
bers  in  the  Assembly.  Parr  hoped  to  silence  the 
grumbling  by  removing  a  few  of  the  leaders  to  the 
south  side  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  But  the  agitation 
went  on  until,  in  1784,  the  British  Government  set  off 
the  territory  on  the  north  of  the  b.iy  as  a  separate 
province,  giving  it  the  name  of  New  Brunswick.  The 
tirst  Governor  of  the  new  province  was  Colonel 
Thomas  Carleton.  For  two  years  he  governed  the 
province,  with  the  aid  of  a  Council  of  twelve  members 
selected  from  the  prominent  Loyalists.  In  1786  the 
first  session  of  the  representative  Assembly  of  New 
Brunswick,  consisting  of  twenty  -  six  mernbsrs,  was 
held  at  Parrtown,  the  name  of  which  had  been 
changed  to  St.  John.  The  second  session  also  was 
held  here,  and  then  the  seat  of  government  was 
removed  to  St.  Ann's  (Fredericton). 

The   Island    of  Cape  Breton  also,  having   been   a 
county  of  Nova  Scotia  for  twenty  years,  was  made  a 


196  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

separate    province.       Its    first    Governor   was    Major 
Uesbarres,  who  had   fought  under   Wolfe- 

The  Province  .  .    ,.       .  _         .   .  .       . 

of  Cape  Breton,   ut  the  siege  of  Quebec.      Louisburg    had 
hitherto   been    the   (Capital    of  the  island, 

but  Desbarres  founded  ;i  new  (Capital  on  the  east  coast, 

naming   it   Sydney,   in    honour  of  Lord    Sydney,  the 

Colonial  Secretary. 

We  left  Sir  Guy  Carleton  on  Lake  Champlain   in 
1776.     To  the  surprise   of    almost  every 

Lord  Dor- 
chester the         one,     lie     was     shortly    alter    superseded 

Governor-  .  .  i          ,•       i  r»    •    •    i 

General  1786  in  the  command  or  the  British  forces 
by  General!  Burgoyne.  He  was  justly 
indignant  at  this  mark  of  distrust,  but  he  held  the 
|>osition  of  Governor  until  177~>.  On  his  resignation 
at  this  date  he  was  succeeded  by  General  Haldimand. 
And  now  (1780),  ten  years  after  his  faithful  service  in 
expelling  the  invaders  of  Canada,  having  been  raised 
to  the  peerage  as  Lord  Dorchester,  he  was  appointed 
Governor -General  and  commander -in -chief  of  the 
British  forces  in  Xorth  America.  On  his  arrival  at 
Quebec  he  was  greeted  with  addresses  of  warmest 
welcome.  Trusted  by  his  Sovereign,  and  greatly 
admired  by  the  people  over  whom  he  was  placed,  he 
continued  for  ten  years  to  use  his  personal  and  official 
influence  for  the  benefit  of  Canada.  Previous  to  this 
date  the  governors  of  the  different  provinces  held  equal 
rank  and  authority.  Lord  Dorchester,  as  Governor 
of  the  Province  of  Quebec,  was  now  given  first  rank, 
while  the  head-officers  in  the  other  provinces  took 
the  title  and  position  of  Lieutenant-Governor. 

The  English  inhabitants  of  Canada  had  never  been 
satisfied  with  the  Quebec  Act.  They  wanted  the  Eng- 
lish system  of  holding  lands,  of  trial  by  jury,  and  of 


THE    UNITED    EMPIRE    LOYALISTS.  197 

protection  from  imprisonment  without  trial  secured 
by  the  old  English  Habeas  Corpus  Act.  Desire  for 
Above  all,  they  wanted  the  British  system  Chanse 
of  making  laws  by  a  representative  parliament.  No 
doubt  there  was  wisdom  in  retaining,  for  a  while,  in 
the  Province  of  Quebec,  the  French  laws  and  system 
of  government.  These  laws  were  better  suited  to  the 
condition  of  the  French  people,  who,  unaccustomed 
to  independent  action,  trusted  to  the  guidance  and 
protection  of  their  Seigniors.  Now,  as  the  English 
population  had  greatly  increased,  and  the  French 
people  had  become  somewhat  familiar  with  British 
institutions,  there  was  a  strong  desire  for  change. 

Another  William  Pitt,  son  of  the  War  Minister  of 
George   II.,   was   now   Prime  Minister  of 

r*  T*  •      •  T-<  i  i  /•    The  Consti- 

Great  Britain.  ror  the  settlement  ol  tutkmaiAct, 
Canadian  difficulties,  he  carried  through 
Parliament  a  measure  known  as  the  "  Constitutional 
Act."  This  Act  divided  the  old  Province  of  Quebec 
into  two  provinces,  called  Upper  Canada  and  Lower 
Canada.  For  the  most  part  the  Ottawa  River  formed 
the  boundary  between  them.  Each  province  was  pro- 
vided with  a  Governor,  an  Executive  Council,  and  a 
Legislative  Council,  all  appointed  by  the  Crown,  and 
also  an  Assembly  elected  by  the  people.  A  most  im- 
portant feature  of  the  Act  was  the  doing  away  with 
the  test  oath  in  Lower  Canada,  so  that  now  Roman 
Catholics  in  that  province  were  allowed  to  vote  and 
hold  public  office.  One-seventh  of  the  public  lands 
was  set  apart  in  both  provinces  for  the  support  of 
the  Protestant  clergy.  English  criminal  law  was 
established  in  both  provinces.  In  Upper  Canada 
freehold  tenure  of  lands  was  introduced ;  while  in 


108  THK    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

Lower  Canada  French  civil  law,  the  seigniorial  system 
of  holding  lands,  and  the  old  law  of  tithes  and  "  ac- 
customed  dues  "  for  the  support  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion  still  remained  in  force.  On  the  whole,  the 
Constitutional  Act  was  a  great  improvement  on  the 
Quebec  Act,  and  for  the  time  it  gave  fair  satisfaction. 
Some  of  its  provisions  were,  however,  very  ill-suited 
to  a  free  people,  and  it  cost  much  agitation  and  a 
disastrous  civil  war  within  the  next  half  century  to 
get  rid  of  them.  At  the  time,  indeed,  the  English 
people  in  Lower  Canada  .were  strongly  opposed  to  the 
Act,  for  it  obliged  them  to  submit  to  French  laws  and 
customs. 

At  the  date  of  the  division  (17!>1),  Lower  Canada 
had  a  population  of  one  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  ; 
Upper  Canada,  of  twenty-five  thousand,  a  large  pro- 
portion being  United  Empire  Loyalists,  or  of  Loyalist 
stock. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

THE    BEGINNING    OF    PARLIAMENTARY 
GOVERNMENT. 

HAVING  no  foreign  enemies  to  fight  and  no  external 
dangers  to  guard  against,  the  people  of  Interestin 
the  various  provinces  were  able  to  give  Pubhc  Affairs- 
more  attention  to  the  development  of  the  resources 
of  the  country.  Many  of  the  Loyalists,  possessing 
intelligence  and  culture,  exerted  a  good  influence  on 
public  affairs  and  social  life.  Some  of  those  who  were 
elected  to  the  Legislative  Assemblies  would  have  graced 
the  parliaments  of  much  older  countries.  There  were 
among  them  men  of  thought  and  action,  who  were 
not  disposed  to  let  things  drift.  A  natural  result  of 
increased  intelligence  and  interest  in  public  matters 
was  frequent  disturbance  of  the  regular  and  placid 
movement  of  the  machinery  of  government.  The 
people  began  to  think  that  they  did  not  exist  simply 
for  the  purpose  of  being  governed,  and  their  repre- 
sentatives began  to  claim  their  rights  against  gover- 
nors and  councils.  There  followed  a  state  of  unrest, 
a  struggle  of  the  new  with  the  old. 

In  all  the  provinces  the  form  of  government, 
modelled  after  that  of  Great  Britain,  was  virtually 
the  same.  It  comprised  three  departments — the 
legislative  or  law-making  body,  the  executive  or  law- 


200  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

enforcing  Ivxly,  and   the  juilirial  department  for  try- 
in''    and    punishing    law-breakers.       The 

The  Govern 

mentand          L'ovemor,  appointed    bv  the  Government 

Legislature. 

ol  Groat  Britain,  represented  the  Sovereign. 

The  parliament  or  legislative  body  comprised  two 
houses,  the  legislative  council  and  the  house  of  as- 
sembly. The  governor  appointed  the  executive  coun- 
cil, whose  duty  it  was  to  advise  him  in  regard  to  his 
official  acts,  although  he  was  not  bound  to  accept  the 
advice  of  his  council.  The  governor  also  appointed 
the  legislative  council,  the  judges,  the  sheriffs,  the 
magistrates,  and  various  other  public  officers.  The 
members  of  the  legislative  council  were  usually  selected 
from  the  most  wealthy  and  influential  class,  and  they 
held  office  for  life.  In  most  of  the  provinces  the 
Anglican  bishop  and  the  chief  justice  were  members 
of  this  council. 

In  the  Maritime  Provinces  there  was  but  one  council 
with  a  double  function,  legislative  and  executive;  that 
is,  the  members  at  one  time  acted  as  a  part  of  the 
law-making  machinery,  and  at  another  time  as  the 
governor's  advisers.  In  Nova  Scotia,  at  this  early 
time,  the  assembly  was  elected  for  no  definite  period, 
but  continued  during  the  pleasure  of  the  governor. 
The  Assembly  elected  in  1770  was  not  dissolved  until 
1  785,  and  is  known  as  the  "  Long  Parliament  "  of  Nova 
Scotia.  In  17U2  an  Act  was  passed  limiting  the  term 
to  seven  years. 

The  revenue  or  public  money  of  the  provinces  was 
derived  from  three  principal  sources — duties  on  certain 
classes  of  imports  imposed  by  the  Government  of 
Great  Britain,  from  the  sale  of  Crown  lands  and 
royalty  on  minerals,  and  from  duties  on  imports  iin- 


BEGINNING  OF  PARLIAMENTARY  GOVERNMENT.  201 

posed  by  the  provincial  legislatures.  The  money 
arising  from  this  last-named  source  was  voted  by 
the  legislature  for  roads,  bridges,  and  other  public 
objects.  The  revenue  of  the  two  first-named  sources, 
regarded  as  Crown  funds,  was  expended  by  the  gover- 
nor and  council,  and  was  used  chiefly  to  meet  the 
expenses  of  government.  When  the  fund  was  not 
sufficient  for  this  purpose,  the  Government  of  Great 
Britain  made  up  the  deficit  out  of  the  imperial  treasury. 
As  the  public  officers  were  appointed  by  the  governor, 
and  drew  their  salaries  from  the  Crown  revenues,  they 
were  quite  independent  of  the  people  and  their  repre- 
sentatives. 

As  reference  will  be  made  from  time  to  time  to 
the  proceedings  of  legislatures,  it  may  be  parliamentary 
well  to  explain  some  of  the  common  rules  Customs- 
of  action  in  such  bodies.  When  a  House  meets  after 
an  election  it  chooses  one  of  its  members  to  preside 
and  maintain  order.  This  officer  is  called  the  Speaker. 
After  such  election  the  choice  is  submitted  to  the 
governor  for  approval.  A  record  of  all  business  trans- 
acted is  carefully  written  in  books  kept  for  the  pur- 
pose, called  the  Journals.  Care  is  used  that  business 
be  done  with  due  regard  to  system  and  with  becoming 
deliberation.  When  a  member  wishes  to  introduce 
a  measure,  he  asks  leave  of  the  House.  Before  a 
measure  is  agreed  to  by  the  House,  it  must  couie  up 
and  be  voted  on  three  several  times,  known  as  the 
first,  the  second,  and  the  third  reading.  At  these 
stages  the  measure  is  called  a  Bill.  If  the  legislature 
is  composed  of  two  Houses,  a  Bill  having  passed  one 
House,  must  go  through  the  several  stages  of  the 
other  House.  After  it  has  passed  through  both 


202  THE    DOMINION    OF    TANADA. 

Houses,  it  requires  the  assent  of  the  governor.  As 
this  assent  is  very  rarely  withheld,  it  has  come  to  be 
regarded  almost  as  a  mutter  of  form.  When  a  Bill 
has  thus  passed  through  all  its  stages,  it  is  called  an 
Act,  and  it  is  part  of  the  law  of  the  country.  When 
a  House  stops  its  proceedings,  to  resume  business 
at  another  specified  time,  it  is  said  to  adjourn. 
The  House  has  power  to  adjourn  of  its  own  motion. 
All  the  different  meetings  of  a  House  from  day  to 
day,  which  are  ended  by  adjournments,  constitute  a 
session.  When  the  governor  dismisses  the  House 
without  naming  any  time  for  it  to  meet  again,  thus 
closing  the  session,  he  is  said  to  prorogue  the  House. 
All  unfinished  business  then  counts  for  nothing,  and 
Bills  which  have  not  passed  their  final  stage,  if  brought 
up  during  another  session,  must  be  treated  as  new  Bills. 
A  representative  assembly  is  supposed  to  carry  out  the 
wishes  of  the  people  whom  it  represents:  hence  if  the 
governor  has  reason  to  believe  that  its  sentiments  and 
action  are  not  in  harmony  with  the  views  of  the  people, 
it  becomes  his  duty,  even  though  the  full  term  for 
which  the  House  was  elected  has  not  expired,  to  make 
arrangements  for  the  election  of  a  new  House.  He 
then  dissolves  the  House ;  that  is,  he  declares  by  pro- 
clamation that  it  has  ceased  to  exist,  and  orders  a  new 
election. 

On  the  death  of  Governor  Parr  in   1791,  Sir  John 
Governor  Weiitworth    became    Governor    of    Xova 

wentworth.  Scotia,  which  office  he  held  for  sixteen 
years.  He  was  u  man  of  unbending  integrity; 
but,  belonging  to  the  old  conservative  school,  he 
was  much  more  inclined  to  uphold  the  power  of 
the  Council  and  the  dignity  of  the  Crown  than  to 


BEGINNING  OF  PARLIAMENTARY  GOVERNMENT.  203 

govern  according  to  the  wishes  of  the  people  as 
expressed  by  their  representatives.  He  disliked 
popular  assemblies  and  free  discussions,  fearing  they, 
would  tend  to  revolution.  During  his  rule  the  inter- 
ests of  country  and  city  frequently  came  into  conflict. 
The  Assembly  wished  to  use  the  public  money  on 
roads  and  bridges,  so  as  to  open  up  the  country  for 
settlement.  The  members  of  the  Council,  residing 
in  Halifax  and  being  independent  of  the  people,  cut 
down  the  amounts  voted  by  the  Assembly,  preferring 
to  spend  the  money  on  public  buildings  in  Halifax 
and  in  large  salaries.  In  these  disputes  Governor 
Wentworth  supported  the  Council.  William  Cottnam 
Tonge,  the  leader  of  the  popular  party  in  the  Assembly, 
by  his  opposition  to  the  Governor's  policy,  made  him- 
self the  object  of  his  Excellency's  resentment.  Tonge 
was  elected  Speaker  of  the  House ;  but  Sir  John,  using 
a  prerogative  seldom  exercised,  refused  to  accept  him, 
and  the  House  was  compelled  to  elect  another  Speaker. 
During  Wentworth's  term  of  office  the  fine  stone  edifice 
in  Halifax  known  as  "  Government  House  "  was  built 
as  the  official  residence  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor  of 
Nova  Scotia.  On  retiring  from  office,  Sir  John  was 
allowed  a  pension  of  £1000  sterling  for  life,  paid  in 
equal  shares  by  the  Governments  of  Great  Britain  and 
Nova  Scotia.  He  died  in  Halifax  in  1820,  at  the 
advanced  age  of  eighty-four  years.  Wentworth  was 
succeeded  by  Sir  George  Prevost,  who  laid  the  corner- 
stone of  the  Parliament  building  of  Nova  Scotia, 
known  as  the  "  Province  Building."  On  the  promo- 
tion of  Sir  George  Prevost  to  the  position  of  Governor- 
General,  Sir  John  Cope  Sherbrooke  became  Governor 
of  Nova  Scotia. 


204  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

Two  princes,  sons  of  George  III.,  visited  Quebec 
and     Halifax.       Prince     William     Henry, 

Royal  Visitors  .    . 

Duke  of  Clarence,  who  held  the  position 
of  captain  in  the  royal  navy,  came  first.  He  after- 
wards, as  William  IV.,  occupied  the  throne  of  Great- 
Britain.  Prince  Edward,  Duke  of  Kent,  the  father  of 
Queen  Victoria,  came  to  Quebec  in  1791,  where  for 
over  two  years  he  held  command  of  his  Majesty's 
troops,  hi  1 794  he  was  removed  to  Halifax,  where 
he  tilled  the  position  of  Commander-in-chief  of  the 
British  forces  in  America.  Prince  Edward  was  a 
great  favourite  with  all  classes  of  the  community. 
He  was  strict  in  discipline,  and  he  did  much  to 
break  up  the  drinking  and  gambling  habits  which 
prevailed  in  the  garrison  at  the  time  of  his  arrival. 
When  oft'  duty  he  was  most  affable  and  courteous. 
His  favourite  residence  was  the  "  Prince's  Lodge,"  on 
the  shore  of  Bedford  Basin  and  about  six  miles  from 
Halifax. 

The  founding  of  King's  College  at  Windsor  was  an 
Kings  important  event  in  the   history  of  Nova 

Scotia.  It  was  customary  for  young  men 
seeking  higher  education  to  attend  colleges  in  the 
Tinted  States.  The  Assembly,  fearing  they  might  be- 
come disloyal,  resolved  that  the  province  should  have 
a  college  of  its  own,  and  voted  funds  for  that  object. 
Aid  was  also  obtained  from  England.  The  institution 
was  opened  in  1790,  and  a  few  years  later  it  received 
a  royal  charter.  Unfortunately ,  the  usefulness  of  the 
college  was  limited  by  its  sectarian  rules.  Its  by-laws 
required  all  students  to  attend  the  Church  of  England, 
and  all  graduates  to  subscribe  to  the  articles  of  that 
Church,  and  they  forbade  members  of  the  University 


BEGINNING  OF  PARLIAMENTARY  GOVERNMENT.  205 

frequenting  Roman  Catholic  chapels,  or  the  "  meeting- 
houses" of  Presbyterians,  Baptists,  Methodists,  or  the 
places  of  worship  of  other  dissenters. 

In    the    year    1796    about    five    hundred    negroes, 
known  as  Maroons,  were  brought  to  Hali- 

..          ,.  ,  „  The  Maroons. 

tax  trom  Jamaica,  where  tor  many  years 
they  had  been  causing  much  trouble.      After  remain- 
ing in  the  neighbourhood  of  Halifax  for  about  four 
years,  supported  mainly  by  the  Government  of  Jamaica, 
they  were  removed  to  Sierra  Leone,  in  Africa. 

The  Province  of  New  Brunswick  grew  steadily  in 
wealth  and  population.  Its  leading  in-  NewBruns- 
dustries  —  lumbering  and  shipbuilding —  wlck 
rapidly  developed,  and  both  St.  John  and  Miramichi 
became  important  centres  of  trade.  In  political 
matters  the  condition  of  the  province  much  re- 
sembled that  of  Nova  Scotia.  Disputes  between 
the  two  branches  of  the  Legislature  began  early.  The 
Council  rejected  a  Bill  providing  for  the  payment  to 
members  of  the  Assembly  of  one  dollar  and  a  half 
per  day  during  the  session.  The  Assembly  then 
placed  the  amount  with  the  appropriations  for  roads 
and  bridges  and  other  public  services.  The  Council 
rejected  the  whole  Bill,  and  for  three  years  no  moneys 
were  voted  for  any  purpose.  During  twenty  years 
Thomas  Carleton  held  the  office  of  Governor. 

Meanwhile  the  current  of  affairs  in  the  Island  of 
St.  John  had  not  been  running  smoothly.  The  Island  of 
During  the  American  War,  while  Governor  st  John 
Patterson  was  in  England,  privateers  from  Massachu- 
setts visited  Charlottetown,  plundered  the  town,  and 
carried  oft'  the  acting  Governor  and  other  officers  of 
the   Government.      General  Washington,   much  dis- 


20(5  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

pleased  with  this  action,  released  the  prisoners,  re- 
stored the  property  taken,  and  dismissed  the  officers 
who  had  committed  the  offence. 

Serious  trouble  arose  in  the  island  over  the  non- 
payment of  (put-rents.  After  much  delay,  Governor 
Patterson  sold  some  lands  of  those  in  arrears.  This 
would  seem  to  b^  the  proper  thing  to  do ;  but  as  the 
lands  sold  for  a  small  price,  and  the  Governor  was  him- 
self in  some  cases  the  purchaser,  he  gave  his  opponents 
an  opportunity  of  making  charges  against  him.  The 
proprietors  asserted  that,  owing  to  the  disturbed  state 
of  affairs  arising  out  of  the  American  Revolution,  they 
had  not  been  able  to  carry  out  their  plans  of  settle- 
ment, and  petitioned  the  British  Government  to 
interfere  in  their  behalf.  The  Government  directed 
Governor  Patterson  to  have  a  Hill  passed  by  the 
island  Legislature  providing  for  the  restoration  of  the 
lands  and  for  certain  modification  in  quit-rents.  He 
failed  to  carry  out  these  instructions,  and  when  the 
island  Assembly  was  ab.uit  to  investigate  his  irre- 
gular conduct,  he  dissolved  the  House.  As  the  new 
House  was  pursuing  the  same  course,  he  dissolved  it 
also.  Through  the  votes  of  the  Loyalists  who  had 
recently  settled  in  the  country,  and  whose  friend- 
ship he  had  won  by  giving  them  portions  of  the 
confiscated  lands,  he  tin.illy  secured  an  Assembly 
favourable  to  himself.  Hut  he  had  given  offence  to 
the  British  Government,  and  he  was  soon  after  dis- 
missed from  office.  The  old  proprietors,  however, 
failed  to  recover  their  lands. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  island  had  long  been  dis- 
satisfied with  its  name.  There  were  other  places  of 
similar  name,  and  it  was  sometimes  difficult  to  deter- 


BEGINNING  OF  PARLIAMENTARY  GOVERNMENT.  207 

mine  which  was  meant.  The  Legislature  passed  an 
Act  changing  the  name  of  the  island  to  New  Ireland, 
but  the  British  Government,  according  to  a  fashion 
it  had  in  those  days,  disallowed  the  Act.  In  1798, 
however,  the  Legislature  passed  an  Act  changing  the 
name  to  Prince  Edward  Island,  in  honour  of  the 
popular  Duke  of  Kent.  This  Act  received  the  royal 
assent,  and  in  the  following  year  the  name  came  into 
use.  At  this  date,  thirty  years  after  their  lands  were 
granted,  so  greatly  had  the  proprietors  failed  in  their 
engagements,  that  twenty-three  Townships  had  not  a 
single  inhabitant,  and  twelve  others  had  a  population 
of  only  about  two  hundred.  In  1803  several  hun- 
dred colonists,  under  direction  of  the  Earl  of  Selkirk, 
came  from  Scotland  and  formed  the  beginning  of 
important  settlements. 

The  first  Legislature  of  Lower  Canada  met  in  the 
city  of  Quebec  in  1 792.  The  English-  Lower 
speaking  population  had  been  consider-  Canada- 
ably  increased  by  the  recent  arrival  of  many  Loyalists 
from  the  United  States ;  but  the  French  people  still 
formed  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  population  of 
the  country.  As  might  be  supposed,  a  large  majority 
of  the  Assembly  were  French,  while  the  Legislative 
and  Executive  Councils  were  chosen  chiefly  from  the 
English-speaking  inhabitants.  Thus  the  conflict  of 
race  soon  made  its  appearance  in  the  Legislature, 
setting  the  two  branches  of  this  body  in  opposition 
to  each  other.  The  two  Councils  had  very  much 
more  power  in  the  management  of  public  affairs  than 
had  the  Assembly,  so  that  the  province  was  almost 
wholly  under  the  control  of  the  English  minority. 
Lord  Dorchester,  while  he  held  the  office  of  Governor- 


208  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

General,  was  disposed  to  favour  the  French,  and  to 
allow  them  a  fair  share  in  the  government,  of  the 
country.  But  under  his  successors  a  much  less 
liberal  policy  was  pursued.  When  the  French  com- 
plained of  injustice,  and  criticised  the  action  of  the 
Government,  they  were  charged  by  the  English  with 
disloyalty.  The  peace  of  the  country  was  also  dis- 
turbed by  French  agents  from  the  I'nited  States, 
who  tried  to  excite  disaffection  among  the  people 
towards  Great  Britain,  and  to  awaken  the  hope  that 
Canada  would  soon  come  again  under  French  rule. 
This  led  to  the  making  of  stringent  laws  against 
foreigners  and  persons  suspected  of  disloyalty. 

Lord  Dorchester  finally  left  Canada  in  the  summer 
of  1796.  His  successor  was  General  Prescott,  who 
held  the  office  of  Governor-General  for  eleven  years. 
During  the  last  eight  years  of  his  term  he  resided  in 
England,  and  drew  his  salary  of  $10,000  a  year,  while 
the  duties  of  his  ottice  were  discharged  by  a  Lieu- 
tenaut-Governor. 

In  1807  Sir  James  Craig  succeeded  to  the  office  of 
Governor-General.  The  strife  between  the  Governor 
and  Council  and  the  Assembly,  already  referred  to, 
was  greatly  increased  by  his  arbitrary  manner.  The 
Assembly  wanted  an  elective  Legislative  Council  in 
place  of  one  appointed  by  the  Crown,  the  exclusion 
of  judges  from  the  Legislature,  and  control  of  all  the 
public  funds.  These  demands  at  the  present  day 
would  not  be  thought  extreme  or  unreasonable :  but 
the  Governor  and  Council  saw  in  them  only  the 
elements  of  disloyalty,  sedition,  and  anarchy.  The 
French,  feeling  that  they  were  treated  as  an  in- 
ferior people,  in  their  opposition  to  the  existing  form 


BEGINNING  OF  PARLIAMENTARY  GOVERNMENT.  209 

of  government,  sometimes  spoke  severely  of  their 
English  rulers,  thereby  incurring  the  suspicion  of 
disloyalty. 

The  Assembly,  determined  on  reform,  by  an  almost 
unanimous  vote,  excluded  judges  from  the  Legisla- 
ture ;  but  the  Council  threw  out  the  Bill.  Later, 
when  the  Assembly  brought  in  the  Bill  again,  Sir 
James  Craig,  in  the  most  arbitrary  manner,  dissolved 
the  House,  telling  the  members  that  they  were  wast- 
ing time  in  frivolous  debates,  and  were  not  working 
for  the  good  of  the  people.  The  disturbing  questions 
were  carried  to  the  country ;  old  members  were  re- 
turned, or  those  of  more  extreme  views  took  their 
place.  Among  the  new  members  was  Louis  Joseph 
Papineau,  now  about  twenty  years  of  age,  who  took  a 
leading  part  in  the  rebellion  of  1837.  When  the 
new  Assembly  proceeded  to  pass  Bills  which  were 
displeasing  to  the  Governor,  he  again  dissolved  the 
House.  The  newspapers  on  both  sides  published 
severe  criticisms  of  their  opponents,  and  their  pub- ' 
lishers  were  imprisoned  for  libel  and  violation  of 
privilege.  Several  members  of  the  Assembly  were 
sent  to  prison  for  writing  libellous  articles  against 
the  Government.  Acting  on  the  advice  of  the  British 
Government,  Sir  ,  James  finally  assented  to  the  Bill 
excluding  judges  from  the  Assembly. 

But  withal  the  country  was  making  progress.  Due 
chiefly  to  the  enterprise  of  John  Molson  of  Montreal, 
in  1 799  steam  navigation  was  introduced  on  the  St. 
Lawrence.  The  Accommodation,  running  at  the  rate 
of  four  miles  an  hour,  was  the  first  boat  placed  on 
the  route. 

In  the  summer  of   1811,  owing  to   ill-health,  Sir 

o 


210  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

James  Craig  was  compelled  to  resign  his  position. 
Though  he  had  little  success  in  the  matter  of  civil 
government,  he  was  greatly  respected,  both  on  account 
of  his  ability  as  a  soldier  and  for  the  noble  qualities 
of  his  personal  character.  He  was  succeeded  by  Sir 
George  Frcvost,  who  was  transferred  from  the  govern- 
ment of  Nova  Scotia.  Sir  George  spoke  French  as 
his  native  tongue,  which  made  him  popular  with  the 
French  Canadians. 

At  this  time  the  duties  on  goods  imported  into 
Upper  and  Lo\ver  Canada  were  collected  in  the  latter 
province,  forming  a  common  fund,  which  was  divided 
in  the  proportion  of  seven-eighths  for  Lower  Canada 
and  one-eighth  for  Upper  Canada. 

The  new  province  of  Upper  Canada  had  a  most 
prosperous  beginning.  This  was  largely 

Upper  Canada     * 

due  to  its  first  Governor,  Colonel  John 
Graves  Simcoe,  a  British  officer  who  had  won  dis- 
tinction in  the  American  war.  Xo  more  suitable 
choice  could  have  been  made  for  the  work  of 
organising  the  new  province.  Governor  Simcoe  was 
thoroughly  devoted  to  the  duties  of  his  office.  He 
made  long  and  toilsome  journeys  by  laud  and  water 
through  the  forest  country,  forming  plans  for  settle- 
ment and  for  the  construction  of  public  roads. 
Through  his  wise  policy  in  ottering  free  grants  of 
laud,  many  new  settlers  came  in,  so  that  during  the 
four  years  of  his  rule  the  population  of  the  province 
was  more  than  doubled.  The  village  of  Newark  or 
Niagara  was  chosen  as  the  seat  of  government.  The 
tirst  Legislature  of  the  province,  comprising  an 
Assembly  of  sixteen  members  and  a  Legislative 
Council  of  seven  members,  met  here  in  1792. 


BEGIXXIXG  OF  PARLIAMENTARY  GOVERNMENT.  211 

Among  its  early  measures  were  the  introduction  of 
English  law,  trial  by  jury,  and  an  Act  for  making 
and  repairing  public  highways.  During  the  next 
session  of  the  Legislature  in  the  following  year,  a 
law  was  enacted  requiring  that  marriages  be  cele- 
brated by  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England, 
or,  if  there  was  none  within  eighteen  miles  of  the 
parties,  the  ceremony  could  be  legally  performed  by 
a  justice  of  the  peace.  Without  eftect  the  Presby- 
terians petitioned  that  their  clergymen  be  author- 
ised to  celebrate  the  marriage  ceremony.  Governor 
Simcoe  opposed  the  petition,  remarking  that  it  was 
"  the  product  of  a  wicked  head  and  a  disloyal  heart." 
The  Act  remained  in  force  until  1830. 

Governor  Simcoe  thought  it  unwise  that  the  capital 
should  be  so  near  the  United  States  frontier.  He 
accordingly  removed  the  seat  of  Government  to  York, 
or  Toronto,  as  the  place  is  now  called,  where  the 
Legislature  met  in  1797.  Two  years  earlier,  before 
there  was  a  house  in  tbe  place,  Governor  Simcoe 
made  his  home  in  York,  living  for  a  short  time 
under  a  canvas  tent.  After  Simcoe  left  the  pro- 
vince, there  was  sharp  conflict  between  Assembly 
and  Government.  The  strife  was  promoted  by  the 
rival  newspapers,  and  the  editor  of  the  Assembly's 
paper  was  prosecuted  for  libel  against  the  Govern- 
ment, and  thrown  into  prison. 

After  Simcoe  the  office  of  Lieutenant-Governor  was 
held  in  succession  by  General  Hunter  and  Francis 
Gore.  One  of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  the  progress 
of  the  country  at  this  period  was  the  want  qf  roads 
and  of  communication  between  the  scattered  settle- 
ments. The  province  was  also  isolated  in  great 


212  THE  DOMINION  OF  CANADA. 

degree  from  the  outside  world.  A  letter  was  a 
month  in  travelling  from  Montreal  to  Toronto,  and 
four  or  five  months  from  Halifax  to  Toronto. 

Shortly  after  Governor  Simcoe  left  the  province, 
quarrels  begun  between  the  Governor  and  Council 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Assembly  on  the  other. 
The  members  of  the  Council  managed  affairs  pretty 
much  as  they  pleased,  and  it  was  charged  against 
them  that  they  enriched  themselves  and  their  friends 
at  the  expense  of  the  province. 

In  1811  (Jovernor  Gore  obtained  leave  of  absence, 
and  did  not  return  to  the  province  until  1818. 

It  is  difficult  for  the  people  of  the  present  day  to 
picture  the  conditions  under  which  lived 

Customs  and          *       .         .          .     .  .      .  .  .         . 

Social  Con-  their  toretathers  or  this  early  time.  As 
there  were  no  roads,  the  early  settlements 
were  along  the  sea-coast,  or  by  lake  or  river.  The 
Hrst  roads  were  not  always  smooth  enough  for  wheels, 
but  were  mere  paths  through  the  forests,  and  those 
who  journeyed  inland  went  on  foot  or  on  horseback. 
Sometimes  the  father,  mother,  and  two  or  three 
children  were  all  mounted  on  one  horse.  The 
pioneer  settler  found  no  fields  ready  for  tillage,  but 
only  a  dense  unbroken  forest.  Selecting  a  suitable 
site,  he  built  his  house  of  logs  rudely  squared  with 
his  axe.  The  chinks  between  the  logs  he  stopped 
with  clay  mortar.  In  clearing  his  land,  he  first  cut 
down  the  trees  and  burned  off'  the  light  brushwood. 
Then  came  the  hard  labour  of  removing  the  heavy 
timber.  But  the  men  of  these  early  times  had  a 
way  of  lightening  toil  and  at  the  same  time  securing 
social  enjoyment.  They  turned  work  into  play  in 
the  "  piling  frolic  '  or  "  logging  bee,"  as  it  was  called 


BEGINNING  OF  PARLIAMENTARY  GOVERNMENT.  213 

in  some  parts  of  the  country,  at  which  all  the  men 
gathered  in  a  neighbour's  "  burnt  land,"  rolled  the 
blackened  logs  into  huge  heaps,  and  burned  them  to 
ashes.  The  farmers  made  their  own  carts,  sleds, 
harrows,  and  other  wooden  implements ;  while  indoors 
the  women  carded  and  spun  the  wool,  and  wove  the 
yarn  into  strong  homespun,  which  they  made  into 
clothing  for  the  household.  The  kitchen  had  a  broad 
open  fireplace  with  a  swinging  iron  crane,  from  which, 
on  "  pot-hooks  and  trammels,"  were  suspended  the 
pots  and  kettles  for  cooking  the  family  meals.  Through 
the  long  cold  winter  the  fireplace  was  supplied  with 
abundance  of  fuel  from  the  neighbouring  forest.  In 
the  rear  was  placed  the  huge  back  log,  while  smaller 
sticks,  resting  on  andirons,  or  on  long  narrow  stones 
instead,  were  piled  up  in  front.  Before  the  blazing 
fire  on  Christmas  day  and  on  other  festal  occasions, 
the  goose  or  turkey,  or  perhaps  the  small  pig,  sus- 
pended by  hempen  cord,  from  a  beam,  was  kept  ever 
whirling  round  by  some  attentive  hand,  until  all  sides 
were  alike  roasted,  crisp  and  brown. 

In  these  early  times  there  were  no  friction  matches, 
such  as  are  now  used  in  lighting  a  fire.  At  night  a 
hard-wood  brand,  all  aglow,  was  carefully  covered  over 
with  ashes  to  protect  it  from  the  air,  and  in  the  morn- 
ing there  remained  a  bed  of  coals  to  start  the  new 
fire  with.  Sometimes,  however,  the  brand  burned 
out,  and  not  a  spark  remained.  Fire  was  then  ob- 
tained by  striking  a  flint  sharply  with  a  bar  of  steel ; 
or  the  children  were  sent  to  the  nearest  neighbour's 
to  "  borrow  "  fire. 

Ministers  of  religion  travelled  long  distances  to 
visit  their  people  in  the  remote  and  scattered  hamlets. 


2U  THE   DOMINION    OF   <  AN  ADA. 

This  visit  was  an  event,  of  much  importance,  and  was 
taken  advantage  of  lor  the  christening  of  tlie  children 
of  the  household,  and  often,  too,  for  the  performing 
of  the  marriage  ceremony  between  those  about  to 
establish  homes  of  their  own. 

There  was  little  money  in  circulation  in  these  early 
days,  and  everything  was  paid  for  in  produce  from 
the  farm.  The  farmer  exchanged  his  wheat,  oats, 
butter,  and  cheese  with  the  merchant  for  tea,  sugar, 
molasses,  or  other  articles  needed  for  the  household. 
The  stipends  of  the  minister  and  the  schoolmaster 
were  paid  in  the  same  way. 

A  few  years  later,  when  the  cities  had  become  some- 
what populous,  and  the  roads  passable  for  wheels,  the 
farmer  carried  his  fattened  pigs  and  sheep,  his  butter, 
cheese,  socks,  and  other  home  produce  to  the  distant 
city  market.  Here  he  sold  his  stutY  tor  cash,  perhaps 
all  he  handled  during  the  whole  vear. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

THE    WAR  OF    1812. 

AT  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  through- 
out all  the  provinces  was  heard  the  rough 

£  .  ...  ,  P.       State  of  Affairs. 

voice  of  political  strife.  On  the  one  side 
the  governors  and  councils  believed  that  they  were 
struggling  to  resist  the  tide  of  anarchy  and  rebellion ; 
on  the  other  the  assemblies  were  as  sure  that  they 
were  fighting  the  monster  of  tyranny  and  oppression. 
Order  seemed  to  be  the  watchword  of  the  one ;  liberty, 
of  the  other.  The  real  question  at  issue  was,  Shall 
the  people  rule,  or  shall  an  oligarchy  ? 

But  now,  for  a  time,  disputes  between  councils  and 
assemblies  were  silenced  by  the  harsher  tumult  of 
war.  For  several  years  Canada  had  been  disquieted 
by  rumours  of  war ;  but  the  British  Government,  when 
appealed  to  for  aid,  had  told  her  that  there  was  no 
danger.  Even  after  tht,  declaration  of  war  by  the 
United  States  against  Great  Britain  in  June  1812,  it 
was  still  believed  that  the  difficulty  would  be  settled 
by  diplomacy,  and  not  until  three  months  later  did 
the  British  Government  issue  its  declaration  of  war. 

Although  Canada  had  given  no  offence  and  had 
done  nothing  to  bring  about  the  war,  she  had  to  bear 
its  chief  burdens  and  calamities.  The  conflict  was 
mainly  on  Canadian  soil,  and  while  it  lasted,  a  period 

215 


21G  THK    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

of  nearly  three  years,  the  people  of  Canada,  almost 
unaided,  were  required  to  repel  the  invaders  from 
their  homes.  The  country  was  ill-prepared  for  war. 
The  total  population  of  the  British  pro vine.es. did  not 
exceed  four  hundred  thousand,  whereas  that  of  the 
United  States  was  eight  millions.  The  regular  British 
troops  in  the  country  numbered  about  four  thousand 
five,  hundred.  Canada  had  a  long  border-line  to 
defend,  she  had  little  facility  for  moving  forces  and 
supplies,  and  her  treasury  was  empty.  She  had,  how- 
ever, the  strength  that  belongs  to  him  "  who  hath 
his  quarrel  just."  Her  people  were  righting  for  their 
homes  and  their  hearths.  Right  nobly  did  United 
Empire  Loyalists  and  French  Canadians  show  their 
patriotism  and  their  valour.  The  Indians,  too,  throw- 
ing themselves  into  the  struggle,  but  with  less  bar- 
barity than  had  been  their  wont,  by  their  fidelity  and 
their  courage  proved  themselves  worthy  of  a  home 
on  Canadian  soil. 

It  is  not  easy  to  find  good  and  sufficient  cause  for 
Causes  of  the  this  war.  Great  Britain  did  not  desire  it, 
War  for  her  resources  had  been  seriously  taxed 

by  a  European  war  which  had  been  going  on  for  seve- 
ral years.  Many  people  in  the  United  States  were 
opposed  to  the  war,  and  they  said  it  was  unjust.  Tnie, 
in  some  parts  of  the  country  there  was  great  rejoicing 
over  the  declaration  of  war,  but  in  the  Northern  and 
New  England  States  much  dissatisfaction  prevailed.- 
In  Boston  Hags  on  the  vessels  in  the  harbour  were 
hung  at  half-mast  as  an  expression  of  displeasure. 

The  war  was  brought  about  by  incidents  arising 
out  of  the  disturbed  condition  of  European  affairs. 
Napoleon  I.,  Emperor  of  France,  had  conquered  one 


THE    WAR    OF    181 '2.  217 

country  after  another  until  he  had  brought  nearly  all 
Europe  under  his  power.  Great  Britain,  standing 
alone  in  resisting  him,  seemed  the  only  obstacle  in 
his  way.  He  sometimes  thought  of  invading  her 
shores :  but  her  insular  position,  fortified  harbours, 
matchless  fleets,  and  brave  warriors  presented  diffi- 
culties which  he  did  not  care  to  cope  with.  President 
Madison  of  the  United  States,  and  the  Democratic 
party,  which  was  then  in  power,  favoured  Napoleon, 
and  used  every  means  in  their  power  to  awaken 
hostile  feeling  against  Great  Britain. 

Great  Britain  was  then,  as  she  is  now,  a  great 
commercial  nation,  and  Napoleon  thought  if  he 
could  destroy  her  trade,  he  would  weaken  her  power. 
Accordingly  he  published  his  famous  Berlin  Decree, 
forbidding  neutral  ships  to  enter  British  ports.  To 
meet  this  Great  Britain  issued  similar  decrees,  known 
as  Orders  in  Council,  by  Avhich  neutral  ships  were 
forbidden  to  enter  the  ports  of  France  or  of  her  allies. 
Any  merchant  vessels  found  violating  the  Orders  were 
seized  by  the  warships  sent  to  blockade  the  coast.' 
The  people  of  the  United  States  were  very  angry  over 
these  measures,  which  excluded  their  ships  from  most 
of  the  harbours  of  Europe.  There  was,  however,  much 
inconsistency  in  the  way  they  looked  at  matters ;  for 
while  they  were  enraged  at  Great  Britain,  they  showed 
little  resentment  towards  France. 

There  was  also  another  alleged  cause  of  war.  When 
British  vessels  entered  the  ports  of  the  United  States 
it  was  very  common  for  their  sailors,  induced  by  larger 
pay,  to  desert.  By  pretending  to  be  citizens  of  the 
United  States  they  defeated  legal  action  taken  to  com- 
pel them  to  return  to  their  ships.  Great  Britain  then 


218  THE    DOMINION    OK    CANADA. 

took  the  matter  into  her  own  hands,  and  authorised 
her  warships  to  search  United  States  vessels  on  the 
high  seas  for  these  deserters  and  take  them  by  force. 
Such  a  course  at  the  present  day  would  be  regarded 
as  very  offensive  and  good  cause  of  resentment,  but 
at  that  time  it  was  not  contrary  to  international  law. 
In  1807  a  case  of  this  kind  occurred  which  caused  a 
great  sensation.  The  British  ship  Leopan/  overhauled 
the  United  States  ship  Chesapeake  oft'  the  coast  of 
Virginia.  The  American  captain  refusing  to  allow 
his  ship  It)  be  searched,  the  Jstopard  tired  upon  him, 
killing  four  men  and  wounding  several  others.  Four 
deserters  were  taken  from  the  Clwsapcake  and  carried 
off  by  the  British.  Great  Britain  afterwards  apologised 
for  this  act,  and  made  compensation  to  the  families  of 
the  men  who  were  killed,  but  she  still  allowed  the 
practice  of  search. 

By  way  of  retaliation  against  Great  Britain  and 
France,  Congress  placed  an  embargo  on  vessels,  for- 
bidding them  to  leave  United  States  ports.  This, 
which  meant  refusal  to  trade  with  foreign  nations, 
did  more  harm  to  the  United  States  than  to  the 
offenders.  It  was  specially  injurious  to  the  people  of 
the  New  England  States,  who  owned  many  trading 
vessels.  Then  Congress  repealed  the  Embargo  Act 
and  passed  the  Non-Intercourse  Act,  forbidding  her 
ships  to  enter  the  ports  of  Great  Britain  or  France. 
Napoleon  now  resorted  to  a  trick.  He  publicly  an- 
nounced that  he  had  revoked  the  Berlin  Decrees,  but 
he  secretly  instructed  his  officials  to  go  on  as  before 
seizing  foreign  vessels.  The  United  States  Govern- 
ment, supposing  that  Napoleon  was  acting  in  good 
faith,  repealed  the  Non-Intercourse  Act  as  regarded 


THE   WAR    OF    1812.  219 

its  application  to  France.  United  States  vessels 
thereupon  resumed  trade  at  French  ports,  but  after 
a  little,  by  Napoleon's  order,  they  were  seized  and 
made  the  property  of  France.  France  thus  gave 
much  more  cause  of  offence  than  Great  Britain,  but 
she  had  no  colonies  lying  near  as  convenient  objects 
of  attack.  The  fact  is,  the  war  party  in  the  United 
States  thought  that  Great  Britain's  strength  was  taxed 
to  the  utmost  in  her  wars  with  Napoleon,  and  they 
expected  to  make  an  easy  conquest  of  Canada.  Indeed, 
in  the  United  States  there  was,  no  doubt,  much  mis- 
understanding as  to  public  feeling  in  the  provinces. 
Domestic  quarrels  between  assemblies  and  governors 
were  understood  to  mean  disloyalty  to  Great  Britain. 
The  opinion  prevailed  that  a  United  States  army 
would  be  welcomed  in  Canada  as  a  messenger  of 
liberty.  Indeed,  many  of  our  neighbours  across  the 
border  can  scarcely  yet  believe  that  Canadians  feel 
that  they  are  a  free  people  in  the  full  enjoyment  of 
self-government,  or  that  they  are  not  longing  to  break 
the  ties  which  bind  them  to  England.  Fascinated  by 
the  name  and  form  of  a  republic,  they  seem  quite 
unable  to  understand  that  the  Government  at  Ottawa 
is  more  fully  and  more  readily  responsive  to  the  will 
of  the  people  than  is  that  at  Washington. 

There  was  yet  another  matter  which  strengthened 
hostile  feeling.  The  embargo  on  ships  ordered  by 
Congress  in  1807  gave  so  much  offence  to  the  people 
of  New  England  that  they  talked  of  withdrawing  from 
the  Union.  Sir  James  Craig,  who  was  then  Governor- 
General  of  Canada,  sent  an  agent  named  Henry  to 
Boston  to  gain  information  in  regard  to  the  state  of 
public  feeling  in  that  city,  thinking  that  this  would 


220 


THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


help  him  to  judge  of  the  possibility  of  war.  Several 
years  had  now  passed  since  this  took  place.  But 
Henry,  not  receiving  as  much  for  his  services  sis  he 
demanded,  went  to  Washington  and  sold  Craig's  letters 

bearing  on  the 
matter  to  the 
President,  re- 
ceiving, it  is 
said,  $10,000  for 
the  correspond- 
ence. No  facts 
of  much  import- 
ance were  dis- 
closed, but  the 
publication  of 
the  story  made  a 
great  sensation. 
During  tin- 
war  Sir 
George 

Prevost  held  the 
office  of  Gover- 
nor-General and 
commander -in- 
chief  of  the  for- 
ces. He  was  not 
distinguished  as 
a  military  officer, 
but  he  was  popu- 
lar among  the  French  Canadians.  He  was  very  success- 
ful in  raising  a  militia  force  of  French  and  English  for 
the  defence  of  the  country.  Among  the  French  officers 
deserving  of  notice  was  Colonel  de  Salaberry.  This 


Officers. 


DE    LA    SAI.ABKUKV 


THE    WAR    OF    1812.  221 

brave  officer  had  been  the  object  of  kindly  interest  on 
the  part  of  Prince  Edward,  Duke  of  Kent,  and  he  had 
seen  much  service  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  He 
was  now  appointed  to  the  command  of  a  regiment  of 
Canadian  volti- 
geurs.  In  Upper 
Canada,  during 
the  first  year  of 
the  war,  General 
Sir  Isaac  Brock, 
the  acting  Gov- 
ernor, was  in 
chief  command. 
He  was  a  beau- 
tiful character, 
estimable 
in  private  life, 
and  distin- 
guished both 
as  a  civril  and 
military  officer. 
Prudent  in 
counsel,  brave, 
energetic,  and 
prompt  in  ac- 
tion, he  was  by 
far  the  ablest 
officer  in  the 
army.  Others  v 

deserving  of  mention  were  Tecumseh,    chief  of  the 
Shawnees,  and  Colonel  John  Harvey. 

In   describing   the   officers    of   the   United    States 
army/  one    of    their    own    historians    says:     "As    a 


MAJOR-GENERAL   BROCK 


THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

class   they   were    old,    vain,   respectable,   ami    incap- 
able." 

Success  at  the  beginning  of  the  war  gave  our  people 
assurance.      Fort  Machillhnackinac,  which 

Machilli-  . 

mackinac  and      commanded  the  entrance  to  Lake  Juicnl- 

Detroit.  1-1  e  i 

pin,  was  captured  without  loss  ol  a  man  by 
a  small  Canadian  force.  This  victory  had  an  important 
effect  in  securing  the  confidence  and  aid  of  the  Indians. 
The  tirst  hostile  movement  of  the  enemy  was  an  in- 
vasion of  the  western  peninsula  of  Upper  Canada. 
General  Hull,  at  the  head  of  two  thousand  tive  hun- 
dred men,  crossing  the  Detroit  River  from  Michigan, 
issued  a  boastful  proclamation,  stilting  that  he  had  an 
army  which  "  would  look  down  aill  opposition,"  and 
offering  freedom  from  British  tyranny  to  all  who  would 
accept  his  protection.  'General  Brock,  setting  out  from 
York  with  a  force  of  seven  hundred  men,  regulars  and 
militia,  marched  against  him.  On  the  way  he  was 
joined  by  six  hundred  Indians  under  their  chief 
Tecumseh.  Without  waiting  to  prove  the  valour  of 
his  men,  Hidl  hastily  retreated,  and  took  shelter 
behind  the  fortiti cations  of  Detroit.  On  Brock's 
demand,  without  striking  a  blow,  he  gave  up  the 
town,  all  his  military  stores,  and  his  entire  army. 
'General  Hull,  his  officers,  and  his  regular  soldiers, 
jjver  a  thousand  men  in  all,  were  sent  as  prisoners  of 
war  to  Montreal.  The  militia  were  allowed  to  return 
to  their  homes.  Leaving  General  Procter  in  command 
at  Detroit,  Brock  proceeded  to  the  Niagara  frontier. 

During  the  war  the  Niagara  district  was  the  scene 
The  Niagara      °f    many   stirring    events.     The    Niagara 

River,   which  flows  northerly  from   Lake 
Erie  to   Lake  Ontario,  is  about  thirty-four  miles  in 


THE   WAR   OF    1812. 


223 


length.  At  the  foot  of  Lake  Erie,  on  the  Canadian 
side,  in  1812,  was  the  strongly  stockaded  Fort  Erie. 
Nearly  opposite,  in  the  United  States,  was  Buffalo, 
a  town  of  live  hundred  inhabitants.  About  two  miles 
down  the  river,  on  the  same  side,  was  the  village  of 


NIAGARA   DISTRICT. 


Black  Rock.  Four  or  five  miles  farther  down,  the 
river  is  divided  by  Grand  Island,  below  which,  on  the 
Canadian  side,  where  the  Chippewa  enters  the  Niagara, 
was  the  village  of  Chippewa.  Still  farther  on,  nearly 
opposite  the  Falls,  was  Lundy's  Lane.  Below  the 


221  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

Fulls  the  river  flows  through  a  chasm  for  about  six 
miles  to  a  point  where  the  highlands  abruptly  end  in 
rocky  cliffs.  At  this  point,  ages  ago,  were  Niagara 
Falls,  but  slowly  the  water  has  worn  away  the  rock, 
until  now  the  great  cataract  is  removed  six  miles  up 
tho  river.  Here,  on  the  low  plain  just  under  the 
dirt's,  which  rise  to  the  height  of  three  hundred  and 
fifty  feet,  on  the  Canadian  shore,  was  the  village  of 
Ojieenston.  Directly  opposite,  in  the  United  States, 
was  Lewiston.  At  the  mouth  of  the  river,  six  miles 
from  Queenston,  stretching  along  the  shore  of  Lake 
Ontario,  was  Newark,  or  Niagara,  the  first  capital  of 
Upper  Canada.  On  the  river  close  by  was  the  strongly 
fortified  Fort  George,  and  across  the  river,  nearly  oppo- 
site, stood  Fort  Niagara. 

The  enemy  had  collected  seven  or  eight  thousand 
men  at  Fort  Niagara,  Lewiston, Buffalo,  and 

The  Enemy  ,  .  .        .T.  . .    .         r 

along  the  other  points  on  t  he  N  lagara.     Major-Gene- 

Niagara.  I  r>  1  •  1        \\"»l     »l 

ral  Kenssalaer  was  in  command.  \\  ith  the 
object  of  making  an  assault  on  Queenston,  he  took  up 
his  position  at  Lewiston,  directly  opposite.  He  had  here 
nine  hundred  regulars  and  over  two  thousand  militia. 
The  latter,  undrilled,  half  clad,  badly  armed,  without 
ammunition,  and  cowardly,  presented  an  unwarlike  ap- 
pearance. While  Kenssalaer  was  getting  them  ready 
for  war,  a  brief  armistice  was  concluded  by  the  Gover- 
nor-General of  Canada  and  General  Dearborn,  chief 
officer  of  the  United  States  forces.  This  came  about  by 
reason  of  the  withdrawal  of  the  Orders  in  Council  by 
Great  Britain.  As  the  Orders  had  been  a  chief  cause  of 
ott'ence  to  the  United  States,  these  officers  thought  the 
war  might  be  ended  at  once.  President  Madison  thought 
otherwise,  and  sent  instructions  to  resume  hostilities. 


THE    WAR    OF    1812.  225 

The  Canadian  frontier  of  the  Niagara  was  defended 
by  about  fifteen  hundred  men.  Of  these, 

»  The  Battle  of 

about  three  hundred  were  at  Queenston.   Queenston, 

.„  .  ,      October  1813. 

General  Brock  was  at  Fort  George  with 
the  troops  he  had  brought  from  Detroit.  His  posi- 
tion was  embarrassing.  Subject  to  the  Governor- 
General  as  his  superior  officer,  who  counselled  strictly 
defensive  action,  he  could  only  await  the  enemy's 
movements,  which  he  supposed  were  designed  against 
Fort  George.  But  Kenssalaer's  purpose  was  to  take 
Queenston,  and  make  it  the  base  of  further  action 
in  Canada. 

A  dark  night  in  October  was  chosen  by  the  enemy 
for  the  capture  of  Queenston.  About  one  thousand 
men  crossed  over,  effected  a  landing,  and  took  posses- 
sion of  the  heights  overlooking  the  village.  There 
followed  a  desperate  struggle.  General  Brock,  at 
Fort  George,  heard  the  roaring  of  the  cannon,  and 
rode  in  all  haste  to  the  scene  of  the  conflict.  Rally- 
ing the  forces  and  inspiring  them  with  his  own  eager 
enthusiasm,  he  led  them  on  to  victory.  For  a  time 
the  result  was  doubtful ;  but  General  Sheafte,  arriv- 
ing with  reinforcements  from  Fort  George,  turned  the 
scale.  Queenston  Heights  were  recaptured,  and  the 
enemy  were  utterly  routed.  Some  of  them,  in  trying 
to  escape,  rushed  down  the  steep  river-banks,  and 
were  killed  by  falling  on  the  rocks,  or  were  drowned 
in  the  attempt  to  swim  across  the  river.  Over  nine 
hundred  were  taken  prisoners.  Meanwhile  the  great 
bDcly  of  the  United  States  army  stood  on  the  opposite 
.shore,  refusing  to  cross  the  river.  Their  courage  had 
(led,  and  they  said  that,  being  militia,  they  would 
repel  invasion,  but  that  they  could  not  be  forced  to 

P 


22G  THE   DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

go  out  of  their  own  country.  The  Canadian  victory 
was  dearly  bought.  While  in  the  thickest  of  the 
fight,  urging  on  his  brave  volunteers,  Brock  fell  mor- 
tally wounded.  His  aide-de-camp,  the  valiant  Colonel 
M'Donnell,  was  also  killed  a  little  later  in  the  battle. 
The  Brock  Monument  on  Queeuston  Heights  marks 
the  hero's  burial-place,  and  perpetuates  the  loving 
regard  with  which  his  memory  is  cherished.  General 
Sheafte  succeeded  Brock  in  the  government  of  Upper 
Canada  and  in  the  command  of  the  forces. 

Meanwhile  General  Dearborn,  with  an  army  of  ten 
The  Army  of  thousand,  known  as  the  "  Army  of  the 
the  North.  North,"  was  advancing  into  Canada  by 
way  of  Lake  Champlain.  He  was  met  by  Canadian 
militia,  who  obstructed  his  progress  by  felling  trees 
and  forming  abattis  across  his  line  of  march.  Some 
skirmishing  took  place  near  Odelltown.  The  enemy 
forded  the  river  Lacolle  in  two  divisions  at  different 
points.  Xight  coming  on,  the  two  divisions  met  in 
the  darkness,  and,  mistaking  friends  for  foes,  they 
fired  upon  each  other.  Finally,  Dearborn  retired, 
and  went  into  winter  quarters  at  Plattsburg  and 
Burlington. 

The  first  year's  campaign  gave  the  Canadians  little 
cause  for  discouragement  or  self-distrust 

Summary.  _,,  .  i      i  i       i      • 

Ihey  had  more  than  held  their  own  in 
the  quarrel  which  had  been  forced  upon  them  by 
their  big  neighbour.  Strange  to  say,  in  the  various 
engagements  on  the  sea  during  the  year  Great  Britain 
was  less  successful.  Several  British  ships  were  cap- 
tured by  the  Americans. 

During  the  second  year  of  the  war  the  Canadians 
suffered  serious  reverses  on  the  lakes  and  in  the  upper 


THE    WAR    OF    1812. 


227 


province.  They  were  at  great  disadvantage  from  lack 
of  supplies  and  means  of  transport.  Food  The  War 
\vas  scarce,  especially  in  Upper  Canada.  contlnued>  I8l3- 
Salt  pork  and  hard  biscuit  for  the  army  were  im- 
ported from  Great  Britain.  Beef,  cattle,  and  other 
supplies  were  brought  over  from  Vermont ;  for,  not- 
withstanding the  war,  the  farmers  across  the  line 


LAKE   COUNTRY   AND   WESTERN   FORTS. 


were  glad  to  sell  their  produce  to  our  people.  These 
supplies  were  taken  up  the  St.  Lawrence  from  Mon- 
treal on  flat  boats  in  summer  and  on  sleds  in  winter. 
This  work  was  slow  and  toilsome,  and  it  was  attended 
with  danger  from  the  enemy,  whose  country  lay  along 
the  south  of  the  river.  The  industries  of  Canada 
were  interrupted,  and  much  property  was  destroyed. 


228  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

The  mm  were  drawn  away  for  the  defence  of  the 
country,  ami  the  womm  haul  to  work  the  farms.  In 
many  a  home  there  was  mourning  tor  l<»st  ones,  either 
killed  in  the,  war,  or  taken  prisoners  and  lodged  in 
jails  in  the  I'nited  States. 

Great  Britain,  still  engaged  in  European  wars,  could 
send  little  aid.  In  the  depth  of  winter,  however,  a 
regiment  of  British  soldiers  marehed  on  snow-shoes 
through  the  forests  from  Fredericton  to  Quebec,  being 
nearly  a  month  on  the  journey.  One  of  the  earliest 
events  of  the  year  was  the  capture  of  Ogdeusburg  by 
Colonel  M'Donnell. 

Command  of  the  Great  Laikes  was  a  matter  of  the 
Capture  of  highest  importance  in  the  war.  During 
the  winter,  while  our  officers  were  doing 
little,  the  enemy  were  active  in  building  vessels  and 
in  drilling  their  men.  Early  in  the  spring  Commo- 
dore Chauncey  of  the  I'm'ted  States  navy,  sailing 
from  Sackett's  Harbour  with  fourteen  armed  vessels 
and  over  two  thousand  men.  appeared  before  York. 
This  place,  then  the  capital  of  the  province,  since 
become  the  large  eity  of  Toronto,  was  at  that  time 
but  a  small  town  of  a  thousand  inhabitants.  It  was 
defended  by  about  six  hundred  men  under  General 
Sheaffe,  the  Governor  of  the  province.  There  waus 
some  sharp  fighting,  but  Sheatt'o  soon  gave  up  the 
unequal  contest  and  retired  with  his  troops,  leaving  a 
subordinate  officer  to  treat  with  the  enemy.  As  the 
United  States  troops  were  entering  the  fort,  the 
powder  magaxine  blew  up,  killing  over  two  hundred 
of  them,  including  General  Pike.  Many  of  the  re- 
tiring garrison  also  were  killed.  The  enemy,  after 
pillaging  private  houses  and  burning  the  public 


THE    WAR    OF    1812.  229 

buildings,  seized  such  military  stores  as  remained, 
uud  mailed  away  for  Niagara.  General  Sheaffe  showed 
such  incapacity  in  the  defence  of  York  that  he  was 
removed  from  his  command,  and  Major-General  de 
Rottenburg  was  appointed  in  his  place. 

Chauncey    now    sailed    for    Fort    George,    on   the 
Niagara.     General    Vincent,    the    British  The  Niagara 
officer    in    command,    with    a     thousand  ^^the^*11 
men,  could  scarcely  hope  to  hold  the  fort  Enemy, 
against  an  army  of  six  thousand,  supported  by  a  strong 
fleet.      After   a   severe   struggle    and   heavy   loss,   he 
spiked   his    guns,   blew   up  the   fort,  and  retired  to 
Beaver    Dams,   sixteen    miles    distant.      Having   col- 
lected   the    forces    from    different   points    along    the 
Niagara,  he   made  an  orderly  retreat  to  Burlington 
Heights,  near  where  the  city  of  Hamilton  now  stands. 
The  whole  Niagara  frontier  was  thus  given  up  to  the 
enemy. 

Vincent  was  closely  followed  by  the  United  States 
Generals  Winder  and  Chandler,  with  an 
army  more  than  double  his  own.  Learn- 
ing that  his  pursuers  were  carelessly  encamped  at 
Stony  Creek,  six  or  seven  miles,  distant,  he  sent 
Colonel  Harvey  with  seven  hundred  men  to  surprise 
them  by  a  night  attack.  Stealing  along  softly  at 
midnight,  the  Canadians,  with  fixed  bayonets,  sprang 
suddenly  upon  their  foes,  and  scattered  them  in  utter 
confusion.  Not  wishing  to  expose  the  sinallness  of 
his  force,  Harvey  withdrew  before  daylight,  taking 
with  him  over  a  hundred  prisoners,  including  both 
generals.  We  shall  meet  this  gallant  officer  again 
as  Sir  John  Harvey,  Governor  of  New  Brunswick, 
and,  still  later,  of  Nova  Scotia. 


L>:;n 


TIIK    DOMINION     "I     '    \VADA. 


A  small  detachment  of  Vincent's  army  under  Lieu- 
tenant Fitzgibbon  was  stationed  at  Beaver 

Beaver  Dams.  ,  ° 

Dams.  General  Dearborn  sent  a  force  of 
six  or  seven  hundred  men  to  take  the  little  party 
by  surprise.  A  militiaman  named  Seeord,  living  at 
Queenston,  who  was  disabled  bv  a  wound,  by  chance 
heard  of  the  expedition.  His  heroie.  wife  at  once  set 


Chrysler*  Farm 
Williamsbur 


SACKKTTS    HAKBOL'K. 


out  to  give  warning  to  Fitxgihbon.  Leaving  home 
before  daylight,  she  cautiously  passed  the  American 
lines,  and,  avoiding  the  highway,  travelled  a  distance 
of  twenty  miles  through  the  woods,  crossing  swollen 
streams  on  trunks  of  fallen  trees,  to  Beaver  Dams. 
Fit/gibbon,  forewarned  by  her,  skilfully  placed  his 
men  in  ambush  in  the  forests  along  a  narrow  ravine, 
and  took  over  five  hundred  of  the  enemy  prisoners. 


THE    WAR    OF    1812.  231 

Meanwhile  Sir  George  Prevost  and  Sir  Jaines  Yeo, 
who  had  recently  arrived  in  the  country,  taking  ad- 
vantage of  the   absence  of  Chaimcey  at  Sacketfs 
Fort   George,  had    made   an  attempt    to  Harbour- 
obtain  possession  of  Sackett's  Harbour.     They  sailed 
from  Kingston  with  a  fleet  of  seven  vessels,  and  about 
seven  hundred  and  fifty  troops,  rank  and  file.      The 
expedition  resulted  in  ridiculous  failure.     After  sturdy 
fighting,  when  victory  seemed  well  assured,  Prevost 
ordered  his  men  to  re-embark  and  gave  up  the  siege. 

The  story  of  the  capture  of  the  Chesapeake  is 
almost  a  household  tale.  Captain  Broke  capture  of  the 
of  the  British  frigate  Shannon  came  up  ChesaPeake- 
before  Boston  Harbour  and  challenged  Captain  Law- 
rence of  the  Chesapeake  to  meet  him  in  the  open 
sea.  The  two  ships  were  followed  from  the  harbour 
by  a  fleet  of  sail-boats  filled  with  the  citizens  of 
Boston,  eager  to  see  the  battle  and  take  part  in  the 
expected  triumph.  As  the  Chesapeake  drew  near,  there 
was  great  excitement  among  the  British  tars.  "  Don't 
cheer,"  said  Broke,  "  but  go  quietly  to  your  quarters." 

In  fifteen  minutes  after  the  first  shot  was  fired,  the 
British  flag  floated  above  the  stars  and  stripes  oh  the 
masts  of  the  Chesapeake,  while  seventy  of  her  men  lay 
dead  upon  her  decks,  and  her  gallant  captain  was 
dying  of  a  mortal  wound.  "  Don't  give  up  the  ship," 
were  the  words  addressed  to  his  men  by  this  brave 
officer  as  he  fell.  On  Sunday.  June  6,  the  Shannon 
with  her  prize  sailed  into  Halifax  Harbour.  Captain 
Lawrence  was  buried  in  Halifax  with  military  honours. 
Broke,  who  was  severely  wounded  in  the  engagement, 
was  rewarded  by  his  Sovereign  with  the  title  of 
Baronet. 


232  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

Ill  this  war,  however,  Great  Britain  <li<I  not  always 
Defeat  of  the      maintain  her  prestige  as  mistress  of  the 


LakehErie.  Sea-        ^DC     of    the     lllOSt     (lisiUStTOUS 

Sept.  10,  1813.  defeats  occurred  on  Lake  Erie.  Procter, 
with  a  small  force  of  troops  and  Indians,  occupied 
Amhentburg.  In  the  river  before  the  town  lay  the 
British  Lake  Erie  fleet  of  six  vessels  under  command 
of  Captain  Barclay.  Near  by,  in  warlike  attitude, 
was  a  United  States  fleet  of  nine  vessels  under  Lieu- 
tenant Perry.  While  Barclay  had  more  guns  than 
had  Perry,  his  strength  was  much  interior  as  regards 
number  of  men  as  well  as  of  ships.  Moreover,  food 
being  scarce  in  Amherstburg,  his  men  were  on  short 
allowance,  and  there  was  slim  prospect  of  fresh  sup- 
plies. He  was  thus  forced  to  risk  an  engagement, 
which  took  place  in  Put-iu-Bay.  The  battle  was 
gallantly  fought  on  lx>th  sides.  The  United  States 
flagship  was  named  the  Laicrcnce  in  honour  of  the 
captain  of  the  Chempfake,  and  on  her  blue  pennon  at 
the  mast-head  were  inscribed  that  hero's  memorable 
words—  -"  Don't  give  up  the  ship."  During  the 
engagement  the  I^avrrtnce  was  disabled.  Perry,  seizing 
her  flag,  entered  an  open  boat  and  was  rowed  amid 
flying  shot  and  shell  to  another  ship.  Barclay  fought 
bravely,  but  after  losing  nearly  half  his  men  in  killed 
and  wounded,  and  being  himself  disabled  by  a  wound, 
he  was  compelled  to  surrender  the  entire  fleet. 

The  loss  of  Barclay's  fleet  was  a  serious  matter. 
Moravian  Procter,  now  left  without  support  and  the 
means  of  obtaining  supplies,  felt  compelled 
to  abandon  his  position.  Having  dismantled  the 
forts  at  Amherstburg  and  Detroit,  with  about  four 
hundred  troops,  and  eight  hundred  Indians  under 


THE    WAR    OF    1812.  233 

Tecuinseh,  he  retreated  across  the  country  and  up 
the  valley  of  the  Thames.  Closely  pursued  by  General 
Harrison  at  the  head  of  three  thousand  five  hundred 
men,  he  was  forced  to  give  battle  near  Moravian 
Town.  In  the  battle  he  took  a  position  where  he 
would  be  least  exposed,  and  when  he  found  himself 
in  danger  he  fled  as  fast  as  he  was  able  from  the 
field  of  battle.  His  army  suffered  disastrous  defeat. 
The  brave  Tecumseh  was  slain,  and  his  body  was 
treated  with  great  indignity  by  the  victors.  Many 
British  soldiers  were  taken  prisoners  and  sent  off  to 
Ohio  and  Kentucky,  where  they  received  very  rough 
treatment.  Procter  was  afterwards  tried  by  court-mar- 
tial, which  sentenced  him  to  be  publicly  reprimanded, 
and  suspended  from  rank  and  pay  for  six  months. 

Elated  with  their  successes  in  the  west,  the  Ameri- 
cans   planned    the    conquest    of    Lower  Battleof 
Canada.      For    this    purpose    two    large  Chateau^ay- 
armies  entered  the  province  by  different  routes — one 
under  General  Wade  Hampton  by  way  of  Lake  Cham- 
plain,  the  other  under  Wilkinson  by  the  St.  Lawrence. 
They  were  to  meet  at  the  mouth  of  the  Chateaugay 
on  the  south  shore  of  Lake  St.  Louis,  and   thence 
proceed  against  Montreal. 

Towards  the  end  of  September,  Hampton,  at  the 
head  of  a  well-drilled  army  of  about  six  thousand 
men,  marching  from  Lake  Champlain,  entered  Canada 
near  Odelltown.  Shortly  after  he  crossed  the  borders 
he  entered  a  swampy  wood,  where  he  was  every  now 
and  then  fired  upon  by  a  foe  lying  in  ambush  among 
the  trees.  This  enemy  of  unknown  strength  really 
comprised  only  two  or  three  hundred  voltigeurs, 
mostly  French  Canadians,  and  a  few  Indians,  under 


231  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

command  of  the  clever  Colonel  <le  Salaberry.  Sir 
George  Prevosl,  whose  caution  was  so  conspicuous  at 
Sackett's  Harbour,  had  scut  this  little  band  to  opj>ose 
one  of  the  strongest  armies  that  the  I'nited  States 
had  sent  into  Canada.  Hampton,  uncertain  as  to  the 
strength  of  the  enemy  lurking  in  ambush,  abandoned 
the  woods  and  moved  over  to  the  Chateaugay,  in- 
tending to  follow  it  to  its  mouth,  where  he  was  to 
meet  Wilkinson.  DC  Salaberry  took  up  his  j>ositiou 
on  the  borders  of  a  thick  wo<xl,  at  a  point  on  the 
river  which  he  knew  Hampton  would  pass.  Having 
built  a  block-house  and  thrown  out  abattis  for  u 
defence,  with  his  little  baud  he  awaited  the  coming 
of  the  enemy.  Fortunately,  while  waiting  he  was 
reinforced  by  Colonel  M'Donnell  with  six  hundred 
French  militia.  On  the  following  day,  October  20, 
was  fought  the  battle  of  Chateaugay,  in  which  nine 
hundred  French  Canadians,  aided  by  fifty  Indians, 
gained  a  wonderful  victory  over  an  enemy  more  than 
six  times  their  number.  At  one  time  in  the  biltlc, 
when  the  voltigeurs.  overwhelmed  by  the  enemy, 
gave  way,  De  Salaberry  alone  stood  firm,  and  seizing 
his  bugler  by  the  collar,  to  prevent  him  from  running 
away,  he  made  him  sound  the  advance.  Both  b; 
stratagem  and  bravery  M'Donnell  performed  his  par 
equally  well.  He  distributed  his  buglers  at  different, 
points  in 'the  forest,  and  gave  them  orders  to  blov.- 
with  all  their  might,  as  if  to  collect  scattered  forces 
for  a  grand  charge.  The  Indians  also  helped  on  the 
ruse  by  loud  yelling.  The  enemy,  thus  led  to  sup- 
pose that  a  large  army  was  about  to  advance  on 
them,  panic-stricken,  fled  in  confusion.  Night  coming 
on,  two  divisions  of  United  States  troops  by  mistake 


THE    WAR    OF    1812.  235 

fought  each  other.  Finally,  Hampton,  having  col- 
lected his  men,  marched  back  to  Plattsburg. 

Wilkinson   collected   his   forces,  comprising   about 
eight   thousand    men,   at    Sackett's   Har- 

/•     XT  i  Battle  of 

bour.  On  the  5th  of  November,  not  Chrystier's 
knowing  the  ill -fortune  of  Hampton's 
army,"  he  began  the  descent  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  A 
British  force  of  about  eight  hundred  men  and  eight 
gunboats  followed  from  Kingston,  giving  him  such 
annoyance  that  he  was  compelled  to  land  strong 
forces  to  beat  oft'  the  assailants.  As  he  approached 
Long  Sault  Rapids  he  divided  his  men,  sending  a 
strong  division  in  advance  to  clear  the  way,  while 
the  other,  comprising  two  thousand  live  hundred  men 
under  General  Boyd,  was  left  to  guard  his  rear.  Boyd 
was  closely  followed  by  the  Canadians  under  Colonel 
" Morrison.  Finally,  at  the  head  of  Long  Sault  Rapids, 
in  open  field,  was  fought  the  battle  of  Chrystier's 
Farm,  in  which  the  invaders  were  thoroughly  beaten 
by  a  force  less  than  one-third  their  number.  At 
Cornwall,  Wilkinson  heard  of  Hampton's  defeat.  With 
deep  chagrin  he  burned  his  boats  and  went  into  winter 
quarters. 

General  M'Clure  of  the  United  States  army,  at  the 
head  of  nearly  three  thousand  men,  held 

}.£_'.•  £    -vr.  TT       Towns  burned. 

the  Canadian  frontier   ot   .Niagara.      Me 

o  • 
treated  the  people  of  the  district  with  great  severity, 

pillaging  their  property,  destroying  their  houses,  so 
as  to  leave  them  without  shelter  at  the  approach 
of  winter,  and  sending  the  principal  men  across  the 
line  as  prisoners  of  war.  General  Vincent,  who  occu- 
pied Burlington  Heights,  sent  a  force  of  five  hundred 
men  under  Murray  for  the  purpose  of  giving  the  in- 


230  THK    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

habitants  some  protection.  M'Clmv  retreated  to  Fort 
George,  and  finally  he  withdrew-  to  Fort  Niagara,  on 
the  United  States  side  of  the  river.  Before  retiring, 
however,  he  was  guilty  of  an  act  of  great  barbarity. 
Turning  the  women  and  children  on  the  streets  on  a 
cold  winter's  night,  he  burned  the  town  of  Newark. 
Out  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  houses  but  one  re- 
mained after  the  fire.  Indignant  at  this  outrage,  the 
British  pursued  the  enemy  across  the  river,  and  in 
retaliation  burned  the  towns  of  Lewiston,  Manchester, 
Black  Hock,  and  Buffalo.  Thus  up  to  within  a  day 
or  two  of  Christmas  this  destruction  and  cruel  war- 
fare continued. 

The  war  was  attended  with  great  loss  and  suffering 
Effects  of  the  on  both  sides.  The  industries  of  Canada 
War  were  interrupted  and  much  property  wa.s 

destroyed.  The  transport  of  supplies  and  war  material 
was  attended  with  great  l:ib.>ur  and  expense.  At  that 
time  there  were  no  steamers  on  the  lakes  and  riven;, 
and  there  were  no  canals  for  overcoming  the  rapids 
on  the  St.  Lawrence.  Supplies  for  the  West  were 
forwarded  on  sleds  during  the  winter  from  Montreal 
to  Kingston,  where  they  were  distributed  to  various 
points  as  required.  Though  the  provinces  by  the  sea 
were  removed  from  the  neighbourhood  of  the  war, 
they  were  not  exempt  from  its  evils.  I'nited  States 
privateers,  by  plundering  the  settlements  on  the  coast 
and  capturing  vessels  engaged  in  trade  and  fishing,  did 
them  much  damage.  To  defend  the  country,  old  forts 
and  block -houses  were  repaired,  and  cannon  were 
mounted  at  the  entrance  of  the  principal  hurb.mrs. 
Halifax  was  a  busy  place  during  the  war.  A  militia 
force  was  brought  in  from  the  country  to  defend  the 


THE    \VAfc    OF    1812.  237 

capital  in  case  of  attack.  Halifax  Harbour  was  the 
headquarters  of  the  British  fleet  in  North  America, 
and  ships  of  war  were  constantly  corning  and  going. 
Vessels  and  other  property  taken  from  the  enemy 
were  brought  here  to  be  sold.  Prisoners  of  war  were 
kcpo  on  Melville  Island,  in  the  harbour.  Increased 
demand  for  provisions  of  all  kinds  made  good  markets 
for  the  produce  of  the  farmers  of  the  country.  -*-^ 

The  United  States  also  suffered  great  damage  from 
the  war.     The  whole  Atlantic  coast  south 
of  New  England  was  under  blockade  of  War  in  the 

T>   -.-   T_        I.-  -,  i  •  !     United  States. 

lintisn  ships,  and  only  privateers  and 
other  fast  sailers  entered  or  left  the  harbours.  The 
foreign  trade  of  the  country  was  ruined,  and  domestic 
trade  was  seriously  interrupted.  Express  teams  were 
employed  to  do  the  work  of  coasting-vessels.  On  the 
highways  between  the  North  and  the  South  might  be 
seen  hundreds  of  huge  canvas-covered  waggons,  drawn 
by  long  teams  of  horses  or  oxen,  carrying  on  exchange 
of  products.  The  journey  from  Boston  to  Augusta,  in 
Georgia,  occupied  two  months.  Fabulous  prices  were 
demanded  for  goods.  In  some  parts  of  the  country 
tea  was  sold  for  $4  a  pound,  flour  for  $19  a  barrel, 
molasses  for  $2  a  gallon,  salt  for  $5  a  bushel. 

Throughout  the  whole  of  the  year  1814  the  war 
went  on.      Napoleon,  the  great  disturber  TheWarin 
of   the    peace    of   Europe,    was    defeated,  l8l4- 
and  confined   in   the   little   island   of   Elba,   so    that 
Great  Britain  was  now  able  to    send    more  help   to 
Canada. 

Early  in  the  spring,  Wilkinson,  with  a  force  of  tour 
thousand  men,  advancing  from  Plattsburg,  renewed 
liis  invasion  of  Lower  Canada.  Four  or -five  him- 


238  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

dn-d  Canadian  militia  and  regulars,  taking  possession 

Lacolle-Port       °^   a    lartfe    Stone    lllill    at   Laoollo,   OpfXMed 

Dover  njs  progi.css>  ]i\,r  ( wo  hours  and  a  half 

Wilkinson  battered  in  vain  at  the  thick  walls  of  the 
mill,  when  he  withdrew  across  the  line  and  soon  utter 
returned  to  Plattsburg. 

The  burning  of  Port  Dover,  on  Lake  Erie,  by  u 
United  States  force  under  Colonel  Campbell,  awak- 
ened deep  indignation  in  Canada.  The  whole  village, 
including  private  houses,  mills,  stores,  and  other 
buildings,  was  wantonly  reduced  to  ashes. 

The  invasions  were  not  all  on  one  side.  Sir  Gordon 
Oswegoand  Drummoiid,  the  Governor  of  Upper  Can- 
Maine.  Jl(j.^  an([  v^jr  J.imc.s  y,.0)  captured  Oswego, 

an  important  naval  depot  of  the  T'nited  States  on 
Lake  Ontario,  and  seized  large  (quantities  of  pro- 
visions. 

Later  in  the  summer,  expeditions  setting  out  from 
Nova  Scotia,  under  Sir  John  Sherbrooke,  the  Governor 
of  that  province,  and  other  officers,  took  possession 
of  Eastport,  Castine,  Bangor,  and  Machias.  In  tact 
the  whole  coast  of  Maine  east  of  the  Penobscot  was 
taken  and  held  by  the  British  until  the  close  of 
the  war. 

Once  again  the  chief  events  of  the  war  centred  on 
Chippewaund  tnc  Niagara  frontier.  The  United  States 

Luiufy-s  Lane.      ^.^     were     colle(.te(l     at     Bllttlllo     tO     the 

number  of  five  or  six  thousand  men,  under  General 
Brown.  The  British  held  Fort  Niagara,  on  the  United 
States  side,  and  as  it  was  uncertain  where  the  attack 
would  bo  made,  their  troops  were  scattered  at  various 
points.  Broun  made  his  h'rst  assault  on  Fort  Erie, 
which  he  took  with  little  difficulty.  He  then  ad- 


THE    WAR    OF    1812.  239 

vauced  to  Chippewa,  where  he  was  met  by  General 
Riall  with  about  fifteen  hundred  men.  Riall  was 
defeated.  He  then  retired  to  Lundy's  Lane,  closely 
pursued  by  Brown,  who  plundered  and  laid  waste  the 
country  as  he  advanced. 

General  Drummond,  who  was  at  Kingston,  hearing 
of  the  invasion,  hastened  forward,  arriving  at  Fort 
Niagara  on  the  morning  of  July  25.  On  the  same 
day,  taking  about  eight  hundred  troops,  he  moved 
rapidly  to  the  seat  of  war.  At  five  o'clock  in  the 
evening  he  met  Riall  and  his  troops  in  full  retreat, 
and  turned  them  back  for  renewed  conflict.  On  the 
same  evening,  July  25,  within  sound  of  Niagara  Falls, 
was  fought  the  battle  of  Lundy's  Lane,  the  most  hotly 
contended  of  the  whole  war. 

The  battle  began  at  six  in  the  evening  and  con- 
tinued until  near  midnight.  The  United  States  army 
numbered  about  five  thousand  men.  During  the  first 
three  hours  Drummond  had  about  seventeen  hundred; 
but  at  nine  o'clock  a  reinforcement  arrived,  making  in 
all  t.bout  three  thousand.  The  night  was  intensely 
dark,  and  there  was  much  confusion  between  the 
contending  armies.  In  some  places  it  was  a  hand- 
to-hand  struggle.  Guns  were  captured  and  re-cap- 
tured, and  gunners  were  bayoneted  while  loading  their 
pieces.  The  carnage  was  fearful.  The  Americans 
lost  about  nine  hundred  men,  and  the  British  nearly 
as  many.  General  Riall  was  severely  wounded,  and 
afterwards  taken  prisoner  by  the  enemy.  Three 
United  States  generals,  Brown,  Scott,  and  Porter,  were 
severely  wounded.  Towards  midnight  the  enemy, 
worn  out  in  the  struggle,  retreated  from  the  field, 
and  afterwards  took  shelter  in  Fort  Erie.  The  British 


240  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

besieged  the  tort,  but  were  repulsed  with  heavy  loss. 
Soon  after,  the  enemy  withdrew  to  the  United  States 
side  of  the  river. 

During  the  summer  the  people  of  the  Unit-til 
Capture  of  States  began  to  realise,  as  they  had  not 
Washington.  <lolu.  before,  the  serious  nature  of  the  war 
in  which  they  were  engaged.  British  Heels  sailed  up 
and  down  the  Atlantic  coast,  spreading  dismay  in 
every  city  within  reach  of  their  guns.  Hut  the  event 
which  brought  the  war  nearest  home  to  the  United 
States  was  the  capture  of  Washington  by  Admiral 
Cochrane  and  General  Ross.  These  officers  sailed  up 
the  Potomac,  landed  their  forces  without  op|x>sition, 
and  after  a  short  engagement  before  Washington  took 
possession  of  the  city.  President  Madison  barely 
escaped  capture.  The  British  added  little  to  their 
glory  by  burning  the  capitol  and  other  public  build- 
ings ;  but  they  claimed  that  it  was  in  retaliation  for 
the  burning  of  York,  Port  Dover,  and  other  places  in 
Canada. 

As  Great  Britain  had  sent  several  thousands  of 
her  veteran  troops  to  Canada.  Sir  George 

Plattsburg. 

Prevost  resolved  to  use  them  in  an  ex- 
pedition against  Plattsburg,  on  Lake  Champlain.  The 
United  States  forces  occupying  this  place  and  the  war- 
ships on  Lake  Champlain  interfered  with  the  sending 
into  Canada  of  beef  and  other  food  supplies  from 
Vermont  and  New  York,  a  traffic  of  great  importance 
to  our  people,  but  one  which  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment wished  to  break  up.  In  September  a  well- 
diseiplined  army,  eleven  thousand  strong,  under  the 
command  of  Sir  George  himself,  aided  by  a  small 
British  Heet,  undertook  the  capture  of  the  place.  The 


THE    WAR    OF    1812.  241 

undertaking  was  badly  mismanaged,  and  resulted  in 
complete  failure.  The  fleet,  after  a  sharp  conflict  lasting 
over  two  hours,  was  utterly  beaten.  Meanwhile  Pre- 
vost,  with  an  army  which,  under  proper  command,  could 
easily  have  taken  the  place,  was  doing  nothing,  and 
he  now  ordered  the  troops  to  retire  without  striking  a 
blow.  His  soldiers  were  greatly  disappointed,  and  his 
officers  broke  their  swords  for  very  shame  and  anger, 
vowing  they  never  would  serve  again.  Sir  George 
was  afterwards  summoned  before  a  court-martial  to 
answer  for  his  unsoldier-like  conduct,  bat  he  died 
before  the  court  met. 

A  closing  scene  in  this  long  war  was  enacted  before 
New  Orleans.    Early  in  December  a  power- 
ful fleet,  under  Admiral  Cochrane,  and  a 
strong  land-force  commanded  by  Sir  Edward  Packen- 
ham,  having  for  their  object  the  capture  of  this  city, 
arrived  at  the  mouth   of  the  Mississippi.     A  battle 
was  fought  on  January  8,  1815,  in  which  the  British 
were  defeated  with  heavy  loss. 

On  the  day  before  Christmas   a  treaty  of  peace 
between   Great  Britain   and   the   United 

i  ni  r  The  Treaty 

States  was  signed  at  Ghent,  a  famous  of  Ghent, 
fortified  city  in  Belgium.  The  news  did 
not  reach  America  for  several  weeks,  so  that  hostilities 
were  continued  for  some  time  after  the  peace  was 
concluded.  The  territory  which  had  been  seized 
during  the  war  was  restored  to  the  original  owner ; 
and  strangely  enough  the  disputed  question  of  right 
of  search  on  the  High  Seas,  which  was  said  to  be  a 
leading  cause  of  the  war,  was  not  even  referred  to  in 
the  treaty.  It  is  difficult  to  see  what  either  party 
gained  which  could  justify  such  expenditure  of  money 

Q 


242  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA 

and  human  life.  It  is  true,  however,  that  the  long 
struggle  against  a  common  foe  tended  to  unify  the 
various  provinces  and  develop  national  sentiment 
amongst  our  people.  Peace  was  welcome  on  both 
sides  of  the  line. 


CHAPTER   XXI. 

PROGRESS    AND    AGITATION. 

THE  war  greatly  disturbed  the  regular  business  of  the 
country.     While  it  gave  rise  to  new  occu- 

J   .  .     '  ,  ,  ,    .  .  Hard  Times. 

pations,  it  ruined  some  old  industries.  At 
the  return  of  peace,  business  resumed  its  former 
channels.  Thus,  many  persons  who  had  been  occupied 
in  supplying  the  extra  demands  of  the  war  period 
were  now  left  without  employment.  This  was 
especially  the  case  in  Halifax.  The  withdrawal  of 
the  British  troops  and  navy  caused  depression  in 
business  of  all  kinds,  and  many  persons,  unable  to 
obtain  means  of  support,  Avere  compelled  to  leave 
the  city.  The  farmers  in  the  country  also,  who 
during  the  war  found  good  markets  for  their  produce, 
seriously  felt  the  change.  In  Lower  Canada  failure 
of  the  crops  intensified  the  hard  times.  But  these 
hardships  were  soon  overcome,  and  the  provinces 
entered  upon  a  course  of  renewed  prosperity. 

The  country  was  full  of  life.  Difficulties  were 
bravely  faced,  and  new  strength  for  the  occasion  was 
forthcoming.  During  the  war  the  provinces  had  no 
money  to  meet  the  expenses  which  it  involved,  and 
they  issued  paper  money,  called  "  Army  Bills,"  which 
were  mere  promises  to  pay.  These  bills  were  now 
promptly  redeemed  at  their  par  value.  Persons 


243 


24 i  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

disabled  in  the  war,  and   I  IK-  widows  and  orphans  of 
those  who  had  fallen,  were  allowed  small  pensions. 
On  the  return  of  peace  a  large  number  of  soldiers, 
whose  services  were  no  longer  needed  in 

New  Settlers.  .  ...  . 

active  warfare,  were  discharged  from  the 
British  army.  Dull  times  also  in  the  old  country 
threw  many  labourers  in  the  factories  out  of  employ- 
ment. There  was  abundant  room  for  these  people  in 
Canada,  and  thousands  of  them  came  from  the  British 
Isles  to  make  for  themselves  new  homes  in  our  forests. 
The  British  Government  gave  them  generous  aid,  in- 
eluding  free  passage,  tools  for  clearing  the  land  and 
cultivating  the  soil,  and  a  year's  provisions.  These 
immigrants  formed  many  little  settlements  in  different 
parts  of  the  country,  some  of  them  in  the  Maritime 
Provinces,  some  in  the  Eastern  Townships  of  Lower 
Canada,  but  the  larger  number  in  the  Upper  Province. 
This  colonisation  was  promoted  by  a  wealthy  English 
corporation  called  the  "  Canada  Land  Company."  It 
purchased  a  vast  quantity  of  land  in  Upper  Canada, 
paying  the  Government  over  a  million  and  a  half 
dollars.  While  settlers  from  the  British  Isles  were 
made  welcome  in  Canada,  people  from  the  United 
States  were  at  this  time  regarded  with  suspicion : 
they  were  allowed  to  remain  in  the  country  only  as 
aliens,  and  were  liable  to  b  •  expelled  on  short  notice. 
During  the  twenty-five  years  following  the  close  of  the 
war  the  population  of  the  provinces  increased  from 
about  half  a  million  to  a  million  and  a  half. 

While  these  new  colonists  helped  greatly  to  build 
The  cholera,      UP  tne  country,  they  were  the  means  of 

bringing  upon  it  a  terrible  calamity.  One 
of  the  ships  entering  the  St.  Lawrence  brought  with 


PROGRESS    AND    AGITATION.  245 

it  Asiatic  cholera.  This  fell  disease  was  widely  spread, 
and  it  swept  off  many  people,  old  and  young,  in  Quebec, 
Montreal,  St.  John,  and  the  cities  of  Upper  Canada. 

Among  the  elements  of  progress  at  this  period  was 
a   striving   in   the   various   provinces   for 

1-1  i  -11    •  •       i,  T\  i     Agriculture. 

higher  skill  in  agriculture,  .banners  and 
others  who  were  interested  in  their  work  formed  agri- 
cultural societies,  which  tended  to  secure  better  stock, 
farming  tools,  and  methods  of  tillage.  In  Nova  Scotia 
this  awakening  was  in  large  measure  due  to  the  letters 
of  "  Agricola,"  published  in  the  Halifax  Acadian 
Recorder.  The  writer  was  John  Young,  a  Scotchman, 
who  afterwards  was  a  distinguished  member  of  the 
Assembly.  The  Earl  of  Dalhousie,  who  was  then 
Governor  of  Nova  Scotia,  also  aided  the  movement. 
In  New  Brunswick  the  Governor,  Sir  Howard  Douglas, 
used  his  influence  to  secure  more  attention  to  the 
culture  of  the  soil  in  place  of  lumbering  and  ship- 
building. 

This  was  an  era  of  marked  awakening  throughout 
all  the  provinces  in  the  matter  of  educa- 
tion. Colleges  and  high  schools,  known 
as  grammar  schools,  were  established,  and  Government 
aid  was  given  towards  the  support  of  common  schools. 
M'Gill  College,  in  Montreal,  was  founded  in  1 823 ; 
Upper  Canada  College,  in  Toronto,  in  1827.  One  of 
the  earliest  promoters  of  education  in  Upper  Canada 
was  John  Strachan,  afterwards  Bishop  Strachan,  a 
native  of  Scotland.  He  founded  academies  at  King- 
ston and  Cornwall,  and  many  of  his  pupils  afterwards 
held  high  positions  in  the  management  of  the  affairs 
of  the  province.  Dr.  Strachan  was  himself  a  pro- 
nounced politician  of  the  Conservative  type.  He  was 


2  lf> 


THK    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 


a  member  of  buth  the  Executive  and  the  Legislative 
Council,  and  he  became  the  first  Anglican  bisliop  of 
Upper  Canada. 

In  Nova  Seotia  the  religious  restrictions  of  King's 

College  led  to  the 

^^^____|^^^^^_^^___|        I'Stilbl  isll  1 1  U'llt     of 

1'ictou  Academy, 
which,  under 
the  management 
of  Dr.  Thomas 
M'Culloch,  a 
Presbyterian 
clergyman  of 
Scottish  birth, 
became  one  of 
the  most  noted 
high  schools  in 
the  early  history 
of  the  provinces. 
In  1820  the  Earl 
of  Dalhousie,  the 
(  T  o  v  e  r  n  o  r  o  f 
Xova  Scotia, 
founded  Dal- 
housie  College, 
at  Halifax,  using 
for  the  benetit 

THOMAS   M'CTU.OOH,    D.  D.  of        tllC        College 

funds  derived 

from  duties  collected  in  the  district  on  the  coast  of 
Maine  seized  by  Sir  John  Sherbrooke  during  the  war. 
In    1828,   through    the    influence  of   Sir    Howard 
Douglas,  one  of  the  most  intelligent  and  enterprising 


PROGRESS    AND    AGITATION. 


247 


governors  of  -New  Brunswick,  the  University  of  New 
Brunswick  was  established  in  Fredericton. 

Prince  Edward  Island  was  little  bohind  her  sister 
provinces  in  early  efforts  to  promote  the  education 
of  her  children. 
In  1830  a  Board 
of  Education  was 
appointed,     and 
shortly  after  an 
efficient  academy 
was    opened    in 
Charlottetown. 

As  yet,  how- 
ever, little  had 
been  done  for  the 
common  schools 
throughout  the 
country.  The 
teachers,  or  mas- 
ters, as  they  were 
called,  were 
poorly  qualified, 
and  there  was 
little  or  no  ex- 
amination to  test 
their  ability. 
Many  of  them 
took  up  teaching 
as  a  last  resort, 

after  having  failed  in  almost  every  other  vocation. 
They  took  part  of  their  pay  in  board,  staying  a  few 
days  at  each  farmhouse,  according  to  the  number  of 
children  sent  to  the  school.  This  was  called  "  board- 


BISHOP  6TRACHAN. 


248  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

ing  around."  The  schoolhouses  were  rude  log  struc- 
turos ;  the  seats  were  made  of  long  thick  slabs  with 
sticks  driven  into  auger  holes  for  legs,  and  the  desks 
were  wide  boards  sloping  from  the  walls.  At  the  end 
of  the  term  the  teacher  went  from  house  to  house 
collecting  the  balance  of  his  pay,  often  taking  it  in 
farm  produce. 

Large  sums  of  money  were  voted  by  the  Provincial 
Legislatures    for   making    and    improving 

Public  Roads  ...  .     /^ 

and  Facilities     the  public  roads  and  bridges,      ror  htteen 

for  Trade.  . .   ,,  .  _,      , 

years  following  1820  there  was  much  acti- 
vity in  Upper  and  Lower  Canada  in  making  canals, 
and  steamboats  were  placed  on  the  lakes  and  rivers. 
The  Rideau  Canal,  constructed  along  a  line  of  small 
rivers  and  lakes,  extended  from  By  town  (Ottawa)  to 
Kingston ;  the  La  Chine  Canal  overcame  the  obstruc- 
tion to  navigation  caused  by  the  La  Chine  Rapids  in 
the  St.  Lawrence  a  short  distance  above  Montreal. 
Before  the  construction  of  this  canal,  produce  was 
brought  down  the  St.  Lawrence  in  flat  bmts,  which 
were  generally  disposed  of  with  the  goods.  The 
Welland  Canal,  opened  in  1 829,  continued  the  water- 
way obstructed  by  the  Falls  and  Rapids  of  Niagara 
between  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario. 

The  Shubenacadie  Canal,  in  Xova  Scotia,  was  begun 
in  1827.  The  object  of  the  work  was  to  connect 
Halifax  Harbour  with  the  head-waters  of  the  Bay  of 
Fundy  through  a  chain  of  lakes  and  the  Shubenacadie 
River,  providing  a  route  to  Halifax  for  the  trade  of 
the  western  part  of  the  province.  A  large  amount 
of  money  was  expended  on  this  canal,  which  was 
finally  abandoned  without  resulting  in  any  practical 
advantage. 


PROGUESS    AND    AGITATION.  240 

At  this  time  there  was  little  intercourse  between 
the  Maritime  Provinces  and  the  interior.  The ,.  R  ^ 
An  overland  journey  between  Halifax  and  wmiani-' 
Quebec  consumed  many  days,  and  traffic,  except  by 
sea  in  summer,  was  quite  impracticable.  For  the 
promotion  of  trade  and  travel,  a  large  Government 
si.bsidy  was  offered  for  a  steamer  to  run  between 
these  ports.  This  led  to  the  building  of  the  Jtw/td 
William  at  Cape  Cove,  near  Quebec,  by  the  Queboc 
and  Halifax  Steam  Navigation  Company.  The  vessel 
was  launched  in  18ol,  and  Avas  named  in  honour  of 
King  William  IV.,  who  then  occupied  the  British 
throne.  She  made  two  or  three  voyages  to  Halifax, 
but  the  breaking  out  of  cholera  at  Quebec  in  1832 
brought  infection  to  the  ship  and  ruined  her  business. 
In  the  following  summer,  laden  chiefly  with  coal,  she 
sailed  from  Pictou,  N.S.,  for  England,  and,  after  a 
passage  of  nineteen  days,  arrived  at  Gravesend,  near 
London.  Thus,  in  1833,  the  Itoyal  William  had  the 
distinction  of  being  the  first  steamship  to  cross  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  She  was  afterwards  purchased  by 
the  Spanish  Government  and  converted  into  a  war- 
steamer. 

• 

In   1820,   after   thirty-five  years'   experience   as  a 
separate    province,    the   Island    of    Cape 

T-»  -%T  <-i         •  -r      Cape  Breton. 

Breton  was  annexed  to  Nova  Scotia.  It 
was  then  allowed  the  privilege  of  sending  two  mem- 
bers to  the  Assembly  at  Halifax.  The  people  of  the 
island  were  not  easily  reconciled  to  the  loss  of  their 
independence,  as  they  considered  it,  and  they  tried 
to  break  up  the  union.  Their  efforts,  however,  were 
without  avail. 

In   1825  a  great  calamity  befell  New  Brunswick. 


250  THE    DOMINION    <»H   CANADA. 

The  eastern  portion  ol'  the   province  was  laid   waste 

TheMiramichi     °>"    one    °^    tn<>    "lost     memorable    Hres    OD 

record.  The.  season  was  remarkable  for 
drought  and  heat,  which  continued  unusually  late 
into  the  autumn.  On  the  night  of  October  7,  the 
fire,  which  had  been  raging  in  the  neighbouring 
forests,  burst  upon  Newcastle  and  other  flourishing 
settlements  on  the  Miramichi  River  with  such 
suddenness  and  power  as  to  sweep  everything  be- 
fore it.  Many  people — men,  women,  and  children 
— were  burned  to  death,  and  a  still  larger  number 
were  left  houseless  and  destitute  at  the  approach  of 
winter.  Generous  aid  was  sent  to  the  sufferers  from 
the  other  provinces,  Great  Britain,  and  the  United 
States. 

The    twenty-five  years  following  the  close  of  the 
Political  American  war  were  stormy  times  in  the 

Agitation,  provinces.  No  sooner  was  the  din  of  war 
hushed  than  the  old  clamour  over  political  grievances 
was  heard  afresh.  The  questions  in  dispute,  while 
assuming  somewhat  different  forms,  were  pretty  much 
the  same  in  all  the  provinces.  The  grievances  com- 
plained of  were  such  as  at  the  present  time  would 
not  be  tolerated  for  a  day,  but  it  cost  a  long  and 
hard  struggle  to  remove  them.  Existing  customs 
and  institutions,  though  unsatisfactory,  are  not  easily 
broken  up.  Briefly  stated,  the  question  in  dispute 
was  the  right  of  the  people  to  govern  themselves. 
As  the  agitation  went  on,  there  arose  two  great  poli- 
tical parties,  known  as  Conservatives  and  Reformers 
or  Liberals.  The  Conservatives,  or  Tories  as  their 
opponents  called  them,  held  that  the  people  should 
submit  loyally  to  the  Government  placed  over  them, 


PROG  HESS   AND    AGITATION.  251 

and  branded  as  rebels  those  who  advocated  change. 
The,  Liberals  believed  that  the  Government  should 
bo  under  the  control  of  the  people,  and  that  its  policy 
and  its  officers  should  be  subject  to  their  wishes  as 
expressed  by  their  representatives.  Jn  the  meantime 
the  Conservatives  held  the  reins  of  power. 

A  leading  grievance,  and  one  in  which  many  evils 
had  their  origin,  was  the  irresponsible  character  of 
the  Executive  Council.  The  people's  representatives 
— that  is,  the  Assembly — had  no  voice  in  the  appoint- 
ment of  this  body,  and  no  power  to  influence  its 
policy  or  call  it  to  account  for  its  acts.  The  Council 
was  not  chosen  with  even  a  show  of  fairness  to  the 
varied  interests  of  the  people  at  large.  For  the  most 
part  the  members  were  residents  of  the  city,  and 
belonged  to  the  Church  of  England.  So  closely 
bound  together  and. mutually  helpful  were  they  that 
the  body  was  in  some  of  the  provinces  aptly  called 
the  "Family  Compact."  For  example,  in  Nova 
Scotia,  they  were,  with  one  exception,  residents  of 
Halifax ;  eight  of  the  twelve  were  members  of  the 
Church  of  England ;  five  were  partners  in  the  same 
banking  establishment ;  and  several  were  connected 
by  family  ties. 

The  Reformers  demanded  Responsible  Government 
— that  is,  that  an  Executive  Council  should  hold 
office  only  so  long  as  its  course  of  action  was  sustained 
by  a  majority  of  the  Assembly.  It  is  easy  to  sec 
that  under  the  system  described  the  public  business 
would  be  badly  managed.  The  Council  appoints 
all  the  subordinate  officers  of  the  Government 
throughout  the  country,  such  as  judges,  sheriffs, 
and  magistrates,  it  had  the  control  of  the  Crown 

o 


252  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

lauds  ami  a  part  of  the  public  money.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  Council  looked  well  after  their  own 
interests,  and  gave  the  public  offices  to  their  personal 
friends.  They  were  charged  with  having  obtained 
for  themselves  and  their  friends  large  tracts  of  the 
public  lands  without  paying  the  full  value  into  the 
Treasury.  The  (iovernor,  in  his  official  capacity, 
sometimes  granted  Crown  lands  to  himself  as  a 
private  citizen. 

Ju  Upper  Canada  the  agitation  for  reform  was 
The  cier^y  niixed  up  with  a  (juestioii  of  religion. 
Reserves.  'r-}u,  ( 'oustitutional  Act  of  1 7i>  1  set  apart 

one-seventh  of  all  uugranted  lands  for  the  support  of 
a  "  Protestant  clergy."  These  reserved  lauds  ill  this 
province  comprised  nearly  two  and  a  half  millions 
of  acres.  The  term  "  Protestant  clergy  "  was  vague. 
For  many  years  it  was  held  to  mean  the  clergy  of 
the  Church  of  England ;  later  it  was  broadened  so 
as  to  include  that  branch  of  the  Presbyterian  family 
known  as  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland.  The 
Methodists,  Baptists,  and  many  smaller  bodies  were 
shut  out.  Some  of  those  who  were  thus  excluded 
maintained  that  the  fund  should  be  divided  among 
all  denominations ;  while  others,  including  the  Bap- 
tists, who  were  opposed  to  state  aid  for  the  support 
of  religion,  held  that  the  fund  should  be  applied  to 
ordinary  secular  uses.  Public  feeling  over  this 
matter  waxed  hot,  and  on  it  many  severe  things 
were  said  and  written.  The  question  was  discussed 
in  Assembly  and  Council,  in  pulpit  and  press. 
Among  the  leading  disputants  were,  on  the  one  side, 
the  distinguished  Dr.  Strachan ;  on  the  other,  Eger- 
tou  Kyersou,  a  young  Methodist  minister,  better 


PKOGKESS   AND    AGITATION.  253 

known   as    Dr.    Ryerson,  the    founder    of  the  educa- 
tional system  of  Ontario. 

In  Lower  Canada  the  people  of  French  origin  com- 
prised about  four-fifths  of  the  population,  Lower 
and  they  formed  a  large  majority  of  the  Canada- 
Assembly.     The  English,  however,  ruled  the  country, 
holding  nearly  all  the  seats  in  both  Councils  and  the 
principal  public  offices  under   the    Government.     It 
thus    came    about    that,    in    the    political    agitation 
which   now   disturbed    the    province,   the   two   races 
were  to  a  considerable  extent  arrayed  against  each 
other. 

The  Roman  Catholics  in  the  English-speaking  pro- 
vinces had  a  grievance  specially  their  own.  catholic  Eman- 
For  a  century  and  a  half  the  laws  of  Great  ciPation 
Britain  had  withheld  from  Catholics  the  privilege  of 
the  franchise  and  of  sitting  in  Parliament.  It  was 
now  beginning  to  be  felt  that  this  restriction,  which 
had  come  down  from  a  severe  age,  should  be  removed. 
The  question  of  Catholic  Emancipation,  as  it  was  called, 
came  up  first  in  the  Legislature  of  Prince  Edward 
Island.  The  Bill,  however,  was  lost  by  the  casting 
vote  of  the  Speaker.  Two  years  later,  in  1827,  the 
barrier  was  broken  down  in  Nova  Scotia.  A  Roman 
Catholic,  Lawrence  Kavanagh,  was  elected  as  member 
of  the  Assembly  for  Cape  Breton.  He  could  not  take 
his  seat  on  account  of  the  oath  of  admission,  which 
required  him  to  declare  his  disbelief  in  certain  doc- 
trines of  his  religion.  A  resolution  was  unanimously 
adopted  by  the  House  in  favour  of  petitioning  the 
King  for  a  change  in  the  oath.  Thomas  Chandler 
Haliburton,  the  clever  humourist  known  as  "  Sam 
Slick,"  supported  the  resolution  in  one  of  the  most 


254 


THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


eloquent  speeches  ever  made  in  the  Nova  Scotiu 
Assembly.  Having  received  a  favourable  reply,  the 
Assembly  passed  an  Act  freeing  Roman  Catholics 
from  all  disabilities  on  account  of  their  religion.  The 

other  provinces 
shortly  after 
adopted  mea- 
sures of  the 
same  kind. 

At  this  period 
of     dis- 

.  .          Prince 

qiUetllClC      Edward 
Island 

Prin  ce 
Edward  Island 
had  its  full 
share  of  troubles. 
Charles  Dougl.is 
Smith,  appoint- 
ed Governor  in 
181  :>,  ruled  the 
island  in  the 
most  arbitrary 
manner.  He 
grossly  insulted 
the  Assembly, 
prorogued  or  dis- 
solved it  when  it 

betfHU    tO  dlSCUSS 

grievances,    and 

twice  for  a  period  of  four  years  he  failed  to  call  the 
members  together.  His  hard  treatment  of  the  farmers 
almost  drove  them  into  rebellion.  The  (Jove  rnment 
land-tax,  called  quit  -rent,  had  been  found  burdensome, 


JflMJK    HAI.IBVHTOX, 


PROGRESS    AND    AGITATION.  255 

and  the  holders  of  laud  had  fallen  behind  in  their 
payments.  The  British  Government  cancelled  arrears 
and  reduced  the  tax.  For  several  succeeding  years 
no  demand  was  made,  and  the  Receiver-General  re- 
fused to  take  the  money  from  those  who  offered  to 
pay.  The  land-holders  were  thus  led  to  believe  that 
they  would  not  again  bs  asked  to  pay  the  tax.  In  the 
early  times  the  lands  of  those  in  arrears  had  been  sold 
to  pay  the  quit-rents,  but  now  the  officers  of  the  law 
demanded  payment  from  the  tenants  who  occupied  the 
lands.  Without  giving. due  notice,  the  Governor  sent 
constables  into  a  district  of  King's  County  to  demand 
immediate  payment.  Many  farmers  had  no  money, 
and  they  were  compelled  to  give  their  notes  payable 
in  ten  days.  To  raise  the  money,  they  carried  their 
grain  and  other  produce  fifty  or  sixty  miles,  in  mid- 
winter, to  the  Charlottetown  market.  The  market 
was  overstocked,  and  little  money  was  realised. 

The  people  were  indignant,  and  as  there  had  been 
no  meeting  of  the  Assembly  for  three  years,  they 
scarcely  knew  where  to  obtain  redress.  They  applied 
to  the  High  Sheriff'  of  the  island  to  call  public  meet- 
ings in  different  counties  for  the  discussion  of  griev- 
ances. At  the  meetings  petitions  to  the  King  were 
prepared,  containing  serious  charges  against  the 
Governor,  and  asking  for  his  removal.  John  Stewart 
was  chosen  as  the  people's  delegate  to  carry  the  peti- 
tions to  England.  The  Governor  was  very  angry.  He 
punished  the  Sheriff1  for  calling  the  meetings  by  dis- 
missing him  from  office.  Claiming  that  some  charges 
in  the  petitions  were  libellous  against  the  Court  of 
Chancery,  of  which  he  was  Chancellor,  he  issued  writs 
for  the  apprehension  of  Stewart  and  other  members 


250  THK    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

of  the  committee  who  hud  drawn  up  the  petition*, 
lint  Stewart,  exuding  the  officers,  escaped  to  Nova 
Scotia,  and  hastened  on  his  way  to  England.  His 
mission  "was  successful.  Jn  the  following  year  lie 

i»       */ 

returned,  accompanied  by  Colonel  Heady,"  who  had 
b-jen  appointed  Governor  in  place  of  Smith.  The  new 
Governor  was  a  great  favourite,  and  for  a  time  matters 
moved  on  more  smoothly.  There  was,  however,  little 
harmony  between  the  Assembly  and  the  Council.  As 
in  the  other  provinces,  the  chief  subject  of  dispute  was 
the  control  of  the  public;  money. 


CHAPTER   XXII. 

BRITISH    FUR   TRADERS    IN    THE    NOllTH. 

MEANWHILE  the  great  North-West  had  been  occupied 
as  a  vast  hunting-ground  by  the  fur  traders.  English  and 
The  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  as  already  French  Rivalry- 
stated,  was  organised  by  royal  charter  in  1670.  At 
this  time  the  territory  covered  by  its  charter  was 
claimed  by  France,  and  English  and  French  traders 
regarded  each  other  as  intruders.  On  different  occa- 
sions the  French  tried  to  break  up  the  company's 
establishment,  but  though  they  caused  their  rivals 
much  damage,  they  failed  to  drive  them  from  the 
field.  Notwithstanding  great  losses  from  the  seizure 
of  its  furs  and  the  destruction  of  its  forts,  the  English 
company  drew  enormous  profits  from  its  trade.  By 
the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  France  gave  up  all  claim  to  this 
northern  territory.  From  this  date,  for  half  a  century, 
until  the  end  of  French  rule  in  Canada,  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company  was  undisturbed  by  hostile  rivals. 

Shortly   after   the   conquest   of    Canada  by   Great 
Britain    a    new    rival    entered    the    field.  The  North. 
Several    British   merchants    of    Montreal,  c*omp&uyo[ 
mostly  Scotchmen,  took  up  the  fur  trade  Montreal-  ^ 
of  the  North-West.     For  a  few  years  each  merchant 
or  firm  carried  on  the  business  independently.     The 
keen  rivalry  amongst  them  gave  rise  to  many  evils. 

R 


257 


258  THK    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

Each  merchant  sought  to  promote  his  own  interest  at 
whatever  cost  to  his  neighbours.  Intoxicating  liquors 
were  used  to  entice  tin*  Indians,  and  the  trader  who 
gave  them  the  most  nun  was  most  successful  in 
securing  their  trade.  Bloody  tends  sprang  up  among 
the  employees  in  the  remote  wilderness,  life  and  pro- 
perty weiv  destroyed,  and  the  Indians  were  demoral- 
ised. This  ruinous  policy  was  soon  abandoned.  In 
1787  the  rival  merchants  united,  forming  the  North- 
West.  Fur  Company  of  Montreal.  This  company  now 
carried  <>u  the  fur  traffic  with  marvellous  energy  and 
success,  and  it  soon  became  the  most  wealthy  and 
influential  organisation  in  Canada.  It  extended  its 
trade  over  the  whole  of  the  North-West  from  Montreal 
to  the  Arctic;  Ocean.  Scattered  through  all  this  vast 
country,  on  Lake  Superior,  Lake  Winnipeg,  Lake  Atha- 
basca, and  (}reat  Slave  Lake,  on  the  Saskatchewan 
and  on  other  rivers  and  lakes,  were  the  company's 
forts  or  trading  posts.  Distributed  among  these  forts 
was  a  small  army  of  the  company's  employees — agents, 
clerks,  and  interpreters — to  banter  and  barter  with  the 
Indians;  and  along  the  streams  and  lakes  were  many 
voyageurs  or  boatmen,  who  passed  in  boat  or  light 
canoe  to  and  fro  between  Montreal  and  the  distant 
forts,  carrying  to  them  the  company's  merchandise, 
and  bringing  back  the  rich  harvest  of  furs,  which  were 
duly  shipped  to  the  London  market. 

The  trade  was  carried  on  with  the  Indians  without 
the  use  of  money.  The  company  gave  them  guns, 
ammunition,  blankets,  knives,  and  many  other  things, 
taking  their  furs  in  exchange.  In  fixing  prices  the 
beaver  was  taken  as  the  standard,  the  value  of  all 
other  commodities  being  measured  by  it. 


THE  MARITIME    PROVINCES.  289 

the  Chancellor  replied  that  they  had  come  "on  im- 
portant business,  and  that  they  must  see  the  "  Queen  " 
immediately.  When  the  message  was  taken  to  the 
Princess  she  came  at  once,  appearing  before  her  early 
visitors  in  dressing-gown  and  slippers.  She  shoAved 
more  sadness  at  the  news  of  her  uncle's  death  than  joy 
over  the  royal  honours  which  had  fallen  upon  herself. 

Some  incidents  in  the  early  history  of  her  reign 
reveal  interesting  features  in  the  character  of  the 
youthful  Queen.  We  are  told  that  she  was  quite 
overcome  with  a  deep  sense  of  her  responsibility,  and 
that  she  could  not  realise  her  right  to  the  exalted 
position  to  which  she  had  been  elevated.  "  I  can 
scarcely  believe,  mamma,"  she  said  to  her  mother, 
"that  I  am  really  Queen  of  England.  Is  it  indeed 
true  ?  "  "  Yes,"  replied  the  Duchess,  "  you  are  really 
Queen.  Do  you  not  hear  your  subjects  on  the  streets 
cheering  and  shouting  '  God  save  the  Queen '  ? "  Then 
the  Queen  is  said  to  have  asked  to  be  left  alone,  and 
in  the  seclusion  of  her  private  room  she  spent  the 
first  hours  of  her  reign  in  meditation  and  prayer  for 
herself  and  her  people. 

Queen  Victoria  had  been  brought  up  in  retirement, 
and  she  was  quite  a  stranger  to  her  subjects  when  she 
ascended  the  throne.  But  she  soon  won  their  admira- 
tion by  her  unassuming  manner  and  the  quiet  dignity 
with  which  she  bore  her  royal  honours.  Among  those 
who  in  her  presence  were  required  to  subscribe  the 
oath  of  allegiance  were  her  two  uncles,  brothers  of  the 
late  King.  As  the  aged  Duke  of  Sussex,  now  quite 
infirm,  was  stooping  to  kiss  her  hand,  the  Queen  rose 
from  her  chair,  and  kissing  him  said,  "  Do  not  kneel, 
dear  uncle ;  if  I  am  Queen,  I  am  your  niece." 

T- 


CHAPTER   XXV 

REBELLION 

THE  young  Queen  with  all  her  virtues  could  not  send 
Lower  Canada,  tranquillity  to  her  Canadian  subjects. 
'*37-  British  statesmen  had  secured  respon- 

sible government  for  their  people  at  home,  but  they 
thought  it  scarcely  suited  to  the  colonies.  And  so 
Canadians  were  left  with  unrcdresscd  grievances  until 
agitation  developed  ink)  rebellion.  For  five  years  the 
Assembly  of  Lower  Canada  had  refused  to  vote  a 
Civil  List,  leaving  the  judges  and  other  public  officers 
without  their  salaries.  This  state  of  affairs  could  not 
continue.  The  British  Government  instructed  the 
Governor-General  to  take  money  from  the  treasury 
without  the  authority  of  the  Assembly  and  pay  all 
arrears  of  the  Civil  List.  The  large  sum  of  $700,000 
was  thus  drawn  from  the  public  treasury.  This 
caused  great  excitement  throughout  the  province. 
The  Reformers,  or  "  Patriots "  as  they  called  them- 
selves, held  meetings  in  various  parts  of  the  country, 
at  which  Louis  Papineau,  in  violent  and  seditious 
language,  appealed  to  the  passions  and  prejudices  of 
the  people,  urging  them  to  strike  for  independence 
or  annexation  to  the  United  States.  Papineau's  ablest 
associate  was  Dr.  Wolf  red  Xelson,  a  man  of  Loyalist 
descent,  who,  as  surgeon,  had  served  in  the  War  of 

290 


REBELLION.  291 

1812.  Nelson  was  now  about  fifty-five  years  of  age. 
Scholarly  and  possessed  of  considerable  wealth,  he  had 
great  influence  over  the  English-speaking  people. 

The  Governor-General,  Lord  Gosford,  issued  a 
proclamation,  warning  the  people  against  sedition. 
Copies  of  this  document  were  posted  on  the  churches 
and  in  other  public  places.  The  excited  people  tore 
them  down,  shouting  "  Long  live  Papineau  ! ' 

The  first  outbreak  was  a  riot  in  the  streets  of 
Montreal.  The  rebels,  who  called  them-  Rebeiiionin 
selves  "  Sons  of  Liberty,"  were  dispersed  Lower  Canada- 
without,  loss  of  life.  Risings  followed  in  different 
parts  of  the  province.  In  some  places  the  loyal 
inhabitants,  alarmed  at  the  threatening  attitude  of 
their  rebellious  neighbours,  left  their  homes  and  fled 
to  Montreal.  A  band  of  rebels  under  Dr.  Nelson 
posted  themselves  in  a  stone  mill  at  St.  Denis,  on  the 
Richelieu,  where  for  a  time  they  successfully  resisted 
the  troops  sent  to  dislodge  them.  Another  rebel 
force  at  St.  Charles  was  dispersed  with  considerable 
loss.  Warrants  having  been  issued  for  the  appre- 
hension of  the  leaders  of  the  rebellion,  Papineau 
fled  to  the  United  States.  Nelson,  seeking  the  same 
refuge,  was  caught  hiding  in  the  woods,  and  with 
several  other  rebels  was  thrown  into  prison.  Later 
in  the  autumn,  a  force  under  Sir  John  Colborne 
marched  against  a  body  of  insurgents  collected  at 
St.  Eustache,  on  the  Ottawa.  Most  of  the  rebels  fled 
at  the  approach  of  the  soldiers.  About  four  hundred 
took  refuge  in  a  church,  which  was  soon  battered 
down  by  shot  and  shell  and  set  on  fire,  while  most 
of  those  who  thus  sought  shelter  were  killed,  taken 
prisoners,  or  perished  in  the  flames. 


202  THE    DOMINION    OK    CANADA. 

Lord  Gosford  was  recalled  by  the  British  Govcrn- 
TheEariof  went,  and  the  Karl  of  Durham,  an  able 
Durham,  183*.  statesman  of  tlir  Liberal  party  in  Kngland, 
was  sent  in  his  place.  In  addition  to  his  office  of 
Governor-General,  the  Karl  was  invested  with  special 
authority  as  High  Commissioner  to  look  into  the 
character  of  the  government  in  the  various  provinces. 
Alreadv.  on  account  of  the  disturbances,  the  British 
Parliament  had  set  aside  the  legislature  of  Lower 
Canada,  and  Lord  Gosford  had  appointed  a  special 
Council  in  its  place. 

The  Karl  of  Durham  arrived  in  Canada  towards 
the  end  of  May  18oS.  He  was  accompanied  by  able 
assistants,  chief  of  whom  was  his  secretary,  Charles 
Huller.  His  position  was  a  difficult  one,  jus  a  country 
ill  a  state  of  rebellion  could  not  be  governed  by 
ordinary  forms  of  law.  In  dealing  with  the  rebels 
he  adopted  a  bold  policy,  which,  while  it  was  merci- 
ful and  humane,  set  all  law  at  defiance.  Except  a 
few  of  the  chief  leaders,  he  pardoned  all  who  had 
taken  part  in  the  rebellion.  A  most  fitting  occasion 
for  this  act  of  clemency  was  afforded  by  the  Corona- 
tion day  of  Queen  Victoria,  June  18th.  The  leaders 
he  disposed  of  without  even  the  form  of  trial. 
Papineau,  Cartier,  and  some  others  who  had  fled  to 
the  United  States  he  proclaimed  outlaws,  and  forbade 
to  return  to  Canada  under  pain  of  death.  Eight 
other  chief  offenders,  among  whom  wjis  Dr.  Wolfred 
Nelson,  who  had  been  captured,  he  banished  to 
Bermuda,  imposing  the  same  extreme  penalty  if  they 
should  return. 

Lord  Durham's  mode  of  dealing  with  the  leaders 
in  the  rebellion  was  severely  criticised  by  his  opponents 


REBELLION.  293 

in  England,  and  even  his  political  friends  failed  to 
M;II id  by  him.  The  Government  which  had  sent 
him  to  ( 'anada  disallowed  his  action.  It  was  asserted 
that  he  had  no  power  "to  make  a  penal  colony  of 
Bermuda,  or  to  send  these  men  into  exile.  Nor  was 
it  a  capital  offence,  according  to  British  law,  for  an 
exile  to  return  to  his  country  without  leave.  While 
this  is  quite  true,  it  should  have  been  remembered 
that  any  trial  of  the  rebels  in  the  courts  of  Lower 
( 'anada  would  have  been  a  farce,  for  no  jury  selected 
by  legal  -process  Avould  have  found  them  guilty.  A 
trial  by  court-martial  would  have  sent  them  to  the 
gallows. 

The  noble  Earl  was  proud-spirited,  and  he  was 
deeply  indignant  over  the  censure  Avhich  had  been 
meted  out  to  him.  Accordingly,  after  a  short  stay 
of  five  months,  without  permission  from  the  Home 
Government,  he  left  his  post  and  returned  to  England. 
His  mission  appeared  like  a  failure,  and  it  was  so  as 
regarded  its  effect  on  his  personal  renown.  He  had 
been  for  some  time  in  bad  health ;  he  went  home 
greatly  disheartened,  and  he  died  a  few  months  after, 
his  return.  It  has,  hoAvever,  been  Avell  said  that  if 
his  mission  ruined  Lord  Durham,  it  saved  Canada. 
During  his  short  stay  in  the  country  he  had  carefully 
studied  its  condition  and  wants.  His  report  to  the 
British  Government,  the  main  features  of  Avhich  were 
afterwards  adopted,  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  ablest 
state  papers  on  colonial  policy  which  has  ever  been 
written. 

In  the  autumn  of  1833  some  of  the  rebels  who  had 
fled  to  the  United  States  returned,  accompanied  by 
adventurers  from  that  country.  Under  the  leader- 


20 1  THE    DOMINION"   OF    CANADA. 

ship  i>t'  Hubert  Xelson,  Wolfred  Nelson's  brother,  they 
sought  to  carry  out  their  wild  schemes  of 
insurrection,  rebellion.  They  l>oldly  proclaimed  the 
independence  of  Canada,  pledging  them- 
selves by  an  oath  In  support,  republican  government. 
Jn  some  parts  of  the  country  loyal  people  were 
compelled  to  tice  from  their  homes  to  save  their 
lives,  while  their  property  was  wantonly  destroyed. 
Sir  John  ( 'olborne,  who  wa.s  now  acting  in  place  of 
the  Governor-General,  by  vigorous  measures  soon  put 
down  the  rebellion.  Twelve  of  the  leadens,  having 
been  tried  by  court-martial,  were  executed  at 
Montreal. 

Meanwhile   the   "Patriots"   in  Upper  Canada   had 

been  playing  their  part  at  rebellion.    Mam- 
Upper  Canada.  ,       •      .  .       ,  . 

ot    the  Keionners  in   this  province    were 

seeking,  by  lawful  agitation  and  other  proper  means, 
to  secure  better  government,  and  they  refused  to  join 
in  any  movement  which  involved-  civil  war.  If  Sir 
Francis  Bond  Head  had  been  more  pnident,  and  had 
carried  out  his  instructions  from  home,  there  probably 
would  have  been  no  resort  to  arms.  But  when  he 
actively  opposed  the  Reformers  in  the  election,  help- 
ing to  secure  their  defeat,  Mackenzie,  Kolph,  and  other 
excitable  leaders  rushed  into  active  rebellion.  They 
issued  a  manifesto,  urging  the  jwople  to  free  them- 
selves from  British  authority  and  assert  their  inde- 
pendence. Baldwin,  Bidwell.  and  others  refused  to 
join  them  in  their  course.  Sir  Francis  Bond  Head 
had  warning  from  various  sources  that  MacKenxie  was 
plotting  insurrection,  but  lie  used  no  means  to  thwart 
his  plans.  He  sent  all  the  troops  that  were  in  the 
province  to  Montreal,  and  took  no  steps  to  supply 


REBELLION.  295 

their  place  by  a  loyal  volunteer  force.  Without 
hindrance  men  were  arming  and  drilling  in  various 
parts  of  the  province  for  the  overthrow  of  the  Govern- 
ment. 

At  a  secret  meeting  held  in  Toronto,  MacKenzie, 
Jlolph,  Morrison,  and  others  formed  their  Failure  of  the 
plans.  The  insurgents,  to  the  number  of  Plot- 
eight  or  nine  hundred,  were  collected  at  Montgomery's 
Tavern,  about  four  miles  from  Toronto.  Their  plan 
was  to  march  into  Toronto  at  night,  seize  four  thou- 
sand stand  of  arms,  which  were  stored  in  the  City 
Hall,  and  take  the  city  by  surprise.  If  the  rebels 
had  acted  promptly,  they  might  have  succeeded  in 
their  purpose.  By  waiting  for  reinforcements  they 
missed  their  opportunity.  The  plot  became  known. 
The  people  of  Toronto  were  aroused  from  their  mid- 
night slumbers  by  alarm  bells.  The  loyal  citizens 
rushed  to  the  City  Hall  and  prepared  for  defence. 
Tidings  of  the  rebellion  soon  spread  throughout  the 
country.  Colonel  M'Nab,  who  was  at  Hamilton, 
hastened  by  steamer  to  Toronto,  bringing  a  small 
force  with  him ;  and  loyal  farmers  armed,  some  with 
old  guns,  others  with  pitchforks,  rushed  in  for  the 
defence  of  the  city. 

AVithin  a  few  days  an  engagement  took  place  near 
the  city.  The  rebels  were  defeated  with  heavy  loss. 
They  fled  in  confusion,  many  of  them  throwing  away 
their  guns  and  hastening  to  their  homes.  The  rebel 
leaders,  rinding  themselves  deserted  by  a  large  part  of 
their  followers,  made  haste  to  provide  for  their  own 
safety.  Dr.  Rolph,  who,  trying  to  stand  well  with 
both  sides,  played  a  double  part,  with  several  other 
leaders  fled  to  the  United  States. 


2%  THE    DOMINION    <>F    CANADA. 

Insurrections  in  other  parts  of  tin-  province  were 
put  dowii  with  equal  promptness.  MacKenzie  was 
proclaimed  an  outlaw,  and  a  reward  of  $5000  was 
ottered  tor  his  head.  Through  the  aid  of  friends  he 
escaped  across  the  border. 

It  wjis  soon  shown  that  the  rebellion  had  no  solid 
support  in  I  pper  Canada.  Indeed  it 

Aid  to  the  , 

Rebels  from  the   would   now  liave  been  at   an  end,  but   tor 

United  States.  IT  •  i     •  i 

the  sympathy  and  direct   aid  it    received 

from  the  United  States.  As  on  several  other  occa- 
sions, the  Government  of  that  country,  in  times  of 
peace  with  (Ireat  Britain,  allowed  hostile  expeditions 
against  Canada  to  be  titted  out  on  its  bonier  terri- 
tory. Mob  forces  were  organised  at.  Hutt'alo,  Cleve- 
land, Detroit,  and  other  cities  for  invading  our 
country. 

The  most  Quixotic  organisation  of  all  w;is  one 
which  had  its  seat  on  Xavv  Island,  in 

Navy  Island.  .         -,..  _    .  .  ..  . 

the  Niagara  Kiver,  about  two  miles  above 
the  Falls.  In  December  1^37  this  island  was  taken 
possession  of  by  MacKenzie  and  his  followers,  consist- 
ing partly  of  Canadian  rebels  and  partly  of  a  rabble 
gathered  from  the  neighbouring  cities  of  the  United 
States.  This  was  the  "  Patriot  Army  "  :  Its  Hag 
bore  the  motto,  "  Liberty  and  Equality "  and  two 
stars,  one  for  each  of  the  Caiiadas.  MacKenzie,  as 
chief  niler,  issued  a  flaming  proclamation,  declaring 
Canada-  a  republic,  and  promising  free  grants  of  hind 
and  other  bounties  to  all  his  followers  when  his  govern- 
ment was  established.  To  crown  all,  lie  ottered  a  re- 
ward of  $2500  for  the  head  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor 
of  Upper  Canada. 

A  United  States  steamer,  named  the  Caroline,  was 


REBELLION.  297 

employed  to  carry  men  and  supplies  to  the  island. 
Colonel  M'Nab  guarded  the  Canadian  shores.  A 
small  force,  sent  by  him,  captured  the  Caroline  at 
night,  as  she  lay  moored  on  the  American  shore. 
Unable,  on  account  of  the  current,  to  bring  her  to 
the  Canadian  side,  they  set  her  on  lire  and  let  her 
drift  over  the  Falls.  The  seizure  of  the  vessel  was  a 
violation  of  international  law,  and  gave  much  offence 
to  the  Government  of  the  United  States.  The  agita- 
tion over  it,  however,  was  quieted  by  an  apology  from 
Great  Britain.  Xavy  Island  was  shortly  after  aban- 
doned by  MacKenzie  and  his  followers. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  following  year  the  "  Patriots  " 
and  some  of  their  American  friends  came  over  from  the 
United  States,  expecting  that  the  people  would  flock  to 
their  standard.  The  two  chief  points  of  attack  were 
Windsor  and  Prescott.  The  invaders  took  possession 
of  Windsor,  and  were  marching  against  Sandwich, 
They  gained  little  support,  and  soon  found  it  wise  to 
seek  safety  in  the  United  States.  Four  of  their  number, 
Avho  Avere  taken  prisoners,  were  shot  without  trial. 

At  Prescott  about  two  hundred  posted  themselves 
in  a  windmill,  a  large  circular  building  having  thick 
stone  walls.  After  three  days'  siege,  when  about  fifty 
of  their  number  had  been  killed,  they  surrendered. 

The  rebellion  was  now  over,  and  it  remained  to 
deal  with  the  misguided  men  who  had  so  The  End  of  the 
sadly  disturbed  the  peace  of  the  country,  Rebellion- 
and  who  were  now  crowding  the  jails..  One  hundred 
and  eighty  of  them  were  sentenced  to  be  hanged. 
Some  of  these  suffered  this  extreme  penalty;  some 
were  banished  to  Van  Diemen's  Land;  while  others, 
on  account  of  their  youth,  were  pardoned. 


208  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

After  a  few  years  of  exile,  those  who  had  b  -en  out- 
Papineauand  hiwed  or  exiled  were  pardoned  and  allowed 
MacKenzie.  to  rot,,ni  (o  (,'aiiada.  Kveii  Papineaii  and 
MaeKeuxie  were  permitted  to  come  back  and  enjoy  the 
full  privilege  of  loyal  citixeus. 

MacKenzie  liad  during  liis  exile  experienced  hard 
fortune.  For  some  otiene-e  against  law  in  the  Tnited 
States  lie  was  for  many  months  confined 'in  prison. 
During  this  period  his  mother,  now  in  the  ninetieth 
year  of  her  age,  lay  on  her  deathbed.  To  enable  him 
to  visit  her  his  friends  got  up  a  lawsuit,  and  sum- 
moned him  as  a  witness.  The  trial  was  held  in  the 
house  which  the  old  lady  occupied.  Moth  Mackenzie 
and  Papineau,  after  their  return  to  ( 'anada,  held  seats 
in  the  Assembly  of  the  United  Provinces. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

RESPONSIBLE    GOVERNMENT. 

THOUGH    the    Earl    of    Durham    remained    but    six 
months  in  Canada,  he   carefully   studied 

,.. .  ,  «   xi_  •  The  Earl  of 

the  condition  ana  wants  or  the  provinces,  Durham's 
and  the  able  report  Avhich  he  submitted 
to  the  British  Government  is  a  lasting  memorial  of 
his   service  to    the  country.      Among  the   important 
things  recommended  in  this  report  were  the  follow- 
ing :- 

(1.)  A  federal  union  of  all  the  provinces  under  one 
general  Parliament  and  Government,  and  providing 
each  with  a  separate  Legislature  for  local  matters. 
But  as  this  measure  did  not  seem  to  be  at  that  time- 
practicable,  he  advised  a  union  of  Upper  and  Lower 
Canada  under  one  Legislature  and  Government. 

(2.)  Less  interference  in  provincial  affairs  by 
the  Government  of  Great  Britain,  giving  to  the  pro- 
vinces full  control  of  all  mutters  of  purely  local 
concern. 

(3.)  An  Intercolonial  Railway  connecting  the  various 
provinces. 

(4.)  Such  change  in  the  manner  of  appointing  the 
Executive  Council  as  would  bring  that  body  into  har- 
mony with  the  Assembly. 

At  the  present  time,  when  all  these  recomruenda- 


300  THK    DOMINION    OK    CANADA. 

lions  have  been  carried  into  efleel,  wo  recognise  llie 
far-si"hted  wisdom  of  tin-  eminent  statesman  who 

~ 

proposed  them. 

The  British  Government  saw  tlie  wisdom  of  uniting 
Union  of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada  into  one  pro- 

Lo^er  Canada,     vi"r°-        Tll«'    I  I"U.  Charles  Poillett  Thomp- 

1841  son  was  appointed  Governor-General,  and 

was  charged  witlr  the  delicate  duty  of  helping  on  the 
union  of  such  diverse  elements  as  were  then  found 
in  these  provinces.  He  came  to  Canada  in  18W, 
where  lie  soon  proved  his  eminent  fitness  for  the 
work  entrusted  to  him.  There  was  much  opposition 
to  the  scheme  in  both  provinces,  and  it  was  not  de- 
sirable to  force  it  on  an  unwilling  people.  The  French 
inhabitants  of  Lower  Canada  feared  it  would  bring 
them  too  much  under  the  control  of  the  English; 
and  the  members  of  the  "  Family  Compact  '  in  Upper 
Canada  strongly  opposed  the  measure,  because  they 
foresaw  that  it  would  speedily  overthrow  their  power. 
The  matter  was  adroitly  managed. 

Lower  ( 'anada  had  no  representative  Assembly. 
On  the  recommendation  of  the  Governor-General, 
the  Special  Council  of  this  province  adopted  the 
Union  Bill.  There  was  need  for  skilful  management 
in  the  Upper  Province.  The  party  most  opposed  to 
union  w.us  loud  in  its  professions  of  loyalty  to  the 
mother-country.  By  presenting  the  scheme  as  an 
object  strongly  desired  by  the  British  Government, 
Mr.  Thompson  appealed  to  sentiments  which  they 
could  not  easily  disregard,  and  the  Union  Bill  was 
carried  without  difficulty. 

hi  accordance  with  the  desire  of  the  two  pro- 
vinces thus  expressed,  the  Imperial  Parliament  passed 


RESPONSIBLE-  GOVERNMENT.  301 

the  Act  of  Union,  which,  by  royal  proclamation, 
came  into  effect  on.  February  10,  1811.  Governor 
Thompson's  success  in  Canada  gave  great  satis- 
faction to  the  British  Government,  and  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Sydenham  of  Kent 
and  Toronto. 

The  Union  Act  gave  Canada  a  Legislature  of  two 
Houses,  in  which  each  of  the  old  pro-  The  New 
vinces  had  equal  representation.  The  Constltut!on 
House  of  Assembly  was  composed  of  eighty-four 
members  elected  by  the  people.  The  Legislative 
Council  was  to  comprise  at  least  twenty  members, 
appointed  for  life  by  the  Crown.  The  Executive 
Council,  sometimes  called  the  Ministry,  and  also  the 
Cabinet,  consisted  of  eight  members.  Earl  Russell, 
the  Colonial  Secretary,  instructed  the  Governor- 
General  that  the  members  of  this  Council  were  to 
hold  office  only  as  long  as  their  policy  had  the 
approval  of  the  Assembly.  There  was  a  peculiar 
feature  in  the  relations  of  the  Council  to  the  Assembly 
involving  a  sort  of  double  responsibility.  It  was  pro- 
vided that  the  Ministry  must  be  sustained  not  only 
by  a  majority  of  the  whole  House,  but  also  by  a 
majority  of  the  members  from  each  province,  taken 
separately.  There  was  another  provision,  which  was 
evidently  intended  to  meet  a  possible  emergency,  but 
which  did  not  give  general  satisfaction  :  the  Governor- 
General  had  power  to  retain  or  dismiss  a  Ministry  in 
opposition  to  the  wishes  of  the  Assembly,  when,  in 
his  judgment,  the  honour  of  the  Crown  or  the  in- 
terests of  the  Empire  made  it  necessary.  This  power 
was  liable  to  abuse. 

On    condition   of   making   due    provision    for   the 


302  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

salaries  of  public  officers  and  the  expenses  of  carrying 
on  the  Government,  the  Assembly  was  given  full 
control  over  all  the  revenues.  While  most  of  the 
principles  for  which  the  Reformers  had  contended 
\vere  secured,  there  still  remained  an  Upper  House 
appointed  by  the  Crown. 

The  election  of  members  of  the  Assembly  took 
important  place  in  the  winter  of  1811,  resulting  in 
Death'"  tne  return  of  a  nearly  equal  number  of 

Sydenham.  ^^      po]ifcical      part,y.          Lord      Sydenham 

chose  his  Executive  Council  partly  from  each  side. 
Very  soon,  however,  the  Reformers,  becoming  dis- 
satisfied, retired,  and  left  the  (Joverument  wholly  to 
the  Conservatives.  The  Legislature  met  in  Kingston 
in  June.  Much  of  the  business  done  wax  of  the 
highest  service  to  the  country.  The  Municipal  Act 
gave  power  to  counties,  cities,  and  towns  to  elect 
councillors  or  aldermen  for  the  care  of  roads,  bridges, 
public  buildings,  and  other  local  matters.  Acts  were 
passed  relating  to  education,  canals,  and  other  public 
works,  and  to  trade.  While  ati'airs  wen1  thus  rapidly 
assuming  orderly  shape,  a  sad  calamity  befell  the 
country.  Lord  Sydenham,  while  out  riding,  fell,  from 
his  horse,  receiving  injuries  of  which  he  died. 

Sir     ( 'harles    Bagot     succeeded     Lord    Sydenham. 
Though     a     Conservative,     he     faithfully 

The  First  .      ,  ,  ...          .    .   .       . 

Reform  carried  out    the   principles  Lam  clown  lor 

Ministry.  .  ,  ...  .  - 

the  Government  oi   (  auada.      He  formed 

;i  new  Ministry,  composed  entirely  of  Reformers, 
under  the  leadership  of  Baldwin  and  L.ifontaiue. 
Francis  Hincks,  who  later  on  became  prominent  in 
the  public  affairs  of  Canada,  was  a  member  ot  the 
Cabinet.  The  strife  among  party  politicians  at  this 


RESPONSIBLE    GOVERNMENT.  303 

time  was  often  embarrassing  to  the  Governor-General; 
but  Sir  C'liarles  managed  matters  with  great  prudence 
and  fairness.  On  account  of  failing  health  he  soon 
resigned  his  office,  and  died  shortly  after  at  Kingston 
in  May  1 843. 

Sir  Charles  Metcalfe  was  the  next  Governor- 
Geueral.  He  was  sent  to  Canada  by  a 
Tory  Government  of  Great  Britain,  and  tration  of  Lord 
he  was  himself  a  Tory  of  the  old  school. 
He  had  great  contempt  for  responsible  government. 
In  his  opinion  the  member:;  of  the  Executive  Council, 
in  selecting  persons  for  public  offices,  sought  to 
strengthen  their  own  position  by  rewarding  their 
supporters  rather  than  to  promote  the  interests  of 
the  country.  As  for  himself,  according  to  his  way  of 
thinking,  he  was  quite  impartial,  and  had  no  motive 
to  do  what  was  not  for  the  public  good.  He  was 
prob..bly  quite  conscientious,  and  his  private  character 
was  such  as  to  secure  the  respect  of  even  those  who 
were  opposed  to  his  political  opinions.  Carrying  out 
his  principles,  the  Governor-General,  without  consult- 
ing his  Ministry,  appointed  Conservatives  to  certain 
offices.  Baldwin,  Lafontainc,  and  their  colleagues, 
considering  this  a  violation  of  the  Constitution, 
placed  their  resignation  in  his  hands.  Although 
the  Reformers  had  a  majority  in  the  Assembly,  the 
Governor  called  on  Mr.  Draper,  a  Conservative,  to 
form  a  new  Government.  At  the  same  time  he  dis- 
solved the  Assembly  and  ordered  a  new  election,  in 
which  he  himself  took  an  active  part.  In  the  new 
House  the  Draper  Ministry  was  sustained  by  a  small 
majority. 

Meanwhile  the  seat  of  Government  had  been  re- 


301  THE    DOMINION    OK   CANADA. 

moved  from  Kingston  to  Montreal.  The  Legislature 
held  its  first  session  in  this  city  in  1^1  I. 

The  Conservative  Government  of  Great  Britain 
approved  of  the  policy  of  the  Governor-General,  ami 
rewarded  him  by  raising  him  to  the  peerage  with  the 
title  of  Baron  Motcalfe  of  Kern  Hill.  He  did  not  long 
enjoy  his  honours.  A  deadly  disease  had  fastened 
on  him,  and  he  returned  to  England,  where  he  died 
in  1840. 

The  Loyalists  of  Upper  Canada  had,  for  some  time, 
Rebellion  been  asking  indemnity  from  the  public 
Losses.  funds  for  losses  sustained  by  them  during 

the  rebellion.  I'nder  the  Draper  Government  the 
Legislature  voted  a  large  sum  for  this  purpose.  A 
similar  claim  was  then  made  by  those  who  had  suffered 
loss  in  Lower  C'anada.  Hut  I  he  amount  appropriated 
was  so  small  that  it  failed  to  give  satisfaction.  The 
question  was  a  difficult  one.  Some  who  had  taken 
part  in  the  rebellion  were  asking  to  have  their  losses 
made  up.  In  the  meantime  no  further  action  was 
taken  by  the  Legislature,  but  the  matter  remained 
unsettled. 

Jn  1817  a  Liberal  Government,  with  Lord  John 
Lord  Elgin,  Russell  at  its  head,  came  into  power  in 
1847  England.  Lord  Elgin,  a  man  of  scholarly 

attainments,  liberal  views,  and  fine  administrative 
ability,  was  sent  out  as  Governor-General  of  C'anada. 
He  had  married  the  daughter  of  the  Karl  of  Durham, 
and  he  was  ambitious  of  carrying  into  effect  those 
principles  of  government  which  his' father-in-law 
had  recommended.  Moreover,  he  was  instructed  by 
despatches  from  Earl  Grey,  the  Colonial  Secretary, 
to  govern  the  country  according  to  the  advice  of 


RESPONSIBLE   GOVERNMENT.  305 

his  Ministry.  These  despatches  finally  settled  the 
long-vexed  question  of  Responsible  Government  in 
( 'anada. 

When  Lord  Elgin  arrived  in  the  Provinces  the 
Draper  Ministry,  holding  on  by  the  frailest  thread,  was 
still  clinging  to  power.  A  general  election  was  pend- 
ing, and  the  friends  of  the  Government  were  using 
every  means  to  prevent  its  overthrow.  Among  other 
influences  brought  to  bear  on  the  electors  of  Upper 
Canada  was  the  assertion  that  if  the  Reformers  came 
into  power  the  rebels  of  Lower  Canada  would  bo 
rewarded  out  of  the  public  treasury.  Notwithstand- 
ing, the  vigorous  canvass  against  the  Reformers,  the 
election  resulted  in  giving  them  a  large  majority.  On 
the  meeting  of  Parliament  early  in  1877,  the  Draper 
\  Ministry  resigned  and  the  Baldwin-Lafontaine  Govern- 
ment was  reinstated. 

Among  the  members  of  the  Assembly  elected  at 
this  time  Avere  Louis  Papineau  and  Wolfred  Nelson. 

During  the  year  in  which  Lord  Elgin  came  to 
Canada,  a  large  number  of  immigrants  immigration 
arrived  at  Quebec.  With  hundreds  of  and  Pestilence- 
thousands  of  their  fellow-countrymen  they  had  boon 
driven  from  their  homes  by  famine  in  Ireland,  caused 
by  failure  of  the  potato  crop.  Densely  crowded  in 
ill-ventilated  ships,  many  of  them  were  seized  on  the 
passage  with  deadly  fever.  On  arriving  at  Qu<  br<- 
they  had  little  means  with  which  to  provide  for  their 
w^ants.  Every  possible  effort  was  made,  both  by  the 
Government  and  by  private  charity,  to  care  for  tin 'in, 
yet  large  numbers  died  from  pestilence  and  exposure. 

One    of   the    earliest    measures    of    the    Baldwin- 
Lafontaine  Government  was  a  Bill  to  provide  for  the 

U 


300  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

payment  of  rebellion  losses  in  Lower  Canada.  The 
Rebellion  Conservatives  opposed  the  Hill,  asserting 

Losses.  tjlaj    fj^    Government    intended    to    pay 

all  who  had  suffered  loss,  rebels  as  well  as  loyalists. 
This  charge  was  denied, but  none  the  less  the  country 
was  soon  greatly  agitated  over  the  action  of  the 
(iovernnient.  Montreal,  Toronto,  and  other  cities  of 
the  West  were  wild  with  excitement  over  the  matter. 
"  No  compensation  to  rebels  became  a  party  cry. 
Many  of  the  old  Loyalists,  who  had  taunted  the 
Reformers  with  lack  of  fidelity  to  the  British  Crown, 
now  openly  talked  of  annexation  to  the  United  States. 
Meanwhile  the  Bill  which  was  calling  up  such  a  storm 
passed  both  Houses. 

Lord  Elgin  was  urged  by  the  opponents  of  the  Bill 
Parliament  to  withhold  his  assent.  But  whatever 
House  burned.  mav  }lavc  been  his  private  opinion  in 
regard  to  its  merits,  he  felt  bound -to  follow  the 
advice  of  his  responsible  Ministry.  Accordingly, 
coming  down  to  the  Parliament  House,  he  in  due 
form  gave  his  assent  to  the  Bill.  On  leaving  the 
building  he  was  saluted  with  hisses  and  groans,  and 
his  carriage  was  pelted  with  sticks,  stones,  and  rotten 
eggs  by  the  excited  multitude  that  thronged  the 
streets.  In  the  evening,  while  the  House  was  in 
session,  a  mob  collected  around  the  building,  broke 
the  windows,  and  bursting  open  the  doors  rushed 
into  the  Assembly  room.  The  members  fled  in 
confusion.  One  of  the  rioters,  seating  himself  in  the 
Speaker's  chair,  with  mock  dignity  proclaimed— 
"  Gentlemen,  the  French  Parliament  is  dissolved." 
The  mob  proceeded  to  tear  up  the  seats,  break  the. 
chandeliers,  and  destroy  all  movable  property  within 


RESPONSIBLE    GOVERNMENT.  307 

their  reach.  They  then  set  the  building  on  fire, 
standing  guard  to  see  that  the  flames  were  not  ex- 
tinguished. In  the  morning  Parliament  House  was 
a  mass  of  ruins,  and  a  valuable  library  and  many 
public  documents  which  could  not  be  replaced  were 
reduced  to  ashes. 

Let  us  now  return  and  pick  up  the  broken  thread 
of  our  story  in  the  Maritime  Provinces. 
The  Reformers  marked  the  course  of 
events  in  Canada  with  great  interest,  and  they  con- 
tended that  Earl  Russell's  despatches  to  Governor 
Thompson  applied  to  all  the  provinces.  Sir  Colin 
Campbell,  the  Governor  of  Nova  Scotia,  refused  to 
be  influenced  by  these  despatches.  With  the  view 
of  forcing  the  Executive  Council  to  resign,  the 
Assembly,  by  a  majority  of  thirty  to  twelve,  passed 
a  "  vote  of  want  of  confidence "  in  this  body.  But 
Sir  Colin  told  the  Reformers  that  he  was  quite 
satisfied  with  his  Council.  Sir  Colin  was  highly 
respected  for  many  excellent  personal  qualities,  but 
this  treatment  of  the  people's  representatives  gave 
great  offence.  The  Assembly,  by  a  large  majority, 
adopted  a  memorial  to  the  Queen,  asking  for  his 
recall.  Political  meetings  were  held  throughout  the 
province  to  discuss  the  questions  of  the  day,  and 
many  severe  things  were  said  by  both  parties. 

Shortly  after  his  arrival  in  Canada  the  Governor- 
General,    the     Hon.    Poulett    Thompson,  coalition 
visited  Halifax.      He  held  interviews  with  Government, 
the  leaders   of   both   parties,   and   although   he   was 
guarded  in  his  expressions,  he  must  have  seen  that 
Howe  and  his   party  Avere   contending  for   the  very 
principles  which  he  himself  was  instructed  to  carry 


308 


THK    IM.MINIMN     .)|     <  ANADA. 


out.  Sliori.lv  utter  his  visit,  Sir  Colin  Campbell  was 
recalled,  and  L«>r<l  Falkland  was  sent  in  liis  place. 
The  new  Governor  belonged  t<>  the  Liberal  parly  in 
England,  on  account  of  which  the  Reformers  "in  Nova 

Scotia  expected 
sjreat  things  from 
him.  For  the 
same  reason  the 
Conservatives  re- 
garded hint  with 
suspicion.  As 
in  ( 'anada  under 
hord  Sydenham, 
it  was  thought 
advisable  in 
Nova  Scotia  to 
form  an  Execu- 
tive Council  com- 
posed of  leading 
men  selected 
from  both  par- 
ties. Accordingly 
Mr.  Howe  and 
some  of  his  col- 
leagues accepted 
positions  made 
vacant  for  them 
in  this  body. 
But  it  was  soon 

found  that  this  Coalition  Government  Avas  composed 
of  two  distinct  and  hostile  parties  which  would  not 
work  in  harmony  with  each  other. 

The  leader  of  the  Conservative  party  at  this  time 


JAMK.S  \v.  JOHNSTON. 


RESPONSIBLE    GOVERNMENT.  309 

was  the  Hon.  .James  AY.  Johnston.  A  statesman  of 
singularly  acute  mind  and  of  high-toned  moral  prin- 
ciple, Air.  Johnston  for  the  third  of  a  century  shared 
with  Mr.  Howe  the  affections  of  the  people  of  Nova 
Scotia.  Throughout  his  long  public  career  he  had 
the  unwavering  conh'dence  of  his  party  and  the 
respect  of  his  political  opponents.  Scarcely  in  any- 
thing except  in  patriotism  did  he  and  Mr.  Howe 
agree. 

Besides  disagreeing  on  the  great  question  of  re- 
sponsible government,  they  were  at  variance  on  a 
<|uestion  of  higher  education  which  then  agitated  the 
province.  Mr.  Howe  advocated  the  endowment  by 
the  Government  of  one  provincial  college.  Mr. 
Johnston  was  in  favour  of  giving  public  aid  to 
various  denominational  colleges.  Howe's  attitude  on 
this  question  gave  oftence  to  many  of  his  old  sup- 
porters throughout  the  country. 

Lord  Falkland,  following  the  advice  of  the  Conser- 
vative party  in  his  Council,  dissolved  the 

•LI  T        ii  i  i         -\r        The  .Coalition 

Assembly.       In    the    new    Assembly    Mr.  broken  up, 
Johnston's     party  had  a  small  majority. 
Lord    Falkland,   whose    policy   was    similar    to    that 
which   Sir   Charles    Metcalfe  was   at   the  same  time 
pursuing   in   Canada,   without   consulting   Howe  and 
his  friends,   appointed    another   Conservative   to   the 
Executive  Council.      The  Reformers  at  once  sent  in 
their  resignation. 

Lord  Falkland  and  Mr.  Howe  soon  became  open 
enemies  to  each  other.  Mr.  Howe  ridiculed  the 
Governor  in  the  public  papers,  and  the  Governor, 
in  his  despatches  to  the  Colonial  Secretary,  said  that 
Howe  was  a  troublesome  man.  Avith  whom  he  could 


310  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

hold  no  further  intercourse.      The  cause  of  Reform,' 
however,    was    rapidly    gaining    strength,    and    Lord 
Falkland,   finding   that   he    was    waging    an   unequal 
warfare,    resigned    his    office    and    returned   to    Hng- 
land. 

Sir  John  Harvey,  who  had  already  held  the  posi- 
tion of  Governor  in  three  provinces,  succeeded  Lord 
Falkland.  He  invited  Mr.  Howe  and  his  friends  to 
take  their  old  place  in  the  Council  :  but  feeling  that 
Liberals  and  Conservatives  could  not  work  well  to- 
gether, they  declined  the  invitation. 

Hitherto  the  election  of  members  of  Assembly  took 
place   at   different   times    in    the    various 

Responsible 

Government,      counties,    and    vottDg    was    continued    on 

1848.  .  .  ... 

successive  days  at  the  various  polling- 
places  in  each  county.  A  crowd  of  idlers  went  from 
place  to  place,  often  causing  much  disturbance.  A 
new  Assembly  was  elected  in  1847,  when  for  the  first 
time  in  Xova  Scotia  the  votes  were  all  cast  on  a 
single  day.  When  the  House  met  in  the  following 
January,  the  Reformers  were  found  to  have  a  majority 
of  seven.  Meanwhile  Sir  John  Harvey  had  received 
despatches  from  the  Colonial  Secretary,  stating  that 
the  Executive  Council  must  stand  or  tall  according 
to  the  will  of  a  majrrity  of  the  people's  representa- 
tives. Mr.  Johnston  and  his  colleagues  resigned, 
and  a  Liberal  Government  was  formed,  of  which 
the  Hon.  James  H.  Uniacke  was  Premier,  and 
Joseph  Howe,  Herbert  Huntington,  Michael  Tobiu, 
and  Hugh  Bell  were  prominent  members.  From 
this  time  forward  in  Xova  Scotia  the  Ministry  could 
remain  in  power  only  so  long  as  it  had  the  confidence 
of  a  majority  of  the  Assembly. 


RESPONSIBLE   GOVERNMENT.  311 

The  struggle  for  responsible  government  WHS  car- 
ried  on  in  New  Brunswick  along  the  same  New  Bruns. 
lines,  though  not  with  as  much  acrimony,  wick 
as  in  Nova  Scotia.  As  in  the  last-named  province, 
the  privileges  contended  for  were  gained  at  intervals, 
one  by  one,  and  sometimes  defeat  followed  victory. 
It  happened,  too,  that  bad  use  of  what  had  been  won 
sometimes  brought  discredit  on  the  cause.  Thus, 
when  an  overflowing  treasury  was  placed  under  the 
control  of  the  Assembly,  reckless  expenditure  by  that 
body  during  succeeding  years  not  only  exhausted  the 
surplus  funds,  but  burdened  the  province  with  a 
heavy  debt.  Public  money  was  voted  in  a  loose  sort 
of  way.  Each  member  had  his  pet  scheme,  and  in 
order  to  secure  help  from  others  to  carry  his  mea- 
sure, he  voted  for  theirs.  This  was  the  very  result 
which  Tory  governors  and  councils  had  predicted.  Its 
effect  was  to  retard  the  progress  of  popular  govern- 
ment. It  seemed  to  show  that  the  people's  repre- 
sentatives could  not  be  trusted  with  the  management 
of  public  affairs.  As  a  check  on  careless  expenditure 
the  Colonial  Secretary  advised  that  all  money  bills 
should  bo  introduced  by  the  Government.  This  wise 
principle  was  adopted  a  few  years  later. 

The  indiscretions  of  the  Reformers  strengthened 
the  Conservative  party.  A  Bill  providing  that  the 
Executive  Council  must  have  the  confidence  of  the 
people's  representatives  was  defeated  in  the  Assembly 
by  the  casting  vote  of  the  Speaker.  Sir  John  Harvey, 
unlike  most  of  the  Governors  of  his  time,  was  in 
favour  of  reform,  and  under  his  moderate  rule  Tory 
principles  were  shorn  of  many  of  their  objectionable 
features.  In  1841  Sir  John  was  succeeded  by  Sir 


312 


TIIK    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


William  Colebrooke,  when  affairs  took  a  different  turn. 
A  general  election  in  1842  gave  incroaBcd  strength 
to  the  Conservative  party  in  the  Assembly.  Resolu- 
tions Avcro  passed  by  both  brandies  of  the  Legislature, 

favouring  the 
doctrine  of  the 
Governor -Gene- 
ral, Sir  Charles 
Metcalfc,  who 

claimed  the  right 

of  the  Governor 
to  appoint  Crown 
officers  without 
consulting  his 
Executive  Coun- 
cil. Two  years 
later,  however, 
this  article  of 
the  Conservative 
creed  received 
so  rude  a  shock 
that  it  never 
regained  its  old- 
time  force.  On 
the  death  of  the. 
Hon.  William 
Odell,  who  had 

CHARLES   KISHEK.  held        tile       office 

of     Provincial 

Secretary  for  twenty-six  years,  Sir  William  Cole- 
brooke  appointed  his  own  son-in-law  to  the  posi- 
tion. This  was  too  much  to  suit  even  the  stancliest 
Tory.  Indeed,  the  matter  caused  so  much  dis- 


RKSI'ON'SIHLK    (H)VERNMENT.  313 

satisfaction  that  the  Governor's  son-in-law  was  com- 
pelled to  resign.  Shortly  after,  the  Reform  leaders, 
Lemuel  A.  AVilmot  and  Charles  Fisher,  urged  the 
adoption  of  responsible  government.  But  the  state 
of  feeling  in  the  Assembly  was  not  sufficiently  de- 
veloped for  such  a  forward  movement.  Accordingly 
the  Conservatives,  under  the  leadership  of  Hon.  Robert 
Hazeu,  held  the  reins  of  power,  though  with  weaken- 
ing grasp,  a  little  longer. 

Meanwhile  the  boundary  line  between  New  Bruns- 
wick and  Maine,  which  had  caused  such  The  Ashburton 
serious  dispute,  was  settled  by  the  Ash-  Treaty'  l842- 
burton  Treaty.  The  boundary  had  been  fixed  in  1783 
and  laid  down  upon  a  map,  the  existence  of  which 
was  at  this  time  unknown.  The  true  boundary  line 
as  thus  shown  followed  the  water-shed  of  the  St. 
John  River,  giving  the  basin  of  the  Aroostook  and  of 
the  other  tributaries  to  Great  Britain.  After  various 
fruitless  efforts  to  secure  a  settlement  of  the  difficulty, 
t\vo  Commissioners  were  appointed,  Lord  Ashburton 
by  Great  Britain  and  Daniel  Webster  by  the  United 
States,  to  determine  the  boundary  line.  The  "  Dis- 
puted Territory"  comprised  about  twelve  thousand 
square  miles.  The  Commissioners  gave  live  thousand 
square  miles  to  New  Brunswick  and  seven  thousand 
to  Maine,  a  settlement  which  has.  since  been  found 
unduly  favourable  to  the  last-named  country.  At  the 
same  time  the  Commissioners1  fixed  the  boundary 
between  British  America  and  the  United  States  from 
New  Brunswick  westerly  to  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Earl  Grey's  instructions  in  his  despatches  of  1847, 
that  the  Governor  must  by  guided  in  his  public  acts 
by  the  advice  of  his  Executive.  Council,  and  that  this 


3M  THE    DOMINION    (>K    CANADA. 

Council  must,  hold  office  only  so  long  ;us  it   had   the 
Responsible        confidence  of  the  Assembl,  was  intended 


New'BlrSns-  ln      to    ftPPlV   t(>     ^<>W    I^niliswiek    US    Well    J»S    to 

wick,  1848.         Nova  Scotia  and  Canada.     Accordingly,  in 

1848,  on  the  motion  of  Charles  Fisher,  these  principles 
were  adopted  by  a  large  majority  of  the  Assembly. 
In  this  vote  the  leading  Conservatives  united  with 
the  Reformers.  The  two  most  prominent  Reformers, 
Wilmot  and  Fisher,  accepted  seats  in  tin-  Council 
with  their  old-time  opponents  who  had  now  accepted 
their  principles.  Thus  18-18  was  noted  as  the  first 
year  in  the  era  of  responsible  government  in  British 
America. 

Tnder  the  rule  of  Colonel  Heady  and  his  successor, 

Prince  Edward     *U'    AretllS    YoUHg,    PHllce     Kdwal'd    Island 

made  much  progress  in  population,  educa- 
tion, and  general  thrift.  During  the  administration 
of  the  last-named  Governor,  in  18^3.  an  important 
change  was  made  in  the  duration  of  the  Assembly, 
requiring  the  election  of  a  new  House  every  four  years 
in  place  of  once  in  seven  years. 

In  183G  the  popular  Sir  John  Harvey  became 
Governor  of  the  island,  a  position  which  he  held 
for  only  one  year,  when  he  was  transferred  to  New 
Brunswick.  His  successor  was  Sir  Charles  Fit/roy, 
who  arrived  in  the  island  a  few  days  after  Queen 
Victoria  ascended  the  throne.  At  the  time  the 
country  was  greatly  agitated.  For  some  years  the 
absent  landlords  had  not  asked  the  tenant-farmers 
for  the  yearly  rents,  but  they  were  now  demand- 
ing all  arrears.  Failing  U>  pay,  many  farmers  were 
ejected  from  the  lands  which  they  had  long  occu- 
pied. Exasperated  by  such  treatment,  they  resisted 


RESPONSIBLE    GOVERNMENT.  315 

the  officers  of  the  law  who   were  sent  to  discharge 
the  disagreeable  duty  of  eviction. 

A  large  part  of  the  lands  owned  by  the  absent 
proprietors  was  still  in  its  natural  state,  held  for 
advance  in  price.  Small  settlements,  scattered  here 
and  there,  were  thus,  to  their  great  disadvantage, 
separated  by  vast  tracts  of  forest.  The  Legislature 
of  the  island  imposed  a  tax  on  these  lands.  The 
proprietors  appealed  to  the  British  Government  to 
disallow  the  Act.  But  the  Government,  influenced 
by  a  report  from  the  Earl  of  Durham,  who  was  then 
Governor-General  of  Canada,  refused  to  interfere. 

In   1830,  agitation  for  reform  in  the  government 
of  the  island  led  to  the  appointment  of  Executive 
an   Executive   Council   and  a  Legislative  Councl1 
Council,  in  place  of  a  single  Council  with  a  double 
function. 

Sir  Henry  Hunt,  who  succeeded  Sir  Charles  Fitx- 
roy  as  Governor,  lacked  discretion,  and  sometimes 
allowed  personal  feelings  to  influence  his  public  acts. 
A  motion  in  the  Assembly  for  an  addition  to  his 
salary  Avas  opposed  by  the  Hon.  Joseph  Pope,  Speaker 
of  the  House  and  member  of  the  Executive  Council. 
AVithout  consulting  the  other  members,  the  Governor 
dismissed  Pope  from  the  Council.  This  action  did 
not  meet  with  the  approval  of  the  British  Govern- 
ment, and  Sir  Henry  was  required  to  reinstate  the 
offender,  and  confer  with  his  Council  as  to  the 
proper  mode  of  dealing  with  him.  Mr.  Pope,  how- 
ever, relieved  the  Council  of  responsibility  in  the 
matter  by  resigning  his  seat.  He  soon  found  oppor- 
tunity to  show  his  resentment.  The  Governor's 
friends  sent  a  petition  to  the  Queen,  asking  that 


3 Hi  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

his  term  of  office,  which  was  drawing  to  a  close, 
miijht  be  extended.  This  led  to  a  counter  petition, 
and  the  appointment  of  Joseph  Pope  and  Edward 
Palmer  as  delegates  to  England  to  secure  the  recall 
of  the  Governor.  The  opposing  force  prevailed,  and 
Sir  Donald  Campbell  was  appointed  as  Sir  Henrys 
successor. 

As  in  the  other  provinces,   a    responsible  executive 
was  secured  in  the  island  oiilv  l»v  decided 

Responsible  ,.,.  111 

Government.       measures.       1  lie  matter  had  been  agitated 
for  some   time,  when   in    1.SM»  the   Lesns- 

O 

lature  proposed  to  the  British  Government  that  it 
would  provide  for  the  Civil  List  on  condition  that 
responsible  government  was  granted,  quit  -  rents 
abolished,  and  the  Crown  lands  given  to  the  island 
authorities.  In  reply,  the  Colonial  Secretary,  Earl 
Grey,  ottered  everything  asked  for  but  responsible 
government.  For  this  he  thought  the  island  was 
not  yet  prepared.  This  answer  was  received  in  the 
island  with  murmurings  of  discontent.  The  Assembly 
which  met  in  1850  passed  a  few  necessary  bills, 
and  then  refused  to  go  on  with  the  public  business 
until  the  Government  was  so  remodelled  as  to  bring 
the  Executive  under  the  control  of  the  people's  repre- 
sentatives. 

Meanwhile  the  popular  Governor  —  Sir  Donald 
Campbell — died,  and  was  succeeded  by  Sir  Alex- 
ander Hannerman.  On  meeting  the  Assembly  in 
.the  following  year,  the  Governor  announced  that 
responsible  government  had  been  granted,  on  con- 
dition that  the  Legislature  would  provide  pensions 
tor  certain  retiring  officers  of  the  existing  Govern- 
ment, who  had  received  their  appointment  for  life. 


RESPONSIBLE    GOVERNMENT. 


317 


These  terms  were  readily  accepted.  The  Honourable 
George  Coles,  who  had  been  the  most  prominent 
figure  in  the  reform  movement,  became  the  leader  of 
the  new  Government  which  now  caine  into  power, 
and  his  principal 


colleagues    were 
Young 


Charles 

and  Joseph  Pope. 
In  the  same  year 
quit-rents  were 
abolished,  and  a 
uniform  letter- 
postage  of  two- 
pence for  any 
part  of  the  island, 
and  of  three- 
pence for  letters 
going  to  the 
other  provinces, 
was  adopted. 

The  popula- 
tion of  the  island 
.at  this  time  was 
about  65,000. 

Many  import- 
ant changes  have 
taken    place    in 
our  civil  affairs 
since  the  estab- 
lishment of  responsible  government.     It  is  safe  to  say, 
however,  that  the  principles  then  laid  down  have  been 
in  no  way  disturbed.    On  the  contrary,  they  have  rather 
been  given  freer  play  and  wider  application. 


THE   HON.    GKOKGK  COLES. 


CIIAITKI!    XXVII. 

OLD    QUESTIONS    SETTLED    AND    NEW    SCHEMES 
PROPOSED 

WK  loft  tht1  Province  of  Canada  in  the  midst  of  the 
Seat  of  storm    caused    by   the   "  Rebellion    Losses 

Government.         A(.(  >'          \\}wn     tjlo     )le.|t     of     j)USsion     had 

cooled  down  a  little,  the  riot  at  Montreal,  with  the 
burning  of  the  Parliament  Building,  was  felt  to  be  a 
disgrace  for  which  no  good  eitixens  care<l  to  he 
held  responsible.  The  people  of  Montreal  were 
punished  by  the  removal  of  the  seat  of  Government 
from  their  city.  For  the  next  fifteen  years,  until 
Ottawa  was  made  the  capital,  the  Legislature  met 
alternately,  for  four  consecutive  years,  in  Toronto  and 
Quebec.  Lord  Elgin  was  so  much  disturbed  over 
the  riot,  of  which,  in  the  discharge  of  the  duties 
of  his  office,  he  had  been  the  occasion,  that  he 
sent  in  his  resignation.  His  aetion,  however^  was 
fully  sustained  by  the  Imperial  Government,  and 
he  continued  to  hold  the  position  of  (iovcrnor- 
General  with  great  acceptance  for  many  years. 
The  Canadian  people  had  gained  much  through 

Progress  in  nar(1      Struggle,     bllt      they      WLTC      Ilot       Vet 

Canada.  satisfied.       Each    new    achievement    only 

served  to  awaken  further  striving.      There  were  still 

some    remaining   evils,    legacies    of    the    past,    to   be 

sis 


OLD    QUKSTIONS    AND    NK\V    srilK.MKS.         319 

removed,  while  foundations  of  new  institutions  were 
to  bo  laid  and  strengthened. 

The   education  of  the  youth  of  the  country   \vas 
regarded  as  one  of  the  first  and  highest 

Education  .  G 

con- 
cerns of  the 
(i  oyernment. 
Dr.  Egerton 
Ilycrsoii  had 
already,  by  the 
Draper  Minis- 
try, b^en  ap- 
pointed Super- 
intendent of 
Education.  This 
distinguished 
clergyman,  who 
had  for  many 
years  taken  an 
active  part  in 
the  political 
affairs  of  the 
country,  now, 
by  close  observa- 
tion in  Europe 
and  in  the 
United  States, 
made  himself 
acquainted  with 

the  most  improved  educational  systems  in  the  world. 
During  the  long  period  of  thirty  years  he  devoted 
his  energies  to  the  development  of  the  common  and 
high  school  system  of  Upper  Canada.  The  high 


REV.  EGERTON  RYERSON.  D.D. 


320  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

appreciation  in  which  Dr.  Ryerson's  services  wore 
held  by  the  country  was  shown  at  the  close  of 
his  public  career  by  the  action  of  the  Legislature  of 
Ontario  in  granting  him  his  full  salary  as  a  retiring 
pension. 

The    trade   of    the    provinces   had    hitherto    been 
hampered    In    a    high    taritt'   on    foreign 

Commerce.  '  '  .  ,  .  •    i     u      i- 

goods,  imposed  by  the  Imperial  Parlia- 
ment for  the  purpose  of  giving  an  advantage  to 
the  British  manufacturer.  These  trade  restrictions 
were  now,  in  1810,  removed,  and  the  provinces  were 
allowed  to  arrange  their  own  tarirt'  independently  of 
the  Home  authorities.  General  intercourse  through- 
out the  provinces  and  with  the  United  States  was 
promoted  by  telegraph  lines  ami  by  increased  postal 
facilities,  in  1801  the  Post  Office,  which  had  hither- 
to been  under  the  control  of  Great  Britain,  was 
handed  over  to  the  Provincial  Governments.  This 
resulted  in  the  establishing  of  more  postal  routes 
and  offices  throughout  the  country,  and  in  the 
reduction  of  rates.  The  use  of  postage-stamps  also 
added  much  to  the  public  convenience. 

Improvement  in  means   of  travel  and   conveying 
goods  also  received  attention.      \Ve  have 

Railways.  .  ]•  1  1*1 

seen  in  a  preceding  chapter  how  the 
obstructions  to  navigation  caused  by  falls  and  rapids 
in  the  Niagara  and  St.  Lawrence  Rivers  were  over- 
come by  canals,  thus  giving  a  water-route  between 
remote  inland  settlements  and  the  great  centres  of 
trade.  For  several  months  in  the  year,  however, 
rivers,  hikes,  and  canals  were  closed,  and  the  country 
was  shut  out  from  the  great  world  by  a  barrier 
of  ice. 


OLD    QUESTIONS    AND   NEW    SCHEMES.          321 

The  era  of  railways  had  now  dawned.  The  first 
line  built  in  the  country  was  a  short  one,  opened  in 
1839  between  La  Prairie  and  St.  John's,  in  Lower 
Canada.  After  an  interval  of  several  years,  in  1851, 
the  Northern  Railway,  in  Upper  Canada,  was  begun. 
This  was  followed  by  the  Great  Western,  from 
Niagara  Falls  to  Windsor,  and  by  the  Grand  Trunk, 
from  the  Great  Lakes  in  the  West  to  the  tidal  waters 
of  the  St.  Lawrence.  A  little  later,  to  secure  access 
to  the  open  sea  in  winter,  a  branch  of  the  Grand 
Trunk  was  built  to  Portland,  in  Maine.  Other  lines 
were  built  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  some  of 
which  failed  to  prove  a  financial  gain  to  the  share- 
holders, yet  indirectly  were  useful  in  developing  the 
resources  of  the  country. 

Several  perplexing  questions  now  agitated  the 
public  mind.  The  Clergy  Reserves  was  Theciergy 
an  Upper  Canada  question  which  for  Reserves 
many  years  had  been  a  source  of  bitter  contention. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  one-seventh  of  the  public 
lands  of  the  province  was  set  apart  in  1791  for  the 
support  of  the  Protestant  Clergy,  and  that  the  Angli- 
can Church  alone  was  allowed  to  enjoy  the  benefit  of 
this  liberal  appropriation.  Dissatisfaction  over  such 
disposal  of  the  funds  was  one  of  the  leading  causes  of 
the  rebellion  in  Upper  Canada.  In  1840,  before  the 
union  of  the  Canadas,  a  settlement  was  made  which, 
it  was  hoped,  would  set  the  matter  at  rest.  The 
lion's  share  of  the  spoil  was  given  to  the  Anglican 
Church,  a  much  smaller  slice  was  allotted  to  the 
Presbyterians  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  while  the 
remaining  fragments  were  distributed  in  an  ungene- 
rous sort  of  way  among  other  religious  bodies.  But 


322  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

the  matter  would  not  stay  settled  in  this  fashion, 
and  as  time  passed  dissatisfaction  in  Upper  Canada 
strengthened,  until  it  forced  the  Legislature  to  -re- 
open the  question.  The  matter  was  a  difficult  one 
to  deal  with.  In  the  first  place,  the  Legislature  of 
Canada  could  take  no  action  on  it  without  per- 
mission from  the  Parliament  of  Great  Britain. 
Besides,  the  members  from  Lower  Canada  were 
opposed  to  any  change. 

But  Lower  Canada  had  a  "  burning  question  "  of 
seigniorial  *ts  own-  Tne  modified  Feudal  System 
introduced  in  the  early  times  into  French 
Canada,  as  described  in  si  foregoing  chapter,  had 
outlived  whatever  usefulness  it  may  have  had  at 
first,  and  it  was  now  in  great  disfavour.  Under 
the  modern  conditions  of  society  this  system  of 
holding  lands  was  troublesome  and  oppressive,  as 
well  as  a  hindrance  to  the  progress  of  the  country. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  when  the  censitaire  or 
tenant  sold  his  lands  he  had  to  pay  one-twelfth 
of  the  receipts  to  the  Seignior.  As  lands  were  now 
much  more  valuable  and  transfers  were  more  frequent 
than  in  the  olden  time,  this  condition  had  become 
very  burdensome.  Besides,  there  was  little  induce- 
ment tor  the  censitaire  to  make  improvements  when 
what  he  expended  would  not  be  wholly  for  his  own 
benefit.  The  annual  rents,  U>o,  had  become  excessive, 
and  the  poor  habitant  was  often  made  the  victim  of 
dishonest  greed.  Different  remedies  for  getting  rid 
of  the  evil  were  proposed,  of  which  the  most  radical 
consisted  in  cancelling  the  claims  of  the  Seignior 
without  any  compensation. 

The  Baldwin-Lafontaine  Government  did  not  find 


OLD    QUESTION'S    AM>    NEW    SCHEMES.         323 


it  an  easy  matter  to  solve  these  knotty  questions.  Its 
supporters  Avere  not  agreed  among  them-  'The  Reformers 
selves,  the  measures  which  were  popular  divided- 
in  the  West  being  offensive  in  the  East.  The  ex- 
treme Reform- 
ers, known  as 
"Clear  Grits," 
led  by  George 
Brown,  editor  of 
the  Toronto 
Globe,  insisted 
on  the  "  secu- 
larising of  the 
Cle  rgy  R  e- 
serves" — that  is, 
taking  them 
from  the  religi- 
ous bodies  and 
using  them  for 
common  public 
purposes.  As 
the  Government 
did  not  seem 
disposed  to 
.adopt  such  a 
measure,  it  lost 
the  support  of 
this  party,  and 
being  left  in  a 
minority,  was  compelled  to  resign. 

A  new  Ministry  was  formed,  of  which  the  English 
leader  was  Francis  Hincks.  Mr.  Hincks  was  a  native 
of  Ireland,  but  he  had  in  early  life  removed  to 


HON.    GKOHUE   BKOWN. 


321  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

Toronto,  where  he  edited   a  paper.      He  was  a  man 
of  eminent    ability,  and   for    many   vears 

The  Hincks-  .  .  '    .  ..    *      "L  . 

Monn  Govern-    took  a   prominent    part   in  public  affairs. 

ment.  1851.  ,„.         1-1-111  \t       • 

rhe  rrench  leader  was  Augustus  Monn,  a 

hrilliant  and  patriotic  statesman.  Dr.  Holph,  u  noted 
leader  of  the  Rebellion  in  Vp|M-r  Canada,  was  a  iiieui- 
b:r  of  the  Government,  and  among  its  supporters  in 
the  House  were  the  old-time  rebels.  Louis  Papineau 
and  Williiun  Lyon  MaeKeuxie.  One  of  the  most 
distinguished  members  of  the  Assembly  was  George 
Brown  of  the  Toronto  (Unite.  Mr.  Brown  was  an 
honest,  energetic,  and  highly  gifted  Scotchman  who 
had  made  Canada  his  home.  In  his  paper  and  on 
the  floor  of  the  House  he  was  -a  sturdy  advocate  of 
the  two  great  reform  measures  before  the  public. 
He  was  a  Ministerialist,  that  is  on  the  Government 
side :  yet  he  was  sometimes  so  extreme  in  his  views 
that  he  could  not  easily  be  kept  in  line,  and  while 
he  was  a  powerful  opponent,  he  was  an  uncertain 
supporter.  On  the  Opposition  side  of  the  House  was 
a  young  lawyer  who  was  rapidly  rising  to  the  first 
position  in  his  party,  and  who  during  the  succeeding 
forty  years  exerted  a  powerful  influence  in  moulding 
the  institutions  of  the  country.  This  was  John  A. 
Macdonald,  better  known  in  later  times  as  Sir  John. 
Mr.  Macdonald  was  born  in  Scotland,  and  when  alxnit 
five  years  of  age  came  with  his  parents  to  Canada. 

The  building  of  railways  was  the  leading  public 
enterprise  of  the  time.  The  Grand  Trunk  line  had  a 
strong  patron  in  Mr.  Hincks.  It  received  large  sub- 
sidies from  the  public  funds,  and  was  aided  by  the 
credit  of  the  province  in  borrowing  money. 

During  the  reign  of  the  Hincks  Ministry  an  Act 


OLD    QUESTIONS    AND    NEW    SCHEMES.        325 

was  passed  by  which,  011  the  security  of  the  Govern- 
ment, municipalities  were  enabled  to  ~  borrow  money 
for  making  roads  and  bridges  and  for  other  public 
purposes.  The  easy  terms  on  which  money  could 
be  obtained  led 
to  some  unwise 
expenditures, 
and  to  the  in- 
curring of  debts 
which  afterwards 
proved  burden- 
some. 

The  year  1852 
is  memorable  for 
a  disastrous  fire 
in  Montreal, 
which  left  ten 
thousand  per- 
sons homeless. 

The    Reci- 


ES&  Treaty, 
1854  arranged 
by  Lord  Elgin 
and  Mr.  Hincks 
for  the  regula- 
tion of  trade  and 
other  matters  SIR  JOHN  A.  MACDONALD. 

between      the 

British  Provinces  and  the  United  States,  was  one  of 
the  principal  measures  of  the  time.  It  provided 
for  exchange,  free  of  duty,  of  the  natural  pro- 
ducts of  the  farm,  the  forest,  the  mines,  and  the 


32<)  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

seu.  It  also  provided  that  the  subjects  of  the  United 
States  should  have  equal  privilege  with  British  sub- 
jects in  the  coast  fisheries  of  the  provinces  and  in  the 
navigation  of  the  St.  Lawn-nee  River  and  the  Canadian 
canals.  Canadians  also  were  given  the  privilege  of 
navigating  Lake  Michigan.  The  treaty  was  to  remain 
in  force  for  ten  years,  after  which  it  would  terminate 
on  twelve  months'  notice  given  by  either  party. 

Another  measure  adopted  under  the  Hineks-Morin 
rule  increased  the  membership  of  the  Assembly  from 
eighty-four  to  one  hundred  and  thirty,  giving  each 
division  sixty-five  members. 

In  the  autumn  of  1851  Lord  Elgin  was  succeeded 
as  Governor  -  General  by  Sir  Edmund 

The  M'Nab-  ,  »T-       i     i 

Morin  Govern-    \Yalker   Head.      Mr.  Hinckss  power  was 

ment,  1854  1/1  i>  1 

now  near  its  end.  ueorge  Brown  and 
his  party,  becoming  impatient  of  the  delay  in  dealing 
with  the  Clergy  Reserves  and  other  matters  which 
they  thought  demanded  immediate  action,  withdrew 
their  support  from  the  Government.  After  a  general 
election  the  Ministry  had  a  small  majority  in  Lower 
Canada,  but  it  had  suffered  sad  reverses  in  the  West. 
It  was  defeated  by  the  combined  vote  of  the  Conser- 
vatives and  extreme  Reformers,  led  by  Mr.  Brown. 

No  one  of  the  three  parties  was  strong  enough  to 
resist  the  united  opposition  of  the  other  two.  The 
Governor-General  called  on  Sir  Allan  M'Xab,  the 
leader  of  the  Conservatives,  to  form  a  Ministry.  This 
he  succeeded  in  doing  by  a  coalition  with  the  late 
Ministerialist  party,  which  he  had  just  helped  to 
drive  out  of  power.  In  the  new  Government  the 
members  of  the  lute  Government  from  Lower  Canada 
were  given  their  former  places,  while  those  from  the 


OLD    QUESTIONS    AND    NEW   SCHEMES.         327 

West  were  replaced  by  Conservatives.  In  this  Coali- 
tion Government  John  A.  Macdonald  was  Attorney- 
General. 

It  fell  to  the  M'Nab-Morin  Ministry  to  settle  the 
two-  great  questions  which  had  long  dis- 

Mn     .    -rk     ].  c    Settlement  of 

turberl  the  country.  I  he  Parliament  or  Burning  Ques- 
Great  Britain  had  already  given  Canada 
the  power  to  deal  with  the  Clergy  Reserves.  The 
Act  of  Settlement  which  was  now  adopted  by  the 
Legislature  provided  that  the  clergy  who  were  then 
receiving  allowances  should  have  their  stipend  secured 
to  them  for  life,  and  that  the  remainder  of  the  fund 
after  such  allowances  were  paid  should  be  divided 
among  the  various  municipalities  for  general  public 
use. 

The  land  question  of  Lower  Canada  was  settled  by 
compromise.  The  Seigniors  were  required  to  abate 
a  portion  of  their  claims,  while  the  amount  paid  them 
was  made  up  partly  by  the  censitaires  and  partly  by 
a  grant  from  the  public  treasury.  As  a  large  amount 
from  the  provincial  funds  was  thus  applied  for  the 
benetit  of  Lower  Canada,  a  corresponding  amount  was 
given  to  the  municipalities  of  Upper  Canada,  and  also 
to  various  townships  in  Lower  Canada,  where  the  old 
manner  of  holding  lands  had  not  existed.  In  all  about 
$10,000,000  of  the  public  funds  were  used. 

There  still  remained  another  grievance,  a  vestige 
of  the  old-time  Tory  rule,  for  the  removal  of  which 
the  Reformers  had  long  struggled  in  vain.  This  was 
the  Legislative  Council  appointed  by  the  Crown.  An 
Act  was  now  passed  designed  to  bring  about,  in  the 
easiest  possible  manner,  the  desired  change.  The  Act 
did  not  disturb  the  members  of  the  Council  who  had 


328 


THK    DOMINION    <>F    CANADA. 


been  appointed  under  the  old  system,  but  provided 
that  as  vacancies  occurred  new  members  should  be 
elected  for  the  term  of  eight  years. 

Meanwhile  some  important  changes  were  made  in  the 

Ministry.     Colo- 
—     nel  Tache  The 
succeeded  JJ^d. 


.SIK   GEORGE   K.    CAKTIEK. 


leader  for  tr*-ii»- 
Lower  Canada. 
Another  brilliant 

French-  Cana- 
dian, George  E. 
('artier,  who  had 
for  many  years 
taken  an  active 
part  in  political 
affairs,  and  who 
had  a  conspicu- 
ous part  still  to 
play,  was  added 
to  the  Ministry. 
In  his  youth 
he  had  followed 
Papineoii,  fought 
in  the  ranks  of 
the  rebels  under 
Dr.  Nelson,  and 
saved  himself 

from  the  stern  hand  of  the  law  by  escaping  across  the 
border  into  the  United  States.  Sir  Allan  M'Xab, 
now  enfeebled  by  the  infirmities  of  age  and  by  disease, 
retired  from  the  Cabinet.  Finally  John  A.  Macdonald, 


OLD    QUESTIONS    AND    NEW    SCHEMES.        329 

who  for  some  time  had  held  the  first  place  in  the 
esteem  of  the  Conservative  party,  and  who  had  bsen 
its  virtual  head,  took  the  position  of  Premier,  while 
Carticr  became  leader  for  Lower  Canada.  On  the  side 
of  the  Opposition  were  such  distinguished  chiefs  as 
George  Brown,  Oliver  Mowat,  and  D'Arcy  Magee. 

The  machinery  of  government  in  the  united  pro- 
vince had  never  run  smoothly.  The  two 
Canadas  were  too  unlike  each  other  to  tion  by 
work  together  very  harmoniously.  There 
was  almost  constant  friction  from  one  cause  or  another, 
and  as  the  years  went  by  matters  grew  worse.  At  the 
time  of  union  Lower  Canada  had  the  larger  population, 
but  she  was  now  about  three  hundred  thousand  behind. 
On  the  ground  of  its  greater  population,  wealth,  and 
contributions  to  the  public  treasury,  Upper  Canada 
had  for  some  time  been  pressing  its  right  to  larger 
representation  in  the  Legislature.  George  Brown 
became  the  unyielding  advocate  of  this  claim,  and 
there  followed  him  a  large  party  whose  battle-cry 
was  "  Representation  by  population,"  or  "  Rep  by  Pop," 
as  it  was  commonly  called.  The  Macdonald-Cartier 
Government,  deserted  by  many  of  its  old  followers  in 
the  West,  held  its  position  through  the  support  of  Lower 
Canada.  Estrangement  was  growing  up  between  the 
West  and  the  East.  The  cry  of  "  French  domination  " 
from  the  one  quarter  was  met  by  "  Danger  to  our  laws, 
our  customs,  and  our  religion"  from  the  other. 

As  the  frequent  change  in  the  seat  of  Government 
between  Quebec  and  Toronto  was  expen- 

.  .  .  .  r,  Ottawa  the 

sive  and  inconvenient,  it  was  felt  desirable  Seat  of  Govern-. 

.  .  .,         1  .      .      ment,  1858. 

to  select  some  place  as  a  fixed  capital. 

Several  cities  were  ambitious  of  being  chosen,  but  it 


330  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

was  difficult  to  agree  on  any  one  of  them.  The  matter 
was  finally  left  to  the  Queen,  and  the  competing  cities 
were  asked  to  furnish  statements  of  the  advantages 
they  had  to  otter.  Her  Majesty's  choice  fell  upon 
Ottawa.  When  the  decision  was  announced  in  the 
Legislature  there  was  a  strong  outburst  of  adverse 
f  %eling  from  the  friends  of  the  various  rival  cities,  and 
a  resolution  of  disapproval  was  carried  by  a  majority 
of  fourteen.  In  a  vote  on  another  question  taken 
immediately  after,  the  Government  was  sustained  by 
a  majority  of  eleven.  It  was  thus  shown  that  the 
former  vote  was  not  intended  to  express  lack  of  con- 
fidence in  the  Government.  For  some  reason,  how- 
ever, not  easy  to  explain,  the  Ministry  placed  their 
resignation  in  the  hands  of  the  Governor-General. 
His  Excellency  called  on  George  Brown  to  form  a 
new  Government.  Mr.  Brown's  Cabinet  included 
several  strong  men,  <>f  whom  may  be  named  John 
Sand  field  Macdonald,  Oliver  Mowat,  and  A.  A.  Dorion. 
The  reign  of  the  new  Ministry  was  brief.  On  their 
names  being  announced  in  the  Assembly,  a  vote  of 
want  of  confidence  was  carried  by  a  majority  of  forty. 
Mr.  Brown  and  his  colleagues,  claiming  that  the 
Assembly  did  not  fairly  represent  the  opinions  of  the 
country,  asked  for  a  dissolution  ;  but  his  Excellency 
refused  to  follow  the  advice  of  his  new  Ministers,  j-.i.d 
after  a  reign  of  two  days  they  were  forced  to  resign. 
Mr.  Brown  and  his  colleagues  considered  that  the 
Governor-General,  in  refusing  an  appeal  to  the  people, 
had  not  shown  them  proper  courtesy,  and  they  left 
the  Council  -  board  holding  towards  him  no  very 
friendly  feeling. 

The  Conservative   leaders  were  recalled.     George 


OLD    QUESTIONS    AND    NEW    SCHEMES.        331 

Cartier  took  the  first  place  in  the  Ministry,  which 
was  known  as  the  Cartier -Macdonakl  The  "Double 
Government.  A  new  question  now  came  Shuffle-" 
up.  A  rule  under  responsible  government  requires 
that  Ministers  of  the  Crown,  on  accepting  office,  shall 
return  to  their  constituents  for  re-election.  The  rule 
was  not  followed  on  this  occasion.  A  clause  in  an 
Act  of  the  Legislature  provided  that  a  Minister  who 
had  resigned  his  office  might,  within  a  month,  accept 
another  without  re-election.  As  the  law  did  not  allow 
the  Ministers  to  take  their  old  offices  in  this  way,  they 
exchanged  portfolios  on  entering  the  Cabinet,  and  after- 
wards exchanged  again,  resuming  their  former  places. 
The  Opposition  regarded  this  course  as  an  evasion  of 
law,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  the  "Double  Shuffle." 

A  great  railway  bridge  over  the  St.  Lawrence,  near 
Montreal,  was  to  be  opened  in  the  summer 

/•    -innn         mi  i  11  Visit  of  the 

ot  IbuO.  Ine  work  was  regarded  as  a  Prince  of 
wonderful  featr  of  engineering  skill,  and  its  • 
completion  was  thought  worthy  of  signal  distinction. 
Accordingly  the  Legislature  of  Canada  decided  to  ask 
Queen  Victoria  to  honour  the  event  with  her  presence. 
The  Speaker  of  the  Assembly,  Hon.  Henry  Smith, 
was  sent  to  England  to  bear  the  invitation.  Her 
Majesty,  being  unable  to  take  so  long  a  journey,  sent 
her  eldest  :;on,  the  Prince  of  Wales,  then  about  nine- 
teen years  of  age,  as  her  representative.  The  Prince 
visited  the  various  provinces,  receiving  in  all  a  royal 
welcome.  By  driving  the  last  rivet  he  gave  the 
finishing  stroke  to  the  Victoria  Bridge,  and  on  corning 
to  Ottawa  he  took  the  place  of  honour  in  laying  the 
corner-stone  of  the  new  Parliament  Buildings  which 
now  grace  the  capital  of  the  Dominion. 


332  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

The  year  I8l»l    is  memorable  tor  the  death  of  the 
Queen's  husband,  Prince  Albert.      Though 

Death  of  the  .       .  .      ,         ,        ,.    .  ,  ,  , 

Prince  Consort,  u  German  by  birth,  the  Prince  thoroughly 
identitie<l  himself  with  the  British  people, 
and  showed  the  deepest  interest  in  everything  which 
concerned  the  prosperity  of  the  Kmpire.  He  gave 
his  powerful  influence  in  aid  of  many  schemes  of 
national  progress,  and  he  is  regarded  as  the  originator 
of  international  exhibitions,  the  first  of  which  was 
held  in  London  in  IS-M. 

A    war   cloud    appeared    on    the    westeni    horixon. 
The  Southern  States  had  broken  off'  from 

War  in  the  i  i  •     •  i 

United  states,    the    I  moil    and    set    up    an    independent 

.86,  „,.    .  '. 

government.  llns  action  gave  rise  to  a 
great  war  between  the  North  and  the  South,  which 
lasted  four  years.  An  event,  of  the  Hrst  year  of  the 
war  threatened  to  involve  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  in  hostilities  and  to  make  of  Canada 
a  bloody  battlefield.  Two  Southern  commissioners. 
Mason  and  Slidell,  who  had  taken  passage  for  Kurope 
in  the  British  ste-amer  Tn-nt,  were  seixed  by  the 
officers  of  a  Uniied  States  warship  and  earried  off 
as  prisoners.  This  violation  of  international  law 
aroused  strong  feeling  of  indignation  in  Great  Britain. 
The  British  Government  demanded  the  immediate 
release  of  the  prisoners,  ami  at  the  same  time  made 
preparation  for  war  in  case  the  demand  was  refused. 
Happily  the  affair  was  settled  by  the  prompt  sur- 
render of  Mason  and  Slidell  to  British  officers 
appointed  to  receive  them. 

The  civil  wair  in  the  United  States  made  brisk 
times  in  the  provinces.  Horses  and  farm  produce 
of  all  kinds  brought  high  prices  in  that  country,  and 


OLD    QUESTIONS    AND    NEW    SCHEMES,        333 

Southern  cruisers  drove  Northern  merchant  vessels 
from  the  seas,  leaving  to  our  vessels  the  larger  portion 
of  the  carrying  trade. 

Lord  Monck  succeeded  Sir  Edmund  Walker  Head 
as  Governor-General.  Frequent  change 

c       ,    .  •          i  •  i-      112  Defeat  of 

or  advisers  during  his  term  or  omcc  gave  theCartier- 

.  .  .  Macclonald 

him      gOOd      Opportunity      tO      bOCOiriC      aC-    Government, 
•  -i         •    i  I-  rni  l862 

quamted  with  Canadian  statesmen.  Ihe 
Cartier-Macdonald  Ministry,  defeated  on  a  Militia 
Bill,  which  involved  a  large  expenditure  of  money, 
was  succeeded  by  a  Liberal  Ministry  led  by  John 
Sandfield  Macdonald.  By  reconstructing  his  Govern- 
ment, changing  old  colleagues  for  new  ones,  this 
Premier  struggled  on  for  about  two  years,  when  he 
laid  down  the  reins  of  power.  Lord  Monck  now  had 
difficulty  in  finding  any  one  who  felt  able  to  take 
control.  One  and  another  declined.  Finally  a 
Conservative  Ministry  was  formed  by  Sir  E.  P. 
Tache  and  John  A.  Macdonald.  D'Arcy  McGee,  who 
had  formerly  been  a  Liberal,  was  also  a  member  of 
the  new  Government. 

This  Ministry,  too,  was  soon  in  deep  waters,  and 
was  considering  the  alternative  of  resigning  or  advis- 
ing a  dissolution  of  the  House.  There  had  already 
within  three  years  been  two  general  elections,  and  a 
fresh  appeal  to  the  people  did  not  promise  much 
relief  from  the  embarrassment. 

During  the  past  two  years  four  different  Ministries, 
two  Conservative  and  two  Liberal,  had  by 

,  .     ,  -•'     The  Situation. 

hook   or   by  crook  tried   to  govern    the 
country.     Each  party,  in  order  to  keep  itself  in  power 
for  any  length  of  time,  was  forced  to  depend  either  on 
Upper  Canada  alone,  or  on  Lower  Canada  alone,  for 


334  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

its  support;  or  by  some  compromise  of  principle  it 
had  to  form  coalitions  with  old  opponents.  A  large 
majority  of  Upper  Canadians  were  arrayed  against  a 
similar  majority  of  Jjower  Canadians. 

A    committee    of    the    leading    members    of    both 
parties   had    been    appointed    to    consider 

A  Surprise.  .  '  .      . 

measures  01  relier  iron)  existing  embar- 
rassments. The  committee  reported  in  favour  of 
separate  governments  for  local  affairs  in  the  two 
Canada s,  and  a  federal  government  for  matters  of 
common  interest.  It  was  proposed  also,  if  possible, 
to  bring  the  Maritime  Provinces  Into  the  federal 
union.  This  report  met  with  general  approval. 

In  the  spirit  of  patriotism,  laying  aside  all  party 
questions  and  personal  feeling,  the  leading  members 
of  the  Opposition,  with  George  Brown  at  their  head, 
offered  to  aid  the  Conservative  Government  in  carry- 
ing out  a  scheme  of  federation. 

The  announcement  of  this  proposal  from  the  Oppo- 
sition, coupled  with  the  name  of  the  unyielding 
George  Brown,  was  greeted  with  a  loud  and  hearty 
burst  of  applause.  As  a  guarantee  of  their  m>od 

11  O  O 

faith,  and  with  the  view  of  giving  all  possible  aid  to 
the  scheme,  three  of  the  foremost  Liberals,  George 
Brown,  Oliver  Mowat,  and  William  MacDougall, 
entered  the  Cabinet  with  the  Conservatives. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

THE    MARITIME    PROVINCES    UNDER    RESPONSIBLE 
GOVERNMENT. 

WE  shall  iii  this  chapter  trace  the  leading  events  in 
the  history  of  the  Maritime  Provinces  ~General 
from  the  introduction  of  responsible  Features- 
government  to  the  movement  for  Confederation. 
At  this  time  the  two  great  political  parties, 
Liberals  and  Conservatives,  were  distinguished  not 
so  much  by  difference  of  principle  as  by  their 
attachment  to  their  leaders.  Both  parties  were 
agreed  in  accepting  responsible  government  as 
a  iixed  fact.  From  time  to  time  one  side  or 
the  other  raised  some  new  question  as  a  rally- 
ing cry. 

In  Nova  Scotia  for  eight  years  the  Liberals  held 
the  reins  of  power.  The  most  prominent  men  of 
the  party  were  Joseph  Howe,  William  Young,  James 
B.  Uniacke,  and  Michael  Tobin.  James  W.  John- 
ston was  the  leader  of  the  Opposition. 

In  New  Brunswick  the  condition  of  things  was 
somewhat  different.  It  will  be  remembered  that  on 
the  introduction  of  responsible  government  a  Coali- 
tion Ministry  was  formed,  the  two  leading  Liberals, 
Wilmot  and  Fisher,  to  the  great  disgust  of  their 
followers,  uniting  with  their  old  opponents.  Several 


3G3 


336  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA 

years  passe*!  before  the  Liberals  recovered  sufficiently 
from  the  loss  to  form  a  strong  Opposition. 

In  Prince  Kdward  Island  the  new  order  of  things 
bewail,  as  already  stated,  three  years  later  than  in  the 
other  provinces.  Tin-  two  parties  wen*  so  evenly 
b  danced  that  business  was  often  obstructed  and 
Government  and  Opposition  changed  places.  The 
most  prominent  leaders  in  public  a  Hairs  were  George 
Coles,  Charles  Young,  and  Kdward  Palmer. 

The  .Maritime  Provinces  were  included  as  parties 
in  the  Reciprocity  Treaty  of  1851  with  the  United 
States,  spoken  of  in  the  preceding  chapter.  In  Nova 
Scotia,  however,  there  was  little  enthusiasm  over  the 
matter.  Strong  objections  were  urged  in  the  Legis- 
lature against  treaty-making  of  this  sort,  in  which 
the  province  had  no  representation. 

At  this  time  the  railway  fever  was  in  the  air  and 
spread  from  land  to  land.  While  the 

Railways.  .  ..  ,. 

Province  of  (  anada  was  building  its  great 
roads,  the  Grand  Trunk  and  the  Great  Western,  New 
Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia  were  astir  in  a  similar 
movement.  The  rirst  scheme  proposed  was  an  Inter- 
colonial Railway  between  Quebec  and  Halifax.  It 
had  been  spoken  of  long  before,  and  Lord  Durham 
had  urged  the  importance  of  such  a  work  in  his 
famous  report.  But  the  scheme  received  little  atten- 
tion. The  people  in  the  West  took  more  interest  in 
connecting  the  remote  parts  of  their  own  great  country. 
After  some  delay,  however,  the  Governments  of  Canada, 
New  Brunswick,  and  Nova  Scotia  agreed  to  build  the 
road,  if  Great  Britain  would  by  a  guarantee  aid  them 
in  obtaining  money  on  favourable  terms.  Failing  to 
obtain  this  assistance,  they  abandoned  the  idea  of  an 


MARITIME    PROVINCES.  337 

Intercolonial  Railway,  and  each  province  began  build- 
ing such  local  railways  as  seemed  best  to  serve  its 
own  purposes. 

The  first  railway  built  in  New  Brunswick  was 
between  Shediac,  on  Northumberland  Strait,  and  St. 
John.  The  plan  included  an  extension  westerly  to 
connect  St.  John  with  the  railways  of  the  United 
States. 

The  first  railways  in  Nova  Scotia  connected  Windsor 
and  Truro  with  Halifax.  These  roads  were  built  and 
owned  by  the  Government.  The  scheme  provided 
for  extensions  from  Truro  to  Pictou  and  the  New 
Brunswick  frontier. 

Early  in  1857   the  Liberal  Government  was  over- 
thrown.    Its   defeat   was  due   chiefly   to  conservative 
dissensions  between   Hon.   Joseph   Howe  £°Novament 
and  the  Roman  Catholics,  who  had  been  Scotia>  l857 
in  the  main,  up  to  this  date,  supporters  of  the  Liberal 
party,  but   who   now  went   over    in   a   body   to   the 
Opposition.      The   Hon.   J.  W.  Johnston,    the  Con- 
servative   leader,    was    called    to    the    helm.      The 
second    place    in    the    Ministry    was    held    by    Dr. 
Charles   Tupper,   a   man   of  great   ability   and   force 
of   character,   known   in   later   years   as   Sir  Charles 
Tupper. 

One  of  the  first  matters  taken  in  hand  by  the  new 
Government   was   the  breaking  up   of  a  TheMines 
monopoly  in  coal-mining  Avhich  had  been  and  Minerals- 
established   in    the   province.      Certain   minerals,   as 
coal  and  gold,  are  reserved  as  rights  of  the  Crown. 
Thus  a  person  has  no  claim  to  any  minerals  of  this 
kind  which  he  may  find  on  his  land.     He  must  get 
leave  of  the  Government  to  work  the  mines,  and  he 

Y 


338 


THK    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


is  required  to  pay  a  royalty  on  all  the  minerals  which 
he  obtains.  As  explained  in  a  former  chapter,  these 
minerals  are  not  the  Kind's  private  property:  they 
belong  to  the  people,  and  tin-  royalty  is  paid  into  the 

public,    treasury. 

1  v 

Kings,  however, 
have  not  always 
clearly  under- 
stood this  niat- 
t  c  r.  T  h  u  s 
George  IV.  gave 
the  minerals  of 
Nova  Scotia  to 
his  brother  the 
Duke  of  York. 
In  1M>5  the 
Duke  trans- 
ferred his  right 
to  a  company, 
known  as  the 
General  Mining 
Association,  on 
condition  that 
the  company 
should  pay  him 
a  share  of  the 
profits.  For 
many  years  the 
Government  of 

Nova  Scotia  disputed  the  claims  of  the  company, 
holding  that  the  King  had  no  power  to  give  the 
minerals  away. 

The  Government  now  undertook  to  settle  the  ques- 


8IK  CHARLES  TUM'EK. 


MARITIME    PROVINCES.  339 

'tion  of  ownership.  Mr.  Johnston,  the  leader  of  the 
Government,  and  Mr.  Adams  G.  Archibald,  one  of  the 
ablest  leaders  of  the  Liberal  party,  were  sent  to  Eng- 
land to  arrange  terms  of  settlement.  A  compromise 
was  effected.  The  company  gave  up  all  claims  to  the 
minerals  of  the  province,  except  within  certain  limits 
around  the  mines  already  opened. 

The  year  1858  is  memorable  for  the  laying  of  the 
first  telegraphic  cable  along  the  bed  of  The  Atlantic 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  between  Europe  and  Cable> 
America.  It  was  with  great  delight  that  those  in- 
terested in  the  world's  progress  learned  that  the  work 
was  successfully  completed,  and  that  beneath  the  wide 
ocean  friendly  greetings  had  b3en  exchanged  between 
the  Queen  of  Great  Britain  and  the  President  of  the 
United  States.  But  the  good  news  was  followed 
quickly  by  tidings  of  disaster.  Before  any  other 
messages  we're  sent  the  cable  parted  in  mid-ocean. 

On  'the  meeting  of  the  Legislature  in  1860,  after 
a  general  election,  the  majority  was  found 

.  ,  /.i          ^  •    •  mi         Tl»e  Liberals 

on  the  side  or  the  Opposition.  l.he  again  in  Power, 
leader  of  the  Government,  however,  stated 
that  certain  members  of  the  Opposition  at  the  time 
of  their  election  held  offices  which  excluded  them  from 
the  Legislature,  and  he  moved  that  the  House  pro- 
ceed'to  investigate  the  charges  which  he  had  made. 
It  should  be  here  stated  that  persons  holding  offices 
of  emolument  under  the  Government,  such  -as  sheriffs, 
registrars,  postmasters,  and  custom-house  officers,  are 
thereby  disqualified  for  sitting  as  members  of  the 
Legislature,  and  they  must  resign  such  offices  before 
they  can  be  legally  elected.  The  object  of  the  law 
is  to  secure  the  freedom  of  the  members  of  the 


340 


THK    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


• 


Legislature  from  all  inthicne.es  that  might  lead  them 
to  sacrifice  the  public  g<n»d  for  selfish  interest. 

The  Opposition  objected  to  the  motion  proposed  by 
the  leader  of  the  Government.      The  question  could 

be  decided  only 
by  a  vote  of 
the  House,  and 
counting  the 
doubtful  mem- 
bers the  Oppo- 
sition had  the 
majority,  and 
thus  outvoted 
the  Government . 
Mr.  Johnston 
and  his  col- 
leagues asked 
the  Governor 
to  dissolve  the 
House  and  have 
a  new  election; 
but  their  advice 
being  rejected, 
they  placed  their 
resignation  in 
his  hands.  The 
most  prominent 
8iR.i. WILLIAM  UAWJSON.  members  of  the 

new  Govern- 
ment were  Joseph  Howe,  William  Young,  and  A.  G. 
Archibald. 

The  Liberal  Government,  under  the  leadership  of 
Mr.  Howe,  was  kept  in  power  by  a  slim  majority  for 


MARITIME    PROVINCES. 


341 


four  years.    At  the  next  general  election  this  majority 
was  shifted  to  the  other  side,  bringing  Mr.  Johnston 
and  Dr..Tupper  again  to  the  head  of  affairs.      Shortly 
after,  Mr.  Johnston    having  been  appointed  Judge  of 
the    Supreme 
Court,  Dr.  Tup- 
per  became  Pre- 
mier.   The  prin- 
cipal    matters 
dealt  with  by  the 
new     Govern- 
ment related  to 
the     public 
schools  and  con- 
federation of  the 
provinces. 

For  nearly  a 
quarter 

Free  \ 

Schools       otacen- 
1864 

tury   a 

Free  School 
system  had 
been  talked  of 
throughout  the 
province  as  a 
thing  to  ba  de- 
sired. It  had 
baen  urged  by 
Governors  and 
recommended  by  educational  committees  of  the  As- 
sembly, but  without  effect.  Taxation  was  not  popular 
among  the  people,  and  the  law-makers  feared  to  incur 
their  displeasure.  Meanwhile,  however,  potent  forces 


REV.    ALEXANDER  FORRESTER,    D.D. 


342  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

were  at.  work  which  eventually  so  far  ovon-ame 
opposition  us  to  render  the  measure  practicable. 

In  1850  John  William  Dawson,  since  well  known 
as  the  principal  of  M;(till  I'niversity,  and  also  as 
the  distinguished  scientist,  Sir  William  Dawson,  wax 
appointed  Superintendent  of  Education.  Though 
holding  the  office  hut  a  short  time,  he,  by  means  of 
lectures,  reports,  and  teachers'  institutes,  awakened 
the  public  mind  to  a  greater  interest  in  general  edu- 
cation and  to  a  stronger  desire  for  free  schools.  The 
movement  was  carried  forward  by  Rev.  Alexander 
Forrester,  P.P.,  a  most  energetic  worker  and  enthusi- 
astic educationist,  who  in  1855  w.us  appointed  Super- 
intendent of  Education,  and  Principal  of  the  Normal 
School,  which  was  opened  ill  the  autumn  of  that 
year. 

The  Free  School  Bill,  passed  in  18(5],  though  intro- 
duced by  Pr.  Tupper  as  a  Government  measure,  was 
not  dealt  with  by  the  Legislature  in  a  party  spirit. 
Adams  (I.  Archibald,  William  Annand,  and  other 
leading  men  of  the  Opposition  gave  it  hearty  support. 
The  Act  provided  for  the  separation  of  the  offices  of 
Principal  of  the  Normal  Srhool  and  Superintendent 
of  Education.  Theodore  II.  Rand,  P.C.L.,  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  latter  office,  and  upon  him  devolved 
the  duty  of  bringing  the  Free  School  law  into  prac- 
tical operation  a  task  of  no  small  magnitude.  Owing 
to  the  obnoxious  feature  of  taxation,  the  new  system 
at  first  met  with  strong  opposition.  Many  sections 
refused  to  appoint  trustees,  or  to  organise  schools 
under  the  law,  and  for  a  year  or  two  there  was 
much  confusion.  Gradually,  however,  opposition  dis- 
appeared, and  the  Free  School  system  came  to  bo 


MARITIME    PROVINCES.  343 

looked  upon  as   a  necessary  part  of  the  machinery 
required  tor  the  wellbeing  of  society. 

Prince  Edward  Island  established  free  schools  in 
185:2,  and,  four  years  later,  a  normal  Prince  Edward 
school  for  the  training  of  teachers.  The  Island- 
two  political  parties  hi  the  island  were  sometimes  so 
evenly  balanced  that  neither  party  could  secure  a 
working  majority;  Another  difficulty  in  carrying 
on  public  business  arose  from  lack  of  harmony 
between  the  Assembly  and  the  Legislative  Council. 
Important  measures  passed  in  one  House  were 
rejected  by  the  other.  As  a  remedy  for  this  trouble 
five  new  members  were  added  to  the  Council.  One 
feature  of  responsible  government  was  not  very 
popular  in  the  island.  The  people  objected  to 
their  representatives  holding  offices  of-  emolument 
in  the  Government,  such  as  that  of  Attorney-General 
or  Provincial  Secretary.  Hence,  members  of  the 
Cabinet  holding  portfolios,  on  returning  to  their 
constituents,  often  failed  to  secure  re-election.  They 
did  not,  however,  on  this  account  always  retire  from 
the  Cabinet,  as  the  principles  of  responsible  govern- 
ment demanded. 

By  far  the  greatest  evil  with  which  the  people  of 
the  island  had  to  contend  was  the  system  Landlords  and 
of   absentee    proprietorship   of    the   land.  Tenants, — 
This  gigantic  wrong,  recklessly  imposed  on  the  colony 
in  its  infancy,  had  now,  by  the  growth  of  a  century, 
gained    so    firm    a    foothold    that    little    short    of    a 
rebellion  could  shake  it  off.     Il  sapped  the  life-blood 
of  the  country — The  -farmers  had   good    crops,  but 
miicH    of    the    money    they   realised    must    be    sent 
abroad  to  pay  the  rents,   and  still   they  were— saclly-- 
in  arrears.     Sometimes  they  were  driven,  to  insurrec- 


311-  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

lion  by  the  hard  hand  of  the  bailiff*  sent  to  enforce 
the  claims  of  the  absent  landlord. 

Various  methods  of  removing  tho  evil  were  tried, 
but  with  little  success.  In  some  few  cases  the 
Government  purchased  the  lauds  and  sold  them 
again  on  easy  terms  to  the  farmers.  But  this  plan 
could  not  be  followed  to  any  great  extent.  The 
proprietors  were  not,  willing  to  sell  at  reasonable 
prices,  and  the  Government  had  little  money  to  use 
for  this  object.  In  vain  had  the  British  Government 
been  appealed  to  for  some  remedy.  Finally,  at  the 
suggestion  of  the  proprietors,  the  Colonial  Secretary 
proposed  that  the  matter  should  be  left  to  three 
Commissioners,  one  appointed  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment, one  by  the  Island  Government,  and  one  by 
the  proprietors.  This  plan  was  adopted.  The  Com- 
missioners consisted  of  John  Hamilton  Grey  of  New 
Brunswick  to  represent  the  Crown,  Joseph  Howe  of 
Nova  Scotia  to  represent  the  tenants,  and  John  \V. 
Ritchie  of  Nova  Scotia  to  represent  the  proprietors. 

In  the  summer  of  1861  the  Commissioners  sent  in 
their  report.  They  recommended  that  the  proprietors 
should  sell  the  lands  on  certain  specified  terms,  and 
that  the  Island  Government  should  purchase  the  lands, 
and  afterwards  sell  them  to  the  farmers  on  such  easy 
conditions  as  could  be  met  without  embarrassment. 
They  proposed  also  that  the  Government  of  Great 
Britain  should,  by  guarantee,  aid  the  Island  Govern- 
ment in  borrowing  $500,000  for  the  purchase  of  the 
lands.  The  Legislature  of  the  island  at  once  accepted 
the  award.  But  the  proprietors  refused  to  sell  thc'.r 
lands  on  the  conditions  named,  nor  would  the  Imperial 
Government  aid  the  island  in  borrowing  the  money. 
The  scheme  accordingly  fell  through. 


CHAPTER    XXIX. 

BRITISH    COLUMBIA. 

MEANWHILE  there  had  arisen  in  the  far  West  a  great 
maritime  province.  AVe  have  seen  how 
the  enterprising  fur  traders  of  the  North- 
West  were  the  pioneers  who  led  the  way  to  this  land 
facing  the  setting  sun,  and  asserted  the  right  of 
England  in  its  soil.  But  for  their  persistent  hold 
the  British  flag  would  not  to-day  wave  over  its  hills 
and  harbours,  and  the  Dominion  of  Canada  would 
not  span  the  Continent.  For  many  years  the  whole 
territory  from  California  to  Alaska  was  known  by 
the  general  name  of  Oregon.  Great  Britain  claimed 
the  northern  portion,  and  the  United  States  the 
southern  portion.  The  Ashburton  Treaty,  as  already 
stated,  had  fixed  on  the  forty-ninth  parallel  as  the 
separating  line  between  the  territory  of  the  two 
nations  from  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  Farther  west  the  boundary  was  not  de- 
termined. The  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  however, 
occupied  the  coast  country  as  far  south  as  the  mouth 
of  the  Columbia  River.  Over  a  vast  region  lying 
north  of  this  the  company  held  a  monopoly  of  the 
fur  trade,  secured  by  royal  charter  for  twenty-one 
years,  dating  from  lb3S.  The  name  New  Caledonia 
was  given  to  the  portion  of  country  occupied  by  the 

345 


316  THK    DOMINION    OF    < 'AN  A  DA. 

Hudson's  Bay  Company,  the  name  Oregon  b.-ing  then 
restricted  to  a  part  of  tin-  territory  owned  by  the 
United  States. 

Disputes  arose  regarding  the  international  boundary 
Boundary  ou  tho  western  side  of  the  ( 'oiitineiit.  The 
o.sputes.  British  claimed  that  the  line  should  con- 

tinue along  the  forty-ninth  parallel  from  the  Rocky 
Mountains  in  the  Columbia  River,  and  that  it  should 
then  follow  the  river  southerly  to  its  mouth.  This 
would  'Mve  both  nations  free  access  to  the  interior. 

O 

On  the  other  hand  some  of  the  Americans  began  to 
assert  claims  to  the  whole  country  on  the  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  By  way  of  showing  how  much  in 
earnest  they  were  over  the  matter,  they  raised  the 
cry,  "  Fifty -four- Forty  or  Fight."  By  this  they  meant, 
come  peace,  come  war,  they  would  have  the  country 
to  north  latitude  51°  10',  the  recognised  southern 
limit  of  Alaska,  which  was  then  owned  by  Russia. 

Meanwhile  colonists  of  both  nations  were  settling 
on  the  coast,  especially  in  that  portion  of  the  territory 
which  was  of  doubtful  ownership.  Jt  therefore  became 
necessary  to  determine  the  boundary,  that  the  colonists 
might  know  to  which  Government  they  owed  allegiance. 

For  many  years  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's  chief 

trading  post  on  the  Pacific  coast  was  Fort- 
Fort  victoria  ,  . 

\  aneouver,  on  the  (  olumbia  River,  ninety 

miles  from  its  mouth.  In  view  of  the  uncertainty  as 
to  the  location  of  the  boundary,  the  company  decided 
to  select  as  its  headquarters  a  new  situation  farther 
north.  A  place  on  the  south  of  Vancouver  Island 
was  chosen  for  this  purpose,  and  in  181-J  buildings 
for  the  use  of  the  company  were  erected,  and  fort i tied 
by  a  stockade.  This  place  was  at  tirst  called  For* 


BRITISH   COLUMBIA.  347 

Camosin,  but  the  name  was  soon  after  changed  to 
Fort  Victoria.  The  choice  was  wisely  made.  Here, 
to-day,  beautiful  for  situation,  on  the  margin  of  the 
land,  with  the  picturesque  harbour  at  its  feet  and  the 
snow-clad  Olympian  heights  on  the  horizon,  stands 
Victoria,  the  capital  of  British  Columbia. 

In  1846  the  boundary  was  agreed  on  by  the 
Governments  of  Great  Britain  and  the  The  Boundary 
United  States.  But  to  the  surprise  of  settled>  l846- 
her  subjects  in  British  Columbia,  Great  Britain  gave 
up  the  territory  on  the  Columbia  River  south  of  the 
forty-ninth  parallel.  It  Avas  agreed  that  the  line 
should  follow  this  parallel  to  the  sea,  and  that  it 
should  then  be  continued  southerly  through  the 
middle  of  the  channel  which  separates  Vancouver 
Island  from  the  Continent,  and  through  the  middle 
of  the  Strait  of  Fuca  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

There  now  began  a  movement  for  colonising  Van- 
couver Island.  In  1849  the  British  Gov-  colonisation  of 
eminent  gave  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  Vancouver- 
authority  to  bring  in  colonists  and  sell  them  lands  on 
such  terms  as  might  be  considered  favourable  to  the 
opening  up  of  the  country  for  settlement.  The  com- 
pany was  not  vested  with  any  right  of  Government. 
The  island  was  made  a  Crown  colony ;  that  is,  it  was 
placed  under  the  government  of  officers  appointed  by 
the  Crown.  .  Richard  Blanshard  was  sent  from  England 
as  the  first  Governor,  arriving  on  the  island  in  1850. 
He  seems  not  to  have  found  his  position  either  profit- 
able or  agreeable.  He  had  no  salary,  and  though  he 
had  boen  promised  a  thousand  acres  of  land  on  the 
island,  he  learned  on  his  arrival  that  he  was  merely 
to  have  the  use  of  the  land  while  he  remained  in  the 


348  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

country.  At  the  end  of  two  years  he  resigned  his 
office  and  returned  to  England. 

James  Douglas,  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's  chief 
agent  at  Victoria,  was'  the  next  (Jovernor.  During 
the  first  few  years  he  wsis  assisted  by  a  Council 
of  three  members.  In  1856  a  representative  Legis- 
lature was  elected.  An  important  event  in  this 
period  of  the  island's  history  was  the  discovery  of 
coal  in  1850  near  the  site  of  the  present  city  of 
Nanaimo. 

The  company's  colonising  schemes  made  little 
progress.  The  few  colonists  who  had  been  settled  on 
the  island  were  dissatisfied,  and  complained  that  their 
interests  counted  for  little  when  they  were  in  conflict, 
with  those  of  the  company.  Some  of  them  left  the 
country  for  the  California!!  gold  mines,  then  a  great 
centre  of  attraction.  A  change  in  the  management  of 
affairs  was  considered  necessary.  Accordingly,  in  1858 
the  British  Government  withdrew  the  company's 
charter  and  took  the  colony  under  its  own  direct 
control. 

But  now  suddenly  the  whole  aspect  of  affairs 
Di-covervof  both  on  island  and  mainland  was 
changed.  The  moving  force  was  the 
discovery  of  gold  on  the  Fraser  River.  The  gold 
fever  was  epidemic  and  overpowering.  News  of 
the  discovery  soon  spread  far  and  wide,,  and  there 
followed  a  rush  of  eager  seekers  for  the  precious 
metal  to  the  nigged  wilderness  of  British  Columbia. 
They  came  from  the  neighbouring  lauds  of  Washing- 
ton, Oregon,  and  California,  from  the  Eastern  Pro- 
vinces, and  from  beyond  the  ocean.  The  crews  of 
vessels  arriving  on  the  coast  deserted,  and  hastened 


BRITISH   COLUMBIA.  349 

to  the  gold  diggings.  To  the  quiet-going  inhabitant 
of  the  province  the  whole  world  seemed  unbalanced. 
It  was  a  mixed  crowd,  rude  and  lawless,  that  was 
now  taking  possession  of  the  land.  A  strong  ruling 
force  was  needed  to  establish  order  and  maintain 
peace. 

The  mainland  was  formed  into  a  Crown  colony 
under  the  name  of  British  Columbia.  British 
A  place  called  Queensborough,  on  the  Sro 
Fraser  River,  was  chosen  as  the  seat  of  I8s8- 
Government,  its  name  being  changed  to  New  West- 
minster. Governor  Douglas  had  shown  such  superior 
qualifications  for  the  difficult  task  of  ruling  the 
country  that  he  was  made  Governor  of  both  colonies. 
At  the  same  time,  he  was  required  to  give  up  all 
connection  with  fur-trading  companies. 

In  place  of  being  an  Indian  hunting-ground, 
British  Columbia  soon  began  to  wear  some  of  the 
aspects  of  civilisation.  Steamers  went  to  and  fro 
on  its  rivers  and  lakes,  waggon  roads  were  made 
at  vast  expense  through  the  rugged  mountain  dis- 
tricts, and  villages  sprang  up  here  and  there  at 
various  places.  The  country  was  found  to  possess 
other  resources  than  furs  and  gold,  which  might 
make  it  a  land  of  desire  to  the  colonist.  The 
timber  of  its  forests  and  the  fish  in  its  rivers  and 
coast  waters  were  recognised  as  sources  of  exhaust- 
less  wealth. 

While  these  stirring  events  were  taking  place, 
the  boundary  question  came  up  again. 

.     J  P        ,     The  Boundary 

In    18o/   Commissioners  were    appointed  Question 

again. 

by  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 

for    the    purpose    of    locating    the    line    which    had 


350  THE    DOMINION'    OF    CANADA. 

been  agreed  ou.  They  set  up  iron  posts  through 
the  territory  at  intervals  of  one  mile  to  mark  the 
position  of  the  forty-ninth  parallel.  But  when  they 
came  to  the  Gulf  of  Georgia  they  eouM  not  agree. 
The  treaty  stated  that  the  line  should  run  through 
the  middle  of  the  channel  which  separates  Van- 
couver Island  from  the  Continent.  There  were 
found  to  be  three  channels  b 'tween  the  island  and 
the  mainland.  The  British  officer  claimed  that 
Kosario  Strait,  the  most  easterly  channel,  wax  the 
one  through  which  the  line  should  pass;  the  United 
States  officer  insisted  that  Haro  Channel,  the  most 
westerly,  was  the  one  intended  by  the  treaty.  The 
chief  object  of  the  dispute  was  the  ownership  of  the 
small  island  of  San  Juan,  which  lies  between  these 
channels. 

The   Island  of  San  Juan  had    long  been  occupied 
by    the     Hudson's     Bay    Company,    but 

San  Juan  ".    .   .  ,  ..    *  .    . 

within  a  tew  years  a  number  of  citizens 
of  the  United  States  had  taken  up  their  residence 
on  the  island.  The  neighbouring  state  of  .Washing- 
ton now  set  up  a  claim  to  it  as  a  part  of  its  territory. 
An  officer  was  sent  over  from  this  state  to  collect 
taxes  from  British  subjects.  When  payment  was 
refused  he  seixed  their  property.  A  company  of 
armed  men  was  then  placed  ou  the  island,  for  the 
purpose,  it  was  said,  of  protecting  the  interests  of 
the  United  States  citizens.  Matters  now  wore  a 
serious  aspect,  and  it  was  only  through  the  prudence 
of  Governor  Douglas  that  hostilities  were  averted. 
It  was  finally  agreed  that  each  nation  should  occupy 
the  island  with  a  small  force  until  the  difficulty  was 
settled. 


BRITISH    COLUMBIA.  351 

Governor   Douglas,  or   Sir  James   Douglas   as   he 
now    became,    closed    his    official    career  British 
in    1864.      He    was    succeeded    in    Van-  ^°1nuc^Ivaerand 
couver     by     Arthur     Kennedy,     and     in  united> l866- 
British   Columbia  by  Frederick   Seymour.     In   18GC 
the  two  colonies  were  united  as  one  province  under 
the  name  of  British   Columbia,  with  Victoria  as  the 
seat  of  Government. 


CHAPTER    XXX 

CONFEDERATION. 

MEAXNVHILK  the  Maritime  Provinces  were  also  dis- 
union Move  cussing  the  subject  of  union.  In  this 
Surit^e11*  quarter,  however,  the  movement  did  not 
Provinces,  1864.  originate  jn  iinv  pressing  political  neces- 
sity. In  the  provinces  by  the  sea  the  machinery 
of  government  was  running  smoothly  enough,  but 
union  promised  certain  advantages  of  a  financial 
nature  which  made  it  worth  seeking.  Nor  did  there 
seem  any  great  obstacle  in  the  way.  These  pro- 
vinces were  vervJike__ejiuL — utiwr-  in  their  physical 
features,  their  institutions,  and  their  interests :  their 
inhabitants  were  one  people.  Why  should  they  at 
unnecessary  cos*  iiiiiintjmi  separate  governments,  or 
why  should  they  by  restrictive  tariti's  isolate  them- 
selves from  each  other  I 

The  movement  in  its  origin  did  not  contemplate 
anything  wider  than  union  of  the  Maritime  Provinces. 
The  bringing  of  all  the  provinces  under  one  govern- 
ment was  scarcely  thought  practicable.  For  several 
years  this  question  of  union  had  been  agitated,  Nova 
Sfnf.ift  f|ft]cii>fjr  thft  lend  in  the  matter.  On  their  visit, 
to  England  to  settle  the  mining  interests  of  the 
province,  Johnston  and  Archibald  had  discussed 
the  subject  with  the  Colonial  Secretary,  and  had 


CONFEDERATION.  353 


learned  that  the  pr£^fph  was  favwrafl  by  t.hp  British 
Government.  In  1864.  the  Governments  of  Nova 
Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  and  Prince  Edward  Island 
appointed  delegates  to  meet  at  Charlottetown  to 
arrange  terms  of  union  for  the  t-hrftft  proYimr". 
It  was  proposed  to-  ^r1r>pf  o  10^]^-^  nm'Mij.  that 
is  one  in  which  the  provinces  would  be  united  under 
a  single  Legislature  and  Government  for  both  local 
and  general  affairs. 

With  great  satisfaction  the  Canadians  learned  of 
the  movement  in  Ihe  Maritime  Provinces.  The  chariotte- 
The  Coalition  Government,  which  had  t°oTsCeptemnber 
been  recently  organised  for  the  special  J>  l864- 
purpose  of  bringing  about  some  political  change, 
secured  permission  to  send  representatives  to  the 
Conference,  and  a  deputation  of  seven  members  came 
down  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  found  cordial  welcome 
among  the  delegates  at  Charlottetown. 

The  minor  union  of  the  Maritime  Provinces  was 
scarcely  thought  of  in  the  Convention,  being  quite 
overshadowed  by  the  grander  idea  of  a  confederation 
of  all  the  provinces.  No  determinate  action  was 
taken  at  Charlottetown  in  the  arrangement  of  terms. 
Efforts  were  made,  however,  to  impress  the  public 
mind  in  favour  of  the  scheme.  The  delegates  visited 
Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick,  where  they  set 
forth  its  advantages  in  glowing  colours.  Before 
leaving  Charlottetown  they  arranged  to  meet  later  in 
the  season  at  Quebec  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  up 
a  basis  of  Confederation. 

Accordingly,  in  the  autumn  of  the  same  year, 
another  Convention  was  held  in  the  old  Parliament 
House  of  Quebec.  All  the  provinces,  including 


354  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

Newfoundland,  were  represented.     For  eighteen  days 
the  delegates  sat  with  closed  doors,  and 

The  Quebec  . 

Convention,       no    whisper  of    their  doings  reached  the 

October  1864.  .  ....  „ 

curious  public  car.  hverythmg  was  to 
bj  kept  secret  until  the  proposed  scheme  should  be 
l.iid  before  the  Legislatures  of  the  different  provinces ; 
but  long  before  the  Legislatures  met,  the  Quebec 
scheme  was  public  property. 

The  union  resolutions,  as  agreed  on  by  the  Con- 
vention, were  submitted  to  the  Canadian 

Reception  of         .        ..  ....          ,         .,   .,  _., 

the  Scheme,       Parliament,  which,  in  the  following  reb- 

186*. 

ruary,  met  for  the  last  time  in  the  city 
of  Quebec.  It  was  strongly  urged,  and  very  properly 
too,  that  iii  a  matter  of  such  importance  the  people 
should  be  consulted  before  final  action  was  taken ; 
but  the  iulynf»p.t.flg  of  the  people's  rights  were  in  the 
minority^ 

In  the  Maritime  Provinces  matters  did  not  go  so 
smoothly.  A  reaction  had  set  in,  and  there  was  a 
storm  of  opposition.  Newfoundland  and  Prince 
Edward  island  refused  to  have  anything  to  dp  with 
Confederation.  Fin  New  Brunswick,  before  the  kuion 
resolutions  were  submitted  to  the  Legislature,  a 
general  election  took  place.  Not  a  single  merLber 
of  the  Quebec  delegation  was  returnedT  A  'new 
Ministry,  uncter  the  leadership  of  Albert  J.  Smith 
and  George  L.  Hatheway,  thoroughly  opposed  to  the 
scheme,  came  into  power.  4r 

In  Xo.Vii^Scutia  there  were  muruiurings  of  dissatis- 
faction, but  the  people  had  no  opportunity  of  express- 
ing their  views  afc  the  polls.  On  the  meeting  of  the 
Legislature,  Dr.  Tupper,  the  leader  of  the  Govern- 
ment, stated  that,  on  account  of  the  opposition  in 


«.-» 

CONFEDERATION.  355 

New  Brunswick,  the  subject  of  union  would  not.be 
;    brought  before  the  House  that  session. 

Lin  the  course  of  a  few  weeks,  however,  a  great 
change  Avas  wrought  hi  the  public  sen-  Anunex- 
timent  of  New  Brunswick.  Governor  pected  Chan*e- 
Gordon  and  a  majority  of  the  Legislative  Council 
had  from  the  first  been  in  favour  of  union,  and  the 
Imperial  Government  urged  it  as  a  measure  of  prime 
concern  both  to  the  provinces  and  to  the  <Empire.  j 
In  his  speech  from  the  throne  on  the  opening  of  the 
Legislature,  Governor  Gordon,  in  opposition  to  the 
views  of  his .  advisers,  recommended  the  measure. 
Such  a  course  on  the  part  of  a  Governor  under  re- 
sponsible government  was  iimjsmJ,  and  it  can  be  jus- 
tified only  under  extraordinary  circumstances.  ^The 
Ministry,  regarding  the  procedure  as  unconstituuonal, 
resigned  office,  and  a  union  Ministry,  with  Samuel 
Tilley  as  Premier,  was  called  upon  to  take  its 
place.  The  new  Administration,  appealing  to  J>he 
people  through  a  general  election,  was  sustained.  \\ 

[This  action  of  New  Brunswick  changed  the  whole 
aspect  of  affairs.  The  Legislature  of  Nova  Scotia 
was  still  in  session.  .The  Government,  contrary  to 
previous  announcement,  introduced  resolutions  in 
favour  of  Confederation.  There  was  strong  oppo- 
sition. Many  who  did  not  object  to  ths  principle  of 
union  disliked  the  terms  of  the  Quebec  Scheme.  To 
meet  these  views  the  ( invrrnment  brought  in  a  mea- 
sure providing  for  a  new  basis  to  be  drawn  up  by  the 
British  Government,  aided  by  delegates  from  the 
various  provinces.  This  was  opposed  by  a  strong 
party,  who  took  the  ground  that  in  a  matter  of  such 
great  concern  the  voice  of  the  people  should  be 


350 


THK    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


heard  through 
carri* 


general  election.     The  measure  was 


•aru  through  a  general  election.      ine  measure 
Tried,  however,  by  a  large  majority.^ 
C.-Miiinj,  :iiid  y^wJ^n'M^^'1'^'  gave  Lneir  uii^iU 


1  iSchuiue.  and  each  province 
appointed  dele- 
gates to  meet 
with  the  mem- 
bers of  the 
British  Govern- 
ment for  the 
purpose  of 
carrying  out 
this  object. 

scene 


SIK    S.    I..    TII.I.EV, 


The 
was  now 
changed 

to     tin- 
Colon  i  ill 


Union 
accom- 
plished 

Office 


in  Louden.  Six- 
teen (U  legates, 
re  presenting 
Canada,  Xew 
Brunswi  \k,  and 
Xova  SV-otia, 
met  here  ft>r  the 
perfecting  V)f  a 
scheme  of  Con- 
federation. Hut 


T""the     Opposition 

in  Nova  Scotia,  though  defeated   in   the  Legislature, 
was  not  disposed  to  yield.~j  Jnsi'h  Hnvt'*'i  u'ho  at  this 


time  was  not,  a  member  of  The  Legislature,  hud  hitherto 

O 

been   a  silent   though    interested  onlooker.      He  now 


CONFEDERATION.  357 

joinecL-tlie~  ranks  of  the  anti-Confed orates,  giving 
them  courage  and  strength.  He  and  two  others 
were  sent  to  London  as  the  "  People's  Delegates  '  to 
thwart  the  union  scheme.  But  Mr.  Howe  worked 
at  great  disadvantage  in  the  contest.  He  was  waging 
war  against  himself;  for  no  one  had  in  former  days 
advocated  union  more  forcibly  than  Joseph  Howe. 
His  former  utterances  were  now  effectively  turned 
against  his  present  attitude.  The  strongest  argu- 
ment he  could  use,  and  one  never  fully  answered, 
was  the  fact  that  the  people  of  Nova  Scotia  had  not 
been  consulted  on  the  question.  The  "  People's 
Delegates,"  however,  could  not  stay  the  movement. 
The  terms  of  Confederation  were  finally  agreed  on, 
and  in  February  1867  the  Constitution  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  as  thus  prepared,  was  ratified 
by  the  British  Parliament  in^jthat  is  known  as  the 
British  North  America  AcL /The  British  Govern- 
ment at  the  same  time  became  pledged  to  guarantee 
for  Canada  a  loan  of  $15.000.000  for  the  construction 
of  the  Intercolonial  "Railway.  Finally,  by  royal  pro- 
clamation, on  July  1,  1867,  the  four  provinces  were 
declared  united  into  one  state  under  the  name  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada. 

The  British  North  America  Act  forms   the   Con- 
stitution or  basis  on   which  the  various  The  Canadian 
provinces   of  British  North  America  are  Constitut:°n- 
united  under  a  common  Government.     The  powers 
of  the  Dominion  Parliament  and  of  the   Provincial 
Legislatures    are   defined    and  limited    by   this  Act, 
and  can  be  changed  only  by  the  British  Parliament. 
Cases  of  doubt  or  dispute  as  to  the  powers  of  Parlia- 
ment or  Legislature  are  determined  by  the  courts,  as 


358  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

interpreters  of  the  Constitution.  The  highest  court 
of  appeal  is  the  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Imperial 
Privy  Council  in  London. 

The  provisions  of  the 'Act,  though  in  some  respects 
different  from  the  Quebec  Scheme,  embody  the  same 
general  principles.  The  legislative  union  between 
Upper  and  Lower  Canada  was  dissolved.  The  name 
of  Upper  Canada  was  changed  to  Ontario,  that  of 
Lower  Canada  to  Quebec,  and  the  whole  territory  of 
the  united  provinces  was  designated  the  Dominion 
of  Canada.  Provision  was  made  for  the  admission  of 
the  other  provinces  and  the  North-West  at  any  time 
when  such  action  should  be  desired.  The  Union  is 
of  a  federal  character ;  that  is,,  each  province  is  given 
its  own  separate  Government  and  Legislature  for  the 
management  of  its  local  affairs,  while  for  the  whole 
Dominion  there  is  provided  a  Central  Government 
having  control  over  matters  of  common  interest  to 
all  the  provinces.  In  this  regard  the  Constitution 
is  like  that  of  the  United  States.  It  differs,  however, 
from  the  Constitution  of  the  American  Republic  in 
securing  greater  strength  to  the  Central  Govern- 
ment. In  the  Canadian  Constitution  any  power  not 
expressly  given  to  the  province  belongs  to  the 
Dominion,  whereas  the  converse  of  this  is  true  in  the 
United  States.  The  Ministry  b,>th  in  the  Dominion 
and  in  the  provinces  is  responsible  to  the  elective 
branch  of  the  Legislature,  and  is  dependent  for  exist- 
ence on  its  vote.  The  Ministers  must  also  hold  seats 
in  the  Legislature,  so  that  failing  to  secure  their  elec- 
tion by  the  people  they  must  retire  from  the  Cabinet. 
In  this  regard  our  Government  is  modelled  after  that 
of  Great  Britain. 


CONFEDERATION.  359 

In  general,  the  Dominion  Parliament  and  Govern- 
ment have  control  over  such  matters  of  common 
interest  as  tariff,  currency,  coinage,  banking,  mails, 
criminal  law,  defence,  navigation,  fisheries,  and  the 
higher  courts  of  law.  The  powers  of  the  Provincial 
Governments  relate  to  such  matters  as  education, 
Crown  lands,  minerals,  and  municipal  affairs.  The 
Acts  of  the  Provincial  Legislatures  are  subject  to 
review  by  the  Dominion  Government,  though  it  is 
not  permissible  for  the  Central  Government  to  inter- 
fere in  matters  which  are  of  purely  local  concern. 

The  Governor-General,  who  represents  the  Sove- 
reign and  is  appointed  by  the  Crown,  is  the  highest 
officer  in  the  Dominion  Government.  He  receives 
a  salary  of  $50,000  from  the  Dominion  Treasury. 
He  is  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  military  and 
naval  forces  of  the  Dominion,  including  the  militia. 
He  also  has  power  to  commute  the  sentence  of  a 
court  of  justice.  The  Governor-General  in  Council 
appoints  the  members  of  the  Senate,  the  Lieutenant- 
Go  vernors  of  the  various  provinces,  the  judges  of 
courts  of  law,  postmasters,  custom-house  officers,  and 
various  other  officers. 

The  Dominion  Parliament  comprises  two  Houses 
or  Chambers,  called  the  Senate  and  the  House  of 
Commons.  No  measure  can  become  law  until  it  has 
been  adopted  by  both  Houses  and  has  received  the 
assent  of  the  Governor-General.  A\rhile  the  Governor- 
General  has  the  nominal  right  to  veto  a  Bill  which  has 
passed  both  Houses  of  Parliament,  he  has  never  exer- 
cised the  power. 

The  Senators  are  appointed  for  life  by  the  Governor- 
General  in  Council.  A  Senator  must  be  over  thirty 


3(iO  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

years  of  age,  possess  property  worth  $1000,  and  reside 
in  his  own  province.  Originally  there  were  in  all 
seventy-two  Senators.  The  number  has  since  been 
increased  to  eighty-one.  • 

The  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  are  elected 
by  the  people  for  the  term  of  five  years.  The  number 
of  members  for  each  province  is  readjusted  after  each 
decennial  census — the  number  for  Quebec  remaining 
at  sixty-five,  and  those  for  the  other  provinces  bearing 
the  same  proportion  to  their  population  as  sixty-five 
to  the  population  of  Quebec. 

The  revenue  of  the  Dominion  is  derived  mainly 
from  duties  on  imports  and  excise  duties.  The  pro- 
vinces receive  annually  from  the  Dominion  Govern- 
ment a  sum  equal  to  eighty  cents  per  head  on  their 
population,  and  also  a  fixed  sum  for  legislative  ex- 
penses. The  provincial  revenues  are  supplemented 
by  royalties  on  minerals,  by  the  sale  of  Crown  lands, 
and  from  other  sources. 

The  civil  war  in  the  United  States,  already  re- 
ferred to,  taxed  to  the  utmost  the  resources 

The  United  •  «•      i         XT         i  n  i 

states  and  and  energies  oi  the  .Northern  States,  but 
^— j=s-ii.  ultimately,  in  1865,  the  armies  of  the  South 
were  vanquished  and  the  Confederacy  was  crushed. 
During  the  war  several  events  occurred  which  em- 
bittered the  people  and  Government  of  the  United 
States  against  (treat  Britain  and  Canada.  Among 
the  various  causes  of  otfence  was  the  determined 
attitude  of  Great  Britain  in  demanding  the  giving  up 
of  M;mn  \\u\\  iSlidrll.  .Simthorn  envoys,  captured  on 
board  a  British  steamer  by  a  United  States  man-of- 
war.  This  feeling  of  resentment  was  increased  by  the 
sympathy  with  the  Southern  Confederacy  shown  by 


CONFEDERATION.  361 

certain  British  and  Canadian  newspapers.  The  im- 
pression was  created  that  our  people  would  be  pleased 
to  see  the  Union  broken  up. 

Another  thing  which  made  tne  United  States  angry 
with  Great  Britain  was  the  damage  done  to  their 
commerce  by  privateers  built  in  England  for  the  Con- 
federate Government.  By  far  the  most  noted  of  these 
privateers  was  the  Alabamujmih  at  Birkenhead,  on  the 
Mersey.  While  this  craft  was  on  the  stocks,  the  United 
States  Minister  in  England,  learning  the  purpose  for 
which  she  was  intended,  asked  the  British  Government 
to  stop  her  from  going  to  sea.  The  agents  of  the  Con- 
federate States,  learning  that  action  was  about  to  be 
taken  in  response  to  this  appeal,  sent  the  Alabama  off 
hastily  on  her  career  of  destruction.  She  made  sad 
havoc  of  the  commerce  of  the  Northern  States,  and  her 
name  soon  became  a  terror  to  their  merchantmen. 

There  was  yet  one  other  cause  of  affront  to  our 
American  neighbours.  Southern  men  who  came  to 
Canada  during  the  war  were  received  with  much 
parade  of  welcome,  and  some  of  them  abused  the 
hospitality  shown  them  by  making  raids  across  the 
border  and  retreating  to  Canada  for  protection.  A 
band  of  them,  setting  out  from  our  shores,  captured 
and  plundered  two  American  vessels  on  the  Great 
Lakes.  Again,  some  of  them,  crossing  over  into  Ver- 
mont, robbed  a  bank  in  the  town  of  St.  Albans,  kill- 
ing a  man  in  the  affray,  and  then  escaped  to  Canada 
with  booty  amounting  to  $223,000.  The  United 
States  Government  asked  for  their  extradition.  The 
robbers  were  arrested  by  Canadian  authorities,  and 
a  part  of  the  stolen  money,  amounting  to  $90,000, 
was  taken  from  them.  The  judge  before  whom  they 


•"•<>-  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

were  brought,  finding  some  technical  point  in  their 
favour,  ordered  them  to  be  set  at  liberty.  At  tho 
same  time  their  plunder  was  given  back  to  them. 
This  money  the  Canadian  Government  had  after- 
wards to  refund  to  the  parties  from  whom  it  was 
taken. 

At  the  same  time,  there  were  some  strong  reasons 
which  should  have  convinced  out  neighbours  that 
Great  Britain  was  disposed  to  act  a  friendly  part 
towards  them.  Cotton  manufacture  is  one  of  Great 
Britain's  leading  industries.  She  was  accustomed  GO 
obtain  her  raw  cotton  from  the  Southern  States,  which 
were  then  the  great  cotton  producers  of  the  world. 
But  in  order  to  cripple  the  rebellious  States  the 
American  Government  placed  them  under  blockade, 
so  that  vessels  found  trading  with  them  were  liable 
to  seizure.  At  this  time  France  wanted  Great  Britain 
to  unite  with  her  in  recognising  the  Southern  Con- 
federacy. Such  recognition  would  have  given  the 
Southern  States  great  advantage,  and  might  have 
turned  the  scale  in  their  favour.  But  Great  Britain 
refused  to  take  this  course.  The  people  and  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  however,  were  very  ill- 
humoured  towards  Great  Britain,  and  they  treasured 
up  their  resentment  for  a  day  of  reckoning. 

In  the  spring  of  1865  General  Grant,  at  the  head 
of  the  United  States  forces,  took  possession  of  Rich- 
mond, the  capital  of  the  Confederate  States,  and  com- 
pelled General  Lee  to  surrender  with  all  his  army. 
The  resources  of  the  South  had  now  become  completely 
exhausted.  Yet  one  sad  event  marked  the  close  of  the 
war,  and  threw  its  shadow  over  the  victorious  North. 
-On  the  14th  of  April,  live  days  after  the  surrender  of 


CONFEDERATION.  363 

Richmond,  Abraham  Lincoln,  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  while  sitting  in  his  box  in  a  Washington 
theatre,  was  shot  dead  by  a  Southern  sympathiser. 

The  ten  years  for  which  the  Reciprocity_Treaty  had 
been  entered  into  now  expjrp.d,.  and  the 

TT  ,  ...         Termination  of 

United  States  Government  gave  notice  tor  the  Reciprocity 

, .  .  .  Treaty,  1866. 

its  discontinuance.  Under  the  treaty  inter- 
national trade  had  greatly  increased,  reaching  the 
annual  value  of  seventy  millions  of  dollars.  Its  termi- 
nation was,  for  a  few  years,  severely  felt  in  Canada.^] 
The  markets  of  the  United  States  were  practically 
closed  to  certain  of  our  products.  In  the  end,  how- 
ever, this  did  us  little  harm.  Our  people  learned  a 
lesson  of  self-reliance.  Trade  soon  found  other  chan- 
nels, and  Canada  set  about  manufacturing  many  kinds 
of  goods  which  she  had  previously  imported  from 
abroad. 

The  United  States  at  this  time  gave  shelter  and 
countenance  to  a  bitter  enemy  of  Canada.  The  Feman 
This  enemy  was  an  organisation  known  as  Invasion- 
the  Fenian  Brotherhood,  composed  chiefly  of  Irish- 
men. The  professed  aim  of  the  Fenians  wn.s  the 
overthrow  of  British  rule  in  Ireland.  It  is  difficult 
to  discover  any  connection  between  this  object  and 
marauding  expeditions  against  the  provinces.  It 
gratified  the  members  of  the  organisation,  however, 
to  show  their  hatred  for  anything  that  was  British, 
and  it  suited  their  leaders  to  keep  up  a  show  of  action 
in  order  to  draw  larger  contributions,  from  their  de- 
luded supporters.  Several  bands  of  armed  men  were 
thus  collected  at  different  points  along  the  American 
frontier,  prepared  for  any  raids  which  promised  booty 
with  little  risk.  The  United  States  Government  could 


304  THE   DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

easily  have  checked  the  movement,  but  it  seemed  i.ot 
to  know  what  was  going  on. 

In  the  spring  of  18G6  the  Fenians  seized  the  Island 
of  Campobello,  in  the  Bay  of  Fuudy,  intending  to  make 
it  their  headquarters  for  an  attack  on  New  Brunswick  ; 
h:it  iinding  troops  and  volunteers  ready  to  meet  them, 
they  soon  dispersed. 

In  June  about  fourteen  hundred  Fenians,  under 
"General  "  O'Neil.  crossed  the  Niagara  River  and  took 
possession  of  Fort  Erie.  From  this  place  they  marched 
in  the  direction  of  the  "NVelland  Canal.  Several  regi- 
ments of  Canadian  volunteers  hastened  from  Toronto 
and  Hamilton  to  repel  the  invaders.  An  engagement 
took  place  near  Ridgeway,  in  which  seven  volunteers 
were  killed  and  several  were  wounded.  The  Fenians, 
meeting  a  different  reception  from  what  they  had 
expected,  soon  retreated  to  Fort  Erie,  from  which, 
under  cover  of  night,  they  returned  to  the  United 
States,  leaving  several  of  their  comrades  behind  as 
prisoners. 

Bands  of  Fenians  gathered  at  various  points  on 
the  American  side  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  but  they  were 
deterred  from  crossing  the  river  by  the  presence  of 
Canadian  troops  on  the  opposite  side.  About  two 
thousand,  however,  came  over  from  St.  Albana,  in 
Vermont,  and  began  to  plunder  the  country.  They 
were  promptly  met  by  Canadian  forces  and  com- 
pelled to  make  a  hasty  retreat.  Finally,  through  the 
remonstrances  of  the  British  Minister  at  Washing- 
ton, the  United  States  Government  was  induced  to 
interfere  and  put  an  end  to  these  marauding  expedi- 
tions. 

The  Fenians  probably  expected  some  aid  from  the 


CONFEDERATION.  365 

» 

Irish  people  in  Canada.  If  so,  they  were  sadly  dis- 
appointed. None  of  our  people  were  more  loyal  or 
more  ready  to  repel  the  invaders.  Archbishop  Con- 
nolly of  Halifax  and  Thomas  d'Arcy  McGee  voiced 
the  feeling  of  their  countrymen  by  denouncing  in  the 
strongest  terms  these  foolish  and  wicked  attempts  to 
disturb  the  peace  of  our  country. 


CHAPTER   XXXI. 

THE    DOMINION    OKUANIZED    AND    EXTENDED. 

JULY  1 .  18C7,  was  the  natal  day  of  the  new  Dominion. 
The  New  Lord  Monck,  having  been  sworn  in  as 
Ministry.  Governor-General,  called  upon  the  Hon. 

John  A.  Macdonald  to  form  a  Ministry.  The 
Governor-General  also,  by  command  of  the  Queen, 
conferred  upon  the  Premier  the  honour  of  knight- 
hood. ]n  choosing  his  colleagues,  Sir  John  had 
special  regard  to  a  fair  representation  of  all  the 
provinces  of  the  Dominion.  He  also  sought  to  ignore 
party  distinctions,  choosing  the  Ministry  from  both 
Liberals  and  Conservatives.  He  and  his  followers 
claimed  that  old  issues  were  buried,  and  that,  as  lx>th 
the  old  parties  had  united  on  Confederation,  there 
was  now  really  but  one  party.  Assuming  their 
right  of  succession  and  heirship  to  these  parties, 
they  took  to  themselves  the  name  Liberal  -  Con- 
servative. 

There    were    many    who    refused    to    accept    this 
The  doctrine  of  one  party.     It  was  no  surprise 

opposition.        to  hjg  frjemis  th-rt  George  Brown  declined 

to  march  under  the  Liberal-Conservative  b.inucr,  or 
to  recognise  Sir  John  A.  Macdouald  as  his  leader. 
He  had  united  with  his  old-time  opponent  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  Confederation,  but  he  had  retired 

300 


DOMINION    ORGANIZED    AND    EXTENDED.     367 


Although  the  name  of  this  remarkable 


from  the  Coalition  Government  before  the  union  was 
effected. 

A  stalwart  opponent  of  compromise  was  Alexander 
MacKenzie. 
man      is      now 
mentioned       for 
the     first     time 
in  our  story,  he 
had    for    several 
years  held   high 
rank      in 
Liberal 

Mr.     MacKenzie 
was     a     Scotch- 
man  of  humble 
b  i  r  t  h. 
education* 
vantages 
meagre, 


the 

party. 


His 
ad- 


wcro 
his 

school -days  be- 
ing confined  to 
the  w  i  n  t  e  r 
month::;  of  his 
b  o  y  h  o  o  d.  In 
summer,  for  a 
pittance,  he 
herded  cows 
and  sheep  for 
the  neighbour- 
ing farmers.  At  thirteen  years  of  age  he  finally  left 
school.  Like  his  distinguished  fellow-countryman 
Hugh  Miller,  he  started  out  in  life  as  a  stone-cutter. 

O  * 

In  1842,  when  about  twenty  years  of  age,  he  came  to 


HOX.    ALEXANDER  MACKENZIE. 


368  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

Canada,  making  his  home  first  at  Kingston  and  later 
at  Saruia.  In  1861  ho  was  first  elected  to  Parliament 
as  member  for  Lambton.  which  county  he  represented 
till  near  the  close  of  his  Jitc,  over  thirty  years  later. 

Another  strong  man  \vh<>.  though  trained  for  the 
law  at  the  feet  of  Sir  John,  yet  refused  to  accept  his 
politics,  was  Oliver  Mowat. 

In  the  summer  of  1807  the  elections  both  for  the 
The  First  "Dominion  Parliament  and  for  the  Pro- 
Parliament,  vincial  Legislatures  came  off  in  the 
various  provinces.  Sir  John's  Ministry  was  well 
sustained  by  majorities  from  all  the  provinces  except 
Nova  Scotia,  from  which  he  could  claim  but  a  single 
supporter,  Dr.  Tuppt-r. 

The  Dominion  Parliament  met  for  the  first  time  in 
November  of  the  same  year.  At  Christmas  it  took  a 
long  vacation,  not  meeting  again  until  March  20,  1 868. 
The  two  principal  matters  tinder  consideration  at  this 
session  were  the  Intercolonial  Railway  and  the  acquisi- 
tion of  the  North-West  Territory  and  Rupert's  Land. 
Several  members  of  this  Parliament  held  seats  also  in 
one  or  other  of  the  Provincial  Legislatures ;  but  a  law 
has  since  been  enacted  which  prevents  a  man  from 
holding  a  seat  at  the  same  time  in  a  local  Legislature 
and  in  the  Parliament  of  the  Dominion. 

Among  the  notable  events  of  the  session  was  the 
D'Arcy  tragic  death  of  Thomas  d'Arey  McGee. 

McGee.  jn  jjjs  younger  days  McGoe  was  a  rebel 

against  British  rule  in  Ireland.  Discovered  as  a 
partner  in  some  conspiracy,  he,  in  order  to  escape  the 
vengeance  of  the  law,  fled  from  Ireland  disguised  as  a 
priest.  He  lived  some  time  in  the  United  States  and 
then  removed  to  Canada.  He  had  now  outgrown 


DOMINION    ORGANIZED    AND    EXTENDED.      360 

his  disloyalty  and  had  become  a  patriotic  British 
subject.  By  his  deiiimciation  of  the  invasion  of 
Canada  by  the  Fenians  he  incurred  the  bitter  hatred 
of  the  "brotherhood,"  and  made  himself  the  object  of 
their  revenge.  On  the  evening  of  April  6,  during  a 
discussion  on  Nova  Scotia  affairs  in  the  Commons, 
he  made  a  powerful  appeal  for  conciliatory  measures 
towards  this  province.  This  was  the  last  speech  of 
the  brilliant  orator.  The  House  sat  till  two  o'clock 
in  the  morning.  On  its  adjournment  McGee  went  to 
his  lodgings.  As  he  was  inserting  his  latch-key  in 
the  door,  he  was  shot  by  a  Fenian  miscreant  who  had 
been  lying  in  wait,  and  he  fell  dead  across  the 
threshold. 

Nova  Scotia  was  the  wayward  child  in  the  Dominion 
family.  She  would  break  loose  from  these 
bonds  which  were  thrown  around  her  Repeal  in  Nova 
without  her  consent.  In  the  strife  old 
party  lines  were  obliterated,  and  old  party  names 
were  forgotten.  Those  who,  as.  Liberals  and  Con- 
servatives, had  opposed  each  other  on  the  great 
political  questions  of  former  days  were  surprised  to 
find  themselves  standing  side  by  side  under  the  same 
banner.  General  Sir  Fenwick  Williams,  who  had 
gained  renown  in  the  recent  war  carried  on  by  Great 
Britain  and  her  allies  against  Russia,  and  who  was 
the  first  native  Governor  of  the  province,  tried  to 
quiet  the  agitation.  But  even  the  hero  of  Kars  could 
not  pacify  those  who  were  bent  on  repeal,  j  The  new 
Government  of  the  province,  led  by  Hon7  William 
Annand,  set  itself  in  good  earnest  to  take  Nova 
Scotia  out  of  the  Union.  In  this  movement  it  had 
ample  support  from  the  people,  for,  with  two  excep- 

2  A 


370  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

tions,  the  whole  Assembly  was  at  its  back.  The 
Legislature  petitioned  the  Queen,  asking  that  the 
province  be  set  free  from  Confederation.  Delegates, 
comprising  William  Aruiand,  Joseph  Howe,  and  others, 
proceeded  to  England  to  add  the  weight  of  their 
presence  to  the  memorial  of  the  Assembly ;  but 
their  efforts  were  unavailing.  Mr.  Howe  soon  saw 
the  hopelessness  of  the  cause  and  gave  up  the 
struggle ;  or,  as  he  phrased  it,  he  "  only  laboured  to 
make  the  best  of  a  bad  bargain."  Acting  on  the 
advice  of  the  Colonial  Secretary,  Sir  John  A.  Mac- 
donald  sought  to  pacify  the  angry  province.  In  this 
endeavour  lie  chose  to  treat  with  Mr.  Howe.  On  the 
offer  of  better  financial  terms  for  his  province,  Mr. 
Howe  abandoned  the  agitators  for  repeal,  and  accepted 
office  in  the  Dominion  Cabinet.  Many  of  the  party 
followed  the  example  of  their  chief:  while  others, 
indignant  over  his  desertion  of  them  and  their  cause, 
pursued  him  with  unmeasured  censure.  Mr.  Howe 
appealed  to  his  constituents  in  Nova  Scotia  for 
approval  of  his  course,  and  was  triumphantly  elected. 
The  Government  of  Nova  Scotia  accepted  the  added 
subsidy,  the  price  of  Howe's  conciliation,  but  with  no 
less  fervour  sounded  for  itself  the  notes  of  war.  It 
should  be  added  that  since  the  arrangement  for 
"  better  terms "  the  province  has  always  returned  to 
the  Dominion  Parliament  a  large  majority  of  members 
opposed  to  the  repeal  of  the  Union.^ 

The  thought  of  the  fathers  of  Confederation  was  a 

broad  one,  including  within  its  scope  the 
the  North-         whole  of  British    North    America.      The 

measure  for  the  acquisition  of  the  North- 
West  Territories,  adopted  during  the  first  session  of 


DOMINION    ORGANIZED    AND    EXTENDED.     371 

the  Dominion  Parliament,  was  an  important  step 
towards  the  carrying  out  of  this  conception.  The 
annexation  of  these  territories  was  not  a  new  idea 
with  Canadian  statesmen.  Ten  years  earlier  the 
Government  of  the  Province  of  Canada  had  asserted 
claims  to  the  country,  and  had  sent  Chief-Justice 
Draper  to  urge  these  claims  before  a  committee  of 
the  British  House  of  Commons. 

The  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  whose  charter  was  now 
about  to  expire,  was  desirous  of  retaining  its  hold  of  a 
country  which  had  for  two  hundred  years  been  to  its 
shareholders  so  rich  a  harvest-field.  The  company 
had  always  discouraged  the  settlement  of  the  Terri- 
tory, representing  it  as  a  remote  land,  difficult  of 
access,  frozen  and  barren,  suited  only  to  the  pro- 
duction of  fur  -  bearing  animals.  Explorers  and 
travellers,  however,  who  had  visited  the  country, 
told  of  the  wonderful  fertility  of  its  prairies.  The 
winter,  they  admitted,  was  severe,  but  they  claimed 
that  the  climate  was  by  no  means  ill-adapted  to 
agriculture.  They  reported  that  during  the  long 
hot  days  of  summer  vegetation  was  rapid,  and  that 
the  grains  and  vegetables  of  temperate  climates  were 
matured  without  difficulty.  Red  River  Settlement 
gave  proof  of  great  agricultural  capabilities,  and 
needed  only  facility  of  intercourse  with  the  outside 
world  to  make  it  attractive  to  enterprising  colonists. 

One  of  the  most  strenuous  advocates  for  the 
annexation  of  the  Territory  was  the  Hon.  William 
M'Dougall,  a  member  of  the  Dominion  Cabinet.  He 
urged,  both  from  Imperial  and  Canadian  standpoints, 
the  importance  of  the  measure,  contending  that  the 
fur  traders'  monopoly  should  be  broken  up,  and  that 


372  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

the  fertile  lands  which  had  been  so  long  a  close  pre- 
serve should  be  thrown  open  tor  settlement.  The  Bill 
authorising  the  purchase  of  the  Territory  passed  with 
little  opposition.  In  I'SGb  a  delegation,  consisting  of 
Mr.  M'Dougall  and  Sir  George  K.  Cartior,  proceeded  to 
Kngland  to  arrange  for  carrying  the  measure  into 
effect.  Terms  having  been  agreed  on  with  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  Company,  the  Imperial  Parliament  passed 
an  Act  providing  for  the  transfer  of  the  North-West 
Territories  to  the -Dominion  Government 

According  to  the  terms  agreed  on,  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company  was  allowed  to  retain  its  trading  posts, 
with  adjacent  lands  to  the  extent  of  fifty  thousand 
acres  in  all.  and  also  one-twentieth  of  all  the  lands 
which  should  be  laid  out  for  settlement  in  the  fertile 
belt  lying  south  of  the  North  Saskatchewan.  All  its 
other  property,  rights,  and  privileges  the  company 
ceded  to  the  Dominion  Government  for  a  cash  pay- 
ment of  £300,000  sterling. 

During  its  session  of  1801>,  Parliament  passed  an  Act 
providing  for  the  temporary  government  of  the  Xorth- 
West  Territory  by  a  Governor  and  Council  In  the 
autumn  of  1869,  before  the  payment  of  the  money  or 
the  formal  transfer  of  the  Territory,  surveyors  were 
sent  into  the  country  by  the  Dominion  Government 
to  lay  out  townships,  lots,  and  roads.  Many  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Red  River  Settlement  looked  upon 
their  action  with  suspicion.  Having  no  title  by 
deed  or  grant  to  the  lands  which  they  occupied, 
they  became  alarmed  lest  they  should  be  dispos- 
sessed. Little  pains  were  taken  to  explain  to  them 
the  object  of  the  survey,  and  no  assurance  was 
given  them  that  they  should  not  be  disturbed. 


DOMINION  ORGANIZED  AND  EXTENDED.    373 

Some  of  the  people  were  dissatisfied  with  iht-  form  of 
government  provided  for  them ;  and  some  ainbitliprfs 
and  ill-advised  persons  in  the  settlement  used  tbeir 
influence  to  encourage  suspicion  and  disaffection. 
Among  these  the  most  prominent  were  John  Bruce, 
Louis  Kiel,  and  Ambrose  Lepine.  Affairs  began  to 
wear  a  threatening  aspect. 

The  Honourable  William  M'Dougall,  having  been 
appointed  Lieutenant-Governor  of  the 

•XT        i     -i-ir  m  c         T\     i     Rebellion  in 

JNorth-West   lerritones,  set  out   tor   Red  Red  River 

T_..  „,        ,  TT.  ,  Settlement- 

River  Settlement.  His  route  was  by  way 
of  St.  Paul,  in  Minnesota.  Meanwhile  Red  River 
Settlement  had  become  the  scene  of  an  organised 
rebellion,  under  the  guidance  of  Kiel  and  Lepine. 
The  insurgents  took  possession  of  Fort  Garry,  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company's  headquarters,  which  occu- 
pied a  site  within  the  present  city  of  Winnipeg.  They 
seized  arm>,  ammunition,  and  valuable  stores  belong- 
ing to  the  company.  Louis  Riel  was  the  ruling  spirit, 
and  he  soon  became  absolute  dictator,  assuming  the 
tide  of  President. 

Although  forbidden  by  the  rebels  to  enter  the 
Territory,  Governor  M'Dougall  crossed  the  boundary- 
line,  and  halted  at  a  fort  belonging  to  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company.  Armed  horsemen,  sent  by  Riel,  appeared 
before  the  fort  and  ordered  him  to  leave  the  country 
immediately.  The  Governor  obeyed  the  order,  retired 
to  Minnesota,  and  soon  after  returned  to  Ottawa. 

Intoxicated  with  his  newly  gained  power,  Riel 
through  the  winter  acted  with  a  high  hand,  confis- 
cating property,  seizing  the  agents  of  the  Dominion 
Government,  plundering  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's 
stores,  banishing  persons  whom  he  distrusted,  and 


374  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

imprisoning  those  who  disputed  his  authority.  Among 
those  imprisoned  were  Major  Bolton  and  Dr.  Schultz, 
the  latter  a  prominent  citizen  of  the  settlement,  who 
afterwards  became  Lieutenant -Governor  of  Manitoba, 
and  was  knighted  by  the  Queen.  Dr.  Schultz  escaped 
from  prison,  and,  raising  a  small  force,  compelled  Kiel 
to  set  the  others  at  liberty.  But  afterwards,  fearing 
Kiel's  threatened  vengeance,  he  escaped  from  the 
country.  It  was  midwinter,  and  deep  snow  covered 
the  ground.  The  only  route  of  travel  was  by  way  of 
St.  Paul,  in  Minnesota,  but  it  was  closely  guarded 
by  Kiel's  men.  Dr.  Schultz  resolved  to  journey  on 
foot  through  the  vast  wilderness  to  the  settlements 
in  the  United  States  at  the  head  of  Lake  Superior. 
Accompanied  by  an  English  half-breed,  he  set  out  on 
snowshoes,  travelling  by  way  of  Winnipeg  Kiver,  Lake 
of  the  Woods,  and  Kainy  Lake,  to  Duluth,  occupying 
about  two  months  in  the  journey. 

Kiel  sentenced  Bolton  to  be  shot  for  treason  against 
his  Government,  but  after  much  entreaty  urged  by  in- 
fluential friends  he  spared  his  life.  A  victim  through 
whose  sacrifice  he  hoped  to  establish  his  authority  was 
found  in  Thomas  Scott.  Fearless  and  outspoken,  Scott 
had  given  offence  to  the  dictator.  He  was  tried  by  a 
so-called  court-martial  and  sentenced  to  be  shot.  Scott 
was  not  allowed  to  be  present  or  to  make  defence  at 
the  trial.  Every  effort  was  made  by  clergymen  and 
others  to  save  his  life,  but  Kiel  would  listen  to  no 
entreaty.  On  the  morning  after  the  trial,  blindfolded, 
Scott  was  led  out  of  his  cell  to  the  place  of  execution, 
where  he  fell  pierced  by  three  bullets.  His  death 
aroused  the  deepest  indignation  throughout  the  Do- 
minion, especially  in  Ontario,  where  he  had  formerly 


DOMINION    ORGANIZED   AND   EXTENDED.      375 

resided.  No  immediate  action  could  be  taken  to 
quell  the  insurrection,  as  the  country  was  then  inac- 
cessible in  winter. 

In  May  1870  the  Dominion  Parliament  passed  an 
Act  forming  Red  River  Settlement  into  a 

-i          ,1  f     TI  i-       • ,     i          Tne  Province 

province   under   the   name    or    Manitoba,  of  Manitoba 

.   ,  .  ,  -.'  ,  organised. 

with  a  representative  Assembly  and  a  re- 
sponsible Government.     The  Legislature  provided  by 
the  Act  comprised  a  House  of  Assembly  and  a  Legis- 
lative Council,  but  after  a  few  years  the  Council  was 
abolished. 

The  area  of  the  province,  as  then  formed,  was  about 
fourteen  thousand  square  miles.  The  population  was 
about  twelve  thousand,  the  majority  of  which  were 
Metis  or  half-breeds.  The  remaining  portion  of  the 
North- West  Territory  was  placed  for  the  time  under 
the  authority  of  the  Governor  of  Manitoba.  The 
whole  territory  acquired  from  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany was  formally  annexed  to  the  Dominion  by  royal 
proclamation  on  June  23, 1870.  As  yet,  however,  Riel's 
power  was  supreme  in  Red  River  Settlement. 

The  Honourable  Adams  G.  Archibald  was  now  ap- 
pointed Lieutenant-Governor  of  Manitoba  The  Rebellion 
and  the  North- West.  To  restore  order  ended 
an  armed  force  of  about  twelve  hundred  men,  regular 
troops  and  Canadian  volunteers,  was  sent  in  advance 
of  the  Governor  and  his  party.  The  officer  in  com- 
mand was  General  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley,  who  after- 
wards gained  military  renown  in  Asiatic  and  African 
wars.  The  expedition  proceeded  by  way  of  the  Great 
Lakes  to  Fort  William,  on  Thunder  Bay.  The  United 
States  Government  refused  to  allow  the  troops  to  pass 
through  the  St.  Clair  Canal,  and  they  were  accord- 


376 


THK    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 


ingly  compelled  to  inarch  around  the  rapids  on  tho 
Canadian  side.  From  Fort  William  they  proceeded 
through  a  rugged  wilderness,  a  distance  of  nearly  five 
hundred  miles.  Al<»n£  the  water  stretches  of  lake  and 

O 

stream  they  went 
in  l>oats.  When 
they  came  to  a 
portage,  with 
iinincmc  labour 
they  dragged 
their  1  »oats  across 
the  land. 

Over  three 
mouths  were 
spent  in  the 
toilsome  march. 
On  the  arrival 
of  the  forces  at 
Fort  Carry,  Kiel 
and  Lepine  fled 
hurriedly,  taking 
refuge  among 
their  friends  near 
the  Assiniboine. 
General  Wol- 
SL-ley  had  gained 
a  bloodless  vic- 
tory. The  rebel- 
lion was  at  an 

end,  and  as  there  was  nothing  for  him  to  do,  he  soon 
set  out  on  the  return  journey.  Many  of  the  volunteers 
received  lands  and  remained  in  the  country. 

Early  in  September  Governor  Archibald  organized 


SIR  ADAMS  c;.  A::CIIIHAU>. 


DOMINION    OIUJANI/KD    AND    EXTENDED.      377 

his  Government  at  Winnipeg,  the  Fort  Garry  of  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company.  Thus  the  new  Province  of 
Manitoba,  Minerva-like,  with  full-grown  powers  at 
birth,  took  her  place  beside  her  elder  sisters. 

While  these  events  were  taking  place  the  Fenians 
had  again  been  causing  trouble  along  the  Riel  and  Gover- 
United  States  border.  They  crossed  the' nor  Archibald- 
lines  at  different  points,  but  they  were  promptly  driven 
back.  During  the  summer  of  1871  a  band  of  these 
ruffians,  le:l  by  one  O'Donoghue,  crossing  over  from 
Minnesota,  appeared  on  the  borders  of  Manitoba. 
Governor  Archibald  was  in  difficulty.  He  had  small 
means  of  defence.  He  invited  Riel  and  Lepine  to 
bring  their  Metis  to  aid  him  in  repelling  the  invaders. 
WTith  the  utmost  readiness  they  responded  to  the  call, 
and  the  Fenians,  seeing  little  prospect  of  success,  re- 
treated to  the  United  States.  Governor  Archibald's 
action  in  accepting  aid  from  these  fugitives  from  justice 
was  much  criticised.  It  must,  however,  be  supposed 
that  lie  adopted  it,  not  with  any  feeling  of  satisfaction, 
but  that  he  chose  it  rather  than  the  serious  alternative 
of  facing  a  combined  attack  of  Fenians  and  Me"tis. 
*  While  Nova  Scotia  was  seeking  to  break  loose 
from  Confederation,  her  sister  province  on  British 
the  shores  of  the  Pacific  was  knocking  gntere the 
for  admission.  The  people  of  this  pro-  Umon- 
vince  were  strongly  in  favour  of  Confederation.  They 
had  at  this  time  no  representative  assembly,  but  in 
1867  the  Council  adopted  union  resolutions,  asking 
Governor  Seymour  to  confer  with  the  Dominion 
Government  on  the  matter.  The  Governor,  not 
being  favourable  to  the  movement,  took  no  action. 
His  opposition  served  but  to  arouse  the  people  to 


378  THE    DOMINION  OF   CANADA. 

more  decided  effort.  A  vigorous  agitation  b^gan 
not  only  for  Confederation,  but  tor  a  representative 
assembly  and  a  responsible  ministry.  The  people 
memorialized  the  Dominion  Government,  and  also 
sent  a  delegate  to  England  to  bring  their  wishes 
before  the  Colonial  Secretary. 

On  the  death  of  Governor  Seymour  in  186(J,  the 
Hon.  Anthony  Musgrave,  the  Governor  of  Newfound- 
laud,  was  transferred  to  British  Columbia.  Governor 
Musgrave  was  an  enthusiastic  supporter  of  Confedera- 
tion. The  matter  was  now  urged  forward.  Union 
resolutions  were  passed  by  the  Council,  and  delegates 
were  sent  to  Ottawa,  where  they  found  the  utmost 
facility  for  carrying  out  their  mission.  Satisfactory 
terms  of  union  were  readily  agreed  on. 

A  leading  condition  in  the  compact  was  the  con- 
struction by  the  Dominion  Government  of  a  trans- 
continental railway  to  connect  the  sea-board  of  British 
Columbia  with  the  railway  system  of  Canada.  It  was 
agreed  that  this  railway  should  b?  begun  within  two 
years  and  be  complctud  within  ten  years  from  the 
date  of  union.  The  terms  of  union  were  adopted  by 
a  special  Council  convened  by  Governor  Musgravd, 
and  were  afterwards  confirmed  by  Imperial  legisla- 
tion. Thus,  in  1871,  British  Columbia  became  a 
province  of  the  Dominion  with  a  local  representative 
Assembly  and  a  responsible  Government  similar  to 
that  of  the  other  provinces. 

Meanwhile  there  had  been  a  change  in  the  re- 
presentative of  royalty  in  the  Dominion.  In  the 
autumn  of  1808  Lord  Monck  was  succeeded  by  Sir 
John  Young,  afterwards  raised  to  the  peerage  with 
the  title  of  Lord  Lisgar. 


DOMINION    ORGANIZED    AND    EXTENDED.     379 

Several  matters  affecting  the  relations  of  Great 
Britain  and  Canada  with  the  United  The  washing- 
States  required  to  be  adjusted.  The  tonTreaty- 
chief  of  these  were  the  Alabama  claims — that  is  the 
claims  of  the  United  States  against  Great  Britain  for 
damage  to  the  commerce  of  the  Northern  States  by 
Confederate  cruisers  fitted  out  in  Great  Britain — the 
claims  of  Canada  against  the  United  States  for 
damage  caused  by  Fenian  raids,  the  boundary  between 
Vancouver  Island  and  the  State  of  Washington, 
the  use  of  Canadian  coast  waters  by  United  States 
fishermen,  and  the  navigation  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
River  and  Canadian  canals  by  the  citizens  of  the 
United  States.  For  the  purpose  of  settling  these 
questions,  a  Joint  High  Commission  composed  of 
five  commissioners  of  each  nation  met  in  the  city 
of  Washington  in  1871.  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald 
was  one  of  the  five  appointed  to  represent  Great 
Britain. 

The  Alabama  claims  were  referred  to  arbitration. 
The  arbitrators,  who  met  at  Geneva,  in  Switzerland, 
in  the  following  year,  awarded  to  the  United  States 
|15,500,000  damages,  which  amount  was  promptly 
paid  by  Great  Britain. 

The  question  of  compensation  to  Canada  for 
damages  caused  by  Fenian  raids  was  not  brought 
before  the  Commission.  The  British  Government 
had,  through  some  oversight,  neglected  to  give  proper 
notice  that  such  claims  would  be  made,  and  the 
United  States  Commissioners,  accordingly,  refused  to 
consider  the  matter.  The  British  Government, 
however,  made  amends  for  its  neglect  by  giving  a 
jniarantee  which  enabled  our  Government  to  borrow 


THE   DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

money  on  favourable  terms  for  the  construction  of 
public  works. 

The  boundary  question  was  referred  to  the  Emperor 
of  Germany,  who  decided  that  the  line  should  pass 
through  JIaro  Strait.  This  decision  gave  the  Island 
of  San  Juan  to  the  United  States. 

In  the  matter  of  coast  fisheries  it  was  agreed  that 
there  should  be  an  exchange  of  privilege  b  'tween  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  the  fishermen  on  each 
side  of  the  line  to  have  free  use  of  the  coast  waters 
on  the  other  side.  But  sis  the  fisheries  of  British 
America  were  the  more  valuable,  it  was  agreed  that 
the  United  States  should  pay  to  Canada  such  sum  of 
money  as  represented  the  difference  in  value.  This 
amount  was  to  be  tixjed  by  a  special  Commission  to 
be  appointed  for  the  purpose. 

It  was  further  agreed  that  citizens  of  the  United 
States  should  be  permitted  to  use  the  Canadian  canals 
and  the  River  St.  Lawrence  on  the  same  terms  as 
were  allowed  to  British  subjects,  and  that  Canadian.'; 
should  have  similar  privileges  in  Lake  Michigan  and 
St.  ('lair  Canal. 

The  Education  Act  of  New  Brunswick,  passed  in 
New  Brans'  1871,  is  one  of  the  most  important 
wick  schools  measures  adopted  in  that  province  since 
Confederation.  For,  this  Act,  which  has  been  so 
effective  in  extending  school  privileges  to  every  child 
in  the  province,  improving  the  quality  of  the  instruc- 
tion given,  ami  awakening  public  interest  in  educa- 
tional matters,  the  province  is  largely  indebted  to 
the  lion.  George  E.  King,  at  that  time  Premier  in  the 
Government,  Scarcely  less  credit  is  due  to  Theodore 
H.  Hand,  D.C.L..  to  whom,  as  Chief  Superintendent 


DOMINION    ORGANIZED    AND   EXTENDED.      381 


of  Education,  fell  the  task  of  carrying  the  new  law 
into  effect.  Dr.  Rand  brought  to  the  work  much 
executive  ability  and  a  ripe  experience  acquired 
through  the  discharge  of  similar  duties  in  Nova 
Scotia.  He  was 
thus  instrumen- 
tal in  establish- 
ing such  influ- 
ences as  have, 
through  the  help 
of  other  workers 
in  the  same  field, 
brought  the 
common  schools 
of  Nova  Scotia 
and  New  Bruns- 
wick into  the 
front  rank. 

The  Mew 
Brunswick 
School  La\\-  be- 
came a  matter 
of  general  inter- 
est to  the  Do- 
minion. The 
Act  required 
that  all  schools 
deriving  support 
from  the  public 

funds  should  be  free  from  religious  instruction  of 
a  sectarian  character.  The  Roman  Catholics  of 
the  province  protested  against  this  provision,  and 
claimed  a  share  of  the  public  money  lor  the  support 


THEODORE  H.  RAND,  D.C.I.. 


382  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

of  separate  schools  in  which  the  peculiar  doctrines  of 
their  religion  might  be  taught.  This  claim  they 
based  on  a  clause  in  the  British  North  America  Act, 
which  provides  that-  local  Legislatures  shall  not 
deprive  any  religious  body  of  school  privileges 
t-j.ablished  by  law  at  the  time  of  union.  They 
petitioned  the  Governor-General,  asking  him  to  dis- 
allow the  Act.  Failing  here,  they  brought  their 
grievance  before  the  Dominion  Parliament.  Still 
without  redress,  they  appealed  to  the  Judicial  Com- 
mittee of  the  Privy  Council  in  England,  but  this 
court  also  declined  to  interfere.  The  different 
authorities  to  whom  the  question  was  submitted 
regarded  it  as  a  matter  assigned  by  the  Constitution 
to  the  local  Legislature  and  Government,  and  that  any 
interference  on  the  part  of  the  Central  Government 
would  be  destructive  to  provincial  rights,  and  would 
endanger  the  peace  and  stability  of  the  Dominion. 
Prince  Edward  Island,  which,  in  1867,  had  so 
decidedly  turned  her  back  on  Confedera- 

Prince  Edward       .  .       ,  ,      .      .  . 

island  enters      tion,    now    asked    tor    admission    to    the 

the  Union,  1873.     ..,.     .  on"" 

union.  Ihe  request  was  readily  granted, 
and  on  July  1,  Dominion  Day,  1873,  her  name  was 
added  to  the  roll  of  Dominion  provinces.  Prince 
Edward  Island  obtained  liberal  terms.  It  was  allowed 
a  representation  of  four  members  in  the  Senate  and 
six  in  the  House  of  Commons.  The  Dominion  Govern- 
ment aided  the  island  in  ridding  itself  of  the  system 
of  tenantry  and  non-resident  landlords  which  had  so 
long  vexed  both  Government  and  people.  Three  years 
after  the  Union  the  local  Legislature  passed  an  Act 
requiring  the  proprietors  to  sell  their  lands  at  a 
valuation  price  fixed  by  three  appraisers.  One  of  the 


DOMINION   ORGANIZED    AND   EXTENDED.     383 

appraisers  was  appointed  by  the  Governor-General, 
one  by  the  Lieutenant- Governor,  and  one  by  the 
proprietor. 

In  the  summer  of  1873  two  distinguished  Canadian 
statesmen,  Sir  George  E.  Cartier  and  Hon.  Death  of  Car- 
Joseph  Howe,  were  removed  by  death.  tierandH°w*. 
The  former  died  in  London.  His  remains  were 
brought  to  Montreal  and  buried  with  imposing  cere- 
monies at  the  expense  of  the  Dominion  Government. 
Mr.  Howe  died  at  Government  House,  Halifax.  As 
a  reward  for  a  self-sacrificing  life  in  the  service  of 
his  country,  he  had  a  few  weeks  previously  been 
appointed  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Nova  Scotia.  His 
evening-time  of  rest  and  dignity  was  short. 

The  Province  of  Ontario  claims  some  notice  at  this 
sta^e   of  our   story.      At  once    after   the 

.  .  .  Ontario. 

Union  this  province  entered  upon  that 
career  of  prosperity  which,  continuing  down  to  the 
present  time,  has  given  it  an  enviable  position  among 
the  countries  of  the  world.  Inhabited  by  an  indus- 
trious and  enterprising  people,  and  possessing  varied 
and  boundless  resources,  it  has  been  a  land  of  peace 
and  plenty.  At  first  there  was  little  party  politics  to 
create  division  in  the  management  of  local  affairs. 
The  Government  claimed  to  be  a  coalition.  Its  leader, 
John  Sandfield  Macdonald,  once  a  prominent  Liberal, 
had  now  become  tolerant  of  the  men  whom  he  formerly 
opposed.  His  administration  of  the  affairs  of  the  pro- 
vince was  successful.  The  public  revenue  was  more 
than  enough  to  meet  the  necessities,  of  the  country, 
and  the  generous  surplus  was  applied  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  province  and  to  the  founding  of  such 
important  institutions  as  the  Agricultural  College, 


384  THE   DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

institutes  for  the  blind  and  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  to 
the  subsidising  of  railways.  The  leading  Liberals, 
however,  were  not  satisfied  with  his  policy.  Some 
matters  relating  to  the  use  of  the  public;  funds,  which 
they  thought  should  have  been  submitted  to  the  Legis- 
lature, were  determined  by  the  Government  after  the 
old  Tory  fashion.  They  thought,  too,  that  he  was 
using  his  influence  to  keep  Sir  John  A.  Maedonald 
and  his  <lo\ eminent  at  Ottawa  in  power. 

The  general  election  which  took  place  in  the  winter 
of  1871  was  keenly  contested,  and  the  John  Sandtield 
Maedonald  (Jovernment  was  defeated.  In  the  new 
Cabinet,  formed  shortly  after,  Edward  Ulake  was 
Premier  and  Alexander  MacKenxie  was  Provincial 
Treasurer.  Tnder  the  dual  system  of  representation 
at  the  time  allowable,  both  of  these  gentlemen  were 
also  members  of  the  Dominion  House  of  Commons. 
In  1872  this  system  was  discontinued,  and  called 
upon  to  make  choice,  they  resigned  their  position 
in  the  Ministry  and  Legislature  of  Ontario.  At  the 
same  time  the  Hon.  Oliver  Mowat  (now  Sir  Oliver), 
who  had  withdrawn  from  political  life  for  a  seat  on 
the  bench,  was  persuaded  to  resign  the  judgeship  and 
accept  the  position  of  Premier  of  the  province,  a  posi- 
tion which  he  continued  to  hold  for  nearly  a  quarter 
of  a  century. 

In  1870  it  was  thought  advisable  to  place  the  educa- 
tional interests  of  the  province  under  the  direct  super- 
vision of  a  member  of  the  Cabinet.  Dr.  Ryerson,  who 
had  been  Superintendent  of  Education  since  1844, 
retired  on  full  salary,  and  the  Hon.  Adam  Crooks 
became  Minister  of  Education. 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

THE    MACKENZIE    ADMINISTKATION. 

IN  the  summer  of  1872  the  Earl  of  Dufferin  succeeded 
Lord  Lisgar   as   Governor-General.     Dis- 

.   ,  ,.,          ,,         ,  .         ,  The  Pacific 

tingmshed  alike  for  his  eloquence,  grace  Railway 

5  ^  '   «  Scandal. 

of  manner,  and  diplomatic  skill,  he  was 
one  of  the  most  popular  Governors  that  ever  repre- 
sented royalty  in  Canada. 

The  five  years'  term  of  the  first  Dominion  Parlia- 
ment having  expired,  a  general  election  took  place  in 
the  autumn  of  1872.  The  new  Parliament  met  in 
the  following  March.  While  the  Ministry  was  well 
sustained,  its  majority  was  smaller  than  in  the  former 
House.  As  authorised  by  Parliament,  the  Govern- 
ment had  recently  entered  into  a  contract  with  a 
Company  for  the  construction  of  the  railway  promised 
to  British  Columbia.  The  president  of  the  company 
was  Sir  Hugh  Allan,  a  man  of  wealth  and  influence, 
and  the  owner  of  a  fleet  of  ocean  steamers. 

For  a  few  days  the  business  of  the  House  went  on 
quietly,  but  early  in  April,  Mr.  Huntington,  member  for 
Shefford,  made  the  startling  charge  that  the  Govern- 
ment had  given  the  contract  to  this  company  in  con- 
sideration of  large  sums  of  money  received  from  Sir 
Hugh  to  aid  in  carrying  the  elections.  A  committee 
of  five  of  its  members  was  appointed  by  the  House  to 


386  THE    DOMINION    OF    PANADA. 

investigate  the  charge,  and  pending  the  action  of  this 
committee  the  House  adjourned.  On  the  reassembling 
of  Parliament  on  August  13  to  receive  the  report, 
it  was  found  that,  owing  to  lack  of  power  to  place 
witnesses  under  oath,  the  committee  had  made  no 
investigation.  As  it  had  been  understood  that  the 
meeting  would  be  purely  formal  for  the  reception  of 
the  committee's  report,  and  that  the  House  would  be 
immediately  prorogued,  many  of  the  members  from 
remote  parts  of  the  Dominion  were  not  present.  Of 
those  in  attendance,  however,  the  members  of  the 
Opposition  far  outnumbered  the  Ministerialists.  This 
boded  ill  to  the  Government.  The  members  of  the 
Opposition  petitioned  the  Governor-General  that  Parlia- 
ment should  not  be  prorogued,  but  should  be  allowed 
to  investigate  the  charges  made  by  Mr.  Huutington. 
His  Excellency  declined  to  adopt  this  course,  giving 
reasons  why  he  could  not  comply  with  their  wishes. 
Still  the  Opposition  sought  to  keep  the  House  in 
session  and  force  an  investigation.  When  the  Speaker 
took  the  chair,  Mr.  MacKenzie  rose  and  submitted  a 
resolution  to  this  effect.  He  was  interrupted,  however, 
by  the  Usher  of  the  Black  Rod,  who  appeared  at  the 
door  of  the  House  and  summoned  the  members  to 
the  Senate  chamber,  there  to  be  prorogued  by  the 
Governor-General.  The  Ministerialists  followed  the 
Speaker  to  the  Senate  chamber,  but  the  members  of 
the  Opposition  refused  to  obey  the  summons. 

On  the  following  day  the  Governor-General  ap- 
pointed a  Royal  Commission,  consisting  of  three 
judges,  to  'investigate  the  charges.  On  October 
23,  Parliament  was  convened  to  receive  the  report 
of  the  Commission.  The  report  simply  recited  the 


THE    MACKENZIE    ADMINISTRATION.  387 

facts  elicited,  giving  no  judicial  opinion  as  to  their 
bearing  on  the  charges  preferred.  Mr.  MacKenzie, 
the  leader  of  the  Opposition,  moved  a  resolution  in- 
volving censure  of  the  Government.  For  several 
days,  amid  much  excitement,  the  question  was  dis- 
cussed. Sir  John  A.  Macdonald  made  a  long  and  able 
defence  of  himself  and  his  colleagues.  But  while 
•  the  larger  number  of  the  Conservative  members  re- 
mained loyal  to  their  chief,  it  became  evident  that 
many  of  them  would  support  Mr.  MacKenzie's  resolu- 
tion. To  avoid  an  adverse  vote,  Sir  John  placed  the 
resignation  of  the  Ministry  in  the  hands  of  the 
Governor-General. 

A  new  Government  was  at  once  formed  under 
Mr.  MacKenzie  as  Premier.  Among  the  A  New  Govern- 
more  prominent  members  of  the  Cabinet  ment- 
were  Edward  Blake  and  A.  A.  Dorion.  Within  a  few 
weeks  the  House  was  dissolved  for  the  purpose  of 
testing  the  country  on  the  question  which  had  led 
to  the  change  of  Government. 

Parliament  met  again  in  the  following  March 
(1874).  The  Ministry  was  sustained  by  a  large 
majority ;  indeed,  its  supporters  comprised  nearly 
three-fourths  of  the  House  of  Commons.  Among 
those  who  presented  themselves  to  take  the  oath 
required  of  members  was  the  outlawed  Louis  Kiel, 
who  had  been  elected  by  the  constituency  of  Pro- 
vencher,  in  Manitoba.  He  was  made  to  understand 
that  his  past  offences  were  not  fully  condoned,  and  by 
a  formal  vote  was  expelled  from  the  House.  Finding 
that  he  was  liable  to  arrest  for  the  murder  of  Scott, 
he  hastily  left  Ottawa. 

Mr.  MacKenzie  was  a  man  of  sterling  integrity.    He 


388  THE   DOMINFON    OF   (CANADA. 

adopted  no  measure  simply  to  secure  popularity,  and 
he  promised  nothing  which  he  did  not  mean  to  perform. 
Ho  was,  however,  not  skilled  in  the  political  tactics 
required  in  a  successful  party  leader,  and  while  it  may 
bo  said  of  him  that  he  commanded  the  respect  of  his 
opponents,  he  failed  to  secure  the  enthusiastic  loyalty 
of  his  followers.  One  of  the  strongest  features  of  his 
administration  was  his  decided  stand  for  Canada's 
right  to  the  free  and  full  management  of  her  own 
affairs,  lie  was  a  firm  believer  in  the  supreme 
authority  of  the  Ministry  so  long  as  it  had  behind  it 
the  majority  of  the  people's  representatives. 

At  this  period  the  Governor-General's  instructions 
from  the  British  Government  authorised  him  to  reject 
the  advice  of  his  Ministers  whenever  he  saw  sufficient 
cause  lor  so  doing.  This  doctrine  was  not  in  accord 
with  Mr.  MacKenzie's  sentiments,  and  so  effectively 
did  he  urge  his  views  on  the  attention  of  the  British 
Government  that  the  objectionable  clause  was  struck 
out  of  the  Governor's  commission. 

An  attempt  made  in  1871,  to  secure  a  new  recipro- 
city treaty  between  Canada  and  the  United  States, 
afforded  an  opportunity  for  urging  our  right  to  a  voice 
in  the  transaction  of  international  business  in  which 
we  are  deeply  concerned.  Here,  too,  Mr.  MacKenzie 
was  successful.  The  Hon.  George  Brown  was  ap- 
pointed as  the  colleague  of  Sir  Edward  Thornton, 
the  British  Minister  at  Washington,  to  art  with  the 
agents  of  the  United  States  Government  in  framing  a 
treaty.  The  draft  treaty  thus  prepared,  being  rejected 
by  the  United  States  Senate,  never  came  into  force. 

The  most  difficult  matter  with  which  the  Govern- 
ment had  to  deal,  and  probably  the  one  in  which  it 


THE    MACKENZIE    ADMINISTRATION.  389 

was  least  successful,  was  the  Pacific  Railway.  Sir  Hugh 
Allan's  Company  had  given  up  its  con-  ThePacific 
tract.  Four  years  had  passed  since  Railway 
British  Columbia  entered  the  Union,  and  little  had 
been  done  towards  the  construction  of  the  promised 
road,  which  was  to  be  completed  within  ten  years.  A 
murmur  of  dissatisfaction  was  rising  from  the  Pacific 
province,  and  its  Government  was  protesting  against 
the  violation  of  the  terms  of  Union.  It  seemed  im- 
possible to  carry  out  the  contract,  and  the  Dominion 
Government  sent  an  agent  to  British  Columbia  for 
the  purpose  of  making  some  new  arrangement.  The 
mission  was  a  failure.  The  Premier  of  the  province 
proceeded  to  England  with  complaints  to  the  British 
Government.  A  compromise  proposed  by  the  Colonial 
Secretary  was  adopted  by  the  Canadian  House  of 
Commons,  but  it  was  rejected  by  the  Senate. 

Meanwhile  dissatisfaction  increased  in  British  Co- 
lumbia, and  secession  from  the  Union  began  to  be 
agitated.  At  this  juncture  the  Government  luckily 
decided  to  avail  itself  of  the  good  offices  of  the 
Governor-General  to  allay  the  rising  storm.  In  the 
summer  of  1876  the  Earl  of  Dufferin  visited  British 
Columbia,  proceeding  by  way  of  San  Francisco.  By 
his  genial  manner  and  persuasive  words  he  won  the 
confidence  of  people  and  Government,  and  he  placed 
before  them  such  facts  as  gave  them  assurance  that 
his  Ministry  would  deal  in  good  faith  with  the 
province. 

New  measures  were  now  carried  through  Parlia- 
ment for  the  construction  of  the  Pacific  Railway.  It 
was  resolved  at  first  to  open  up  a  mixed  rail  and 
water  route  for  use  in  summer  between  Eastern 


300  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

Canada  ami  the  North -West.  The  Great  Lakes  and 
the  numerous  water  stretches  of  lake  and  river  west 
of  Lake  Superior  were  thus  to  form  portions  of  the 
highway.  Sections  of  railway  were  to  connect  these 
waters,  and  a  branch  road  was  to  be  constructed  from 
Winnipeg  to  Pembina  to  connect  with  the  railways  of 
the  United  States.  It  was  resolved  not  to  give  the 
railway  to  a  company,  but  to  build  and  own  it  as  A 
Government  work.  No  time  was  set  for  its  completion. 

Among  other  important  measures  of  the  Hve  years' 
important  ru^°  °*  tne  MacKenzie  Government  were 
a  new  Election  Law,  the  establishment  of 
a  Court  of  Appeal  at  Ottawa,  the  Canada  Temperance 
Act,  the  settlement  of  the  fishery  claims  against  the 
United  States,  and  the  organization  of  the  North- 
West  Territories  under  a  distinct  Government. 

The  Election  Law  of  1874  provided  that,  with  the 
exception  of  some  remote  districts,  the  election  of 
members  of  Parliament  should  be  held  on  the  same 
day  throughout  the  Dominion.  It  also  introduced 
the  system  of  voting  by  ballot.  Some  regarded  the 
old  method  of  open  voting  the  more  manly  and 
worthy  of  a  free  people ;  but  the  ballot  was  adopted 
as  a  means  of  preventing  bribery  and  a  protection 
against  undue  influence  over  the  electors. 

The  Canada  Temperance  Act,  usually  known  as 
the  "  Scott  Act,"  took  its  name  from  its  chief  pro- 
moter, Senator  Scott.  The  law  gives  any  munici- 
pality the  power  by  vote  of  its  inhabitants  to  prohibit 
the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquor  within  its  limits. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  the  Washington  Treaty 
of  1871,  in  arranging  for  an  exchange  of  fishing 
privileges,  provided  that,  as  the  Canadian  fisheries 


THE    MACKENZIE    ADMINISTRATION.          391 

were  the  more  valuable,  the  United  States  should 
pay  to  Canada  uucli  sum  of  money  as  would  represent 
the  difference.  Half  of  the  term  had  passed,  during 
which  United  States  fishermen  had  free  access  to 
Canadian  waters,  and  the  amount  to  be  paid  had 
not  been  agreed  on.  A  commission,  consisting  of 
Sir  Alexander  Gait,  representing  Canada,  Judge 
Kellogg,  representing  the  United  States,  and  Mr. 
do  la  Fosse,  the  Belgian  Minister  at  Washington, 
met  in  Halifax  to  determine  this  amount.  After 
careful  investigation  the  commission  awarded  to 
Canada  the  sum  of  $5,500,000,  which  was  duly 
paid  by  the  Government  of  the  United  States. 

Meanwhile  the  Province  of  Quebec  had  furnished 
an    interesting    question    in    state-craft. 

rm          -»«-      -rr         •        f*  •          i     Governor 

The    MacKenzie    Government    appointed  Leteiiierde 

St  Just. 

the  Honourable  Luc  Letellier  St.  Just 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  this  province.  The  Governor 
and  his  Ministry,  being  on  opposite  sides  in  politics, 
failed  to  work  together  harmoniously.  The  Governor 
complained  that  his  Ministers  did  not  treat  him  with 
due  courtesy.  They  published  proclamations  over 
his  name  Avithout  consulting  him,  and  they  intro- 
duced into  the  Legislature  Bills  which  they  had  not 
submitted  to  him  for  inspection.  The  strife  grew  to 
such  proportions  that,  although  the  Ministers  had  the 
support  of  a  majority  of  the  Assembly,  the  Governor 
dismissed  them,  and  called  on  Mr.  Joly,  the  leader  of 
the  Opposition,  to  form  a  new  Government.  At  the 
same  time  he  dissolved  the  House  and  ordered  a  new 
election,  thereby  appealing  to  the  people  to  judge 
between  himself  and  his  Ministers.  This  was  a  bold 
and  hazardous  course.  If  the  popular  vote  had 


392  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

sustained  the  rejected  Ministry,  the  only  tiling  left 
lor  the  Governor  would  have  been  resignation.  A 
majority  of  OIK;  for  the  new  Ministry  saved  him  from 
this  embarrassment.  . 

Governor  Letellier's  action  was  di.sens.sed  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  Sir  John  A.  Maedonald 
moved  a  resolution  of  censure  against  him.  The 
matter  was  dealt  with  chiefly  us  a  (juestion  of  party 
politics,  and  the  resolution  was  voted  down  by  the 
Liberal  majority.  Subsequently,  when  Sir  John  was 
Premier,  a  Conservative  majority  passed  a  resolution 
of  censure,  and  the  Governor  of  Quebec  was  removed 
from  office. 

The  Liberal-Conservative  party  was  almost  dis- 
The  National  organized  by  the  "  Pacific  Railway  Scan- 
Pohcy.  (ja| "  _p()r  a  tnm.  jt  seemed  as  if  Sir 

• 

John  A.  Macdonald's  political  triumphs  were  num- 
bered. But  thougji  his  following  in  Parliament  was 
numerically  weak,  it  included  several  men  of  com- 
manding ability,  who  never  lost  their  hold  on  the 
electorate  of  the  Dominion.  Circumstances  over 
which  neither  party  had  control  favoured  the  Opposi- 
tion. The  years  which  followed  Mr.  MacKenxie's 
accession  to  power  were  not  prosperous.  The  trade 
of  the  Dominion  was  greatly  depressed,  and  the 
public  revenue  year  after  year  showed  large  deficits. 
When  times  are  dull  the  people  are  apt  to  blame 
the  Government.  The  Conservative  leaders  took 
advantage  of  the  situation.  They  proposed  a  remedy 
for  the  hard  times,  appealing  to  the  patriotic  senti- 
ment of  the  people  by  naming  it  the  "  National 
Policy.''  The  new  scheme  involved  an  increase  of 
duty  on  certain  classes  of  imports,  for  the  avowed 


THE    MACKENZIE    ADMINISTRATION.  393 

purpose  of  encouraging  home  production.     "  Canada 
for  Canadians  "  Avas  the  watchword  of  the  party. 

For  two  years  the  Opposition  leaders  urged  their 
policy  on  the  House,  and  from  the  platform  and 
through  the  press  they  sought  to  impress  the  public 
in  its  favour.  Mr.  MacKenzie  and  his  followers, 
while  admitting  that  the  proposed  tariff  changes 
might  be  advantageous  to  a  few  persons,  main- 
tamed  that  the  tariff  as  a  whole  would  not  benefit 
the  country  at  large,  but  that  the  money  which 
enriched  the  manufacturers  would  come  from  the 
pockets  of  the  people.  Nevertheless,  at  the  general 
election  in  1878,  through  the  "  National  Policy,"  which, 
promised  a  new  era  of  prosperity,  the  Liberal- Conser- 
vative leaders  again  secured  the  reins  of  power. 

On  the  20th  of  June  1877,  a  large  part  of  the  city 
of  St.  John  was  reduced  to  ashes.     The  Fire  in  st 
fire  swept  over   a   district   of  about   two  ^ohn>  N>B- 
hundred  acres  in  extent,  burning  about  sixteen  hun- 
dred buildings,   including    private   houses,   churches, 
and  other  public  buildings. 

Meanwhile  important  changes  were  taking  place  in 
the  North-West.     The    Indian   tribes   of  TheNorth- 
the    Territory — Ojibways,    Crees,    Assini-  West- 
boines,    Blackfeet,    and    others — claiming    rights    in 
the  land,  were  treated  in  a  generous  manner.     The 
Dominion  Government  set  apart  extensive  reserved 
lands  for  their  use,  besides  agreeing  to   give   them 
yearly  presents  and  make  provision  for  the  education 
of  their  children. 

The  Metis,  or  half-breeds,  formed  an  important  ele- 
ment among  the  inhabitants  of  the  country.  Every 
year  also  large  numbers  were  added  to  the  population 


301  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

by  immigration.  New  settlers  came  from  the  older 
provinces,  especially  from  Ontario,  and  also  from 
various  countries  in  Europe.  A  change  in  the 
Government  was  demanded. 

In  1876*  the  Territory  was  separated  into  two 
divisions.  The  easterly  division,  under  the  name 
of  Keewatin,  was  placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Governor  of  Manitoba.  The  westerly  and  more 
important  division,  retaining  the  name  North-West 
Territory,  was  organized  under  a  Government  of  its 
own.  The  Government  as  at  first  formed  consisted 
of  a  Lieutenant-Governor  and  a  Council  of  six  mem- 
bers appointed  by  him.  This  body  was  endowed 
with  both  executive  and  legislative  powers.  Pro- 
vision was  made  for  the  enlargement  of  the  Council 
from  time  to  time  as  the  population  increased,  by 
the  addition  of  members  chosen  by  the  inhabitants 
of  electoral  districts.  The  Honourable  David  Laird, 
of  Prince  Edward  Island,  was  the  first  Lieutenant- 
Governor  under  the  new  organization.  The  Council 
held  its  h'rst  meeting  at  Livingston,  but  Battleford, 
on  the  Saskatchewan,  was  shortly  after  made  the  seat 
of  Government. 


CHAPTER    XXXIII. 

THE    DOMINION    CONSOLIDATED. 

IN    the    general    election    which    took  place    in    the 
autumn  of  1878,  as   already  stated,   the  ANew 
Liberal-Conservatives  with  their  "National  Rft£ime- 
Policy  "  won  the  day.     In  the  new  Cabinet,  Sir  John 
A.  Macdonald  was  Premier,  and  among  his  colleagues 
were  several  strong  men,  as  Sir  Leonard  Tilley,  Sir 
Charles  Tupper,  Sir  Hector  L.  Langevin,  and  others 
scarcely  less  noted. 

Shortly  after  the  new  Government  was  formed, 
Lord  Duft'erin,  who  had  been  Governor-General  for 
six  years,  retired.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  Marquis 
of  Lome.  Descended  from  an  old  and  honourable 
line  of  Scottish  nobles,  of  the  Clan  Campbell,  of  dis- 
tinguished ability,  and  closely  connected  with  the 
Queen  as  the  husband  of  the  Princess  Louise,  Lord 
Lome  was  welcomed  with  much  enthusiasm  by  the 
Canadian  people. 

During  its  first  session  the  new  Parliament  revised 
the  tariff',  imposing  higher  duties  on  certain  classes  of 
imports,  and  adding  to  the  list  of  articles  imported 
free  of  duty.  In  this  way  it  aimed  to  secure  a  larger 
revenue,  and  at  the  same  time,  according  to  the 
principles  of  the  "  National  Policy,"  protect  home 
industries. 

395 


396  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

By  Act  of  Parliament  in  l^SO,  the  Government,  was 
authorized  to  appoint  an  agent,  called  Canadian  High 
Commissioner,  to  represent  the  Dominion  in  England. 
The  first  Commissioner,  was  Sir  Alexander  Gait. 

The.  question  of  the  proper  boundary-line  l>etween 
Ontario  and  Manitoba  caused  some  agita- 

Boundary  be-  ...  .  . .  .    °    . 

tween  Ontario      tlOll    111    tllCSC    provinces   as   Well    as    1U    tilC 
and  Manitoba       -.  .     .  .        ,.  .  . 

Dominion  Parliament.  A  large  territory 
was  claimed  by  both  provinces.  Arbitrators  appointed 
to  investigate  the  matter  reported  in  favour  of  Ontario. 
The  Dominion  Government  declined  to  regard  this 
as  a  tinal  decision,  and  the  question  was  referred  to 
the  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council  of  Great 
Britain.  This  court  ratitied  the  h'ndinjj  of  the  arbi- 

O 

trators,  and    in    1883    the   territory  was   annexed  to 
Ontario. 

The  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  was  one  of  the  most 
important  matters  that  engaged  the  atten- 

The  Canadian          .    l 

Pacific  iion  of  the  Government     Under  the  late 

Railway.  .     .  . 

Administration  the  r<»ad  had  made  slow 
progress.  The  Macdonald  Ministry  did  not  favour 
the  policy  of  carrying  it  on  as  a  Government  work. 
It  accordingly  entered  into  a  contract  with  a  strong 
company,  of  which  (Sir)  George  Stephen  and  (Sir) 
Donald  Smith  were  leading  members,  authorizing 
the  company  to  construct  and  own  the  road.  The 
Government  agreed  to  give  the  company  the  portions 
of  the  railway  already  constructed,  together  witli  a 
subsidy  of  $25,000,000,  and  25,000,000  acres  of 
land  along  the  line  of  railway.  The  road  was  to  be 
completed  within  ten  years,  dating  from  1881.  With 
such  marvellous  energy  was  the  work  carried  forward 
that  the  whole  line  of  railway,  from  its  point  of  con- 


THE    DOMINION    CONSOLIDATED.  397 

nection  with  the  railway  system  of  Ontario  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  was  completed  and  open  for  traffic  in 
the  siimmer  of  1886 — that  is,  in  about  half  of  the 
time  specified  in  the  contract. 

The  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  is  one  of  the  greatest 
and  the  best-equipped  railways  in  the  Avorld.  The 
company  has  built  various  branch  lines  and  made 
connections  with  other  roads,  so  that  it  now  controls 
about  nine  thousand  miles  of  railway.  Through  the 
Canadian  Pacific  and  the  Intercolonial,  a  continuous 
line  of  railway  crosses  the  entire  Continent  from 
Halifax  to  Vancouver.  The  Company  has  also  estab- 
lished lines  of  first-class  steamers  on  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
which  run  from  Vancouver,  in  British  Columbia,  to 
Japan,  China,  and  Australia. 

The  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  was  a  vast  under- 
taking. It  is  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald's  grandest 
monument.  Foresight,  self-reliance,  and  energy  were 
essential  characteristics  of  the  statesman  who  could 
afford  to  propose  such  an  enterprise.  The  importance 
of  this  railway  can  scarcely  be  over-estimated,  for  it 
has  done  more  to  develop  national  feeling  and  to 
consolidate  the  Dominion  than  perhaps  any  other 
agency.  Without  it  British  Columbia  would  be  shut 
off  by  the  great  Rocky  Mountain  wall  from  the  other 
portions  of  the  Dominion ;  Manitoba  and  the  North- 
West  would  be  separated  by  the  wilderness  on  the 
north  of  Lake  Superior  from  Eastern  Canada.  In  a 
similar  manner  the  Intercolonial  Railway  is  the  vital 
bond  of  union  between  the  provinces  in  the  east. 

Meanwhile  the  Marquis  of  Lome  had  I  idden  adieu 
to  Canada.  He  was  succeeded  in  the  office  of  Governor- 
General  by  the  Marquis  of  Lansdowne. 


398 


THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 


Many  of  the  Metis,  <»r  half-breeds,  who  were  eon- 
ceruecl  in  the  lied    River  Rebellion,  were 

Rebellion  in  the    .  ... 

North  west,  but  ill  reconciled  to  Canadian  rule.  On 
the  organization  of  Manitoba  large  numbers 
of  these  people  removed  farther  west  to  the  country 
of  the  Saskatchewan.  With  much  suspicion  and 
murmurings  of  dissatisfaction,  they  saw  the  Govern- 
ment surveyors  laying  out  lands  for  settlement,  and 


MAP   OK   THE   SCENE   OK    TUK    XOKTH-WEST    KEBELLION. 


immigrants  taking  possession  of  territory  to  which 
they  thought  they  had  tirst  claims.  Having  no  legal 
title  to  the  hinds  which  they  occupied,  and  fearing 
that  they  might  be  dispossessed,  they  petitioned  the 
Dominion  Government  to  give  them  tree  grants  of 
their  farms,  as  had  been  done  for  their  people  in 
Manitoba.  Moreover,  since  the  opening  of  the  country 


THE    DOMINION    CONSOLIDATED.  399 

for  settlement,  the  buffalo,  once  a  source  of  wealth  for 
half- breeds  and  Indians,  had  become  nearly  extinct. 
The  railway  was  not  yet  completed,  and  agriculture 
was  not  well  established  in  the  country.  Under  these 
conditions  the  Metis  of  the  North- West  found  the 
struggle  for  life  increasingly  severe. 

Failing  to  receive  from  Ottawa  any  reply  to  their 
petition,  or  assurance  that  their  interests  would  be  cared 
for,  the  Metis  became  more  mistrustful  of  the  future. 
In  their  anxiety  they  sent  for  Louis  Kiel,  their  old 
leader,  in  whom  they  still  trusted,  who,  yet  an  outlaw, 
was  living  in  Montana.  Regardless  of  personal  danger, 
Kiel  came  at  once  at  their  call.  He  held  public  meet- 
ings, the  effect  of  which  was  to  arouse  in  them  deeper 
sense  of  wrong  and  stronger  suspicion  of  the  evil  inten- 
sions of  the  Government.  Under  Kiel's  direction  they 
sent  a  petition  to  Ottawa,  setting  forth  in  strong  terms 
their  demands.  Kiel  also  gained  the  sympathy  of  the 
Indians  by  telling  them  that  they  were  the  rightful 
owners  of  the  country,  and  that  the  Government  should 
have  bought  it  from  them  rather  than  from  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  Company.  While  thus  instigating  rebellion, 
he  had  the  effrontery  to  inform  the  Government  that 
the  half-breeds  were  wholly  under  his  influence,  and 
that  for  the  sum  of  $35,000  he  would  restore  order  in 
the  country. 

Affairs  in  the  North- West  wore  a  threatening 
aspect,  and  not  without  cause  did  the  English  in- 
habitants of  the  country  begin  to  be  alarmed.  The 
Government  at  Ottawa,  however,  was  unmoved.  Ap- 
parently unconscious  of  any  wrongs  to  be  redressed 
or  any  dangers  to  be  guarded  against,  it  gave  no  heed 
to  petitions,  and  took  no  precautions  against  insurrec- 


400  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

tioii.  Meanwhile  the  spirit  of  rebellion  was  rapidly 
gaining  strength.  The  Metis,  under  the  guidance  of 
Louis  Kiel  and  Gabriel  burnout,  entered  UJMHI  a  course 
of  plunder  and  violence.  They  set  up  an  independent 
Government  with  Kiel  at  its  head.  They  seized  arms, 
ammunition,  and  other  property  belonging  to  the 
Dominion  Government,  the  Hudson's  Hay  Company, 
and  private  individuals.  Any  one  who  questioned 
Kiel's  authority  was  arrested  and  thrown  into  prison. 
The  first  serious  outbreak  occurred  towards  the  end 
of  March  1885,  when  the  insurgents  attacked  a  com- 
pany of  volunteers  and  mounted  police  at  Duck  Lake 
near  Fort  Carleton,  killing  twelve  of  their  number. 
Some  of  the  Indians  were  incited  to  deeds  of  violence. 
On  Good  Friday,  with  the  atrocity  of  untamed  savages, 
a  band  of  Indians,  ruled  by  a  chief  known  as  Big  Bear, 
attacked  a  settlement  at  Frog  Lake,  killing  nine  per- 
sons, among  whom  were  two  Catholic  priests.  At  the 
same  time  the  wives  of  two  or  three  of  the  murdered 
men  were  carried  off  by  the  Indians. 

The  rebellion  was  now  an  undoubted  fact,  and  one 
which  might  prove  serious  enough.  A  rebellion  of 
the  half-breeds  alone  might  not  be  a  very  difficult 
matter  to  deal  with  ;  but  if  the  Indians  of  the  Xorth- 
West,  numbering  many  thousands,  whose  loyalty  in 
such  a  crisis  was  very  doubtful,  started  on  the  war- 
path, the  task  of  restoring  peace  could  not  be  easily 
measured.  The  seat  of  the  rebellion  was  distant  and 
difficult  of  access.  The  country  occupied  by  the  in- 
surgents lay  two  hundred  miles  or  more  from  the 
Pacific  Railway,  and  portions  of  the  road  were  not 
completed.  The  difficulties  were  increased  by  the 
season  of  the  year.  Troops  could  reach  the  country 


THE    DOMINION    CONSOLIDATED.  401 

only  by  long  marches  through  snow  and  slush.  The 
call  for  men  by  the  Government,  however,  met  with 
enthusiastic  response.  Hundreds  of  volunteers  in 
the  east,  from  Halifax  to  Winnipeg,  Avere  soon  on 
the  move  for  the  scene  of  the  rebellion.  General 
Middleton  was  chief  commander  of  the  expedition. 

The  forces,  collected  at  Winnipeg,  were  divided  into 
two  bodies.  The  larger  division,  under  Middleton,  in- 
cluding about  one  thousand  men,  was  to  proceed  against 
Kiel  and  Dumont,  who  with  the  main  body  of  the  insur- 
gents were  intrenched  at  Batoche,  on  the  South  Sas- 
katchewan. The  men  of  this  division  Avere  sent  by  rail 
from  Winnipeg  to  Qu'Appelle,  from  which  to  Batoche, 
two  hundred  and  thirty  miles  distant,  they  had  to 
march  through  the  melting  snow.  The  other  division, 
under  Colonel  Otter,  was  intended  for  the  relief  of 
Battleford,  on  .the  North  Saskatchewan,  to  which  six 
hundred  defenceless  people,  two-thirds  of  whom  were 
women  and  children,  from  various  parts  of  the  country 
had  fled  for  safety. 

Colonel  Otter's  troops  went  by  rail  to  Swift  Current, 
five  hundred  miles  west  of  Winnipeg.  From  this  place 
they  marched  in  all  haste  across  the  prairie  one  hundred 
and  eighty  miles  to  Battleford.  Their  arrival  on  April 
20  was  hailed  with  delight  by  the  anxious  people  who 
had  sought  refuge  in  the  fort.  After  strengthening  the 
defences,  Colonel  Otter  resolved  to  advance  against  the 
Indians  under  the  chief  Poundinaker,  who  were  pillag- 
ing the  country  far  and  wide.  It  was  a  tedious  march  of 
thirty  or  forty  miles  from  Battleford  to  Poundmaker's 
camp  near  Cut  Knife  Creek.  The  expedition  proved 
unfortunate.  For  six  hours  Colonel  Otter  and  his  men 
fought  the  Indians,  and,  after  sustaining  considerable 


402  THK  DOMINION  OK  CANADA. 

loss  in  killed  and  wounded,  ;i  retreat  upon  Battleford 
was  found  necessary. 

General  Middleton  had  a  toilsome  march  of  eleven 
days  before  ho  reached  the  enemy's  encampment. 
His  tirst  encounter  with  them  was  at  Fish  Creek, 
where  he  met  an  advanced  division  of  the  rebels 
under  Dumont.  The  fighting  lasted  several  hours, 
and  resulted  in  a  loss  to  Middleton  of  ten  killed  and 
forty  wounded.  The  rebels  fought  under  cover  of 
the  banks  of  a  deep  ravine  and  sutVered  little  loss. 
After  waiting  here  a  fortnight  for  the  arrival  of  a 
steamer  which  was  bringing  supplies  from  Swift 
Current,  Middleton  advanced  to  Batoche,  a  few  miles 
distant.  Here  also"  the  insurgents  were  well  protected 
by  ravines  and  riHe-pits.  But  after  three  days'  fight- 
ing, the  troops  with  fixed  bayonets  made  a  gallant 
charge  against  the  enemy  and  routed  them  at  all 
points.  The  victory  was  complete,  and  practically 
ended  the  rebellion.  In  the  charge  five  volunteers 
were  killed  and  twenty-two  were  wounded.  Kiel 
was  captured  two  or  three  days  after  by  a  scouting 
party,  and  brought  to  General  Middleton.  Duinout 
escaped  to  Montana. 

The  Indians  throughout  a  large  part  of  the  country 
were  in  a  state  of  unrest  and  were  ready  for  revolt. 
Vigorous  measures  were  taken  to  hold  them  in  check. 
At  Calgary,  Major-General  Strange,  a  retired  British 
officer,  collected  a  force  of  over  a  thousand  men  and 
rendered  effective  service  in  pacifying  the  tribes  of 
the  far  West.  Poundmaker  and  his  braves  soon 
surrendered.  Big  Bear,  having  over  sixty  white 
prisoners,  retreated  towards  the  North.  Most  of 
the  captives  were  soon  rescued,  and  the  chief,  re- 


THE    DOMINION    CONSOLIDATED.  403 

duccd  by  famine,  was  finally  compelled  to  give  him- 
self up. 

The  volunteers,  who  had,  with  so  much  enthusiasm, 
entered  upon  the  campaign,  and  had,  with  such  heroic 
spirit,  followed  it  up  to  a  successful  issue,  now  returned 
to  their  homes  in  the  East.  It  remained  for  the  civil 
authorities  to  deal  with  those  who  had  acted  as  leaders 
in  the  foolish  revolt.  After  careful  trial  Louis  Kiel 
and  some  of  the  Indian  chiefs  paid  with  their  lives 
the  penalty  of  their  rash  deeds  of  treason  and  murder. 
It  is  estimated  that  the  rebellion  cost  the  Dominion 
$5,000,000.  * 

The  year  1887  was  noted  as  the  fiftieth  anniversary 
of  the  accession  of  Queen  Victoria  to  the  The  Queen-s 
throne.     The  Jubilee  year  was  celebrated  Jubllee- 
throughout  all  portions  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  with 
much  enthusiasm.      In  no  part  of  the  British  Empire 
was  there  felt  more  loving  regard  for  the  person  of 
her  Majesty  or  more  true  loyalty  to  her  throne. 

In  the  following  year,  1888,'  Lord  Lansdowne  was 
succeeded  by  Lord  Stanley  of  Preston  as  Her  Majesty's 
representative  in  Canada. 

During  the  French  period  large  tracts  of  land  in 
Canada  were  granted  to  the  Jesuits  at  The  Jesuits1 
different  times  by  the  King  of  France.  EstatesAct- 
When  by  the  fortunes  of  war  the  country  fell  to 
Great  Britain,  these  lands,  known  as  the  Jesuits' 
Estates,  comprising  over  half  a  million  acres,  Avere 
confiscated  to  the  Crown.  Shortly  after  the  con- 
quest of  Canada  the  Jesuit  Order  was  suppressed 
by  the  Pope,  and  for  several  years  in  the  early 
part  of  the  present  century  there  were  no  Jesuits 
in  Canada.  In  1831  the  lands  which  formerly  bo- 


404  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

longed  to  the  Order  were  granted  by  the  British 
Government  to  the  Province  of  Quebec  for  educa- 
tional purposes,  and  thus  they  came  under  the  direct 
control  of  the  Legislature  of  that  province.  The 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  however,  claimed  that  the 
conquest  of  the  country  did  not  alienate  title  to 
property,  and  that  the  Crown  had  therefore  no  right 
to  seize  the  Jesuits'  Estates.  The  Church  authorities 
in  Quebec  further  claimed  that  the  Jesuits  simply 
held  their  lands  in  trust  for  religious  and  educational 
purposes,  and  that  on  the  suppression  of  tho  Order 
the  property  passed  to  them  as  representatives  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church. 

Subsequently  the  Jesuits,  having  been  restored  by 
the  Pope,  established  themselves  again  in  Canada. 
They  now  urged  their  right  to  the  estates  which, 
as  they  insisted,  had  been  unjustly  taken  from  their 
Order.  Thus  there  were  three  claimants  to  the 
property-  the  province,  the  ordinary  Church  authori- 
ties, and  the  Jesuits.  *  When  the  Government  placed 
.any  of  the  lands  in  the  market,  the  hierarchy  forbade 
the  sale.  This  protest  weakened  the  title,  and  the 
lands  could  be  sold  only  at  great  sacrifice.  In  1888 
the  Mercier  Ministry  of  Quebec,  then  in  power,  under 
authority  of  the  Jesuits'  Estates  Act,  passed  by  the 
Legislature  of  the  province,  made  a  compromise  with 
the  Jesuits  and  Church  authorities,  giving  them 
8400,000  in  discharge  of  all  claims.  Of  this,  the  sum 
of  $160,000  was  given  to  the  Jesuits,  $140,000  to 
Laval  University,  and  the  remainder  to  various 
schemes  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  Legis- 
lature also  voted  $00,000  to  the  Protestants  of  the 
province  for  educational  purposes.  Against  this  com- 


THE    DOMINION    CONSOLIDATED.  405 

promise  there  arose  a  storm  of  opposition  among  the 
Protestants  throughout  the  Dominion,  and  an  applica- 
tion for  disallowance  of  the  Jesuits'  Estates  Act  was 
made  to  the  Governor -General  in  Council.  The 
Dominion  Government,  however,  declined  to  interfere. 
In  the  following  year,  1889,  the  question  was  brought 
up  in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  a  resolution  was 
moved,  asking  the  Governor-General  to  disallow  the 
Act.  The  resolution,  being  in  direct  opposition  to 
the  course  advised  by  the  Ministry,  was  in  effect  a 
motion  of  want  of  confidence.  On  the  taking  of  the 
vote  after  full  discussion,  the  Ministry  was  sustained 
by  a  large  majority. 

The  two  distinguished  statesmen  who  nad  in  turn 
guided  the  public  affairs  of  the  Dominion 

/  ,      ,.  Death  of 

were  not  far  removed  from  each  other  Canada's 
in  their  death.  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald 
died  in  June  1891,  in  the  seventy-seventh  year  of 
his  age ;  the  Hon.  Alexander  MacKenzie  died  in 
the  following  April,  having  little  more  than  fulfilled 
his  threescore  years  and  ten.  For  nearly  half  a 
century  Sir  John  had  been  prominent  in  political 
affairs,  and  the  record  of  his  life  since  the  Union  is 
in  large  measure  the  history  of  the  Dominion  during 
that  period.  He  was  strong  in  the  attachment  and 
loyalty  of  his  followers,  whom  he  held  together  and 
guided  almost  whither  he  would  by  the  magnetic 
force  of  his  personality. 

Mr.  MacKenzie  was  a  great  and  good  man,  who, 
from  a  humble  beginning,  rose,  as  we  have  seen,  to  the 
high  position  of  Premier.  He  was  not  ambitious  of 
preferment,  or  fond  of  personal  distinction.  Though 
for  five  years  he  held  the  highest  position  in  the  gift 


40f>  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

of  his  country,  the  place  was  not  of  his  seeking. 
Throe  times  he  declined  the  honour  of  knighthood. 
Atxmt  a  year  after  the  defeat  of  his  Government  he 
resigned  the  position  of  leader  of  the  Opposition, 
and  the  Hon.  Edward  Blake  was  chosen  in  his 
place. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

RECENT   EVENTS. 

PARLIAMENT  was  in  session  when  Sir  John  A.  Mac- 
donald  died.     It  adjourned  for   a   week, 

-,  i-ii  1-1         •  i  Premier  Abbot. 

during  which  he  was  buried  with  state 
ceremonies,  at  the  public  expense.  The  loss  of 
their  leader  was  keenly  felt  by  the  Liberal-Con- 
servatives. There  were  able  men  in  the  Cabinet, 
but  no  one  seemed  to  possess  that  pre-eminence  of 
gifts  and  influence  which  entitled  him  to  take  the 
place  of  the  great  statesman  who  had  passed  away. 
The  choice  finally  fell  upon  Sir  John  Abbot. 

During  its  session  of  1891  the  Dominion  Parliament 
was  much  agitated  over  serious  charges  M'Greevy  and 
against  the  management  of  affairs  in  the  Mercier- 
office  of  the  Minister  of  Public  Works.  It  was  asserted 
that  certain  contractors  had  received  from  the  Minis- 
ter's office  secret  information  which  enabled  them  to 
secure  important  contracts,  and  that  Mr.  Thomas 
M'Greevy,  member  for  the  city  of  Quebec,  had  ob- 
tained from  the  successful  contractors  large  sums  of 
money  for  the  purpose  of  influencing  the  elections  in 
the  Province  of  Quebec.  These  charges  were  so  fully 
sustained  that  Sir  Hector  Langevin,  Minister  of  Public 
Works,  was  forced  to  retire  from  the  Cabinet,  and  Mr. 
M'Greevy  was  expelled  from  the  House  of  Commons. 

407 


408  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

Closely  following  the  scaudaj  connected  with  the 
Office  of  Public;  Works  came  a  disclosure  of  grave 
irregularities  on  the  part  of  the  Mercier  Government 
of  Quebec  in  the  use  of  subsidies  granted  from  the 
public  funds  for  the  construction  of  railways  in  that 
province.  Lieutenant  -  Governor  Augers  dismissed 
Mr.  Mercicr  and  his  colleagues,  called  on  Mr.  dc 
Boucherville  to  form  a  Ministry,  and  dissolved  the 
Assembly.  The  people  fully  endorsed  the  action  of 
the  Lieutenant-Governor  by  electing  an  overwhelming 
majority  of  supporters  of  the  new  Government. 

In  the  autumn  of  1892  Sir  John  Abbot,  through 
failing  health,  was  compelled  to  resign  the 

Sir  John  ?  '  P 

Thompson         Premiership,     lie  was  succeeded  by  Sir 

Premier.  _    ,         _,  .       . 

John  Ihompson,  a  comparatively  new  man 
in  Dominion  politics,  who  had  rapidly  risen  to  first 
rank  among  Canadian  statesmen.  Mr.  Thompson 
began  his  public  career  in  the  Legislature  of  Nova 
Scotia,  holding  for  a  few  years  the  portfolio  of  Attor- 
ney-General in  the  Provincial  Government.  In  1882 
he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Nova  Scotia.  In  1885  he  resigned  his  seat  on  the 
bench,  was  returned  to  Parliament,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  Cabinet  as  Minister  of  Justice. 

A  marked  feature  of  the  year  1893,  in  which 
The  Columbian  Canada  shared,  was  the  World's  Fair  in 
Exhibition.  Chicago,  organised  for  the  purpose  of 
celebrating  the  four  hundredth  anniversary  of  the 
discovery  of  America  by  Columbus,  and  hence  called 
the  Columbian  Exhibition.  In  its  vast  extent  and 
varied  character  it  surpassed  all  former  exhibitions  of 
any  country.  Through  the  comparison  of  her  exhibits 
with  those  gathered  from  other  lands,  Canada  took 


KECENT   EVENTS.  409 

high  rank  among  the  civilised  countries  of  the  world. 
The  products  of  her  fields,  her  forests,  her  fisheries, 
her  factories,  and  her  mines,  showed  the  wealth  and 
variety  of  her  resources  as  well  as  the  enterprise  of 


RIGHT   HON.    SIK  JOHN  THOMPSON. 


her  people.  In  the  matter  of  public  education,  too, 
as  regards  system,  method,  text-books,  and  appliances, 
she  had  a  standing  not  inferior  to  that  of  any  country 
in  the  world.  The  awards,  including  prizes,  medals, 


410  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

and  certificates  of  merit,  given  to  us  on  various  ex- 
hibits, numbered  about  two  thousand.  On  dairy  pro- 
ducts, while  the  United  Status  'Mined  but  fifty-four 

tf 

awards,  Canada  secured -six  hundred  and  nineteen,  of 
which  three  hundred  and  eighty -eight  went  to  the 
Province  of  Ontario. 

A  large  territory  called   Alaska,   situated    on    the 
north-west  of  the   Dominion   of  Canada, 

The  Bering:  ,  i        IT    •       i    n  mi 

SeaArbitra-  belongs  to  the  United  States.  Ihe  west 
coast  of  this  territory  is  washed  by  an 
arm  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  called  Bering  Sea,  which 
at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  is  thronged  with  fur- 
bearing  seals.  According  to  international  law  a 
nation  has  territorial  rights  in  its  coast  waters  within 
three  miles  of  the  land,  and  also  in  the  waters  of 
small  bays.  The  Government  of  the  United  States 
asserted  for  itself  similar  rights  and  jurisdiction  in 
the  whole  of  Bering  Sea,  and  hence  the  ownership 
of  all  animals  in  its  waters.  Again,  this  Government 
claimed  the  seals  that  resort  to  Bering  Sea,  because 
they  have  their  home  and  breeding-grounds  on  the 
Pribyloff  Islands,  which  lie  off  the  coast  of  Alaska. 
The  case  was  similar,  so  it  was  asserted,  to  that  of  a 
farmer's  sheep  or  cattle  which  might  stray  from  his 
pasture  and  be  found  on  the  highway  or  the  open 
plains;  they  would  belong  to  him  all  the  same,  and 
his  neighbour  would  have  no  right  to  appropriate 
them.  Canadians  regarded  this  claim  as  absurd.  They 
maintained  that  Bering  Sea,  outside  the  three-mile 
limit,  is  open  and  free  alike  to  all  nations,  and  that 
the  seals  found  in  its  waters  are  as  much  common 
property  as  are  the  codfish  three  miles  from  the  coast 
of  Newfoundland.  But  insisting  on  its  exclusive 


RECENT    EVENTS.  411 

rights,  for  the  one  reason  or  the  other,  the  United 
States  Government  seized  Canud'an  vessels  found 
hunting  seals  in  Bering  Sea,  and  confiscated  the 
furs  they  had  on  board. 

The  nations  of  the  world  have  usually  settled  dis- 
putes of  this  kind,  and  even  differences  of  a  less 
serious  nature,  by  Avar.  But  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States,  failing  to  come  to  any  agreement  as 
to  the  ownership  of  the  seals,  resolved,  as  they  have 
done  on  other  occasions,  to  refer  the  difficulty  to 
arbitration.  Each  Government  appointed  two  dele- 
gates, and  they  asked  France,  Italy,  and  Sweden  to 
aid  them  in  settling  the  dispute.  Each  of  these 
countries  sent  one  arbitrator. 

The  court  met  in  Paris.  After  long  and  careful 
hearing  of  evidence  and  counsel,  it  decided  that  the 
United  States  has  no  control  over  Bering  Sea  outside 
of  three  miles  from  its  coast,  or  right  in  the  seals 
found  beyond  that  limit,  and  hence  that  the  Govern- 
ment of  that  country  should  reimburse  Canadian 
sealers  for  the  vessels  and  other  property  unlawfully 
seized.  The  tribunal  also  framed  regulations  to  pro- 
tect the  seals  from  extermination.  The  court  had 
no  power  to  restrict  citizens  of  the  United  States 
within  three  miles  of  the  coast.  But  with  this 
exception  it  prohibited  the  capture  of  seals  at  all 
seasons  within  sixty  miles  of  the  Pribyloff  Islands, 
and  during  the  months  of  May,  June,  and  July  in 
any  part  of  Bering  Sea.  The  use  of  nets,  fire-arms, 
and  explosives  in  seal-hunting  was  also  forbidden. 

A  recent  event  in  Manitoba  which  has  awakened 
deepest  interest  both  in  the  province  and  throughout 
the  Dominion  is  the  action  of  the  Legislature  and 


412  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

Government  in  the  matter  of  the  public  schools.  In 
The  Manitoba  1870,  wheii  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants 
were  Roman  Catholics,  the  Legislature 
established  an  educational  system,  providing  two 
distinct  classes  of  schools—  Protestant  and  Roman 
Catholic.  The  Board  of  Education  was  half  Pro- 
testant and  half  Roman  Catholic,  forming  in  effect 
two  Boards,  one  for  each  class  of  schools.  Each  had 
also  its  own  superintendent.  This  state  of  affairs 
continued  until  18i>0.  The  new  settlers  who  had 
come  in  were  chiefly  Protestant,  so  that  the  census 
of  1800  showed  only  20,571  Roman  Catholics  out  of 
a  total  population  of  152,500.  In  the  meantime  an 
agitation  had  sprung  up  over  the  educational  system 
of  the  province.  In  1890  the  Legislature  repealed 
the  school  law  and  established  a  non-sectarian  school 
system.  All  denominational  schools  under  the  law 
were  abolished.  Roman  Catholics  were  compelled 
to  pay  taxes  for  the  support  of  the  public  schools, 
and  if  they  chose  to  keep  their  own  separate  schools, 
they  could  draw  nothing  for  their  support  from  the 
public  funds.  They  appealed  to  the  Dominion 
(ioverumcnt  to  disallow  the  Act  of  1890.  But  as 
there  was  doubt  whether  the  Legislature  had  not 
exceeded  its  powers,  they  were  advised  to  test  the 
validity  of  this  Act  in  the  courts. 

As  we  have  seen  in  a  preceding  chapter,  the  Act  of 
Union,  known  as  the  British  North  America  Act, 
passed  by  the  British  Parliament  in  1867,  gave  to 
Provincial  Legislatures  exclusive  power  of  making 
laws  in  regard  to  education.  The  Manitoba  Act  of 
1870,  by  which  Manitoba  was  organized,  gave  similar 
authority  to  the  Legislature  of  that  province.  This 


RECENT    EVENTS.  413 

power  has,  however,  an  important  limitation  as  regards 
interference  with  denominational  or  separate  schools. 
It  is  provided  that  the  Provincial  Legislatures  shall 
not  take  away  any  right  or  privilege  with  respect  to 
such  schools  which  any  class  of  persons  had  by  law  at 
the  time  of  Union,  or  which  they  may  have  gained 
since  the  Union.  It  is  further  provided  by  these 
Acts  that  if  a  provincial  authority  deprives  a  Pro- 
testant or  Roman  Catholic  minority  of  a  right  or 
privilege  of  separate  schools  established  by  the  Legis- 
lature after  the  Union,  the  aggrieved  parties  may 
appeal  for  redress  to  the  Governor-General  in  Council. 
On  such  appeal  being  made,  the  Governor- General  in 
Council  is  authorised  to  ask  the  provincial  authority 
to  remove  the  grievance  complained  of,  and  if  redress 
is  not  afforded,  the  Dominion  Parliament  is  empowered 
to  make  such  remedial  laws  as  the  case  may  require. 
The  Roman  Catholics  resolved  to  test  the  power  of 
the  Legislature  to  pass  a  law  depriving  them  of  their 
separate  schools.  If  no  such  power  existed,  the  law 
could  not  be  enforced,  and  they  had  no  grievance. 
The  Manitoba  Court  decided  that  the  law  was  valid; 
the  Supreme  Court  of  Ottawa  reversed  this  decision. 
The  case  was  then  taken  by  appeal  to  the  Judicial 
Committee  of  the  Imperial  Privy  Council,  which  con- 
firmed the  judgment  of  the  Manitoba  Court.  The 
Legislature  had  not  exceeded  its  powers,  and  the 
law  was  valid.  It  was  now  too  late  for  disallow- 
ance of  the  Act  of  1890  by  the  Governor -General 
in  Council;  but  could  there  not  be  secured  through 
this  channel  some  redress  ?  This  question  was  sub- 
mitted to  the  courts.  The  Supreme  Court  at  Ottawa 
decided  that  the  Governor-General  in  Council  had  no 


•414  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

authority  to  act  in  the  mutter.  The  Roman  Catholics 
once  more  carried  their  case  to  the  Judicial  Com- 
mittee, which  decided  that  the  ( Joveruor-Geueral  in 
Council  had  power  to  move  for  remedial  action.  And 
now,  ou  being  appealed  to  again  by  the  Roman 
Catholics,  the  Dominion  Government  requested  the 
Provincial  Government  of  .Manitoba  to  provide  such 
redress  as  the  case  might  require,  and  at  the  same 
time  intimated  that  if  relief  should  not  be  afforded, 
the  Dominion  Parliament,  would  lie  asked  to  pass  a 
remedial  Act. 

Union  of  closely  related  countries  under  one  general 
government  is  a  characteristic  feature  of 

The  Inter- 
colonial Con-      our  times.  I  lie  confederation  ot  the  pre- 
ference.              .  .                          .... 

vmces    now  forming    the    Dominion    ot 

Canada  is  an  example  of  this  tendency.  With  a 
similar  idea  of  unification,  some  of  our  statesmen 
advocate  closer  relations  between  Great  Britain,  and 
her  colonies  by  a  scheme  which  they  call  "  Imperial 
Federation.'  By  this  they  mean  that  the  larger  pos- 
sessions, like  Canada,  Australia,  and  Cape  Colony, shall 
no  longer  be  dependencies  of  Great  Britain,  but  shall 
form  an  integral  part  of  the  Kmpire  and  have  a  voice 
in  the  Imperial  Government.  Such  a  state  of  matters 
may  be  far  oft',  but  in  the  meantime  there  is  a  grow- 
ing feeling  in  Canada  and  in  other  colonies  in  favour 
of  promoting  greater  commercial  freedom  with  each 
other  and  with  Great  Britain. 

In  the  summer  of  1894  a  conference  of  delegates 
from  different  parts  of  the  Kmpire  was  held  at  Ottawa 
to  discuss  matters  of  common  interest.  Besides  the 
H<»n.  MacKoDzie  Bo  well,  who  was  chosen  President  of 
the  Conference,  and  other  representatives  of  Canada, 


RECENT   EVENTS.  415 

there  were  delegates  from  New  South  Wales,  Victoria, 
Queensland,  South  Australia,  Tasmania,  New  Zealand, 
and  Cape  Colony.  The  Earl  of  Jersey  also  was  pre- 
sent as  delegate  from  Great  Britain.  Among  the 
resolutions  adopted  was  one  in  favour  of  a  preferential 
tariff  between  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies,  that  is, 
a  lower  tariff  on  goods  imported  from  any  part  of  the 
Empire  than  from  foreign  countries.  Another  resolu- 
tion favoured  a  British  telegraph  cable  between  Canada 
and  Australia. 

In  the  autumn  of  1894  Sir  John  Thompson  visited 
Europe,  and,  after  spending  some  days  on 

„     J.  Death  of  Sir 

the  Continent,  he  returned  to  England.  johnThomp- 
On  December  12  the  startling  news  Avas 
received  in  Canada,  through  the  Atlantic  cable,  that 
Sir  John  had  on  that  day  died  suddenly  at  Windsor 
Castle,  one  of  the  Queen's  residences  in  England. 
In  consideration  of  his  services  in  the  Bering  Sea 
Arbitration,  as  well  as  of  his  commanding  ability  and 
skill  in  jurisprudence,  Sir  John  had  been  appointed 
member  of  the  Imperial  Privy,  Council,  and  he  was 
now  summoned  to  Windsor  Castle  by  the  Queen  to 
be  sworn  into  office  and  to  dine  with  her  Majesty. 
Shortly  after  the  oath  had  been  administered  by  her 
Majesty,  Sir  John  was  taken  ill  and  immediately 
expired.  Every  mark  of  honour  was  shown  to  the 
dead  Premier.  The  Queen,  with  her  own  hand,  laid 
memorial  wreaths  upon  his  coffin,  and  the  Imperial 
Government  sent  the  warship  Blenheim  to  bear  his 
remains  to  Halifax.  On  January  1,  1895,  the  ship 
arrived  at  Halifax,  where  the  interment  took  place 
with  all  the  solemn  pomp  of  a  r;tate  funeral. 

The  death  of  Sir  John  Thompson  was  recognised 


416  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

as  a  national  loss.  The  stroke  was  a  heavy  one  to 
Canada,  where  his  worth  \v;is  best  understood.  His 
colleagues  in  the  Ministry  and  his  supporters  felt 
that  they  had  lost  a  leader  who  was  worthy  of  their 
loyalty.  His  political  opponents,  too,  with  no  grudg- 
ing spirit  or  stinted  words,  recognised  his  merits. 
Xo  finer  tribute  has  been  offered  to  the  memory  of 
the  departed  statesman  than  the  glowing  and  poetic 
words  of  the  Hon.  Wilfrid  Laurier,  which  form  part 
of  an  address  delivered  in  the  Canadian  House  of 
Commons  on  April  18,  I8i>5.  In  referring  to  Sir 
John  Thompson's  death,  among  other  matters,  the 
eloquent  leader  of  the  Opposition  said  : 

"  When  a  man  is  struck  by  the  hand  of  death  in 
the  fulness  of  his  years,  after  a  long  career  of  great 
usefulness  to  himself  and  his  country,  there  remains 
a  feeling,  even  above  the  poignancy  of  grief,  that,  after 
all,  death  has  dealt  kindly  with  him.  Such  was  the 
death  of  Sir  John  Macdonald.  Hut  when  a  man  is 
struck  down  before  he  has  hardly  reached  the  sum- 
mit of  middle  life — before  he  has  attained  the  lull 
measure  of  his  power — when  his  friends  and  his 
country  could  look  to  him  for  years  of  useful  work, 
then,  sir,  death  carries  with  it  a  sense  of  inexpressible 
bitterness.  Such  was  the  death  of  Sir  John  Thomp- 
son. In  that  respect  it  is,  perhaps,  one  of  the  saddest, 
perhaps  altogether  the  saddest,  that  our  history 
records.  In  other  respects  I  look  upon  it  as  one  of 
the  most  glorious.  This  Canadian  Minister,  this  colo- 
nial statesman,  died  under  the  roof  of  the  old  Xorman 
kings,  when  he  had  just  been  sworn  in  as  a  member 
of  the  Privy  Council  of  that  mighty  Empire,  of  which 
these  old  Xorman  kings  laid  the  foundation,  but 


RECENT   EVENTS.  417 

which  has  reached  dimensions  which  their  wildest 
dreams  of  imagination  never,  I  am  sure,  contemplated. 
Perhaps  it  is  that  such  a  death,  under  such  circum- 
stances, sad  as  it  be,  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  sacred 
consecration  of  the  majestic  principle  of  the  unity  of 
the  Empire ;  unity  not  only  of  land  and  water,  unity 
not  only  of  islands  and  continents,  but  a  unity  of 
all  the  creeds  and  races  embraced  in  that  mighty 
Empire,  giving  to  all,  while  preserving  their  individu- 
ality, a  common  aim  and  a  common  aspiration,  and 
teaching  all  the  salutary  lesson  of  tolerance  and 
mutual  forbearance." 

The  Honourable  MacKenzie  Bowell,  who  had  held 
the  portfolio  of  Minister  of  Trade  and  The  Boweii  Ad- 
Commerce  under  Sir  John  Thompson,  ministration- 
succeeded  to  the  Premiership.  A  few  days  later  he 
received  from  the  Queen  the  honour  of  knighthood. 
The  most  perplexing  matter  with  which  he  had  to 
deal  was  the  Manitoba  school  question.  During  the 
session  of  Parliament  which  met  in  April  1895,  he 
announced,  in  very  decided  terms,  his  purpose  of  re- 
storing to  the  Catholic  minority  the  school  privileges 
of  which  they  had  been  deprived.  The  usual 
supporters  of  the  Government  were  divided  in 
their  views  on  this  question,  some  favouring  remedial 
action  by  the  Dominion  Parliament,  others  opposing 
coercive  measures.  A  few  days  before  the  close  of 
the  session  in  July,  the  Ministry  announced  that  Par- 
liament would  not  be  asked,  during  that  session,  to 
deal  with  this  matter.  It  was  also  stated  that  Par- 
liament would  be  convened  again  in  the  following 
January,  when,  if  no  satisfactory  arrangement  had 
been  made  by  the  local  authorities  of  Manitoba,  the 


418  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

Dominion  Government  would  cause  such  measures  to 
be  passed  as  would  remove  the  grievance  complained 
of.  Some  in  the  Government  ranks,  perhaps  fearing 
that  this  was  a  quiet  way  of  shelving  the  matter,  were 
ill-satisfied  with  the  announcement,  and  three  French 
members  from  the  Province  of  Quebec  withdrew  from 
the  Cabinet. 

The  year  passed  away,  and  the  Greenway  Govern- 
ment of  Manitoba  still  declined  to  restore  separate 
schools  or  to  make  satisfactory  compromise,  and  it 
now  appealed  to  the  people  of  the  province  to  endorse 
its  policy.  A  general  election,  held  early  in  1896, 
gave  the  Government  the  support  of  four-fifths  of  the 
Assembly.  Meanwhile,  as  had  been  promised,  the 
Dominion  Parliament  was  convened  on  January  2. 
In  the  speech  from  the  throne  it  was  stated  that  a 
remedial  Bill  would  l>e  submitted  during  the  session. 
Two  days  later,  and  before  the  reply  to  his  Excellency's 
speech  had  been  adopted,  the  House  and  the  whole 
country  were  startled  by  the  resignation  of  seven 
members  of  the  Cabinet.  The  retiring  members 
stated  that  their  action  was  not  due  to  any  dis- 
satisfaction with  the  policy  of  the  Liberal-Conserva- 
tive party,  but  to  the  feeling  that  the  Premier  did 
not  command  the  full  confidence  of  his  supporters. 
In  proof  of  their  position  they  pointed  to  the  fact  that 
he  had  not  been  able  to  till  the  vacancies  in  the  Cabi- 
net caused  by  the  withdrawal  of  the  members  from 
the  Province  of  Quebec.  Several  days  passed,  during 
which  the  business  of  the  House  was  suspended, 
and  the  spirit  of  discord  held  sway  amongst  those 
to  whom  had  been  assigned  the  duty  of  guiding  the 
ship  of  State.  Sir  MacKenzie  Bowel!  waited  upon 


RECENT   EVENTS.  419 

the  Governor-General  and  tendered  his  resignation  ; 
but  his  Excellency  refused  his  assent.  Finally  the 
breach  was  healed,  at  least  in  so  far  as  to  enable  the 
Government  to  go  on  with  the  business  of  the  session. 
.Six  of  those  who  had  withdrawn  from  the  Cabinet 
returned  to  their  places ;  Sir  Charles  Tupper,  Bart., 
entered  the  Government  as  Minister  of  State  ;  and 
Senator  Desjardin,  from  the  Province  of  Quebec, 
accepted  a  portfolio. 

A  few  weeks  later  the  Government  introduced  the 
promised  remedial  Bill  for  the  restoration  of  separate 
schools  to  the  Catholics  of  Manitoba.  Many  of  its 
supporters  declared  that  they  were  opposed  to  the 
principle  of  separate  schools,  but  that  they  voted  for 
the  measure  on  the  ground  that  it  restored  rights 
held  to  have  been  guaranteed  to  the  minority  when 
Manitoba  entered  the  Dominion.  The  Opposition,  led 
by  Mr.  Laurier,  claimed  that  careful  investigation 
should  be  made  by  a  Commission  of  Inquiry,  and 
that  the  friendly  offices  of  the  Dominion  Government, 
if  properly  exercised,  would  suffice  to  secure  the  re- 
moval of  all  grievances  by  the  Government  of  Mani- 
toba. Such  coercion  as  the  Bill  provided  for,  they 
held,  would  be  destructive  to  provincial  rights. 

While  the  debate  was  going  on,  the  Dominion 
Government  sent  delegates  to  Manitoba  for  the 
purpose  of  trying  to  make  an  amicable  settlement 
of  the  difficulty.  The  Government  of  Manitoba, 
however,  would  not  yield  to  the  demands  made, 
which  were  but  little  less  exacting  than  the  pro- 
visions of  the  remedial  Bill,  and  the  delegates  re- 
fused to  accept  what  was  offered.  The  mission  was 
a  failure.  Accordingly,  the  Bill  was  urged  forward, 


420  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

even  to  the  exclusion  of  voting  supplies  lor  the  year. 
It  passed  its  first  and  second  readings  with  lair 
majorities,  and  entered  upon  the  final  stage  of  Com- 
mittee. Every  step  was  blocked  by  the  Opposition, 
and  progress  was  slow.  The  five  years'  term  of 
Parliament  was  near  its  end,  and,  in  order  to  carry 
the  Bill  through  before  the  close,  the  sitting  of  the 
Commons  wjus  continued  day  and  night  without  inter- 
mission for  six  days ;  but  all  to  no  purjK)se.  The 
Government  was  finally  compelled  to  withdraw  the 
Bill  in  its  unfinished  state.  A  few  days  later  Parlia- 
ment was  dissolved,  and  the  people  were  called  on  to 
express  their  opinion  at  the  polls. 

Before  the  election,  Premier  Bowell  resigned,  and  a 
Election  ncw  t'abinet  was  formed,  with  Sir  Charles 

of  1896.  Tupper,  Bart.,  at  its  head.    The  Opposition 

was  led  by  the  Hon.  Wilfrid  Laurier.  The  canvass  was 
short  but  energetic.  Never  was  a  political  contest  in 
the  Dominion  fought  with  keener  interest.  Old  party 
lines  were  broken  down,  and  electors,  in  readjusting 
their  political  connection  to  suit  their  opinion  on  the 
question  of  the  hour,  often  found  themselves  in 
strange  company.  Orangemen,  enlisted  under  the 
banner  of  the  French  Catholic  leader,  were  ranged 
in  opposition  to  the  Protestant  leader  whom  vhe 
Catholic  hierarchy  championed  as  the  restore1"  of 
separate  schools  for  their  people  in  Manitoba.  Hoth 
sides  seemed  full  of  hope  and  confident  of  victory. 
The  Government,  in  espousing  the  cause  o'  the 
Roman  Catholics  of  Manitoba,  had  taken  the  Ask  of 
alienating  its  Protestant  supporters  throughout  the 
Dominion ;  but  might  it  not  hope  in  largo  measure 
to  balance  this  risk  by  the  prospect  of  increased  sup- 


RECEXT    EVENTS. 


421 


port  from  the  Catholic  Province  of  Quebec  ?  Strange 
to  tell,  to  the  Province  of  Quebec  the  Government 
owed  its  defeat.  Of  a  total  membership  of  sixty-five 
for  that  province,  about  fifty  of  those  elected  were 
supporters  of 
the  Opposition  ! 
Another  singu- 
lar feature  in 
the  election  was 
the  fact  that 
Manitoba,  which 
only  six  months 
before  had  elect- 
ed a  local  Legis- 
lature  almost 
unanimously  op- 
posed to  sepa- 
rate schools,  now 
gave  a  majority 
to  the  Govern- 
ment whose 
policy  it  had 
been  to  urge  the 
remedial  Bill 
with  all  the 
energy  it  could 
command. 

Shortly   after          THE  HIGHT  HON.  SIR  WILFUID  LAUKIEK. 

the  election  Sir 

Charles  Tupper  waited  on  the  Earl  of  Aberdeen  and 
tendered  the  resignation  of  himself  and  his  colleagues. 
His  Excellency  at  once  summoned  the  Hon.  Wilfrid 
Laurier,  leader  of  the  Liberal  party,  and  committed 


422  THE    DOMINION    OF  CANADA. 

to    him    the    task    of   forming   a    new    Government. 
Mr.     Laurier    deviated    from     the     usual 

The  Laurier  r         i       .  •  1 1  f  i 

Government,       course  01    selectlllff    colleagues    from    the 

June  1896  l  f  I  ir  ( 

members  elect  by  calling  in  men  from 
outside  for  some  of  the  most  important  positions  in 
his  Cabinet.  Sir  Oliver  Mowat,  the  Premier  of  the 
Provincial  Government  of  Ontario,  was  made  Minister 
of  Justice;  Hon.  William  S.  fielding,  the  Premier  of 
Nova  Scotia,  was  made  Minister  of  Finance :  ami  the 
Hon.  A.  G.  Blair,  Premier  of  New  Brunswick,  Minister 
of  Railways.  A  few  weeks  later  the  Hon.  Clifford  Sifton, 
who  had  held  the  office  of  Attorney-General  in  the 
Green  way  Government  of  Manitoba,  became  Minister 
of  the  Interior.  Thus  Mr.  Laurier,  himself  the  first 
French  Premier  of  the  Dominion,  formed  a  Govern- 
ment of  undoubted  strength  by  calling  to  his  aid  the 
ablest  and  most  experienced  statesmen  of  his  party 
throughout  the  Dominion. 

The  Governor-General's  late  advisers  were  in  ill- 
humour  when  they  bade  him  good-bye.  They  had 
desired  to  fill  vacancies  in  the  Senate  and  various 
public  offices  throughout  the  Dominion  by  the  ap- 
pointment of  their  friends  to  these  positions ;  but 
his  Excellency,  holding  that  a  retiring  Cabinet  should 
exercise  such  functions  only  in  so  far  as  the  public 
interest  demanded,  refused  his  assent. 

Parliament  met  a  few  weeks  after  the  election  for 
the  purpose  of  voting  supplies — that  is,  a  grant  of 
money  to  meet  the  year's  expenses  of  the  Govern- 
ment. Little  other  business  of  importance  was  done 
during  the  short  session. 

Mr.  Laurier  had  boldly  asserted  that  he  would 
make  a  peaceful  settlement  of  the  Manitoba  school 


RECENT   EVENTS.  .      423 

difficulty  within  six  months.  This  he  brought  about 
by  means  of  a  compromise,  which  fell  far  settlement  of 
short  of  the  demands  of  the  claimants  of  £fchooi°ba 
separate  schools.  According  to  the  terms  Questlon- 
agreed  on  in  the  autumn  of  1896  between  the  Federal 
Government  and  the  Government  of  Manitoba,  there 
are  to  be  no  separate  schools  in  the  province,  but  the 
pupils  of  all  religious  creeds  are  to  receive  secular 
education  together.  Provision  is  made,  however, 
whereby  separate  religious  instruction  may  be  given 
during  the  last  half-hour  of  the  daily  session  to  the 
pupils  of  different  creeds  by  clergymen  or  others 
chosen  for  this  purpose  according  to  the  wishes  of 
the  parents.  It  is  also  provided  that  schools  attended 
by  a  certain  number  of  Catholic  children  may  have 
at  least  one  Catholic  teacher  ;  and,  similarly,  schools 
attended  by  a  certain  number  of  non-Catholic  children 
may  have  a  non- Catholic  teacher. 

During  the  session  of  1897  Parliament  made  im- 
portant changes  in  the  tariff.  A  higher  changes  in  the 
duty  was  placed  on  tobacco,  alcoholic  Tanff<  l8«7 
liquors,  and  some  other  articles ;  on  various  com- 
modities the  duty  was  made*  less ;  while  in  many 
cases  specific  duties  were  changed  to  ad  valorem,  or 
the  reverse.  A  clause  in  the  Act  was  designed  to 
give  a  preference  to  British  goods  over  those  imported 
from  other  countries.  It  was  found,  however,  that 
this  feature  of  the  Act  had  wider  scope  than  had 
been  intended ;  for  through  Great  Britain's  trade 
treaties  of  many  years'  standing  with  Germany  and 
Belgium,  these  countries  could  claim  for  their  pro- 
ducts the  same  rate  of  tariff'  as  was  accorded  to 
Great  Britain. 


424  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

The    year     181»7    is    memorable    throughout    the 
British    Empire    as    the  sixtictli    year    of 

The  Queen's  r    .    ,  .  J 

Diamond  1^116611    V  ictoriii  s    reign,    being    popularly 

known  as  this  Queen's  "  Diamond  Jubilee." 
The  sixtieth  anniversary  of  her  accession  to  the 
throne  on  June  22nd  gave  to  Her  Majesty  a  longer 
reign  than  had  fallen  to  any  one  of  her  predecessors. 
The  event  was  celebrated  in  London  with  a  splendour 
which  eclipsed  everything  of  the  kind  that  the  world 
has  ever  witnessed,  and  with  an  enthusiasm  worthy 
of  the  loyal  subjects  of  a  noble  sovereign.  At  the 
celebration  Canada  was  highly  honoured  in  the  person 
of  her  Premier,  who  was  treated  with  the  most  dis- 
tinguished courtesy.  The  Queen  conferred  on  him 
the  honour  of  knighthood,  and  made  him  a  member 
of  her  Privy  Council.  Through  his  influence,  also, 
Her  Majesty's  Government  was  led  to  terminate  the 
trade  treaties  with  Germany  and  Belgium  in  order 
that  Canada's  trade  policy  might  take  full  effect. 

Much  interest  was  awakened  throughout  Canada, 
The  Klondike  as  we'l  as  m  tnc  United  States,  by  the 
Gold  Mines.  discovery  of  the  rich  Klondike  gold  fields 
along  the  Upper  Yukon  in  the  Xorth-West.  The 
precious  metal  is  obtained  from  surface  deposits  of 
gravel  brought  down  by  mountain  streams,  and  is 
separated  from  the  sand  by  washing.  The  Klondike 
region  is  difficult  of  access,  being  shut  in  from  the 
coast  by  high  mountains,  and,  situated  near  the 
Arctic  circle,  it  is  made  most  inhospitable  by  the 
severe  cold  that  prevails  throughout  eight  or  nine 
months  in  the  year. 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 

THE    PROVINCES    SINCE    CONFEDERATION. 

IN  Nova  Scotia  since  the  Union,  with  the  exception 
of   four    years    from-  1878    to    1882,   the 

T.  ,,  1111  •  c  Nova  Scotia. 

Liberals  have  held  the  reins  or  power. 
In  the  election  of  1867,  shortly  after  confederation, 
throughout  the  province  only  three  Union  men  were 
elected — Dr.  Tupper  for  the  House  of  Commons,  and 
Hiram  Blanchard  and  Henry  Pineo  for  the  local 
Assembly.  During  the  succeeding  eleven  years  three 
Liberal  Premiers — William  Annand,  W.  B.  Vail,  and 
P.  C.  Hill^were  in  succession  at  the  head  of  Govern- 
ment. The  Lieutenant-Governors  during  this  period 
were  General  Sir  Fenwick  Williams,  General  Doyle, 
Joseph  Howe,  and  Adams  G.  Archibald.  On  the 
death  of  Mr.  Howe,  hisS  old  political  rival,  Judge 
Johnston,  was  appointed  Lieutenant-Governor.  This 
venerable  statesman  was  then  residing  in  the  south 
of  France,  whither  he  had  gone  for  the  benefit  of  his 
health.  He  at  once  set  out  for  Nova  Scotia,  but  on 
his  arrival  in  England  failing  strength  compelled  him 
to  withdraw  his  acceptance  of  the  position.  The 
Hon.  A.  G.  Archibald  (Sir  Adams),  who,  as  Governor 
of  Manitoba,  had  already  done  good  service  to  the 
Dominion  in  organising  that  new  province,  was  then 
appointed  to  the  office.  Mr.  Archibald's  moderation 
and  unwavering  integrity  throughout  an  active  political 


425 


426  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

life  of  twenty  years  had  won  for  him  the  confidence 
and  respect  of  all  parties,  and  his  appointment  to  this 
high  office,  which  he  held  tor  ten  years,  was  received 
with  universal  satisfaction. 

In  the  Assembly  elected  in  1878  the  Liberal-Con- 
servatives had  a  large  majority,  and  a  new  Govern- 
ment was  formed,  of  which  the  Hon.  S.  H.  Holmes 
was  Premier,  and  John  S.  1).  Thompson  (Sir  John)  and 
Samuel  Creelman  were  prominent  members.  The  most 
important  measure  adopted  during  the  rule  of  this 
Government  was  the  County  Incorporation  Act,  which 
was  passed  by  the  Legislature  in  1878.  This  Act 
provides  a  Municipal  Council  for  qach  county  of  the 
province  for  the  management  of  local  afiairs,  such  ay 
maintenance  of  roads  and  bridges,  care  of  the  poor, 
appointing  of  constables,  road-masters,  assessors,  and 
other  officers.  The  members  of  the  Council  are 
elected  annually,  one  for  each  polling  district  of  the 
county.  The  principal  business  now  falling  to  the 
Council  was  formerly  transacted  in  part  by  the  Court 
of  Sessions,  which  was  made  up  of  the  magistrates  of 
the  county  and  the  Grand  Jury,  and  in  part  by  the 
Town  Meeting,  which  was  a  popular  assembly  of  the 
ratepayers. 

In  1882  a  new  Assembly  brought  the  Liberals 
again  into  power,  with  the  Hon.  W.  T.  Pipes  as  leader 
of  the  Government.  In  1884  Mr.  Pipes  retired,  and 
the  Hon.  W.  S.  Fielding  became  Premier,  Hon.  J.  W. 
Lougley  became  Attorney-General,  and  Hon.  Charles 
Church,  Commissioner  of  Mines  and  Works.  Twelve 
years  later,  in  180(5,  Mr.  Fielding  entered  the  Domi- 
nion Cabinet,  and  the  Hon.  Geo.H.  Murray  succeeded 
him  as  Premier  of  Nova  Scotia. 


THE    PROVINCES   SINCE    CONFEDERATION.     427 

Among  the  measures  adopted  during  the  Fielding 
administration  were  the  establishment  of  a  School  of 
Agriculture  in  affiliation  with  the  Normal  School  at 
Truro,  the  construction  of  iron  bridges  over  many  of 
the  larger  streams  which  cross  the  public  roads,  and 
an  Act  relating  to  coal-mining  in  Cape  Breton.  By 
this  last-named  Act  extensive  coal-fields  are  leased 
for  ninety-nine  years  to  a  syndicate  which  binds  itself 
to  pay  to  the  Government  a  royalty  of  twelve  and  a 
half  cents  per  ton  on  the  coal  it  sells  from  its  mines. 

With  the  exception  of  Quebec  and  Nova  Scotia,  the 
Legislatures  in  the  various  provinces  consist  of  a  single 
chamber,  the  members  of  which  are  elected  by  the 
people.  Bills  for  the  abolition  of  the  Legislative 
Council  have,  on  different  occasions,  been  adopted  by 
the  Nova  Scotia  Assembly,  but  they  have  always  met 
with  defeat  in  the  Council. 

Since  the  Free  Schools  Act  in  18G4  the  general 
education  of  the  people  has  made  steady  Education  in 
progress  in  Nova  Scotia.  The  average  of  Nova  Scotia- 
pupils  enrolled  in  the  public  schools  in  1 864,  the  year 
preceding  that  in  which  the  Act  was  passed,  was 
about  35,000  ;  in  1875  it  was  79,000  ;  in  1885,  84,000  ; 
in  1895,  89,000.  The  money  expended  in  support  of 
the  schools  during  these  years  was  respectively 
$150,000,  $594,000,  $642,000,  $8*1,000.  While  in 
some  of  the  provinces  educational  affairs  are  under 
charge  of  a  member  of  the  Government,  who  is  styled 
Minister  of  Education,  in  Nova  Scotia  these  matters 
are  placed  under  the  control  of  the  Council  of  Public 
Instruction,  which  consists  of  the  members  of  the 
executive  of  the  Provincial  Government.  The  Superin- 
tendent of  Education  is  the  Secretary  of  the  Council 


428 


THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 


and  acts  as  its  adviser  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  the 
educational  affairs  of  the  province.  The  first  three 
Superintendents  have  already  been  named.  Dr.  Rand 
was  succeeded  in  18G9  by  Rev.  A.  S.  Hunt,  A.M.,  who, 

on  his  death  in 
1877,  was  suc- 
ceeded by  David 
Allison,  LL.D. 
Of  scholarly  at- 
tainments and 
energetic  man- 
ner, Dr.  Allison 
gave  new  vigour 
to  the  academies 
and  high  schools 
of  the  province. 
On  his  resigna- 
tion in  1891,  he 
Avas  succeeded 
byA.H.MacKay, 
LL.D.,  whose  in- 
fluence is  speci- 
ally felt  in  the 
increased  atten- 
tion given  to  the 
study  of  natural 
science. 

The  history 
of    New    Bruns- 
wick is  very  similar  to  that  of  Nova  Scotia.     Of  recent 
events    the    abolition   of   the    Legislative 
Council  in   1891    is  the  most  important. 
On  the  resignation  of  the  Hon.  Andrew  S.  Blair,  in 


DAVID     A  LI.  IRON,    LL.D. 


New 

Brunswick. 


THE   PROVINCES   SINCE    CONFEDERATION.     420 

,  to  accept  the  portfolio  of  Minister  of  Railways 
in  the  Dominion  Cabinet,  the  Hon.  James  Mitchell 
became  Premier. 

For  several  years  Prince  Edward  Island  had  an 
elective  Legislative  Council.  In  1892  this  Prince  Edward 
branch  of  the  Legislature  was  conjoined  in  Island- 
one  house  with  the  members  of  the  Assembly.  Con- 
nection with  the  mainland  by  a  railway  tunnel  under 
Northumberland  Strait  is  a  question  of  commanding 
interest  in  the  island. 

The    Province    of   Quebec   stands    second    in    the 
Dominion   in  regard  to   population.      Its 

i      s^.       i  ft*  •          i  11  i     Quebec. 

capital,  Quebec   City,   is   the  oldest   and 
most  picturesque  city  in  the  Dominion.     Montreal  is 
the  largest  city,  and  has  the  most  extensive  commerce. 
Ontario  has  rich  and  varied  resources,  and  is  one 
of  the  most  prosperous  countries  in  the 

11          T     •        i  11-  •  i     Ontario. 

world.     It  is  the  wealthiest  province,  and 
contains  nearly  half  the  population  of  the  Dominion. 
Sir  Oliver  Mowat  was  Premier  of  the  province  from 
1872  until  1896,  when  he  resigned  to  become  Minister 
of  Justice  in  the  Dominion  Cabinet. 

Since  its  organisation  as  a  province  of  the  Domi- 
nion, Manitoba  has  made  rapid  progress  in 

i      •  -i  ir,™    Manitoba. 

population  and  material  wealth.  In  18/0 
its  inhabitants,  exclusive,  of  Indians,  numbered  about 
12,000,  the  larger  proportion  being  French  and  half- 
breeds.  In  1891  they  had  increased  to  150,000, 
of  whom  about  one -half  .came  from  the  eastern 
provinces,  chiefly  from  Ontario.  Since  the  census 
of  1891  the  number  of  inhabitants  has  been  greatly 
augmented  by  immigration.  The  city  of  Winnipeg, 
whose  population  in  1870  did  not  exceed  a  few  him- 


430  THE   DOMINION   OF   CANADA. 

dreds,  at  the  cud  of  twenty-five  years  numbered 
nearly  40,000.  Manitoba  and  the  North- West  Terri- 
tories are  the  great  wheat-producing  countries  of  the 
Dominion. 

Since  its  union  with  the  Dominion,  British  Columbia 
British  nas  hfrd  a  prosperous  career.     Its  Govern- 

ment has  expended  large  amounts  on 
public  works  and  on  railways,  by  which  new  vigour 
has  been  imparted  to  mining  and  other  industries. 
The  province  is  rich  in  gold  and  other  minerals.  In 
1892  Premier  Robson  died  suddenly  in  England, 
whither  he  had  gone  on  public  business.  He  was 
succeeded  in  the  Premiership  by  the  Hon.  Theodore 
Davie.  In  1893  the  Legislature  voted  $000,000  for 
new  Parliament  buildings  to  be  completed  in  1 395. 
In  1882  the  North- West  Territory  was  divided  into 
the  four  districts  —  Assiuiboia,  Alberta, 
West  Terri-  Saskatchewan,  and  Athabasca  —  which 
form  the  beginning  of  future  provinces. 
In  the  meantime,  however,  these  districts  were  left 
under  one  Government.  In  1883  the  seat  of  Govern- 
ment was  removed  from  Battleford  to  Regina,  on 
the  Canada  Pacific  Railway.  In  188G  the  Territory 
was  given  representation  in  the  Dominion  House 
of  Commons  and  Senate,  and  two  years  later  the 
Council  was  abolished  and  a  representative  Assembly 
was  elected  in  its  place.  By  recent  changes  the  local 
government  has  been  so  modified  that  it  now  differs 
little  from  that  of  the  provinces. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

THE    GOVERNMENT    OF    CANADA. 

CANADIANS  may  well  be  proud  of  their  civil  privi- 
leges ;  for  in  no  country  of  the  world  can  a  people  be 
found  who  can  more  justly  claim  the  possession  of 
self-government.  Their  government  is  in  truth  "  of 
the  people,  for  the  people,  and  by  the  people."  They 
have  not,  indeed,  the  choice  of  their  Governors  ;  but 
a  Governor  in  Canada,  like  the  Sovereign  of  Great 
Britain,  has  little  real  power.  In  his  name  are  done 
many  things  for  which  he  is  only  formally  responsible. 
He  is  said,  for  example,  to  choose  his  Ministry  or 
Executive.  In  reality  he  does  nothing  of  the  sort. 
This  body  is  called  into  being  by  the  people's  repre- 
sentatives ;  it  is  completely  under  their  control,  and 
at  their  behest  it  suffers  dissolution.  The  Ministry  is 
selected  from  the  Legislature,  and  it  must  have  the 
confidence  of  the  majority  in  the  elective  branch- 
that  is,  of  the  House  of  Commons  or  of  the  Assembly. 
If  at  any  time  the  people's  representatives,  becoming 
dissatisfied  with  its  policy,  pass  a  vote  of  want  of 
confidence,  it  must  resign.  The  Governor  then 
summons  some  leading  member  of  the  Legislature 
who  belongs  to  the  party  having  the  majority,  to 
form  a  new  Ministry.  The  member  thus  called  on, 
after  conferring  with  his  political  friends,  selects  for 


431 


432  THE    DOMINION   OF   CANADA. 

his  colleagues  such  other  members  of  the  Legislature 
as  lire  thought  to  command  the  highest  confidence 
of  the  party. 

The  Governor  is  not  supposed  to  have  any  policy  of 
his  own.  By  a  convenient  fiction  he  is  spoken  of  as 
appointing  officers  under  the  Government,  sucVi  as 
sheriffs,  post-masters,  and  customs  officials;  or  he  is 
said  to  call  the  Legislature  together,  to  adjourn,  or 
prorogue,  or  dissolve  the  House.  All  such  matters  are 
really  the  work  of  the  Ministry.  The  Governor  is 
bound  to  act  according  to  the  advice  of  his  Ministry; 
henoc  he  is  relieved  of  all  official  responsibility.  If  he 
refuses  to  follow  the  advice  of  his  Ministry,  this  body 
resigns.  Future  action  then  depends  wholly  on  the 
way  in  which  the  people's  representatives  regard  the 
conflict  between  the  Governor  and  his  advisers.  If 
they  approve  of  the  Governor's  action,  they  will 
support  a  new  Ministry  that  is  willing  to  take  the 
responsibility  of  his  action ;  if  they  do  not  approve 
of  it,  the  Governor  must  recall  his  Ministry  and  follow 
its  advice.  It  will  thus  be  seen  fliat  the  Ministry 
has  in  reality  but  one  master,  and  that  is  the  elective 
branch  of  the  Legislature. 

A  change  of  Government,  that  is,  of  Ministry,  often 
follows  a  general  election.  It  frequently  happens  that 
the  people  become  disaffected  towards  a  Government 
on  account  of  some  feature  in  its  policy.  If  a  general 
election  takes  place  under  such  conditions,  a  majority 
of  the  members  elected  will  probably  be  adverse  to 
the  Ministry.  The  members  of  this  body  are  then 
forced  to  retire,  and  a  new  Executive  is  formed  in  the 
manner  before  stated. 

In  addition  to  their  general  duties  as  members  of 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  CANADA.      433 

the  Executive,  some  members  hold  what  are  called 
departmental  offices,  or  have  charge  of  certain  depart- 
ments of  public  business,  such  as  matters  connected 
with  the  Post  Office,  Public  Works,  Agriculture, 
Education,  Militia,  and  Fisheries.  A  Minister  who 
holds  such  office  is  said  to  have  a  portfolio,  and  he 
receives  a  salary  from  the  public  funds.  On 
assuming  office  he  is  required  to  return  to  his  con- 
stituents for  re-election. 

Although,  as  stated  above,  the  Governor-General 
has  little  power,  he  possesses  very  great  influence, 
through  which  he  may  mould  public  opinion,  and 
the  Dominion  of  Canada  has  been  fortunate  in  having 
the  highest  official  place  in  its  Government  occupied 
by  men  of  eminent  ability  and  character.  In  the 
friction  that  often  arises  from  the  conflict  of  political 
parties,  provincial  interests,  differences  of  race  and 
religion,  and  from  other  sources,  there  is  evident  ad- 
vantage in  having  in  this  high  position  one  wholly 
unbiased,  in  whose  impartiality  and  judgment  all 
have  confidence. 

In  the  history  of  the  Dominion,  on  different 
occasions,  agitation  which  threatened  the  peace  of 
the  country  has  been  calmed  by  judicious  action 
on  the  part  of  the  Governor-General.  A  notable  in- 
stance is  shown  in  the  good  offices  of  Lord  Duflferin 
in  conciliating  British  Columbia.  The  British  noble- 
men who  have  represented  the  Sovereign  in  Canada 
have,  as  a  rule,  performed  the  duties  of  their  office 
with  admirable  judgment  and  tact,  and  they  have 
done  much  to  promote  the  interests  of  the  country. 
Through  their  personal  qualities,  enriched  by  high 
culture  and  scholarship,  and  their  broad  sympathies, 

2  E 


434  THE    DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

they  have  wielded  an  elevating  influence,  and  given 
encouragement  to  science,  literature,  and  art. 

As  was  the  case  in  the  various  provinces  before 
Confederation,  the  Dominion  is  ruled  by  party  govern- 
ment. The  two  great  parties,  as  already  stated,  are 
known  as  Liberals  and  Liberal-Conservatives,  the  one 
party  or  the  other  holding  power  according  as  its 
policy  secures  the  favour  of  a  majority  of  the  people. 
While  grave  evils  arise  out  of  the  system,  it  is  diffi- 
cult, and  perhaps  impracticable,  to  devise  anything 
better  to  take  its  place.  It  should,  however,  be  the 
constant  care  of  our  statesmen,  as  it  should  be  the 
endeavour  of  all  true  patriots,  to  guard  against  these 
evils,  and  resist  them  with  unyielding  purpose. 
Perhaps  the  vicious  outcome  hardest  to  repress,  and 
of  most  baneful  tendency,  is  that  expressed  by  the 
false  maxim,  "  To  the  victors  belong  the  spoils." 
Through  selfish  interest  electors  are  induced  to  sup- 
port their  party,  not  because  of  the  soundness  of  its 
principles  and  the  purity  of  its  administration,  but 
because  of  the  hope  that  in  its  exaltation  to  power 
some  private  beneBt  may  accrue  to  themselves. 

It  will  be  readily  understood  that  the  form  of 
government  here  described  would  not  be  suited  to 
certain  conditions  of  society.  No  greater  evil  could 
befall  an  ignorant,  unpatriotic,  or  immoral  people, 
than  to  be  thus  endowed  with  the  power  of  self- 
government.  If  a  people  lack  intelligence,  they 
easily  become  the  dupes  of  designing  demagogues, 
and  if  they  lack  principle  and  patriotism,  they  are 
ever  ready  to  barter  their  country  for  gold.  No 
position  in  our  country  demands  more  wisdom  and 
integrity  than  that  of  the  legislator  and  the  states- 


THE    GOVERNMENT    OF   CANADA.  435 

man.  The  privilege  of  choosing  such  men  should  be 
regarded  as  a  most  sacred  trust,  to  be  used  under  a 
deep  sense  of  responsibility.  The  man  who  sells  his 
vote  should  be  deprived  of  the  privilege  which  he  so 
criminally  abuses. 

We  have  briefly  traced  the  history  of  our  country 
through  a  period  of  nearly  four  hundred 

,  *        ,.  •        ,,        rc         e          Conclusion. 

years — a  long  time,  even  in  the  me  ot  a 
nation.  The  progress  made  seems  scarcely  com- 
mensurate with  this  long  period  of  growth.  Different 
causes  have  tended  to  hinder  more  rapid  develop- 
ment. For  over  a  hundred  years  at  the  beginning, 
as  we  have  seen,  systematic  colonisation  was  wholly 
neglected,  while  explorers  and  adventurers  came  and 
went,  leaving  the  country  as  they  found  it.  For 
another  hundred  and  fifty  years  the  struggle  for 
supremacy  between  France  and  England  kept  matters 
in  a  state  of  unrest  and  uncertainty,  so  that  little  over 
a  century  has  elapsed  since  the  ownership  of  this 
country  was  finally  settled.  Then,  during  the  greater 
portion  of  English  rule,  or  until  180 7,  the  several 
provinces  remained  isolated  from  each  other,  with 
comparatively  little  influence,  national  sentiment,  or 
community  of  interest.  Meanwhile,  a  neighbouring 
country,  consolidated  as  one  people,  with  strong 
national  vitality  and  absorbing  power,  drew  away 
from  the  provinces  many  of  their  natural  elements 
of  growth. 

In  the  meantime,  however,  the  provinces  were 
gathering  strength,  though  slowly  and  obscurely. 
They  were  striking  root  downward  and  accumulating 
energy,  which,  under  the  present  more  favourable  con- 
ditions, is  developing  an  abundant  fruitage.  By  toil 


436  THE    DOMINION    OF   CANADA. 

and  self-sacrifice  our  fathers  have  loft  us  a  noble 
inheritance  to  cultivate  and  adorn.  The  Dominion  of 
Canada  is  called  upon  to  compete,  in  industrial,  in- 
tellectual, and  moral  progress,  with  the  nations  of  the 
world.  The  resources  and  possibilities  of  our  country 
should  stimulate  us  to  cultivate  those  habits  of  in- 
dustry, intelligence,  and  virtue,  without  which  neither 
individual  nor  national  greatness  is  possible. 


APPENDIX. 


THE  value  of  goods  exported  from  the  Dominion  of 
Canada  in  1896  was  $121,013,852  ;  the  value  of  goods 
imported  was  $118,011,508. 

The  trade  of  the  Dominion  is  chiefly  with  Great 
Britain,  the  United  States,  the  West  Indies,  Ger- 
many, Newfoundland,  France,  Belgium,  Holland, 
Italy,  China,  Japan,  and  the  various  countries  of 
South  America. 

The  revenue  of  the  Dominion  is  about  $36,000,000. 

The  public  debt  is  about  $258,000,000,  the  greater 
part  of  which  has  been  incurred  in  the  construction 
of  railways  and  canals.  The  expenditure  on  railways 
in  construction  by  the  Government,  and  in  subsidies 
to  companies,  before  and  since  Confederation,  amounts 
to  $233,542,000.  The  total  number  of  miles  of  railway 
in  the  Dominion  in  1896  was  16,270,  of  which  the 
Government  owned  1397  miles.  The  amount  expended 
on  canals  to  June  1894  was  $62,237,000. 

The  principal  canals  are  those  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 
above  Montreal ;  the  Welland  Canal,  between  Lakes 
Ontario  and  Erie ;  the  St.  Mary's  Canal  (completed  in 
1895),  between  Lakes  Huron  and  Superior ;  the  Rideau 
Canal,  between  Ottawa  and  Kingston ;  the  canals  of 
the  Ottawa,  Richelieu,  and  Trent  rivers ;  and  the  St. 

437 


438  APPENDIX. 

Peter's  Canal,  in  Cape  Breton.  The  nmals  arc  owned 
by  the  Government.  Tin-  St.  Lawrence  Hiver  and  the 
Great  Lakes,  with  their  connecting  rivers  and  canals, 
form  a  water  route  to  Port  Arthur,  on  Lake  Superior, 
2200  miles  from  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 


APPENDIX. 


439 


CENSUS  OF  THE  DOMINION  IN  1891. 


Nova  Scotia   . 

New  Brunswick 

Prince  Edward  Island    . 

Quebec  .... 

Ontario  .... 

Manitoba 

British  Columbia  . 

Territories 

Total  of  Dominion 


Area  in  Square 
Miles. 

20,550 

28,100 

2,000 

.  .227,500 
.  219,650 
64,066 
.  382,300 
.  2,371,481 

.  3,315,647 


Population. 

450,396 

321,263 

109,078 

1,488,535 

2,114,321 

152,506 

98,173 

66,799 


4,833,239 


POPULATION  OF  CITIES  AND  TOWNS  HAVING 
OVER  5000  INHABITANTS. 


Halifax,  N.  S.      . 

38,556 

Kingston 

.     19,264 

St.  John,  N.  B.    . 

39,179 

Guelph 

.     10,539 

Fredericton  . 

6,502 

St.  Catherines 

.       9,170 

Moncton 

8,765 

Brantford    . 

.     12,753 

Charlottetown,  P.  E.  I. 

11,374 

Belleville     . 

.       9,914 

Montreal,  Que.     . 

216,650 

St.  Thomas  . 

.     10,370 

Quebec 

63,090 

Stratford 

.       9,501 

Trois  Rivieres   (Three 

Chatham 

.       9,052 

Rivers)     . 

8,334 

Brockville   . 

.       8,793 

7301 

Peterborough 

9,717 

Sherbrooke  . 

10,110 

Windsor 

.     10,322 

Hull     .        .         .   '     . 

11,265 

Port  Hope   . 

.       5,042 

St.  Henrie   .         .     ~   . 

13,415 

Woodstock  . 

.       8,612 

Sorel    .... 

6,669 

Gait     . 

7  535 

St.  Hyacinthe 

7,016 

Lindsay 

.       6,081 

Toronto,  Ont, 

181,220 

Winnipeg,  Man.  . 

.     25.642 

Hamilton     . 

48,980 

Victoria,  Brit.  Col. 

,     16,841 

Ottawa 

44,154 

Vancouver  . 

.     13,685 

London 

31,977 

New  Westminster 

.       6,641 

440 


APPENDIX. 


RELIGIOUS   DENOMINATIONS   IN   CANADA. 


Baptists 

Free-Will  Baptists 
Roman  Catholics. 
Church  of  England 
Congregationalists 
Lutherans    . 


Baptists 

Free-Will  Baptists 
Roman  Catholics . 
Church  of  England 
Congregationalists 
Lutherans    . 


Adventists  . 
Baptists 

Free-Will  Baptists 
Roman  Catholics 
Church  of  England 
Congregationalists 
Disciples 


Adventists  . 
Baptists 

Free-Will  Baptists 
Brethren 
Roman  Catholics . 
Church  of  England 
Congregationalists 
Disciples      .        . 


NOVA  SCOTIA. 

.     72,731       Disciples 

1,728 

.     10,377      Methodists  . 

.     54,195 

.   122,452       Presbyterians 

.   108,952 

.     64,410      Salvation  Anuv   . 

.       1,377 

.       3,112 

Others 

.       5,181 

.       5,882 

NEW  BRUNSWICK. 

- 

.     54,960 

Disciples 

1,003 

.     24,674 

Methodists  . 

.     35,504 

.   115,961 

Presbyterians 

.     40,«39 

.     43,095 

Salvation  Army  . 

993 

1,036 

Others  . 

.       3,021 

377 

QUEBEC. 

.       3,364 

Jews    . 

.       2,703 

.       6,854 

Lutherans    . 

.       1,385 

.        1,127 

Methodists  . 

.     39,544 

1,291,709 

Presbyterians 

.     52,673 

.     75,472 

Salvation  Army  . 

297 

.       4,296      Others 

.       9,061 

20 

ONTARIO. 

447      Jews    . 

.       2,501 

.     96,9(59 

Lutherans    . 

.     45,029 

7,869 

Methodists  . 

.  654,033 

.       9,343 

Presbyterians 

.  453,147 

.  358,300 

Quakers 

.       4,350 

.  385,999 

Salvation  Army  . 

.     K',320 

.     16,879 

Others 

.     60,129 

.       9,106 

APPENDIX. 


441 


PRINCE  EDWARD  ISLAND. 


Baptists 

Free-Will  Baptists 
Roman  Catholics . 
Church  of  England 
Congregationalists 


Baptists 

Roman  Catholics . 

Church  of  England 

Congregationalists 

Lutherans    . 


Baptists 

Roman  Catholics . 
Church  of  England 
Lutherans    . 
Methodists  . 


Baptists 

Roman  Catholics . 
Church  of  England 
Lutherans    . 


Adventists  . 
Baptists 

Free-Will  Baptists 
Brethren 

Congregationalists 
Roman  Catholics 
Church  of  England 
Disciples 
Jews    . 
Lutherans    = 


.       5,749 

Disciples 

512 

Methodists  . 

.     47,837 

Presbyterians 

d      .       6.646 

Salvation  Army  . 

li    |   Others 

MANITOBA. 

.     15,829 

Methodists  . 

.     20,571 

Presbyterians 

d      .     30,852 

Salvation  Army  . 

.       1,815 

Jews    . 

.       6,545 

Others 

BRITISH  COLUMBIA. 

2,960       Presbyterians 

.     20,843      Congregationalists 

d      .     23,619      Salvation  Army  . 

2,083   |  Jews    . 

.     14,297      Others 

TERRITORIES. 

.       1,397 

Methodists  . 

.     13,008 

Presbyterians 

1      .     14,166 

Salvation  Army  . 

.       2,676 

Others 

DOMINION  OF  CANADA. 

.       6,345 

Methodists  . 

.  257,449 

Presbyterians 

,       .     45,116 

Protestants  . 

.     11,637 

Quakers 

.     28,157 

Salvation  Army  . 

1,992,017 

Tunkers 

d      .  646,059 

Universalists 

.     12,763 

Unitarians  • 

.       6,414 

Others 

.     63.982   j 

531 

13,596 

33,072 

180 

944 


28,437 

39,001 

399 

743 

8,036 


15,284 
775 
298 
277 

17,736 


7,980 

12,507 

85 

15,065 


847,765 

755,326 

12,253 

4,650 

13,949 

1,274 

3,186 

1,777 

123,111 


INDEX. 


ABBOT,  Sir  John,  407,  408 
Abercrombie,  General,  150 
Acadians,  10(5,  112,  114,  124,  128,  \ 

138,  181 

Acadie,  OS,  95,  102 
Accommodation,  the,  209 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  Treaty  of,  120 
Alabama  Claims,  301,  379 
Alexander,  Sir  William,  38 
Algonquins,  40 
Allison,  David  M.,  428 
America,  3,  14,  18 
American  Revolution,  182 
Anjericus  Vespucius,  18 
Amherst,  General,  153 
Archibald,  Sir  Adams  G.,  339, 375, 

370,  425 

Archibald,  S.  G.  W.,  282 
Argall,  Captain,  30 
Arnold,  Benedict,  180,  190 
Ashburton  Treaty,  313 
Astoria,  203 

BAGOT,  Sir  Charles,  302 
Baldwin,   Robert,    207,   208,    209, 

294,  302 
Baldwin-Lafontaine  Government, 

302,  305,  322 
Ballot,  voting  by,  390 
Baptiste,  95 
Barclay,  Captain,  232 
Barry  Riot,  the,  279 
Batoche,  401 

Beauharnois,  Governor,  109 
Beausdjour,  Fort,  129,  137 
Beaver  Dams,  2 SO 

—  skins,  75 

Bering  Sea  Arbitration,  410,  411 
Berlin  Decree,  217 


Biard,  36 

Bidwell,  Marshall,  207,  294 

Biencourt,  35,  30 

Big  Bear,  402 

Bigot,  Intendant,  130,  152 

Blake,  Edward,  384 

Blanshard,  Richard,  347 

Bolton,  Major,  374 

Boston  Tea  Party,  184 

Boucherville,  408 

Bougainville,  150 

Boundary  disputes,  340,  347,  349, 

380 
Bowell,  Sir  MacKenzie,  417,  418, 

420 

Braddock,  General,  133 
"Brandy  Dispute,"  280 
Brant,  Molly,  130 
Brebeuf,  49 
Breda,  Treaty  of,  09 
British  Columbia,  345,    347,  348, 

349,    377,    378,    389,    430,    438, 

440 
British  North  America  Act,  357- 

300 

Brock,  Sir  Isaac,  221,  222,  226 
Brown,  George,  323,  320,  329,  330, 

300 

CABOT,  John  and  Sebastian,  10, 17 

Camosin,  Fort,  347 

Campbell,  Sir  Archibald,  278 
-  Sir  Colin,  280,  307 

Canada,  188  ;  debt  of,  437;  govern- 
ment of,  431-434;  railways  of, 
437 ;  religions  of,  439,  440 ; 
revenue  of,  437  ;  trade  of,  437 

Canada,  Land  Company,  244 
—  Temperance  Act,  390 


444 


INDEX. 


Canadian    Pacific    Railway,    378, 

380,  396 
Canals,  24H 
Canso,  114 

Cape  Breton,  106.  249 
Carleton,    Sir    Guy    (Lord     Dor- 
chester), 187,  196 
Carleton,  Thomas,  105 
Carlier,  Jacques,  21 

Sir  George  E.,  32s,  331,  372, 

383 

Cataraqui,  Fort,  HI  (««•  Frontenar) 
Catholic  Emancipation,  253 
Cavalier,  Robert,  HI 
'Jhamplain,  28,  32,  34,  30-52 
Charlotti-town  Convention,  353 
Chateaugay,  battle  of,  233 
Channcey,  Commodore,  228 
Cham  in,  27 
Cheiapeake,  the,  231 
Cholera  in  Canada,  244 
Chrystler's  Farm,  battle  of,  235 
Church,  Benjamin,  07,  102 

—  Charles,  426 
Clergy  Reserves,  252,  270,  321 
Colbo'rne,  Sir  John,  270,  201 
Colebrooke,  Sir  William,  312 
Coles,  George,  317,  336 
Collins,  Frank.  270 
Colonists,  English,  !>1 
Columbian  Exhibition,  4OH 
Columbus,  Christopher,  10 
Company  of  New  France,  40,  51 
Confederation,  341,  352,  353,  354, 

356 

Constitutional  Act,  107 
Continental  Congress,  185 
Courcelle,  Daniel,  71 
Court  of  Appeal,  300 
Craig,  Sir  James,  20S,  210 
Creelman,  Samuel,  426 
Crowne,  \Vi!liam,  69 
Crown  Point,  137,  1*6 
Customs    and    social    condition, 
212 

DALHOUSIE,  Earl  of,  273,  275 
Daniel,  Pere,  58 
D'Anville,  116 
Daulac  or  Dollard,  64 
D'Aulnay,  66,  67 


Dawson,  Sir  William,  340,  342 

Dtarborne,  General,  226 

De  Cal  lie-res,  98 

Do  Chaste,  Ay  mar,  27 

Deerfield,  101 

I  )e  la  Roche,  20 

De  la  Tour,  Charles,  66 

—  Claude,  66 
I).-  Lery,  21 

De  Me"zy,  Saffray,  71 

De  Monts,  20,  30 

Dennonville.  H4,  *6,  87 

D'E-tournelle,  117 

De  Tracy,  71 

Dieskau^  132 

Disputed  territory,  2*1,  313 

Dominion  of  Canada,  357-368 

Dongan,  83 

Donnacona,  23 

Dorchester,   Lord,  187,    188,    1%, 

208 

"Double  Shuffle,"  331 
Douglas,  Sir  James,  348-351 
Doyle,  Gmeral,  425 
Draper  Ministry,  303,  304 
Drucour,  13H,  14* 
Dufferin,  Earl  of,  3H5,  395 
Duquesne,  Fort,  151 

—  Governor,  131 
Duquesnel.  114 

Durham,  Earl  of,  202,  203,  299 
Dustan,  Hannah,  96 
Duvivier,  114 

EARTHQfAKES  in  Canada,  65 
Education,  245,  310,  341-343,380, 

427,  428 

Edward,  Duke  of  Kent,  204 
Election,  first  Dominion,  368 

-  Law,  390 
Elgin,  Lord,  304,  318,  326 

FALKLAND,  Lord,  308 

Familv  Compact,  251,  266 

Fenians,  363,  364,  377 

Feudal  system  in  Canada,  76,  322, 

327 

Fielding,  William  S.,  422,  426 
"Fifty-four-Fortv  or  Fight."  346 
Fisher,  Charles,  312,  313,  335 
Fisheries,  380,  390,  391 


INDEX. 


445 


Fitzgibbon,  Lieutenant,  280 
Five  Nations,  the,  41 
Fl'eche,  35 

Forrester,  Rev.  Alexander,  341 
Fort  Camosin,  346 

—  Frontenac,  81,  150 

-  la  Tour,  67 

—  Lawrence,  129 
—  le  Joye,  149 

—  Louis,  37 

-  Pitt,  151 
Victoria,  346 

—  William  Henry,  95,  145 

GALISSONIERE,  130 

Germain-en -Laye,  Treaty  of,  51 

Ghent,  Treaty  of,  241 

Gordon,  Governor,  355 

Gosford,  Lord,  276,  291 

Gourlay,  Robert,  267 

Government,  early,  in  the  pro- 
vinces, 199 

Government  of  Great  Britain,  285 

Governor-General,  his  power  and 
influence,  431-433 

Grand  Pre,  119,  139 

HALIBURTON,  Thomas  C.,  253 
Halifax,  settlement  of,  122 
Harvey,  Colonel  (Sir  John),  229, 

279,  310 
Head,  Sir  Edmund  W.,  326 

Sir    Francis    Bond,  .  271, 

294 

Henry  the  Navigator,  9 
Hill,  P.  C.,  425 
Ilincks,    Sir    Francis,    302,    323, 

324 

Hochelaga,  23 
Holbourne,  Admiral,  144 
Holmes,  Admiral,  159 

—  Simon  H.,  426 
Howe,  Captain,  129 

-  Joseph,   281-283,    307,    335, 
337,  356,  357,  370,  383,  425 

Hudson's  Bay  Company,  85,  86, 

257,  371 

Hull,  General,  222 
Hunt,  Rev.  A.  S.,  428 
Huntington,  385 
Hurons,  the,  40,  42,  47,  57,  58 


IBERVILLE,  W 

Indians  of  Nova  Scotia,  125,  126 
Indian  tribes,  40 
Intercolonial  Conference,  414 
Invasion  of  Canada,  186 
Iroquois,  the,  40,  56 

JAMESTOWN,  36 

Jesuits,  the,  36,  54,  62,  76 

Estates  Act,  403 

Johnson,  Sir  William,  135, 136.  154 
Johnstone,    James    W.     (Judge), 

308,  335,  337,  339,  425       . 
Jolliet,      79 
Jonquiere,  118,  130 
Jumonville,  132 

KEMPT,  Sir  James,  273 
Kennedy,  Arthur,  351 
King's  College,  204 
Kirk,  David,  50 
Kondiaronk,  88,  99 

LA  BARRE,  83 

La  Chine,  H9 

Lacolle,  238 

La  Corne,  128 

Lafontaine,  302 

La  Jonquiere,  117,  118 

Lake  Champlain  District,  map  of, 

136 

Lake  Country,  map  of,  227 
Lalemant,  59 
LaSalle,  81,  82 

La  Tour,  Charles  de,  37,  66-69 
—  Claude  de,  37,  66 

—  Fort,  67 

Laurier,  Sir  Wilfrid,  416,  420-424 
Laval,  Bishop,  (52,  63,  70 
Lawrence,  Fort,  129 

—  Major,  129,  138 
Le  Borgne,  68 

Le  Loutre,  126,  129,  138 
Leopard,  the,  218 
Lescarbot,  33,  34 
Levis,  143,  156 
Lincoln,  President,  363 
Liquor  traftic,  63,  75 
Long  house,  Indian,  43 
Longley,  J.  W.,  426 
Long  Sault,  64 


446 


INDEX. 


Lome,  Marquis  of,  395,  397 

London, 111 

Louis  XIV.,  74 

Louisburg,  111,  115,  1  u; 

Lower  Canada,  11»7,  19X,  207,  253, 

272-274,  290-294 
loyalists,  192 
Lundy's  Lane,  battle  of,  23X 

MAcCl'LLOCii,  Thomas,  D.I).,  246 
Macdonald,  John  Sand  field,  333, 

3X3,  3X4 
Macdonald,  Sir  John  A.,  325,  327, 

333,  366,  3X7,  392,  ;«»-».  405 
McDougall,   William,   371-373 
Macbillimackinac    (Mackinaw  or 

Mackinac),  222 
Mai-Kay,  A.  H.,  42x 
MacKenzie,  Hon.  Alexander,  367. 

3X4,  3X6-3XX.  392-394,  405,  4(1(1 
MacKenzic,    Sir   Alexander,    26O, 

2»!1 
MacKenzie,   William  Lyon,   267- 

270,  272,  294  29X 
McNab,  Colonel  (Sir  Allan),  295, 

326 
McGee,  Thomas  d'Arcy,  333,  36X, 

3ft) 

Magellan,  lit 
Maisonneuve,  55 
Manitoba,  375,  411-413,  41X-421, 

42!>,  43X,  440 
Miirch,  Colonel,  103 
Maroons,  ihe,  205 
Marquette,  7!» 
Marys,  the  three,  55 
Mascarene,  Paul,  113,  114.  118 
Massacre  at  Grand  Pre,  1111 
Mason  and  Slidell,  360 
Masse,  36 
Membertou,  34,  35 
Mercier,  4<>7.  40x 
Mctcalfe,  Sir  Charles,  303 
Mines    and    minerals    of    N.   S., 

337 

Miramichi  fire,  250 
Mississippi,  the,  discovery  of,  79 
Mohawks,  the,  72,  73 
Molson,  John,  209 
Monck,  Lord,  333 
Monckton,  Colonel,  137,  1  in,  153 


Montcalm,  Marquis  of,  143,  145, 

157 

Montgomery,  lx»;,  1x7,  18X,  ix'.i 
Montmagny,  53 
Montreal,  46,  55,  75,  325 
Moravian  Town,  battle  of,  2: '.2 
Mowat,  Sir  Oliver,  32'.),  3:.: 

3X4 

Munroe,  Colonel,  145 
Murray,  General.  153 

—  George,  426 

NANAIMO,  34X 
National  policy,  392,  395 
Nilscin.  Dr.  Wolfred,  2!H),  291 
New  Urtinswick,  195,  205,277.  31 1- 

314,  353-356,  3X4),  3X1,  438-440 
New  Caledonia,  345 
New  England,  (>O,  61 
New  Orleans,  241 
New  York,  72 
Niagara,  210,  236 
Nicholson,  104,  113 
Noble,  Colonel,  119 
Northmen,  the,  7 
North-West,  the,   370,  372,  375, 

393,  43X,  444) 
North-West   Fur   Company,   257, 

265 
Nova  Scotia,  37,  1 13,  307,  30«,  335, 

337-342,  353,  369,  370,  377,  3X3, 

425-42X,  438,  439 

ODELL,  William,  312 

Ohio  Valley,  131 

One  Hundred  Associates,  49,  .~>:t. »'..". 

Ontario,  3X3,  384,  396, 429,  I 

Order  i,f  the  Good  Time.  34 

Orders  in  Council,  the,  217 

Oregon,  345 

Oswego,  143,  '»38 

Ottawa,  329 

Otter.  Colonel,  401 

PACIFIC  OCEAN, '11» 

-  Railway  scandal.     - 
Palmer,  Edward,  316. 
Paris,  Peace  of,  172 
Parliamentary  customs,  2ol 
Parliament    House    in    Montreal 

burned,  306 


INDEX. 


447 


Papineau,  Louis  J.,  209,  274.  290. 

291,  298 

Party  government,  4154 
Pepperell,  William.  110.  11C> 
Phips,  Sir  William,  92,  93,  94 
Pictou,  178 
Pipes,  W.  T.,  426 
Pitt,  William,  146 
Pocahontas,  36 
Political  agitation,  250 
Pontgrave,  27,  29 
Pontiac's  Conspiracj-,  170 
Pope,  Joseph,  315 
Port  Dover,  238 
Port  Royal,  31,  50,  69,  104 
Postage  stamps.  320 
Poundmaker,  401,  402 
Poutrincourt,  32,  33 
Prevost,  Sir  George,  203,  210,  220, 

231,  240 

Prideacx,  General,  153, 154 
Prince  Edward  Island,   149,  254, 

314-317,  343,  354,  382,  429,  43x, 

440 

Prince  of  Wales,  331 
Privateers,  102,  103,  191 

QUKBIX,  55,  104,  404 

—  Act,  the,  176,  196 
—  Convention,  354 

—  efforts  to  recapture,  166 

—  Gazette,  173 

—  occupied  by  British,  166 

— —  Province   of,    391,   429,   4:is. 
4;!!  I 

—  scheme,  354 

—  surrender  of,  168 
Queen  Anne's  War,  100 
Queenston,  battle  of.  225 
Queen  Victoria,  287-289,  403,  424 
Quit-rents,  254,  255,  .314-317 


RAM. WAYS,  320,  336,  385,  436 
Raniesay,  118 

Rand,  Theodore  h.,  342,  381 
Razilly,  Isaac  de  Launay,  66 
Ready,  Colonel,  256 
Rebellion  in  Canada,  2JX) 
- —  in  the  North-West,  373, 

403 
Rebellion  losses,  304 


Reciprocity  Treaty,  325,  363,  390 
Red  River  Settlement,  263 
Remedial  Bill,  419 
Representation  by  population,  329 
Responsible  government.  •'"",  314, 

316 

Kiel,  Louis,  373-377,  387,  399,  403 
Roberval,  24 

Robinson,  John  Beverlv,  270 
Rolph,  Dr.,  267,  294,  295 
Royal  government,  70 
Royal  William,  the,  249 
Ryerson,   Dr.   Egerton,    253,  319 

384 
Ryswick,  Treaty  of,  97 

SACKETT'S  HARBOUR,  230 

St.  Castine,  Baton.  75 

St.  John's  Island,  205,  206 

St.  Lnsson,  76 

Salaberry,  220,  234 

Salle,  Sienr  de  l;i,  81 

San  Juan,  350,  380 

Schultz,  374 

Scott,  Thomas,  374 

Scott  Act,  the,  390 

Seigniorial  tenure,  322 

Seven  Years'  War,  142 

Seymour,  Governor,  351,  378 

Sherbrooke,  Sir  John  C.,  203,  238 

Shirley,  120,  133,  137 

Simcoe,  210 

Simpson,  Sir  Geprge,  265 

Smith,  John,  36 

Stadacona,  23 

Stamp  Act,  184 

Stanley  of  Preston,  Lord,  403 

Strachan,  Bishop,  245,  252,  270 

Strange,  402 

Subercase,  103,  105 

Sulpicians.  the,  62 

Sunbury,  179 

TACK*:,  Sir  E.  P.,  33.", 

Talon,  71,  73 

Tecumseh,  233 

Telegraph  cable,  339 

Temple,  Sir  Thomas,  69 

Thompson,  Charles  Poulett  (Baron 

Sydenham),  300,  I  id  7 
Thompson,  David,  261 


448 


INDEX. 


Thompson,  Sir  John,  408,  415-417, 

42«> 

Three  Rivers,  lt)9 
Ticonderoga,  11O,  150.  18fi 
Tilloy,  Sir  Ijeonard,  355,,  3515,  3it." 
Townshencl,  General.  153 
Tracy,  Marquis  de,  71,  7X 
Treaty  of  Ghent,  241 

—  of  Ryswick,  117 

—  of  St.  Germain,  51 
—  of  Utrecht,  ION 

Tupper,  Sir  Charles,  337,  395,  120, 
421 

UNIACKK,  James  B.,  335 
United  Empire  Loyalists,  192 
United  States,  HI2,  332,  3fiO-3f,3 
i:pper  Canada,  I'.HJ-litH,  210-212, 

2«»(»-272,  2i»4 
Utrecht,  Treaty  of.  1O8 

VAIL,  William  13.,  425 
Vancouver.  Captain,  2(52 

-  Island,  317,  34N,  351 
Vaudrenil,  104,  1O<»,  132,  15G 
Vergor,  J38 


Verrazano,  21 

Vetch,  113 

Victoria,  Queen,  2X7,  403,  424 

Victoria  City,  347 

Vignau,  40 

Villebon,  95 

Vimont,  5<i 

WALKER,  Sir  Hovenden,  1<)7 
War  of  1K12,  2">-242 
Washington,  24O 
--George,  133,  135 

-  Treaty,  37«.» 
Webb,  145 

Wentworth,  Sir  John,  202 
Winthrop,  94 
Wolfe,  General,  153 
Wolseley.  Sir  Garnet,  375 

YORK  (Toronto),  211 
Young,  Charles,  317,  3315 

—  John  (Agricola),  245 

—  Sir  Aretas,  311 

Sir  John  (Lord  Lisgar),  3] 

Sir  William,  335,  34O 


THE    END. 


BINDING  CZrr. .  NOV  2  4 


F 
5 
G35 


Calkin,  John  Burgess 

A  history  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada 


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