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FROM  THE  LIBRARY  OF 
ALBERT  E.  WINSHIP,  LlTT.D.,  LL.D. 

EDITOR  OF  THE  NEW  ENGLAND  JOURNAL 
OF  EDUCATION 

RECEIVED  OCTOBER  3,  1921 


TRANSFERRED 
TO  THE  LIBRARY  OF 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 
VOLUME  II 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 
IN  IOWA 


BY 
CLARENCE  RAY  AURNER 


VOLUME  II 


PUBLISHED  AT  IOWA  CITY  IOWA  IN  1914  BY 
THE   STATE   HISTORICAL   SOCIETY  OF  IOWA 


HARVARD  COLLEGE  LIBRARY 

FROM  THE  LIBRARY  OF 
ALBERT  EDWAR9 
OCT.  I, 


THE  chapters  in  this  volume  treat  mainly  of  those 
activities  and  organizations  which  are  the  outgrowth 
of  experience.  The  educational  plant  having  been 
equipped  with  the  machinery,  it  seems  to  have  re- 
quired an  increasing  number  of  agencies  to  develop 
and  direct  it.  Hence  supervision  in  due  time  found 
its  place ;  the  institute  took  on  a  new  form ;  and  the 
mutual  interest  of  a  common  occupation  led  to  the 
formation  of  associations  which  subsequently  were 
organized  into  special  groups.  Moreover,  the  means 
of  communication  and  the  public  expression  of  prin- 
ciples involved  in  the  process  of  instruction  induced 
a  variety  of  effort  in  educational  journalism;  while 
the  increasing  output  of  books  suitable  for  self- 
education  encouraged  the  establishment  of  school 
libraries.  Finally,  the  decline  of  old  practices  in 
which  the  home  provided  for  exercise  in  domestic 
duties  and  an  apprenticeship  in  industrial  pursuits 
has  thrust  upon  the  public  educational  system  a  new 
function  in  the  shape  of  shop,  kitchen,  sewing-room, 
and  experimental  plot. 

CLARENCE  BAY  AUENEE 

THE  STATE  HISTORICAL  SOCIETY  OF  IOWA 
IOWA  CITY  IOWA 


CONTENTS 

AUTHOR'S  PREFACE      ......  v 

PART  I 
SCHOOL  SUPERVISION 

I.    SUPERVISION  IN  THE  TERRITORY  OP  IOWA, 

1838-1846          .....  3 

II.     STATE   SUPERVISION:   A   PERIOD   OF   RE- 
ORGANIZATION, 1846-1858    ...          11 

III.  STATE  SUPERVISION  :  A  PERIOD  OF  LIMITA- 

TIONS, 1858-1872       ....          32 

IV.  STATE  SUPERVISION  :  A  PERIOD  OF  RESOLU- 

TION, 1872-1912         ....  49 

V.     COUNTY  SUPERVISION:  A  PERIOD  OF  UN- 
POPULARITY       .....          64 

VI.     COUNTY    SUPERVISION:    OPPOSITION    AND 

RECOGNITION 79 

VII.     TOWN  SUPERVISION:  AN  ORIGINAL  MOVE- 
MENT       ......          93 

PART  II 
STATE  BOARDS 

VIII.    THE  NEW  CONSTITUTION  AND  THE  EDUCA- 
TIONAL SYSTEM          ....        105 

vii 


viii  CONTENTS 

IX.     SCHOOL  LEGISLATION  UNDER  THE  BOARD 

OP  EDUCATION  .         .         .         .         .         116 

X.     THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  EXAMINERS    .         .         132 

PART  III 

TEACHERS  INSTITUTES 

XI.     THE  TEACHERS  INSTITUTE      .         .         .         151 
XII.     THE  NORMAL  INSTITUTE         .         .         .         172 

PART  IV 
TEACHERS  ASSOCIATIONS 

XIII.  PIONEERS  PERFECTING  AN  ORGANIZATION  .         189 

XIV.  A  FEDERATED  INSTITUTION      .         .         .         209 
XV.     INCORPORATION  AND  EXPANSION      .         .        230 

XVI.     COUNTY  AND  DISTRICT  ASSOCIATIONS        .         245 

PART  V 
MISCELLANEOUS  ACTIVITIES 

XVII.  EDUCATIONAL  JOURNALS         .         .         .  255 

XVIII.  SCHOOL  LIBRARIES          ....  265 

XIX.  INDUSTRIAL  TRAINING     ....  274 

XX.  EDUCATIONAL  EXHIBITS          .         .         .  289 

XXI.     ELEMENTARY  INSTRUCTION  UNDER  CHURCH 

DIRECTION  297 


CONTENTS  ix 

PART  VI 

PROPOSED  LEGISLATION 

XXII.     CONSTRUCTION  AND  RECONSTRUCTION        .         309 
XXIII.    MORE  LEGISLATION  ADVISED    .         .         .         330 

APPENDIX  A. —  A  COMPARISON  OF  THE  MICHIGAN 
LAW  OP  1838  AND  THE  IOWA  LAW  OF 
1840 359 

APPENDIX  B. —  A  COMPARISON  OF  THE  UNION 
SCHOOL  LAW  OF  OHIO  OF  1854  AND  THE 
IOWA  LAW  OF  1857  ....  383 

APPENDIX  C. —  CHRONOLOGICAL  LIST  OF  MEETINGS 
OF  THE  IOWA  STATE  TEACHERS'  ASSO- 
CIATION ......  396 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES 401 

INDEX  445 


PARTI 
SCHOOL  SUPERVISION 


SUPERVISION  IN  THE  TERRITORY  OF  IOWA 

1838-1846 

THE  more  specialized  forms  of  school  supervision 
are  of  recent  adoption  in  Iowa.  Indeed,  some  of  the 
more  important  phases  of  supervision  have  yet  .to 
become  a  part  of  the  educational  system  of  this 
State.  Although  the  county  is  by  law  the  lowest 
area  of  school  supervision,  it  is  significant  that  in  the 
beginning  the  township  was  the  ultimate  unit  —  for 
which  there  was  provided  a  ''township  inspector"  of 
schools.  Thus  it  would  seem  that  the  ideal  presented 
by  Superintendent  Henry  Sabin  in  1897  had  its  be- 
ginning in  the  first  attempt  at  establishing  a  local 
school  organization,  in  which  the  rural  community 
was  to  have  its  share  of  attention  from  one  who  was 
skilled  in  shaping  and  directing  elementary  instruc- 
tion. 

Had  this  original  plan  of  supervision  been 
faithfully  pursued,  out  of  it  might  have  come  the 
realization  of  what  Superintendent  Sabin  proposed 
in  1897.  In  the  educational  history  of  the  State 
changes  occurred  so  rapidly  and  the  introduction  of 
the  practical  demanded  so  much  ability  and  special 
equipment,  that  it  became  evident  that  the  method  of 
supervision  which  existed  in  1897  could  not  perma- 


4  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

nently  endure.  It  was  then  pointed  out  that  the 
educational  supervisor  must  possess  a  scholarship 
that  was  broad  "without  being  shallow",  for  the 
days  of  the  "examiner"  and  "clerk"  were  past. 
The  educational  supervisor  must  be  able  to  discern, 
to  think,  to  construct,  to  originate,  to  accomplish, 
and  to  influence  a  community.  Thus,  in  1897  the 
supervision  of  the  rural  school  was  designated  by 
Henry  Sabin  as  a  new  field  wherein  the  supervisor 
must  have  not  only  general  preparation  on  the  book 
side  of  the  problem,  but  he  must  also  understand  the 
actual  application  of  theory  to  constructive  work. 
Furthermore,  a  personal  acquaintance  with  com- 
munity needs  should  be  the  preliminary  to  a  success- 
ful ministering  to  its  wants. 

From  the  simple  duties  of  a  "township  in- 
spector" in  1840  to  the  highly  specialized  field  of 
supervision  as  proposed  in  1897  by  the  far-sighted 
Henry  Sabin,  there  is  a  vast  difference,  not  only  in 
the  conception  of  the  problem  but  also  in  the  actual 
opportunities  and  possibilities  offered  by  the  devel- 
opments of  nearly  sixty  years.  Consider,  for  ex- 
ample, the  meaning  of  the  terms  "visit"  and 
"supervise"  as  applied  to  the  functions  of  township 
inspectors  or  district  trustees  during  the  Territorial 
period  and  the  more  recent  interpretation  and 
application  of  the  same  language,  and  it  becomes  at 
once  clear  and  evident  that  to  trace  the  changes 
which  are  thus  suggested  necessitates  a  careful 
study  of  local  and  State  authorities  who  have  recog- 
nized, in  part,  the  needs  as  they  have  arisen. 


SUPERVISION  IN  THE  TERRITORY  OF  IOWA     5 

One  may  pass  over  that  early  legislation  wherein 
township  inspectors  appear  as  supervisors  of  educa- 
tion under  laws  which  were  applicable  to  Iowa,  and 
proceed  to  a  consideration  of  the  first  statute  of  the 
Territory  relative  to  schools  which  provided  that  "it 
shall  be  the  duty  of  the  trustees  to  superintend  the 
schools  within  their  respective  districts ;  to  examine 
and  employ  teachers,  to  lease  all  lands  belonging  to 
the  district",  and  to  make  an  annual  report  to  the 
county  commissioners.1  Such  legislation  probably 
met  the  necessities  of  the  occasion.  At  the  same  time 
it  appears  that  there  were  more  ambitious  projects 
in  the  minds  of  those  who  were  familiar  with  the 
laws  of  other  States,  for  a  year  later  not  only  was 
the  township  made  a  unit  for  supervision  but  there 
was  also  provided  an  authoritative  head,  known  as 
"Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction",  for  the 
whole  Territory.  The  local  officers  (that  is,  the 
township  inspectors)  were  directed  to  visit,  twice 
each  year,  all  the  schools  within  their  jurisdiction, 
and  "to  inquire  into  the  condition,  examine  the 
scholars,  and  give  such  advice  to  both  teachers  and 
scholars  as  they  shall  deem  proper."2 

From  1840  to  1847  the  laws  of  the  Territory  of 
Iowa  provided  for  three  township  inspectors ;  but  in 
the  latter  year  the  number  was  reduced  to  one.  He 
retained  the  supervisory  power,  however,  and  the 
statute  required  him  to  visit  each  school  in  his  dis- 
trict (township)  "at  least  once  each  year"  and  to 
give  such  advice  to  "directors,  teachers  and  pupils" 
as  might  appear  proper.  The  change  from  three 


6  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

such  township  supervisors  of  schools  to  one  was 
probably  due  to  the  fact  that  one  man  could  easily 
perform  all  the  necessary  duties  connected  with  the 
office.  Moreover,  upon  the  creation  of  the  office  of 
county  school  fund  commissioner  there  appeared  to 
be  no  necessity  for  retaining  longer  the  office  of  in- 
spector, inasmuch  as  the  county  became  the  unit  in 
authority  for  .district  organization.  Then,  too,  the 
supervisory  duties  of  the  inspector  seem  to  have 
been  valued  too  little  when  each  district  was  an 
authority  unto  itself.3  With  the  passing  of  the  town- 
ship inspector,  who  had  been  authorized  to  examine 
and  certificate  the  teachers  employed,  and  to  revoke 
licenses  for  cause,  there  remained  the  district  board 
—  the  only  group  which  had  any  authority  to  direct 
or  supervise.  Thus,  the  brief  period  during  which  a 
form  of  township  supervision  was  provided  for 
closed  in  1849  without  provision  for  the  transference 
of  functions  to  any  other  officers. 

Returning  to  the  office  of  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction  as  referred  to  in  the  law  of 
January  16, 1840,  it  appears  that  the  township  clerk, 
who  was  ex  officio  the  clerk  of  the  township  board  of 
school  inspectors,  was  to  receive  all  communications 
"directed  to  him  by  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction".  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  no 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  was  provided 
for  until  a  year  later,  when  the  Governor  of  the 
Territory  was  directed  to  appoint  such  an  official  for 
a  term  of  three  years.  The  principal  function  then 
assigned  to  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction 


appears  to  have  been  the  care  and  disposition  of  the 
school  fund.  Nowhere  does  the  law  provide  for  any 
duty  connected  with  instruction  or  other  phases  of 
school  organization  beyond  that  of  reporting  the 
condition  of  the  primary  schools.  It  is  clear  that  the 
purpose  of  the  law  of  1841  in  establishing  the  office 
of  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  was  not  pri- 
marily to  provide  a  head  for  a  school  system,  but 
rather  a  financial  agent  for  the  management  of 
school  lands  and  funds.4  The  title  of  ' '  Superintend- 
ent of  Public  Instruction ' '  did  not  therefore  properly 
express  the  purpose  and  function  of  the  office. 

Dr.  William  Reynolds,  a  recent  arrival  in  the  Ter- 
ritory, was  appointed  by  Governor  Lucas  to  the 
position  of  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  — 
after,  it  is  said,  the  office  had  been  refused  by  Mr. 
T.  S.  Parvin,  the  Governor's  private  secretary. 
Although  the  Superintendent  was  appointed  for 
three  years,  he  was  legislated  out  of  office  within  a 
year.5  In  the  meantime,  however,  he  had  made  some 
effort  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  the  act  under 
which  he  was  appointed  and  by  which  he  was  gov- 
erned. He  declared  that  "one  of  the  most  striking 
features"  of  the  law  was  the  provision  " making  it 
the  duty  of  the  Superintendent  to  use  every  exertion 
to  effect  an  immediate  organization  of  the  primary 
school  system".  With  this  object  in  view  Dr.  Rey- 
nolds prepared  to  visit  the  several  counties  of  the 
Territory  where  by  lecturing  he  hoped  to  arouse 
action  relative  to  the  interests  of  the  schools.  But 
after  consultation  with  Governor  Lucas  it  was  con- 


8  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

ceded  that  this  plan  was  not  adapted  to  the  condi- 
tions then  prevailing  in  the  Territory  —  there  being 
at  that  time  no  general  organization  of  townships 
and  no  school  inspectors.  Nor  were  there  school 
districts  established  in  sufficient  number  to  warrant 
much  traveling  about.  Moreover,  since  the  people 
were  not  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  school  law 
better  results  could  be  obtained  by  giving  communi- 
ties the  " necessary  instruction"  as  to  organization, 
and  by  the  general  dissemination  of  information 
which  circumstances  might  demand  or  render  ex- 
pedient. The  wishes  of  the  several  communities 
might  thus  be  understood,  and  with  a  knowledge  of 
their  needs  a  better  plan  of  procedure  might  be 
matured. 

Governor  Chambers,  who  succeeded  Lucas  in 
1841,  also  approved  the  plan  thus  projected;  and  so 
Dr.  Reynolds  remained  at  the  seat  of  government 
instead  of  making  a  journey  over  the  Territory  to 
lecture  on  the  public  school  system  that  was  to  be. 
In  due  time  he  issued  a  circular  to  the  county  clerks 
—  who  constituted  the  immediate  local  connection 
between  his  office  and  the  school  districts  —  request- 
ing the  reports  which  the  law  contemplated.  As  one 
would  expect,  where  there  was  little  or  no  general 
organization  there  were  few  returns,  although 
enough  to  make  this  document  —  the  only  Territorial 
school  report  —  of  great  value. 

In  December,  1841,  Dr.  Reynolds  submitted  his 
observations  and  report  as  the  law  required.  The 
document  contained  information  which  had  been  ob- 


SUPERVISION  IN  THE  TERRITORY  OF  IOWA     9 

tained  largely  through  his  own  personal  efforts, 
rather  than  through  the  formal  reports  of  county 
officers.  His  optimistic  views  are  suggested  in  the 
following  extract: 

The  interest  taken  in  schools  and  the  school  law  [of 
1840],  almost  universally,  and  the  fact  that  the  interest  is 
daily  increasing,  cannot  fail  to  be  highly  gratifying  to  every 
person  who  is  anxiously  looking  forward  to  the  time  when 
we  shall  have  a  good  'system  of  public  instruction',  and 
the  funds  to  enable  us  to  carry  it  into  effect. 

The  Superintendent  reported  great  difficulty  in 
distributing  the  school  law  as  well  as  in  its  interpre- 
tation to  the  people.  While  no  complaint  was  pre- 
sented against  the  law  as  such,  there  was  a  general 
feeling  that  its  provisions  were  "hard  to  be  under- 
stood ' '.  It  was  therefore  recommended  that  the  law 
be  distributed  in  circular  form,  accompanied  with 
explanations.  Again,  Dr.  Reynolds  urged  the  neces- 
sity of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction 
giving  his  entire  time  to  the  office  so  that  he  might 
render  effective  assistance  in  constructing  a  school 
system  on  strong  foundations.  The  right  of  the  child 
to  a  free  school,  the  enlisting  of  popular  support 
through  a  full  publication  of  plans,  and  provision  for 
the  care  of  the  school  lands  as  soon  as  they  came 
under  State  control  were  emphasized  as  of  special 
importance  in  this  first  report.6 

When  the  question  of  retaining  the  office  of 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  and  of  approv- 
ing the  recommendation  made  by  him  came  before 
the  Territorial  legislature,  the  committee  to  whom 


10  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

the  matter  was  referred  were  unanimously  agreed  on 
the  policy  of  continuing  the  office  and  of  encouraging 
the  influence  of  the  Superintendent  throughout  the 
Territory.  They  referred  particularly  to  the  bene- 
ficial results  that  might  accrue  from  the  information 
relative  to  systems  of  organization  being  collected  at 
that  time  by  the  Superintendent  from  the  several 
States.  Nevertheless,  the  Legislative  Assembly  dis- 
agreed with  the  committee ;  and  so,  on  February  17, 
1842,  the  office  was  abolished.7 

Thus,  it  appears  that  the  attempt  to  establish  a 
central  authority  for  the  projected  educational  sys- 
tem of  Iowa  met  with  small  favor  in  the  days  of  the 
Territory.  There  was  manifested  a  feeling  that  such 
matters  must  wait  until  the  State  had  become  an 
independent  Commonwealth.  That  the  fundamental 
law  of  the  new  State  would  contain  some  provision 
for  such  an  official  head  was  to  be  anticipated.  In- 
deed, previous  action  in  the  Territorial  legislature 
would  almost  warrant  such  a  conclusion. 


II 

STATE  SUPERVISION:  A  PERIOD  OF 
REORGANIZATION 

1846-1858 

WITH  the  adoption  of  a  Constitution  and  the  admis- 
sion of  Iowa  into  the  Union  in  1846  the  office  of 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  was  reestab- 
lished—  not  by  legislation  but  by  the  provisions  of 
the  fundamental  law.  The  people  were  now  author- 
ized to  elect  the  head  of  the  school  system  for  a  term 
of  three  years ;  while  the  definition  of  his  powers  and 
duties  was  left  to  the  General  Assembly.  And  so,  in 
the  general  act  of  1847  amending  the  school  law  of 
1840  it  was  provided  that  at  the  next  township  elec- 
tion a  Superintendent  should  be  chosen  whose  duties 
should  include  the  maintenance  of  an  office  at  the 
seat  of  government,  the  preservation  of  all  docu- 
ments and  reports  which  should  be  received  at  his 
office  from  the  counties  of  the  State  ' '  each  year  sep- 
arately", and  the  keeping  of  these  materials  "in 
readiness  to  be  exhibited  to  any  committee  of  either 
House  of  the  General  Assembly  of  this  State,  or  to 
the  Governor". 

By  the  same  act  the  Superintendent  was  charged 
with  the  care  and  distribution  of  the  school  funds 
coming  into  his  hands,  as  well  as  with  the  general 

11 


12          HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

oversight  of  all  schools  established  under  the  pro- 
visions of  the  law.  It  was  a  statutory  requirement, 
also,  that  he  proceed  as  early  as  practicable  to  "put 
into  operation,  and  cause  it  to  be  uniform  in  all  its 
operations ' '  the  contemplated  school  system ;  to  visit 
every  county  at  least  once  during  his  official  term; 
to  confer  freely  with  township  inspectors  and  render 
such  service  as  seemed  necessary;  and  finally  "to 
deliver  a  public  lecture  to  the  teachers  and  people  of 
each  township  on  the  subject  of  education,  if  deemed 
practicable,  and  to  do  generally  such  business  as  may 
be  necessary  for  the  promotion  of  public  instruc- 
tion." This  was  surely  a  liberal  amount  of  labor 
with  considerable  latitude  for  its  execution ;  but  little 
authority  was  given  the  Superintendent  to  secure 
compliance  with  what  he  might  consider  desirable  for 
the  schools. 

The  law  of  1847,  moreover,  empowered  the  Super- 
intendent to  appoint  a  deputy  or  clerk;  but  he  must 
compensate  his  appointee  out  of  his  own  salary  — 
which  was  $1200  —  and  be  accountable  for  all  of  his 
official  acts.  From  the  time  that  this  law  became 
effective,  the  reports  which  the  General  Assembly 
required  have  been  submitted  at  each  session,  al- 
though more  or  less  incomplete  for  some  of  the 
earlier  years.  The  law  required  specifically  that 
these  reports  should  include  a  statement  of  the  whole 
amount  of  the  school  fund  at  interest  and  the  pro- 
ceeds of  the  same,  of  the  amount  appropriated  for 
schools  and  the  sources  from  which  it  was  derived,  of 
the  number  of  organized  districts,  of  the  persons  of 


PERIOD  OF  REORGANIZATION  13 

school  age,  of  the  schools  taught  and  of  scholars 
therein,  and  of  the  teachers  employed,  with  their 
average  pay.  The  Superintendent  was  not,  however, 
confined  to  these  items.  He  could  present  any  mat- 
ters which  in  his  opinion  were  essential  to  educa- 
tional advancement;  while  the  General  Assembly 
might  order  him  to  submit  data  on  any  subject.8 

At  the  spring  elections  in  1847  it  appears  that 
Mr.  James  Harlan  was  elected  as  the  first  State 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  In  this  con- 
nection one  can  not  enter  into  the  political  phases  of 
the  contest,  nor  discuss  fully  all  the  subsequent 
events  which  led  up  to  the  decision  of  the  Supreme 
Court  that  the  election  of  April,  1847,  was  not  legally 
consummated.  Indeed  these  facts,  which  may  be 
gained  from  authoritative  sources,  have  little  or  no 
direct  relation  to  the  development  of  the  office  itself. 
It  is  well  known,  however,  that  Mr.  Harlan  entered 
upon  the  office  with  a  view  to  performing  its  duties 
as  defined  in  the  law  of  1847.  Moreover,  he  pub- 
lished an  open  letter  to  local  officers  in  which  he 
declared  his  belief  in  the  validity  of  their  election. 

There  were,  however,  many  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  observing  all  the  provisions  of  the  law  of  1847, 
since  in  many  instances  no  precedent  was  at  hand  to 
guide  the  Superintendent.  This  was  notably  true  in 
the  matter  of  the  selection  of  school  lands.  Finally, 
he  was  disturbed  in  his  office  by  a  summons  from  the 
court  to  ' '  show  by  what  authority  he  was  holding  the 
office  of  Superintendent. ' '  The  case  being  carried  to 
the  Supreme  Court,  the  election  of  1847  was  declared 


void,  thus  making  all  action  under  it  questionable.9 
Under  these  circumstances  effective  administration 
was  made  difficult  —  although  it  was  declared  that 
the  school  system  made  substantial  advances  during 
the  short  period  of  Harlan's  administration  as 
Superintendent. 

In  response  to  a  resolution  of  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives, Superintendent  Harlan  submitted  a  re- 
port in  which  the  details  of  his  official  acts  were  set 
forth  in  accordance  with  the  items  designated  in  the 
law.  This  report  was  received  and  printed;  but  it 
does  not  appear  among  the  documents  as  do  other 
reports  subsequently  issued.  The  General  Assembly 
legalized  the  acts  of  the  Superintendent  and  made  an 
appropriation  for  his  annual  salary,  although  the 
matter  of  the  election  had  not  at  that  time  been 
passed  upon  by  the  courts.  Indeed,  the  legislature 
by  its  action  anticipated  a  new  election  in  April,  1848. 

It  was  at  this  point  that  Thomas  H.  Benton,  Jr., 
first  appeared  as  a  candidate  for  the  office  of  Super- 
intendent in  opposition  to  James  Harlan.  Notwith- 
standing the  political  significance  of  the  election  and 
events  connected  therewith,  it  is  only  necessary  in 
this  connection  to  note  that  James  Harlan  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Thomas  H.  Benton,  Jr.,  in  the  spring  of 
1848. 10  Thereafter  for  the  greater  part  of  the  time, 
until  about  1862,  Mr.  Benton  was  a  conspicuous  fig- 
ure in  the  educational  work  of  this  State,  first  as 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  and  later  as 
Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Education. 

The  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court  in  reference 


PERIOD  OF  REORGANIZATION  15 

to  the  contested  election  was  a  prime  reason  for  the 
extra  session  of  the  General  Assembly  in  1848,  in- 
asmuch as  remedial  legislation  was  imperative  if  the 
transactions  during  1847-1848  were  not  to  become  a 
source  of  litigation.  Moreover,  the  claims  of  the 
common  schools,  as  shown  by  the  report  of  Superin- 
tendent Harlan,  demanded  immediate  and  careful 
attention. 

On  May  23, 1848,  the  duties  of  the  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction  were  assumed  by  Thomas  H. 
Benton,  Jr.  His  first  act  as  Superintendent  was  to 
send  his  credentials  to  the  registers  of  the  land  of- 
fices in  Iowa  and  to  the  general  land  office  at  Wash- 
ington so  that  his  authority  would  be  unquestioned ; 
for,  under  the  provisions  of  the  law  of  1847,  whereby 
the  selection  and  sale  of  school  lands  devolved  upon 
the  Superintendent,  he  had  become  more  and  more  of 
a  financial  agent  having  control  of  school  funds. 
Another  important  duty  confronting  him  at  the  very 
beginning  was  the  interpretation  of  the  school  law, 
since  it  was  asserted  that  districts  had  not  organized 
because  of  " doubt  and  uncertainty".  As  in  the  case 
of  Dr.  Eeynolds  in  1841,  the  new  Superintendent 
concluded  that  more  could  be  accomplished  by  cor- 
respondence and  instructions  with  references  to  the 
provisions  of  the  law  than  by  lecturing  in  the  town- 
ships. 

The  "incipient  stage  of  our  School  system"  was 
offered  as  an  excuse  for  the  incomplete  data  of  school 
fund  commissioners  in  the  first  published  report  of 
Superintendent  Benton.  While  the  local  officers  were 


16 

commended  for  their  efforts  to  comply  with  the  law 
and  with  the  instructions  from  the  Superintendent, 
there  were  difficulties  which  must  be  overcome  in  the 
formation  of  districts  owing  to  settlements  being 
made  on  the  border  lines  of  counties  and  townships. 
There  being  no  legal  definition  of  the  qualifications 
of  teachers,  this  subject  was  covered  by  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  Superintendent  who  would  endeav- 
or also  to  accomplish  better  results  by  grouping 
pupils  according  to  advancement. 

To  bring  about  the  results  desired  Mr.  Benton 
recommended  that  an  amount  be  collected  from  those 
receiving  advanced  instruction  sufficient  to  provide 
for  the  compensation  which  would  be  necessary 
above  that  received  from  the  school  fund  apportion- 
ment. Although  in  his  opinion  primary  instruction 
must  always  stand  first,  it  was  nevertheless  desirable 
that  higher  branches  be  introduced  into  the  common 
schools.  It  would,  of  course,  be  prudent  to  determine 
at  the  very  beginning  the  extent  of  such  instruction 
and  first  of  all  to  consider  the  available  means.  With 
such  conservative  plans  for  starting  right,  he  recom- 
mended that  the  larger  towns  and  villages  be  granted 
authority  to  establish  a  system  of  public  instruction 
under  the  direction  of  the  regular  constituted  town 
authorities.  Moreover,  in  such  cases  they  might  be 
permitted  also  to  levy  a  tax  which  should  supplement 
the  annual  apportionment  of  interest  from  the  school 
fund,  to  the  end  that  a  higher  order  of  instruction 
might  be  established  than  could  possibly  be  provided 
in  thinly  settled  communities.  Thus,  at  his  first  op- 


PERIOD  OF  REORGANIZATION  17 

portunity  Superintendent  Benton  declared  for  high- 
er schools  and  a  property  tax  for  public  education. 

Neither  did  the  Superintendent  fail  to  comment 
on  the  wages  of  teachers  —  a  subject  which  has  had 
consideration  in  every  report  from  that  day  to  this. 
The  actual  facts  relative  to  compensation  were  sub- 
mitted from  the  incomplete  returns  from  thirty-two 
counties.  But  the  important  point  in  this  connection 
is  the  fact  that  an  increase  was  recommended. 

The  situation  with  regard  to  text-books  was  such 
that  legislation  was  desired  in  order  that  uniformity, 
either  through  selection  by  the  General  Assembly  or 
by  the  Superintendent,  might  be  secured.  Incident- 
ally Webster's  dictionary  was  recommended  for  each 
of  the  school  libraries  —  then  authorized  by  law.  It 
was  ascertained,  also,  that  while  the  colored  popula- 
tion were  taxed  they  were  not  provided  with  separate 
schools ;  and  so,  among  the  observations  and  recom- 
mendations of  the  Superintendent  was  one  relative 
to  instruction  for  colored  pupils.  Finally,  it  was 
suggested  that  all  school  laws  be  repealed  and  that  a 
new  measure  be  substituted  which  should  not  only 
retain  the  general  outlines  of  the  laws  then  in  force 
but  should  also  define  specifically  and  minutely  the 
functions  of  all  school  officials ;  for  in  this  respect,  it 
seems,  the  former  acts  were  defective.11 

Following  the  suggestion  of  the  Superintendent 
the  General  Assembly  passed  a  law  governing  com- 
mon schools,  which  was  approved  January  15,  1849, 
and  by  which  all  former  acts  on  the  subject  were 
repealed.  The  office  of  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 


18 

struction  was  retained,  but  with  some  new  functions. 
The  Superintendent  was  required  to  "examine  and 
recommend"  a  uniform  series  of  text-books  for  the 
district  schools,  to  provide  suitably  printed  forms 
for  reports,  and  to  issue  instructions  relative  to  the 
organization  and  government  of  schools.  Courses  of 
study  might  also  be  recommended  from  his  office; 
and  he  was  empowered  to  make  such  rules  and  regu- 
lations as  might  be  necessary  to  carry  the  new  law 
into  effect.  Although  his  salary  still  remained  at 
$1200  (which  was  more  than  was  given  the  Governor 
at  that  time)  he  was  by  this  act  allowed  his  necessary 
contingent  expenses.12 

By  another  statute,  enacted  at  the  same  session, 
the  Superintendent  was  directed  to  visit  the  several 
counties  and  ' '  examine  the  books  and  accounts  of  the 
Fund  Commissioners"  in  order  to  adjust  the  ac- 
counts then  becoming  a  matter  of  vital  interest  to  the 
State.  The  work  of  Superintendent  Benton  in  carry- 
ing out  the  provisions  of  this  statute  has  already 
been  described,  and  attention  has  been  called  to  his 
prophetic  declarations  as  to  what  would  result  if  con- 
ditions were  not  changed.13 

With  the  evident  purpose  of  informing  school 
officers  and  citizens  of  what  the  school  law  contem- 
plated, a  circular  including  the  Constitution  of  Iowa 
and  all  statutes  relating  to  education  was  issued 
from  the  office  of  the  Superintendent.  Certain  sec- 
tions of  the  laws  were  explained  for  the  benefit  of 
those  whose  duty  it  was  to  execute  them;  at  the 
same  time  an  effort  was  made  "to  create  in  the 


PERIOD  OF  REORGANIZATION  19 

public  mind  a  due  appreciation  of  a  well  regulated 
system  of  public  instruction. ' '  It  was  foreseen  that 
there  would  be  certain  difficulties  in  the  formation  of 
districts  and  in  the  construction  of  school  houses, 
and  he  therefore  counseled  "compromise  and  con- 
cession" that  litigation  might  be  avoided.  Schools, 
it  was  affirmed  in  this  circular,  were  not  established 
for  the  few,  neither  for  rich  nor  poor,  but  for  all,  and 
all  were  to  be  held  responsible  for  the  success  of  the 
legislation  thus  far  enacted.  The  national  govern- 
ment had  been  liberal,  and  now  the  State  was  under 
obligation  to  maintain  and  preserve  its  gifts  in  a 
manner  befitting  the  Commonwealth. 

Particular  attention  was  called  to  "system"  in 
the  matter  of  public  records.  Few  districts  were 
careful  in  this  respect.  Nor  were  the  available 
records  altogether  intelligible.  But  this,  it  was  con- 
cluded, was  due  to  negligence  rather  than  to  incom- 
petence. Further  observation  on  the  school  law 
recently  enacted  pointed  to  the  fact  that  no  law  could 
be  perfect,  although  it  might  be  sufficient  for  the 
current  needs.  Eeference  was  made  to  the  school 
law  of  New  York,  which  had  been  in  force  since  1812 
but  which  had  been  amended  at  nearly  every  session 
of  the  legislature  —  showing  that  time  and  patience 
were  essential  to  the  perfecting  of  a  school  system. 

Accompanying  this  message  of  information  and 
instruction  were  numerous  blank  forms  for  all 
grades  of  officials  and  school  employees,  suggesting 
the  exact  method  which  the  Superintendent  would 
use  in  preserving  the  history  of  each  day  or  each 


20  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

transaction.  It  was  in  this  way  that  the  school  fund 
commissioners  were  informed  of  the  necessary  books 
which  they  should  keep  in  reference  to  sales  of  land 
and  loans  of  funds  as  well  as  in  reference  to  a  com- 
plete record  of  contracts  and  mortgages.  Although 
this  was  a  form  of  supervision  that  did  not  result  in 
producing  the  desired  clearness  in  accounts,  the  duty 
of  the  Superintendent  was  performed  in  making 
these  recommendations.  Moreover,  these  were  the 
records  that  he  was  later  to  examine  for  the  purpose 
of  adjusting  the  permanent  fund  accounts  according 
to  the  law  by  which  he  was  governed. 

Included  in  these  instructions  were  some  prac- 
tical designs  for  buildings  —  a  plain  and  rather  mean 
collection,  indeed,  when  compared  to  the  buildings  of 
1914.  The  furniture  designed  for  these  houses  was 
an  improvement  on  that  of  the  first  schools  —  when 
benches  were  without  backs  and  shelves  along  the 
log  wall  answered  for  desks  —  but  it  needed  careful 
selection,  as  may  be  implied  in  the  warning  of  the 
Superintendent  that  the  desk  should  be  accommo- 
dated to  the  pupil.  To  illustrate  his  point  he  quoted 
the  following: 

I  have  visited  many  schools  in  which  the  majority  of  the 
scholars  reverse  the  ordinary  practice  of  standing  up  and 
sitting  down.  They  literally  sit  up  and  stand  down,  their 
heads  being  higher  while  sitting  than  when  standing. 

In  the  opinion  of  Superintendent  Benton  good 
and  presentable  buildings  were  the  first  important 
improvement  then  demanded ;  and  in  describing  the 
situation  he  pointed  out  the  difference  in  the  cost  of 


PERIOD  OF  REORGANIZATION  21 

other  public  buildings  as  compared  to  those  for  the 
schools.  It  was  frequently  the  case  that  in  villages 
and  in  country  neighborhoods  churches  cost  fifty  to 
eighty  times  as  much  as  school  houses.  To  illustrate 
this  point  he  used  the  following  description  of  the 
capital  of  the  State  in  1849 : 

In  Iowa  City,  our  seat  of  government,  we  have  seven  fine 
brick  and  stone  churches,  erected  at  an  aggregate  cost  of 
about  $25,000 ;  a  court  house,  jail,  Mechanic 's  Institute  and 
various  hotels  at  $17,000,  and  the  State  Capitol  at  about 
$140,000.  Thus  we  have  the  round  sum  of  $182,000.00 
invested  in  public  edifices,  and  not  one  dollar  in  a  school 
house !  And  yet  I  am  almost  daily  asked  why  we  have  such 
poor  schools?  Why  such  poor  discipline?  And  why  so 
little  interest  and  improvement  among  the  children?  Let 
the  answer  be,  that  we  have,  deducting  the  amount  for 
hotels,  $170,000  invested  for  the  restraint  and  reformation 
of  wicked  men,  and  not  one  dollar,  for  the  proper  education 
of  children ! 

He  was  satisfied  that  if  school  buildings  were  con- 
structed with  as  much  taste  as  churches,  it  would  be 
of  great  advantage  to  the  community  and  would 
exert  a  wholesome  influence  on  the  morals  of  the 
youth  housed  therein,  since  the  environment  was  an 
important  factor  in  such  training.  Attention  was 
called  also  to  that  provision  of  the  law  which  re- 
quired a  committee  from  the  district  board  to  visit 
the  schools  monthly  to  aid  the  teachers  in  establish- 
ing and  enforcing  rules  and  regulations  for  their 
government,  and  to  assist  in  promoting  the  welfare 
of  the  schools  in  every  particular.  Thus,  through 
the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  the  local 
officer  was  reminded  of  his  duty  under  the  statute.14 


22  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

By  the  law  of  1849  the  Superintendent  was  re- 
quired to  examine  and  recommend  to  the  several 
school  districts  a  uniform  series  of  text-books;  and 
accordingly,  Mr.  Benton  published  such  an  approved 
list  in  his  circular.  While  a  special  chapter  has  been 
devoted  to  text-books  it  may  be  of  interest  to  add 
something  relative  to  the  miscellaneous  list  of  the 
books  and  apparatus  recommended.  Webster's 
quarto  dictionary  is  mentioned,  along  with  the  im- 
portant fact  that  every  teacher  in  the  cities  of  New 
York  and  Brooklyn  had  been  provided  with  a  copy  of 
this  valuable  work.  Although  Iowa  could  in  no  way 
expect  such  complete  equipment,  it  was  considered 
desirable  that  a  copy  of  this  dictionary  should  be 
placed  in  each  district  library.  Likewise  certain  ap- 
paratus was  suggested  —  such  as  terrestrial  globes, 
Holbrook's  apparatus  for  common  schools,  and 
charts  and  maps.  Finally,  a  list  of  books  and  jour- 
nals for  teachers  was  recommended.15 

In  connection  with  the  legislation  for  the  three 
normal  schools  in  1849,  the  Superintendent  was 
authorized  not  only  to  designate  the  district  bound- 
aries within  which  each  of  these  was  to  be  located 
but  also  to  appoint  boards  of  trustees  for  the  same. 
Furthermore,  by  an  act  which  sought  to  prevent  the 
waste  occurring  in  the  school  fund,  he  was  burdened 
with  the  task  of  approving  the  amount  allowed 
school  fund  commissioners  for  services  and  expenses 
—  a  duty  already  performed  by  three  county  officers. 
For  a  similar  reason,  when  the  saline  lands  were 
sold  his  office  was  charged  with  the  disposal  of  $5000 


PERIOD  OF  REORGANIZATION  23 

of  the  proceeds  for  the  benefit  of  the  college  of 
physicians  and  surgeons  at  Keokuk,  which  sum  was 
to  be  paid  over  at  the  discretion  of  the  Superintend- 
ent, that  is,  in  such  amounts  as  he  might  determine.16 
Such  duties  as  these  were  hardly  in  accord  with  the 
proper  functions  of  an  office  established  primarily 
for  the  organization  of  a  school  system;  but  in  1850 
it  seemed  destined  to  perform  any  sort  of  work 
which  might  be  assigned  to  it. 

During  the  year  1850  Superintendent  Benton 
traveled  extensively  through  the  State,  lecturing 
wherever  it  was  practicable.  Although  he  declared 
himself  as  not  satisfied  with  the  existing  local  con- 
ditions,  yet  he  saw  progress  in  the  organization  of 
districts  in  every  section  of  the  Commonwealth 
which  he  had  visited.  The  provisions  of  the  new 
school  law  (1849)  were  being  observed,  and  the  peo- 
ple generally  were  more  and  more  desirous  of  under- 
standing its  requirements  —  although  in  the  newer 
counties  the  settlements  were  so  isolated  that  results 
could  not  be  as  satisfactory  as  in  the  older  com- 
munities. It  was  to  aid  in  familiarizing  the  district 
authorities  with  the  provisions  of  the  law  that  the 
Superintendent  had  issued  the  circular  of  informa- 
tion. 

It  was  during  his  journey  over  the  State  in  1850 
that  the  Superintendent  made  observations  relative 
to  the  more  complete  organizations  of  districts  and 
the  construction  of  permanent  buildings.  Moreover, 
he  was  favorably  impressed  with  what  had  been 
accomplished  along  these  lines  in  the  State.  For  ex- 


24          HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

ample,  Muscatine  seemed  to  lead  in  the  erection  of 
permanent  school  buildings,  having  provided  for  two 
structures  which  together  cost  $5500;  Burlington 
also  had  designed  a  brick  building  of  five  rooms  to  be 
constructed  at  an  outlay  of  $4000 ;  Dubuque  was  pro- 
viding for  two  buildings,  both  to  cost  $1300;  and 
Fort  Madison  was  making  provision  for  similar  ac- 
commodations. These  improvements  were  sugges- 
tive of  what  would  be  desirable  as  districts  were  able 
to  adopt  measures  that  would  render  such  buildings 
possible.17 

That  the  office  of  State  Superintendent  was 
burdened  with  a  multitude  of  details  not  rightfully 
belonging  to  it  is  clear  from  the  opinion  expressed  by 
the  incumbent  in  1850.  He  seriously  doubted  the 
policy  ' f  of  making  the  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction a  financial  officer",  since  the  "educational 
duties  that  necessarily  devolve  upon  him  are,  in  this 
enlightened  age,  more  than  sufficient  to  occupy  his 
entire  time."  But  it  required  some  years  more  of 
experience  with  the  combination  of  financial  and  edu- 
cational functions  before  necessity  forced  a  separa- 
tion.18 

In  the  third  and  last  regular  report  of  Superin- 
tendent Benton  there  were  certain  important  recom- 
mendations relative  to  the  admission  of  non-resident 
pupils  to  the  district  schools  as  well  as  to  provisions 
which  would  permit  the  larger  towns  to  extend  their 
school  year.  It  was  possible  under  the  law  for  a 
district  board  to  prevent  absolutely  the  attendance 
of  a  non-resident  pupil,  notwithstanding  the  fact 


PERIOD  OF  REORGANIZATION  25 

that  his  tuition  was  advanced.  Furthermore,  it  was 
observed  that  laws  adapted  to  rural  districts  were 
not  suitable  in  all  particulars  to  the  more  compact 
settlements.  It  would  be  an  advantage  if  these  com- 
munities were  empowered  to  raise  means  additional 
to  the  public  money  received,  and  it  was  pointed  out 
that  it  was  "upon  this  principle  that  the  schools  of 
the  Atlantic  Cities  have  attained  their  present 
[1852]  high  degree  of  perfection".  This  plan, 
furthermore,  was  not  limited  to  towns,  since  it  was 
adaptable  to  any  district.  As  an  aid  to  carrying  out 
these  provisions  the  Superintendent  suggested  the 
enactment  of  a  law  authorizing  a  rate  bill  —  a  form 
of  statute  which  had  been  adopted  in  nearly  all  the 
States  which  had  made  "progress  in  popular  educa- 
tion."19 

These  were  the  concluding  recommendations 
made  by  the  second  State  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction  upon  the  completion  of  two  terms  of 
three  years  each.  His  administration  was  marked  by 
an  industrious  effort  to  effect  an  organization  of  the 
schools  under  the  law  of  1849  and  to  secure  a  change 
in  the  management  of  the  school  fund.  As  he  was 
later  to  become  the  executive  officer  of  the  State 
Board  of  Education  the  six  years  already  served 
were  of  great  advantage  to  him  in  an  understanding 
of  the  conditions  in  the  State. 

Mr.  James  D.  Eads  succeeded  to  the  office  of 
Superintendent  as  a  result  of  the  spring  election  of 
1854.  His  administration  has  been  covered  in  the 
chapters  on  funds  and  therefore  needs  but  brief  at- 


26 

tention  in  this  place.  Indeed,  his  term  of  three  years 
was  made  so  conspicuous  by  the  events  on  the  finan- 
cial side  that  the  strictly  educational  matters  are 
somewhat  limited,  both  as  to  data  recorded  and  as  to 
the  genuineness  of  what  is  set  forth.  There  are  ref- 
erences, however,  to  certain  facts  of  progress  of 
which  the  Superintendent  alone  has  left  an  account. 

It  was  during  this  period  that  the  first  instance 
of  a  superintendent  or  supervisory  principal  of  a 
city  school  was  directly  cited.  In  his  journey  over 
the  State  the  observations  of  Mr.  Eads  included  a 
reference  to  the  schools  of  Keokuk,  which  was  de- 
clared to  be  in  advance  of  other  cities  in  its  build- 
ings, having  invested  nearly  $10,000  therein,  while 
the  superintendent  of  its  schools  was  allowed  the 
liberal  sum  of  $800  annually.  Following  the  ex- 
ample of  his  predecessor  he  commended  the  towns 
of  Burlington,  Muscatine,  Davenport,  Lyons,  Ana- 
mosa,  Cedar  Falls,  Marion,  Colesburg,  Rochester, 
Tipton,  Denmark,  Primrose,  West  Point,  Centerville 
and  Oskaloosa  for  having  provided  new  buildings, 
which  he  asserted  would  ''stand  as  lasting  monu- 
ments of  the  liberality  of  those  engaged  in  so  glori- 
ous an  enterprise". 

It  was  in  this  connection  that  reference  was  made 
to  the  union  graded  schools,  a  " large  number"  of 
which  had  been  visited  in  the  towns  of  the  State. 
Great  satisfaction  was  expressed  with  these  organi- 
zations for  promoting  the  work  of  public  schools, 
since  they  promised  opportunities  heretofore  un- 
known in  the  Commonwealth.  They  were  adapted, 


27 


however,  only  to  centers  of  population  with  "a  large 
number  of  scholars  within  a  convenient  distance  of 
some  central  point."  Although  there  was  an  eco- 
nomic advantage  in  such  schools,  the  important  gain, 
in  the  opinion  of  the  Superintendent,  was  in  the 
opportunity  which  they  afforded  for  improvement  in 
methods  of  instruction  and  in  classification.  There 
was,  furthermore,  a  prospect  of  steady  advancement 
from  grade  to  grade  until  the  pupil  could  graduate 
from  the  highest  department  with  a  thoroughly  prac- 
tical education.  In  such  a  systematic  plan,  there 
was  also  an  adaptation  of  instruction  to  the  pupils 
of  a  single  department,  while  at  the  same  time  they 
were  stimulated  to  make  the  progress  which  would 
permit  them  to  pass  to  a  higher  grade.  Then,  finally, 
it  was  said  that  under  the  supervision  of  a  competent 
principal,  and  in  the  care  of  such  teachers  as  would 
be  obtainable,  with  an  environment  which  was  con- 
sidered extraordinary,  the  pupil  would  take  great 
pleasure  in  attending  the  sessions.  Such  were  the 
observations  relative  to  the  graded  schools  soon 
after  their  first  appearance  about  1854. 

Among  the  direct  recommendations  of  Mr.  Eads 
those  concerning  teachers  seem  most  important, 
because  without  these  "the  most  indispensable 
of  all  educational  auxiliaries"  would  be  wanting. 
He  especially  recommended  the  employment  more 
generally  of  women  teachers  in  the  common  schools 
— especially  for  the  work  among  younger  scholars. 
There  was  also  a  suggestion  that  all  agencies  in  the 
operation  of  the  schools  be  urged  to  aid  in  securing 


28  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

uniformity  in  text-books ;  and  the  perpetual  topic  of 
teachers'  wages  received  its  usual  attention.20 

Notwithstanding  a  stormy  administration  result- 
ing from  his  management  or  mismanagement  of  the 
school  funds,  Superintendent  James  D.  Eads  contin- 
ued in  office  for  the  full  term  of  three  years,  when  he 
was  succeeded  by  Mr.  Maturin  L.  Fisher  in  June, 
1857. 

The  financial  duties  of  the  new  Superintendent 
were  such  as  to  require  a  large  part  of  his  attention. 
Indeed,  this  was  the  transition  period  when  the  sep- 
aration of  the  educational  from  the  financial  func- 
tions of  the  office  was  accomplished.  In  Mr.  Fisher 
— who  made  the  two  reports  just  preceding  the  new 
law  of  1858 — the  State  had  an  officer  who  knew  what 
was  essential.  His  recommendations  were  funda- 
mental, setting  forth  the  needs  of  constructive  legis- 
lation and  declaring  that  the  primary  purpose  should 
be  the  instruction  of  the  whole  people  in  the  elemen- 
tary branches  in  free  schools — free  in  a  sense  not 
then  recognized  in  the  laws  of  this  State. 

To  operate  these  free  schools  it  was  necessary 
that  the  State  provide  for  the  preparation  of  teach- 
ers. Superintendent  Fisher  therefore  advised  the 
establishment  of  two  grades  of  institutions:  first, 
the  common  school  in  which  all  the  youth  of  the 
State  should  be  taught,  free  of  charge,  * '  orthography, 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  English 
grammar  and  the  elements  of  constitutional  and 
administrative  law";  and  second,  the  "high  or  sec- 
ondary schools  for  the  instruction,  free  of  charge,  of 


PERIOD  OF  REORGANIZATION  29 

teachers  for  the  common  schools,  in  the  art  and 
theory  of  teaching,  and  also,  in  all  the  branches  of 
knowledge  requisite  for  a  liberal  education ". 

Reference  was  made  by  Mr.  Fisher  to  the  normal 
schools  recently  established  in  several  States,  but  it 
was  the  Superintendent's  opinion  that  there  was  "no 
necessity  for  such  distinct  schools  for  the  education 
of  teachers."  High  schools  for  teachers  should  be 
provided  in  all  the  populous  and  wealthy  counties; 
and  when  these  schools  had  fully  complied  with 
certain  imposed  conditions  fixed  by  law  they  should 
be  entitled  to  aid  from  the  State  treasury.  And  the 
State  University,  which  was  already  in  operation, 
would  complete  the  desired  system  by  which  in- 
structors would  be  prepared  for  all  grades  of  work. 
Thus  the  opportunity  for  a  liberal  education  at  mod- 
erate cost  would  be  offered  to  any  who  might  desire 
to  accept  it.  To  be  sure  these  suggestions  were,  to 
a  large  extent,  in  the  report  of  the  Mann  Commission, 
yet  their  repetition  by  Superintendent  Fisher  gave 
them  added  force  and  emphasis. 

The  recommendations  relative  to  the  creation  of 
the  office  of  county  superintendent  are  the  same  as 
those  of  the  Mann  commission ;  but  it  is  possible  that 
supervisory  duties  which  later  devolved  upon  that 
officer  were  first  recommended  by  Superintendent 
Eads  who  suggested  the  enlargement  of  the  powers 
of  the  school  fund  commissioner  so  as  to  include  such 
functions.  It  is  not  so  important,  however,  as  to 
when  this  plan  originated  as  the  fact  that  it  was 
proposed  as  a  remedy  for  many  evils.  The  powers  of 


30  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

the  county  superintendent  (which  have  never  been 
as  fully  conferred  as  enumerated  in  1857)  should, 
according  to  the  view  of  Mr.  Eads,  include  the  estab- 
lishment of  school  districts  throughout  the  county 
and  the  determination  of  their  boundaries.  Sub- 
ordinate to  him  a  committee  should  be  elected  in  each 
township,  which  should  have  supervision  of  all  the 
schools  therein.  They  should  provide  suitable  teach- 
ers for  all  the  schools  of  the  township,  visit  the  same 
once  each  month,  see  that  scholars  were  prompt  and 
constant  in  attendance,  and  report  annually  to  the 
county  superintendent  the  general  conditions  of  the 
schools  under  their  jurisdiction.21  These  provisions, 
if  enacted  into  law,  would  have  restored  in  part  the 
functions  of  the  former  township  inspectors. 

Although  elected  by  the  people,  Superintendent 
Fisher  was  legislated  out  of  office  by  the  State  Board 
of  Education  after  he  had  occupied  the  position  from 
June,  1857,  to  December  24,  1858.  His  report,  sub- 
mitted in  1858,  indicated  an  earnest  effort  to  carry 
out  the  provisions  of  the  law  of  March  12th  of  that 
year  —  notwithstanding  the  uncertainties  existing  as 
to  the  authority  of  the  statute.  Much  of  what  was 
submitted  in  his  report  had  direct  reference  to  the 
work  of  county  superintendents  and  will  therefore  be 
considered  in  a  subsequent  chapter.  In  the  opinion 
of  a  minority  of  the  State  Board  of  Education  the 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  should  have 
been  retained  in  office,  since  the  term  did  not  expire 
until  1860  and  the  right  of  the  people  to  elect  should 
not  be  denied.  It  was  pointed  out  by  Mr.  T.  B. 


31 


Perry,  a  member  of  the  Board,  that  one  of  the  first 
principles  of  government  would  be  violated  in  de- 
claring this  office  abolished,  and  further  that  it  was 
feasible  to  maintain  both  the  office  of  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Board 
at  the  same  time  with  no  increased  outlay.  Never- 
theless, a  resolution  embodying  this  view  of  the  situ- 
ation was  lost  by  a  vote  of  four  to  seven.  With  the 
act  of  the  State  Board  of  Education,  defining  the 
functions  of  its  Secretary,  the  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction  was  relieved  of  his  duties  in  refer- 
ence to  the  schools  of  the  State.22  Under  the  pro- 
visions of  the  Constitution  and  the  school  laws  of 
1858  the  office  was  taken  over  by  the  State  Board  of 
Education. 


Ill 

STATE  SUPERVISION:  A  PERIOD  OF 
LIMITATIONS 

1858-1872 

HAD  the  office  of  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion been  continued  under  the  provisions  of  the  law 
of  1858,  the  regular  triennial  election  would  have 
occurred  in  April,  1860;  but  the  act  of  1858  author- 
ized also  the  abolition  of  the  office  ' '  at  any  time ' '  by 
the  Board  of  Education  and  the  transference  of  all  of 
its  duties  to  the  secretary  of  the  board.23  Accord- 
ingly, on  December  24, 1858,  the  Board  of  Education, 
near  the  end  of  its  first  session,  proceeded  to  elect  a 
Secretary  when  Mr.  Thomas  H.  Benton,  Jr.,  was 
chosen  in  preference  to  Mr.  M.  L.  Fisher  by  a  vote 
of  nine  to  three.  The  Secretary  pro  tern,  Mr.  Josiah 
T.  Tubby,  was  authorized  to  act  until  Mr.  Benton 
qualified ;  so  that  it  was  not  until  January  14,  1859, 
that  the  latter  assumed  the  duties  of  an  office  which, 
in  general,  were  the  same  as  those  with  which  he  had 
been  familiar  from  1848  to  1854. 

While  a  Secretary  was  elected  at  each  regular 
session  of  the  State  Board  of  Education  it  appears 
that  Mr.  Benton  was  the  only  person  who  held  the 
position  by  successive  regular  elections.  It  became 
necessary,  however,  for  him  to  appoint  a  substitute 

32 


PERIOD  OF  LIMITATIONS  33 

on  account  of  absence  during  the  war,  and  upon  his 
resignation  the  place  was  filled  by  appointment.  It 
was  the  function  of  the  Secretary,  in  addition  to  the 
duties  which  had  devolved  upon  the  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction,  "to  keep  an  accurate  journal" 
of  the  proceedings  of  the  Board.  This  journal,  more- 
over, is  the  source  of  general  information  relative  to 
school  legislation  for  the  period  from  December  6, 
1858,  to  the  close  of  the  year  1861. 

The  publication  and  distribution  of  the  acts  of  the 
State  Board  of  Education  was  among  the  first  duties 
assigned  the  Secretary  by  the  legislation  of  the 
Board;  while  the  general  supervision  of  all  the 
county  superintendents  and  of  all  the  common 
schools  was  a  function  transferred  from  the  office  of 
the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  as  provided 
in  the  law  of  the  General  Assembly  of  March  12, 1858. 
With  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  close  connection 
between  the  secretary  and  the  several  counties  he 
was  required  to  meet  the  county  superintendents  of 
the  several  judicial  districts  in  convention ;  whereas 
the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  had  been 
required  to  meet  these  officers  in  a  State  convention. 
The  Secretary  was  obligated  to  visit  schools  only  as 
time  and  his  numerous  required  duties  might  permit ; 
but  the  text-books  and  books  for  libraries  must  be 
recommended  by  him,  and  the  usual  blank  forms  for 
teachers  certificates  and  reports  should  be  distrib- 
uted to  the  several  counties  from  his  office. 

The  usual  biennial  reports,  too,  must  be  submitted 
by  him  not  only  to  the  General  Assembly  as  hereto- 


34 

fore,  but  also  to  the  State  Board  of  Education. 
Moreover,  these  reports  might  include  general  rec- 
ommendations in  reference  to  the  school  system. 
That  is  to  say,  the  Secretary  appears  to  have  had  an 
opportunity  to  impress  upon  the  authorities  certain 
views,  which  would  be  probably  more  effective  when 
presented  to  a  body  of  eleven  members  than  when 
submitted  as  formerly  to  the  large  number  compos- 
ing the  General  Assembly.  The  teachers  institute, 
which  was  provided  for  in  the  general  school  act  of 
March,  1858,  was  a  feature  of  the  law  of  the  Board  of 
Education,  and  for  this  meeting  the  Secretary  was 
required  to  make  all  necessary  arrangements  as  to 
time,  place,  and  lectures  whenever  such  a  demand 
was  made  in  accordance  with  law.24 

The  first  act  of  Secretary  Benton  upon  assuming 
his  new  duties  was  the  printing  and  the  distribution 
of  the  laws  and  the  journal  of  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion as  required  —  ''ten  thousand  copies  of  the 
former  and  five  hundred  of  the  latter"  being  pre- 
pared for  the  public  benefit.  Nearly  all  of  these  were 
distributed  within  the  year  1859.  During  the  same 
year  the  Secretary  had  complied  with  the  law  in 
visiting  all  of  the  eleven  judicial  districts  and  in 
holding  conventions  of  county  superintendents  there- 
in. In  this  proceeding,  while  the  letter  of  the  law 
had  been  fulfilled,  the  results  were  not  entirely  satis- 
factory as  will  be  shown  later  when  the  office  of 
county  superintendent  is  considered  in  detail. 

Secretary  Benton  was  obliged  in  his  first  report 
to  defend  the  new  school  law,  inasmuch  as  there  were 


PERIOD  OF  LIMITATIONS  35 

many  objections  lodged  against  it  not  only  because  of 
the  changes  required  in  organization  but  also  because 
of  the  direct  charge  that  it  was  more  expensive,  too 
complicated,  and  certain  officers  were  unnecessary. 
Under  such  circumstances  it  was  fortunate  that  his 
experience  was  available,  for  the  critical  period  of 
inaugurating  the  new  provisions  was  at  hand.  Being 
in  a  position  to  command  a  hearing,  he  secured  from 
not  less  than  forty  county  superintendents  some 
views  relative  to  actual  results,  and  these  he  sub- 
mitted as  conclusive.  Reference  has  already  been 
made  to  these  facts  and  they  need  be  mentioned  here 
only  as  indicative  of  the  labors  of  the  Secretary  of 
the  Board  of  Education  at  the  very  beginning  of  his 
service.  At  the  time  this  defense  was  made  the 
Secretary  declared,  however,  that  he  was  "  wedded 
to  no  particular  system  of  education"  but  wished 
rather  "to  secure  that  which  is  the  most  efficient,  and 
costs  the  least." 

Mr.  Josiah  T.  Tubby,  who  had  been  chosen  as  the 
Secretary  pro  tern  of  the  Board  of  Education,  and 
who  had  been  authorized  to  act  in  this  capacity  after 
the  election  of  Mr.  Benton  until  the  latter  had  quali- 
fied, was  thus  really  for  a  time  the  direct  successor  of 
Mr.  Fisher  and  in  charge  of  the  executive  duties  of 
this  office.  When  Secretary  Benton  assumed  his 
duties  Mr.  Tubby  became  his  clerk,  and  it  was  in  this 
relation  that  his  services  in  interpreting  the  new  law 
were  said  to  have  been  most  satisfactory  to  the 
numerous  correspondents  who  made  inquiry  during 
the  absence  of  the  chief  officer.  All  difficult  problems 


36  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

were  submitted  for  "mutual  consultation",  and  thus 
both  the  clerk  and  the  Secretary  were  instrumental 
in  answering  the  perplexing  questions  relative  to  the 
new  act  which  came  up  from  many  quarters  of  the 
State.  Strictly,  then,  if  justice  is  done,  Mr.  Tubby 
must  be  listed  with  the  Secretary  and  Acting  Secre- 
taries of  the  Board  of  Education,  all  of  whom  were 
in  the  order  of  succession  to  the  office  of  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction. 

By  a  provision  of  "Act  No.  8"  of  the  Board  of 
Education,  which  was  in  fact  the  reenactment  of  the 
law  of  March  12,  1858,  an  extraordinary  power  was 
conferred  upon  the  Secretary,  namely,  an  ordinance 
power  by  which  he  was  authorized  to  supplement  the 
acts  of  the  Board  should  any  defect  due  to  "over- 
sight" be  discovered  therein  when  they  were  not  in 
session.  All  such  remedial  rules  or  regulations  were 
to  have  "the  force  of  law"  until  the  matter  could  be 
adjusted  by  the  Board.  The  Secretary  was  required, 
however,  to  render  in  all  such  instances  a  full  report 
of  these  acts  and  the  reasons  therefor. 

It  appears  that,  notwithstanding  frequent  re- 
quests, the  Secretary  refused  to  exercise  this 
power  to  any  extent  lest,  as  he  said,  he  "might 
transcend  it".  In  this  connection  an  important  case 
arose  which  would  have  come  under  the  authoriza- 
tion of  the  Board  if  it  had  been  held  to  be  a  matter  of 
"oversight".  A  village  in  the  western  part  of  the 
State  (in  1859)  had  grown  up  on  the  boundary  line  of 
two  counties;  and  under  the  old  law  (previous  to 
1858)  the  village,  along  with  some  contiguous  terri- 


PERIOD  OF  LIMITATIONS  37 

tory  from  each  of  the  two  counties,  was  constituted 
a  school  district.  As  such  it  levied  a  tax  and  built 
a  substantial  school  house.  Under  the  new  law,  how- 
ever, no  district  could  extend  beyond  county  lines; 
and  thus  nearly  half  the  people  of  the  district  were 
thrown  into  a  new  jurisdiction  and  taxed  for  a  new 
building  which  was  located  two  miles  distant  and  at 
the  same  time  were  deprived  of  the  benefits  of  the 
new  house  for  which  they  had  been  taxed  and  which 
was  but  a  few  rods  away.  This  being  manifestly  a 
defect  in  the  law,  not  due  to  '  *  oversight ' ',  the  Secre- 
tary declined  to  use  the  authority  which  seemed  to  be 
applicable.  Questions  of  this  nature  were  answered 
by  special  correspondence,  while  the  less  important 
queries  were  anticipated  in  circulars  of  which  at 
least  three  had  been  issued.25  It  is  apparent,  there- 
fore, that  the  Secretary  endeavored  to  carry  out  the 
provisions  of  the  law  in  all  respects  as  well  as  to 
perform  the  special  duties  imposed  upon  him  by  the 
body  whose  executive  officer  he  was. 

Secretary  Benton's  second  report  was  made  to 
the  Board  of  Education  at  their  final  session  in  1861. 
There  were  many  important  recommendations  in 
this  document,  as  well  as  a  summary  of  the  work 
during  the  biennial  period.  Following  the  session  of 
the  Board  in  December,  1859,  the  Secretary  had 
published  the  school  law  and  the  amendments  thereto 
made  by  the  General  Assembly  and  had  distributed 
these  through  the  county  judges  and  county  super- 
intendents to  the  counties  of  the  State.  It  was 
declared  that  the  legislative  changes  made  in  1859 


38  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

had  given  rise  to  a  "  great  variety  of  intricate  ques- 
tions", which  led  to  an  extensive  correspondence  in 
order  that  these  points  might  be  explained.  That 
ambiguity  might  be  removed  and  the  law  made  more 
definite,  the  Secretary  suggested  more  than  twenty- 
five  amendments  —  thus  showing  the  need  of  prac- 
tical experience  with  a  statute  before  it  could  be 
made  adaptable  to  all  conditions.  Moreover,  it  was 
at  this  time  that  a  State  Board  of  Examiners  was 
first  recommended  to  a  legislative  body  in  this 
Commonwealth.  Although  the  idea  was  not  original 
with  the  Secretary  —  other  States  having  estab- 
lished similar  boards  —  it  was  at  least  indicative  of 
the  progressive  spirit  which  dominated  the  officer 
who  was  required  to  inform  the  law-making  powers 
of  what  was  being  done  elsewhere. 

During  another  biennial  period  the  Secretary  had 
traveled  about  the  State  in  meeting  the  county  super- 
intendents of  the  judicial  districts ;  but  at  the  end  of 
the  second  series  of  conventions  he  concluded  that 
the  plan  was  not  a  success,  for  even  though  all  the 
superintendents  in  an  entire  district  could  be  as- 
sembled at  one  time  there  would  not  be  constituted 
a  body  which  could  rouse  any  great  interest.  He 
favored,  therefore,  a  meeting  similar  to  the  one  held 
at  Iowa  City  in  1858,  when  a  large  number  of  these 
officers  were  brought  into  one  meeting  at  the  capital 
for  at  least  a  week.  Although  he  preferred  an  an- 
nual meeting,  on  account  of  the  expense,  he  deemed 
such  frequent  assemblies  as  possibly  inexpedient  at 
the  time.  And  then  —  prophetically  —  he  expressed 


PERIOD  OF  LIMITATIONS  39 

the  hope  that '  *  in  the  course  of  time  it  will  become  a 
permanent,  annual  convocation  of  the  best  educa- 
tional talent  of  the  State." 

In  view  of  the  present  authority  given  to  the 
county  superintendents  and  the  practical  fulfillment 
of  the  utterance  as  to  a  "  convocation  ",  it  is  of  inter- 
est to  note  the  only  obstacle  which  Secretary  Benton 
presented  to  his  plan  as  thus  described.  Some 
scheme,  he  said,  must  be  first  devised  to  meet  the 
necessary  expenses.  Moreover,  he  was  certain  that 
"it  would  not  be  proper  to  require  each  County  to 
pay  the  expenses  of  its  own  Superintendent ;  for  then 
the  burden  would  fall  most  heavily  upon  the  more 
remote  counties,  which  are  least  able  to  bear  it." 
And  so,  he  suggested  the  payment,  finally,  of  the 
whole  expense  from  the  State  treasury;  but  for  the 
time  being  such  payment  could  be  made  from  the 
interest  on  the  permanent  school  fund,  and  to  this 
end  the  State  Auditor  should  withhold  from  the  ap- 
portionment a  sum  of  not  less  than  $2000.  It  does 
not  appear,  however,  that  this  suggestion  was  ever 
acted  upon,  or  that  such  a  proposition  was  ever 
again  made.26 

The  final  report  from  the  Secretary  of  the  Board 
of  Education  consists  in  fact  of  three  separate  docu- 
ments, than  which  no  educational  papers  contain 
more  interesting  data.  They  represent  the  conclu- 
sions of  Mr.  Benton,  then  an  officer  in  the  regular 
army,  of  Mr.  H.  A.  Wiltse,  who  had  been  appointed 
to  act  in  his  stead,  and  of  former  Lieutenant  Gov- 
ernor Oran  Faville,  who  had  been  appointed  to 


40          HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

relieve  Mr.  Wiltse.  The  latter  performed  the  duties 
of  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education  only  from 
November,  1862,  until  April,  1863 ;  but  at  the  request 
of  both  the  regularly  appointed  and  the  acting  secre- 
tary he  submitted  a  portion  of  the  biennial  summary. 
While  certain  parts  of  these  three  State  papers  must 
be  included  in  other  chapters  it  is  essential  that  their 
general  conclusions  be  stated  in  this  connection. 

As  already  noted  the  State  Board  of  Education 
held  its  last  session  in  1861 ;  and  while  the  Secretary 
continued  to  perform  the  duties  imposed  upon  his 
office,  he  had  no  further  obligations  relative  to  a 
journal  of  proceedings  nor  to  legislation  by  the 
Board.  And  so  his  attention  in  1862,  he  said,  was 
given,  first  of  all,  to  the  publication  of  the  amended 
school  law  of  1862  (enacted  by  the  General  Assem- 
bly) and  its  distribution  throughout  the  State.  It 
was  observed  that  this  statute  was  received  gener- 
ally with  favor,  and  that  it  seemed  to  have  removed 
"many  of  the  objections  and  quibbles  that  previous- 
ly attended  its  administration."  It  was  in  this 
connection  that  Secretary  Benton  pointed  to  the  fact 
that  while  this  statute  (amending  the  school  law  of 
1858)  was  by  no  means  perfect,  its  provisions  must, 
"regardless  of  the  changes  that  may  be  made  by 
different  legislative  bodies,  constitute  the  basis  of 
our  school  system  for  all  time  to  come." 

Moreover,  Secretary  Benton 's  contentions  rela- 
tive to  the  conflict  that  would  prevail  if  the  authority 
of  the  Board  of  Education  and  the  General  Assembly 
was  to  be  continued  for  five  years,  as  provided  by  the 


PERIOD  OF  LIMITATIONS  41 

Constitution,  were  supported  by  both  of  the  other 
incumbents  of  the  office  —  it  being  quite  uniformly 
agreed  that  the  General  Assembly  should  exercise  its 
right  and  abolish  the  existing  Board.  Secretary 
Benton  would  not  recommend  any  general  legislative 
changes  in  educational  laws  at  the  coming  session 
(in  1864),  believing  that  the  law  as  then  in  force  was 
sufficient  —  at  least  until  the  war  was  over.  If,  how- 
ever, a  new  law  should  at  some  time  be  enacted  he 
would  recommend  that  "much  be  entrusted  to  the 
executive  head  of  the  system" — a  suggestion  which 
he  felt  free  to  make  since  he  had  filed  his  resignation 
with  Governor  Kirkwood.27 

That  portion  of  the  report  submitted  by  Mr. 
Wiltse,  dwelt  largely  upon  the  defects  in  the  law  and 
the  organization  as  provided  by  the  Constitution. 
But  he  went  farther  than  any  former  authority,  and 
possibly  than  any  since,  in  recommending  a  real  State 
board  of  education  with  powers  and  prerogatives 
adequate  to  the  establishment  of  a  system  similar  to 
some  in  the  older  States,  which  authority  he  consid- 
ered vital  if  the  plan  of  a  board  was  to  be  successful. 
Furthermore,  information  relative  to  actual  condi- 
tions in  the  State  was  a  matter  of  such  importance 
that  means  should  be  available  by  which  to  obtain  it 
and  at  the  same  time  compel  its  submission  by  those 
who  could  be  held  responsible.  Indeed,  he  would 
require  a  detailed  account  of  the  affairs  of  each 
district,  and  in  the  minor  divisions  having  a  specified 
population  the  facts  should  be  printed  for  the  public 
benefit.28 


42  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

The  third  member  of  this  group  of  Secretaries, 
Mr.  Faville,  submitted,  in  December,  1863,  the 
eleventh  regular  report  of  the  " Department",  which 
included  the  two  sections  cited  above.  Since  his 
services  had  extended  over  the  latter  part  of  the 
biennial  period,  he  included  valuable  material  rela- 
tive to  graded  schools  and  a  course  of  study  which 
his  immediate  predecessor  (Mr.  Wiltse)  had  recom- 
mended. Moreover,  he  made  it  appear  that  a  time 
might  soon  arrive  when  a  compulsory  attendance 
law  would  be  desirable ;  and  he  illustrated  the  condi- 
tions of  the  schools  by  actual  figures  to  show  its 
possible  necessity.  He  dwelt  further  upon  the  State 
Board  of  Education,  the  graded  schools,  text-books, 
laws,  institutes,  the  school  fund,  and  the  county 
superintendent.  Furthermore,  he  made  frequent 
reference  to  the  Civil  War  then  being  waged  and  to 
its  influence  upon  the  educational  forces  of  the  State 
which,  he  declared,  had  modified  to  some  extent  the 
usual  urgent  requests  for  changes  or  modifications  in 
the  machinery  of  the  school  system.29 

With  the  retirement  of  Thomas  H.  Benton,  Jr.,  a 
vacancy  was  created  in  the  office  of  Secretary  of  the 
Board  of  Education  to  which  Governor  Kirkwood 
appointed  Oran  Faville,  then  Acting  Secretary. 
Upon  the  abolition  of  the  Board  in  1864,  Mr.  Faville 
was  elected  by  the  General  Assembly  to  the  re- 
created office  of  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion to  serve  until  January  1,  1866  —  it  being 
provided  that  the  people  at  the  general  election  in 
1865  and  "every  two  years  thereafter"  again  should 


PERIOD  OF  LIMITATIONS  43 

have  the  right  of  selecting  this  officer.  Mr.  Faville 
was  reflected  in  1865  and  served  until  March,  1867, 
when  owing  to  ill  health  he  resigned.30 

During  the  superintendency  of  Oran  Faville  but 
one  biennial  report  was  made,  that  of  1864-1865 
which  included  information  along  the  lines  specified 
by  law  as  well  as  some  general  comments  upon  the 
period.  The  "well  prepared  teacher"  was  among 
the  principal  subjects  upon  which  he  wrote ;  and  he 
emphasized  again  the  importance  of  the  office  of 
county  superintendent.  Eeference  was  made  also  to 
the  graded  schools;  and  although  the  high  school 
had  not  yet  become  common  in  the  State  it  was  re- 
garded by  the  new  Superintendent  as  the  i  l  crowning 
glory  of  our  system  of  free  schools."  Its  advan- 
tages were  illustrated  by  the  recently  adopted  course 
of  the  Burlington  independent  district.  In  his 
opinion  the  growing  influence  of  school  journals  and 
teachers  associations  was  an  item  of  considerable 
interest.  Nowhere,  however,  was  there  any  recom- 
mendation leading  to  fundamental  changes  in  the 
laws.  Indeed,  it  was  concluded  that,  if  one  could 
judge  from  the  data  forwarded  by  county  superin- 
tendents, the  people  desired  no  change.31 

To  the  vacancy  which  occurred  upon  the  resigna- 
tion of  Mr.  Faville,  Governor  Stone  appointed  Mr. 
D.  Franklin  Wells,  who  on  March  9,  1867,  began  the 
duties  of  his  new  office.  Trained  at  the  Albany,  New 
York,  Normal  School,  employed  for  some  years  in 
the  public  schools  of  Muscatine,  he  was  called  to  the 
Normal  Department  of  the  State  University  of  Iowa 


44          HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

in  1856,  and  for  ten  years  or  more  directed  that 
branch  of  the  University  instruction,  establishing  a 
model  school  in  connection  therewith.  Owing,  how- 
ever, to  a  change  in  organization,  he  was  free  to 
accept  the  office  of  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion just  at  the  time  the  vacancy  occurred. 

From  March  9,  1867,  until  November  24,  1868  — 
the  time  of  his  death  —  Mr.  Wells  was  the  executive 
head  of  the  school  system.  As  such  he  issued  the 
required  report  in  1867,  the  period  covered  being 
from  October  5,  1865,  to  October  4,  1867.  His  habit 
of  thoroughness  is  clearly  shown  in  this  document, 
wherein  he  touched  upon  the  subjects  of  funds,  dis- 
tricts, the  training  of  teachers  and  their  certification, 
an  educational  board  of  examiners  that  would  meet 
the  needs  of  the  State,  and  the  county  superintendent 
and  his  duties  as  well  as  his  rights.  Again,  reference 
was  made  to  the  State  Teachers'  Association  which 
had  then  been  in  existence  for  thirteen  years,  to 
township  graded  schools,  to  text-books  and  their 
uniformity,  and  finally  to  the  current  interest  in  the 
adoption  of  the  metric  system  of  weights  and  meas- 
ures. But,  as  in  the  report  of  two  years  before,  no 
radical  change  in  the  laws  relative  to  education  was 
in  any  way  suggested.  No  report  up  to  this  time  had 
set  forth  in  such  precise  and  definite  terms  the  idea 
of  a  single  State  normal  school ;  and  no  authority,  it 
might  be  said,  of  greater  weight  on  this  subject  could 
be  quoted  at  that  time.32 

Upon  the  death  of  Mr.  Wells,  Mr.  Abram  S. 
Kissell  was  appointed  by  Governor  Merrill  to  the 


PERIOD  OF  LIMITATIONS  45 

vacancy.  Although  appointed  on  December  10, 1868, 
Mr.  Kissell  did  not  enter  upon  his  duties  until  Janu- 
ary 28,  1869.  The  biennial  report  due  in  1869  must, 
therefore,  have  been  submitted  within  less  than  a 
year  after  his  appointment  to  the  office  —  that  is  to 
say,  it  covered  the  period  from  October  6,  1867,  to 
October  4, 1869,  as  the  law  then  specified.  In  this,  as 
in  the  former  documents  covering  the  operations  of 
the  office,  the  material  submitted  is  indicative  of  the 
current  thought  of  the  leaders  and  the  needs  of  the 
educational  system  of  the  Commonwealth.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  common  and  customary  recommendations, 
new  features,  such  as  drawing,  music,  voice  culture, 
evening  schools,  lyceums,  and  libraries  are  given 
some  attention ;  while  supervision  —  district,  county, 
and  State  —  is  treated  at  length.  Perhaps  district 
supervision  had  not  before  this  received  adequate 
presentation;  for  it  is  noteworthy  that  each  occu- 
pant of  the  office  of  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction had  contributed  his  experience  in  a  special 
field  as  an  important  part  of  his  recommendations. 
In  this  instance  Mr.  Kissell  was  but  emphasizing  that 
which  he  had  worked  out  to  some  extent  in  a  prac- 
tical way.33 

During  the  period  between  the  time  of  Mr. 
Kissell 's  appointment  and  his  actual  entrance  upon 
the  duties  of  the  office  Mr.  Lewis  I.  Coulter  served  as 
the  Acting  Superintendent.  Of  this  fact  the  reports 
offer  no  information.  Indeed,  it  appears  that  the 
only  public  document  bearing  Mr.  Coulter's  name  is 
a  decision  made  on  January  27,  1869  —  the  day  pre- 


46 

ceding  that  on  which  the  appointee  qualified.  Noth- 
ing further  seems  to  be  recorded  relative  to  the 
service  of  this  temporary  officer,  and  it  is  only 
through  this  one  source  that  connection  is  made  be- 
tween the  close  of  the  administration  of  Mr.  Wells 
and  the  beginning  of  that  of  Mr.  Kissell.  Since  the 
laws  of  1868,  amending  Section  642  of  the  Revision  of 
1860,  provided  for  the  appointment  of  a  deputy 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  it  is  concluded 
that  Mr.  Coulter  held  such  position  and  that  the 
functions  pertaining  to  the  office  devolved  upon 
him.34 

Near  the  close  of  the  session  of  1868  the  General 
Assembly  had  passed  an  act  increasing  to  some 
extent  the  duties  which  were  assigned  to  the  Super- 
intendent of  Public  Instruction.  Instead  of  meeting 
county  superintendents  in  judicial  districts  the 
State  Superintendent  was  authorized  to  hold  con- 
ventions at  convenient  points.  He  was  required  also 
to  attend  and  lecture  at  county  institutes,  and  to 
render  a  written  opinion  in  all  cases  where  inquiry 
was  made  touching  the  interpretation  of  the  law. 
Finally,  at  the  close  of  each  session  of  the  General 
Assembly,  he  must  revise  and  codify  all  school  laws 
previous  to  issuing  a  new  edition  thereof.  It  was 
this  statute,  furthermore,  which  repealed  the  right 
of  the  Superintendent ' '  to  select  or  direct  what  kind 
of  books ' '  should  be  used  in  the  public  schools.35 

Personal  contact  as  an  element  in  creating  educa- 
tional enthusiasm  was  tested,  to  some  extent,  by 
Superintendent  Kissell  during  his  final  term  in  a 


PERIOD  OF  LIMITATIONS  47 

"tour  of  inspection"  into  different  parts  of  the 
State.  On  this  tour  he  traveled  over  14,000  miles  in 
eighteen  months  and  delivered  some  seventy  lec- 
tures. At  the  same  time  Massachusetts  was  in- 
augurating a  system  for  the  accomplishment  of  the 
same  purpose,  employing  six  men  to  do  the  work 
which  devolved  upon  one  in  Iowa.  It  is  not  remark- 
able, therefore,  that  Governor  Merrill  in  his  message 
of  1870  should  recommend  the  appointment,  by  the 
proper  State  officials,  of  six  assistant  superintend- 
ents for  the  same  number  of  defined  districts  within 
the  State.36  It  seems  clear  that  he  had  observed  the 
benefits  of  a  personal  canvass  of  each  locality  and 
had  concluded  that  more  specific  supervision  ought 
to  be  undertaken  by  the  State  department. 

On  January  1,  1872,  Superintendent  Abram  S. 
Kissell  submitted  his  final  report  to  the  General 
Assembly.  It  may  be  said  that  up  to  that  time  none 
had  been  more  carefully  prepared,  and  probably  no 
other  holds  a  more  authoritative  place  not  only  as  to 
facts  and  practices  but  also  as  to  the  presentation  of 
theory.  Reference  has  often  been  made  to  the  ex- 
haustive study  of  the  Normal  school  as  an  institution 
which  he  included  in  this  document.  He  summarized 
likewise  the  advantages  of  the  district  township 
system;  gave  fifteen  pages  to  the  subject  of  moral 
and  religious  education ;  pointed  out  the  needs  of  the 
institute  and  the  support  that  should  be  granted  to 
the  county  superintendency ;  and  declared  that  the 
time  was  opportune  for  the  enactment  of  a  com- 
pulsory attendance  law.  The  theoretical  was  espe- 


48 

cially  prominent  in  his  treatment  of  the  use  of 
text-books,  the  kindergarten  system,  and  intuitional 
and  objective  teaching;  while  emphasis  on  the  pro- 
duction of  actual  results  in  secondary  instruction, 
with  a  proposed  course  of  study  for  high  schools, 
indicated  a  broad  view  of  public  service  through  the 
school  system  of  the  State.37  In  other  chapters  the 
substance  of  these  discussions  may  be  incorporated 

—  but  in  the  briefest  form  since  they  constitute  in 
themselves  a  small  volume. 

The  period  from  1858  to  1872  as  thus  summarized 
is  marked  by  many  changes  in  the  supervising 
authority  in  the  State.  If  one  includes,  as  it  appears 
one  should,  the  Secretaries  of  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, there  were  elected  or  appointed  at  least  five 
Superintendents  of  Public  Instruction,  one  Secre- 
tary pro  tern,  and  one  deputy  (who  exercised  the  au- 
thority of  the  Superintendent)  during  the  fourteen 
years;  while  the  succeeding  six  Superintendents 
covered  a  period  of  not  less  than  twenty-six  years. 
It  was  a  time  of  uncertainty  in  many  respects  and  of 
trial  and  proof  in  others,  so  that  what  was  rightfully 
termed  supervision  was  not  fully  exercised.  Much 
was  suggested,  but  there  was  little  that  could  be 
commanded.  Throughout  there  seems  to  have  been 
a  feeling  that  no  system  had.  yet  been  established 

—  a   conclusion   which   subsequent    events   justify. 
Nevertheless,  the  men,  the  personalities  connected 
with  the  office  of  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion, were  of  the  highest  type. 


IV 

STATE  SUPERVISION:  A  PERIOD  OF 

RESOLUTION 

1872-1912 

IN  January,  1872,  Mr.  Alonzo  Abernethy  assumed 
the  duties  of  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 
During  the  session  of  the  General  Assembly  that 
year  the  most  radical  school  legislation  since  1858 
provided  for  the  restoration  of  the  independent  dis- 
trict. Thus  a  new  factor  entered  into  the  manage- 
ment and  supervision  of  the  school  system.  It  was 
observed  by  Mr.  Abernethy  in  his  first  biennial  re- 
port, that  the  school  system  as  originally  established 
contemplated  a  ' l  three-fold  plan  of  superintendence ' ' 
—  State,  county,  and  district.  But  in  a  State  of  such 
proportions  as  Iowa  the  influence  that  could  be 
exerted  by  a  single  officer  over  the  whole  was  exceed- 
ingly limited.  It  was  evident,  moreover,  that  the 
provisions  of  the  law  relative  to  local  or  district 
supervision  —  that  is,  by  directors  —  were  not  com- 
plied with  to  any  extent,  and  so  the  plan  could  not 
result  in  great  advancement.  The  county  super- 
vision, which  had  been  provided  for  some  fifteen 
years  earlier,  was  not  yet  fully  established  and  great 
differences  of  opinion  existed  as  to  its  usefulness. 
Thus  one  must  conclude  that  the  entire  structure,  the 

R  49 


50  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

three-fold  plan,  was  not  regarded  as  accomplishing 
the  purpose  contemplated. 

With  this  situation  in  view  Superintendent 
Abernethy  gave  large  space  to  and  quoted  from  lead- 
ing authorities  in  support  of  the  office  of  county 
superintendent,  since  this  agency  appeared  to  be 
absolutely  necessary  to  any  scheme  of  supervision 
however  elementary  it  might  be.  As  then  organized 
the  school  system  demanded  such  an  officer.  Indeed, 
there  were  certain  contingencies  where  no  substitute 
could  be  made.  With  the  evident  purpose  of  draw- 
ing attention  to  the  importance  of  school  inspection 
or  school  visiting  on  the  part  of  the  county  superin- 
tendent, the  State  Superintendent  in  the  conventions 
of  county  school  officers  made  this  a  leading  feature 
of  the  discussions.  Moreover,  he  even  ventured  to 
issue  an  inquiry  relative  to  the  time  employed  in 
inspection,  the  number  of  visits  not  only  in  schools 
but  in  counsel  with  directors,  the  number  of  educa- 
tional meetings  held,  and  also  the  public  addresses 
given  —  all  of  which  were  to  form  a  part  of  the 
conclusions  as  to  the  effectiveness  of  the  office  of 
county  superintendent. 

Thus  there  was  a  direct  attack,  it  appears,  upon 
the  problem  of  supervision;  and  at  the  same  time  it 
was  shown  how  impotent  the  office  of  State  Superin- 
tendent was  as  to  equipment  of  working  force  and  in 
the  limited  opportunity  given  to  the  Superintendent 
to  be  away  from  his  clerical  duties.  Indeed,  Mr. 
Abernethy  declared  that  although  the  legal  require- 
ments as  to  attendance  upon  institutes,  conventions, 


PERIOD  OF  RESOLUTION  51 

and  educational  gatherings  had  been  met  so  far  as 
possible  this  work  had  been  done  so  hurriedly  that 
information  necessarily  of  interest  to  the  public  and 
the  General  Assembly  had  to  be  neglected.38 

Departing  from  the  usual  custom  Superintendent 
Abernethy  devoted  his  biennial  report  for  1874^1875 
to  a  review  of  the  Iowa  school  system  from  the  be- 
ginning to  the  year  1875.  Although  the  value  of 
current  information  was  unquestioned  and  its  real 
worth  would  tend  to  increase  as  the  school  system 
developed,  nevertheless  for  the  purpose  of  determin- 
ing needed  modifications  and  legislative  action  its 
value  was  " limited  by  the  limited  range  of  view." 
Mr.  Abernethy  thought  it  desirable,  therefore,  to 
present,  at  intervals,  a  "more  extended  view,  to  en- 
large the  range  of  vision,  for  the  purposes  of  com- 
parison and  reference,  and  to  afford  the  opportunity 
to  study  the  changes  and  the  progress  made  for 
longer  periods  of  time."  Another  reason  for  pre- 
senting this  historical  review  was  found  in  the  fact 
that  the  next  year  would  mark  the  centennial  in  the 
nation's  history,  and  the  occasion  was  opportune  for 
such  an  undertaking. 

This  was  a  new  angle  from  which  to  view  the 
problems  of  educational  supervision.  But  one  must 
accept  Mr.  Abernethy 's  contribution  as  a  real  en- 
deavor to  promote  the  growth  of  education  in  Iowa 
in  a  most  profitable  way.  Nothing  of  the  kind  had 
ever  before  been  done  for  education  in  this  State. 
Probably  no  legislator  knew  minutely  the  status  of 
the  Iowa  school  district,  for  example,  or  of  previous 


52          HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

school  legislation,  or  of  the  progress  of  the  graded 
schools,  or  of  the  compensation  of  teachers  for  the 
past  thirty  years.  It  was,  therefore,  proper  for  the 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  to  present  — 
though,  as  he  said,  in  no  sense  a  history  of  education 
—  a  rather  comprehensive  view  of  what  the  State 
had  stood  for  during  the  years  since  schools  were 
first  established.39  This,  moreover,  was  the  true 
way  of  securing  a  perspective  for  the  legislators  who 
might  be  anxious  to  promote  laws  that  had  in  pre- 
vious years  been  tried,  repealed,  and  then  presented 
for  reenactment. 

Mr.  Carl  W.  von  Coelln,  the  successor  to  Alonzo 
Abernethy,  was  elected  to  the  office  of  Superintend- 
ent in  1875,  and  through  reelection  served  six  years 
as  the  head  of  the  school  system.  With  reference  to 
the  subject  of  supervision  it  appears  from  the  three 
reports  presented  during  these  six  years  that  he 
dwelt  forcefully  upon  the  increasing  functions  of  the 
State  office  and  the  exercise  of  certain  authority 
implied  in  the  powers  of  general  supervision.  In 
carrying  out  these  provisions  of  the  law  he  had  (in 
1877)  visited  forty- three  institutes  and  twelve  asso- 
ciations, had  delivered  seventy  or  more  lectures,  and 
had  traveled  8000  miles.  Again,  two  years  later  he 
contrasted  the  experience  of  the  larger  cities  and 
towns,  where  all  or  part  of  the  time  of  a  supervisor 
was  employed,  with  the  attention  that  could  be  given 
the  rural  school.  It  was  in  this  survey  that  he  rec- 
ommended additional  inspection  through  assistants 
to  the  county  superintendent  —  that  is,  township 


PERIOD  OF  RESOLUTION  53 

inspectors  who  should  be  qualified  not  only  to  aid 
teachers  individually  but  at  the  same  time  be  able  to 
judge  of  efficiency. 

Finally,  during  his  last  term  he  declared  that  the 
school  organization  could  hardly  be  called  a  system, 
since  the  main  authority  in  providing  for  the  actual 
operation  of  the  schools  was  located  in  the  board  of 
directors  of  a  district.  While  there  was  State  and 
county  supervision  according  to  statute,  this  was 
largely  advisory.  It  would  be  well  to  instruct  the 
people  in  the  benefits  of  competent  inspection  and 
supervision.  In  every  instance  the  county  superin- 
tendent must  eventually  become  a  factor  or  the  office 
would  be  declared  useless,  while  the  State  office  must 
be  relieved  of  its  burdens  by  the  assistance  of  a 
board  of  education. 

It  may  be  said,  in  passing,  that  this  suggestion 
had  actually  been  met  in  the  appointment  of  an  un- 
official body  from  the  State  Teachers'  Association 
which  should  serve  as  an  advisory  council  to  the 
Superintendent.  The  following  representatives  of 
different  educational  forces  in  the  State  constituted 
this  advisory  body:  President  Josiah  L.  Pickard  of 
the  State  University;  President  William  F.  King  of 
Cornell  College ;  Professor  Moses  W.  Bartlett  of  the 
State  Normal  School;  Professor  Charles  E.  Bessey 
of  the  State  Agricultural  College;  Superintendent 
Homer  H.  Seerley  of  the  Oskaloosa  city  schools,  and 
Superintendent  Rufus  H.  Frost  of  Cass  County. 
Although  it  was  recognized  that  such  an  advisory 
council  would  be  of  great  assistance,  it  was  asserted 


54          HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

that  the  State  office  was  in  need  of  a  board  which 
would  assume  some  of  its  obligations  in  the  "  actual 
inspection  and  supervision  of  school  work",  includ- 
ing the  institutes  and  "educational  institutions"  of 
the  State.40 

The  successor  to  Superintendent  von  Coelln,  Mr. 
John  W.-  Akers,  retained  the  office  for  an  equal 
period  —  that  is,  for  six  years  (1882-1888).  He  also 
suggested  and  enlarged  upon  the  possibilities  of  a 
system  which  would  incorporate  township  inspec- 
tion. His  relations  with  the  county  superintendents 
during  his  first 'term  gave  him  a  favorable  impression 
of  their  efforts.  Moreover,  at  the  sixteen  conven- 
tions held  in  the  eight  districts  into  which  the  State 
had  been  divided  the  attendance  had  been  such  that 
every  county  was  represented.  There  were  many 
important  measures  before  the  people  during  these 
six  years;  but  they  were,  for  the  most  part,  not 
directly  connected  with  the  policy  of  the  supervision 
to  be  exercised  or  proposed  by  the  Superintendent 
or  by  others  associated  under  his  administration. 
There  were,  however,  among  the  public  matters  pre- 
sented for  consideration,  some  which  required  the 
active  participation  of  the  State  Superintendent. 
For  example,  it  was  during  the  administration  of 
Mr.  Akers  that  the  New  Orleans  exposition  offered 
an  opportunity  for  a  collective  exhibit  illustrating 
the  entire  school  system  of  the  State.  Of  this  he 
took  advantage  and  gave  personal  attention  to  the 
installation  of  the  material.  The  official  duties 
which  might  be  designated  as  supervisory  are,  how- 


PERIOD  OF  RESOLUTION  55 

ever,  so  clearly  connected  with  those  that  are  execu- 
tive, that  one  must  refer  to  them  in  other  chapters.41 
After  seventeen  years  of  service  as  superintend- 
ent of  the  Clinton  schools,  Henry  Sabin  was  elected 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction ;  and  before  the 
office  was  finally  surrendered  to  his  successor  he  had 
completed  eight  years  of  service  —  a  period  longer 
than  that  of  any  other  in  the  history  of  the  office. 
Entering  upon  his  duties  at  the  beginning  of  the  year 
1888  he  completed  the  first  half  of  his  period  of 
service  in  1892,  and  having  been  reflected  after  an 
intervening  term  he  began  the  second  half  in  1894. 
During  the  eight  years  there  were  issued  under  his 
direction  four  biennial  reports  each  of  which  con- 
tains many  valuable  suggestions  bearing  directly 
upon  the  functions  of  his  office  or  of  subordinates 
occupying  supervisory  positions.  He  exercised  his 
authority  in  summoning  the  county  superintendents 
in  convention,  and  each  of  the  four  reports  dwelt 
upon  the  specific  results  which  this  county  officer 
should  endeavor  to  obtain.  Indeed,  there  was  an 
increasing  endeavor  during  these  years  to  enlighten 
the  public  relative  to  the  underlying  principles  which 
should  control  in  the  selection  of  men  for  the  office 
of  county  superintendent.  In  the  first  of  the  four 
documents  it  was  pointed  out  that  "close  supervision 
is  coming  to  be  recognized  universally  as  essential  tc^ 
a  well-ordered  school  system."  To  that  end  it  was; 
recommended  that  the  county  superintendent  foe 
given  more  power  and  that  his  functions  be  more 
clearly  defined. 


56  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

In  his  final  report,  that  for  1896-1897,  Mr.  Sabin 
declared  that  the  country  schools  required  a  '  *  super- 
vision which  in  its  entirety  and  in  its  wholesome 
effects  challenges  the  respect  and  the  support  of 
everyone"  who  is  interested  in  their  welfare. 
Furthermore,  such  supervision  should  be  "broad  in 
its  scholarship  without  being  shallow."  While 
supervision  in  general  was  characterized  as  "a 
blessing  or  a  curse  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of 
intelligence  and  skill  with  which  it  is  administered ' ', 
it  was  asserted  that  the  greatest  need  in  rural  super- 
vision was  an  abundance  of  common  sense  and  an 
ability  to  adapt  itself  to  circumstances.  Moreover, 
the  character  of  the  supervision  should  itself  "com- 
mend the  wisdom  of  the  supervisor."  The  former 
type  of  supervision  —  that  which  was  limited  to  the 
province  of  the  examiner  only  —  was  no  longer 
sufficient. 

In  the  office  for  which  Superintendent  Sabin  per- 
sonally was  held  responsible  there  was  a  steady 
increase  of  powers  and  duties.  For  instance,  the 
Twenty-second  General  Assembly  made  the  Superin- 
tendent the  ex  officio  president  of  the  board  of  direc- 
tors of  the  State  Normal  School.  He  was  also 
president  of  the  State  Board  of  Examiners,  presi- 
dent of  the  educational  council  of  the  State  Teachers ' 
Association,  and  a  member  of  the  board  of  regents 
of  the  State  University.  For  many  years  the  law 
had  required  him  to  render  a  written  opinion  upon 
any  point  in  the  school  law,  as  well  as  to  hear  and 
decide  appeals,  while  the  paramount  function  of 


PERIOD  OF  RESOLUTION  57 

supervising  the  common  schools  was  the  original 
intention  in  establishing  the  office.  Now  it  was  clear, 
the  Superintendent  declared,  that  unless  a  way  could 
be  devised  to  relieve  the  department  of  "routine 
duties"  which  required  so  much  time  it  could  by  no 
means  meet  the  demands  of  the  public.  There  was  a 
direct  suggestion,  furthermore,  that  the  department 
be  made  more  effective  through  the  granting  of  addi- 
tional authority  "to  visit  and  inspect,  through  its 
appointed  agents ' '  the  schools  of  the  State,  to  coun- 
sel with  school  officers  and  teachers,  and  to  more 
carefully  supervise  and  direct  the  institutes  —  all  of 
which  would  tend  to  arouse  public  interest  and  thus 
eventually  benefit  the  entire  educational  system. 

In  1896  Mr.  Sabin  observed  that  the  work  of  the 
office  had  practically  doubled  within  the  period  of 
eight  years.  Yet  no  additional  assistance  had  been 
provided.  With  the  multiplying  duties,  which  evi- 
dently never  would  grow  less,  the  question  of  how  to 
carry  the  influence  of  the  department  to  "every 
hamlet  in  the  state"  was  one  of  growing  importance. 
As  then  constituted  the  office  had  little  more  than 
advisory  functions.  But  the  Superintendent  did  not 
advise  that  its  power  to  command  be  increased:  it 
should  rather  have  increased  "facilities  for  extend- 
ing and  strengthening  its  influence  as  counselor  and 
director. ' '  That  is  to  say,  a  closer  connection  should 
be  made  possible  between  this  office  and  the  State  at 
large  through  information  obtained  by  means  of 
"personal  inspection"  and  "accredited  agents". 

Finally,  at  the  close  of  his  fourth  term  in  1897 


58  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

Superintendent  Sabin  expressed  Ms  belief  that  any 
radical  changes  in  administration  would  "work  in- 
jury rather  than  benefit"  to  the  public  schools,  while 
to  ' '  strengthen  the  things  which  remain,  to  build  up 
what  we  have  already  commenced,  is  the  most  press- 
ing duty  of  the  hour."  Then  he  closed  his  eight 
years  of  service  with  these  words : 

If  I  have  not  accomplished  all  that  I  hoped  to,  or  all  that 
others  expected  of  me,  I  cannot  be  blamed,  provided  I  have 
done  my  best.  If  I  have  been  slothful  and  indolent,  if  I 
have  permitted  trusts  and  combines  to  prey  upon  the  public, 
if  I  have  not  thrown  my  heart  and  soul  into  this  great  work, 
if  I  have  been  faithless  in  any  degree  to  the  trusts  reposed  in 
me  by  a  generous  people,  then  I  deserve  execrations  here, 
and  oblivion  hereafter.  But  if  I  have  striven  with  all  my 
strength,  if  I  have  given  myself  unreservedly  to  the  cause  of 
popular  education,  if  I  have  counted  no  labor  too  severe,  no 
exertion  too  great,  if  thereby  I  could  place  the  educational 
standard  upon  a  higher  plane,  then  it  is  not  presumption  in 
me  to  cherish  the  hope  that  my  name  may  not  be  forgotten 
when  the  educational  history  of  Iowa  is  written.42 

The  years  1892-1894  comprehend  the  period  of 
service  of  Mr.  John  B.  Knoepfler,  a  man  who  had 
been  engaged  in  public  school  work  in  this  State  for 
more  than  fifteen  years  and  who  came  immediately 
from  the  superintendency  at  Lansing  into  the  office 
of  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 
While  his  single  report  covered  many  important  sub- 
jects with  which  supervision  was  concerned,  the 
agencies  directly  involved,  namely,  his  own  office  and 
the  county  superintendents,  are  the  factors  pertinent 
to  the  discussion  in  this  connection.  His  observa- 


PERIOD  OF  RESOLUTION  59 

tions  led  him  to  the  same  conclusions  as  those  of  his 
predecessors,  namely,  that  the  limited  time  which 
the  Superintendent  had  for  actual  contact  with  the 
graded  and  rural  schools  offered  no  opportunity  for 
effective  action  therein.  Moreover,  the  demands  of 
the  office  were  such  that  the  Superintendent  was  de- 
prived of  the  privilege  which  should  be  accorded  to 
one  charged  with  supervision  —  that  is,  a  personal 
acquaintance  with  the  difficulties  which  he  must  meet. 
That  any  serious  attention  should  be  given  to  the 
thought  of  abolishing  the  office  of  county  superin- 
tendent was  considered  as  impossible.  Moreover, 
the  pointed  recommendation  was  made  that  not  less 
but  more  supervision  was  desirable,  and  so  a  com- 
petent person  should  be  appointed  to  supervise  a 
group  of  not  more  than  forty  schools  in  the  rural 
districts.  To  Mr.  Knoepfler  there  appeared  to  be 
but  one  solution  of  the  problem,  namely,  the  election 
of  a  number  of  assistants  to  the  county  superin- 
tendent.43 

Mr.  Eichard  C.  Barrett,  for  many  years  county 
superintendent  of  Mitchell  County,  succeeded  Henry 
Sabin  in  1898,  and  was  thereafter  for  six  years  the 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  While  he  pre- 
sented the  educational  needs  of  the  State  and  advo- 
cated the  most  progressive  movements  then  before 
the  public,  the  problems  of  supervision  as  such  are 
but  briefly  discussed  in  his  three  reports.  What  was 
said,  however,  was  definite,  and  if  acted  upon  would 
have  removed  some  obscure  passages  in  the  laws 
governing  his  office.  For  example,  it  was  his  obser- 


60  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

vation  that  the  provision  of  law  by  which  the  State 
Superintendent  had  supervision  of  all  county  super- 
intendents and  the  common  schools  of  the  State  was 
meaningless  since  it  conveyed  no  definite  authority. 
It  was  therefore  proposed  that  the  matter  be  clearly 
set  forth  in  the  statutes  under  ten  distinct  classes  of 
functions,  and  that  the  necessary  agencies  for  ex- 
ecuting the  same  be  provided. 

From  his  experience  Mr.  Barrett  was  able  to 
speak  with  more  than  ordinary  authority  on  matters 
relative  to  the  county  superintendency ;  and  so, 
special  interest  attaches  to  the  fact  that  on  the  oc- 
casion of  his  first  report  in  1899  he  pointed  out  the 
great  waste  that  constantly  occurred  in  this  county 
office.  In  general,  while  the  county  superintendency 
was  a  factor  in  the  educational  system  that  could  in 
no  wise  be  dispensed  with,  the  results  obtained  from 
the  office  were  but  a  fraction  of  what  might  be  real- 
ized. He  would  provide  that  the  valuable  asset  in 
the  experience  of  the  incumbents  of  this  office  should 
be  continued  in  other  supervisory  positions  of  sim- 
ilar character  which  would  become  possible  under  a 
mode  of  selection  involving  but  a  slight  change.  But 
the  details  of  this  plan  are  not  pertinent  in  this  con- 
nection. Here  it  will  be  sufficient  to  note  that  perma- 
nency in  the  office  was  held  to  be  the  effective 
principle  for  conserving  the  energy  therein;  and 
while  courses  of  study  might  be  prepared  and  sub- 
mitted from  his  office  they  would  not  contribute  to 
the  economic  use  of  time  without  close  supervision.44 
Thus  briefly  may  be  summarized  the  direct  recom- 


PERIOD  OF  RESOLUTION  61 

mendations  relative  to  supervision  which  were  made 
during  the  six  years  of  Superintendent  Barrett's 
service. 

Mr.  Barrett  was  succeeded  in  1904  by  Mr.  John 
F.  Riggs  who,  through  the  constitutional  change  to 
biennial  elections,  served  seven  years  and  submitted 
four  reports  covering  a  period  of  large  responsibility 
in  the  office.  The  new  issues  which  were  presented 
and  acted  upon  increased  largely  the  duties  devolv- 
ing upon  the  Superintendent,  while  the  statutory 
revisions  required  more  than  the  usual  watchfulness 
to  avoid  friction  in  changing  from  established  cus- 
toms. The  department  recognized  the  work  of  the 
county  superintendent  as  " distinctly  supervisory", 
and  it  was  therefore  recommended  that  he  be  re- 
lieved as  much  as  possible  from  clerical  duties.  His 
work  was  legitimately  in  the  field  rather  than  within 
the  four  walls  of  an  office,  and  so  the  functions  which 
he  should  perform  in  school  inspection  were  duly 
specified.  The  whole  purpose  in  supervision,  it  was 
declared,  ought  to  be  the  unifying  of  the  forces  en- 
gaged, namely,  those  represented  in  the  superintend- 
ent, the  board  of  education,  and  the  teacher  —  each 
of  whom  should  become  fully  acquainted  with  the 
responsibilities  and  the  attitude  of  the  others. 

The  legislation  of  1906,  furthermore,  required 
many  special  communications  from  the  State  office 
to  local  authorities,  so  that  confusion  relative  to  the 
organization  of  boards  of  education,  the  new  certifi- 
cate law,  the  annual  reports,  the  terms  of  certain 
officers,  and  the  qualifications  of  county  superintend- 


62  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

ents  might  be  avoided.  Indeed,  it  was  an  occasion 
which  required  repeated  efforts  in  order  to  make  the 
departures  from  former  customs  effective  in  accom- 
plishing that  for  which  they  were  enacted.  At  the 
same  time  much  additional  labor  was  thrown  upon 
the  office  of  Superintendent  owing  to  the  new  plan  of 
the  certification  of  teachers  —  and  this,  too,  without 
a  proportionate  increase  in  office  assistance. 

It  is  apparent  that  this  administration  was  noted 
for  its  effort  to  present  facts  relative  to  the  necessity 
of  abandoning  the  small  school;  and  to  that  end  the 
accumulation  of  data  was  made  a  part  of  every 
report.  It  might  be  said  that  the  material  thus  col- 
lected will  alone  serve  as  sufficient  reason  for  main- 
taining adequate  equipment  in  the  agencies  of 
inspection  and  special  supervision,  since  the  economy 
in  organization  for  efficiency  could  be  demonstrated 
in  no  better  way.  And  further,  the  professionalizing 
of  teaching  was  not  adequately  provided  for  prior  to 
the  last  five  years  of  this  period.  While  the  definite 
recommendations  which  might  be  considered  as  in 
part  supervisory  are  many,  they  cannot  be  indicated 
apart  from  the  subject  with  which  they  are  con- 
cerned. At  the  same  time  supervision  as  an  abstract 
problem  occupied  but  little  space  in  the  four  ex- 
tended reports  of  Superintendent  Biggs.45 

Since  the  organization  of  the  Territory  of  Iowa 
seventeen  individuals  have  held  the  office  of  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction,  and  of  these  two  were 
also  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Education. 
The  present  incumbent,  Mr.  A.  M.  Deyoe,  came  into 


PERIOD  OF  RESOLUTION  63 

office  in  January,  1911 ;  accordingly  but  one  biennial 
report  has  been  issued  by  him  —  that  for  the  period 
ending  June  30,  1912.  In  this  report  it  is  clearly  set 
forth  that  the  State  department  should  be  so 
equipped  that  it  might  lead  in  ' l  educational  matters, 
with  special  reference  to  the  improvement  of  the 
elementary  and  secondary  schools  in  the  state."  It 
is  declared  further  that  the  office  in  Iowa  is  limited 
"too  much  to  hearing  appeal  cases,  rendering  opin- 
ions concerning  disputes  arising  over  trivial  school 
matters,  preparing  reports,  answering  correspond- 
ence, and  a  great  deal  of  merely  clerical  work."  A 
more  vigorous  constructive  policy  was  desirable, 
which  would  be  possible  only  through  increased 
authority  and  an  adequate  office  force.  Eecent  legis- 
lation, it  may  be  said,  has  provided  in  part  for  the 
assistance  required,  and  at  no  time  has  the  depart- 
ment had  the  prospective  opportunity  which  now 
seems  near  at  hand.  The  office  having  been  made 
appointive,  with  largely  increased  powers  and  a 
longer  term  of  service,  it  appears  that  the  desired 
ends  so  long  sought  may  be  reached.46 

Thus  in  Iowa  it  has  required  a  long  period  of 
experience,  the  demonstration  of  trials  and  results, 
repeated  illustrations  of  the  practices  of  progressive 
States,  as  well  as  the  repetition  of  recommendations 
in  successive  years,  to  insure  any  advance  in  the 
supervision  of  education  by  the  State. 


COUNTY  SUPERVISION:  A  PERIOD  OF 
UNPOPULARITY 

THE  office  of  county  superintendent  was  created  by 
the  general  education  act  of  March  12,  1858.  Such 
an  office  had  been  recommended  by  the  Mann  com- 
mission in  1856,  but  its  functions  were  not  such  as 
later  provided  in  the  statute.  It  appears  that  the 
existing  office  of  school  fund  commissioner  must 
have  caused  the  Mann  commission  to  include  some 
of  his  duties  relative  to  school  lands  and  the  appor- 
tionment of  funds  in  the  office  of  county  superin- 
tendent. At  the  same  time  the  general  supervisory 
powers  of  the  county  superintendent  as  recommend- 
ed were  entirely  new.  When,  however,  the  act  of 
March  12, 1858,  was  finally  approved  it  contained  no 
reference  to  any  financial  function  of  the  county 
superintendent  for  the  obvious  reason  that  the  Con- 
stitution had  already  provided  for  the  discharge  of 
such  obligations  through  other  channels.  Thus,  for- 
tunately, the  office  was  not  confused  with  that  of  the 
former  fund  commissioner. 

By  the  act  of  1858  the  election  of  the  county  su- 
perintendent was  to  occur  biennially  in  March.  Thus 
the  office  was  removed  from  the  political  influence  of 
the  general  elections  —  a  plan  advocated  many  times 

64 


PERIOD  OF  UNPOPULARITY  65 

since,  but  actually  in  force  only  during  the  period 
from  March  12, 1858,  to  the  time  that  the  State  Board 
of  Education  enacted  new  provisions  in  December 
following.47 

There  was  general  agreement,  however,  between 
the  act  of  the  legislature  and  that  of  the  Board  of 
Education  in  the  definition  of  functions.  The  prin- 
cipal purpose  of  the  legislation  appears  to  have  been 
the  establishment  of  an  authority  over  the  certifica- 
tion of  teachers;  while  the  implied  powers  of  the 
office  would  make  the  supervision  of  the  instruction 
an  element  in  determining  the  qualification  of  those 
employed  in  the  schools.  Moreover,  the  power  to 
remove  any  teacher  or  to  annul  the  license  for 
cause  was  particularly  specified.  The  superintend- 
ent was  commanded  to  "  visit  personally  and  in- 
spect" the  schools  of  his  county  at  least  twice  each 
year.  He  was  further  empowered  to  appoint  at  any 
time  "a  special  committee  to  make  such  inspection" 
as  he  might  require. 

Another  reason  for  the  creation  of  the  office  of 
county  superintendent  was  the  need  of  some  agency 
by  which  the  State  Superintendent  could  communi- 
cate with  the  numerous  district  officers  throughout 
the  State.  Thus  the  law  made  it  the  duty  of  the 
county  superintendent  to  "conform  to  the  instruc- 
tions and  directions  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction,  as  to  all  matters  within  his  jurisdic- 
tion", and  he  must  see  that  both  board  and  teachers 
complied  with  the  regulations  of  the  State  office. 
The  same  obligations  were  imposed  by  the  act  of  the 


66  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

State  Board  of  Education  by  which  their  Secretary 
was  substituted  for  the  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction. 

The  compensation  of  the  county  superintendent 
appears  to  have  been  a  troublesome  matter  from  the 
very  beginning.  For  instance,  by  the  law  of  March 
12,  1858,  he  was  allowed  a  sum  equal  to  one-half  the 
amount  paid  the  clerk  of  the  district  court,  and  in 
addition  thereto  any  "further  sum"  that  might  be 
authorized  by  the  county  board  of  district  presidents. 
But  it  was  required  that  in  no  instance  should  the 
sum  be  "more  than  one  eighth  greater"  than  the 
salary  of  the  clerk.  This  part  of  the  statute  re- 
mained unchanged  by  the  Board  of  Education,  except 
as  to  the  last  provision  which  was  made  to  read: 
"But  in  no  case  shall  the  salary  of  the  Superintend- 
ent be  increased  so  as  to  exceed  that  of  the  said 
Clerk".48 

Although,  as  heretofore  mentioned,  the  law  of 
March  12,  1858,  was  declared  to  be  unconstitutional 
those  county  superintendents  who  were  elected  in 
April  (regularly  the  election  would  have  occurred  in 
March)  were  confirmed  in  their  offices  by  the  Board 
of  Education  in  December  and  would  therefore  serve 
until  their  successors  had  qualified  —  the  election 
under  the  new  provisions  occurring  in  October,  1859. 
In  the  meantime  the  first  State  convention  of  county 
superintendents  convened  in  Iowa  City  at  the  call  of 
Mr.  M.  L.  Fisher,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion, on  September  22,  1858.  The  convention  was 
chiefly  concerned  with  the  interpretation  of  the  new 


PERIOD  OF  UNPOPULARITY  67 

school  law,  and  in  this  respect  it  was  an  assembly 
previously  unknown  to  the  educational  forces  of 
Iowa. 

During  this  convention  a  committee,  appointed 
for  the  purpose,  arranged  all  the  questions  arising 
under  the  new  law  of  March  12,  1858,  and  submitted 
them  to  Superintendent  Fisher  for  interpretation. 
Not  fewer  than  sixty-four  such  queries  were  pre- 
sented ;  and  it  is  assumed  that  they  were  answered, 
although  there  is  no  record  of  the  fact.  At  the  same 
time  a  committee  of  county  superintendents  recom- 
mended a  number  of  changes  which  were  desirable 
and  which  should  be  considered  by  the  State  Board 
of  Education  at  their  first  meeting  in  December, 
1858.  The  suggestions  of  the  committee  do  not  ap- 
pear, however,  in  the  legislation  of  the  Board. 

While  these  problems  relative  to  the  application 
of  the  new  act  were  being  explained  great  faith  was 
expressed  in  its  efficiency,  and  the  declaration  that 
"it  fully  meets  our  approbation"  and  was  admirably 
adapted  to  place  the  State  in  a  superior  position 
relative  to  educational  advantages  was  made  a  part 
of  the  record  of  the  convention.49  According  to  the 
opinion  expressed  by  Superintendent  Fisher  this 
convention  was  truly  an  educational  council,  and  it 
was  considered  fortunate  that  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion could  have  the  assistance  of  such  a  body  in 
"perfecting  the  system  of  public  instruction  of  the 
State."50 

The  Board  of  Education  required  their  Secretary 
to  meet  county  superintendents  in  convention  in  each 


68  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

judicial  district.  Eeference  has  already  been  made 
to  the  outcome  of  this  provision  and  also  to  the 
recommendations  of  Secretary  Benton  relative  to  a 
change  in  the  requirement.  It  was  learned  that 
during  the  period  (1858-1859)  the  county  superin- 
tendent was  regarded  in  many  quarters  as  super- 
fluous and  that  the  new  system  was  too  expensive. 
But  this  conclusion  was  met  by  the  assertion  on  the 
part  of  the  Secretary  that  the  actual  expense  for 
the  entire  State  was  less  by  $50,000  than  under  the 
preceding  independent  district  plan.  Furthermore, 
the  amounts  formerly  paid  to  the  fund  commission- 
ers showed  a  balance  in  favor  of  the  county  superin- 
tendent —  an  office  which  must  be  retained  or  some 
other  having  similar  functions  established  as  the 
head  of  the  county  organization.51 

During  their  second  session  in  1859  the  Board  of 
Education  revised  the  general  education  law ;  and  in 
so  doing  the  visiting  authority  of  the  county  superin- 
tendent was  repealed.  Among  the  leaders  who 
supported  the  new  law  this  was  regarded  as  a  serious 
reactionary  step,  since  the  duties  of  the  superin- 
tendent were  now  restricted  to^  the  examination  of 
teachers  and  the  making  of  reports  to  the  Secretary 
of  the  Board  and  to  the  county  judge.  That  is  to 
say,  the  most  important  and  valuable  function  of  the 
county  superintendent  had  been  destroyed  that  there 
might  be  saved  to  the  State  some  $20,000.  Another 
act  of  the  same  session  authorized  the  county  super- 
intendent to  hear  appeals ;  but  the  law  itself  was  so 
indefinite  in  its  provisions  that  a  postage  stamp,  it 


PERIOD  OF  UNPOPULARITY  69 

was  declared,  might  interfere  with  justice.  The 
critics  were  severe  in  their  condemnation  of  such 
legislation,  especially  that  relative  to  the  county 
superintendent.52 

When  the  State  Teachers'  Association  met  in 
1860  it  was  resolved  that  the  Board  of  Education  had 
yielded  to  popular  prejudice  excited  for  political 
effect  and  had,  therefore,  destroyed  the  efficiency  of 
the  office  of  county  superintendent.  Moreover,  the 
charges  which  had  been  brought  against  this  office 
were  entirely  unreasonable  and  contrary  to  facts  not 
only  as  to  the  matter  of  expense  but  also  as  to  the 
claims  of  inefficiency.  It  was  further  resolved  that 
the  entire  time  of  the  superintendent  was  essential 
to  the  success  of  the  work  in  every  county,  and  that 
he  should  be  in  communication  with  each  teacher  and 
school  officer  in  order  to  stimulate  activity  in  all 
departments.  In  short  he  should  be,  as  the  original 
act  intended,  the  educational  head  in  the  county. 
Finally,  the  members  of  the  Association  mutually 
agreed  to  labor  for  the  restoration  of  the  functions 
of  the  county  superintendent  and  for  a  stipulated 
salary  for  the  office.53 

In  his  report  of  1861  Secretary  Benton  not  only 
recognized  the  demand  for  a  restoration  of  the 
authority  of  inspection  but  he  also  suggested  a  way 
to  meet  it.  It  appears  that  the  financial  objection 
could  be  overcome  only  through  some  plan  that 
would  avoid  reference  to  salary;  and  so,  it  was  pro- 
posed that  the  former  compensation,  based  upon  the 
salary  of  the  clerk,  should  be  allowed  for  his  miscel- 


70  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

laneous  duties,  while  for  visiting  and  lecturing  in 
each  subdistrict  once  a  year  a  stipend  of  three  dol- 
lars each  should  be  paid  from  the  county  treasury. 
The  latter  claim  must  be  supported,  however,  by  a 
certificate  from  the  subdirector  that  the  duty  had 
been  performed  as  required.  Another  scheme  which 
was  recommended  would  allow  a  stipulated  sum  for 
the  field  work  to  be  paid  from  the  temporary  fund  of 
the  county,  which  sum  was  to  be  withheld  from  the 
apportionment  and  paid  over  on  the  testimony  of  the 
subdirector.  The  plan  last  proposed  seems  to  have 
been  originated  by  Mr.  Rufus  Hubbard,  superin- 
tendent of  Lee  County.  It  was  adopted  in  Des 
Moines  County  by  Mr.  "William  Harper  after  it  had 
been  approved  by  the  superintendents  in  convention 
in  the  first  judicial  district.54 

By  the  consolidation  and  revision  of  the  school 
laws  in  1862  no  change  was  made  in  the  status  of  the 
county  superintendent,  except  in  his  compensation 
which  thereafter  should  be  two  dollars  per  day  for 
each  day  actually  employed.  To  secure  this  re- 
muneration, however,  he  was  required  by  law  to  file 
a  sworn  statement  of  the  facts  relative  to  his  claim, 
while  in  counties  of  less  than  twenty-five  subdistricts 
it  was  provided  that  the  total  amount  allowed,  ex- 
clusive of  fees  for  examinations,  should  never  exceed 
fifty  dollars,  and  in  others  not  more  than  two  dollars 
for  each  subdistrict  therein.55  But  this  action  would 
not  in  any  degree  result  in  the  desired  restoration  of 
the  supervisory  function,  since  no  individual  would 
engage  in  such  a  temporary  occupation.  This  fact 


PERIOD  OF  UNPOPULARITY  71 

seems  to  have  been  appreciated  to  some  extent  pre- 
vious to  the  session  of  the  Tenth  General  Assembly ; 
for  among  sundry  other  amendments  to  the  school 
law  a  provision  was  incorporated  by  which  the 
county  superintendent  should  be  allowed  a  per  diem 
of  two  dollars  for  all  time  employed  in  general 
duties,  and  for  the  visiting  of  schools  at  least  once  in 
each  year  the  county  board  of  supervisors  should 
make  provision  at  their  discretion.  The  sworn  state- 
ment was  still  required  before  the  superintendent 
was  entitled  to  any  compensation.56 

By  a  further  amendment  in  1866  the  per  diem  for 
necessary  service  was  established  at  three  dollars, 
other  requirements  remaining  unchanged  except  that 
one-half  day  should  be  spent  in  each  school  visited.57 
Such  legislation  was  in  harmony  with  the  opinion 
expressed  by  a  committee  of  the  State  Teachers' 
Association  five  years  before,  when  it  was  declared 
that  the  Board  of  Education  had  "materially  in- 
jured the  cause  of  Education  by  abridging  the  powers 
and  duties"  of  county  superintendents.  The  resto- 
ration of  the  "visiting  power"  had,  therefore,  been 
demanded.58  It  seems  clear  that  the  united  effort  on 
the  part  of  the  leaders  in  the  State  Teachers'  Asso- 
ciation, in  institutes,  and  in  their  published  opinions 
resulted  in  this  somewhat  limited  legislation  in  1866. 
Furthermore,  the  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, in  January,  1864,  had  suggested  a  form  of 
petition  to  be  used  by  the  people  of  any  community 
in  order  that  the  General  Assembly  might  learn  their 
desires  in  the  premises.59 


72  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

Another  convention  of  county  superintendents 
was  held  in  Cedar  Rapids  on  August  23, 1866,  during 
the  annual  session  of  the  State  Teachers'  Associa- 
tion. State  Superintendent  Oran  Faville  presided 
over  the  small  gathering  composed  of  Superintend- 
ents Amos  Dean  of  Benton  County,  M.  T.  Harlan  of 
Boone  County,  Eichard  J.  Crouch  of  Clinton  County, 
Rev.  Jonathan  Osmond  of  Johnson  County,  Wm.  J. 
Ronalds  of  Louisa  County,  Rev.  J.  Gr.  Beckley  of 
Story  County,  S.  Gr.  Pierce  of  Buchanan  County, 
P.  W.  Reeder  of  Linn  County,  T.  L.  Downs  of  Tama 
County,  E.  C.  Rigby  of  Cedar  County,  John  C. 
Gates  of  Black  Hawk  County,  Mr.  Abbott  of  Sac 
County,  and  Mr.  Tirrill  of  Delaware  County.  Al- 
though constituting  a  small  proportion  of  the  total 
number  in  the  State,  they  put  on  record  a  declara- 
tion of  their  purpose  to  unite  in  an  effort  to  elevate 
the  standard  of  qualifications  for  teachers,  and  re- 
solved that  they  would  in  no  instance  issue  certifi- 
cates where  applicants  failed  to  reach  the  required 
excellence,  notwithstanding  the  "  petitions  from 
members  of  sub-districts  and  sub-directors".  It 
was  their  opinion  also  that  county  superintendents 
should  attend  the  State  Teachers'  Association,  and 
the  "  absence  of  seven-eighths  of  them  from  the 
present  meeting"  was  "to  be  reprehended."60 

Again,  on  April  21,  1869,  another  convention  as- 
sembled at  Des  Moines  in  the  high  school  room  of 
the  second  ward  building.  Three  days  were  occu- 
pied, morning,  afternoon,  and  evening,  in  the  con- 
sideration of  current  problems.  While  this  was 


PERIOD  OF  UNPOPULARITY  73 

recognized  as  a  convention  of  county  superintendents 
it  was  composed,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  of  about  forty 
of  these  officers  and  as  many  more  public  school 
superintendents,  principals,  and  teachers;  and  so, 
it  should  be  designated  rather  as  a  general  educa- 
tional meeting.  The  interest  which  attaches  to  this 
meeting  lies  in  its  conclusions  and  in  what  occurred 
during  the  session.  State  Superintendent  Kissell 
presided,  and  the  members  were  welcomed  to  the 
capital  city  by  Governor  Merrill.  Among  the  sub- 
jects considered  were  the  following:  the  limits  and 
benefits  of  appeals;  the  examination  of  teachers; 
the  influence  of  district  and  city  high  schools;  the 
school  laws  and  their  defects;  the  importance  of 
school  visits  and  school  meetings;  and  the  ventila- 
tion, warming,  and  general  structure  of  school 
houses.  There  were  illustrative  lessons  given  by 
Mrs.  M.  A.  McGonegal,  the  principal  of  the  Daven- 
port training  school,  on  the  teaching  of  reading,  and 
by  Miss  P.  W.  Sudlow,  principal  of  the  Davenport 
grammar  school,  on  the  teaching  of  language.  And 
there  was  a  demonstration  of  the  "  method  of  in- 
struction by  object  lessons"  with  a  class  of  young 
girls.  The  session  was  not  confined,  however,  to  the 
interests  of  the  elementary  schools,  since  Rev.  James 
Black,  the  president  of  the  State  University,  ad- 
dressed the  convention  on  the  relation  of  the  public 
school  to  the  University. 

At  the  close  of  the  session  a  legislative  committee, 
consisting  of  one  member  from  each  congressional 
district  and  the  State  Superintendent,  was  instructed 


74          HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

to  secure  amendments  to  the  school  law  which  would 
prohibit  the  attendance  of  children  under  six  years 
of  age,  which  would  require  directors  to  visit  all 
schools  once  a  month,  which  would  provide  that  paid 
directors  be  elected  for  two  years  (one-half  of  their 
number  retiring  annually),  and  which  would  permit 
the  selection  of  suitable  school  house  sites.  A  reso- 
lution relative  to  normal  schools  declared  that  while 
abundant  appropriations  for  the  Normal  Department 
of  the  State  University  were  approved,  the  most 
pressing  need  of  a  larger  supply  of  qualified  teach- 
ers demanded  the  immediate  establishment  of  at 
least  one  normal  school,  "separate  and  apart  from 
any  other  educational  institution".61 

About  one  year  later  (in  March,  1870)  a  similar 
convention  was  summoned  to  meet  in  the  high  school 
room  of  the  East  Des  Moines  district,  when  special 
consideration  was  given  to  a  bill  then  before  the 
General  Assembly  (S.  F.  150)  affecting  the  status  of 
the  county  superintendents.  The  bill  was  finally 
approved  by  the  convention  after  it  had  been 
amended  so  that  the  power  of  the  Governor  to  ap- 
point a  county  superintendent  in  case  of  a  vacancy 
was  transferred  to  the  county  board  of  supervisors. 
But  the  labors  of  the  convention  were  in  vain,  for  the 
bill  was  buried  somewhere  in  the  House.  It  appears 
from  the  minutes  that  a  large  share  of  the  session 
was  given  up  to  the  discussion  of  this  bill,  although 
the  questions  of  uniformity  in  text-books,  of  a  single 
normal  school,  and  of  adequate  compensation  for  the 
State  Superintendent  were  also  before  the  meeting. 


75 

A  letter  from  Jonathan  Piper,  president  of  the 
State  Teachers'  Association,  called  attention  to  the 
conflict  then  being  waged  as  to  the  policy  of  "free 
schools  and  no  schools"  supported  by  the  State,  to 
the  value  of  the  institute  law  then  in  force  compelling 
attendance,  and  to  the  recommendation  by  the 
Governor  for  district  supervision.  In  view  of  the 
present  proportion  of  men  to  women  in  the  office  of 
county  superintendent  it  is  of  interest  to  note  the 
ungallant  attitude  of  some  members  on  this  occasion. 
Miss  Julia  C.  Addington  of  Mitchell  County,  the  first 
woman  to  occupy  the  office  of  county  superintendent, 
was  unable  to  reach  the  convention  on  account  of 
severe  storms.  A  resolution  of  regret,  therefore, 
was  offered,  and  with  it  a  "cordial  welcome  to  this 
field  of  labor";  whereupon  five  members  out  of 
twenty  voted  against  it.62 

While  these  conventions  were  recommending  and 
debating  certain  measures,  the  actual  inability  to 
enforce  the  legal  requirements  of  the  office  of  county 
superintendent  which  then  prevailed  may  be  illus- 
trated by  the  following  incident.  A  township  board 
in  Allamakee  County  was  reported  by  the  superin- 
tendent in  1869  as  having  "seceded"  from  his  juris- 
diction. That  is  to  say,  the  board  not  only  paid 
teachers  who  had  no  license  to  teach,  but  also  em- 
ployed some  whose  certificates  had  been  revoked 
because  of  failure  to  attend  the  county  institute  as 
required  by  law.  Indeed,  they  denounced  by  reso- 
lution i  l  everybody  who  had  anything  to  do  with  insti- 
tutes. ' '  As  the  law  had  been  interpreted  such  illegal 


76  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

action  could  be  prevented  only  by  a  citizen  of  the 
township  —  the  county  superintendent  being  without 
sufficient  authority  in  the  matter.63 

It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  the  legislation 
of  1870  removed  these  difficulties,  although  some  ad- 
ditional power  was  bestowed  upon  the  county  super- 
intendent and  some  further  special  functions  were 
enumerated.  For  example,  he  was  authorized  to  ap- 
point appraisers  for  school  house  sites  when  the 
owner  refused  to  make  the  necessary  concessions,  or 
when  he  could  not  be  found;  he  was  made  ex  officio 
a  member  and  president  of  the  board  of  trustees 
whenever  his  county  adopted  the  statute  providing 
for  a  high  school  therein ;  and  he  was  charged  further 
with  the  duty  of  reporting  all  the  blind  of  school 
age  to  the  institution  established  for  their  benefit. 
A  similar  requirement  relative  to  the  deaf  and  dumb 
was  made  in  1872.64 

During  this  period  there  appears  to  have  been  a 
growing  appreciation  of  the  work  of  the  county 
superintendent,  for  it  was  pointed  out  that  boards  of 
supervisors  were  becoming  more  liberal  in  their* 
allowances,  some  of  these  extending,  indeed,  to  the 
payment  of  all  expenses  incurred  in  attending 
conventions  and  the  State  Teachers'  Association. 
Such  liberality  was  declared  to  be  indicative  of  an 
1  'enterprising  spirit"  and  of  the  fact  that  school 
supervision  was  favored  to  such  an  extent  that  its 
importance  would  soon  be  felt  not  only  in  every 
county  but  also  in  every  district.05 

Although  there  were  signs  of  improvement  the 


PERIOD  OF  UNPOPULARITY  77 

general  situation  was  far  from  satisfactory.  Two 
things — " politics"  in  the  selection  of  the  super- 
intendent and  inadequate  compensation  —  were 
effectually  preventing  the  office  from  becoming  a 
permanent  influence  in  any  section  of  the  State.  It 
was  as  yet  "simply  collateral  and  subsidiary  to 
something  else."  It  was  said  that  the  lawyer  sought 
the  office  that  he  might  use  "the  per  diem  of  an 
occasional  jaunt  through  the  county"  in  enlarging 
his  practice.  Or  the  minister  found  in  this  way  "a 
convenient  method  of  supplementing  the  very 
meagre  salary"  which  he  obtained  from  his  church 
work.  It  was  clear  that  no  solution  of  the  matter 
was  possible  until  men  were  granted  a  compensation 
that  would  warrant  full  time  service. 

To  remedy  the  first  of  these  evils  —  that  is,  the 
political  —  it  was  suggested  in  1871  that  the  county 
superintendent  be  elected  for  four  years  by  the  dis- 
trict boards  of  the  county  at  their  annual  meeting  in 
March.  Moreover,  the  selection  should  not  be  limited 
to  the  county,  nor  for  that  matter  to  the  State,  but 
should  be  made  upon  the  same  principle  as  that 
exercised  in  the  choice  of  a  city  superintendent. 

As  to  the  second  obstruction  —  that  is,  inadequate 
compensation  —  there  was  no  remedy  except  a  stat- 
ute which  would  establish  a  minimum  fixed  salary. 
Indeed,  there  was  no  reason,  it  was  declared,  for  this 
being  the  "solitary  exception"  among  county  of- 
ficials in  matters  of  compensation.66  It  may  be  said, 
by  way  of  illustration,  that  the  average  compensation 
for  county  superintendents  in  1872  was  a  little  more 


78  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

than  $550  per  annum,  while  for  1873  it  had  risen  to 
something  more  than  $600,  but  from  this  amount  the 
incumbent  must  pay  his  traveling  expenses.  There 
were  probably  forty  men  at  that  time  giving  some 
attention  to  supervision  in  towns  who  were  paid 
more  than  the  ninety-nine  county  superintendents. 
Moreover,  the  former  had  few  schools  as  compared 
to  the  9000  with  350,000  pupils  under  county  super- 
intendents. It  was  pointed  out  also  that  the  secre- 
taries and  treasurers  were  paid  not  less  than  $15,000 
more  than  all  the  county  superintendents.  The 
superintendent  of  Fayette  County  had  $600  yearly 
for  his  entire  time,  while  the  several  secretaries  and 
treasurers  received  over  $1180.  That  is  to  say,  there 
was  unfair  discrimination  between  those  performing 
clerical  and  those  exercising  supervisory  functions.67 
Thus,  for  fifteen  years  the  office  of  county  super- 
intendent was  really  a  temporary  institution,  and  a 
disposition  to  abolish  it  was  frequently  manifested. 
One  may  trace  this  opposition  to  its  ultimate  source 
in  the  old  independent  district  system  and  to  the 
inherent  unwillingness  to  submit  to  any  outside 
interference  or  even  oversight.  About  1872  the 
opposition  to  the  office  of  county  superintendent 
reached  its  height. 


VI 

COUNTY  SUPERVISION:  OPPOSITION  AND 
RECOGNITION 

DURING  the  session  of  the  Fourteenth  General  As- 
sembly (1872)  at  least  three  bills  affecting  the  county 
superintendent  were  introduced.  The  first  of  these 
proposed  to  abolish  the  office;  but  the  House  com- 
mittee on  schools,  of  which  Mr.  J.  G.  Newbold  was 
chairman,  recommended  that  ''it  do  not  pass."  The 
same  recommendation  was  made  relative  to  the  other 
two  bills  —  one  of  which  defined  the  duties  and  the 
other  changed  the  time  of  election.68  Among  reasons 
presented  for  such  legislation  were  the  assertions 
that  the  office  was  doing  no  good;  that  it  cost  more 
than  it  was  worth;  that  the  persons  selected  for  the 
office  were  of  no  benefit  to  the  schools ;  and  that  the 
office  was  too  often  filled  by  "politicians  and  incom- 
petents ' '. 

In  order  to  reveal  the  facts  and  also  to  counteract 
the  effect  of  such  declarations  the  actual  work  of  the 
county  superintendent  was  reviewed  more  than  once 
in  publications  —  immediately  following  these  ef- 
forts to  destroy  the  office.  If  school  supervision  was 
of  value  in  a  city,  if  Davenport  or  Des  Moines  or 
other  districts  could  pay  two  or  three  thousand  dol- 
lars a  year  for  supervision,  why,  it  was  asked,  could 

79 


80  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

not  Scott  County  or  Polk  County  pay  at  least  half  as 
much  for  the  supervision  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  or 
more  schools,  one-fourth  of  which  at  least  were 
taught  annually  by  persons  without  any  experience? 
Against  the  charge  of  incompetency  and  worthless- 
ness  there  was  arrayed  the  best  of  authority  and 
abundant  proof  of  conscientious  work  in  the  counties 
of  the  State.  It  was  declared  that  as  a  class  county 
superintendents  were  *  *  earnest,  devoted  men,  giving 
their  time,  their  talents,  their  whole  energies ' '  to  the 
raising  of  standards  in  the  schools.  Moreover,  they 
were  working  "with  poor  pay,  without  honor,  with 
little  credit,"  to  create  a  more  vital  interest  in  edu- 
cation by  explaining  difficulties,  by  advising,  and  by 
settling  disputes.  The  insinuations  made  against 
such  men  were  denounced  as  most  unjust,  since  the 
facts  would  reveal  the  truth  that  "instead  of  odium, 
they  deserve  the  highest  praise."69 

But  the  office  of  the  county  superintendent  was 
to  receive  further  criticism  and  definition  before  it 
could  be  recognized  as  having  reached  a  permanent 
status.  In  1875  the  State  Teachers'  Association 
recommended,  through  a  committee  composed  of 
Mr.  Samuel  J.  Buck,  Mr.  Edwin  R.  Eldridge,  and 
Mr.  C.  P.  Rogers,  that  the  county  superintendent  be 
appointed  by  a  county  board  of  education  constituted 
from  the  presidents  of  the  "school  boards  in  the 
county",  and  that  aspirants  to  the  office  be  required 
to  hold  a  State  certificate  or  diploma.70  This  was 
indicative  of  the  sentiment  then  forming  and  which 
was  destined  at  some  time  to  be  written  into  the  laws. 


OPPOSITION  AND  RECOGNITION  81 

Again,  in  1878  an  attempt  was  made  to  reduce  the 
compensation  to  $100  annually,  and  to  repeal  the 
provision  relative  to  visiting  schools  —  in  fact  to 
virtually  abolish  the  office.  It  was  on  this  occasion 
that  Henry  Sabin,  then  superintendent  of  the  Clinton 
schools,  took  up  the  defence  of  the  office  and  sought 
to  point  out  reasons  for  its  continuance  and  support. 
It  was  shown  that  during  the  year  1877  ninety-nine 
institutes,  attended  by  nearly  12,000  teachers,  had 
been  managed  by  these  county  officers,  and  that 
17,000  certificates  had  been  issued  in  the  course  of 
which  more  than  22,000  persons  had  been  examined, 
each  of  whom  prepared  manuscripts  upon  nine  sub- 
jects. Moreover,  during  the  same  year  13,000  visits 
were  made  to  schools,  while  400  educational  meetings 
were  called  in  different  parts  of  the  State.  It  was 
useless,  therefore,  to  argue  that  this  office  was  a 
sinecure  —  as  it  was  later  declared  to  be  by  a  Re- 
publican convention  in  Johnson  County.  That  the 
office  was  expensive  was  clearly  false,  since  not  a 
single  taxpayer  would  notice  the  difference  if  it  were 
abolished.  That  incompetent  men  were  sometimes 
elected  was  no  argument  against  the  office  itself. 
Indeed,  the  actual  benefits  conferred  upon  the  6600 
new  teachers  entering  the  work  that  year  —  whose 
only  source  of  assistance  was  through  this  officer  — 
was  sufficient  reason  for  his  being  retained  in  the 
school  system.71 

The  "lake  conventions"  of  county  superintend- 
ents —  State  meetings  which  were  held  during  the 
summer  for  several  years  —  are  worthy  of  special 


82          HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

notice.  At  one  of  these,  held  at  Clear  Lake  in  1879, 
the  interest  was  centered  upon  a  case  before  the 
Supreme  Court  which  would  affect  the  authority  of 
every  superintendent.  Since  all  were  interested  in 
the  outcome  it  was  proposed  that  all  should  con- 
tribute to  the  expense,  and  to  that  end  pledges  were 
secured.  The  case  in  question,  Bailey  vs.  Ewart, 
came  up  to  the  highest  court  from  Delaware  County, 
where  it  appears  a  decision  had  been  rendered 
against  the  county  superintendent,  Mr.  E.  M.  Ewart. 
The  matter  involved  the  refusal  of  the  superintend- 
ent to  grant  a  certificate;  whereupon  mandamus 
proceedings  were  instituted  to  compel  him  to  do  so. 
The  Supreme  Court  found  for  the  county  officer  and 
thus  materially  strengthened  the  authority  of  all 
superintendents.72 

Again  in  July,  1883,  an  eight  day  session  of  this 
same  organization  was  held  at  Lake  Okoboji,  at 
which  principles  were  adopted  which  served  not  only 
for  their  own  guidance  and  control,  but  which  were 
also  of  State-wide  importance.  It  was  the  opinion  of 
the  superintendents  that  through  established  regu- 
lations provision  should  be  made  for  permanent 
certificates;  that  supervision  when  efficient  should 
protect  the  schools  from  the  incompetent  instructor ; 
that  the  growth  and  progress  of  scientific  teaching 
was  gratifying;  that  the  normal  institute  was  never 
more  needed  than  at  the  present  time ;  that  the  school 
laws  were  so  confusing  and  contradictory  that  an 
entire  revision  was  absolutely  essential;  and  that  a 
township  unit  and  only  two  funds  instead  of  three 


OPPOSITION  AND  RECOGNITION  83 

were  desirable  provisions.  And  further,  since  the 
Code  of  1873  made  no  provision  for  the  care  of 
district  records,  it  was  recommended  that  a  law  re- 
quiring their  deposit  with  the  county  superintendent 
be  enacted. 

Two  years  later  (in  July,  1885)  another  assembly 
convened  at  Lake  Okoboji.  The  meeting,  it  appears, 
had  now  grown  to  include  others  than  county  super- 
intendents, and  the  entire  session  of  a  week  was 
devoted  chiefly  to  the  new  educational  movements. 
A  committee,  which  had  been  previously  appointed, 
consisting  of  superintendents  J.  S.  Shoup,  J.  R. 
Elliot,  and  Jacob  Wernli,  reported  on  a  course  of 
study  for  ungraded  schools;  but  definite  action  on 
this  matter  was  postponed  until  a  year  later,  and  in 
the  meantime  copies  of  the  course  were  to  be  sub- 
mitted to  each  county  superintendent.73 

The  determined  effort  on  the  part  of  some  to 
abolish  this  office  did  not  cease,  however,  with  the 
action  in  1878,  for  again  in  1880  a  bill  was  brought 
before  the  General  Assembly  to  prohibit  the  visiting 
of  schools  by  the  county  superintendent.  It  was  at 
this  time  that  a  friend  of  the  office  inquired  why  a 
measure  was  not  introduced  to  prohibit  legislative 
committees  from  visiting  the  State  institutions. 
Soon  after  the  introduction  of  the  bill  a  joint  meeting 
of  five  hundred  teachers  and  friends  of  education  in 
southeastern  Iowa  condemned  by  unanimous  vote  the 
bills  before  the  General  Assembly  which  aimed  at  the 
abolition  of  the  office  or  the  reduction  of  the  already 
wretchedly  small  compensation. 


84          HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

It  was  in  the  later  eighties  that  a  number  of 
suggestions  were  made  which  seem  to  be  indicative 
of  a  changing  attitude  toward  the  office  of  county 
superintendent  and  of  supervision  in  general.  Thus, 
four  years  as  a  term  limit  was  recommended  by  the 
superintendents'  section  of  the  State  Teachers'  As- 
sociation ;  city  superintendent  Eobert  G-.  Saunderson 
of  Burlington  advised  that  the  incumbent  should  be 
selected  by  representatives  of  the  several  boards  of 
education  rather  than  by  the  people ;  bills  were  intro- 
duced in  the  legislature  of  1890  providing  for  definite 
qualifications,  equal  at  least  to  the  standard  of  a 
State  certificate;  Dr.  William  T.  Harris,  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Education,  made  it  known 
that  he  recognized  this  office  as  the  most  important 
of  all  supervisory  agencies,  since  it  was  concerned 
with  the  training  of  three-fourths  of  all  the  people ; 
a  longer  term  was  declared  to  be  desirable  that  pol- 
icies might  become  more  permanent,  whether  the 
office  was  filled  by  election  or  appointment ;  and  there 
was  a  growing  disposition  to  recognize  the  futility  of 
complete  supervision  by  one  individual  in  a  large 
county. 

It  was  clearly  shown  by  Mr.  Eufus  H.  Frost,  su- 
perintendent of  Cass  County,  that  no  one  could  "  per- 
sonally supervise  the  workings  of  the  schools  in  the 
most  profitable  way,  and  also  attend  to  the  duties  of 
the  office."  In  his  county  178  teachers  were  em- 
ployed in  an  area  of  576  square  miles.  To  visit  each 
one  but  once  a  year  it  was  necessary  to  drive  2300 
miles.  It  was  pointed  out  that  in  a  city  with  the 


OPPOSITION  AND  RECOGNITION  85 

same  number  of  teachers  the  authorities  would  not 
only  employ  a  superintendent  but  probably  an  as- 
sistant also;  and  no  one  would  consider  such  action 
as  extravagant.  It  was  suggested,  therefore,  that 
power  be  given  to  the  boards  of  "two,  three  or  four 
townships"  to  employ  jointly  a  supervisor  of  schools 
who  should  be  accountable  to  the  superintendent  in 
the  county.  Mr.  Frost  concluded  with  the  declara- 
tion that  it  was  no  longer  a  question  of  the  abolition 
of  the  county  superintendent  but  rather  a  question 
of  what  should  be  done  to  increase  his  powers  and 
efficiency.74 

While  Mr.  Frost  was  preparing  his  recommenda- 
tions there  was  being  tried  in  another  part  of  the 
State  an  actual  application  of  his  theory.  The  town- 
ship of  Fairfax  in  Linn  County  had  employed  Mr. 
C.  E.  Bonner  as  principal  of  the  township  high  school 
and  also  as  supervisor  of  the  district  schools  in  the 
township.  The  arrangement,  it  was  said,  was  "  work- 
ing finely";  and  the  county  superintendent,  Mr. 
Frank  J.  Sessions,  observed  that  two  other  townships 
were  considering  the  plan.  It  appears  that  an  appro- 
priation of  $100  was  made  for  supervision;  and  the 
teacher  best  qualified  for  the  work  having  been  se- 
lected arranged  his  terms  so  that  a  month  or  more 
would  be  available  for  the  inspection  of  other  schools 
within  the  township.  During  the  time  he  was  en- 
gaged with  his  own  school,  moreover,  he  was  required 
to  advise  teachers  and  directors  and  attend  to  details 
which  the  county  superintendent  must  of  necessity 
omit  in  his  hurried  visits.  Clearly,  this  township 


86  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

assistant  was  serving  in  the  capacity  recommended 
by  Superintendent  Frost  and  no  legislation  had  been 
necessary  to  make  it  an  accomplished  fact.75 

After  1890  there  were  fewer  references  to  the 
office  as  being  unnecessary.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
was  frequent  insistence  upon  it  as  ''indispensable  to 
our  school  system"  if  maintained  at  a  standard 
which  would  prevent  its  falling  into  the  hands  of 
" inexperienced  and  incompetent  persons."  The 
school  master's  round  table  of  eastern  Iowa  in  1894 
requested  the  executive  committee  of  the  State 
Teachers'  Association  to  provide  a  place  on  the  an- 
nual program  for  a  full  discussion  of  questions 
bearing  upon  the  selection  and  the  tenure  of  the 
county  superintendent.  Again,  it  was  said  that  the 
office  was  "better  understood  and  appreciated  each 
year" — so  much  so  that  party  lines  were  often 
ignored,  and  there  appeared  to  be  no  further  ques- 
tion as  to  its  permanency.  But  the  problems  of  ef- 
ficiency and  the  demand  for  higher  qualifications 
were  yet  unsolved.  In  the  opinion  of  Superintendent 
Sabin  in  1895  there  was  some  doubt  as  to  the  advisa- 
bility of  molesting  the  direct  control  of  the  office  by 
the  people  through  elections.  The  term,  neverthe- 
less, should  be  extended  to  not  less  than  four  years ; 
at  the  same  time,  if  the  example  of  other  States  was 
indicative  of  tendencies,  a  specialist  should  be  select- 
ed for  the  supervision  of  the  rural  schools.76 

A  bill  providing  specified  qualifications  for  the 
office  passed  the  House  in  1892,  but  it  was  indefinitely 
postponed  in  the  Senate.  Superintendent  Knoepfler 


OPPOSITION  AND  RECOGNITION  87 

had  recommended  three  years  of  teaching  experience 
as  a  minimum,  two  of  which  should  be  consecutive, 
and  all  within  the  five  years  immediately  preceding 
the  election.  It  was  his  opinion  that  the  incumbent 
should  come  directly  from  the  school  room  into  this 
work.  Nor  would  it  be  considered  too  extreme  to 
require  a  diploma  from  some  institution  legally  em- 
powered to  grant  degrees.  Moreover,  these  stand- 
ards were  said  to  be  quite  generally  approved  by  the 
county  superintendents  then  in  office.  It  may  be  said 
that  an  amendment  to  the  bill  as  proposed  by  the 
committee  of  the  House  in  1892  contained  these 
words :  * '  Or  who  has  not  received  the  diploma  of  a 
University,  College,  or  High  School,  approved  by 
the  State  Board  of  Examiners,  or  who  has  not  had 
twenty-seven  (27)  months  practical  experience  as  a 
teacher  in  the  public  schools  of  Iowa."77  This 
amendment  was  scarcely  in  line  with  the  recommen- 
dations previously  made,  but  it  may  have  been  neces- 
sary to  secure  the  consideration  of  the  bill. 

The  great  waste  due  to  frequent  changes  in  the 
administration  of  the  office  of  county  superintendent 
was  recognized  and  deprecated,  yet  no  proposed 
remedy  seemed  to  be  agreeable  to  those  who  were 
most  responsible  for  existing  conditions.  For  in- 
stance, in  1894  there  were  forty-nine  changes  in  the 
ninety-nine  offices ;  in  1896  there  were  forty-one  such 
changes ;  in  1898  there  were  over  forty ;  and  in  1900 
there  were  forty-six.  At  the  same  time,  it  was  point- 
ed out  that  city  superintendents  were  retained  for 
periods  ranging  from  six  to  twenty  years. 


88  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

There  were  other  influences  also  that  militated 
against  the  efficiency  of  the  office  of  county  superin- 
tendent. The  clerical  duties  which  might  be  per- 
formed by  a  clerk,  and  the  methods  of  conducting 
examinations  and  issuing  certificates  which  should  be 
cared  for  by  an  examining  board,  were  cited  as  cases 
in  which  a  false  idea  of  economy  was  responsible  for 
waste.  Under  these  circumstances  it  was  not  sur- 
prising that  Superintendent  Barrett  should  recom- 
mend the  selection  of  the  county  superintendent  by  a 
committee  appointed  by  the  judge  of  the  district 
court  or  board  of  supervisors  "from  among  the 
presidents  of  school  boards  within  the  county";  and 
that  examinations  should  be  held  quarterly  and  two 
persons  appointed  to  aid  in  conducting  the  same.78 

That  there  were  different  opinions  as  to  what 
constituted  efficiency  or  a  practical  effort  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  office  is  clear.  A  superintendent 
reported  in  1897  that  he  had  visited  twenty  schools, 
held  no  educational  meeting,  had  no  active  members 
in  the  reading  circle  course,  and  drew  a  salary  of 
$1250.  At  the  same  time  another  superintendent  had 
visited  one  hundred  sixty-five  schools,  held  thirty- 
nine  educational  meetings,  enrolled  one  hundred 
sixty  teachers  in  the  reading  circle  course,  and  drew 
a  salary  of  $1200.  That  both  of  these  reports  were 
from  men  seems  certain,  since  it  was  declared  with- 
out qualification  that  "women  have  uniformly  filled 
this  office  with  a  painstaking  conscientious  fidelity  to 
duty  which  has  rendered  their  work  of  great  benefit 
to  the  schools  under  their  charge." 


OPPOSITION  AND  RECOGNITION  89 

It  should  be  said  that  Iowa  was  the  first  State  in 
which  a  woman  was  appointed  or  elected  to  the  office 
of  county  superintendent.  In  1869  Miss  Julia  C. 
Addington  was  appointed  to  fill  a  vacancy  in  the 
office  in  Mitchell  County,  and  thereafter  was  elected 
for  the  next  full  term.79  The  increase  in  the  number 
of  women  holding  the  office  since  that  time  is  of 
interest.  In  1870  there  was  but  one;  in  1872  there 
were  three;  in  1874  there  were  five;  in  1876  there 
were  ten;  in  1878  there  were  seven;  in  1880  there 
were  five ;  in  1882  there  were  nine ;  in  1884  there  were 
eleven;  in  1886  there  were  ten;  in  1888  there  were 
eight ;  in  1890  there  were  fourteen ;  in  1892  there  were 
twelve;  in  1894  there  were  thirteen;  in  1896  there 
were  fifteen ;  in  1898  there  were  eleven ;  in  1900  there 
were  fourteen ;  in  1902  there  were  seventeen ;  in  1904 
there  were  eighteen ;  in  1907  there  were  twenty-nine ; 
in  1909  there  were  thirty-one;  in  1911  there  were 
forty-six ;  and  in  1913  there  were  fifty-nine.  That  is 
to  say,  at  the  last  election,  more  than  half  of  the 
county  superintendents  chosen  were  women. 

The  duties  devolving  upon  this  office  were  stead- 
ily increasing  during  these  years,  even  when  efforts 
were  being  made  to  abolish  it  or  to  increase  the 
qualifications  of  candidates.  For  example,  in  1874, 
the  law  required  a  normal  institute  to  be  held  in  each 
county,  for  which  the  superintendent  must  provide 
not  only  the  instruction  but  also  the  financial  man- 
agement; in  the  same  year  he  was  made  the  re- 
sponsible director  of  industrial  exhibitions  which 
independent  or  other  districts  might  hold ;  in  1878  he 


90  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

was  made  the  arbitrator  in  case  boards  disagreed  as 
to  the  place  of  a  pupil's  attendance;  in  1882  he  was 
required  to  see  that  school  boards  observed  the  law 
relative  to  the  planting  of  trees,  and  in  the  same 
year  the  duty  of  reporting  all  feeble-minded  children 
to  the  institution  prepared  for  their  care  was  as- 
signed to  him;  and  in  1900  the  provision  of  the  law 
relative  to  county  uniformity  in  text-books  required 
him  to  care  for  the  book  supply  and  its  distribution 
among  the  depositaries.80 

Although  the  office  of  county  superintendent  was 
created  in  1858  the  compensation  was  a  source  of 
contention  and  dissatisfaction  until  it  was  finally 
fixed  at  a  minimum  of  $1250  in  1902.  Previous  to 
this  provision  had  been  made,  for  a  short  time  only, 
for  certain  allowances  in  attendance  upon  meetings 
called  by  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction, 
while  more  recently  a  fixed  maximum  amount  for  the 
expenses  incurred  in  visiting  schools  has  been  estab- 
lished by  law.  Thus,  a  long  deferred  action  has 
provided  a  compensation  quite  different  from  that  of 
former  days  when  payment,  insignificant  in  amount, 
was  made  according  to  a  per  diem  and  when  a  sworn 
statement  must  be  submitted  to  the  governing  au- 
thority with  the  prospect,  in  many  instances,  of  less 
than  the  full  allowance. 

With  the  establishment  of  a  minimum  compen- 
sation it  was  certain  that  the  qualifications  would  at 
some  time  be  increased.  Although  the  requirements 
had  been  revised  in  1898  and  made  equivalent  to  a 
two-year  certificate,  by  the  certificate  law  approved 


OPPOSITION  AND  RECOGNITION  91 

in  1906  they  were  fixed  at  a  minimum  of  the  three- 
year  or  a  first  grade  certificate  as  defined  therein. 
Finally,  in  1913,  with  the  change  from  election  by  the 
people  to  appointment  by  a  convention  of  school  of- 
ficers, the  qualifications  of  the  county  superintendent 
after  September  1, 1918,  shall  include  "a  regular  five 
year  state  certificate  or  life  diploma"  and  not  less 
than  five  years  experience  in  teaching  or  supervision. 
At  the  same  time  the  amount  of  compensation  after 
September  1,  1915,  was  established  at  the  minimum 
of  $1500,  with  expenses  for  attending  meetings  called 
by  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  as  here- 
tofore as  well  as  for  those  incurred  in  the  perform- 
ance of  duties  within  the  county  —  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  county  board  of  supervisors.81 

That  the  office  of  county  superintendent  was  for 
so  many  years  held  as  an  unnecessary  institution  and 
that  its  duties  for  a  long  period  were  regarded  as 
subordinate  to  every  other  county  function  may  be 
accounted  for,  it  appears,  through  the  arrangement 
of  independent  districts  adopted  in  the  early  organ- 
ization of  the  schools.  Furthermore,  counties  were 
of  such  an  extent  that  effective  results,  taking  the 
State  as  a  whole,  were  practically  impossible  until  a 
more  friendly  attitude  was  manifested.  The  old 
independent  district  idea  was  so  firmly  established 
that  any  supervision  seemed  like  an  interference  with 
democratic  prerogatives.  Then,  as  the  more  or  less 
close  supervision  exercised  by  town  principals  or 
city  superintendents  became  more  prominent,  there 
was  a  continual  withdrawal  from  the  rural  schools  of 


92  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

the  best  teachers  who  entered  the  graded  systems; 
for  those  who  were  prepared  by  scholarship  found 
ready  advancement  under  such  supervision.  Such 
losses  tended  to  increase  the  difficulties  of  the  county 
superintendent,  while  the  increasing  clerical  duties 
and  the  legislation  affecting  visitation  and  compen- 
sation were  almost  annually  causing  greater  con- 
fusion as  to  his  exact  status.  Under  the  latest 
provisions,  however,  the  office  has  been  given  more 
permanency,  a  greater  degree  of  professional  stand- 
ing, and  a  more  adequate  compensation. 


VII 

TOWN  SUPERVISION:  AN  ORIGINAL 
MOVEMENT 

THE  laws  of  Iowa  nowhere  provide  for  a  town  or 
city  superintendent  of  schools  as  such;  nor  is  there 
any  statutory  definition  of  the  duties  devolving  upon 
such  an  executive  whereby  he  may  be  distinguished 
from  a  supervising  principal.  It  is  therefore  cus- 
tomary in  the  Iowa  educational  directory  to  list  these 
collectively,  the  title  being  apparently  a  matter  of 
small  significance.  There  is,  however,  a  choice  of 
terms  where  the  larger  high  schools  are  maintained 
and  where  such  institutions  have  a  separate  organ- 
ization removed  from  any  elementary  school,  or 
where  a  principal  of  a  high  or  of  a  ward  school  is 
held  responsible  to  a  superior  officer  for  its  entire 
control.  This  does  not  preclude  the  work  of  instruc- 
tion which  might  be  performed  by  a  superintendent, 
for  it  can  not  be  said  in  this  State  that  a  superin- 
tendent is  one  who  gives  all  his  time  to  the  work  of 
supervision.  Nor  is  it  possible  to  fix  upon  a  definite 
district  population  or  enrollment  in  seeking  a  classi- 
fication; for  the  actual  conditions  would  reveal  a 
superintendent  giving  all  his  time  to  oversight  in 
districts  of  much  less  population  than  in  others 
where  the  supervising  officer  was  teaching  to  some 

93 


94          HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

extent.  In  this  chapter  on  the  supervision  of  town 
schools,  therefore,  no  distinction  is  made. 

By  the  Board  of  Education  at  their  first  session 
in  December,  1858,  through  an  act  which  amended  the 
law  of  the  General  Assembly  of  March  12th  provision 
was  made  for  "  graded  or  union  schools  wherever 
they  may  be  necessary",  and  the  district  board  was 
authorized  to  select,  if  occasion  should  require,  a 
person  who  should  have  the  " general  supervision" 
of  the  schools  in  the  district.  But  this  refers  to  the 
township  in  the  first  instance,  and  it  is  only  through 
another  statute  that  it  came  to  apply  to  separate 
town  districts  which  should  have  "the  same  general 
powers"  as  boards  in  township  districts.  Thus,  a 
supervising  agency  was  authorized,  the  nature  of 
which  rested  entirely,  as  at  the  present  day,  upon 
local  regulations  adopted  by  the  governing  board.82 

As  mentioned  above,  there  were  in  1872  but  seven 
men  giving  all  their  time  to  public  school  supervision 
in  the  towns  of  this  State.  The  appellation  of  super- 
intendent, however,  was  frequently  used  when  the 
three  hundred  others  who  were  giving  but  part  time 
were  mentioned.  Moreover,  the  two-fold  official  des- 
ignation of  "principal  of  high  school  and  superin- 
tendent" was  common.  In  1856  Mr.  D.  Franklin 
Wells  was  principal  of  the  Muscatine  Schools ;  while 
the  Union  Schools  at  Tipton  claimed  a  superintend- 
ent in  Mr.  C.  C.  Nestlerode.  Davenport  was  the  first 
to  unite  districts  under  a  supervising  principal,  Mr. 
Abram  S.  Kissell,  and  the  time  soon  arrived  when 
all  his  time  was  given  to  supervision,  and  thus  his 


AN  ORIGINAL  MOVEMENT  95 

title  came  to  be  distinct.  At  the  same  time  Dubuque 
employed  ward  principals  only  —  a  policy  which  was 
maintained,  it  will  be  shown,  until  recent  years,  and 
involved  the  transference  of  some  of  the  duties  of  a 
superintendent  to  the  secretary  of  the  board.  It 
was  in  1857  that  Eev.  J.  T.  Cook  retired  from  the 
"supervision"  of  the  Des  Moines  schools,  although 
it  is  known  that  the  school  system  as  then  constituted 
included  a  single  building  with  a  principal  and  four 
teachers.83  In  1865  Mr.  Thomas  M.  Irish  was  desig- 
nated as  * '  Principal  of  the  High  School  and  Superin- 
tendent of  all  City  Schools ' '  in  Iowa  City ;  and  it  was 
then  declared  that  "experience  has  abundantly 
proved  that  the  work  of  education  is  best  pursued 
and  its  objects  most  satisfactorily  attained  when  the 
supervision  of  the  schools  is  placed  in  charge  of  a 
competent  individual,  who,  for  a  compensation,  is 
enabled  to  attend,  not  only  to  the  general  classifica- 
tion and  grading  of  each  school,  but  also  to  the 
minutiae ;  and  for  this  reason  the  Board  of  the  City 
Schools  has  created  the  office  of  City  Superintend- 
ent." At  the  same  time  his  functions  included  the 
"government  and  discipline"  of  the  high  school. 
One  may  note,  however,  a  special  function  as  super- 
intendent, namely,  the  requirement  that  he  should 
spend  the  hours  from  "two  until  four  o'clock"  on 
each  Saturday  afternoon  in  his  office  "for  the  pur- 
pose of  examining  pupils,  conversing  with  parents, 
&c."84 

In  1865  Mr.  James  E.  Dow  was  "superintendent" 
at  Burlington,  but  was  chosen  that  year  for  the  same 


96  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

work  at  Ottumwa  —  his  salary  being  specifically 
mentioned  as  $1000.  On  Ms  release  from  Burlington, 
Mr.  J.  A.  Smith,  " principal"  at  Mount  Pleasant, 
succeeded  him.  It  appears,  however,  that  Mr.  Dow 
accepted  work  in  Peoria,  Illinois,  instead  of  the  office 
at  Ottumwa,  and  Mr.  L.  M.  Hastings  was  thereafter 
appointed  to  the  Iowa  position.  The  Oskaloosa 
schools  were  then  "under  the  superintendence"  of 
Mr.  J.  McCarty  whose  salary  had  recently  been  "ad- 
vanced to  900  dollars. ' ' 

In  1867  Mr.  W.  0.  Hiskey,  who  had  succeeded 
Mr.  A.  S.  Kissell,  was  called  from  the  superintend- 
ency  in  Davenport  to  a  similar  position  in  Minne- 
apolis. He  in  turn  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  Wells  A. 
Bemis,  the  grammar  school  principal  who  had  served 
under  him;  but  two  years  later  Mr.  Bemis  accepted 
the  supervision  of  the  Rock  Island  schools,  and  was 
followed  in  Davenport  by  Mr.  W.  E.  Crosby  of  Lima, 
Ohio.  The  same  year  Mr.  A.  W.  Stuart,  the  superin- 
tendent at  Marion  and  formerly  principal  of  the 
Clinton  high  school,  was  employed  as  superintendent 
in  East  Des  Moines ;  and  Mr.  Samuel  B.  McLane  was 
mentioned  as  "supervising"  the  Keokuk  schools.85 

Again,  an  announcement  issued  by  the  board  of 
the  Muscatine  schools  in  1870  names  Mr.  Finley  M. 
Witter  as  '  *  Sup 't  of  City  Schools ' '  and  principal  not 
only  of  school  number  one  but  also  of  the  high  school. 
In  the  city  at  that  time  there  were  four  separate 
schools  each  with  a  principal ;  but  it  appears  that  the 
distinctive  services  of  a  supervisor  were  not  yet 
recognized.  The  Clinton  board  of  education  in  1870 


AN  ORIGINAL  MOVEMENT  97 

defined  the  superintendent's  functions,  which  do  not 
differ  materially  from  those  of  the  present.  Never- 
theless, it  is  noted  that  while  Mr.  W.  B.  Howe  was 
the  "  superintendent "  only  one  teacher  was  men- 
tioned as  of  high  school  grade  for  a  course  of  three 
years.  One  may  therefore  conclude  that  the  superin- 
tendent was  giving  part  of  his  time  to  duties  not 
signified  by  his  title.86 

It  was  about  1868  that  Mr.  William  W.  Jamieson 
became  superintendent  of  the  schools  of  Keokuk  —  a 
position  in  which  he  remained  for  twenty-five  years, 
thus  establishing  an  uncommon  record  in  this  capac- 
ity. During  the  same  period,  and  possibly  commenc- 
ing at  an  earlier  date,  Mr.  J.  A.  Wood  was  in  charge 
of  the  Clarinda  schools,  serving  there  nearly  a  fourth 
of  a  century.  Entering  upon  his  work  in  Marshall- 
town  in  1874  Mr.  C.  P.  Eogers  was  for  twenty-two 
years  recognized  as  an  authority  on  questions  rela- 
tive to  the  management  of  a  city  school  system.  No 
name  probably  will  appear  oftener  in  these  pages 
than  his,  since  it  was  his  province  to  lead  in  matters 
with  which  these  volumes  are  concerned.  Going 
from  the  State  University  of  Iowa  into  the  public 
schools  of  Marengo  in  1869,  he  was  among  the  firsf, 
if  not  the  very  first,  to  put  into  practice  the  indi- 
vidual laboratory  work  in  science  which  had  been 
inaugurated  at  the  University  and  adapted  to  the 
public  school.  In  1872  he  outlined  "the  duties  of 
principals"  before  the  State  Teachers'  Association 
at  Davenport ;  and  it  was  in  this  connection  that  ref- 
erence was  made  to  the  seven  men  who  were  giving 

8 


98  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

all  their  time  to  supervision.  Contemporary  with 
these  men  was  Mr.  William  Wilcox  who  had  been 
employed  as  a  superintendent  or  supervising  prin- 
cipal in  1868  and  who  for  nearly  thirty  years  con- 
tinued as  a  prominent  figure  in  the  State  Association, 
finally  concluding  his  public  school  work  as  superin- 
tendent at  Atlantic.87 

For  long  periods  of  continuous  service  in  the 
capacity  of  a  supervising  principal  one  must  turn  to 
the  independent  district  of  Dubuque,  where  the 
names  of  Mr.  Charles  Gr.  Kretschmer  and  Mr. 
Thomas  M.  Irish  appear  as  early  as  1859  and  1867 
respectively.  The  former  was  the  head  of  the  Audu- 
bon  school  from  1859  to  1897.  The  latter  assumed 
his  duties  in  the  district  in  1867  and  over  the  Prescott 
School  in  1870  where  he  continues  in  service  to  this 
day.  Mr.  William  J.  Shoup,  a  master  in  his  line,  was 
also  for  many  years  a  principal  in  the  city  of  Du- 
buque. Professor  Samuel  Calvin,  later  the  distin- 
guished scholar  and  State  Geologist,  became  a  ward 
principal  in  Dubuque  in  1869 ;  and  it  was  during  these 
years  of  service  that  he  conducted  his  special  class  in 
geology  on  each  Saturday  evening  in  the  rooms  of  the 
Institute  of  Science  and  Arts.88  As  has  been  sug- 
gested above,  previous  to  1895  the  city  of  Dubuque 
employed  no  superintendent,  the  ward  principals  be- 
ing responsible  directly  to  the  board. 

It  was  in  1868  that  the  office  of  city  superintend- 
ent was  created  in  Council  Bluffs  and  that  Mr.  Allen 
Armstrong  began  his  eight  years  of  supervision  in 
that  place.  Thereafter  for  twelve  years  he  directed 


AN  ORIGINAL  MOVEMENT  99 

the  work  of  the  public  schools  of  Sioux  City  until  his 
death  in  1888.  About  the  same  time  —  but  beginning 
a  little  later  as  high  school  principal  —  Mr.  Robert 
G-.  Saunderson  was  at  the  head  of  the  Burlington 
schools.  He,  too,  served  his  city  and  its  schools  for 
nearly  twenty  years.89  For  twelve  years  during  this 
period  Mr.  Homer  H.  Seerley  was  superintendent  at 
Oskaloosa,  and  from  there  was  called  to  the  presi- 
dency of  the  State  Normal  School  at  Cedar  Falls. 
These  were  uncommon  terms  of  service  in  a  State 
which  had  not  at  the  outset  developed  a  system  pro- 
viding for  a  city  superintendent.  It  may  be  said  also 
that  each  of  the  three  last  mentioned  superintendents 
has  been  president  of  the  State  Teachers'  Associa- 
tion —  the  first  in  1874,  the  second  in  1880,  and  the 
third  in  1884. 

One  of  the  most  conspicuous  periods  of  service 
which  began  about  the  same  time  as  those  just  men- 
tioned was  that  of  Mr.  Albion  W.  Stuart  at  Ottumwa, 
who,  as  stated  above,  entered  upon  his  duties  as 
superintendent  or  principal  of  the  East  Des  Moines 
schools  in  1867.  After  a  short  time  at  Des  Moines  he 
went  to  Fort  Dodge  from  which  place  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Ottumwa  about  1874.  Here  he  continued 
to  serve  as  superintendent  until  his  death  in  1911  — 
a  continuous  service,  one  will  observe,  of  about 
thirty-seven  years.  No  other  distinctly  supervisory 
position  in  this  State  has  been  held  as  long  by  any 
one  individual,  although  the  instances  already  cited 
may  be  considered  as  extraordinary.  One  may  add 
to  these  names  those  of  Charles  C.  Dudley,  who 


100         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

served  at  Maquoketa ;  John  W.  McClellan,  at  Marion 
and  Vinton;  John  K.  Sweeney,  at  Waterloo;  James 
McNaughton,  at  Cedar  Falls  and  Council  Bluffs; 
Melvin  F.  Arey,  at  Fort  Dodge ;  Daniel  W.  Lewis,  at 
Washington;  W.  F.  Cramer,  at  Waverly;  Frank  B. 
Cooper,  at  West  Des  Moines;  0.  J.  Laylander,  at 
Cedar  Falls;  and  Dennis  M.  Kelley,  at  the  same 
place ;  J.  B.  Young,  at  Davenport,  and  another  J.  B. 
Young,  at  Toledo ;  C.  H.  Carson,  at  Marengo,  serving 
continuously  for  twenty-two  years;  L.  T.  Weld,  at 
Cedar  Eapids  and  Nevada ;  Jacob  T.  Merrill,  also  at 
Cedar  Rapids ;  Joseph  J.  McConnell,  at  Atlantic  and 
Cedar  Eapids;  W.  F.  Chevalier,  at  Bed  Oak  and 
Muscatine ;  Amos  Hiatt,  at  East  Des  Moines ;  Anson 
T.  Hukill,  at  West  Waterloo;  Franklin  T.  Oldt,  at 
Dubuque,  and  of  many  others  who  have  given  an 
impetus  to  the  establishment  of  some  standard  by 
which  city  supervision  might  be  recognized  as  a  spe- 
cial work. 

Nor  should  one  fail  to  mention  in  this  connection 
the  first  woman,  Miss  Phoebe  W.  Sudlow,  to  be  ap- 
pointed as  city  superintendent  in  Iowa.  This  posi- 
tion she  held  for  some  years  in  the  city  of  Davenport. 
In  1876  she  was  chosen  as  the  first  woman  president 
of  the  State  Teachers'  Association,  being  nominated 
with  two  others,  Mr.  Henry  Sabin  and  Mr.  Amos  N. 
Currier,  as  was  customary  under  the  instructions  of 
the  Association.  It  may  be  noted  further  that  the 
West  Des  Moines  schools  were  under  the  supervision 
of  Mrs.  L.  M.  Wilson  from  1884  to  1888,  at  which 
time  she  resigned  and  in  company  with  her  high 


AN  ORIGINAL  MOVEMENT  101 

school  principal,  Mrs.  S.  L.  Morrow,  determined  to 
establish  in  Paris  a  school  for  American  girls.90  It 
should  be  said,  however,  that  while  women  have  not 
generally  been  employed  in  the  larger  superintend- 
encies  it  has  been  common  for  them  to  hold  the 
position  of  supervising  principal.  For  example, 
Miss  Lucy  Curtis  held  such  a  position  for  twenty 
years  at  State  Center. 

About  1898  there  appears  to  have  been  a  marked 
increase  in  the  number  of  those  who  were  abandoning 
the  work  of  supervision  or  were  seeking  a  change  in 
position.  It  was  shown  in  1903  that  of  the  men  so 
engaged  in  county  seat  towns  for  the  six  years  pre- 
ceding, not  less  than  thirty-seven  percent  had  left 
the  work,  while  thirty-eight  percent  had  changed  lo- 
cations, thus  leaving  but  about  one-fourth  who  were 
retained  for  more  than  six  years.  This  may  not 
have  been  extraordinary  when  it  was  estimated  that 
ten  thousand  changes  among  all  teachers  occurred 
annually,  but  it  stands  in  marked  contrast  to  the  long 
terms  described  above.91 

In  1884  a  city  superintendent  was  defined  as  1 1  the 
chief  executive  officer  of  the  board  of  education"; 
and  for  many  reasons  the  most  important  functions 
of  the  board  consisted  in '  *  securing,  keeping,  and  aid- 
ing an  efficient  executive  at  the  head  of  the 
schools."92  Accepting  this  statement  as  authorita- 
tive it  becomes  clear  that  a  large  number  of  govern- 
ing boards  either  had  failed  to  discharge  the  very 
first  of  their  responsible  duties,  or  there  was  some 
greater  inducement  for  experienced  men  in  fields  of 


102         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

endeavor  other  than  those  of  the   supervision   of 
public  schools. 

In  1892  there  were  in  Iowa  twenty-four  towns 
with  a  population  of  over  4000;  in  1910  this  number 
had  increased  to  thirty-eight.  If  one  may  assume 
that  this  population  represents  an  enrollment  (vary- 
ing from  800  to  1700)  which  warrants  the  employ- 
ment of  a  superintendent  who  gives  all  of  his  time 
to  such  functions,  and  who  possibly  is  assisted  by 
special  supervisors,  there  might  be  established  some 
basis  for  differentiating  the  superintendent  and 
supervising  principal.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
population  is  reduced  to  3000  or  more,  the  enrollment 
then  being  as  low  as  500,  there  would  be  nearly  sixty 
who  would  come  under  such  a  classification.  There 
appears  to  be  no  authority  for  any  conclusion  of 
this  character,  and  therefore  no  attempt  has  been 
made,  as  was  suggested  in  the  outset,  to  distinguish 
superintendents  from  supervising  principals,  of 
whom  there  are  many  hundreds. 


PART  II 
STATE  BOARDS 


103 


VIII 

THE  NEW  CONSTITUTION  AND  THE 
EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM 

UPON  the  organization  of  the  constitutional  con- 
vention in  1857  three  propositions  relative  to 
educational  matters  were  presented:  first,  the  re- 
organization of  the  public  schools ;  second,  the  with- 
drawal of  the  school  fund  from  its  distribution 
through  small  loans  and  its  re-investment  in  some 
permanent  securities;  and  third,  a  provision  that 
would  confine  the  State  University  to  one  place. 
Early  in  the  proceedings,  therefore,  a  resolution 
appeared  which  instructed  the  committee  on  educa- 
tion and  school  lands  to  make  inquiry  into  the 
expediency  of  amending  Article  X  of  the  Constitu- 
tion of  1846  by  providing  for  a  Board  of  Education 
which  should  consist  of  ten  or  twelve  persons,  coming 
from  different  parts  of  the  State,  and  who  should 
possess  the  qualifications  of  interest  in,  and  familiar- 
ity with  the  educational  situation  in  this  State. 
When  selected  they  should  be  authorized  to  appoint 
a  Secretary  as  their  executive  officer,  who  should  be 
governed  by  such  regulations  as  they  might  adopt. 
Furthermore,  and  this  is  noteworthy,  when  such  an 
organization  was  completed  the  office  of  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction  should  be  abolished. 

105 


106         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

It  will  be  recalled  that  this  constitutional  con- 
vention followed  immediately  the  report  of  the  Mann 
commission  in  1856  and  the  rejection  by  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  bill  then  proposed.  Indeed  echoes 
of  the  legislative  action  on  that  bill  in  1857  are 
clearly  heard  in  the  constitutional  debates  center- 
ing about  Article  X  of  the  Constitution  of  1846. 
While  all  the  interesting  data  which  were  pre- 
sented in  the  arguments  pro  and  con  can  not  be 
reviewed  in  this  connection,  it  is  important  that 
the  reasons  for  such  an  innovation  as  a  fourth  de- 
partment of  government  be  summarized. 

From  the  committee  to  which  the  resolution  re- 
ferred to  above  was  committed  there  came  two  re- 
ports: first,  a  majority  report  in  favor  of  a  con- 
stitutional Board  of  Education  which  should  pos- 
sess powers  equivalent  in  legislative  capacity  to 
those  of  the  General  Assembly ;  and  second,  a  minor- 
ity report  differing  from  the  former  chiefly  in  sub- 
ordinating this  body  to  the  General  Assembly  — 
that  is  to  say,  a  board  to  be  created,  not  by  the 
Constitution,  but  by  the  General  Assembly.93  Upon 
this  point  the  convention  was  divided.  At  the  same 
time  certain  members  were  opposed  to  the  crea- 
tion of  any  such  body  either  by  the  Constitu- 
tion or  by  the  legislature.  The  chief  promoter  of 
the  proposed  departure  in  the  educational  system, 
Mr.  J.  C.  Hall,  a  native  of  New  York,  had  been  a 
member  of  the  committee  on  education  in  the  con- 
vention of  1844.  To  him  more  than  to  any  other 
person  the  provision  for  a  Board  of  Education,  as 


THE  NEW  CONSTITUTION  AND  EDUCATION    107 

found  in  Article  IX  of  the  new  Constitution  is  due. 
Among  those  opposing  the  change  Mr.  James  F. 
Wilson  (United  States  Senator,  1883-1895),  then 
a  young  man  of  twenty-eight,  was  conspicuous. 

There  were  many  attempts  to  reconcile  the  dif- 
ferences of  opinion  relative  to  the  method  of  consti- 
tuting this  Board  of  Education,  but  these  differences 
were  so  fundamental  that  all  such  efforts  were 
unsuccesful.  Some  endeavored  to  show  that  the 
differences  related  only  to  the  details;  but  it  was 
clear  that  this  could  not  be  true.  During  the  de- 
bates it  was  proposed  to  provide  for  a  board  of 
twelve  members  who  should  at  the  same  time  become 
the  trustees  for  the  State  University  and  have  gen- 
eral control  over  all  the  educational  interests  of  the 
State.  But  it  was  pointed  out  that  the  proposed 
board  would  have  no  definite  powers,  such  as  would 
be  conferred  upon  an  independent  body,  and  would 
become  rather  a  ministerial  agency,  subject  to  the 
uncertainties  of  legislation.  It  was  not  believed 
by  many  that  a  board  thus  constituted  would  possess 
the  necessary  authority  to  make  the  public  school 
system  effective.  On  the  other  hand,  by  electing 
men  from  the  districts  —  some  sixteen  as  at  first 
proposed  —  it  was  declared  that  the  relation  of 
constituency  and  representative  upon  such  a  board 
would  establish  a  dignity  which  must  ultimately 
result  in  permanency  of  organization. 

Throughout  the  debate  upon  this  proposed 
amendment  sound  reason  was  advanced  for  its  adop- 
tion and  for  the  creation  of  some  means  of  independ- 


108         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

ent  legislation  relative  to  education  in  the  State. 
The  majority,  it  appears,  agreed  that  the  legisla- 
ture had  neglected  the  problems  of  education  and 
that  some  radical  change  was  demanded.  Indeed, 
Mr.  Hall  declared  that  he  was  acting  in  accordance 
with  the  wishes  of  many  citizens  with  whom  he  had 
counseled.  It  was  asserted  also  that  the  history 
of  the  legislation  during  the  ten  years  just  previous 
to  1857  was  sufficient  argument  for  the  creation  of 
a  body  with  independent  powers.  It  was  shown, 
too,  that  the  General  Assembly  had  acknowledged 
its  inability  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  educational 
public  when  in  the  year  preceding  (that  is  in  1856) 
it  had  authorized  the  Governor  to  appoint  a  com- 
mission to  revise  the  laws.  Again,  when  the  Gov- 
ernor had  selected  two  eminent  citizens  of  other 
States  who  were  skilled  in  such  work,  and  when  they 
had  made  a  carefully  prepared  report  the  legisla- 
ture had  failed  to  accept  it.94  It  seems,  then,  that 
had  the  Mann  commission  bill  become  a  law  in  1857 
the  Board  of  Education  might  not  have  been  con- 
sidered in  the  constitutional  convention  —  thus  sav- 
ing a  great  amount  of  time  and  avoiding  some 
acrimonious  debate. 

Another  element  favorable  to  the  amendment  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  opposition  to  a  continuation 
of  the  office  of  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 
But  if  the  office  were  abolished  the  functions  devolv- 
ing upon  it  must  be  vested  elsewhere;  and  so,  to 
avoid  the  one-man  power,  a  board  of  this  nature 
would  be  acceptable —  especially  since  through  a 


THE  NEW  CONSTITUTION  AND  EDUCATION    109 

secretary  under  its  control,  there  would  be  an  ac- 
countability which  did  not  exist  under  the  old  law. 
In  the  original  report  of  the  committee  provision  was 
made  for  a  "Chancellor"  to  be  appointed  by  the 
Board,  who  should  have  jurisdiction  over  all  ques- 
tions that  might  arise  under  the  laws  of  that  body, 
and  from  whom  an  appeal  might  lie  to  the  Supreme 
Court ;  but  this  proposition  met  with  little  favor.  In 
fact  the  whole  plan  was  attacked  as  the  creation  of 
an  independent  legislative  body  with  a  ' '  Chancellor ' ' 
of  their  own  appointment  to  interpret  their  legis- 
lation. Nothing  of  the  kind  it  was  declared  had  ever 
before  been  proposed  in  the  United  States.95 

While  it  was  held  that,  theoretically,  men  quali- 
fied to  serve  on  such  a  board  would  be  glad  to  give 
their  services  for  twenty  days  annually  at  a  moder- 
ate compensation,  it  was  pointed  out  by  practical 
men  that  in  all  probability  the  persons  best  adapted 
to  carry  out  the  law  would  not  be  chosen.  That  is  to 
say,  the  political  factor  in  a  general  election  would 
prevent  such  a  choice.  For,  as  some  observed,  those 
persons  who  had  devoted  their  lives  to  the  investiga- 
tion of  educational  subjects  were  not  accustomed 
usually  to  mix  in  political  matters.  It  was  sug- 
gested, therefore,  that  party  questions  be  ignored  in 
such  elections. 

Again,  it  was  proposed  at  various  times  that  the 
authority  to  appoint  the  members  be  delegated  to 
the  Governor  or  be  made  a  function  of  the  General 
Assembly.  Governor  Grimes,  it  appears,  recognized 
the  danger  in  popular  elections,  for  in  his  biennial 


110         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

message  of  1858  lie  "  presumed  that  they  will  be  se- 
lected on  account  of  their  peculiar  fitness  for  the 
positions  they  are  to  occupy.  They  will  bring  to  the 
board  their  experience  as  educationists,  and  they  will 
be  able  to  represent  the  true  condition  and  wants  of 
every  part  of  the  State.  They  will  stimulate  the  zeal 
of  the  people  in  their  several  districts  in  behalf  of 
education".96 

It  seems  quite  certain  that  provision  for  a  Board 
of  Education  possessing  full  power  to  direct  all  the 
educational  agencies  of  the  State,  but  organized 
under  the  authority  of  the  legislature,  would  not  only 
have  been  made  a  part  of  the  Constitution  without 
extended  debate,  but  it  might  have  become  in  that 
way  a  permanent  institution  and  might  have  per- 
formed a  notable  work  in  the  Commonwealth.  The 
very  fact  that  the  scheme  was  made  as  an  integral 
part  of  the  Constitution,  made  it  unchangeable  with- 
out amendment ;  while  the  provision  that  it  might  be 
abolished  after  five  years  was  but  inviting  such  legis- 
lation at  the  first  opportunity.  Doubtless  the  "five 
year"  clause  was  necessary  in  order  to  secure  its 
adoption.  It  is  clear  that  the  opposition  displayed 
was  not  so  much  against  a  Board  of  Education  as 
against  the  proposed  method  of  its  establishment 
and  organization.97 

James  F.  Wilson  was  positive  in  his  belief  that 
two  bodies  could  not  legislate  on  different  phases  of 
the   same   subject  without   coming  into   conflict  — 
having  in  mind  the  fact  that  the  General  Assembly 
would  make  appropriations  in  all  cases.     He  com- 


THE  NEW  CONSTITUTION  AND  EDUCATION    111 

pared  the  relations  of  the  two  bodies  to  those  pro- 
visions of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
which  had  caused  so  much  disagreement  between  the 
Union  and  the  States.  It  was  declared,  however,  by 
Mr.  Hall,  that  the  proposed  veto  power  of  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  would  so  control  the  legislation  of  the 
Board  that  radical  differences  could  not  occur.  The 
principal  object  in  view  was  the  separation  of  the 
Board  from  the  control  of  ordinary  legislation  so 
that  educational  matters  might  have  that  attention, 
which,  it  was  felt,  they  had  not  secured  and  could  not 
expect  to  have  under  the  existing  constitutional  re- 
quirements. It  was  alleged  further,  and  not  without 
reason,  that  the  minority  report  provided  for  ''no 
efficiency"  and  "no  vitality"  and  that  "it  is  just 
like  what  we  have  always  had ;  and  that  is  the  reason 
given  why  we  should  adopt  it. ' '  An  appeal  was  made 
to  the  convention  that  it  should  not  adjourn  until  "a 
school  department"  had  been  established.98 

The  proposition  submitted  was  an  innovation. 
Members  were  unable,  therefore,  to  decide  for  them- 
selves as  to  the  action  that  should  be  taken.  By 
some  it  was  thought  that  while  twenty  days,  fixed  for 
the  annual  sessions,  might  be  sufficient  for  the 
routine  business  the  members  of  the  Board  should 
exercise  supervision  over  the  educational  affairs  of 
their  district  during  the  entire  year.  It  was  sug- 
gested also  that  they  be  empowered  to  establish  such 
additional  institutions  as  might  be  necessary  to  in- 
crease the  efficiency  of  the  schools  in  their  respective 
sections  of  the  State.  For  such  services,  and  for 


112         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

visiting  the  different  parts  of  the  district,  they 
should  be  compensated.  It  was  finally  agreed,  how- 
ever, that  such  provisions  were  not  properly  consti- 
tutional questions,  but  rather  subjects  for  legislative 
action." 

The  problem  then  before  the  convention  was  the 
adjustment  of  the  legislative  relations  of  two  branch- 
es of  government  —  that  is,  the  General  Assembly 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Board  of  Education  on  the 
other  —  so  that  one  would  retain  the  entire  control 
over  the  financial  part  of  the  system,  while  the  other 
would  organize  and  promote  the  educational  agen- 
cies. It  was  when  this  difficulty  seemed  impossible 
of  solution  that  an  effort  was  made  to  substitute  a 
single  section  for  the  whole  of  Article  IX  as  it  now 
appears  in  the  Constitution.  The  section  proposed 
would  have  proved  a  more  reasonable  method  of 
control,  since  it  would  have  provided  for  a  board 
with  an  executive  secretary,  which  should  control  all 
the  educational  agencies  of  the  State  but  which  would 
have  been  organized  under  the  authority  of  the 
General  Assembly.  Moreover,  it  would  have  com- 
pelled action  on  the  part  of  the  legislature  and  there- 
by satisfied  the  demands  made  in  the  convention.100 

As  originally  proposed  the  Board  would  have  in- 
cluded sixteen  members;  but  owing  to  the  accident 
of  there  being  but  eleven  judicial  districts  and,  as  it 
appears,  out  of  a  desire  to  prevent  duplication,  the 
number  was  reduced  to  eleven  with  the  Governor  an 
ex  officio  member.  He  was  to  have  a  part  in  the  dis- 
cussions but  no  vote,  although  the  veto  power  could 


THE  NEW  CONSTITUTION  AND  EDUCATION    113 

be  exercised  by  him  as  in  the  case  of  ordinary  legis- 
lation. When  the  office  of  Lieutenant  Governor  was 
created  and  the  committee  in  their  final  report  made 
him  the  presiding  officer  of  the  Board,  the  veto  power 
was  vested  in  the  General  Assembly.  Some  fear  was 
expressed  in  the  convention  lest  the  two  ex  officio 
members,  the  Governor  and  the  Lieutenant  Gov- 
ernor, would  dominate  the  Board  and  thereby  limit 
its  independence.101 

Nor  did  the  experimental  nature  of  this  provision 
of  the  new  Constitution  escape  attack.  Indeed,  the 
fact  that  its  supporters  had  provided  for  its  possible 
abolition  after  a  given  date  was  declared  as  evidence 
that  they  doubted  its  usefulness.  Moreover,  it  was 
inquired  "why  try  an  experiment  in  the  constitution 
of  the  State?"  To  incorporate  details  of  organiza- 
tion in  the  fundamental  law  was  declared  to  be 
foreign  to  the  purposes  of  such  an  instrument. 
Nevertheless,  to  some  any  provision  seemed  to  be 
better  than  the  existing  arrangement,  and  so  they 
were  willing  to  experiment,  although  it  might  be 
dangerous  since  there  was  need  of  "a  change  that 
will  make  a  revolution  in  the  present  state  of 
things".  The  public  mind  was  not  aroused  on 
the  subject  of  education,  and  the  reasons  for  in- 
corporating the  provisions  for  an  independent  board 
in  the  Constitution  were  that  it  might  have  a  consti- 
tutional standing  independent  of  legislation  and 
possess  an  authority  that  could  not  be  destroyed  by 
any  legislative  act.  At  the  same  time,  however,  the 
supporters  of  the  amendment  endeavored  to  show 


114         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

that  ordinary  legislation  prevented  extreme  meas- 
ures on  the  part  of  the  Board,  inasmuch  as  all  legis- 
lation initiated  by  that  body  might  be  "altered, 
amended  or  repealed  by  the  General  Assembly;  and 
when  so  altered,  amended,  or  repealed"  could  not  be 
reenacted  by  the  Board.102 

The  committee  on  education  which  had  the  mat- 
ter under  consideration  was  the  largest  of  the 
convention,  including  one-fifth  of  the  entire  member- 
ship. Its  chairman,  Mr.  A.  H.  Marvin  of  Jones 
County,  urged  careful  deliberation,  declaring  that  he 
was  willing  to  ' '  encamp  in  Iowa  City,  and  stay  until 
the  first  of  June,  if  it  is  necessary,  to  perfect  this 
[educational]  system."  There  was  a  determined  ef- 
fort, as  the  debates  show,  to  change  the  outlook  for 
general  education  in  the  State.  If  the  provision 
finally  adopted  by  a  vote  of  twenty-three  to  eight 
and  as  it  appears  in  Article  IX  of  the  Constitution 
was  not  the  best  arrangement  that  could  have  been 
adopted,  it  can  not  be  said  that  the  constitutional 
convention  was  hasty  in  its  action  or  insincere  in 
its  efforts  to  *  *  revolutionize ' '  the  prevailing  methods 
in  school  management.103 

As  finally  constituted  the  Board  of  Education 
consisted  of  eleven  members  elected  by  the  people  of 
their  respective  judicial  districts.  Over  this  body 
the  Lieutenant  Governor  was  authorized  to  preside, 
while  the  Governor  became  a  member  ex  officio.  As 
provided  by  the  Constitution  the  qualifications  for 
membership  were  twenty-five  years  of  age  and  citi- 
zenship in  the  State  for  one  year.  The  term  was 


THE  NEW  CONSTITUTION  AND  EDUCATION    115 

fixed  at  four  years,  with  one-half  retiring  every  two 
years.  Furthermore,  after  the  first  session,  which 
was  to  be  held  in  December,  1858,  the  General  As- 
sembly was  authorized  to  determine  their  frequency, 
although  not  more  than  one  session  of  twenty  days 
could  occur  in  any  year  except  upon  the  recom- 
mendation of  two-thirds  of  the  members  and  a  call 
by  the  Governor. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education,  ap- 
pointed by  the  Board,  was  constituted  an  executive 
officer,  and  through  him  all  laws  as  well  as  rules  and 
regulations  which  had  the  force  of  law  were  to  be 
' 1  published  and  distributed ' '.  Finally,  full  authority 
was  granted  the  Board  to  initiate  legislation  relative 
to  "Common  Schools,  and  other  educational  institu- 
tions" that  were  to  receive  aid  from  the  school  or 
university  fund ;  and  it  was  specifically  required  that 
provision  should  be  made  for  the  "education  of  all 
the  youths  of  the  State,  through  a  system  of  Common 
Schools". 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  Board  was  to  "initi- 
ate ' '  legislation  relative  to  education  only  and  in  no 
instance  to  make  a  law  appropriating  funds.  Indeed, 
the  members  were  dependent  entirely  upon  the 
General  Assembly  for  their  contingent  expenses  as 
well  as  for  their  compensation,  which,  according  to 
the  Constitution  was  the  same  as  that  of  members  of 
the  legislature.  This  item  of  increased  expenses  in 
administration  created  some  fear  in  the  minds  of 
certain  members  of  the  convention  lest  it  endanger 
a  favorable  vote  on  the  Constitution.104 


IX 

SCHOOL  LEGISLATION  UNDER  THE  BOARD 
OF  EDUCATION 

IN  accordance  with  provisions  of  the  Constitution 
and  statute  laws  the  Board  of  Education  held  its 
first  session  in  the  Senate  chamber  in  Des  Moines  on 
December  6,  1858.  It  was  declared  to  be  "a  grave 
and  dignified  body  of  men,  who  feel  the  responsi- 
bility that  rests  upon  them,  and  who  will  not  fail  to 
meet  the  expectations  of  their  constituents.  The 
Lieut.  Governor  [Or an  Faville]  seems  in  his  element 
in  an  educational  assemblage. ' '  It  was  said  that  the 
members  of  the  Board  felt  themselves  much  embar- 
rassed, both  by  the  action  and  non-action  of  the 
General  Assembly.  By  its  action  the  legislature 
had  appeared  to  take  the  work  of  the  Board  out  of 
its  hands,  and  then  by  its  non-action  they  had 
failed  to  make  the  necessary  appropriation  for  the 
expenses  of  the  Board.  Again,  more  time  should 
have  been  given  for  deliberation,  the  constitutional 
limit  of  twenty  days  being  entirely  too  brief  — 
especially  for  the  first  session.  It  was  observed,  too, 
that  the  law  of  the  General  Assembly  (approved  on 
March  12th)  was  viewed  with  favor  by  the  Board  and 
that  they  were  inclined  to  perfect  it  rather  than  to 
remodel  it  in  detail.  Such  action,  if  prudent,  would 

116 


LEGISLATION  OF  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION    117 

tend  to  insure  their  independence  in  future  educa- 
tional legislation  — a  result  "much  to  be  desired."106 

Frequent  mention  has  been  made  of  the  decision 
of  the  Supreme  Court  by  which  it  was  held  that 
under  the  Constitution  the  General  Assembly  had  no 
"primary  power  to  pass  laws  providing  for  the 
public  instruction  of  the  state,  until  the  board  of 
education  was  elected  and  organized",  and  so  the  act 
of  March  12,  1858,  was  "unconstitutional,  and 
void".106  In  accordance  with  this  ruling  it  became 
clear  that  with  the  exception  of  such  parts  of  the  law 
as  related  to  school  funds  and  school  lands  there  had 
been  no  "legal  school  system"  since  the  repeal  of 
existing  laws  by  the  act  of  March  12th.  The  first 
need  then  was  a  "curative  act"  legalizing  proceed- 
ings under  the  law  since  March  12, 1858.107 

A  petition,  led  by  Washington  and  Cedar  coun- 
ties, was  at  once  presented  to  the  Board  requesting 
the  retention  of  the  law  in  its  general  features. 
From  Johnson  County  came  a  request  for  legislation 
relative  to  districts.  Another  petition  from  Keokuk 
County  would  have  an  act  to  compel  a  school  term  of 
nine  months  each  year.  These  petitions  are  indica- 
tive of  the  recognition  that  was  given  to  the  authority 
of  this  body  at  the  outset,  although  the  Board  itself 
made  sure  of  its  prerogatives  by  an  appeal  to  the 
Attorney  General  for  an  opinion  as  to  its  status. 

In  the  very  beginning  the  members  of  the  Board 
were  divided  upon  the  policy  of  electing  a  permanent 
Secretary,  who  should  perform  also  the  duties  which 
formerly  devolved  upon  the  Superintendent  of  Pub- 


118         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

lie  Instruction.  To  substitute  an  officer  selected  by 
twelve  men  for  one  already  chosen  by  the  people  was 
held  by  some  to  be  entirely  unjustifiable  and  re- 
pugnant to  democratic  principles.  Then  on  the  old 
problem  of  districts  there  was  also  a  division  of 
opinion  which  continued  as  long  as  there  was  a  Board 
of  Education.  Moreover,  it  is  apparent  from  the 
records  that  the  Board  consumed  half  the  time  al- 
lotted for  the  first  session  in  an  attempt  to  discover 
their  real  authority  and  to  determine  whether  a  new 
statute  should  be  drafted,  or  whether  the  statute  of 
the  General  Assembly  should  be  reenacted.  In  fact  a 
new  bill  was  introduced  by  Judge  Charles  Mason  — 
which  according  to  the  opinion  of  the  press  was  "a 
sort  of  mongrel",  being  composed  in  part  of  the  old 
organization  and  the  new  system  as  provided  by  the 
General  Assembly.108 

Before  the  Board  had  adjourned  at  the  conclusion 
of  their  first  session  some  observations  were  made  by 
the  press  on  the  blunders  of  the  constitutional  con- 
vention relative  to  the  division  of  legislative  author- 
ity. Indeed,  it  was  apparent  that  although  the  Board 
might  provide  the  necessary  educational  machinery, 
the  power  to  put  it  into  operation  was  lacking.  Thus 
the  Board  might  legislate  wisely  and  outline  a  com- 
plete educational  system,  but  every  act  would  fall 
short  of  execution  unless  the  General  Assembly 
voted  the  necessary  appropriations.  It  was  pointed 
out,  months  after  the  convention  closed,  that  the  ob- 
ject of  creating  the  Board  was  to  place  educational 
matters  beyond  " legislative  tinkering".  In  the 


LEGISLATION  OF  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION    119 

attempt  to  accomplish  this,  however,  neither  the 
Board  nor  the  legislature  was  given  authority  to 
consummate  its  acts  inasmuch  as  the  former  must 
initiate  all  educational  laws  and  the  latter  alone  could 
appropriate  money.  As  early  as  December,  1858, 
there  were  suggestions  for  a  constitutional  amend- 
ment to  remove  this  seeming  inconsistency  in 
authority  lest,  it  was  said,  the  educational  system  of 
the  State  should  become  more  complicated  and  ex- 
pensive than  before.109 

The  members  of  the  Board  of  Education  were  in 
doubt  also  as  to  their  authority  over  the  institutions 
which  did  not,  as  provided  in  Article  IX  of  the  Con- 
stitution, receive  aid  from  the  school  or  university 
fund.  It  was  clear  that  the  University  was  under 
their  control  and  the  public  schools  likewise,  but  as 
to  their  relation  to  the  Agricultural  College,  then 
projected,  there  was  uncertainty.  Some  were  of  the 
opinion  that  this  institution  should  be  included,  while 
others  were  opposed  to  this  view.  Mr.  S.  F.  Cooper, 
the  member  from  the  sixth  district,  declared  that 
there  was  nothing  educational  about  the  Agricultural 
College  and  never  would  be,  and  hence  it  was  his 
opinion  that  the  Board  had  no  jurisdiction.  Mr. 
Connolly  of  the  eighth  district  agreed  with  Mr. 
Cooper ;  while  Mr.  Hildreth  of  the  tenth  district  was 
in  favor  of  some  action  —  at  least  the  Board  should 
make  an  investigation  of  the  situation,  for  as  the 
matter  then  stood  he  regarded  the  institution  as  a 
great  "leech"  upon  the  public  treasury.  While  the 
language  of  the  Constitution  seemed  plain,  certain 


120         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

members  held  that  it  would  be  advantageous  for  the 
institution  if  the  Board  were  empowered  to  act.  It 
was  observed  at  the  time  that  it  was  fully  as  essen- 
tial that  farmers  have  a  special  education  for  their 
business  as  it  was  that  doctors  and  lawyers  be 
trained  for  their  profession.  But  whether  this  spe- 
cial education  should  be  offered  through  an  agri- 
cultural college  or  an  agricultural  bureau  was  a 
matter  of  opinion.  One  member  spoke  at  length  upon 
the  necessity  of  a  knowledge  of  chemistry  in  con- 
nection with  agricultural  pursuits.  It  was  finally 
decided,  however,  that  the  Agricultural  College  did 
not  come  within  the  provisions  of  the  Constitution 
relative  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Board.110 

Early  in  the  session  the  Board  had  adopted  a 
resolution  to  the  effect  that  "the  Educational  inter- 
ests of  the  State,  including  common  schools  and 
other  educational  institutions  which  receive  aid  from 
the  School  or  University  Fund"  were  under  its  con- 
trol, and  therefore  it  should  provide  not  only  an 
entire  system  of  common  schools  but  also  "such 
other  educational  institutions"  as  the  future  might 
necessitate.111  It  seems  certain,  then,  that  the  Board 
would  have  proceeded  to  establish  schools  of  divers 
kinds  to  meet  the  needs  of  all  the  people  had  the 
means  at  its  disposal  not  been  limited.  Further- 
more, the  sentiment  of  this  body  as  a  whole  favored 
the  unifying  of  the  educational  forces.  But  the  op- 
portunity to  accomplish  this  end  was  lost  because  of 
constitutional  restrictions  upon  the  agency. 

During  the  closing  days  of  the  first  session  an 


LEGISLATION  OF  BOAED  OF  EDUCATION    121 

animated  discussion  occurred  over  the  question  of 
legislation  on  the  use  of  the  Bible  in  the  public 
schools.  It  may  be  said  that  at  this  time  the  question 
was  not  confined  to  the  Commonwealth  of  Iowa  but 
had  caused  some  stirring  public  comment  throughout 
the  Union.  A  resolution,  which  does  not  appear  in 
the  journal,  was  offered  proposing  to  leave  the  mat- 
ter to  the  people;  but  there  were  members  who  be- 
lieved in  "facing  the  question".  Mr.  Cooper 
declared  that  his  constituents  expected  him  to  act  in 
this  matter.  Judge  Charles  Mason  was  in  favor  of 
making  the  Bible  a  standing  text-book  in  every 
school,  but  in  no  instance  should  one  be  compelled  to 
use  it  against  the  will  of  his  parents.  The  entire 
matter  was  finally  disposed  of  in  the  act  approved 
on  December  22, 1858,  which  incorporated  the  senti- 
ments expressed  by  Judge  Mason  and  by  Governor 
Lowe  in  that  it  prohibited  the  exclusion  of  the  Bible 
from  the  public  schools.112 

Just  before  adjournment  a  memorial  was  sub- 
mitted to  the  Board  requesting  an  inquiry  into  the 
expediency  of  including  academies  and  collegiate 
institutions  in  the  State  school  system,  but  owing 
to  the  expiration  of  the  constitutional  term  (twenty 
days)  the  committee  on  revision,  to  whom  it  was  re- 
ferred, was  instructed  to  report  at  the  next  session. 
A  careful  study  of  the  journal,  however,  reveals  no 
report  when  the  Board  convened  in  its  second  session 
in  1859. 

All  assemblies  which  were  called  upon  to  formu- 
late public  laws,  constitutions,  or  regulations  in  those 


122         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

years  were  confronted  with  the  race  problem.  The 
General  Assembly  in  1857,  having  been  divided  on 
this  question,  had  failed,  it  appears,  to  legislate  for 
schools.  The  constitutional  convention  was  wrought 
up  over  the  question.  Nor  did  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion escape  a  consideration  of  the  "colored  youth" 
in  the  public  schools.  At  different  times  amend- 
ments were  proposed  which  would  have  prohibited 
the  schooling  of  the  negro,  except  in  separate  schools, 
when  any  white  patron  objected.  It  was  not,  how- 
ever, until  the  session  of  1859  that  the  Board  was 
requested  to  pass  upon  the  meaning  of  the  law  as  it 
existed.  A  communication  from  Pee  Dee  in  Cedar 
County  (which  does  not  appear  in  the  journal)  reads 
as  follows : 

Dear  Sir: — 

Having  much  trouble  in  our  Sub-District  School  with 
regard  to  a  Black  man  being  crowded  in  with  the  white 
children  in  opposition  to  one  half  of  the  inhabitants  of  said 
District,  therefore  we  call  on  the  Board  of  Education  for  a 
decision  in  the  case  as  we  think  the  law  is  not  plain  on  all 
points. 

1st.     Is  a  colored  person  allowed  in  a  District  School? 

2d.      How  many  hours  are  to  be  taught  for  a  day  ? 

3d.  From  what  source  shall  the  money  come  to  pay  for 
making  fires  ? 

4th.    What  constitutes  a  legal  voter  in  a  District  School  ? 

As  our  school  is  doing  little  good,  we  would  be  much 
gratified  to  have  the  Board  say  what  shall  be  law.  .  .  . 
Signed  G.  FRAIN,  in  behalf  of  said  District.113 


LEGISLATION  OF  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION    123 

Under  the  operation  of  the  new  law,  considerable 
prejudice  was  aroused  against  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion previous  to  the  session  of  1859  —  although  the 
General  Assembly  had  been  chiefly  responsible  for 
the  law  then  undergoing  trial.  It  is  evident  that 
before  the  second  session  was  held  public  opinion 
was  strongly  set  against  this  form  of  educational 
legislation,  and  the  hope  was  expressed  that  the 
deliberations  of  the  Board  would  be  marked  by 
"prudence  and  a  due  regard  for  the  great  interests 
entrusted  to  its  care."  The  good  of  the  State  de- 
manded a  fair  trial  of  the  law  enacted  in  the  previous 
year,  and  it  was  not  considered  wise  to  make  any 
material  change.114  It  may  be  said  that  the  delibera- 
tions during  the  twenty  days  centered  about  the  re- 
port of  the  Secretary  and  the  questions  relative  to 
the  abolition  of  the  office  of  county  superintendent, 
the  tax  levy  for  school  house  purposes,  district  or- 
ganization and  elections,  the  expensive  features  of 
the  school  system  in  all  its  departments,  text-books, 
and  finally  teachers  institutes.  While  the  law  for 
public  instruction  was  re-written  it  was  not  mater- 
ially changed;  and  thus  the  hope  that  no  radical 
measures  would  be  taken  was  realized. 

By  the  statute  under  which  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion was  elected,  its  sessions  after  December,  1859, 
were  to  be  held  regularly  every  two  years ;  hence  the 
third  session  did  not  occur  until  December,  1861. 
Previous  to  this  time,  however,  there  was  agitation 
for  its  abolition,  and  a  bill  which  would  have  had 
that  effect,  and  which  originated  in  the  House,  was 


124         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

promptly  vetoed  by  Governor  Kirkwood.  He  said 
in  his  inaugural  address  that  under  the  Constitution 
the  subject  of  education  had  been  almost  wholly 
removed  from  the  legislature,  and  had  been  confided 
to  a  board  especially  constituted  for  that  purpose. 
Since  that  body  had  just  closed  its  second  session  (in 
1859),  wherein  such  amendments  to  the  laws  were 
made  as  seemed  necessary,  the  General  Assembly 
was  advised  by  the  Governor  to  interfere  only  in  case 
of  an  ''overpowering  necessity"  for  so  doing.  Gov- 
ernor Lowe,  also,  in  his  biennial  message  of  the  same 
year  (1860)  had  opposed  the  movement  to  abolish  the 
Board  and  thus  prevent  a  consistent  attempt  to 
carry  out  the  provisions  of  the  new  Constitution. 
Likewise,  Governor  Kirkwood  in  vetoing  the  bill  for 
that  purpose  said  that  such  an  act  was  in  "  conflict 
with  the  spirit,  if  not  the  letter  of  the  Constitution." 
Such  an  act,  indeed,  was  unauthorized  and  would 
result  in  great  confusion.115  The  measure  as  pro- 
posed would  have  postponed  further  sessions  of  the 
Board  until  1865,  and  thus  an  opportunity  would 
have  been  given  at  a  subsequent  session  (1862  or 
1864)  for  the  General  Assembly  to  abolish  it  under 
the  provisions  of  the  Constitution. 

It  was,  however,  but  a  question  of  time  when  the 
effort  to  restore  the  control  of  educational  legislation 
to  the  General  Assembly  would  be  successful.  Pub- 
lic opinion  on  this  matter  in  1860  was  revealed 
through  the  press,  wherein  it  was  declared  that  this 
part  of  the  Constitution  was  regarded  as  an  error, 
and  a  veto  of  a  measure,  as  noted  above,  would  but 
postpone  the  inevitable.116 


LEGISLATION  OF  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION    125 

The  third  and  final  session  of  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation was  held  in  December,  1861.  The  period  of 
twenty  days  was  occupied  mainly  with  the  disposal 
of  three  questions :  the  codification  of  the  school  laws 
in  force;  the  enactment  of  a  new  law  which  would 
have  restored  the  independent  district  system;  and 
the  teaching  of  German  in  the  public  schools  —  one- 
tenth  of  the  time  being  taken  up  with  the  discussion 
of  the  last  named  problem.  To  those  favoring  codi- 
fication there  were  opposed  those  who  advocated  the 
restoration  of  the  old  independent  district  organiza- 
tion, although  the  majority  at  all  times  seems  to  have 
supported  the  new  law  as  it  stood.  It  was  declared, 
indeed,  to  be  the  best  law  ever  devised.  Some 
thought  that  there  was  too  much  legislation,  while 
others  would  consider  the  petitions  and  memorials 
presented  and  give  them  respectful  attention.  Gov- 
ernor Kirkwood  approved  the  system  established, 
but  he  would  support  necessary  amendments.  More- 
over, there  was  a  disposition  to  defer  to  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Board,  Mr.  Thomas  H.  Benton,  Jr., 
as  an  authority  on  what  changes,  if  any,  should  be 
be  made  in  the  laws. 

The  whole  matter  of  organization,  whether  the 
district  township  should  be  retained  or  whether  there 
should  be  a  restoration  of  the  former  plan,  was  fully 
considered  but  failed  to  result  in  any  change  which 
would  affect  the  township  system  with  its  sub-dis- 
tricts. It  seems  certain  that,  while  there  may  have 
been  dissatisfaction,  the  change  desired  was  not  due 
to  any  general  complaint,  for  no  petition  of  such  a 


126         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

nature  had  come  into  the  hands  of  the  Board.  The 
Secretary  of  the  Board,  who  had  been  in  all  parts  of 
the  State,  had  not  requested  it ;  county  superintend- 
ents in  nearly  every  instance  commended  the  law; 
and  furthermore,  teachers  institutes  and  the  State 
Teachers'  Associations  had  given  their  testimony 
as  to  progress  under  it.  It  was  pointed  out  by  Mr. 
D.  C.  Bloomer,  the  member  from  the  third  district, 
that  the  bill  before  the  Board  would  produce  an  en- 
tire change  in  district  organization,  and  in  fact  would 
restore  the  system  that  had  been  tried  and  discarded. 
It  was  in  this  connection  that  Mr.  Bloomer  asserted 
that  the  law  in  force,  namely,  the  act  of  the  General 
Assembly  of  March  12,  1858,  and  reenacted  by  the 
Board  of  Education  in  the  same  year,  was  substan- 
tially the  measure  reported  by  the  Commission  of 
1856,  of  which  Horace  Mann,  the  most  able  advocate 
of  the  common  schools  in  the  United  States,  was  the 
chairman.  The  system  adopted  had  been  the  result 
of  his  ripe  experience,  and  in  the  opinion  of  Mr. 
Bloomer  it  was  not  the  system  that  was  at  fault  so 
much  as  its  administration.  It  was  the  business  of 
the  Board  of  Education  to  correct  these  faults  in  the 
application  of  the  statute.117 

The  whole  matter  relative  to  the  teaching  of  Ger- 
man in  the  public  schools  seems  to  have  grown  out  of 
a  petition  from  citizens  of  Johnson  County  which 
was  presented  by  Governor  Kirkwood.  To  provide 
for  such  instruction  a  bill  was  introduced  and  ulti- 
mately passed,  but  not  without  some  interesting  sug- 
gestions as  to  its  form.  Originally  the  bill  provided 


that  language  should  be  taught  on  the  written  re- 
quest of  any  director,  but  it  was  proposed  to  substi- 
tute therefor  the  words  "upon  the  written  request 
of  a  majority  of  the  electors"  of  any  subdistrict,  and 
also  in  place  of  the  German  language  "the  German 
or  other  language".  The  Governor  objected  to  the 
words  "or  other  language",  believing  that  the  Ger- 
man was  more  extensively  used  in  this  State  and  was 
almost  indispensable  to  business  success.  On  the 
other  hand,  certain  members  would  be  liberal  and 
would  treat  all  alike  by  including  the  language  of  the 
Swedes  and  Norwegians  and,  indeed,  of  any  other 
people  who  might  desire  their  own  language  taught 
in  the  common  school.  Some  members  were  so  con- 
sistent that  they  proposed  to  include  the  Indians  in 
the  western  part  of  the  State ;  while  Mr.  Perry,  who 
came  from  the  district  which  included  the  settlement 
of  Hollanders  at  Pella,  was  determined  that  in  their 
case  there  should  be  no  discrimination,  although  he 
was  opposed  to  the  whole  measure. 

This  was  held  to  be  a  practical  matter,  and  was 
not  to  be  considered  a  favor  to  any  people  but  of 
interest  to  all.  At  the  same  time  it  was  shown  by 
Mr.  Bloomer  that  no  further  legislation  was  neces- 
sary, since  all  needful  authority  had  already  been 
conferred  upon  districts  by  the  existing  statutes.  In 
Council  Bluffs  —  Mr.  Bloomer 's  home  town  —  Latin 
was  taught  in  one  of  the  common  schools.  Why  not 
German  or  any  other  language  dead  or  living?  Then 
it  was  shown  by  Mr.  Perry  that  the  bill  as  it  was 
proposed  would  allow  a  majority  of  the  electors  to 


128         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

force  the  teaching  of  German  upon  a  minority  who 
might  be  the  parents  of  a  majority  of  the  pupils.  It 
was  declared,  too,  that  the  common  school  was  no 
place  for  the  teaching  of  any  foreign  language.  Mr. 
Viele,  of  the  first  district,  was  doubtful  as  to  the 
wisdom  of  this  measure.  It  was  his  opinion  that 
"we  ought  to  Americanize  all  coming  among  us  — 
that  is  our  policy.  ...  I  hope  the  time  will  come 
when  we  shall  know  nothing  of  the  use  of  any  but  one 
language  among  us  in  ordinary  life."118 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  while  the  Board  of 
Education  was  endeavoring  to  draft  a  bill  that 
would  provide  for  instruction  in  German  a  petition 
came  up  from  the  settlement  at  Guttenburg  request- 
ing that  the  school  laws  be  made  more  explicit,  and 
that  they  require  the  English  language  to  be  taught 
in  greater  purity.  The  petitioners  were  not  satisfied 
with  instruction  conducted  in  broken  English.  It  was 
further  suggested  in  the  petition  that  county  super- 
intendents be  penalized  for  granting  certificates  to 
those  who  could  not  speak  the  English  language  and 
give  the  sound  of  each  letter  and  syllable.119 

Before  a  conclusion  was  reached  on  the  teaching 
of  German  in  the  common  school  some  opinions  were 
expressed  as  to  what  the  term  "common  school" 
comprehended.  To  some  the  common  school  was  an 
institution  common  to  all  who  wished  to  patronize  it, 
and  not  necessarily  a  place  where  common  branches 
only  could  be  taught.  On  the  other  hand,  some  would 
extend  it  to  include  not  only  schools  for  all  the  youth 
of  the  State  in  which  the  rudiments  should  be  taught, 


LEGISLATION  OF  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION    129 

but  in  which  there  were  also  additional  facilities 
which  would  carry  the  pupil  "from  the  first  lessons 
of  an  elementary  education  to  the  end  of  our  Univer- 
sity course."  Such  an  extreme  position  did  not  go 
unchallenged.  Mr.  Chase,  of  the  eleventh  district, 
asserted  that  it  must  mean  the  ordinary  school  in 
which  the  great  body  of  people  obtained  their  educa- 
tion. One  could  not  include,  therefore,  the  State 
University  which  was  at  least  academic  in  its  courses. 

In  the  common  acceptance  of  the  term  "common 
school"  it  was  believed  to  be  beyond  the  power  of 
the  Board  of  Education  to  provide  classic  or  scien- 
tific instruction.  Moreover,  the  law  required  teach- 
ers to  be  qualified  to  instruct  in  the  common 
branches,  and  this  would  not  apply  if  German  should 
be  introduced.  Nevertheless,  the  committee  on  re- 
vision prepared  a  measure  which  became  a  law  on 
December  14,  1861.  It  gave  the  electors  power  to 
decide  by  vote  as  to  the  teaching  of  "German,  or 
other  language"  in  one  or  more  schools  of  the  dis- 
trict. All  other  branches,  however,  must  be  taught 
in  English.  As  for  instruction  in  these  special  sub- 
jects the  teacher  employed  must  satisfy  the  county 
superintendent  as  to  his  qualifications.120 

There  was  other  legislation  relative  to  institutes, 
a  State  board  of  examiners,  debts  of  districts  pre- 
vious to  the  new  school  law,  and  a  department  of 
military  instruction  in  the  State  University.  The 
act  authorizing  instruction  in  German,  however,  was 
probably  the  most  important  of  the  final  acts  of  this 
Board  since  numerous  petitions  were  presented  from 

10 


130         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

different  portions  of  the  State  requesting  such  legis- 
lation. 

In  1864  Governor  Stone  directed  the  attention  of 
the  General  Assembly  to  the  expediency  of  abolish- 
ing the  Board  of  Education.  The  period  had  arrived, 
he  declared,  when  it  was  no  longer  needed.  But  if 
the  Board  should  be  abolished  as  recommended  it 
would  be  necessary  to  restore  the  office  of  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction  to  perform  the  func- 
tions then  devolving  upon  the  Secretary  of  the 
Board.121 

While  the  bill  to  abolish  the  Board  was  pending  in 
March,  1864,  it  was  amended  in  the  Senate  by  a  pro- 
vision that  the  Governor  should  appoint  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction,  but  as  finally  adopted 
the  General  Assembly  was  authorized  to  elect  this 
officer  for  the  remainder  of  the  biennial  period.  The 
bill  elicited  considerable  debate.  Its  original  pro- 
visions would  have  required  the  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction  to  travel  about  the  State  and  to 
personally  inspect  the  schools  in  fulfilling  the  duties 
of  a  supervisor  of  the  county  superintendents.  This 
clause,  however,  was  stricken  out  on  account  of  the 
additional  expense  involved  in  its  execution.  But 
outside  of  the  General  Assembly  the  opinion  was 
expressed  that  the  time  would  come  when  the  people 
would  demand  this  very  service.  With  the  approval 
of  the  act  on  March  19,  1864,  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion was  abolished.122 

Thus  another  experiment,  conceived  in  the  midst 
of  stirring  political  events,  yet  having  for  its  su- 


LEGISLATION  OF  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION    131 

preme  object  the  creation  of  a  complete  educational 
system  on  broad  lines,  met  with  failure  because  of 
the  division  of  authority,  or  because  the  provisions 
for  its  establishment  were  such  that  little  oppor- 
tunity was  given  to  work  out  a  well  balanced  system 
before  the  clamor  for  a  change  brought  on  a  reaction. 
This  is  the  common  fate  of  innovations,  especially  in 
the  field  of  public  instruction. 


THE  STATE  BOAED  OF  EXAMINERS 

PKEVIOUS  to  1858  the  examination  of  teachers  was 
either  a  township  function  or  it  was  dependent  upon 
a  local  board  of  education.  With  the  enactment  of 
the  school  law  of  March  12, 1858,  however,  there  was 
established  a  county  board  of  examiners  consisting 
of  the  county  superintendent  and  two  assistants  ap- 
pointed by  him.  The  provision  for  assistants  was 
made  optional  with  the  superintendent  by  the  legis- 
lation of  the  Board  of  Education  in  the  reenactment 
of  the  statute.  Not  until  1861  was  there  any  State 
authority  designated  which  should  govern  the  licens- 
ing of  teachers  for  service  in  any  part  of  Iowa.  In 
that  year,  through  the  influence  of  leading  teachers 
and  the  recommendation  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Board  of  Education,  that  body  enacted  a  law  pro- 
viding for  a  State  Board  of  Examiners. 

The  official  title  of  Educational  Board  of  Exam- 
iners was  conferred  upon  this  body  which  consisted 
of  the  faculty  of  the  State  University  with  the 
11  professor  of  the  normal  department"  (D.  Franklin 
Wells)  as  the  chairman,  the  secretary  of  the  board  of 
trustees  being  ex  officio  the  secretary  of  the  board  of 
examiners.  They  were  required  to  hold  one  annual 
session  of  one  week  which  should  commence  on  the 

132 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EXAMINERS  133 

first  Monday  after  July  4th;  but  they  were  author- 
ized to  hold  special  sessions  if  necessary.  All 
sessions  were  to  be  held,  however,  at  the  State  Uni- 
versity, while  in  all  instances  the  standard  of  qualifi- 
cation required  should  be  equivalent  to  that  of  the 
normal  department  of  the  University.  The  certifi- 
cates issued  by  this  Board  were  for  life  and  good  in 
any  school  in  the  State  without  any  further  qualifi- 
cation ;  but  the  power  of  revocation  was  vested  in  the 
Board.  The  members  of  this  ex  ofiicio  body  were  to 
receive  no  compensation  for  their  services  in  this 
capacity,  although  the  performance  of  the  duty  re- 
quired at  least  one  week  in  midsummer.123 

On  June  5,  1862,  the  Board  of  Examiners,  or  the 
faculty  of  the  State  University,  met,  organized,  and 
adopted  resolutions  to  govern  examinations.  It  was 
decided  that  all  examinations  should  be  "written", 
and  six  series  of  subjects  were  adopted:  (1)  arith- 
metic, algebra,  and  four  books  in  geometry;  (2) 
reading,  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  English  literature; 
(3)  descriptive,  mathematical,  and  physical  geogra- 
phy, botany,  and  geology;  (4)  physiology,  natural 
philosophy,  and  chemistry,  or  advanced  geometry; 
(5)  history,  intellectual  and  moral  philosophy;  (6) 
theory  and  practice  of  teaching,  the  constitution,  and 
school  laws.  Each  question  should  have  a  specified 
value  and  in  each  series  the  sum  of  the  values  should 
be  one  hundred;  while  no  one  should  be  passed  who 
did  not  make  fifty  in  any  one  series  or  who  obtained 
less  than  seventy-five  as  an  average  on  the  whole 
number.  This  action  of  the  Board  seems  to  have 


134         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

been  in  preparation  for  the  first  annual  examination 
to  begin  on  July  7th  following,  as  the  law  required.124 

There  were  two  reasons  given  for  constituting  the 
faculty  of  the  University  an  examining  board :  first, 
economy  and  convenience,  and  second,  " unques- 
tioned ability".  Since  the  education  of  teachers  was 
the  business  of  the  normal  department  of  the  Univer- 
sity it  was  proper  that  the  head  of  that  department 
should  be  made  chairman  of  the  Board.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  the  statute  as  enacted  is  almost  verbatim 
the  language  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Board  of 
Education  who  made  the  recommendation,  and  in 
which  he  referred  to  other  States  which  had  estab- 
lished certain  standards  of  qualification.  This, 
indeed,  was  an  effort  to  incorporate  a  professional 
element  in  the  statutes  governing  the  school  system ; 
but  owing  to  the  plan  evolved  the  needs  of  the  State 
were  not  wholly  met. 

At  the  first  meeting  of  the  Board  in  July,  1862,  no 
candidate  appeared  for  examination.  It  may  be 
more  appropriate  to  say  that  there  were  prepara- 
tions for  a  meeting  in  case  any  one  should  appear. 
In  1863  there  were  three  candidates,  two  of  whom, 
Mr.  Ben  W.  Clark  of  Scott  County  and  Mr.  Joseph 
McCarty  of  Mahaska,  were  granted  State  certifi- 
cates —  the  first  issued  in  Iowa.  There  were  no  fees 
in  those  days ;  but  to  reach  Iowa  City  where  all  exam- 
inations were  at  first  held  required  considerable 
outlay  as  well  as  some  patience.  With  but  three 
candidates  and  one  of  these  rejected,  it  was  clear  that 
the  examination  was,  as  the  chairman  declared,  as 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EXAMINERS  135 

"impartial  and  as  thorough  as  circumstances  would 
permit."  It  was  regretted  that  so  few  applied  for 
State  certificates,  but  unfamiliarity  with  the  advan- 
tages of  the  law  was  held  as  a  reason  for  the  small 
number.  The  members  of  the  Board  were  not  fully 
satisfied  with  the  act,  but  they  hesitated  to  recom- 
mend any  changes  in  1863  after  only  two  years  of 
trial.125 

While  it  was  announced  that  these  examinations 
would  be  written,  as  determined  by  the  Board  in 
June,  1862,  it  appears  that  they  were  partly  oral,  at 
least  in  later  years.126  One  may  inquire  as  to  what 
influence  this  form  (the  written)  had  upon  the  county 
examinations  of  that  period,  since  in  those  days  it 
was  not  generally  the  custom  to  write  examinations. 
For  example,  it  was  reported  in  1864  that  "several" 
county  superintendents  had  adopted  "the  plan  of 
written  examinations."127  It  seems  certain,  there- 
fore, that  this  method  was  inaugurated  after  the 
Board  of  Examiners  had  announced  their  plan. 
Again,  the  minute  description  of  a  written  entrance 
examination  to  the  new  Des  Moines  high  school  in 
1864  is  suggestive  of  innovation.  The  committee,  it 
was  said,  proceeded  to  examine  in  geography  in  the 
following  manner : 

Each  applicant  [for  admission]  was  seated  alone,  and  the 
printed  questions  placed  on  the  desk  before  them.  At  a 
given  signal  they  all  with  paper,  pen,  and  ink,  proceeded  to 
answer  what  they  could  of  the  questions,  not  being  allowed 
to  turn  in  their  seats  or  communicate  with  each  other  in  any 
way  whatever. 


136         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

The  observer  was  so  convinced  of  the  method's 
" fairness  and  utility"  that  it  was  recommended  to 
others.128  It  is  quite  certain  then  that  the  written 
examination  was  introduced  at  this  time  in  different 
phases  of  educational  work;  and  it  doubtless  was 
patterned  to  some  extent  after  methods  followed  in 
the  schools  of  the  States  farther  east  —  notably 
those  of  Cincinnati.  Of  course  the  announcement 
that  a  State  board  authorized  to  examine  would 
employ  this  method  was  of  itself  more  or  less  in- 
fluential. 

It  was  soon  seen  that  to  limit  the  State  examina- 
tion by  law  to  one  place  was  a  great  disadvantage ; 
and  so,  in  1867  Superintendent  Faville  recommended 
a  change  whereby  greater  facilities  would  be  offered 
teachers  for  undertaking  the  examination  through 
its  being  held  at  other  points  in  the  State.  It  was 
suggested  then  that  a  favorable  time  would  be  the 
meeting  of  the  State  Teachers'  Association.  More- 
over, the  chairman  of  the  Board  should  be  empow- 
ered to  appoint  examinations  in  different  sections  of 
the  Commonwealth  and  to  call  to  his  assistance 
qualified  persons  who  were  resident  therein.  It  was 
further  recommended  that  the  certificates  thus 
awarded  should  not  be  based  solely  upon  scholarship 
but  upon  actual  successful  experience  as  well.129 

Although  an  effort  was  made  to  carry  out  these 
suggestions  it  was  not  so  successful  as  to  warrant 
the  continuation  of  this  form  of  examination ;  conse- 
quently one  finds  no  provision  for  the  Board  of 
Examiners  in  the  Code  of  1873.  During  the  entire 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EXAMINERS  137 

period  of  the  first  Board  of  Examiners  — 1862  to 
1873  —  but  seventeen  persons  presented  themselves 
for  examination,  and  of  these  eight  were  rejected. 
The  names  of  the  nine  successful  candidates  are :  in 
1863,  B.  W.  Clark  and  Joseph  McCarty;  in  1868, 
Wells  A.  Bemis,  Phoebe  Schofield,  Ellen  E.  Johnston, 
Mrs.  Tirzah  F.  M.  Curry,  and  Jacob  P.  Lyman ;  and 
in  1870,  Florella  King  and  Anna  M.  Woodruff.  It 
will  be  noted  that  more  than  half  of  these  are  women. 
But  the  men  and  women  are  divided  evenly  when  the 
following,  who  were  granted  certificates  by  the 
Board  on  first  grade  licenses  from  other  States,  are 
included:  Lavinia  Davis,  Josephine  A.  Cutter,  Mrs. 
M.  A.  McGonegal,  Mrs.  Cynthia  See,  Miss  A.  C. 
Hollen,  B.  C.  Hollen,  W.  E.  Crosby,  I.  C.  Lusk,  Har- 
riette  S.  Dickenson,  Fanny  Arnold,  Hattie  Coryell, 
Leonard  A.  Rose,  T.  H.  Smith,  James  H.  Thompson, 
Wm.  F.  Steigerwalt,  Mary  E.  McBride,  Benjamin  C. 
Eich,  Sarah  F.  Loughridge,  Manily  T.  Brown  and 
Samuel  E.  Beede.  These  came  from  the  States  of 
Massachusetts,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Illi- 
nois, and  from  Canada.  In  addition  to  the  persons 
named  the  graduates  of  the  normal  department  of 
the  State  University  up  to  1862  were  granted  certifi- 
cates for  life  upon  graduation.130 

This,  briefly,  is  the  history  of  the  first  State 
Board  of  Examiners.  The  statute  providing  for  the 
Board  was  repealed,  it  was  said,  because  of  its 
"little  value  to  the  teachers  of  the  state,  and  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  the  enactment  of  one  that  should 
be  more  comprehensive  in  its  operation."131  But 


138 

following  the  repeal  of  this  law  no  provision  was 
made  whereby  any  person  could  secure  a  State  li- 
cense in  Iowa  until  nearly  ten  years  later.  Attempts 
were  made,  it  is  true,  to  secure  such  legislation  but 
without  results. 

It  was  in  1874  that  the  State  Teachers'  Associa- 
tion, through  a  committee  composed  of  Mr.  Samuel 
J.  Buck,  Mr.  Edwin  E.  Eldridge,  and  Mr.  0.  P. 
Rogers,  recommended  the  appointment  of  a  board  of 
examiners  to  consist  of  the  State  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction  and  four  professional  teachers. 
This  body  was  to  have  power  to  grant  "professional 
life  diplomas"  which  should  be  perpetual,  and  cer- 
tificates which  should  be  valid  for  "six,  four,  and 
two  years ' ' —  all  of  these  being  indicative  of  a  State- 
wide qualification.132  In  harmony  with  this  recom- 
mendation a  bill  was  introduced  in  the  Senate  in 
1876  and  again  in  1878  providing  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  four  professional  educators  by  the 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  for  a  term  of 
two  years.  According  to  the  provisions  of  the  second 
bill  they  were  to  be  authorized  to  issue  life  diplomas, 
good  "until  revoked",  and  certificates  for  five  and 
three  years.  But  these  were  not  to  be  "free",  as 
under  the  former  board,  since  a  fee  of  five  dollars 
for  the  diploma  and  three  and  two  respectively  for 
the  certificates  was  required.  Furthermore,  there 
was  to  be  an  additional  registration  fee  of  two  dollars 
required  from  all  applicants.  All  fees  of  whatever 
character  were  to  be  turned  into  the  State  treasury 
at  the  close  of  each  session.  There  was  also  an  effort 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EXAMINERS  139 

to  accommodate  the  teachers  in  that  at  least  two 
examinations  were  to  be  held  annually  and  not  at  the 
same  place;  and  when  twenty  or  more  expressed  a 
desire  for  an  examination  at  a  specified  place,  a 
special  meeting  of  the  board  was  to  be  called.  But 
the  proposed  measure  was  indefinitely  postponed, 
although  four  years  or  more  had  elapsed  since  it  was 
first  recommended.133 

Governor  Newbold  had  supported  the  measure  as 
recommended  by  the  State  Superintendent,  believing 
that  some  such  law  was  necessary  in  order  "to  give 
the  occupation  of  teaching  what  would  practically  be 
a  legal  recognition  as  a  profession".134  Moreover, 
many  of  the  county  superintendents  were  desirous  of 
the  establishment  of  some  authority  which  would 
relieve  them  of  a  part  of  the  responsibility  for  the 
certification  of  teachers.  It  was  proposed  by  some, 
as  a  measure  of  relief,  that  groups  of  adjoining 
counties  form  a  board  of  examiners  composed  of 
the  several  county  superintendents  by  which  the 
grading  of  papers  might  be  standardized  to  some 
extent,  and  at  the  same  time  the  individual  officer 
might  be  saved  "much  personal  abuse."135  This, 
it  is  clear,  was  but  the  first  step  toward  county 
uniformity  which  has  since  become  an  actuality. 

Previous  to  the  session  of  the  General  Assembly 
in  1882  a  petition  was  circulated  among  the  teachers 
of  the  State  praying  for  legislation  which  would  pro- 
vide for  a  State  Board  of  Examiners.  The  General 
Assembly  heeded  this  request  and  the  present  Board 
was  established.  As  constituted  in  1882  the  Board 


140         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

differed  from  the  original  plan  in  having  three  ex 
officio  members  instead  of  one.  The  presidents  of 
the  State  University  and  the  State  Normal  School 
and  the  State  Superintendent,  with  two  persons  to  be 
appointed  by  the  executive  council  were  to  compose 
this  Board.  It  was  provided  further  that  one  of  the 
appointive  members  must  be  a  woman  and  neither 
of  them  could  be  reappointed.  Contrary  to  previous 
recommendations  only  two  classes  of  credentials 
could  be  issued  by  this  body,  namely,  a  life  diploma, 
and  a  five-year  certificate  —  the  fee  for  the  former 
being  fixed  at  five  and  for  the  latter  at  three  dollars. 
In  case  of  either  diploma  or  certificate  registration 
with  the  county  superintendent  before  the  holder 
entered  upon  his  work  was  required.  But  there  was 
no  fee  for  this  registration  when  the  act  was  first 
passed.136 

The  appointive  members  of  this  Board  for  the 
first  term  of  two  years  were  Mr.  John  W.  Rowley  of 
the  Keosauqua  Republican  and  Mrs.  J.  W.  Rich  of 
Vinton ;  and  the  first  meeting  was  held  in  Des  Moines 
on  Friday,  October  13,  1882.  All  members  were 
present  except  Mrs.  Rich,  whose  attendance  was  pre- 
vented by  a  delayed  train.  It  was  determined  at  this 
preliminary  meeting  to  hold  the  first  examination  at 
Cedar  Falls  on  December  25,  1882,  for  State  certifi- 
cates, and  for  diplomas  in  the  same  week,  provided 
five  persons  made  application  for  the  same.  The 
second  examination  was  appointed  for  the  last 
Wednesday  in  March,  1883,  to  be  held  simultaneously 
at  Des  Moines  and  Burlington. 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EXAMINERS  141 

No  applicant  under  twenty  years  of  age  nor  one 
having  less  than  two  years  of  successful  experience 
would  be  admitted  to  these  examinations,  while  a 
''certificate  of  good  moral  character"  from  the 
county  superintendent  and  two  citizens  of  good  repu- 
tation of  the  county  in  which  he  resided  must  be 
presented  by  each  candidate.  As  stated  above  there 
were  six  groups  of  subjects  in  1862.  Now,  twenty 
years  later,  there  were  three  groups  specified ;  while 
the  standing  required  appears  to  be  quite  different. 
State  certificates  would  be  granted  on  a  general 
average  of  eighty-five,  but  diplomas  required  an 
average  on  regular  certificate  studies  of  ninety,  with 
eighty-five  on  all  others  —  provided,  however,  that 
neither  would  be  awarded  when  the  candidate  fell 
below  seventy-five  in  any  one  of  the  group  consisting 
of  arithmetic,  grammar,  history  of  the  United  States, 
orthography  and  geography;  or  below  sixty-five  on 
reading,  writing,  book-keeping,  physiology,  algebra, 
botany,  natural  philosophy,  drawing,  civil  govern- 
ment, constitution  and  laws  of  Iowa,  and  didactics; 
or  below  sixty  on  geometry,  trigonometry,  chem- 
istry, zoology,  geology,  astronomy,  political  economy, 
rhetoric,  English  literature,  and  general  history. 
There  were,  then,  twenty-six  subjects  on  which  a 
candidate  for  a  diploma  must  stand  an  examination ; 
while  the  first  sixteen  named  above  constituted  the 
field  of  preparation  for  the  State  certificate.  In  the 
first  instance  the  preparation  of  questions  was  di- 
vided among  the  members  of  the  Board,  and  it  was 
the  duty  of  the  member  preparing  the  questions  to 


142         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

read  the  papers  on  that  subject.  After  being  graded 
all  papers  were  to  be  sent  to  the  State  Superintend- 
ent 's  office  for  preservation  and  recording.137  Thus 
the  machinery  of  the  Board  of  Examiners  was  set  in 
motion,  and  since  then  its  powers  and  functions  have 
varied  —  with  a  large  increase  in  recent  years. 

As  announced  the  first  examination  was  held  at 
Cedar  Falls  commencing  on  Christmas  Day,  1882, 
and  closed  two  days  later.  Six  candidates  were 
present,  all  of  whom  wrote  the  examination;  but 
three  were  denied  certificates.  The  three  successful 
candidates  were  Mr.  W.  I.  Benham  of  Manson,  Mr. 
Edgar  T.  Bedell  of  Applington,  and  Mr.  Ernest  E. 
Nichols  of  Charles  City  —  the  last  named  being  in 
recent  years  the  president  of  the  Agricultural  Col- 
lege of  Kansas.  At  the  two  examinations  held  in 
March,  1883,  at  Des  Moines  and  Burlington  eleven 
applicants  were  present,  only  four  of  whom  received 
certificates,  namely,  Mr.  M.  J.  Pusey,  Mr.  A.  B. 
Carroll,  Mr.  Oscar  McKim,  and  Mr.  Nicholas  Mes- 
ser  iss  Thug  there  were  seventeen  candidates  within 
a  year,  whereas  the  same  number  had  appeared  be- 
fore the  first  Board  in  a  period  of  ten  years. 

After  two  years  of  trial  Governor  Sherman  ob- 
served that  the  law  appeared  to  be  a  good  one,  since 
it  had  a  tendency  to  make  a  higher  grade  of  teachers. 
Although  not  as  many  had  taken  advantage  of  the 
State  examination  as  had  been  expected,  that  was  no 
evidence  of  the  unpopularity  of  the  law,  and  there- 
fore he  hoped  the  statute  would  be  retained.  It  did 
remain  without  amendment  until  1890  when  the 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EXAMINERS  143 

Board  was  authorized  to  issue  State  certificates  to 
the  graduates  of  the  State  Normal  School  upon  the 
evidence  of  thirty-six  weeks  successful  teaching. 
Furthermore,  after  five  years  of  actual  school  ex- 
perience a  life  diploma  might  be  obtained  upon  the 
completion  of  a  thesis  prepared  under  the  direction 
of  the  Board.139  Again,  in  1897  the  Code  contained 
an  additional  provision  permitting  the  recognition  of 
certificates  and  diplomas  from  other  States  and  gave 
authority  to  issue  special  primary  certificates.  It 
will  be  observed  that  up  to  this  time  no  provision 
had  been  made  for  issuing  any  special  credential. 
Moreover,  this  authority  was  extended  in  1900  to 
include  music,  drawing,  penmanship,  or  other  special 
subjects  —  these  being  valid,  to  be  sure,  in  the  one 
department  only.  Another  function  imposed  upon 
the  Board  in  the  same  year  required  the  listing  of 
books  for  public  school  libraries  from  which  county 
officers  should  make  selections.140 

Some  of  these  amendments  were  brought  about, 
it  appears,  through  the  recommendations  of  a  com- 
mittee composed  of  President  Seerley,  President 
Schaeffer,  and  Mr.  E.  E.  Blanchard,  who  were  re- 
quested by  the  Board  in  1895  to  suggest  needed 
legislation  for  the  more  effective  working  of  this 
body.  Their  report  recommended  that  the  Board  be 
given  power  to  appoint  a  permanent  clerk  or  secre- 
tary, so  that  the  members  might  be  relieved  of 
details.  This  was  shown  to  be  possible  without 
adding  any  expense  for  administration,  since  the 
Board  had  collected  in  fees  an  amount  above  ex- 


144         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

penses  sufficient  to  pay  for  such  clerical  service. 
That  is  to  say,  the  State  of  Iowa  was  making  money 
by  requiring  teachers  to  pay  fees  for  professional 
recognition,  and  by  requiring  that  the  heads  of  State 
institutions  take  from  their  executive  duties  valu- 
able time  to  examine  candidates  who  could  be  dis- 
posed of  as  well  by  a  competent  clerk.  This 
committee  recommended  also  the  legislation  which 
authorized  the  special  certificate,  and  likewise  the 
granting  of  power  to  take  the  initiative  in  revoking 
State  certificates.141 

By  an  act  approved  in  1902  the  Board  of  Exam- 
iners was  required  to  inspect  and  supervise  institu- 
tions which  sought  recognition  from  that  body  as 
being  qualified  to  prepare  teachers  for  the  common 
schools.  It  was  not  until  1906,  however,  that  the 
long  desired  county  uniformity  plan  of  examination 
and  certification  was  endorsed  by  the  legislature  and 
the  Board  of  Examiners  was  given  full  authority 
over  the  scholastic  qualifications  of  all  the  teachers 
of  the  Commonwealth.  It  should  be  said  that  the 
biennial  report  of  Superintendent  Riggs  had  pre- 
sented this  desirable  action  to  the  General  Assembly 
just  previous  to  its  enactment.  In  this  report  it  was 
shown  that  there  were  up  to  1906  but  two  kinds  of 
certificates  obtainable,  namely,  a  State  license  of  a 
single  grade  good  in  any  district  and  a  certificate  of 
the  county  limited  by  county  lines.  Furthermore, 
neither  of  these,  under  laws  then  in  force,  could  be 
issued  except  upon  written  examinations.  That  is  to 
say,  no  recognition  of  diplomas  or  certificates  of 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EXAMINERS  145 

scholarship  from  any  institution  was  permitted  after 
the  repeal  of  Section  2630  of  the  Code  of  1897  in 
1900. 

Nor  was  there  any  authority  by  which  the  Board 
of  Examiners  could  treat  the  certificates  issued  by 
other  States  with  decent  respect  and  thereby  secure 
reciprocal  consideration.  Probably  the  most  effec- 
tive argument  for  the  enactment  of  a  law  providing 
for  uniformity  of  certification  was  the  fact  that  it 
could  be  inaugurated  without  additional  expense  to 
the  State,  while  the  additional  burden  of  labor  would 
fall  upon  the  Board  of  Examiners  and  the  office  of 
the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  The  next 
year  after  this  general  law  became  effective  the 
Board  was  authorized  to  issue,  under  certain  con- 
ditions, five-year  State  certificates  without  examina- 
tions to  graduates  of  "  regular  and  collegiate 
courses ' '  of  the  higher  institutions  of  the  State.142 

Acting  under  the  legislation  just  cited  the  Board 
of  Examiners  prepared  to  carry  its  provisions  into 
operation  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  there  had 
been  no  provision  for  expenses  in  organizing  the 
system.  There  were  also  other  difficulties  to  be  over- 
come; and  regulations  governing  the  conduct  of  ex- 
aminations were  to  be  adopted.  Nevertheless,  after 
one  year  of  trial  it  was  shown  that  the  advantages 
were  all  on  the  side  of  the  new  method  of  certifica- 
tion. It  was  fully  recognized,  however,  that  time 
would  be  necessary  to  carry  the  law  into  effect  so 
that  the  changed  conditions  could  be  traced  directly 
to  its  influence.  Moreover,  among  the  26,000  persons 

11 


146         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

affected  there  would  necessarily  be  some  dissatis- 
faction ;  and  pending  the  complete  application  of  the 
law  some  provisional  arrangements  might  become 
necessary.  At  the  same  time,  it  was  generally  agreed 
among  county  superintendents  that  the  single  year's 
experience  pointed  to  the  success  of  the  plan.143 

By  the  provisions  of  the  law  the  Board  was  re- 
quired also  to  devise  some  basis  of  classification  for 
the  institutions  which  were  to  be  recognized  in  the 
granting  of  certificates  without  examinations.  In 
this,  it  was  said,  they  found  great  difficulty  in  com- 
plying with  the  letter  of  the  act ;  but  interpreting  its 
intent  they  proceeded  to  arrange  these  institutions 
in  three  groups,  adopting  regulations  to  that  effect. 
Eight  items  that  should  enter  into  the  system  of 
standardization  were  selected:  (1)  class  hours,  (2) 
faculty  qualifications,  (3)  library  facilities,  (4)  lab- 
oratory equipment,  (5)  endowment  or  means  of  sup- 
port, (6)  salaries  paid  faculty  members,  (7)  number 
of  departments  or  chairs,  and  (8)  the  character  of 
requirements  for  graduation.  Any  college  fully 
meeting  these  eight  points  and  a  general  definition 
of  an  institution  which  should  be  entitled  to  recog- 
nition was  classified  as  in  the  A  group ;  one  meeting 
not  less  than  five  of  these  required  conditions  fell 
into  the  B  group;  while  one  having  satisfied  but 
three  came  under  the  C  group.  The  last  group  was 
declared  to  be  temporary  and  would  be  discontinued 
after  a  reasonable  time  to  permit  the  institutions  so 
classified  to  advance  into  the  B  group.144 

Such  was  the  method  of  inaugurating  the  final 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EXAMINERS  147 

effort  to  provide  a  State  recognition  of  the  prepara- 
tion of  teachers  without  the  traditional  formality  of 
an  examination,  or  indeed  the  humiliating  experi- 
ence of  submitting  to  a  questionnaire  on  subjects 
that  were  entirely  foreign  to  the  purpose  of  prepara- 
tion. Thus  a  recognition  was  given  also  to  experi- 
ence as  well  as  to  permanency  in  occupation,  for  the 
law  of  1906  encouraged  continuation  in  service  and 
an  effort  to  advance  in  grade.  And  this  movement 
has  shown  its  effectiveness  while  costing  the  State 
nothing,  if  not,  in  fact,  acting  as  a  source  contribu- 
tory to  the  State  treasury.  For  example,  for  the 
two  years  ending  June,  1911,  47,000  applications 
were  received  by  the  Board  of  Examiners,  2500  of 
which  were  for  State  certificates.  For  the  labor  in 
passing  upon  these  papers  the  teachers  paid  $25,500 ; 
while  the  expenses  were  less  than  that  amount  by 
over  $2700  —  which  sum  was  turned  into  the  funds 
of  the  State.145  Although  in  the  beginning  (and  for 
probably  ten  years  thereafter)  advantage  was  not 
taken  of  the  services  of  the  Board  of  Examiners  in  a 
very  large  way,  there  were  issued,  nevertheless,  dur- 
ing that  first  decade  170  life  diplomas  and  700  State 
certificates,  which  must  have  supplied  some  leaven 
to  the  whole  lump.  Moreover,  there  was  a  steady 
increase  in  the  number  applying  for  the  State  cer- 
tificate.146 Since  1900  there  seem  to  have  been  few 
requests  for  the  diploma ;  and  these  will  in  all  proba- 
bility grow  less.  The  Board  of  Examiners  came  into 
its  true  relation  to  the  certification  of  teachers  when 
all  necessary  authority  was  conferred  upon  it. 


PART  III 
TEACHERS  INSTITUTES 


149 


XI 

THE  TEACHERS  INSTITUTE 

ORIGINATING  in  the  city  of  Hartford,  Connecticut,  in 
the  late  forties,  these  assemblies  of  teachers,  patrons 
of  the  schools,  professional  men,  and  citizens  gener- 
ally were  first  called  " institutes"  in  the  State  of 
New  York.  They  were  not  intended  as  a  substitute 
for  academic  training,  but  were  established  as  a 
supplementary  agency  to  provide  a  brief  course  in 
the  theory  and  practice  of  teaching  adapted  to  the 
common  schools.  They  presupposed,  therefore,  a 
well-laid  foundation  of  knowledge  acquired  else- 
where. 

It  is  necessary  to  differentiate  the  "teachers 
institute"  and  the  " teachers  association"  very 
early  in  the  history  of  education  in  Iowa,  although 
it  is  apparent  that  they  were  not  in  fact  so  distin- 
guished at  first.  It  may  be  shown,  indeed,  that  in 
some  instances  the  association  grew  out  of  the  insti- 
tute, or  that  they  were  combined  in  a  single  session 
with  a  distinct  procedure  in  each.  As  to  the  char- 
acteristics of  these  assemblies  the  following  para- 
graphs probably  will  be  sufficiently  suggestive 
without  further  illustration. 

Dr.  J.  L.  Pickard,  known  so  many  years  as 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  in  the  State  of 

151 


152         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

Wisconsin,  as  Superintendent  of  the  Chicago 
schools,  and  then  as  president  of  the  State  Univer- 
sity of  Iowa,  has  written  recently  that  the  first 
institute  in  Iowa  was  held  in  Dubuque  in  1849,  being 
one  of  a  series  of  three  organized  by  the  "  Mining 
Region  Teachers'  Association".  That  is  to  say,  the 
association  provided  for  an  institute  in  which  cer- 
tain of  its  members  took  part.  Dr.  Pickard  said  that 
he  well  remembered  the  event,  and  that  Thomas  H. 
Benton,  Jr.,  a  young  man  of  attractive  personality, 
was  prominent  on  that  occasion.  This  first  institute 
in  the  State  was  a  direct  result  of  the  first  one  held 
"west  of  the  Great  Lakes"  at  Chicago  in  October, 
1846.  The  "seed  sowed  there  by  three  men  from 
New  York  sprang  up  in  the  Mining  Region. ' ' 147 

The  presence  of  Superintendent  Benton  at  the 
institute  in  Dubuque  and  elsewhere  may  have  influ- 
enced his  declaration  in  1850  that  these  were  the 
most  effectual  means  that  could  be  adopted  to  in- 
crease the  efficiency  of  the  Iowa  schools  —  although 
their  practicability  was  doubted  owing  to  the  conse- 
quent expense.  He  therefore  recommended  a  State 
appropriation  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars 
annually  for  three  years  to  assist  in  defraying  the 
expenses  of  three  such  assemblies  in  the  State  at 
points  designated  by  the  Superintendent.  Each  of 
these  was  to  receive  fifty  dollars  to  be  applied  as  a 
majority  of  the  members  —  that  is,  of  the  institute 
—  might  determine.  By  this  arrangement  it  was 
estimated' that  all  teachers  in  the  State  would  be  able 
to  obtain  the  advantages  of  at  least  one  institute  in 


THE  TEACHERS  INSTITUTE  153 

each  of  the  three  years ;  and  a  favorable  opportunity 
would  thus  be  offered  each  of  them  to  present  their 
views  on  text-books  and  methods  of  instruction. 

As  early  as  October,  1850,  an  effort  was  made  to 
organize  a  "regular  institute"  in  Jones  County, 
when  "several  lectures  were  delivered,  however,  by 
gentlemen  present".  In  the  same  year  it  was  said 
that  an  "association  of  teachers"  had  been  formed 
in  Henry  County,  thus  conveying  the  impression  of 
a  similar  purpose  in  both  instances.  The  terms 
"institute"  and  "association"  were  not  definitely 
distinguished  in  1850.  Moreover,  it  is  certain  that 
the  outlined  "complete  national  system  of  instruc- 
tion", as  presented  by  Superintendent  Benton  on 
his  return  from  Philadelphia,  after  participating  in 
a  national  movement,  placed  the  "institute"  as  a 
State  institution  where  the  State  Teachers'  Associa- 
tion is  now ;  for  he  included  the  * '  district  school,  the 
normal  school  and  the  teachers'  institute"  in  the 
States  as  contributing  delegates  to  form  the  national 
organization.148 

Although  full  information  relative  to  the  char- 
acter of  these  first  organizations  is  not  available,  a 
catalogue  of  an  institute  held  in  1856  in  Cedar 
County  has  been  preserved.  It  was  called  by  the 
board  of  education  of  the  Tipton  Union  School ;  and 
five  instructors  are  specified,  who  were  to  be  as- 
sisted by  the  same  number  of  lecturers.  Mr.  C.  C. 
Nestlerode  was  the  "Instructor  in  Charge",  or  the 
"conductor"  as  this  individual  later  came  to  be 
designated.  But  the  organization  of  this  institute 


154         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

(under  a  form  which  continued  for  many  years) 
included  a  president,  vice  presidents,  a  secretary, 
assistant  secretaries,  and  finally  a  treasurer.  The 
board  of  education,  being  chosen  as  a  committee  on 
arrangements,  recommended  " daily  exercises"  in 
the  following  subjects:  orthography,  reading,  men- 
tal and  written  arithmetic,  English  grammar,  geog- 
raphy, and  physiology.  Following  this  schedule  the 
persons  assigned  to  the  special  subjects  entered 
upon  their  duties.  Miss  Sibbel  Maynard  conducted 
the  exercises  in  mental  arithmetic ;  Mr.  William  Mc- 
Clain  in  written  arithmetic  and  grammar;  Dr. 
Joshua  Maynard  in  physiology;  Mr.  B.  L.  Boynton 
in  geography;  and  Mr.  C.  C.  Nestlerode  in  orthog- 
raphy and  reading.  There  were  daily  lectures  upon 
the  " theory  and  practice  of  teaching";  while  the 
subject  of  graded,  free,  and  union  schools  was  care- 
fully considered.  Among  the  evening  lectures  Dr. 
Maynard  spoke  on  ''Educational  Advancement 
During  the  Last  Fifty  Years ' '  from  his  personal  ob- 
servation; Eev.  Gr.  D.  Porter  spoke  on  "Moral  Edu- 
cation"; Mr.  S.  Dewell  discoursed  on  "The 
Teacher's  Profession";  Rev.  M.  K.  Cross  talked  on 
"Universal  Free  Education";  and  Eev.  S.  Eitz 
discussed  the  ' '  Co-operation  of  Parents  with  Teach- 
ers". Following  these  lectures  there  were  discus- 
sions each  evening  on  some  educational  subject. 
While  this  was  announced  as  a  teachers'  institute 
and  was  clearly  conducted  as  such,  the  attendance 
thereon  included  twenty-four  teachers  and  nearly 
seventy  "friends  of  education" — meaning  of  course 


THE  TEACHERS  INSTITUTE  155 

the  citizens  of  the  community  and  of  outlying  town- 
ships, or  of  places  as  far  distant  even  as  Iowa  City 
and  Davenport. 

Such  was  the  plan  of  the  mutually  organized  in- 
stitute at  the  conclusion  of  which  a  constitution  was 
adopted,  providing  for  a  county  teachers'  associa- 
tion, and  permanent  officers  were  chosen.  The  first 
meeting  was  appointed  for  February,  1857.  This 
action,  moreover,  suggests  a  difference  between  an 
institute  and  an  association.  The  former  undertook 
to  provide  instruction  in  subject-matter  and  discus- 
sion on  the  same,  while  in  the  latter  there  was  more 
formality  in  organization  and  the  presentation  of 
papers.  Lectures  were  adapted  to  both.  The  custom 
of  adopting  a  series  of  resolutions  covering  a  great 
variety  of  educational  wants  or  ills  seems  to  have 
been  established  with  the  institute ;  for  on  this  occa- 
sion, as  for  years  after  almost  without  exception, 
such  are  the  resolutions  appended  to  the  proceedings. 

No  less  than  sixteen  separate  "reasons"  express- 
ing pleasure  or  regret  are  suggestive  of  the  large 
place  the  interests  of  that  time  gave  to  the  educa- 
tional awakening  in  Iowa.  There  was  commendation 
of  the  institute  in  general;  a  well  conducted  educa- 
tional journal  was  demanded;  the  prospective  re- 
vision of  the  school  law  (the  Mann  commission  bill) 
was  hailed  with  satisfaction,  while  it  was  hoped  that 
the  measure  would  contain  a  provision  authorizing 
what  was  known  to  some  older  States  as  "union 
schools ' ' ;  the  pernicious  habit  of  using  tobacco  was 
condemned;  it  was  urged  that  all  honorable  efforts 


156         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

be  used  to  induce  the  building  of  comfortable  school 
houses ;  women  were  regarded  as  fully  equal  to  men 
in  performing  the  duties  of  a  teacher;  and  finally 
thanks  were  tendered  to  the  citizens  for  their  ''gen- 
erosity in  boarding  all  Teachers  free  of  charge" 
during  the  session.149  This  institute  was  typical  of 
many  which  were  held  during  the  period  preceding 
the  establishment  of  the  statutory  normal  institutes. 
Legislation  did  little  to  encourage  or  limit  in  any 
way  their  action. 

Superintendent  M.  L.  Fisher  at  the  suggestion, 
he  said,  of  "many  distinguished  teachers"  recom- 
mended in  1857  that  a  liberal  provision  relative  to 
institutes  be  incorporated  in  the  new  school  law 
which  was  anticipated  from  the  General  Assembly 
in  1858.  The  success  attending  institutes  in  other 
States  as  well  as  the  conviction  that  all  possible 
means  should  be  employed  to  provide  competent 
teachers  were  other  facts  which  supported  his  sug- 
gestion.150 For  the  first  recommendation  on  this 
subject  one  must  go  back  to  the  report  of  the  Mann 
commission  in  1856,  wherein  it  was  clearly  set  forth 
that  "your  commissioners  could  not  deem  the  edu- 
cational system  of  any  state  complete  without  a 
liberal  provision  for  Teachers  Institutes.  This  fea- 
ture gives  to  the  systems  of  Massachusetts  and  New 
York  a  decided  superiority  over  those  of  other 
States,  and  from  its  highly  beneficial  effects  as  there 
displayed,  every  new  State  should  be  admonished  of 
the  propriety,  nay,  the  necessity  of  its  adoption." 
The  recommendation  of  the  Mann  commission  did 


THE  TEACHERS  INSTITUTE  157 

not  provide,  however,  for  a  complete  organization 
but  rather  left  the  movement  to  originate  with  the 
teachers  and  to  be  encouraged  by  them.  Moreover, 
the  teachers  should  bear  their  own  expenses,  unless 
places  where  these  institutes  were  held  should  agree 
to  make  the  necessary  provisions,  while  the  State 
should  appropriate  funds  for  instruction  and  inci- 
dentals.151 This  report,  moreover,  is  the  source  of 
suggestions  offered  later  in  support  of  legislation  for 
institutes. 

The  general  school  law  of  March,  1858,  made 
provision  for  institutes  practically  in  agreement 
with  that  proposed  by  the  Mann  commission,  since 
the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  was  author- 
ized to  appoint  a  time  and  place  for  such  an  assembly 
when  he  was  reasonably  assured  that  not  fewer  than 
thirty  teachers  were  desirous  of  it.  It  was  in  this 
act  that  the  six  days  minimum  session  was  estab- 
lished—  a  provision  which  remained  unchanged 
until  1913  —  while  the  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction was  empowered  to  receive  from  the  State 
Treasury  not  to  exceed  $100  for  a  single  institute, 
the  entire  amount  appropriated  being  $1000  annu- 
ally. As  amended  by  the  Board  of  Education  in 
December,  1858,  the  $100  should  be  forwarded  im- 
mediately to  the  county  superintendent,  who  was 
authorized  to  pay  out  the  same  "as  the  Institute 
[that  is,  the  members]  may  direct".152 

Under  the  provisions  of  this  act  the  Secretary 
of  the  Board  of  Education  in  1859  appointed  four- 
teen institutes  in  as  many  counties.  It  would  seem, 


158         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

therefore,  that  each  institute  would  receive  its  pro 
rata  share  only  of  the  $1000  appropriated,  since 
the  Board  had  no  power  to  add  a  single  dollar  to 
the  amount.  The  one  remedy,  that  of  recommenda- 
tions by  the  Secretary  to  the  General  Assembly,  re- 
mained and  was  employed  at  the  first  opportunity. 
Secretary  Benton  suggested  that,  in  addition  to  a 
provision  for  an  increased  amount  which  the  State 
should  appropriate,  the  county  judge  be  required 
to  provide  a  place  of  meeting  for  the  institutes.  All 
such  assistance,  it  was  declared,  was  essential  to  the 
encouragement  and  training  of  teachers,  although 
the  Superintendent  was  of  the  opinion  that  it  would 
be  unnecessary  "if  the  profession  of  teaching  were 
as  lucrative  as  it  is  laborious".153 

It  is  noteworthy  that  the  Board  of  Education  at 
their  second  session  in  1859  called  attention  to  the 
fact  that  the  reduction  made  in  the  salaries  of  county 
superintendents  would  make  possible  a  four- weeks' 
institute  in  each  county  without  any  increase  in  the 
the  total  expenditure  for  educational  purposes.  The 
arrangement  by  which  this  could  be  accomplished 
was  not  within  the  power  of  the  Board,  and  was  left, 
therefore,  for  action  by  the  General  Assembly. 
Accordingly,  the  legislature  in  1860  proceeded  to  cut 
in  two  the  previous  amount  of  one  hundred  dollars, 
giving  thereafter  fifty  dollars  to  each  institute.  The 
payments  were  to  be  made  as  before  for  one  such 
institute  in  each  county,  thus  placing  no  maximum 
on  the  amount  appropriated.154 

As  a  result  of  this  legislation  thirty-four  insti- 


THE  TEACHERS  INSTITUTE  159 

tutes  were  held  in  the  State  in  1860,  and  thirty-five  in 
1861.  No  agency,  it  was  declared,  had  done  more  to 
promote  interest  and  efficiency  in  the  schools ;  and  it 
was  made  clear  that  it  would  be  agreeable  to  the 
friends  of  education  everywhere  if  further  encour- 
agement could  be  provided.  At  the  same  time,  some 
county  superintendents  reported  that  at  no  time  of 
year  was  it  possible  to  hold  an  institute  without 
interfering  with  schools  then  in  session.  Indeed,  it 
was  said  that  some  directors  refused  to  permit  the 
closing  of  the  school  under  such  circumstances ;  and 
so  it  was  proposed  that  a  law  requiring  such  action 
be  enacted.  This  demand  met  with  the  approval  of 
the  Board  of  Education,  and  at  their  final  session  in 
1861  they  enacted  a  law  which  enforced  the  closing 
of  schools  during  institutes  and  provided  for  com- 
pulsory attendance  before  a  certificate  would  be 
issued.155 

Just  before  the  adoption  of  the  compulsory  at- 
tendance act  the  teachers  of  Polk  County  had 
voluntarily  proposed  to  secure  the  same  practical 
result  by  their  own  efforts.  At  a  preliminary  meet- 
ing those  present  declared  it  to  be  their  intention  to 
hold  an  institute  in  the  public  school  building  on  the 
West  Side  during  the  last  week  in  March.  Each  one 
was  charged  to  use  all  diligence  in  securing  the 
presence  of  others  in  the  county  and  thereby  to  aid 
in  elevating  the  standard  of  education  in  the  public 
schools.  They  pledged  themselves,  furthermore,  to 
use  their  "utmost  endeavors"  to  obtain  pleasant 
homes,  free  of  charge,  for  all  who  might  attend,  not 


160         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

only  for  those  from  their  own  community  but  also 
for  any  one  in  attendance  from  adjoining  communi- 
ties. It  was  proposed  that  Mr.  J.  L.  Enos  of  Cedar 
Eapids  be  employed  as  conductor  at  a  compensation 
of  not  more  than  twenty-five  dollars  for  the  session 
of  one  week. 

The  program  of  the  Polk  County  teachers  was 
carried  out  as  proposed,  lectures  being  given  by  Mr. 
J.  L.  Enos,  Mr.  E.  D.  Hawes,  and  Mr.  Thomas  H. 
Benton,  Jr.  Thus  was  demonstrated  the  application 
of  the  principle  advocated  by  Horace  Mann  that  the 
institute  movement  should  proceed  from  the  teachers 
themselves.156 

It  was  about  this  time  that  the  State  Teachers' 
Association  put  an  agent  into  the  field  to  arouse 
interest  in  education  generally,  to  assist  in  conduct- 
ing institutes,  and  to  deliver  lectures  at  association 
meetings.  It  was  the  opinion  of  the  leaders  that  this 
general  agent,  in  conjunction  with  an  efficient  county 
superintendent,  would  "  constitute  a  perfect  ma- 
chinery" for  carrying  into  effect  the  free  school 
system.  There  was  nothing  " legal"  in  this  arrange- 
ment ;  but  it  was  an  undertaking  approved  by  a  vol- 
untary organization  which  supported  its  agent 
through  the  contributions  from  its  members. 

While  such  a  personal  representative  had  been 
authorized  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Teachers' 
Association  none  was  appointed  until  the  following 
year,  owing  to  failure  to  make  a  schedule  by  which 
he  would  be  continuously  employed  without  too  great 
expense  for  travel.  A  committee  having  the  matter 


THE  TEACHERS  INSTITUTE  161 

in  charge  proposed  to  arrange  a  circuit  of  forty 
counties  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  State,  so  that 
institutes  could  be  held  successively  in  each  accord- 
ing to  statutory  provisions.  At  the  same  time  the 
State  agent  would  thus  be  able  to  economize  in  time 
and  distance.  The  scheme  was  planned  perfectly  on 
paper,  but  the  county  authorities  did  not  cooperate. 
It  was  felt,  however,  that  such  an  agent,  if  of  the 
right  type,  could  accomplish  much  for  education. 
Mr.  Lorin  Andrews  of  Ohio,  once  elected  to  the  presi- 
dency of  the  State  University  of  Iowa,  was  pointed 
out  as  a  person  fully  fitted  for  such  a  task.157 

In  1861  the  project  was  realized  by  the  appoint- 
ment, through  the  executive  committee  of  the  State 
Association,  of  Moses  Ingalls,  "a  man  of  thorough 
education,  a  teacher  of  many  years  experience,  and 
during  the  past  year  [1860]  edited  the  Literary  and 
Scientific  department  of  the  Iowa  Instructor."  He 
was  required  to  give  all  his  time  to  the  work,  and  for 
his  accommodation  a  plan  similar  to  that  mentioned 
above  was  devised  and  the  cooperation  of  school 
officers  solicited.  That  he  entered  upon  his  assigned 
duties  with  success  is  evidenced  by  the  commenda- 
tory items  which  appear  from  time  to  time  in  the 
newspapers  and  the  educational  journal  of  that 
date.158  But  the  efforts  to  secure  an  unbroken  chain 
of  institutes  failed  a  second  time,  very  few  of  the 
forty-four  counties  included  complying  with  the  re- 
quest, for  the  reason,  as  it  appears,  that  schools  were 
in  session  a  great  part  of  the  year.  The  agent  de- 
clared that  it  was  nothing  but  prejudice  which  pre- 
12 


162         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

vented  cooperation,  since  there  was  no  better  time  to 
hold  institutes  than  under  such  circumstances. 

The  conclusions  of  Moses  Ingalls  relative  to  the 
manner  in  which  these  institutes  were  conducted 
were  not  flattering,  for  in  his  opinion  but  one  pur- 
pose should  dominate  the  session,  namely,  how  to 
present  the  subjects  taught.  Methods  of  instruction 
and  not  academic  work,  he  declared,  was  the  true 
function  of  the  institute.  Having  been  continued  in 
the  office,  he  reported  in  1863  that  he  had  conducted 
sixteen  institutes  in  which  he  had  kept  constantly  in 
view  a  purpose  to  increase  the  number  of  graded 
schools,  endeavoring  on  every  occasion  to  show  their 
superiority  both  in  efficiency  and  economy.  He  had 
lectured  also  on  such  subjects  as  * '  Public  and  Private 
Schools  Compared",  "Ventilation",  " Superintend- 
ency",  "School  Records",  on  "Reformatory  Educa- 
tion", as  well  as  on  many  other  topics.159 

Of  the  8500  teachers  employed  in  the  State  more 
than  half,  it  was  said,  attended  some  county  institute 
during  the  year  1863;  and  this  was  declared  to  be 
indicative  of  genuine  satisfaction  with  the  law  re- 
quiring attendance.  Whether  the  other  half  was 
excused  for  cause  or  changed  their  occupation  is  not 
clear.  The  State  contributed  in  1862  the  sum  of 
$2600  for  institutes,  and  in  1863  over  $3000.  It  was 
the  opinion  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion that  the  instruction  given  was  either  by  persons 
who  gave  all  their  time  to  such  work  or  by  practical 
teachers.  The  employment  of  the  latter  was  prefer- 
able to  what  was  called  by  Superintendent  J.  J.  E. 


163 

Norman  of  Dubuque  County  in  1864,  the  "fashion- 
able mode  of  conducting  Institutes",  by  which  paid 
lecturers  occupied  most  of  the  time  to  the  exclusion 
of  "live  teachers".160 

That  these  institutions  were  appreciated  by  those 
for  whom  they  were  established  is  evidenced  by  their 
growth  from  year  to  year.  For  example,  there  was 
not  only  an  increase  in  the  number  held  but  also  in 
the  attendance  upon  each;  while  favorable  comment 
by  the  press  of  the  State  was  not  uncommon.  During 
the  year  1866  not  less  than  sixty  institutes  were  held 
in  as  many  counties,  with  an  enrollment  of  over  4800 
teachers.  In  the  succeeding  year  there  was  a  slight 
increase,  the  total  attendance  for  the  two  years  in 
seventy-three  counties  being  nearly  10,000,  while  the 
State  employed  in  1867  but  10,343  teachers.  There 
were  not  enough  teachers  in  fifteen  of  the  counties  to 
secure  an  institute,  inasmuch  as  the  law  as  amended 
in  1864  required  at  least  twenty  before  an  institute 
appointment  could  be  made. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  on  the  basis  of  at- 
tendance, the  State  was  contributing  during  this 
period  sixty-three  cents  for  the  training  of  each 
teacher.  Up  to  this  date  (1867),  a  decade  since  the 
school  law  had  been  enacted,  431  institutes  had  been 
held,  there  being  twenty  in  1858  and  sixty-two  in 
1867 ;  and  for  the  attendance  of  28,000  teachers  dur- 
ing that  time  the  Commonwealth  had  paid  $21,600. 
There  was  no  control,  however,  exercised  by  the 
State  nor  by  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion by  which  institutes  might  be  properly  supervised 


164         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

and  competent  individuals  be  recommended  as  in- 
structors and  conductors  —  a  very  desirable  pro- 
vision in  the  opinion  of  Superintendent  D.  Franklin 
Wells.  It  was  his  suggestion,  moreover,  that  four 
counties  be  permitted  to  unite  in  a  single  institute, 
and  that  those  employed  therein  be  required  to  sub- 
mit to  a  thorough  examination  by  the  proper  author- 
ities —  presumably  the  State  Board  of  Examiners.161 
The  county  superintendent  was  the  compelling 
force  in  securing  attendance,  since  persons  refusing 
might  suffer  the  revocation  of  certificates  or  be  re- 
fused one  at  the  outset.  Indeed,  from  one  county  at 
least  it  was  reported  that  every  refusal  had  met  with 
such  a  penalty.  While  this  was  the  extreme  punish- 
ment, certificates  were  made  to  expire  usually  at  the 
opening  of  the  first  succeeding  institute,  which  would 
necessitate  attendance  thereon.  Nevertheless,  there 
was  a  uniform  tendency  to  adjust  the  annual  ses- 
sions to  the  needs  of  those  for  whom  they  were  held, 
while  a  friendly  rivalry  seemed  to  prevail  among  the 
counties  in  the  matter  of  attendance.  In  1866  one 
hundred  was  considered  a  large  enrollment  for  any 
county ;  and  so,  in  November  of  that  year  when  Linn 
County  secured  two  hundred  it  was  said  to  excel  any 
in  the  State.  Mahaska  County  with  an  attendance 
of  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  was  especially  men- 
tioned. At  the  same  time,  the  Lucas  County  teachers 
had  voted  to  hold  two  sessions  annually,  and  to  re- 
quire an  extra  fee  for  their  support.  The  county  of 
Franklin  also,  by  an  agreement  of  the  teachers,  ap- 
pointed a  six  weeks '  institute  to  commence  about  the 


THE  TEACHERS  INSTITUTE  165 

middle  of  September,  1867,  while  the  law  required 
but  six  days.  The  support  of  such  an  extended 
meeting  must  come  wholly  from  the  persons  in  at- 
tendance —  provided  the  county  authorities  did  not 
see  fit  to  provide  aid  from  the  treasury.  The  Super- 
intendent of  Public  Instruction  appointed  fifty-two 
institutes  in  1867,  and  declared  that  in  no  State  of 
the  Union  were  more  such  meetings  held  than  in 
Iowa,  and  in  none  were  they  more  faithfully  sus- 
tained.162 

No  institute  during  these  years  closed  its  session 
without  recording  in  a  series  of  resolutions  the  belief 
of  its  members  on  educational  questions.  From 
these  expressions  of  opinion  it  appears  that  the  legal 
term  of  six  days  was  considered  as  entirely  too  lim- 
ited for  schools  of  instruction  —  four  weeks  being 
the  most  common  period  suggested.  An  institute  in 
Muscatine  County  in  1867,  composed  of  eighty  wom- 
en and  fifty-two  men,  declared  in  favor  of  the  recom- 
mendation of  Superintendent  Wells  relative  to 
institute  control  by  State  authority.  Experience, 
too,  should  be  considered  in  the  granting  of  certifi- 
cates; and  salaries  should  be  granted  according  to 
the  grade  of  certificate  held.  Normal  training 
schools  were  held  to  be  necessities  of  the  age,  and 
personal  influence  should  be  employed  in  the  effort 
to  secure  such  institutions  in  Iowa.  Davenport  de- 
served much  commendation  for  establishing  an  ex- 
cellent training  school  in  that  city,  and  other  cities 
were  urged  to  do  likewise.  Compulsory  attendance 
was  deemed  advisable;  a  State  reform  school  was 


166         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

demanded;  while  approval  was  given  to  the  recom- 
mendation that  Congress  fix  an  early  date  for  the 
obligatory  use  of  the  metric  system.163  These  reso- 
lutions, moreover,  are  as  distinct  a  feature  of  the 
early  institutes  as  the  enrollment  or  the  instruction. 
They  reveal  much  of  the  sentiment  then  prevailing 
in  reference  to  education. 

In  1868  a  four  weeks'  normal  school  was  opened 
at  Newton  in  Jasper  County  under  the  supervision 
of  county  superintendent  Mr.  S.  J.  Moyer,  and  the 
instruction  of  Mr.  D.  Franklin  Wells,  Mr.  Leonard  F. 
Parker,  Rev.  E.  N.  Bartlett,  and  Mr.  S.  B.  Martin. 
In  this  instance  the  county  board  of  supervisors 
appropriated  two  hundred  dollars  for  support  —  the 
purpose  being  to  offer  a  thorough  review  in  all  the 
subjects  taught  in  the  public  schools,  as  well  as  giv- 
ing attention  to  the  "art  of  teaching".  It  was  Mr. 
Jerome  Allen  who  asserted  on  this  occasion  that  the 
"establishment  of  local  normal  schools"  was  a  good 
sign,  and  thus  the  way  was  being  prepared  (in  1867) 
for  a  "Normal  University  such  as  Illinois  pos- 
sesses."164 

During  this  adjustment  of  instruction  and  man- 
agement to  the  needs  of  the  several  counties  more  or 
less  opposition  was  aroused  against  institutes  in 
general.  This  is  illustrated  by  the  comment  relative 
to  one  held  in  Linn  County  in  December,  1868,  with 
Mr.  Jerome  Allen  as  conductor.  It  was  declared  that 
thereafter  "much  of  the  prejudice  against  institutes, 
previously  existing  in  the  minds  of  the  people,  was 
removed."  Clearly  the  institution  was  not  as  pop- 


167 

ular  in  Linn  County  as  in  Lee  County,  where  it  was 
reported  that  there  were  present  daily  nearly  a  thou- 
sand persons,  not  only  teachers  of  course,  but 
"friends  of  education"  as  well.165  A  total  of  12,000 
teachers  attended  the  institutes  of  the  State  during 
the  two  years  of  1870  and  1871,  while  single  counties 
enrolled  two  hundred  and  forty  or  more.  This  was 
regarded  as  indicative  of  a  prosperous  growth. 

It  was  suggested  by  Superintendent  Kissell  that 
the  large  attendance  provided  an  opportunity  for  the 
introduction  of  ' '  school  jurisprudence ' '  which  should 
become  a  feature  of  the  institute  course  of  study,  as 
it  had  of  the  course  in  normal  schools  of  other  States. 
It  was  felt,  indeed,  that  above  all  teachers  should 
understand  the  civil  relations  under  which  they 
worked,  as  well  as  the  "drift  of  recent  legislation" 
on  the  general  subject  of  education.  While  formal 
lectures  might  be  provided,  it  was  held  important 
that  there  should  be  general  discussion  and  class 
exercises  in  this  course.166 

About  this  time  (in  1871)  there  were  indications 
of  a  clear  distinction  between  a  ' '  teachers  institute ' ' 
and  a  "normal  institute".  For  instance,  Decatur 
County  had  announced  in  1870  a  "normal  institute" 
of  three  weeks  and  a  "teacher's  institute"  of  one 
week,  while  in  the  following  year  the  former  was 
extended  to  four  weeks,  the  latter  remained  as  be- 
fore. Floyd  County  had  a  quarterly  meeting  of  an 
"Educational  Society" — which  was  probably  of  the 
nature  of  a  county  association.  For  wholesome  in- 
spiration Hardin  County  depended  upon  the  normal 


168         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

institute  at  Iowa  Falls,  of  which  two  sessions  had 
been  held  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Jerome  Allen. 
Jackson  County  inaugurated  a  system  of  Saturday 
institutes,  apparently  for  academic  instruction  only ; 
but  later  they  were  designated  as  normal  institutes. 
The  procedure  therein  was  later  adopted  in  the 
county  institute,  in  which  the  instructors  were  to 
"  teach  the  teachers,  and  not  to  tell  them  how  to 
teach  —  were  to  give  little  of  theory  and  much  prac- 
tice." During  1871  three  of  the  instructors  in  this 
county  normal  institute  were  persons  trained  in  the 
normal  schools  of  New  York.167  Mahaska  County 
provided  in  the  same  year  a  four  weeks'  normal 
institute  conducted  by  Mr.  E.  Gr.  Gilson  and  Mr. 
Amaziah  Hull;  and  this  was  followed  by  the  statu- 
tory teachers '  institute  of  one  week.  A  school  called 
"select"  was  in  session  for  twelve  weeks  preceding 
the  institute  in  Binggold  County.  This  was  a  sort  of 
summer  school.  As  an  experiment  which  was  de- 
clared to  be  successful  Scott  County  instituted 
monthly  meetings  which  were  characterized  as  local 
institutes,  since  the  usual  exercises  included  essays, 
orations,  music,  and  discussion  by  teachers,  school 
officers,  and  citizens  generally;  while  the  succeeding 
Saturday  was  devoted  to  a  meeting  exclusively  for 
teachers. 

Similar  informal  meetings  were  a  feature  of  the 
local  interests  in  Tama  and  Van  Buren  counties, 
although  in  the  latter  they  were  held  during  the 
school  session,  each  teacher  being  ' '  required  to  bring 
a  class  of  his  own  school  and  conduct  a  recitation" 


169 

in  accordance  with  a  previously  arranged  schedule. 
On  such  an  occasion,  it  was  said,  pupils,  teachers, 
and  parents  assembled  together  for  the  evening  ses- 
sion during  which  a  lecture  was  delivered.  Such 
meetings  were  described  as  "auxiliaries"  to  the 
county  institute.  Again,  a  "normal  class"  was  con- 
ducted in  Wapello  County  during  August,  1871 ;  and 
this  was  followed  by  the  week  of  institute.  Such  was 
the  popularity  of  the  longer  session  that  a  desire  was 
expressed  for  its  continuance  in  the  following  year. 
It  is  noted  that  President  Eichard  Edwards  of  the 
Illinois  Normal  School  at  Bloomington  was  in  charge 
of  the  regular  institute  of  that  year  in  Wapello 
County.  Washington  County,  through  its  superin- 
tendent, Mr.  Edwin  B.  Eldridge,  provided  a  regular 
institute  of  two  weeks  duration  in  November,  1871, 
which  was  probably  preparatory  to  the  development 
of  the  strongest  "normal  institute"  in  the  State. 
On  this  occasion  the  teachers  were  organized  into 
classes  for  the  purpose  of  exemplifying  the  * '  Theory 
and  Art  of  Teaching."168 

It  was  in  1872  that  the  normal  institute  estab- 
lished by  Mr.  E.  E.  Eldridge  maintained  an  attend- 
ance of  one  hundred  for  a  session  of  four  weeks. 
Again,  in  1873  one  hundred  thirty-five  remained  for 
two  months ;  and  it  was  announced  that  two  sessions 
would  be  held  in  1874  under  the  management  of  a 
board  of  directors  and  the  teachers  of  the  county. 
The  features  of  the  instruction  in  this  county  in- 
cluded "school  organization,  management,  dis- 
cipline"; while  in  the  review  of  the  branches  taught 


170         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

"extra  work  on  physiology,  the  new  study"  was 
required.169  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  this  insti- 
tute became  a  popular  resort  for  teachers  from  far 
beyond  the  limits  of  Washington  County. 

It  seems  clear  that  the  one  week  institute  was  fast 
becoming  the  exception  at  this  time,  several  counties 
having  extended,  not  only  the  time,  but  also  the  op- 
portunity for  more  frequent  sessions.  For  example, 
Clinton  County  was  divided  into  five  institute  dis- 
tricts, in  three  of  which  a  ten  days  meeting  was  held 
in  1873.  In  these  a  course  of  study  for  "  ungraded 
schools"  and  the  methods  of  presentation  of  the 
same  were  prominent.  In  Davis  County  also  meth- 
ods were  of  chief  interest  in  eighteen  township  insti- 
tutes during  the  same  year;  while  a  normal  institute 
of  four  weeks  was  provided  in  Delaware  County  just 
previous  to  the  regular  session  as  required  by  law. 
It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  Professor  Jacob  Wernli, 
"late  principal  of  the  'German-English  normal 
school'  at  Galena,  111.",  was  employed  in  this  normal 
institute.  Other  counties  were  adopting  a  similar 
plan,  Mahaska  being  one  in  which  the  session  was 
extended  to  six  weeks  in  the  months  of  July  and 
August,  1873;  while  the  county  superintendent,  Mr. 
E.  Baker,  would  have  the  normal  term  not  less  than 
eight  weeks,  to  be  conducted  by  "workmen"  and  not 
by  "theorists".170 

Commencing  with  a  voluntary  organization  for 
their  own  betterment,  the  teachers  had  continued  to 
exercise  some  originality  in  providing  for  the  means 
of  instruction  in  the  affairs  of  their  own  occupation, 


THE  TEACHERS  INSTITUTE  171 

notwithstanding  the  limited  aid  granted  by  the  State 
and  the  short  period  of  a  six  days  session.  The  situ- 
ation was  developing  its  own  agencies  to  satisfy  the 
demands,  and,  as  it  appears,  forcing  a  statute  for 
uniformity  of  action  in  all  counties  by  the  law  of 
1874. 


XII 
THE  NORMAL  INSTITUTE 

IT  was  not  until  1874  that  a  normal  institute  was 
required  in  every  county  and  that  the  compulsory 
attendance  feature  of  the  law  of  1861  was  eliminated. 
That  is  to  say,  the  statute  of  1874  provided  that  the 
sessions  should  be  held  at  "such  times  as  the  schools 
in  the  county  are  generally  closed",  which  was  in- 
tended, it  appears,  to  leave  no  excuse  for  non-attend- 
ance. It  was  this  legislation,  moreover,  which 
established  the  fees  of  one  dollar  for  each  certificate 
issued  and  one  dollar  for  institute  registration  which, 
together  with  the  State  appropriation  of  fifty  dollars 
and  whatever  amount  the  county  board  of  super- 
visors might  contribute,  should  constitute  the 
"institute  fund"  from  which  all  expenses  of  the 
sessions  must  be  paid.  The  management  and  control 
of  these  annual  meetings  devolved  upon  the  county 
superintendent  who  was  authorized  to  employ,  * '  with 
the  concurrence  of  the  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction" such  assistance  as  might  be  necessary.171 
That  this  law  was  well  received  by  the  persons 
affected  is  demonstrated  by  the  generally  increased 
attendance  and  by  the  large  number  who  pointed  out 
the  advantages  under  it.  There  was  a  suggestion, 
however,  offered  by  the  State  Teachers '  Association, 

172 


THE  NORMAL  INSTITUTE  173 

to  the  effect  that  the  work  of  these  institutes  should 
be  made  uniform  through  an  adopted  course  of  study 
outlined  for  each  year;  and  further,  that  the  con- 
ductors employed  should  be  commissioned  for  that 
service  by  the  Board  of  Examiners.  Thereafter  the 
State  should  be  districted  and  an  authorized  con- 
ductor be  assigned  to  each  district  with  a  sufficient 
number  of  assistants  to  manage  all  the  institutes  in 
that  district  —  it  being  understood  that  the  county 
superintendent  would  become  an  ex  officio  assistant. 
No  person,  it  was  held,  should  be  qualified  for  the 
office  of  institute  conductor  who  was  not  the  holder  of 
a  life  diploma  or  State  certificate  in  Iowa ;  and  in  all 
cases  they  should  be  subject,  at  the  call  of  the  Super- 
intendent of  Public  Instruction,  to  attend  a  meeting 
of  the  Board  of  Examiners  to  plan  the  work  for  the 
several  counties.172  It  will  be  noted  that  these  rec- 
ommendations presupposed  the  institution  of  a 
State  Board  of  Examiners  during  the  following  ses- 
sion of  the  General  Assembly,  which,  as  is  shown  in  a 
preceding  chapter  did  not  occur. 

During  the  biennial  period  ending  in  1877  county 
normal  institutes  followed  a  definite  course  of  study 
prepared  by  a  committee  selected  for  that  purpose, 
namely,  Mr.  Carl  W.  von  Coelln,  the  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction,  Mr.  J.  W.  Stewart,  represent- 
ing the  county  superintendents  convention,  and  Mr. 
C.  P.  Rogers,  representing  the  association  of  prin- 
cipals and  city  superintendents.  Two  State  normal 
institutes,  composed  of  conductors,  instructors,  and 
county  superintendents,  were  also  held  within  these 


174         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

two  years.  Since  the  law  had  become  effective  the 
growth  in  these  institutes  in  attendance  was  shown 
in  1877  to  have  been  as  follows :  6774  in  1874;  7579  in 
1875 ;  9548  in  1876 ;  11,929  in  1877.  During  the  same 
time  the  expenditures  had  increased  from  about 
$16,000  in  1874  to  over  $33,000  in  1877.  Of  these 
amounts  the  State  contributed  $50  to  each  county, 
while  the  county  appropriations  had  dropped  from  a 
total  of  $3000  in  1874  to  $335  in  1877.  Thus  it  ap- 
pears that  the  teachers  provided  almost  the  entire 
support.  It  is  not  surprising,  then,  that  doubt  was 
expressed  whether  "equal  results  have  ever  been 
reached  for  so  little  outlay"  on  the  part  of  the 
public.  It  is  interesting  to  note  further  that  the 
attendance  in  proportion  to  the  number  engaged  in 
teaching  was  greater  than  at  any  time  under  the  old 
compulsory  institute  attendance  law.173 

The  State  normal  institute  was  an  important 
factor  during  the  seventies  or  until  it  was  merged  in 
1879  with  the  State  Teachers '  Association.  Some  of 
its  sessions  have  already  been  referred  to,  but  an 
extraordinary  occasion  brought  its  members  to- 
gether in  July,  1878,  at  Iowa  City.  By  action  of  the 
University  faculty  the  institute  was  invited  to  take 
advantage  of  the  summer  school  of  science  inaugu- 
rated by  the  institution  for  a  session  of  two  weeks. 
Perhaps  this  session  might  be  called  a  joint  associa- 
tion or  convention  of  the  State  institute,  the  asso- 
ciation of  city  superintendents  and  principals,  the 
county  superintendents,  and  the  summer  school  of 
science.  Each  of  these  groups  provided  an  inde- 


THE  NORMAL  INSTITUTE  175 

pendent  program,  but  with  the  institute  alone  is  this 
chapter  concerned. 

Superintendent  Daniel  W.  Lewis  of  the  "Wash- 
ington (Iowa)  schools  officiated  as  chairman,  while 
Principal  Leonard  A.  Rose  of  Davenport  performed 
the  duties  of  secretary.  Professor  Nathan  E.  Leon- 
ard opened  the  program  with  a  consideration  of  the 
" Metric  System"  in  relation  to  its  presentation  in 
county  institutes.  "Beading"  was  the  subject  as- 
signed to  Mr.  J.  B.  Bowman  of  Davenport;  while 
Dr.  Biley  of  Jefferson  demonstrated  the  instruction 
in  physiology  through  concrete  examples,  using  the 
eye  of  an  ox  as  dissecting  material.  This  subject 
was  further  discussed  by  Mr.  Homer  H.  Seerley  of 
Oskaloosa.  The  chief  exponents  of  didactics  were 
Mr.  James  H.  Thompson  of  Des  Moines  and  Mr. 
Henry  Sabin  of  Clinton,  each  of  whom  was  a  recog- 
nized authority  in  that  field.  Mr.  Thomas  Irish  of 
Dubuque  had  the  topic  of  penmanship  for  special 
treatment;  while  Mr.  William  J.  Shoup,  from  the 
same  city,  discoursed  on  grammar,  commenting  upon 
the  institute  course  in  that  subject  as  it  had  been 
presented  by  the  committee  on  course  of  study.  Nor 
should  one  fail  to  note  that  on  the  last  day  of  this 
institute,  which  was  July  4th,  the  veteran  institute 
worker,  Mr.  Jonathan  Piper,  then  of  Chicago,  was 
called  upon  for  a  "Fourth  of  July  Oration".  He 
declared  in  his  response  that  the  creation  of  citizens 
was  begun  in  those  neglected  portions  of  the  public 
school  system  which  were  included  in  the  primary 
departments.174 


176         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

In  his  inaugural  address  as  president  of  the 
State  Teachers'  Association  it  was  asserted  by  Mr. 
Henry  Sabin  in  1878  that  the  State  normal  institute 
should  be  planned  to  meet  the  needs  of  normal  in- 
structors, to  become  in  fact  a  real  school  of  instruc- 
tion for  such  persons  and  to  be  made  a  professional 
school  in  every  particular  where  general  principles 
should  be  taught  and  not  only  facts  of  local  im- 
portance ;  and  it  was  on  this  occasion  that  Professor 
R.  Graham,  institute  manager  for  Wisconsin,  ad- 
dressed the  teachers  upon  his  special  work.  The 
Association,  moreover,  went  on  record  in  approval 
of  the  sentiment  expressed  by  its  president  in  de- 
claring that  the  State  normal  institute  should  control 
and  direct  the  institute  work  in  the  State,  and  a 
committee  was  appointed  to  arrange  for  the  next 
meeting  of  this  organization.  Notwithstanding  the 
fact  that  annual  meetings  were  provided  for,  Mr. 
W.  J.  Shoup  in  his  address  as  president  of  the  Asso- 
ciation in  1879  proposed  a  union  of  the  State  normal 
institute  and  the  State  Teachers '  Association,  which 
proposal  was  acted  upon  and  approved  at  once.175 
In  the  following  year,  therefore,  a  half  day  of  the 
session  of  the  State  Teachers'  Association  was  given 
to  institute  matters,  the  leaders  on  that  occasion  in- 
cluding, among  others,  Superintendent  von  Coelln, 
E.  R.  Eldridge,  S.  N.  Fellows,  N.  W.  Boyes,  W.  J. 
Shoup,  Governor  John  H.  Gear,  and  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Education  John  Eaton.  It  was  out 
of  this  discussion  that  the  four  years  course  of  study 
for  county  institutes  finally  evolved.178 


THE  NORMAL  INSTITUTE  177 

Two  years  later  it  was  said  that  a  good  degree  of 
uniformity  was  recognized  in  institute  management 
and  instruction  throughout  the  State.  Much  more 
attention  was  given  to  methods,  school  organization, 
and  control  —  thus  providing  that  which  should  con- 
stitute the  real  work  of  a  normal  institute.  There 
was,  however,  the  "gradation  and  organization"  of 
the  institute  itself,  which  as  yet  had  been  undeter- 
mined and  which  had  prevented,  it  was  observed,  the 
greatest  "usefulness"  of  the  work.  That  is  to  say, 
a  person  completing  the  four  years  in  one  county 
had  no  assurance  that  the  same  procedure  would  not 
be  required  of  him  in  a  neighboring  county  should  he 
make  the  change.  Nor  was  there  any  agreement  as 
to  the  scope  of  the  work  accomplished  in  the  different 
jurisdictions  so  that  certificates  might  be  evaluated. 
It  was  agreed  (in  1885)  that  some  recognized  stand- 
ard should  be  established  whereby  the  completion  of 
a  definite  course  in  one  county  might  be  credited  in 
another  —  a  result  which  thus  far  had  not  been  at- 
tained because  of  the  indifference  in  many  instances 
of  county  superintendents.  Some  of  these,  casting 
aside  all  the  good  which  had  been  accomplished  by 
their  predecessors,  began  a  new  experiment  in  apply- 
ing the  old  course,  which  was  not  so  faulty  in  itself  as 
in  the  method  by  which  it  was  used. 

Again,  in  1884  the  State  Teachers'  Association 
requested  the  Superintendent,  with  the  assistance  of 
his  advisory  council  provided  by  the  Association,  to 
revise  the  former  course ;  and  thereafter  it  is  notice- 
able that  the  old  syllabus  was  abandoned,  an  outline 

13 


178         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

only  being  submitted.  Thus  a  fundamental  form  was 
established,  but  details  were  relegated  to  the  several 
counties.  Furthermore,  it  was  recommended  in  the 
instructions  issued  with  the  new  plan  that  upon  the 
completion  of  the  four  years  work  a  diploma  should 
be  issued  as  evidence  thereof.  The  Board  of  Exam- 
iners (created  in  1882),  it  was  declared,  would  ar- 
range matters  so  that  holders  of  such  credentials 
might  "pass  a  limited  examination"  and  obtain  a 
State  certificate.  At  once,  it  appears,  this  suggestion 
proved  popular  for  it  was  adopted  in  more  than  half 
of  the  counties  during  the  first  year  and  it  was  as- 
sumed as  certain  that  all  would  be  under  the  same 
standard  by  the  succeeding  year.  Just  how  these 
'  *  diplomas ' '  might  become  a  legal  credential  did  not 
appear.  Neither  was  there  any  provision  for  further 
institute  attendance  after  the  completion  of  the  six- 
teen weeks  comprised  in  the  four  sessions.  It  may 
be  shown,  however,  that  this  latter  complication  was 
obviated  in  some  counties  by  the  organization  of  a 
"professional"  group. 

In  the  beginning  it  was  not  foreseen  that  a  time 
would  come  when  the  large  attendance  upon  insti- 
tutes would  be  detrimental  to  the  best  results. 
Nevertheless,  it  was  suggested  in  1885  that  it  would 
be  wise  to  provide  in  many  instances  for  a  prelim- 
inary meeting,  "a  kind  of  training  school  for  be- 
ginners", to  be  held  in  advance  of  the  regular 
institute  so  that  persons  of  immature  years  might  be 
excluded  from  the  annual  session.  The  State,  it  was 
thought,  might  "well  afford  to  assist  in- defraying 


THE  NORMAL  INSTITUTE  179 

the  expenses  of  such  schools ' ',  which  if  provided  by 
law  should  be  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  county 
superintendent.  The  same  year  in  which  this  was 
proposed  a  ''State  Institute"  was  recommended,  but 
differing  from  the  former  one  in  organization  and 
purpose,  in  that  it  was  to  be  a  strictly  professional 
body  which  might  command  the  assistance  of  the 
''latest  and  most  valuable  experience  and  attain- 
ments of  the  ablest  educators  of  the  Nation."177 

The  ultimate  aim  in  these  recommendations  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  segregation  of  the  inexperi- 
enced and  untrained,  and  the  preparation  of  a 
competent  body  of  instructors  for  the  common  annual 
institute.  Again,  in  a  subsequent  report  Superin- 
tendent Akers  proposed  another  plan  by  which  the 
influx  of  the  immature  might  be  controlled  —  namely, 
a  county  normal  school  of  twelve  weeks  which  should 
provide  a  course  of  twenty-four  weeks  to  be  com- 
pleted in  two  years.  According  to  this  plan  the 
county  superintendent  should  be  required  to  act  as 
the  principal  teacher,  but  he  might  call  in  one  assist- 
ant. Both  county  and  State  should  provide  the 
support,  the  former  supplying  the  necessary  quarters 
and  all  apparatus  and  the  latter  appropriating  not 
less  than  fifty  dollars  to  each  of  such  schools  an- 
nually. This  would  necessitate,  to  be  sure,  certain 
fees  from  those  attending,  who,  it  was  suggested, 
should  include  all  persons  intending  to  teach  and  also 
others  having  less  than  one  year's  experience. 

Furthermore,  no  one  should  be  permitted  either 
to  teach  or  to  attend  the  normal  institute  until  after 


180         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

the  completion  of  twenty-four  weeks'  preparatory 
work.  By  this  plan  two  things  would  be  accom- 
plished: first,  applicants  for  examination  would  be 
more  mature  and  possess  a  better  academic  training; 
and  second,  the  regular  institute  would  be  less  un- 
wieldy and  would  require  fewer  instructors.178  It 
may  be  noted  that  this  is  suggestive  of  the  provision 
recently  adopted  (1913)  which  will  require  a  certain 
amount  of  training  before  one  may  be  admitted  to 
instruct  in  the  public  schools. 

While  these  changes  were  desirable  and  probably 
possible,  there  was  at  the  same  time  a  disposition  to 
base  success  upon  numbers;  and  so,  many  persons 
were  induced  to  attend  the  institutes  who  might  well 
have  been  excluded.  It  is  certain,  too,  that  there  was 
a  large  increase  following  the  adoption  of  the  course 
of  study  with  the  granting  of  a  diploma  at  its  con- 
clusion; and  the  greatest  enrollment  seems  to  have 
been  from  about  1885  to  1896  —  the  attendance  in  the 
latter  year  being  nearly  23,000.  There  may  have 
been  other  inducements  also  in  the  new  features 
provided.  For  example,  one  does  not  observe  that 
primary  work  as  a  special  subject  appears  in  a 
general  way  until  1887,  when  several  counties  em- 
ployed specialists  and  even  established  a  "  model 
school  of  primary  pupils ' '  -  the  earliest  attempt  of 
this  kind  having  been  made,  it  appears,  in  Cedar 
County  in  1878. 

There  was,  however,  no  escaping  from  the  neces- 
sity of  providing  some  academic  work  in  these 
institutes,  notwithstanding  the  emphasis  constantly 


THE  NORMAL  INSTITUTE  181 

placed  upon  methods  by  the  professional  authorities. 
In  the  newer  counties  more  especially  this  need  of 
academic  work  was  felt,  it  being  granted  that  larger 
established  communities  might  conduct  such  training 
schools  on  a  different  plan.  A  solution  of  this 
problem  would  have  been  possible  under  the  organ- 
ization proposed  by  Superintendent  Akers,  but  a 
more  general  and  independent  arrangement  was  in- 
stituted in  Polk  County  in  1887,  when  nearly  five 
hundred  teachers  were  instructed  in  two  depart- 
ments, namely,  the  " summer  school  of  methods"  and 
the  "normal  institute".  In  the  former,  special  de- 
partments —  primary,  intermediate,  and  grammar  — 
were  provided  for  those  engaged  in  such  work ;  while 
in  the  latter,  the  State  course  was  pursued.  This 
institute  was  patronized  by  many  from  different 
sections  of  the  State,  as  the  Washington  County  in- 
stitute had  been  in  1872  when  nearly  a  thousand,  it 
was  said,  were  present  at  a  great  convention  called 
an  institute  and  which  proved  to  be  the  beginning  of 
normal  institutes  in  the  State.179 

When  the  law  of  1874  was  passed  the  provision  of 
the  former  statute  continuing  the  pay  of  teachers  in 
attendance  was  not  incorporated,  while  the  two  fees 
of  one  dollar  each,  as  mentioned  above,  were  im- 
posed, thus  taxing  the  teachers  for  the  support  of  the 
institution.  Superintendent  Sabin  in  1889  called 
attention  to  this  injustice  and  also  to  the  small  State 
appropriation.  Kepeatedly  has  the  amount  set  aside 
for  institutes,  $50  for  each  county,  been  compared  to 
that  of  $200  for  county  agricultural  societies,  but 


182         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

with  little  effect.  It  was  the  opinion  of  many  that  the 
institute  should  be  ' '  free  to  all  actual  teachers ' ',  and 
Superintendent  Sabin  recommended  the  immediate 
removal  of  the  "tax",  without,  however,  having  an 
opportunity  to  commend  such  legislation. 

Eeference  has  already  been  made  to  the  proposed 
licensing  of  institute  instructors  by  some  State 
authority.  Further  suggestions  were  made  in  1891 
by  Superintendent  Sabin,  who  enlarged  upon  the 
whole  subject  of  the  qualifications  which  such  an 
individual  should  possess.  It  has  been  shown  also 
that  there  was  no  State  authority  which  could  control 
the  employment  of  any  instructor,  and  no  power, 
furthermore,  by  which  the  teacher  could  be  protected 
from  imposition  in  this  respect,  and  therefore  the 
recommendation  relative  to  the  requirement  of  legal 
qualification  was  appropriate.  Again  there  was  no 
action  on  the  recommendation,  and  sharp  criticism 
was  made  later  because  of  the  indiscriminate  meth- 
ods pursued  in  the  counties  of  the  State  whereby  the 
incompetent  obtained  important  positions  as  instruc- 
tors. In  this  connection  the  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction  had  suggested  that  the  State 
University  should  provide  during  a  summer  session 
"a  section  devoted  in  the  main  to  the  interests  of 
those  who  desire  to  work  as  instructors  in  insti- 
tutes. ' '  Moreover,  as  in  other  States,  means  should 
be  provided  in  Iowa  for  the  inspection  of  institutes 
and  for  this  purpose  the  Superintendent  should  be 
empowered  to  appoint  both  men  and  women  espe- 
cially qualified.180 


THE  NORMAL  INSTITUTE  183 

As  indicated  in  previous  pages,  the  greatest 
emphasis  had  been  placed  upon  the  grading  of  insti- 
tutes and  of  the  instruction  therein  when,  in  1897, 
the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  made  the 
observation  that  by  such  a  strict  classification  as  had 
been  developed  teachers  were  often  prevented  from 
reviewing  subjects  which  they  most  desired  to  cover. 
He  had  reached  the  conclusion,  therefore,  that  "the 
graded  normal  institute  needs  reorganizing  in  the 
direction  of  greater  freedom  of  choice  on  the  part  of 
teachers  in  attendance."  At  the  same  time  it  was 
foreseen  that  such  a  change  would  destroy  the 
scheme  of  "graduating"  from  the  county  institute; 
but  even  this  was  considered  advantageous,  since  it 
had  produced  a  false  notion  relative  to  the  purposes 
of  institutes. 

The  normal  institute  had  scarcely  been  estab- 
lished under  the  law  of  1874  when  there  were  sug- 
gestions for  its  abolition.  Again,  in  1897  this 
sentiment  was  expressed,  with  the  provision,  how- 
ever, that  training  schools  with  short  courses  be 
substituted.  It  was  asserted,  nevertheless,  that  the 
time  would  never  come  when  the  teachers  of  the 
county  should  not  be  called  together,  at  least  once 
annually,  for  "mutual  consultation  and  advice".181 
While  there  were  advocates  of  the  summer  school 
and  adverse  criticism  of  the  institute  as  then  con- 
ducted, there  were  others  who  defended  the  system, 
pointed  out  the  good  it  had  done,  and  declared  for 
greater  efficiency  through  the  same  means.  It  was 
clear,  however,  that  summer  schools  were  about  to 


184         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

interfere  with  the  previous  patronage  of  the  insti- 
tute, and  that  a  new  effort  must  be  made  in  the 
adjustment  of  these  agencies.182 

Not  until  1903,  it  appears,  was  there  a  noticeable 
decrease  in  institute  attendance  because  of  the  open- 
ing of  summer  schools.  Although  the  difference  was 
small  it  was  sufficient  to  call  attention  to  this  grow- 
ing interest.  Probably  3500  of  those  who  might  have 
been  enrolled  in  institutes  were  in  summer  schools 
in  1903,  and  the  attendance  in  succeeding  years  com- 
pelled an  arrangement  whereby  such  attendance 
might  be  substituted  for  the  usual  county  institute. 
It  was  clearly  only  a  matter  of  time  when  the  "six 
day"  minimum  institute  provided  for  in  the  original 
free  school  law  of  1858  would  be  outgrown  or  out- 
lawed in  some  form,  and  therefore  the  recommenda- 
tion of  the  "Better  Iowa  Schools  Commission"  in 
1912  was  not  unexpected.  By  that  body  it  was  pro- 
posed to  abolish  the  institute  as  previously  conduct- 
ed and  provide  in  its  stead  "short  inspirational" 
institutes  to  be  held  during  the  school  year  with  the 
"compulsory  attendance  of  teachers  without  loss  of 
pay".  In  accordance  with  this  recommendation  the 
institute  law  of  1913  permits,  after  July  1,  1914,  not 
more  than  two  such  meetings  in  each  county,  and 
requires  at  least  one  which  shall  remain  in  session 
not  less  than  two  days.  Furthermore,  all  teachers 
must  attend  or  forfeit  the  "average  daily  salary" 
during  the  time  of  non-attendance.  The  statute 
authorizes,  also,  a  summer  school  of  "four  to  six 
weeks"  in  counties  where  it  is  considered  advisable 


THE  NORMAL  INSTITUTE  185 

by  superintendents  —  thus  providing  for  academic 
instruction.183 

In  1861,  as  noted  in  the  preceding  chapter,  Moses 
Ingalls  had  said  that  there  was  no  better  time  to  hold 
institutes  than  when  schools  were  in  session.  In 
1908  the  same  opinion  was  expressed  by  President 
Homer  H.  Seerley ;  and  both  would  continue  the  pay 
of  teachers  in  attendance.  It  is  evident,  therefore, 
that  the  provisions  of  recent  legislation  are  not  alto- 
gether new  ideas.184  Indeed,  there  have  been  many 
advocates  of  compensation  during  these  sessions, 
while  frequent  mention  has  been  made  of  the  omis- 
sion of  this  provision  in  the  law  of  1874  which  fixed 
certain  fees  for  attendance  and  examination.  It  was 
Mr.  Jonathan  Piper  who  pointed  to  the  fact  that 
States  paid  the  militia  to  learn  how  to  shoot,  but 
taxed  teachers  for  the  privilege  of  learning  how  to 
teach. 

For  more  than  a  half  century  the  original  pro- 
visions as  to  minimum  term  and  the  sum  contributed 
as  State  aid  have  prevailed,  and  the  time  seems 
opportune  to  record  the  history  of  the  old  institute. 
The  conductors  and  lecturers  may  continue  to  be 
employed  under  some  other  title,  but  the  inspira- 
tional institute  will  only  repeat  the  history  of  those 
early  meetings  when  the  enthusiasm  displayed  re- 
quired three  sessions  daily  to  satisfy  its  demands. 
There  will  be  no  more  public  announcements  of 
available  instructors,  nor  as  much  personal  sacrifice 
to  accommodate  those  in  attendance  as  on  some  occa- 
sions in  the  past.  Many  of  the  counties  are  worthy 


186         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

of  mention  as  the  homes  of  pioneers  who  originated 
and  promoted  these  institutions ;  but  however  inter- 
esting such  facts  might  be,  individual  accounts  can- 
not be  admitted  in  this  connection. 


PART  IV 
TEACHERS  ASSOCIATIONS 


187 


XIII 
PIONEERS  PERFECTING  AN  ORGANIZATION 


the  call  was  issued  for  a  national  meeting  of 
the  friends  of  education  in  1849  at  Philadelphia  for 
the  purpose  of  perfecting  an  organization,  Thomas 
H.  Benton,  Jr.,  of  Iowa  was  one  of  the  signers. 
Again,  when  the  American  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Education  matured  from  this  call  he 
was  made  a  member  of  the  business  or  executive 
committee.185  Later,  in  1857,  when  upon  the  initia- 
tive of  the  teachers'  associations  of  the  several 
States  a  convention  to  organize  a  national  teachers' 
association  was  summoned  to  assemble  in  Phila- 
delphia, James  L.  Enos  of  Iowa  wrote  that  the  time 
had  come  when  a  movement  to  be  truly  national  must 
embrace  the  West  ;  and  so,  he  was  skeptical  as  to  the 
success  of  such  an  undertaking  when  summoned  to 
meet  in  the  East.  Nevertheless,  he  advised  that  the 
State  of  Iowa  should  cooperate  and  that  the  real 
nation,  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi,  should  be  rep- 
resented.186 

After  such  an  assertion  it  must  have  been  some- 
what disconcerting  (or  gratifying)  when,  upon  his 
arrival  in  Philadelphia,  Mr.  Enos  of  Iowa  was  nomi- 
nated by  Mr.  William  Roberts  of  Pennsylvania  for 
temporary  chairman,  which,  being  agreed  to,  made 

189 


190         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

an  Iowa  man  the  presiding  officer  at  the  organization 
of  the  National  Teachers'  Association.  As  such  he 
appointed  the  committee  which  drafted  the  first  con- 
stitution and  signed  the  proceedings  of  that  organ- 
izing convention.  Moreover,  he  became  one  of  the 
vice-presidents  of  the  permanent  organization.187 

Between  the  two  events  just  mentioned  the 
teachers  of  Iowa  met  in  convention  at  Muscatine  in 
1854  at  the  call,  it  has  been  said,  of  D.  Franklin 
Wells,  who  was  then  in  charge  of  the  schools  of  that 
city.  While  this  has  been  considered  the  first  session 
of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers'  Association  one  must 
consider  that  it  was  not  fully  organized  on  that  occa- 
sion —  although  seventeen  other  teachers  had  joined 
Mr.  Wells  in  the  request  for  such  a  meeting.  The 
officers  chosen  at  that  time  included  four  ministers 
and  only  two  or  three  public  school  men,  the  others 
being  engaged  in  academies  or  private  work.  The 
first  session  having  been  held  in  May,  a  second  was 
provided  for  December,  1854,  at  Iowa  City,  when  the 
president,  Mr.  J.  A.  Parvin,  a  member  of  the  legis- 
lature, delivered  an  inaugural  address  on  "The  Ne- 
cessity of  Universal  Education ' '.  Mr.  Jerome  Allen, 
then  of  Alexander  College,  Dubuque,  came  across  the 
prairies  to  speak  upon  "The  Utility  of  Chemistry". 
D.  Franklin  Wells  of  Muscatine,  James  L.  Enos  of 
Cedar  Eapids,  William  Eeynolds  of  Iowa  City,  and 
Samuel  Howe  of  Howe 's  Academy,  Mount  Pleasant, 
were  also  among  those  participating  in  this  first 
meeting  of  teachers  in  the  Old  Stone  Capitol.188 

A  side-light  on  this  Iowa  City  session  is  obtained 


PERFECTING  AN  ORGANIZATION  191 

from  the  debates  of  the  constitutional  convention  in 
1857,  when  Mr.  J.  C.  Hall  in  defending  the  report  of 
the  committee  on  schools,  observed  that  two  years 
before  (late  in  December,  1854)  he  had  attended  a 
meeting  in  Iowa  City  held  for  the  purpose  of  taking 
into  consideration  the  subject  of  education.  Al- 
though it  was  in  the  dead  of  winter  during  severe 
weather,  there  was  assembled  in  the  Old  Stone  Cap- 
itol one  of  the  largest  and  most  respectable  conven- 
tions that  had  ever  come  together.  It  was  said 
further  that  gentlemen  from  all  parts  of  the  Com- 
monwealth, volunteers  in  the  cause  of  education, 
manifested  an  enthusiasm  which  had  not  been  sup- 
ported by  the  legislature.  Moreover,  the  members 
of  this  educational  convention  gave  evidence  of 
abundant  information  on  questions  relative  to  the 
cause  they  represented.189 

For  reasons  not  specified  there  was  no  session  in 
1855,  although  one  had  been  appointed  at  Davenport. 
But  in  June,  1856,  another  meeting  was  held  in  Iowa 
City  when  a  permanent  organization  was  effected, 
not,  as  has  been  said,  under  the  constitution  pre- 
sented at  the  former  meeting  but  under  a  new  consti- 
tution prepared  by  a  committee  appointed  for  that 
purpose.  It  is  distinctly  stated  that  "a  motion  to 
re-organize  the  Convention  [in  June,  1856]  under  the 
Constitution  of  the  State  Teachers'  Association  was 
discussed,  and  finally  withdrawn."  Thereupon  a 
new  instrument  was  presented  and  adopted,  and 
later  at  the  Muscatine  meeting  in  the  following  Octo- 
ber it  was  amended. 


192         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

It  was  during  the  June  meeting  in  1856  that 
measures  were  proposed  for  the  establishment  of  an 
educational  journal  under  the  auspices  of  the  Associ- 
ation to  be  edited  and  supported  by  its  members. 
The  first  number  was  not  to  be  issued,  however,  until 
there  was  a  sufficient  amount  secured  to  guarantee 
the  expenses  for  one  year.  There  were  to  be  one 
local  editor  and  ten  assistants  located  in  different 
sections  of  the  State,  and  by  these  monthly  contribu- 
tions were  to  be  submitted.  Not  less  than  four  of  the 
twenty-four  pages  should  be  set  apart  for  the  use  of 
the  "Iowa  Phonetic  Association".  Moreover,  this 
journal  was  to  be  made  also  the  organ  of  the  State 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

In  October,  1856,  another  session  of  the  State 
Teachers'  Association  was  appointed  at  Muscatine, 
where,  it  appears,  the  constitution  was  first  pub- 
lished as  finally  adopted  and  the  name  of  the  organ- 
ization was  determined.  The  advancement  of  the 
general  interests  of  education,  but  more  especially  of 
the  common  schools,  was  to  be  the  aim  of  the  Associ- 
ation; and  any  person  might  become  a  member  by 
subscribing  to  the  constitution  and,  "if  a  male", 
paying  one  dollar.  Women  were  not  taxed  at  this 
time  for  the  support  of  any  feature  of  the  Associa- 
tion, except  through  subscriptions  which  they  might 
make  to  the  journal.  It  is  noteworthy,  also,  that 
free  entertainment  for  all  members  was  invariably 
provided  during  these  days  of  organization  and  for 
many  subsequent  years. 

Under  the  constitution  of  1856  the  officers  con- 


PERFECTING  AN  ORGANIZATION  193 

sisted  of  a  president,  five  vice-presidents,  a  record- 
ing secretary,  a  corresponding  secretary,  and  a 
treasurer.  In  1856  the  following  persons  filled  the 
offices  of  the  Association :  D.  Franklin  Wells,  then  of 
Iowa  City,  was  president ;  Jerome  Allen  of  Dubuque, 
George  W.  Drake  of  Oskaloosa,  John  F.  Sanford  of 
Keokuk,  W.  Duane  Wilson  of  Fairfield,  and  D.  Lane 
of  Davenport  were  vice-presidents;  James  L.  Enos 
of  Cedar  Rapids  was  corresponding  secretary ;  Fred- 
erick Humphrey  of  Iowa  City  was  recording  secre- 
tary; and  George  B.  Dennison  of  Muscatine  was 
treasurer.  There  were  six  members  of  the  executive 
committee :  Chandler  Childs  of  Dubuque,  S.  McNutt 
of  Muscatine,  and  J.  H.  Sanders  of  Oskaloosa,  in 
addition  to  the  president  and  the  two  secretaries 
already  mentioned. 

An  immediate  duty  imposed  upon  the  correspond- 
ing secretary  would  require  him  to  obtain  from  the 
several  States  and  foreign  countries  copies  of  their 
11  school  systems",  or  other  information  of  interest 
to  the  State  Association.  The  executive  committee 
was  instructed  to  arrange  for  the  publication  of  the 
new  journal,  The  Voice  of  Iowa,  on  certain  pre- 
scribed conditions,  and  to  appoint  a  general  editor. 
The  final  action  at  this  meeting  provided  for  a  subse- 
quent session  at  Dubuque  in  April,  1857,  which,  it 
will  be  observed,  would  make  the  third  within  a 
period  of  twelve  months  —  and  that,  too,  within  a 
region  where  the  means  of  transportation  were 
mainly  by  boat  on  the  Mississippi,  or  overland  by 
stage  coach. 

14 


194         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

The  Dubuque  meeting  was  unique  in  that  it  com- 
bined a  State  institute  with  the  recently  organized 
Association.  The  former  was  to  have  daily  exer- 
cises similar  to  those  described  in  the  chapter  on 
county  institutes,  and  the  latter  was  to  occupy  the 
evening  hours  with  lectures.  Although  the  time  was 
unfavorable  for  those  living  at  a  distance,  at  least 
fifty  persons  assembled  in  the  third  ward  building  in 
Dubuque  under  what  were  declared  by  President  D. 
Franklin  Wells  to  be  changed  conditions.  The  first 
attempts  to  maintain  the  organization  had  failed,  he 
said,  because  of  insurmountable  difficulties;  while 
now  the  means  of  transportation  would  soon  im- 
prove (trains  then  were  running  to  Iowa  City),  and 
an  organ  of  communication  (The  Voice  of  Iowa) 
had  been  established  which  would  aid  in  uniting  the 
educational  interests  of  the  State.  It  was  at  this 
meeting  in  1857  that  the  first  steps  were  taken  to 
urge  upon  the  General  Assembly  the  establishment 
of  a  reformatory  institution  for  juvenile  offenders, 
a  committee  being  appointed  for  that  purpose.  It  is 
worthy  of  note  that  the  committee  persevered  in 
their  presentation  of  this  need  until  it  was  finally 
met  in  1868.  There  was  also  another  committee  ap- 
pointed to  confer  with  publishers  relative  to  "  pho- 
netic type"  text-books  —  a  system  of  printing  which 
is  illustrated  in  certain  pages  of  The  Voice  of  Iowa 
during  the  three  years  of  its  publication.190 

The  annual  meeting  of  1857  was  held  at  Iowa 
City  in  August  in  the  Old  Stone  Capitol.  When  the 
Association  assembled  there  was  no  officer  present 


PERFECTING  AN  ORGANIZATION  195 

authorized  to  preside,  nor  secretary  to  chronicle  its 
proceedings.  In  this  emergency  Mr.  A.  S.  Kissell  of 
Davenport  called  the  meeting  to  order;  and  W.  E. 
Ijams  of  Iowa  City,  who,  owing  to  the  ill  health  of 
the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  took  his 
place  at  the  session,  was  chosen  to  preside.  After  a 
statement  by  Mr.  S.  S.  Howe  relative  to  the  causes 
which  led  to  the  failure  of  the  first  State  Teachers' 
Association,  it  was  determined  that  all  who  had 
been  identified  with  the  former  should  become  mem- 
bers of  the  new  organization  by  signing  the  constitu- 
tion, without  the  payment  of  any  fee.  Certain 
gentlemen  who  were  present  from  Illinois,  Ohio,  and 
Canada  were  made  honorary  members.  One  of  these, 
Professor  D.  Wilkins  of  Illinois,  proposed  during 
the  meeting  that  the  Iowa  Association  should  sup- 
port a  movement  to  organize  "The  Mississippi 
Valley  Educational  Association",  and  that  a  con- 
vention for  that  purpose  be  held  in  Davenport  in  the 
following  year.  This,  along  with  other  resolutions, 
was  adopted ;  but  the  proposed  western  organization, 
it  appears,  did  not  reach  the  convention  stage,  al- 
though it  was  resolved  to  meet  in  Davenport  on  the 
second  Thursday  of  August,  1858,  for  that  purpose. 
That  the  purposes  of  the  Association  as  expressed 
in  the  beginning  were  not  formal  is  clear  from  the 
proceedings  at  this  meeting  when  subjects  for  re- 
ports at  a  subsequent  session  were  assigned  as 
follows:  Professor  Sanford  of  the  Medical  College 
at  Keokuk  was  requested  to  point  out  the  best 
method  of  developing  the  physical  powers  of  the 


196         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

pupil;  Professor  Humphrey  was  appointed  to  out- 
line the  course  of  study  which  would  most  advance 
the  "mental  and  moral  capacity  of  the  pupil";  Mr. 
C.  Childs  of  Dubuque  was  to  indicate  the  proper 
kind  of  school  architecture ;  Mr.  A.  S.  Kissell  was  to 
be  responsible  for  some  general  conclusions  relative 
to  compulsory  attendance  for  a  specified  time  during 
minority;  and  upon  Professor  Stone  of  the  State 
University  devolved  a  general  history  of  the  ' '  origin, 
progress,  and  present  state  of  the  modern  and  recent 
reform  in  the  preparation  of  text-books"  for  all 
phases  of  education.  Finally,  the  "Phonetic  Sys- 
tem" was  recommended  by  the  Association  for  a 
fair  trial  by  the  teachers  of  the  State.191 

Although  it  had  been  agreed  to  assemble  at 
Davenport  on  the  second  Thursday  in  August,  1858, 
there  is  no  available  account  of  any  such  meeting. 
Moreover,  since  the  third  regular  session  of  the 
State  Teachers'  Association  was  held  at  the  same 
place  in  September,  it  may  be  concluded  that  the 
former  convention  was  postponed.  It  will  be  noted 
that  this  session  occurred  after  the  new  school  law 
had  become  effective  and  previous  to  the  decision  of 
the  Supreme  Court  declaring  it  to  be  invalid.  It  is 
clear  that  the  provisions  of  the  new  statute  were 
uppermost  in  the  proceedings  of  the  convention  and 
that  the  training  of  the  teachers  through  county  high 
schools  with  normal  departments  therein  was 
thought  feasible  under  that  law.  Furthermore,  an 
independent  State  normal  school  was  advocated,  the 
question  earnestly  debated,  and  finally  disposed  of 


PERFECTING  AN  ORGANIZATION  197 

by  the  adoption  of  resolutions  which  were  quite  un- 
like those  originally  passed.192 

Again,  late  in  August,  1859,  the  Association  met 
at  Washington  and  there  decided  upon  a  new  plan  of 
conducting  their  journal  —  The  Voice  of  Iowa  hav- 
ing failed  to  receive  sufficient  support  to  warrant  its 
continuance.  There  were  proposals  from  the  Iowa 
School  Journal,  published  at  Des  Moines,  and  also 
from  the  Literary  Advertiser  and  Public  School 
Advocate,  published  at  Iowa  City,  to  operate  as  the 
organ  of  communication;  but  the  sentiment  for  an 
independent  journal  was  against  such  propositions. 
During  this  session  a  resolution  declaring  that 
' 'females  should  enjoy  the  right  of  suffrage  in  school 
matters"  was  laid  upon  the  table  and  seems  never 
to  have  been  revived.  At  the  same  time  the  subject 
of  co-education  was  prominently  before  the  conven- 
tion. A  committee,  to  which  the  matter  had  been 
referred,  approved  the  suggestion  made  in  the 
president's  address  that  a  truancy  law,  similar  to 
that  of  Massachusetts,  should  be  passed  by  the 
Board  of  Education.  Moreover,  a  compulsory  insti- 
tute law  requiring  sessions  of  not  less  than  two  weeks 
in  every  county  was  recommended.  Vocal  music,  it 
was  declared,  should  become  a  part  of  the  public 
school  curriculum ;  the  Bible  should  be  read  daily  in 
the  public  schools ;  and  a  central  State  normal  school 
to  accommodate  not  less  than  three  hundred  teach- 
ers, which  should  stand  as  the  acknowledged  head  of 
the  common  school  system,  was  demanded.  Finally, 
the  Association  took  special  notice  of  the  death  of 


198         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

Horace  Mann  in  a  series  of  resolutions  relative  to 
his  work  and  in  voting  a  temporary  adjournment  out 
of  respect  to  his  memory.193 

From  Washington  the  Association  adjourned  to 
meet  at  Tipton  in  1860,  an  inland  town  that  must  be 
reached  by  stage  from  the  Mississippi  &  Missouri 
(now  the  Eock  Island)  on  the  south  and  from  the 
Chicago  Iowa  &  Nebraska  (now  the  Chicago  &  North- 
Western)  on  the  north.  From  the  former  it  was 
fourteen  miles,  and  from  the  latter  twelve;  yet 
conveyances  were  provided  by  the  entertaining  com- 
munity through  private  or  public  accommodations. 
Even  under  such  unfavorable  conditions  members 
were  present  from  as  far  west  as  Polk  County,  the 
total  enrollment  being  reported  as  two  hundred  and 
seventeen,  more  than  one  hundred  of  whom  were 
from  a  distance.  Among  the  prominent  members  on 
this  occasion  were  D.  Franklin  Wells,  who  was  serv- 
ing as  president  for  the  second  time,  Thomas  H. 
Benton,  Jr.,  United  States  Senator  James  Harlan, 
Mrs.  M.  A.  McGonegal,  director  of  the  model  school 
in  the  normal  department  of  the  State  University 
and  later  in  charge  of  the  Davenport  training  school, 
Moses  Ingalls,  A.  S.  Kissell,  C.  C.  Nestlerode,  twice 
the  president  of  the  organization,  and  Dr.  William 
Reynolds,  the  Territorial  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction  in  1841-1842.194 

Before  adjournment  the  Association  commended 
the  arrangements  of  Dr.  Reynolds  to  enter  upon  a 
lecturing  tour  throughout  the  State  on  the  subject  of 
geography  in  its  "political,  physical,  and  mathe- 


PERFECTING  AN  ORGANIZATION  199 

matical"  phases.  It  was  learned  with  satisfaction 
also  that  he  was  in  possession  of  the  necessary  ap- 
paratus to  thoroughly  illustrate  his  subject,  thus 
being  able  to  interest  the  general  public.195  Ad- 
dresses were  delivered  by  Thomas  H.  Benton,  Jr., 
the  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education,  and  by 
Senator  James  Harlan.  Only  one  speaker  from  out- 
side the  State,  Mr.  C.  T.  Chase  of  Chicago,  appears 
upon  this  program,  and  it  is  of  interest  to  note  that 
he  addressed  the  convention  upon  "Agricultural  In- 
struction". In  the  selection  of  officers  it  was  custom- 
ary in  those  days  to  appoint  a  nominating  committee 
consisting  of  one  from  each  county  —  a  plan  which 
was  feasible  when  not  more  than  ten  or  twelve  coun- 
ties were  represented  as  in  1860,  but  scarcely  prac- 
ticable in  more  recent  years.196 

For  convenience  the  executive  committee  of  the 
Association  was  called  together  at  Wilton  at  least 
twice  during  the  year  1860-1861.  Owing  to  the  ex- 
citement preceding  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
some  doubted  the  wisdom  of  an  Association  meeting 
in  1861,  which  had  already  been  appointed  at  Musca- 
tine.  But  others  felt  that  "ignorance  is  a  more 
formidable  enemy  than  rebel  secessionists,  and 
hence,  should  be  met  as  promptly",  and  so  the  usual 
annual  session  was  not  omitted.  It  was  announced 
that  for  the  first  time  the  men  would  be  expected  to 
pay  for  the  entertainment,  and  it  was  anticipated 
that  no  member  would  object  to  bearing  his  share  of 
the  burden  during  war  times.  Moreover,  the  ar- 
rangements provided  for  accommodations  at  first 


200         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

class  hotels,  which  at  the  rate  of  "  fifty  or  even 
seventy-five  cents  per  day"  were  not  considered 
expensive. 

One  hundred  and  seventy  persons  were  in  attend- 
ance at  the  1861  meeting  —  largely,  it  may  be  said, 
from  counties  adjacent  to  Muscatine  which  regis- 
tered forty-two,  while  Scott  sent  forty-five,  Cedar 
twenty-seven,  Louisa  eight,  and  Johnson  twelve. 
Washington  had  but  six,  Jefferson  and  Lee  three 
each,  and  Van  Buren,  Des  Moines,  and  Henry  one 
each.  There  were  two  each  from  Linn,  Poweshiek, 
Benton,  and  Clinton.  Other  States  contributed  thir- 
teen, certain  persons  being  named  as  "delegates" 
from  Mississippi,  Tennessee,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Minnesota. 

No  session  of  the  Association  had  ever  occupied 
itself  with  more  serious  business.  The  problems  of 
a  State  board  of  examiners,  of  permanent  certifi- 
cates, of  the  State  school  fund  and  its  management, 
of  the  efficiency  of  school  officers,  of  sustaining  the 
public  school,  of  normal  training  classes  in  "  higher 
Schools  and  Academies ' ',  of  the  county  superintend- 
ency  and  the  powers  lodged  therein,  of  teachers'  in- 
stitutes, of  provision  for  a  "State  Agent",  and  of 
the  maintenance  of  a  school  journal,  and  of  a  revision 
of  the  constitution  of  the  Association  were  all  as- 
signed to  competent  committees  for  immediate  or 
subsequent  disposition.  Thus,  the  sixth  annual 
session  of  the  State  Teachers'  Association  set  an 
example  for  succeeding  conventions  of  its  members, 
and  it  closed,  as  was  customary,  with  the  doxology 
and  a  benediction.197 


PERFECTING  AN  ORGANIZATION  201 

The  women  in  attendance  at  Mount  Pleasant  the 
next  year  (1862)  outnumbered  the  men  for  the  first 
time.  The  events  of  war  had  made  this  possible. 
Moreover,  the  proceedings  during  the  period  of  civil 
conflict  are  interspersed  with  expressions  relative  to 
the  missing  members  and  the  sacrifice  they  were 
making.  Indeed,  it  is  probably  true  that  no  more 
loyal  body  than  the  State  Teachers'  Association  of 
the  sixties  ever  assembled.  At  this,  the  seventh 
annual  meeting,  the  committee  to  which  was  assigned 
the  duty  of  transcribing  the  records  of  the  Associa- 
tion reported  that  duty  as  performed,  the  proceed- 
ings from  the  first  meeting  in  1854  —  with  the 
exception,  it  was  said,  of  two,  those  for  June  and 
October,  1856  —  having  been  "recorded  in  detail". 
Furthermore,  the  names  of  all  the  members,  men 
and  women  so  far  as  they  could  be  obtained,  were 
also  transcribed.  But  subsequent  events  seem  to 
indicate  that  this  record  was  lost,  notwithstanding 
the  care  which  was  taken  in  its  preparation. 

The  chief  addresses  at  this  session  were  given  by 
Mr.  W.  H.  Wells,  superintendent  of  the  Chicago 
schools,  Eev.  William  Salter  of  Burlington,  Eev. 
M.  K.  Cross  of  Tipton,  Professor  N.  E.  Leonard  of 
the  State  University,  Professor  H.  K.  Edson  of  Den- 
mark Academy,  and  by  the  president,  C.  C.  Nestle- 
rode.  The  session  was  concerned  chiefly  with  reports 
from  its  State  agent,  Moses  Ingalls,  and  from  a 
committee  appointed  to  investigate  the  State  Uni- 
versity, with  the  questions  of  the  county  superin- 
tendency,  the  educational  journal,  the  holding  of 


202         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

teachers  institutes,  and  with  amendments  to  the 
constitution  of  the  Association.  The  publication  of 
the  Iowa  Instructor  had  been  productive  of  a  debt 
which  at  this  date  was  nearly  $500  —  a  large  part  of 
which  had  been  advanced  by  the  executive  committee. 
Furthermore,  the  small  balance  in  the  treasury  from 
the  preceding  year  had  been  deposited  in  a  bank  that 
failed,  and  so  the  Association  was  financially  embar- 
rassed. The  field  of  membership  of  the  Association 
was  extended  now  by  an  amendment  to  include  ' '  any 
active  friend  of  Education"  who  would  sign  the 
constitution,  pay  the  initiation  fee  of  one  dollar,  and 
contribute  the  annual  dues  of  fifty  cents  thereafter 
—  the  latter  provision  applying  to  all  after  1862.198 
The  next  year  (1863)  the  Association  moved 
westward  to  Grinnell  for  its  eighth  session,  this 
being  possible  by  the  increased  facilities  for  trans- 
portation. Rev.  M.  K.  Cross,  the  only  ''pastor"  up 
to  that  date  to  hold  the  position,  was  the  president, 
while  Professor  L.  F.  Parker  seems  to  have  been 
responsible  for  the  local  arrangements.  During  the 
preceding  year  the  State  agent,  Moses  Ingalls,  had 
carried  out  the  designs  of  the  Association,  which 
have  been  referred  to  in  the  chapter  on  county  insti- 
tutes ;  and  on  this  occasion  he  made  a  full  report  of 
his  operations.  As  noted  above,  the  women  had  not 
been  required  to  pay  any  fees  up  to  this  time,  but 
now  three  of  them  being  appointed  a  committee  on 
amendments  recommended  that  no  distinction  be 
made  as  to  sex;  that  since  they  would  claim  equal 
pay  for  equal  labor,  on  account  of  being  counted 


PERFECTING  AN  ORGANIZATION  203 

worthy  to  take  the  place  of  the  "brave  boys  who 
have  gone  to  teach  rebels  the  consequences  of  se- 
cession", they  should  be  permitted  to  share  in  the 
support  of  the  Association.  Since  no  objections 
were  recorded  it  is  concluded  that  the  recommenda- 
tion was  unanimously  agreed  to.  Thus,  since  1863 
women  have  been  paying  their  portion  of  the  annual 
expenses. 

The  meeting  at  Mount  Pleasant  had  revealed  a 
debt  of  nearly  $500  which  in  1863,  through  sales  of 
the  bound  volumes  of  the  Iowa  Instructor  and 
through  the  collection  of  fees,  had  been  reduced  to 
about  $260.  It  was  determined,  therefore,  to 
1  'liquidate  the  debt  of  the  Association"  by  dona- 
tions, among  which  were  two  contributions  of  $88 
each  by  Barnes  &  Burr  and  by  W.  B.  Smith  &  Co., 
text-book  publishers.  It  should  be  said  that  the 
members  of  the  executive  committee,  which  had  paid 
the  current  expenses,  made,  aside  from  the  book 
companies,  the  largest  single  subscription.  The 
Association  adjourned  in  1863  free  from  all  indebt- 
edness. 

It  was  during  this  session  that  preparations  were 
made  to  memorialize  Congress  relative  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  National  Bureau  of  Education,  and  to 
"invite  the  co-operation  therein,  of  other  State 
Teachers'  Associations".  Professor  D.  Franklin 
"Wells  of  the  State  University  offered  this  resolution, 
and  its  language  suggests  an  original  movement  for 
such  an  institution.  There  was  also  another  recom- 
mendation which  requested  the  Association  to  indi- 


204         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

cate  its  choice  of  a  man  for  Secretary  of  the 
State  Board  of  Education,  or  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction,  as  the  General  Assembly  might 
determine.  Although  there  were  protests  against 
such  a  proceeding,  a  ballot  was  taken  resulting  in  an 
almost  unanimous  vote  for  Mr.  A.  S.  Kissell.  It  is 
noticeable,  however,  that  out  of  a  total  registration 
of  one  hundred  sixteen  only  sixty-five  ballots  were 
cast.  This  appears  to  have  been  the  first  "political" 
event  in  the  history  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers '  As- 
sociation.199 

Although  it  had  been  proposed  in  1863  to  hold  the 
next  session  in  Des  Moines,  the  matter  was  finally 
left  to  the  executive  committee  who  located  it  at 
Dubuque.  While  ninety  persons  were  present  from 
at  least  twenty  counties  there  were  but  fifty  members 
of  the  Association  in  attendance.  Thus,  only  about 
half  of  those  counted  as  delegates  were  supporting 
the  Association.  The  president,  Mr.  H.  K.  Edson, 
sent  from  Boston  his  regrets  in  which  he  declared 
that  "  while  visiting  the  Schools  and  Colleges  of 
Massachusetts,  boasted  as  they  are,  I  can  but  feel 
that  we  in  Iowa  are  just  behind  them  —  if  in  some 
respects  we  are  not  in  advance  of  them. ' '  It  became 
the  duty  of  Mr.  Oran  Faville,  a  vice-president,  to 
preside.  During  the  session  he  delivered  an  address 
upon  the  "History  of  the  School  Legislation  of 
Iowa",  following  which  he  made  a  "masterly  argu- 
ment and  appeal  for  the  creation  of  an  Iowa  State 
Normal  School".  His  position  then,  that  of  Secre- 
tary of  the  Board  of  Education,  made  his  utterances 


PERFECTING  AN  ORGANIZATION  205 

official;  and  it  may  be  added  that  the  Association 
was  in  harmony  with  his  views. 

Again  the  State  agent  of  the  Association  made 
his  annual  report  in  which  he  pointed  out  the  en- 
larged work  of  the  office  and  the  importance  of  its 
continuance ;  and  he  suggested  the  proper  remunera- 
tion of  the  person  who  would  succeed  to  the  office 
from  which  he  (Moses  Ingalls)  was  about  to  retire. 
Among  other  important  recommendations  he  urged 
the  construction  of  more  attractive  buildings,  both 
outside  and  inside,  not  only  for  the  sake  of  the  chil- 
dren but  also  for  the  good  appearance  of  the  town 
and  its  reputation.  He  was  not  speaking,  it  appears, 
about  the  rural  school  houses  of  Iowa.  In  the  imme- 
diate future,  as  it  developed,  the  State  was  to  be 
divided  into  two  districts  for  the  work  of  two  agents, 
Mr.  A.  S.  Kissell  and  Mr.  Jonathan  Piper,  who  were 
to  be  assigned  to  the  field  with  the  expectation  that 
county  superintendents  would  adjust  their  institutes 
to  accommodate  the  time  of  these  representatives  of 
the  State  Association.200 

The  difficulties  surrounding  the  meeting  in  1864 
were  due  to  some  extent  to  the  location ;  accordingly, 
Oskaloosa,  a  more  central  point,  was  selected  for  the 
session  of  1865.  This,  moreover,  had  been  previously 
announced  as  a  very  important  session  which  would 
have  more  important  questions  to  decide  than  any 
former  convention  of  the  Association.  It  was  de- 
clared to  be  a  critical  period  in  the  educational  life  of 
the  State,  which  would  demand  the  counsel  of  the 
wisest  and  soundest  among  its  membership.201 


206         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

Oskaloosa,  like  Tipton  in  1860,  had  no  railroad  in 
1865 ;  and  to  make  the  trip  from  the  northern  portion 
of  the  State  instructions  were  given  to  proceed  to 
the  Mississippi  by  rail,  thence  down  the  river  to 
Burlington  or  Keokuk,  from  which  one  could  travel 
again  by  rail  to  within  a  short  distance  of  his  desti- 
nation. A  l  i  line  of  omnibuses ' ',  by  means  of  which 
all  could  be  accommodated,  ran  regularly  from  the 
station  to  the  city.  The  usual  rate  of  full  fare  going 
and  a  free  return  on  all  railroads,  and  two-thirds  of 
full  fare  over  the  lines  of  the  Western  Stage  Com- 
pany were  obtained.  Under  favorable  arrangements 
which  had  been  made  the  attendance  was  larger  than 
in  several  years  before,  but  the  persons  who  came 
were  mainly  from  the  counties  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  State. 

The  meeting  brought  to  the  State  as  special 
speakers  Principal  William  F.  Phelps  of  the  Minne- 
sota State  Normal  School  and  Superintendent 
Newton  Bateman  of  Illinois.  The  question  of  a 
State  agent  was  up  again,  the  office  having  failed  to 
meet  with  sufficient  financial  support  to  warrant 
keeping  the  two  men  previously  appointed  in  the 
field  —  unless  they  had  been  willing  to  remain  in 
positions  that  offered  no  assurance  of  a  living.  The 
matter  was  finally  disposed  of  when  Mr.  Piper  re- 
signed in  favor  of  Mr.  Kissell.  At  the  same  time 
there  was  no  certainty  of  the  compensation  being 
sufficient  to  maintain  one  man,  inasmuch  as  his 
traveling  expenses  were  largely  increased  owing  to 
the  lack  of  county  cooperation.  Other  matters  which 


PERFECTING  AN  ORGANIZATION  207 

the  Association  sought  to  adjust  included  the  teacher 
supply,  the  district  library,  amendments  to  the 
school  law,  and  the  position  of  the  organization  on 
the  temperance  question.202 

Cedar  Rapids  entertained  the  State  meeting  in 
August,  1866.    While  this  was  called  the  tenth  year 
of  organization  by  some  it  has  since  been  recognized 
as  having  been  the  thirteenth,  counting  from  the  first 
meeting  in  1854.     One  evening  of  this  session  was 
devoted  to  an  address  upon  the  "New  Decimal  Sys- 
tem of  Weights  and  Measures"  (that  is  the  Metric 
System)  by  Mr.  John  A.  Kasson,  at  the  conclusion 
of  which  the  Association  tendered  the  gentleman  a 
vote  of  thanks  for  his  " lucid  exposition"  and  de- 
clared its  purpose  to  secure  the  early  introduction 
of  the  system  in  the  schools  of  the  State.    At  this 
meeting  the  State  agent,  it  appears,  made  his  final 
report,  wherein  it  was  shown  that  further  attempts 
to  provide  for  such  an  officer  would  not  succeed  with- 
out some  State  aid.    Indeed,  after  consultation  with 
the   Superintendent   of  Public  Instruction  the   ar- 
rangements proposed  at  the  Oskaloosa  meeting  had 
been    deemed   impracticable,    and    the    agent,    Mr. 
Kissell,  had  resigned,  although  under  protest  from 
the   executive   committee.      Although   D.    Franklin 
Wells  was  named  at  the  Cedar  Eapids  meeting  to 
succeed  to  this  office,  it  is  well  known  that  he  had 
scarcely  entered  upon  his  duties  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  office  of  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction  to  succeed  Mr.  Faville.    Thereafter  no 
further  action  relative  to  a  State  agent  is  recorded.203 


208         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

Thus  a  chapter  in  the  history  of  the  State  Teach- 
ers '  Association  was  completed,  with  a  final  effort 
to  support  by  voluntary  contributions  a  movement 
which  all  must  have  felt  should  devolve  upon  the 
State.  The  organization  had  seen  the  enactment  of 
a  free  school  law  and  -witnessed  its  effects ;  had  sur- 
vived and  had  met  annually  through  the  exciting 
period  of  the  Civil  War,  contrary  to  the  general 
experience  of  the  similar  associations  in  other 
States;  had  overcome  the  difficulties  of  insufficient 
means  of  transportation ;  had  stood  for  advancement 
in  all  educational  endeavor;  had  established  a 
journal  at  a  financial  and  personal  sacrifice ;  and  had 
been  instrumental  in  arousing  the  General  Assembly 
to  enact  needed  legislation.  But  this  was  done  by  the 
leaders,  the  enthusiasts :  the  rank  and  file  were  not 
yet  sufficiently  interested. 


XIV 
A  FEDERATED  INSTITUTION 

THE  thirteenth  annual  meeting  of  the  State  Teach- 
ers '  Association  had  more  than  the  usual  number  in 
attendance,  thus  requiring  some  special  activity  on 
the  part  of  the  entertaining  city,  Cedar  Eapids,  to 
find  accommodations  for  the  delegates.  As  a  result 
of  this  experience  the  executive  committee  was 
warned  of  what  the  attendance  might  be  at  the  ses- 
sion of  1867,  which  for  the  first  time  was  appointed 
at  Des  Moines.  Certain  towns,  also  ambitious  to 
entertain  the  Association,  were  cautioned  lest  they 
should  "get  an  elephant"  on  their  hands.  At  the 
same  time  attention  was  called  to  the  fact  that  for 
the  twelve  years  since  the  organization  of  the  Asso- 
ciation the  burden  had  been  borne  by  a  comparatively 
few  teachers,  while  there  were  hundreds  equally 
qualified  and  able  to  aid  in  its  management.  Espe- 
cially was  this  said  to  be  true  of  presidents  and 
professors  in  colleges  and  of  men  prominent  in 
public  school  positions  who  seemed  indifferent.204 
It  was  a  time  of  reconstruction,  it  appears,  when  an 
effort  was  being  made  to  create  a  wider  influence  for 
the  Association. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  meeting  at  Oskaloosa,  so 
now  specific  directions  were  given  for  reaching  Des 

15  209 


210         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

Moines  in  August,  1867,  when  it  was  hoped  that  the 
Mississippi  &  Missouri  Eailroad  would  be  completed 
to  that  city.  From  the  south  one  could  reach  the 
city  by  rail,  and  from  the  north  by  way  of  the  West- 
ern Stage  Company's  line  from  the  Nevada  or 
Boone  station  on  the  Chicago  &  North- Western  Eail- 
road, while  the  same  accommodation  would  be  avail- 
able from  the  western  terminus  of  the  Mississippi  & 
Missouri  Eailroad  provided  it  had  not  yet  entered 
the  city.  The  headquarters  and  place  of  meeting  on 
this  occasion  were  located  at  the  court  house,  where 
the  sessions  were  "  largely  attended  by  the  repre- 
sentative teachers  of  the  State,  and  by  other  friends 
of  educational  progress." 

Again  the  action  of  former  meetings  relative  to 
institutes  was  affirmed;  while  the  executive  com- 
mittee was  authorized  to  continue  their  efforts  to 
promote  this  form  of  instruction.  The  normal 
school  under  State  patronage  and  support  was  once 
more  before  the  Association  for  approval ;  and  vocal 
music  was  recommended  as  a  component  part  of  the 
public  school  curriculum,  which  should  be  recognized 
also  as  a  requirement  in  the  qualification  of  teachers. 
Furthermore,  a  system  of  supervision  which  should 
be  complete  for  the  State  and  its  subdivisions  was 
outlined  with  suggestions  for  a  liberal  compensation 
of  all  officers  including  those  of  the  district  school. 
It  was  considered  the  duty  of  the  State  not  only  to 
provide  competent  teachers  but  also  to  see  that  they 
were  paid  "according  to  qualifications  and  labor" 
and  not  according  to  sex.205  Thus,  each  session  while 


A  FEDERATED  INSTITUTION  211 

affirming  the  position  of  the  Association  on  questions 
long  before  it  was  taking  a  stand  on  new  problems. 

At  Keokuk  in  the  following  year  an  attempt  was 
made  to  increase  the  paying  membership  by  refusing 
credentials  to  returning  delegates  until  the  fee  was 
paid,  but  the  movement  failed  to  secure  sufficient 
support.  Perhaps  the  effect  was  satisfactory,  for 
instead  of  enforcing  such  a  regulation  it  was  con- 
cluded to  "earnestly  invite"  all  persons  present  to 
enroll  and  thus  share  in  the  support  of  the  organiza- 
tion. For  the  future,  however,  it  was  agreed  to  grant 
return  certificates  to  such  only  as  were  properly 
enrolled.  Other  recommendations  would  provide  for 
permanency  in  the  office  of  secretary,  thus  insuring 
a  continuity  of  interest  in  carrying  on  the  business  of 
the  Association. 

It  is  noteworthy  that,  after  ten  years  of  effort  on 
the  part  of  a  committee  of  the  Association,  a  "Re- 
form School"  was  established  by  legislative  action 
—  this  result  being  due,  in  great  measure,  to  Mr. 
W.  A.  Bemis  of  Davenport,  who  made  a  final  report 
during  this  session  of  1868.  There  were  present  also 
representatives  of  the  academy  who  spoke  for  it  and 
its  province  in  education.  Mr.  H.  K.  Edson  of  the 
Denmark  Academy  was  conspicuous  in  this  field. 
President  W.  F.  King  of  Cornell  College  defended 
the  utility  of  the  classical  course  in  providing  a 
liberal  education  and  opposed  that  which  was  falsely 
called  the  practical.  Mr.  F.  M.  Witter  of  Muscatine 
declared  that  the  common  schools  should  occupy  all 
the  ground  held  by  the  academy  as  then  conducted 


212         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

and  that  on  the  completion  of  courses  therein  pupils 
should  be  prepared  to  enter  college.206  This,  indeed, 
was  but  forecasting  the  accredited  high  school  which 
has  since  become  a  prominent  factor  in  the  public 
school  system. 

When  the  Association  met  in  Marshalltown  in 
1869,  Allen  Armstrong,  superintendent  at  Council 
Bluffs,  and  Jerome  Allen  of  Monticello  had  just  re- 
turned from  the  National  meeting  at  Trenton,  New 
Jersey,  and  therefore  it  was  deemed  appropriate 
that  some  time  should  be  devoted  to  a  report  from 
these  gentlemen.  It  may  have  been  because  of  this 
information  relative  to  national  education  that  early 
in  the  session  a  committee,  consisting  of  A.  S.  Kis- 
sell,  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  F.  M. 
Witter,  S.  N.  Fellows,  and  T.  S.  Parvin,  was  ap- 
pointed "to  compile  a  history"  of  the  Iowa  Associa- 
tion "from  its  organization".207 

More  attention  was  given  the  high  school  at  this 
session  than  on  any  previous  occasion,  it  being 
considered  an  opportune  time  to  promote  the  town- 
ship high  school  as  well  as  a  uniform  curriculum  for 
such  institutions  throughout  the  State.  Before  ad- 
journment nine  men  were  appointed  as  a  committee 
to  act  on  the  call  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction  in  the  preparation  of  such  a  course  of 
study.  Again  the  normal  school  as  a  separate  insti- 
tution was  recommended,  while  the  General  Assem- 
bly was  urged  to  appropriate  not  less  than  $3000  to 
the  normal  department  of  the  State  University. 
Finally,  a  memorial  service  for  D.  Franklin  Wells 


A  FEDERATED  INSTITUTION  213 

occupied  the  larger  part  of  an  afternoon  session,  his 
personal  friends  setting  forth  his  contributions  to 
the  educational  growth  of  the  State  and  the  excel- 
lence of  his  character  and  labors  as  principal  of  the 
Muscatine  schools,  as  head  of  the  normal  department 
of  the  State  University,  as  State  agent,  and  lastly  as 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.208 

The  Association  during  these  years  was  not 
established  in  one  city,  but  seems  to  have  selected  a 
new  place  of  meeting  each  year.  In  1870  Waterloo 
was  chosen;  and  at  this  session  there  were  several 
departures  from  earlier  customs.  For  instance,  the 
college  men  were  in  evidence,  having  held  a  prelim- 
inary session  preceding  that  of  the  Association 
proper,  and  before  the  adjournment  of  the  latter 
they  had  requested  the  executive  committee  to  pro- 
vide a  section  devoted  to  their  interests  in  subsequent 
programs.  Again,  provision  had  been  made  at  this 
meeting  for  primary,  grammar,  and  high  school 
divisions  which,  however,  became  impracticable  be- 
cause only  "one  or  two  gentlemen  engaged  in  high 
schools  were  present".  It  appears,  therefore,  that  a 
combination  then  formed  resulted  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  what  has  since  come  to  be  the  elementary  and 
graded  department  of  the  Association. 

The  president  on  this  occasion,  Mr.  Jonathan 
Piper,  presented  in  his  address  the  subjects  which 
had  interested  the  State  for  many  years,  namely, 
normal  schools,  institutes,  township  districts  and  the 
abolition  of  the  subdistrict,  the  school  journal,  and 
the  use  of  the  Bible  in  the  public  schools.  Among 


214         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

these  the  township  unit  of  organization  occupied  a 
leading  place,  and  to  secure  favorable  legislation 
relative  thereto  a  committee  was  selected  to  serve 
for  two  years.  They  were  to  carry  on  a  campaign 
through  local  papers  and  public  meetings  which 
should  set  forth  the  advantages  of  the  township 
system  of  organization.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the 
association  determined  to  assume  no  further  respon- 
sibility relative  to  a  school  journal,  it  being  deter- 
mined that  thereafter  the  periodical  should  be 
considered  a  private  venture  and  that  it  must  stand 
as  other  journals,  on  its  merits. 

The  practical  phases  of  the  teachers'  work  were 
demonstrated  by  Mrs.  M.  A.  McGonegal  of  the 
Davenport  training  school  in  outlining  a  course  of 
study  for  primary  schools.  Mr.  C.  G.  Kretschmer  of 
Dubuque  illustrated  the  method  of  teaching  by  ob- 
jects; while  Miss  Emma  Quintrell  of  Sioux  City,  by 
means  of  a  class  of  thirty  pupils,  gave  a  model  read- 
ing lesson  before  the  Association.  There  was  much 
interest  manifested  also  in  the  matter  of  school  re- 
ports and  statistics,  which  at  that  time  were  ap- 
parently neglected  —  a  fact  that  accounts,  in  a 
measure,  for  the  failure  to  secure  accurate  informa- 
tion relative  to  the  school  system. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  an  address 
by  Oran  Faville  on  "School  Legislation"  at  the 
Dubuque  meeting  in  1864.  Now,  in  1870,  Mr.  A.  S. 
Kissell  addressed  the  Association  upon  the  ' '  School 
Legislation  of  Iowa:  Past,  Present,  and  Future." 
He  declared  that  since  1858  the  State  had  made  no 


A  FEDERATED  INSTITUTION  215 

improvement  in  school  legislation  and  that  the  laws 
were  so  "enigmatical"  that  the  intent  was  at  times 
difficult  to  determine.  A  gentleman  from  Pennsyl- 
vania being  introduced  at  this  juncture  said  that 
since  he  had  heard  of  the  great  State  of  Iowa  and  her 
excellent  school  system,  he  had  read  the  State 's  laws 
relative  to  schools  and  was  forced  to  conclude  that  if 
the  system  was  good  the  laws  did  not  reveal  it. 
Indeed,  he  pronounced  them  an  "incongruous  mess", 
and  incidentally  referred  to  the  disadvantages  of  the 
subdistrict  system. 

An  energetic  committee,  of  which  Professor  S.  N. 
Fellows  was  the  chairman,  had  been  at  work  since 
the  meeting  at  Marshalltown  the  preceding  year  in 
arousing  throughout  the  State  a  full  discussion  rela- 
tive to  the  establishment  of  a  State  normal  school. 
The  whole  matter  was  summarized  in  a  memorial  to 
the  General  Assembly  in  1870,  when  by  the  joint 
action  of  the  House  and  Senate  committees  and  the 
personal  attention  of  the  chairman  of  the  Associa- 
tion committee  a  bill  incorporating  the  wishes  of  the 
Association  was  prepared.  For  a  time  it  seemed 
certain  that  this  bill  would  pass,  and  its  subsequent 
defeat  could  not  be  explained  by  its  promoters. 
Nevertheless,  the  Association  determined  to  continue 
the  agitation  until  such  an  institution  was  secured  to 
the  State.  A  new  committee,  consisting  of  Henry  K. 
Edson,  Finley  M.  Witter,  Samuel  Calvin,  Stephen  N. 
Fellows,  C.  C.  Chamberlain,  and  John  K.  Sweeney, 
was  appointed  for  that  purpose.  Here,  then,  the 
aims  of  the  Association  were  clearly  defined,  and 


216         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

there  was  abundant  evidence  of  a  desire  to  place  the 
State  in  a  better  relative  position  educationally. 
This  was  shown  at  the  conclusion  of  the  session  in 
Waterloo,  when  through  the  endorsement  of  a 
formal  request  the  National  Teachers'  Association 
was  invited  to  meet  at  Davenport  in  1871.209 

In  1871  the  State  Association  assembled  on  the 
western  limits  of  the  State,  meeting  at  Council  Bluffs 
in  August.  Three  sectional  meetings  had  been  pro- 
vided—  primary,  grammar,  and  high  school.  Mrs. 
M.  A.  McGronegal  presided  over  the  first  of  these, 
Mr.  C.  P.  Eogers  over  the  second,  and  Mr.  F.  M. 
Witter  over  the  third.  The  separation  of  these  di- 
visions was  not,  however,  very  distinct  at  this  time, 
since  it  appears  that  papers  appropriate  to  each 
were  read  before  the  general  Association.  There 
was  a  college  division  also  in  accordance  with  the 
request  of  the  year  before,  and  this  was  presided 
over  by  Professor  L.  F.  Parker. 

It  might  be  said  that  the  Council  Bluffs  meeting 
was  devoted  to  high  schools,  since  that  department 
of  the  school  system  received  the  greatest  attention. 
The  committee  appointed  in  1869  had  failed  to  co- 
operate, and  therefore  a  new  committee  appointed  at 
Waterloo  had  formulated  a  report  for  1871.  It 
directed  attention  to  the  fact  that  conditions  then 
(in  1871)  demanded  at  least  three  special  courses  of 
study:  one  suitable  for  villages  and  small  towns, 
another  for  populous  districts,  and  a  third  for  cities 
where  there  would  be  a  large  regular  attendance  and 
a  well  graded  system.210  The  position  of  the  high 


A  FEDERATED  INSTITUTION  217 

school  in  the  educational  system  was  again  the  theme 
of  a  paper  in  that  section,  while  the  president  of  the 
Association,  Professor  S.  J.  Buck,  dwelt  upon  the 
province  of  the  institution  as  a  college  preparatory 
school  and  suggested  that  its  curriculum  should  be 
arranged  with  that  in  view.  Finally,  it  was  the 
opinion  of  some  that  the  law  should  require  the 
establishment  of  a  high  school  in  every  county  which 
had  a  population  of  seven  thousand  or  more.211 
Serious  consideration,  therefore,  was  certain  to  be 
given  to  this  phase  of  public  education  in  subsequent 
meetings. 

From  the  banks  of  the  Missouri  the  Association 
returned  to  Davenport  where  but  eighty  teachers 
assembled  in  August,  1872.  Among  the  first  events 
of  this  session  was  an  inquiry  relative  to  the  records 
of  the  organization.  A  "long  discussion",  it  was 
said,  ensued,  resulting  in  the  appointment  of  a  com- 
mittee to  '  *  investigate ' '.  It  was  discovered,  too,  that 
parts  of  the  constitution  were  lost  with  the  records, 
necessitating  another  search  for  or  restoration  of 
certain  amendments.  This  was  accomplished  by  sub- 
mitting a  complete  document  which  was  adopted  at 
this  session.  The  first  committee,  however,  recom- 
mended the  establishment  of  a  "  special  committee 
and  a  special  appropriation  from  the  funds  of  the 
association  to  carry  on  the  work"  of  publishing  a 
history  of  education  in  Iowa  from  the  beginning, 
which  was  to  be  completed  before  the  succeeding 
sessions. 

During  this  convention  the  school  system  was  se- 


218         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

verely  criticised,  indicating  dissatisfaction  with 
conditions,  more  especially  in  the  rural  districts. 
Superintendent  Abernethy  declared  that  the  great 
mass  of  the  people  were  so  opposed  to  supervision 
that  there  was  danger  of  its  entire  abolition.  Sharp 
reforms  were  needed  to  correct  prevailing  condi- 
tions which  were  produced,  it  was  asserted,  by  wrong 
principles  of  education  and  not  by  any  kind  of 
institution.  Some  differences  of  opinion  were  ex- 
pressed by  college  and  public  school  men  as  to  where 
the  responsibility  for  the  situation  should  rest. 
Some  would  endorse  a  truancy  or  compulsory  at- 
tendance law,  while  others  would  vigorously  oppose 
such  a  measure  because  the  people  were  not  prepared 
for  such  legislation.  It  may  be  noted  that  the  pro- 
posed law  was  recommended  by  Mr.  James  C.  Gil- 
christ,  then  principal  of  the  Cedar  Rapids  Normal 
College,  and  was  opposed  by  Mr.  William  M.  Wilcox, 
a  prominent  city  superintendent. 

It  was  on  this  occasion  that  President  A.  S. 
Welch  of  the  State  Agricultural  College  was  sum- 
moned by  telegraph  to  fill  a  vacancy  on  the  program. 
He  spoke  upon  the  "New  Education",  which  was 
defined  as  including  such  industrial  features  as  were 
taking  form  in  the  kind  of  institutions  which  he 
represented,  where  the  aim  was  "to  help  the  in- 
dustrious", not  to  "elevate  the  professions". 
During  the  session  many  of  the  former  recommenda- 
tions of  the  Association  were  repeated,  while  a  more 
recent  suggestion  would  amend  the  law  relative  to 
the  licensing  of  teachers  so  as  to  include  an  examina- 


A  FEDERATED  INSTITUTION  219 

tion  in  physiology  and  hygiene.  Finally,  it  was 
determined  to  urge  upon  all  educational  assemblies 
the  importance  of  educating  the  people  to  the  need 
of  a  township  system,  normal  schools,  and  more 
effective  county  supervision.212 

In  1873  the  annual  meeting  was  again  appointed 
at  Iowa  City,  but  on  this  occasion  the  Old  Stone 
Capitol  as  an  assembly  hall  gave  place  to  the  new 
University  Chapel  where  all  the  sessions  were  held. 
One  need  summarize  only  the  conclusions  of  this 
meeting  since  in  general  they  were  not  new.  The 
province  of  the  hoped-for  normal  schools  was  out- 
lined to  include  the  training  of  teachers  already 
employed,  those  expecting  to  instruct  in  the  common 
schools,  and  others  who  wished  to  qualify  for  prin- 
cipals and  superintendents.  As  before,  the  office  of 
county  superintendent  was  declared  to  be  of  great 
importance.  There  was  also  a  recommendation  that 
three  boards  of  examiners  be  established  —  a  State, 
a  county,  and  a  city  board  —  under  general  laws. 
The  first  should  consist  of  the  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction  and  four  others;  the  second,  of 
the  county  superintendent  and  two  others;  and  the 
third,  of  the  city  and  the  county  superintendent  and 
one  other.  A  recommendation  was  made  also  that  a 
competent  commission  be  authorized  to  "  simplify 
and  harmonize"  the  school  law.213 

The  next  year  (1874)  Des  Moines  entertained  the 
Association  for  the  second  time ;  and  it  is  noticeable 
that  among  those  invited  to  appear  on  the  program 
were  the  editor  of  the  Davenport  Gazette,  Waldo  M. 


220         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

Potter,  a  farmer  and  stock  raiser,  Colonel  John 
Scott,  and  a  member  of  the  law  faculty  of  the  State 
University,  William  G.  Hammond.  The  "  Press  and 
the  Free  Schools"  was  the  subject  of  the  editor; 
"The  Demand  of  the  Producing  Classes  for  a  more 
Practical  Education"  was  the  topic  of  the  farmer; 
and  "The  Eight  of  the  State  to  Establish  Schools  for 
Instruction  in  the  Higher  Branches  in  Education" 
was  the  theme  of  the  law  professor.  While  all  de- 
partments of  education  were  represented  there  were 
no  speakers  from  outside  the  State. 

A  large  attendance  of  the  "leading  teachers  of 
the  state"  and  also  of  "prominent  educators  from 
abroad"  composed  the  meeting  of  the  Association  at 
Burlington  in  1875.  This  was  the  first  time  that  the 
annual  meeting  had  been  held  during  the  holiday 
season,  or  so  late  in  December.  Professor  W.  F. 
Phelps  of  the  Winona,  Minnesota,  Normal  School 
addressed  the  Iowa  teachers  for  the  second  time. 
With  Superintendent  Duane  Doty  of  Chicago,  he 
represented  the  outside  talent  employed.  By  the 
provisions  of  the  executive  committee  all  grades  of 
work  were  included,  while  the  coming  international 
exhibition  (in  1876)  was  presented  for  immediate 
action.  The  legislative  committee  of  this  year,  con- 
sisting of  Mr.  S.  J.  Buck,  Mr.  E.  E.  Eldridge,  and 
Mr.  C.  P.  Eogers,  made  more  than  the  ordinary  num- 
ber of  recommendations  which  included  the  follow- 
ing: (1)  the  appointment  of  a  State  board  of 
examiners,  concerning  which  reference  has  been 
made;  (2)  the  election  of  the  county  superintendent 


A  FEDERATED  INSTITUTION  221 

by  a  board  of  education;  (3)  that  no  pupil  should  be 
admitted  under  six  years  of  age;  (4)  that  natural 
philosophy  and  drawing  should  be  added  to  subjects 
for  examination  of  all  teachers;  (5)  that  a  sanitary 
board  for  districts  be  established;  (6)  that  a  truant 
law  be  enacted;  (7)  that  better  control  of  institutes 
be  provided;  and  (8)  that  the  General  Assembly 
make  a  liberal  appropriation  for  the  State  educa- 
tional exhibit  at  Philadelphia.214 

On  December  26, 1876,  what  is  now  considered  the 
twenty-second  session  of  the  State  Teachers'  Asso- 
ciation assembled  in  the  Congregational  church  at 
Grinnell.  Not  since  1863  had  it  met  in  this  city.  On 
the  second  day  it  was  proposed  by  Mr.  T.  S.  Parvin 
that  the  proceedings  along  with  the  leading  papers 
be  published  at  the  expense  of  the  organization. 
This  proposition  was  finally  approved  the  third  day 
of  the  session  —  provided  the  amount  expended  did 
not  exceed  $100.  Once  before,  in  1869,  the  proceed- 
ings had  thus  been  distributed,  but  there  seems  to  be 
no  record  as  to  the  authority  for  the  action  on  that 
occasion.  It  is,  therefore,  possible  to  cite  an  inde- 
pendent publication  in  referring  to  the  session  of 
1876. 

The  centennial  exhibition  had  just  closed,  and 
from  it  the  president  of  the  Association,  Mr.  C.  P. 
Rogers,  drew  some  practical  lessons  in  his  inaugural 
address.  While  the  value  of  these  addresses  and 
papers  may  well  be  recognized  it  is  not  within  the 
scope  of  the  present  work  to  review  them  in  detail. 
The  president  dwelt  upon  the  demands  then  present. 


222         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

These  included  thoroughness  in  instruction,  a  union 
of  the  educational  forces  of  the  State,  the  recognition 
of  secondary  schools,  and  supervision.  In  this  ad- 
dress Mr.  Rogers  made  a  radical  recommendation  in 
which  he  proposed  to  "abolish  the  office  of  County 
Superintendent,  root  and  branch."  Moreover,  he 
would  substitute  a  plan  which  would  "let  the  presi- 
dents of  the  several  township  boards  constitute  a 
county  board  of  education,  clothed  with  power  to 
legislate  for  the  welfare  of  the  county  schools.  This 
board  should  have  power  to  appoint  a  superintendent 
and  to  fix  his  salary."  Furthermore,  in  order  to 
obtain  the  best  qualified  person  such  a  superintend- 
ent should  be  selected  either  from  without  or  from 
within  the  county.215  Thus  there  was  outlined  in 
1876  the  very  plan  subsequently  adopted  by  the 
commission  of  the  Association  in  1912  and  incor- 
porated into  the  law  of  1913. 

For  the  first  time,  it  appears,  the  subject  of 
"political  science  in  the  public  schools"  was  pre- 
sented to  a  State  convention  of  Iowa  teachers.  For 
the  first  time,  also,  the  principal  of  the  Iowa  State 
Normal  School,  Mr.  J.  C.  Gilchrist,  appeared  before 
the  Association  —  that  is  to  say,  in  his  official  ca- 
pacity to  present  the  scope  and  methods  of  normal 
school  instruction.  And  finally,  it  was  the  first  time 
that  a  woman  was  chosen  for  the  office  of  president, 
Miss  Phoebe  W.  Sudlow  of  Davenport  being  elected 
for  the  succeeding  year.  The  metric  system  was 
taken  up  again,  and  once  more  it  was  proposed  to 
make  due  preparation  for  its  adoption  which  seemed 
about  to  occur.216 


A  FEDERATED  INSTITUTION  223 

Just  before  the  next  annual  meeting,  which  was 
held  at  Cedar  Rapids,  it  was  said  that  "probably 
no  agency  has  done  more  to  inaugurate  educational 
reform  in  Iowa  than  the  State  Teachers'  Associa- 
tion. ' '  It  was  said  further,  that  in  no  Commonwealth 
was  there  greater  harmony  among  the  educational 
forces.  These  conclusions  were  presented  to  induce 
a  more  complete  organization  at  the  approaching 
session.  It  appears  to  have  been  the  practice  at  that 
time  to  use  home  talent  in  the  preparation  of  the 
annual  program,  for  on  this  occasion  but  one  speaker 
from  abroad,  Superintendent  J.  L.  Pickard  of  Chi- 
cago, was  present  to  discuss  "The  Education  of 
Women ' '. 

While  all  departments  of  the  Association  were 
represented  much  attention  was  given  in  executive 
sessions  to  the  reconstruction  of  proposed  legisla- 
tion. There  was  the  usual  procedure  in  the  election 
of  officers  under  the  constitution  as  revised  in  1872, 
by  which  the  nominating  committee  was  no  longer 
composed  of  one  from  each  county.  The  association 
of  principals  and  superintendents  was  granted  one 
hour  for  special  problems.  The  papers  before  the 
Association  included  the  subjects  of  moral  training, 
the  English  language,  the  intermediate  grades, 
political  science,  rural  school  architecture,  mathe- 
matics in  the  high  school,  normal  schools,  and  a 
report  on  the  metric  system  by  Professor  N.  E. 
Leonard  who  illustrated  his  paper  by  apparatus. 
The  last  subject  was  further  discussed  by  Professor 
Philbrick,  who  sketched  the  "origin,  introduction 


224         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

and  progress  of  the  metric  system."  Others  advo- 
cated that  the  members  do  " active  work"  to  bring 
about  a  change  in  this  State.  Just  at  this  time  the 
1  'Metric  Bureau"  was  in  session  in  Boston,  and 
communication  by  telegram  was  established  bringing 
the  following  response: 
To  P.  H.  Philbrick: 

Greetings,  and  the  strongest  active  co-operation  from 
the  Bureau.  The  largest  and  best  meeting  yet  held  —  three 
hundred  present.  Let  Iowa  keep  abreast. 

M.  DEWEY,  Sec. 

It  was  during  this  session  that  the  plan  of  col- 
lecting comparative  reports  from  city  school  systems 
was  inaugurated,  Mr.  W.  J.  Shoup  of  Dubuque 
having  made  the  suggestion  which  was  actively  sup- 
ported by  Mr.  E.  G.  Saunderson  of  Burlington.  Out 
of  this  movement  there  developed  a  system  of  re- 
ports under  uniform  rules,  which  was  adopted  by 
every  progressive  district.  Then,  there  was  a  propo- 
sition submitted  to  hold  an  "educational  congress" 
in  Iowa,  but  under  the  increasing  number  of  con- 
ventions and  associations  it  was  considered  as 
impracticable.  Indeed,  it  was  just  at  this  time  that 
several  organizations  had  arranged  to  hold  a  joint 
meeting  at  Iowa  City  in  conjunction  with  a  summer 
school  of  science  supported  by  the  University.217 
Since  instructions  were  given  at  this  meeting  to 
preserve  twenty-five  copies  of  the  proceedings  for 
the  archives  of  the  Association  one  may  conclude 
that  their  publication  was  authorized,  but  as  to  the 
location  of  the  ' '  archives ' '  there  was  no  specification. 


A  FEDERATED  INSTITUTION  225 

Although  the  associations  of  city  superintendents 
and  principals  and  county  superintendents,  which 
were  component  parts  of  the  State  Teachers'  Asso- 
ciation, met  during  the  summer  of  1878  their  deliber- 
ations must  be  incorporated  as  a  part  of  the  State 
meeting  at  Marshalltown  in  December  of  the  same 
year.  Indeed,  the  same  questions  were  arising  in 
both  the  general  and  the  auxiliary  associations.  One 
is  impressed  with  the  advocacy  of  the  use  of  the 
public  press  as  an  instrument  to  create  public  senti- 
ment favoring  the  schools  and  its  employment  by 
school  men.  There  are  also  evidences  of  the  ap- 
proaching commendation  or  condemnation  of  exam- 
inations and  of  the  "red  tape"  exercised  in 
supervision.  Furthermore,  the  right  of  the  State  to 
certain  definite  results  from  its  system  of  public 
instruction  was  presented  for  earnest  consideration ; 
while  the  relative  educational  value  of  Greek  and 
Latin  and  the  sciences  was  a  subject  in  harmony  with 
the  tendencies  of  the  period.  It  was  the  good  fortune 
of  the  Association  this  year  to  secure  the  assistance 
of  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris,  superintendent  of  the  schools 
of  St.  Louis,  who  spoke  on  the  "Theory  and  Art  of 
Education ' ' ;  while  Judge  George  G.  Wright  of  Iowa 
gave  a  practical  address  "full  of  advice  and  experi- 
ence, applicable  to  the  teachers'  profession."218 

During  the  summer  of  1879  three  branches  of  the 
Association  met  at  Clear  Lake  —  the  State  normal 
institute,  the  county  superintendents,  and  the  city 
superintendents  and  principals.  Among  these 
groups,  however,  were  many  college  men  who  were 

16 


226         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

not  identified  with  any  one  of  them.  Wisconsin  was 
drawn  upon  at  this  time  for  instruction,  Mr.  Eobert 
Graham,  an  expert  in  institute  management,  being 
present  from  that  State;  while  President  Newton 
Bateman  of  Knox  College  was  called  from  Illinois.219 

Six  cities  contested  for  the  privilege  of  entertain- 
ing the  State  Association  in  1879.  Against  the 
protests  of  some  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  State 
the  meeting  was  located  finally  at  Independence.  It 
was  shown  that  during  the  life  of  the  organization  it 
had  been  held  north  of  the  center  of  the  State  but 
three  times,  while  it  had  gone  south  for  eighteen 
years.  Although  there  were  threats  of  secession, 
such  folly  was  at  once  condemned.  There  was,  how- 
ever, an  "inter-state"  meeting  at  Allerton,  near  the 
Missouri  line,  while  the  State  convention  was  in 
session  at  Independence  —  an  action  which  was 
interpreted  as  a  reflection  on  the  wisdom  of  the 
executive  committee. 

Dr.  Mark  Ranney  introduced  a  new  subject  to  the 
teachers  of  Iowa  at  the  Independence  meeting,  for 
never  before  had  any  one  spoken  of  the  possibilities 
of  education  in  counteracting  the  tendency  to  in- 
sanity. Aside  from  this  there  was  no  new  feature 
presented  during  this  session,  although  the  social 
program  might  be  considered  as  setting  a  new  stand- 
ard for  entertainment  on  the  part  of  the  city  visited. 
But  this  was  not  vital  to  the  school  system  of  the 
State.  No  one,  it  appears,  came  from  beyond  the 
borders  of  the  Commonwealth  to  present  theories  or 
to  inspire  to  new  effort.220 


A  FEDERATED  INSTITUTION  227 

Des  Moines  was  chosen  for  the  annual  meeting  in 
1880.  Here  the  attendance  was  larger  than  at  any 
former  time.  There  was  an  apparent  demand  on  this 
occasion  for  a  more  active  service  on  the  part  of  the 
Association  in  organization,  in  legislation,  and  in 
providing  for  the  educating  of  public  opinion  through 
local  interests,  as  well  as  through  means  of  communi- 
cation that  would  make  the  general  Association  in- 
fluential. It  was  here,  too,  that  the  advisory  council 
for  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  was 
appointed.  But  the  only  event  out  of  the  ordinary 
seems  to  have  been  the  address  of  the  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Education,  General  John  Eaton.221 

It  was  in  1881,  at  Oskaloosa,  that  recommenda- 
tions were  made  for  section  meetings  the  following 
year,  in  order  that  common  interests  might  be  dis- 
cussed, the  previous  effort  in  this  respect  having 
failed  to  become  permanent.  Several  sections  met 
for  preliminary  organization  before  final  adjourn- 
ment, and  thus  prepared  for  the  succeeding  session. 
It  should  be  mentioned  that  one  paper  on  this  occa- 
sion caused  some  excitement  in  the  ranks  of  the 
Association,  namely,  the  one  on  "The  Psychology  of 
Crime ' '.  There  seemed  to  be  none  who  were  friendly 
to  the  speaker's  opinion  —  which  was  an  uncommon 
occurrence.222 

Somewhere  in  the  series  of  annual  meetings  pre- 
vious to  1880  the  long  established  custom  of  closing 
with  the  doxology  and  benediction  was  abandoned. 
In  1882,  however,  the  doxology  was  sung  at  the  be- 
ginning, and  thus  the  session  was  opened  at  Cedar 


228         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

Falls  —  which  was  a  new  meeting  place.  The 
executive  committee  of  this  period  had  invited  sug- 
gestions relative  to  the  subjects  for  consideration, 
and  thereafter  set  a  new  example  in  distributing  the 
proposed  program  broadcast  over  the  State.  It  was 
the  opinion  of  many  in  this  convention  that  the  con- 
stitution of  the  Association  should  be  revised,  and 
action  was  taken  with  that  end  in  view.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  it  was  necessary  in  1872  to  restore 
the  constitution,  parts  of  which  had  been  lost,  and  in 
so  doing  certain  changes  had  been  made  in  that 
document  in  harmony  with  the  growth  of  the  organ- 
ization. The  committee  for  the  purpose  of  this 
second  revision  in  1882  included  S.  N.  Fellows,  Gr.  L. 
Farnham,  W.  J.  Shoup,  M.  W.  Bartlett,  and  S.  T. 
Boyd. 

It  appears  that  the  Association  through  its  exec- 
utive committee  had  taken  an  active  part  in  aiding 
Iowa  College  in  restoring  some  losses  caused  by  the 
great  cyclone  of  1882.  Owing  to  the  great  interest 
of  the  members  in  that  event  Professor  H.  K.  Edson, 
by  request,  gave  a  vivid  description  of  what  occurred 
in  the  catastrophe  which  left  the  college  without  a 
class  room.  It  is  noted,  too,  that  the  incident  of  the 
previous  year,  when  the  paper  on  the  psychology  of 
crime  was  so  severely  attacked,  was  revived  in  an- 
other instance  which  served  to  provide,  to  some 
extent,  for  a  further  study  of  unfortunates.  Then, 
"The  Legal  Bights  and  Duties  of  Teachers",  pre- 
sented by  Professor  Emlin  McClain  of  the  State 
University,  seemed  timely;  while  that  on  "Indus- 


A  FEDERATED  INSTITUTION  229 

trial  Education",  by  Mr.  C.  P.  Rogers,  was  more  or 
less  prophetic.  It  was  in  1882,  moreover,  that  the 
movement  to  secure  Federal  aid  for  common  schools 
was  before  Congress,  and  the  members  of  the  Iowa 
Teachers '  Association,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Na- 
tional Association,  requested  Iowa  members  of  the 
House  and  Senate  to  support  the  measure. 

Previous  to  the  adjournment  of  this  session  the 
city  superintendents'  and  principals'  section  ar- 
ranged for  a  committee  conference  on  the  revision 
of  the  constitution,  in  which  the  matter  of  the  ap- 
pointment of  an  " executive  council"  should  be  con- 
sidered. Another  committee,  also  from  this  section, 
was  instructed  to  confer  with  a  similar  body  from 
the  college  section  relative  to  a  course  of  study 
preparatory  to  entering  college.  Finally,  the  Asso- 
ciation pledged  its  support  to  the  prohibitory  amend- 
ment to  the  State  Constitution.223  Thus,  for  ten 
years,  the  Association  had  operated  under  the  second 
constitution  and  had  developed  certain  new  phases 
of  effort  by  which  there  was  a  growing  tendency 
toward  unification  of  purposes  as  a  whole,  yet  with  a 
decided  demand  for  specialization  through  depart- 
ments. 


XV 
INCOBPOBATION  AND  EXPANSION 

THE  twenty-ninth  session  of  the  State  Teachers' 
Association  when  assembled  in  Des  Moines  in  1883 
was  without  a  president  or  a  first  vice-president,  both 
having  left  the  State.  The  former,  Mr.  W.  W.  Speer, 
had  become  identified  with  the  schools  of  Chicago; 
while  the  latter,  Mr.  G.  D.  Farnham,  had  become  con- 
nected with  the  schools  of  Nebraska.  Thus,  it  be- 
came the  duty  of  the  second  vice-president,  Mr.  L.  L. 
Klinefelter,  to  preside.  A  proposal  of  the  executive 
committee,  composed  at  this  time  of  Homer  H. 
Seerley,  Charles  E.  Bessey,  and  Leonard  W.  Parish, 
favored  the  establishment  of  the  Association  at  some 
permanent  meeting  place,  thus  providing  a  central 
point  favorable  to  all  teachers  in  the  State.  Al- 
though the  Association  had  always  been  represented 
in  national  meetings,  now  for  the  first  time  it  ap- 
pears, a  small  appropriation,  not  to  exceed  twenty- 
five  dollars,  was  recommended  for  the  use  of  the 
Iowa  delegate  or  director  of  the  National  Associa- 
tion. 

It  was  in  1883  that  the  committee  chairman  re- 
ported the  new  constitution,  which  after  some 
consideration  was  adopted.  Thereafter,  three  de- 
partments —  the  county  superintendents  and  normal 

230 


INCORPORATION  AND  EXPANSION          231 

department,  the  graded  and  high  school  department, 
and  the  college  and  university  department  —  were 
to  compose  the  Association;  while  provision  was 
made  for  the  organization  of  other  sections  upon  the 
written  application  of  twenty  members.  The  new 
document  made  provision  also  for  an  educational 
council.  Furthermore,  under  the  requirements  of 
the  by-laws  enrolled  members  only  were  to  be  per- 
mitted to  vote,  and  receipts  for  annual  fees  might  be 
demanded  before  the  casting  of  ballots. 

The  first  educational  council,  consisting  of  twenty 
members  from  the  general  Association  and  the 
several  departments,  was  organized  this  year. 
Indeed,  the  entire  session  was  arranged  in  accord- 
ance with  the  new  constitution.  It  is  worthy  of  note 
that  previous  to  this  time  a  contract  had  been  made 
with  the  Iowa  Normal  Monthly  to  publish  the  pro- 
ceedings, which  thereupon  became  available  to 
enrolled  members.  Thus  the  valuable  contributions 
of  numerous  papers  were  preserved.224 

The  next  session  (in  1884)  was  also  held  at  Des 
Moines,  but  on  the  west  side  of  the  river.  Thus  the 
custom  of  moving  from  year  to  year  was  not  broken. 
Plymouth  church,  the  scene  of  so  many  sessions  of 
this  organization,  housed  the  meeting  which  enrolled 
a  largely  increased  number,  or  a  total  of  336.  The 
chairman  of  the  executive  committee,  Professor  C.  E. 
Bessey,  like  the  president  and  vice-president  before, 
had  left  the  State.  He  had  become  a  member  of  the 
faculty  of  the  University  of  Nebraska,  but  remained 
loyal  to  the  Iowa  Association.  He  sent  his  enroll- 


232         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

ment  fee  by  mail  and  telegraphed  his  registration. 
The  State  University  faculty,  being  detained  by  a 
late  closing  of  the  fall  term,  sent  regrets  through 
President  Pickard  who  gave  the  reasons  for  their 
non-attendance.  Superintendent  J.  W.  Akers,  Pro- 
fessor T.  H.  Macbride,  and  Professor  Samuel  Calvin, 
who  were  at  the  exposition  in  New  Orleans'  in  the 
interests  of  the  Iowa  educational  exhibit,  forwarded 
a  message  relative  to  the  outlook  at  that  place.225 

In  1885  six  hundred  teachers  were  in  attendance 
at  the  Association  meeting  which  for  the  third  time 
in  succession  was  held  at  Des  Moines.  Over  four 
hundred  of  those  present  were  enrolled.  The  feature 
of  this  session  was  the  address  by  Mr.  Jonathan  P. 
Dolliver  on  "Public  Virtue  as  a  Question  of  Poli- 
tics". No  one  was  called  from  outside  the  State  to 
assist  in  providing  instruction  or  entertainment,  and 
it  was  declared  that  more  interest  was  manifested 
than  for  several  years.  This  year,  too,  the  proceed- 
ings were  issued  as  a  separate  publication,  a  practice 
which  has  ever  since  been  followed.226 

The  annual  meeting  of  1886  was  distinguished  by 
the  appointment  of  a  woman  to  the  executive  com- 
mittee. It  had  been  pointed  out  that  while  three- 
fourths  of  the  teaching  force  was  composed  of  women 
only  one  appeared  upon  the  program  among  forty 
participants  —  which  seemed  to  be  a  sufficient  reason 
for  a  radical  change.  Superintendent  J.  M.  Green- 
wood of  Kansas  City  was  the  only  one  in  addition  to 
Iowa  teachers  who  had  a  part  in  the  program. 
Governor  William  Larrabee  gave  the  Association  an 


INCORPORATION  AND  EXPANSION         233 

entire  evening  in  an  address  upon  the  "  Ideal 
School".  It  was  this  convention,  which,  upon  the 
suggestion  of  Mr.  T.  S.  Parvin,  decided  to  present 
the  matter  of  State  recognition  of  the  Association  to 
the  executive  council,  and  if  necessary  to  the  General 
Assembly.227 

It  was  in  1886  also  that  the  section  devoted  to 
secondary  instruction  held  its  first  session  and  be- 
came a  recognized  department  of  the  Association; 
that  the  movement  for  a  reading  course  for  children 
was  inaugurated ;  that  graded  and  supervised  town- 
ship schools  were  proposed;  that  the  Association 
ordered  a  congratulatory  letter  to  be  forwarded  to 
Berryman  Jennings,  Iowa's  first  teacher;  and  that 
the  educational  council  urged  the  more  extensive 
establishment  of  county  and  city  high  schools,  or,  if 
these  could  not  be  provided,  endowed  academies,  in 
order  that  the  " youth  of  Iowa"  might  have  advan- 
tages beyond  the  district  school. 

After  several  successive  meetings  at  the  capital 
of  the  State,  the  session  of  1887  was  called  at  Cedar 
Rapids  where  more  than  four  hundred  were  enrolled. 
Instead  of  one  woman,  as  in  1886,  there  were  now 
eight  who  shared  in  the  literary  proceedings  —  thus 
fulfilling  the  predictions  made  the  year  before  when 
a  woman  was  elected  to  the  executive  committee. 
Again  the  entire  program  was  provided  by  home 
talent,  the  chief  address  being  given  by  Mr.  S.  M. 
Clark  of  Keokuk,  a  favorite  speaker  among  Iowa 
teachers.  At  this  session  the  articles  of  incorpora- 
tion, prepared  by  a  committee  appointed  the  pre- 


234         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

ceding  year,  were  adopted.  By  the  terms  of  this 
document  the  principal  place  of  business  was  fixed 
at  Des  Moines,  Iowa,  and  by  it  provision  was  made 
for  five  departments  —  a  department  of  penmanship 
and  drawing  being  added  to  those  already  estab- 
lished.228 

During  the  annual  meeting  of  1888  the  women 
teachers  of  the  State  perfected  an  organization,  not 
as  a  part  of  the  Association,  but  to  meet  yearly  at  the 
same  time.  Of  this  organization  Mrs.  L.  T.  Weld 
was  the  first  president.  For  the  second  time  a 
woman,  Miss  Lottie  E.  Granger,  was  chosen  presi- 
dent of  the  Association;  and  in  order  to  make  sure 
that  a  woman  would  occupy  the  executive  office  at  the 
next  meeting,  another  woman  was  selected  for  first 
vice-president.  Again  the  Association  determined 
to  meet  at  the  capital  of  the  State.  Indeed  it  was 
clear  that  the  time  would  soon  come  when  Des  Moines 
would  be  made  the  permanent  meeting  place  for  these 
annual  conventions.  Once  more,  too,  the  matter  of 
preserving  the  early  history  of  the  institution,  now 
an  incorporated  body,  was  presented,  with  the  result 
that  authority  was  given  to  proceed  with  such  prep- 
aration as  might  be  necessary  to  place  this  material 
in  the  souvenir  number  of  the  Iowa  Normal  Monthly. 
This  suggestion  had  been  made,  it  appears,  through 
Mr.  George  B.  Dennison  of  Muscatine,  a  member  of 
the  first  executive  committee  (1854),  and  Mr.  C.  C. 
Nestlerode,  twice  president  of  the  Association  while 
he  was  in  charge  of  the  Tipton  Union  School  from 
1856  to  1862.229 


INCORPORATION  AND  EXPANSION         235 

While  but  five  hundred  had  identified  themselves 
with  the  Association  in  1888,  the  next  year  witnessed 
a  remarkable  increase,  when  more  than  eight  hun- 
dred registered  as  members.  For  the  first  time,  it 
appears,  the  session  extended  into  the  New  Year. 
Moreover  the  convention  of  that  year  established  a 
noteworthy  record,  not  only  in  attendance  but  also 
in  the  reports  submitted,  the  most  complete  report 
being  that  of  the  committee  on  "  Educational 
Progress",  which  included  information  from  many 
sources  relative  to  legislation,  higher  education, 
associations,  industrial  education,  judicial  decisions, 
co-education,  and  text-books.  Furthermore,  the  edu- 
cational council  presented  the  draft  of  a  compulsory 
attendance  bill  for  the  consideration  of  the  general 
Association,  by  which  it  was  approved  although  a 
minority  of  the  council  had  reported  adversely.230 

When  the  Association  met  in  annual  session  in 
1890  attention  was  directed  toward  the  preparation 
that  would  be  necessary  for  the  approaching  Co- 
lumbian exposition;  whereupon  action  was  taken  to 
cooperate  with  the  Iowa  commission.  But  no  excep- 
tional movements  mark  the  session  of  this  year, 
although  it  is  noticeable  that  two  outside  speak- 
ers, Dr.  E.  E.  White  of  Ohio  and  Superintendent 
George  Rowland  of  Chicago,  were  placed  upon  the 
program.231  There  was  a  tendency  at  this  time  to 
subdivide  the  organization  into  small  sections  —  a 
movement  which  threatened,  it  was  said,  to  destroy 
some  departments  previously  established.  Subse- 
quent events  will  illustrate  this  point. 


236         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

In  the  convention  of  1891  Dr.  Andrew  S.  Draper 
gave  the  principal  evening  address.  Indeed,  the 
custom  of  drawing  upon  other  States  for  such  sup- 
port seems  to  have  been  practiced  from  1890  to  date 
without  exception.  Preparations  were  now  under 
way  for  the  coming  exposition,  and  the  claims  of  that 
great  event  upon  the  schools  of  Iowa  were  presented 
by  Professor  Thomas  H.  Macbride.  Within  a  period 
of  ten  years  it  had  fallen  to  him  to  supervise  the 
installation  of  two  school  exhibits  —  one  at  Madison, 
Wisconsin,  and  one  at  New  Orleans  —  and  so  his  sug- 
gestions were  authoritative.  It  is  worthy  of  mention 
also  that  the  section  of  city  superintendents  and  prin- 
cipals held  its  first  independent  session  this  year.232 

A  special  feature,  limited,  however,  to  one  hour 
of  the  entire  session  of  1892,  gave  recognition  to  the 
pioneers  who  established  the  Association.  While  but 
two  members,  Mrs.  George  B.  Dennison  and  Mr.  T.  S. 
Parvin,  of  the  original  Association  organized  in  1854 
were  present  on  this  occasion,  papers  of  great  in- 
terest were  sent  by  others  who  were  personally 
acquainted  with  the  facts  of  thirty-eight  years  be- 
fore. Henry  W.  Lathrop,  C.  C.  Nestlerode,  H.  K. 
Edson,  Jerome  Allen,  and  E.  E.  Eldridge,  each  sub- 
mitted reminiscences  which  have  been  preserved  in 
the  published  proceedings.  Although  this  session 
had  been  called  at  Cedar  Rapids,  after  several  suc- 
cessive meetings  at  Des  Moines,  it  is  noteworthy  that 
an  amendment  to  the  constitution  was  now  proposed 
which  would  fix  the  meeting  permanently  at  the 
capital  of  the  State.  Another  event  of  more  than 


INCORPORATION  AND  EXPANSION         237 

ordinary  interest  was  recognized  in  the  retirement 
of  Mr.  D.  W.  Lewis  from  the  office  of  treasurer  after 
a  quarter  century  of  continuous  service.233 

Since  1893  the  State  has  published  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  Association.  The  first  action  taken  on 
this  matter  appears  to  have  been  during  the  session 
of  the  year  just  mentioned,  when  the  executive  com- 
mittee was  instructed  to  secure  the  necessary  assist- 
ance through  the  department  of  public  instruction.234 
There  were  in  1893  seven  section  meetings  in  addi- 
tion to  the  educational  council,  and  also  nine  * '  round 
table ' '  groups ;  but  to  cover  the  growth  of  these  and 
the  development  of  the  Association  along  lines  that 
have  included  every  phase  of  educational  activity 
would  require  an  entire  volume. 

The  enrollment  had  increased  in  1894  to  over  nine 
hundred,  and  the  sections  of  library  and  school  offi- 
cers were  recognized  as  component  parts  of  the  insti- 
tution, while  the  rural  teachers  had  arranged  for  a 
round  table  in  conjunction  with  the  other  grades  of 
work.  It  had  been  said  by  Deputy  Superintendent 
Ira  C.  Kling,  an  authority  on  this  matter,  that  the 
organic  school  law  had  not  been  changed  in  any 
fundamental  way  since  1858,  when  country  schools 
were  the  only  ones  in  operation.  Therefore,  what 
"round  table"  was  more  appropriate  than  that  for 
rural  school  teachers  ?  It  was  in  1894,  also,  that  the 
Iowa  Society  for  Child  Study  came  into  existence, 
under  the  direction  of  a  few  leaders,  notably,  H.  E. 
Kratz,  0.  C.  Scott,  and  C.  P.  Rogers. 

The  events  of  1895  and  1896,  when  the  enrollment 


238         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

of  nearly  eleven  hundred  showed  something  of  the 
possibilities  in  attendance,  included  a  revision  of  the 
constitution  which  seemed  to  be  so  outgrown  that 
changes  had  become  quite  necessary.  The  constitu- 
tion was  adopted  as  revised  in  1896,  and  thereafter 
under  its  provisions  the  district  and  county  organ- 
izations w^ere  to  be  recognized  as  ' '  subordinate  asso- 
ciations ' '.  As  such,  moreover,  they  were  to  provide 
for  united  action  through  county  delegates  who 
should  meet  in  district  conventions ;  and  in  this  joint 
meeting  provision  should  be  made  for  two  members 
from  each  county  in  the  several  districts  as  official 
representatives  to  the  State  meeting.  The  difficulties 
surrounding  the  growing  number  of  sections  and 
round  tables  were  partly  obviated  by  the  revision. 
But  the  revised  articles  of  incorporation  adopted 
in  1896  were  so  reconstructed  the  next  year  that  the 
somewhat  complicated  provision  for  delegate  repre- 
sentation from  counties  and  districts  was  removed, 
thus  giving  no  real  opportunity  for  a  trial  of  its 
operation.  There  were  four  prominent  speakers 
from  other  States  before  the  session  of  1895,  namely, 
Commissioner  W.  T.  Harris  of  Washington,  D.  C., 
David  Starr  Jordan  of  Leland  Stanford,  Jr.,  Uni- 
versity, and  John  M.  Coulter  and  Miss  Florence  Hoi- 
brook  of  Chicago.  In  1896  there  were  but  two  out- 
siders—Mr. C.  B.  Gilbert  of  St.  Paul,  and  Mr. 
Booker  T.  Washington  of  Tuskegee  —  while  in  the 
years  before  1890  the  Association  had  generally 
made  up  the  entire  program  of  persons  from  within 
the  State.235 


INCORPORATION  AND  EXPANSION          239 

The  convention  of  1897  was  noteworthy  on  ac- 
count of  the  unanimous  expression  of  good  will  to- 
ward Henry  Sabin,  who  retired  from  eight  years  of 
service  as  State  Superintendent.  By  resolution  of 
the  Association  he  was  made  "Superintendent 
Emeritus"  as  long  as  he  should  live,  and,  further- 
more, upon  him  was  conferred  "in  perpetuity  the 
freedom  of  the  state  teachers'  association."236 

Although  large  inducements  had  been  offered  by 
other  cities,  the  meeting  for  1898  was  appointed  at 
the  capital  where,  on  this  occasion,  the  main  subject 
for  consideration  seems  to  have  been:  "Do  the 
schools  meet  the  reasonable  demands  of  the  people  t ' ' 
For  the  third  time,  it  appears,  this  subject  had  come 
before  the  Association  and  it  was  officially  recom- 
mended for  consideration  by  all  departments  and 
round  tables  during  the  session.237  Again,  in  1899  a 
general  discussion  was  featured  in  all  departments 
relative  to  the  desirability  of  greater  efficiency  and 
power  of  the  Association  in  the  State.  At  this  ses- 
sion the  noted  journalist,  Murat  Halstead,  was  prob- 
ably the  greatest  attraction.238 

It  was  in  1900  that  provision  was  made  for  a 
reserve  emergency  fund  of  $1000  by  instructing  the 
executive  committee  to  set  aside  $100  annually  until 
such  sum  had  been  accumulated.  This  sum  was  to  be 
used  only  in  emergencies  and  then  only  under  the 
authority  of  the  Association.  It  was  made  the  duty 
of  the  executive  committee  to  submit  thereafter  an 
annual  report  relative  to  the  principal  and  interest 
in  this  fund  and  to  make  inquiry  as  to  the  will  of  the 


240'        HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

organization  when  the  principal  amount  had  been 
reserved.239 

On  December  20, 1901,  the  committee  of  twelve  of 
the  State  Teachers '  Association,  which  had  been  en- 
gaged for.  some  months  in  the  work,  completed  the 
high  school  manual  and  submitted  it  to  the  Associa- 
tion on  the  28th  of  the  same  month.  Although  full 
consideration  of  this  valuable  effort  must  be  de- 
ferred, it  may  be  said  in  this  connection  that  the 
Association  at  the  session  of  1900  had  provided  for 
financial  support  in  placing  the  manual  in  the  hands 
of  high  school  authorities  in  the  State.  Another 
recommendation  relative  to  "  teachers  examina- 
tions" made  by  the  educational  council  in  1901  was 
an  important  contribution  to  the  studies  on  that  sub- 
ject and  probably  influenced  subsequent  legislation. 
A  notable  experiment  of  the  convention  was  the  pro- 
vision for  its  continuation  over  Sunday  with  a  suit- 
able series  of  events  appropriate  to  the  day.  On  this 
occasion  Bishop  J.  L.  Spaulding  delivered  an  address 
upon  ''Moral  Education",  while  the  afternoon  was 
given  up  to  the  Sunday  school  as  an  educational 
factor.240 

Again  in  1902  the  Association  had  under  consid- 
eration the  proposition  for  another  exposition  for 
which  a  committee  was  appointed  to  cooperate  with 
the  State  department  of  public  instruction.  The 
next  year  the  plans  already  matured  were  approved. 
At  both  these  sessions  an  advanced  stand  was  taken 
on  the  new  compulsory  attendance  law,  as  well  as  on 
some  needed  legislation  relative  to  the  certification 


INCORPORATION  AND  EXPANSION         241 

of  teachers  and  to  a  substantial  provision  by  which 
their  compensation  might  be  more  equitable.  It  was 
in  fact  declared  that  a  campaign  of  education  should 
be  instituted  to  accomplish  these  results.  It  was  in 
1902,  furthermore,  that  an  effort  was  made  through 
an  amendment  to  the  constitution  to  abolish  the  edu- 
cational council,  but  the  support  for  such  a  movement 
was  not  of  sufficient  strength  to  bring  success.241 

It  was  fitting  that  the  convention  of  1904  should 
include  an  observance  of  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of 
the  life  of  the  Association.  That  nearly  a  full  day 
devoted  to  a  review  of  education  in  the  half  century 
should  not  be  held  as  too  much  of  the  session  to 
commemorate  suitably  the  events  of  these  years  is 
worthy  of  note.  Indeed,  the  1904  meeting  will  re- 
main as  one  of  the  most  important  for  that  reason 
alone,  although  the  great  winter  storm  prevented 
the  fulfillment  of  all  the  plans  of  the  executive  com- 
mittee.242 

It  has  been  said  that  a  new  spirit  of  progress  and 
unity  marked  the  annual  meeting  of  1905,  when  more 
than  thirteen  hundred  members  were  registered.  It 
was  determined  on  this  occasion  to  use  all  the  forces 
of  the  Association  in  an  endeavor  to  secure  legis- 
lative action  on  at  least  one  desired  reform,  namely, 
the  certification  of  teachers,  for  which  the  legislative 
committee  had  provided  a  measure.  Heretofore,  it 
appears,  there  had  not  been  a  united  effort  in  such 
instances.243  The  results  of  this  movement  are  well 
known.  In  cooperating  a  real  influence  was  brought 
to  bear  upon  the  General  Assembly. 

17 


242         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

In  1906  and  1907  the  movement  for  further  re- 
form and  advancement  was  continued,  and  to  en- 
courage it  many  prominent  leaders  in  educational 
thought  were  brought  from  distant  States.  It  is 
noticeable,  too,  that  industrial  training  was  receiving 
attention  in  making  up  the  annual  program.  Indeed, 
a  careful  study  of  the  growth  of  the  Association  will 
reveal  the  educational  innovations  as  they  were  rec- 
ognized as  meeting  in  some  measures  the  demands 
of  the  time.  In  1907  the  executive  committee  sought 
to  discover  the  preference  of  the  teachers  of  the 
State  relative  to  the  place  of  meeting,  but  with  little 
satisfaction  as  to  interest  in  the  matter.  It  was 
therefore  retained  at  Des  Moines.  Again,  in  the 
spring  of  1908  a  vote  relative  to  changing  the  annual 
meeting  from  the  holiday  season  to  an  earlier  date 
was  taken,  with  the  result  that  beginning  with  1909 
the  convention  has  assembled  in  November.244  Thus 
the  way  was  opened  for  a  large  increase  in  the  at- 
tendance. 

The  convention  in  1908  approved  the  work  of  the 
commission  appointed  to  revise  and  codify  the  school 
laws,  and  the  measures  proposed  by  that  body  were 
supported  before  the  General  Assembly  by  members 
of  the  Association.  In  1909  the  effort  to  establish  a 
larger  district  unit  was  endorsed,  and,  although 
previous  legislation  was  accepted  with  a  purpose  to 
make  it  effective,  the  necessity  for  amendment  in  the 
near  future  was  well  foreseen.  It  was  in  1910  that 
the  last  revision  of  the  articles  of  incorporation  was 
submitted,  by  which  the  legislative  committee  was 


INCORPORATION  AND  EXPANSION         243 

established  on  the  basis  of  three  representatives 
from  each  congressional  district  —  that  is  to  say, 
thirty-three  in  all,  one-third  of  whom  should  retire 
from  office  annually. 

The  business  of  this  rather  large  representation 
thereafter  was  to  consist  mainly  in  recommending 
subjects  for  consideration  by  the  educational  council, 
and  in  presenting  to  the  General  Assembly  such 
legislation  as  the  council  might  direct.  There  were, 
furthermore,  some  minor  changes  in  the  designation 
of  the  departments  recognized  as  composing  the 
Association,  while  an  important  provision  made  all 
persons,  who  had  maintained  membership  in  the 
Association  for  three  years  in  succession,  members 
also  of  the  educational  council.  One  should  note  like- 
wise the  effect  of  the  change  in  the  convention  sea- 
son; for,  although  in  1909,  the  first  year  of  the 
change,  the  enrollment  as  indicated  by  fees  was  less 
than  1500,  it  was  shown  to  have  reached  nearly  3900 
in  1910,  and  more  recently  has  exceeded  5000.245 

With  more  than  $2000  in  the  permanent  fund,  in 
accordance  with  amendments  to  resolutions  hereto- 
fore mentioned,  and  with  more  than  $3000  at  the 
command  of  the  treasurer,  some  field  of  operation 
could  well  be  financed  by  the  organization.  It  was 
therefore  appropriate  that  a  most  important  piece  of 
fundamental  work  should  be  undertaken  for  which 
the  Association  in  1911  set  aside  $2000  of  its  ac- 
cumulated funds  —  not  to  pay  men,  indeed,  but  to 
further  the  cause  of  education,  thus  exemplifying  the 
old-time  spirit  of  the  pioneers  of  the  institution 


244         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

whose  words  had  so  recently  been  made  a  part  of  the 
Association  records.  This  movement,  pronounced  as 
one  of  the  most  significant  in  the  history  of  the 
Association,  had  in  view  an  " educational  campaign" 
which  should  seek,  first  of  all,  for  definite  informa- 
tion relative  to  conditions  which  might  form  a  basis 
for  subsequent  action.  From  this  there  resulted  the 
appointment  of  the  body  known  as  the  "Better  Iowa 
Schools  Commission",  which  in  1912  presented  to  the 
Association,  and  subsequently  to  the  General  As- 
sembly, a  number  of  important  conclusions  as  well 
as  some  radical  recommendations  relative  to  legis- 
lation.246 While  this  accomplishment  may  be  viewed 
as  but  a  beginning  of  the  true  effort  of  the  organ- 
ization, it  would  seem  to  be  a  fitting  conclusion  to  so 
many  years  of  activity  during  which  no  session  has 
ever  been  wholly  abandoned. 

Thus,  from  the  call  of  less  than  twenty  teachers 
in  1854  when  rate  bills  were  yet  the  fashion,  when 
there  were  no  free  schools,  when  great  sacrifice  must 
be  made  to  reach  a  given  destination  by  primitive 
methods  of  transportation,  when  a  half  hundred  was 
a  large  attendance,  when  debts  were  met  by  subscrip- 
tion, and  when  enthusiasm  was  the  chief  reward  for 
the  investment  of  energy  and  hard-earned  dollars, 
the  State  Teachers'  Association  has  come  to  1914 
with  thousands  of  members,  and  thousands  in  the 
treasury  —  with  members  who  know  little  of  the  ex- 
perience or  of  the  names  of  pioneers  or  of  rate  bills 
or  association  debts.  A  volume,  dedicated  to  the 
pioneers  who  founded  it,  should  be  devoted  to  the 
history  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers'  Association. 


XVI 
COUNTY  AND  DISTRICT  ASSOCIATIONS 

WHILE  the  greater  number  of  minor  meetings  among 
teachers  of  similar  grades  of  work  and  also  of  con- 
ventions of  a  general  nature  but  local  in  organization 
are  of  recent  origin,  there  are  some  that  were  insti- 
tuted at  a  comparatively  early  day.  For  instance,  on 
February  21,  1857,  the  first  session  of  the  Cedar 
County  teachers  association  convened  at  Rochester, 
where  the  first  subject  under  consideration,  the 
"  Cause  and  Cure  for  the  present  Apathy  on  the 
subject  of  Education",  was  discussed  by  William 
McClain,  H.  Starr,  C.  C.  Nestlerode,  and  Samuel 
Dewell,  all  of  Cedar  County,  and  by  D.  Franklin 
Wells  of  Iowa  City.  That  this  was  not  a  temporary 
organization  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  it  held  its 
thirteenth  session  in  1861  and  that  it  had  been  so 
well  maintained  that  county  school  matters  were 
practically  dictated  by  it. 

At  its  first  session  measures  were  taken  to  estab- 
lish a  local  standard  of  qualification  for  teachers; 
and  for  that  definite  purpose  three  persons  were 
appointed  as  a  county  board  of  examiners,  who  were 
authorized  by  this  self-appointed  agency  to  examine 
and  certificate  teachers  "in  the  name  and  on  behalf 
of"  the  association.  This  board  was  instructed, 

245 


246         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

moreover,  to  fix  the  standard  of  qualification  just  as 
high  as  the  demand  for  teachers  would  permit,  and 
to  establish  three  grades  of  licenses.  It  is  noticeable 
that  all  persons  should  be  examined  in  "physiol- 
ogy", irrespective  of  whether  such  a  subject  was 
required  under  the  laws  of  the  State.  It  was  ordered 
further  by  the  association  that  two  annual  examina- 
tions should  be  held,  while  the  treasury  of  the  organ- 
ization would  become  responsible  for  expenses 
incurred  in  providing  record  books  and  for  "printing 
plain,  neat  certificates."  Other  committees  were 
charged  with  the  examination  of  text-books  for  the 
information  of  the  association;  to  correspond  with 
publishers  relative  to  prices  "wholesale,  retail  and 
[for]  introduction";  to  draft  a  plan  for  organizing 
and  conducting  a  county  library  for  teachers,  with 
township  branches;  and  to  investigate  the  various 
kinds  of  school  furniture. 

Later,  in  1861,  after  the  authority  of  the  county 
superintendent  to  visit  schools  had  been  repealed,  it 
appears  that  this  association  through  its  committee 
on  superintendency,  employed  the  county  superin- 
tendent, Mr.  James  McClung,  to  visit  schools  at  the 
expense  of  the  organization  which  had  guaranteed 
him  two  dollars  per  day.  Again,  it  is  observed  that 
the  cooperation  sought  by  the  Secretary  of  the  State 
Board  of  Education  in  holding  the  series  of  insti- 
tutes, as  outlined  in  a  former  chapter,  was  not  agreed 
to  on  account  of  the  unfavorable  time  of  year  (July) 
which  had  been  assigned  to  Cedar  County.247  Other 
counties,  doubtless,  were  fully  as  ambitious  as  Cedar, 


COUNTY  AND  DISTRICT  ASSOCIATIONS     247 

but  one  account  will  suffice  to  indicate  the  local 
activity  at  a  time  when  the  State  Association  was 
developing  its  primary  resources. 

Out  of  such  beginnings  there  have  grown  in  sub- 
sequent years  many,  not  to  say  numerous,  combina- 
tions known  as  township  associations,  round  tables, 
district  associations,  bi-county,  tri-county,  or  other 
groupings,  until  the  four  quarters  of  the  State  have 
succeeded  in  establishing  meetings  that  rival  or  even 
excel  in  some  particulars,  the  State  organization. 
Among  the  earliest  of  these  smaller  groups  the 
"School-Masters'  Eound  Table"  of  eastern  Iowa 
may  be  cited.  It  included  superintendents  and  prin- 
cipals in  the  territory  from  Clinton  to  Boone  on  the 
east  and  west,  and  from  Hampton  to  Des  Moines  on 
the  north  and  south.  This  one  round  table  arranged 
meetings  at  Marion,  Marshalltown,  Cedar  Rapids, 
and  Cedar  Falls,  all  within  a  single  year,  thus  reviv- 
ing the  custom  of  the  State  Association  in  1857. 
Moreover,  it  should  be  understood  that  these  were 
not  formal  gatherings,  but  conferences  where  men 
learned  of  each  other  through  personal  contact.  The 
fellowship  there  established  made  the  meetings  of 
great  value,  while  at  the  same  time  they  were  pro- 
ductive of  State  movements  which  were  planned  in 
these  smaller  councils. 

In  1888  the  principals  and  superintendents  of  the 
fourth  congressional  district  formed  their  own  asso- 
ciation arranging  for  at  least  two  meetings  within  a 
period  of  six  months.  Some  well-known  names  ap- 
peared in  that  group  in  October,  1888  —  for  example 


248         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

Mr.  J.  B.  Knoepfler,  who  was  afterwards  State 
Superintendent,  and  Mr.  Edwin  G.  Cooley,  later 
superintendent  of  the  schools  of  Chicago.  During 
the  same  month  a  "big-four"  meeting,  which  in- 
cluded counties  about  the  town  of  Sheldon,  discussed, 
among  other  subjects,  science  in  the  grades,  frac- 
tions, primary  language  work,  the  relation  of  school 
work  to  the  development  of  moral  character,  Scotch 
methods  of  education,  and  music.  Nor  was  the  im- 
portant question  of  the  day,  how  to  teach  the  effects 
of  stimulants  and  narcotics  as  the  law  required, 
neglected  on  this  occasion.248  These  subjects  sug- 
gest a  program  of  the  usual  type. 

A  year  later  the  women  teachers  of  southeastern 
Iowa  met  in  a  "round  table"  in  Cedar  Rapids.  This 
movement  was  clearly  in  harmony  with  the  associa- 
tion of  women  formed  in  conjunction  with  the  gen- 
eral State  Association.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  old 
question  of  equality  in  compensation  was  recognized 
in  the  slogan,  quality  and  quantity  of  work,  not  sex, 
the  standard  for  wages.  During  the  same  year  there 
were  other  new  ' '  round  tables ' '  that  came  into  public 
notice,  notably,  the  central  Iowa  group  meeting  at 
Boone ;  the  west  central  educators  round  table  meet- 
ing at  Carroll ;  the  school  masters  round  table  of  the 
"blue  grass  region"  meeting  first  at  Council  Bluffs; 
and  the  Mississippi  round  table  which  included  men 
from  Illinois,  all  of  which  maintained  an  organiza- 
tion for  a  limited  period.249 

During  1891  Superintendent  Sabin  recommended 
that  these  several  forms  of  educational  gatherings 


COUNTY  AND  DISTRICT  ASSOCIATIONS     249 

should  undertake  to  formulate  plans  for  the  ap- 
proaching Columbian  Exposition.  Thus  all  units 
were  employed  in  furthering  the  cause  then  being 
promoted  by  the  general  Association.  It  was 
through  a  call  issued  by  Superintendent  Sabin  in 
1894  that  the  first  of  the  large  district  organizations 
was  summoned  at  Storm  Lake.  He  expressed  at  the 
time  a  desire  to  see  not  less  than  three  hundred 
present  in  May  of  that  year.  Soon  after  he  issued 
another  call  for  a  similar  assembly  of  the  north- 
eastern section  at  Waterloo,  this  time  in  November, 
1894,  where  he  anticipated  an  attendance  of  five 
hundred,  urging  especially  the  presence  of  rural 
teachers.  In  this  second  call  there  was  a  definite 
declaration  of  a  purpose  to  agitate  reforms,  and  to 
educate  the  public  until  they  were  obtained.250  The 
attendance  at  these  sessions  which  were  originated 
by  the  State  Superintendent  did  not  disappoint  him. 
With  the  northern  half  of  the  State  thus  com- 
mitted to  the  district  plan,  it  was  but  a  brief  period 
before  the  same  arrangements  were  completed  in  the 
southern  half.  Indeed,  before  the  adjournment  of 
the  State  meeting  in  1894  both  the  southeastern  and 
the  southwestern  associations  were  provided  for 
through  executive  committees,  the  former  having 
designated  Fairfield  as  its  first  point  of  meeting 
while  the  latter  selected  Council  Bluffs.  It  is  worthy 
of  note  that  these  district  meetings  paid  special  at- 
tention to  a  division  for  school  officers  which  later 
came  to  be  a  feature  also  of  the  State  organization.2*1 
The  attendance  upon  the  southern  district  associa- 


250         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

tions  at  the  first  session  in  each  instance  was  over 
seven  hundred,  indicating  that  a  greater  opportunity 
was  afforded  through  four  such  organizations  than 
through  a  single  State  meeting  which  had  not  yet 
considered  the  advisability  of  selecting  some  earlier 
period  than  the  holidays  for  the  annual  convention. 
It  was  granted,  furthermore,  that  the  talent  secured 
in  the  former  was  equal  to  that  offered  by  the  latter ; 
and  it  became  the  policy  of  the  graded  schools  to 
close  so  that  teachers  might  attend. 

While  the  southern  district  associations  were 
being  established  those  of  the  northern  were  increas- 
ing in  popularity,  more  than  eight  hundred  having 
enrolled  at  Sioux  City  in  April,  1895.  The  north- 
eastern section  was  equally  successful  in  October  of 
the  same  year.  In  the  meantime  the  ' '  round  tables ' ' 
were  losing  their  former  place,  since  the  larger  and 
apparently  permanent  sections  had  become  well 
established.  Indeed,  it  was  at  this  time  that  the  final 
meeting  of  the  round  table  in  the  northeast  was  held 
at  Charles  City,  its  members  arranging  then  to  unite 
with  the  large  district  association.  It  was  prophe- 
sied in  1896  that  the  State  Association  would  soon  be 
overshadowed  by  the  district  meetings,  and  there 
was  reason  to  think  that  this  prediction  would  be 
fulfilled.252 

It  must  have  been  gratifying  to  the  originator  of 
these  district  meetings  to  observe  their  immediate 
success  and  their  effect  upon  the  educational  inter- 
ests which  he  was  endeavoring  to  promote.  It  was 
appropriate,  too,  that  on  the  occasion  of  Superin- 


COUNTY  AND  DISTRICT  ASSOCIATIONS     251 

tendent  Sabin's  appearance  before  the  northeastern 
meeting  at  Dubuque  in  1896,  where  he  gave  an  ad- 
dress on  Horace  Mann,  that  at  its  conclusion  a  little 
girl  should  hand  to  him  a  great  bunch  of  roses  pre- 
sented by  the  fifty-five  hundred  pupils  of  the  Du- 
buque city  schools. 

One  might  follow  these  district  associations 
through  subsequent  sessions,  but  their  general  pro- 
cedure was  very  much  like  that  of  the  State  con- 
vention described  in  previous  chapters.  Often  the 
same  speakers  appeared  in  all  of  the  four  districts, 
and  usually  some  were  brought  from  abroad  as  the 
1  'special  feature".  It  is  noticeable,  however,  that 
the  presidents  of  the  State  Normal  School  and  the 
State  University  were  heard  on  all  occasions,  and 
always  on  questions  most  nearly  related  to  the  actual 
educational  needs  of  the  Commonwealth.  The  presi- 
dent of  the  State  Agricultural  College  likewise  par- 
ticipated in  this  general  educational  revival.  The 
number  attending  the  territorially  subordinate  meet- 
ings continued  to  increase  until,  under  the  old  custom 
of  the  holiday  session,  the  State  Association  could  no 
longer  equal  their  attendance.  Indeed,  in  1909  at 
Cedar  Eapids  the  northeastern  division  broke  all 
former  records  of  any  State  Association  meeting, 
when  nearly  fifteen  hundred  were  registered,  the 
same  district  having  passed  a  thirteen  hundred 
registration  two  years  before.  Other  districts  had 
reached  one  thousand,  but  none  had  approached  the 
attendance  recorded  in  that  quarter  of  the  State.253 

While  these  greater  conventions  are  illustrative 


252         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

of  what  may  be  accomplished  in  bringing  opportuni- 
ties nearer  to  those  interested,  the  cause  of  their  pop- 
ularity may  be  found  in  the  large  number  of  minor 
groups  which  were  often  represented  in  the  larger  as- 
sembly. For  example,  it  was  pointed  out  that  during 
the  year  1895  eighty-six  counties  had  well  organized 
associations  for  teachers,  while  fifty-seven  of  these 
had  township  conventions  as  well,  which  meant  that, 
including  the  larger  divisions,  there  were  during  the 
year  a  total  of  eleven  hundred  meetings.  It  was 
shown  further  that  the  number  had  nearly  doubled 
in  the  biennial  period,  which  indicated  to  some  extent 
the  effect  of  the  larger  organizations  upon  local 
interests.  For  this  no  one  individual  may  be  given 
the  credit,  since  leaders  were  active  everywhere.  At 
the  same  time  there  were  some  who  were  more  con- 
spicuous than  others ;  and  it  is  a  fact  that  the  teacher 
in  the  ranks  was  showing  signs  of  growing  into  an 
appreciation  of  these  mutual  improvement  organ- 
izations. 

It  was  Henry  Sabin  who  had  written  in  1895  that 
' '  a  dead  teacher  in  a  live  community  is  out  of  place. 
A  live  teacher  in  a  dead  community  becomes  dis- 
heartened and  fails  to  do  good  work.  But  a  dead 
teacher  in  a  dead  community,  God  pity  the  chil- 
dren."254 


PART  V 
MISCELLANEOUS  ACTIVITIES 


253 


XVII 
EDUCATIONAL  JOURNALS 

BEFORE  the  enactment  of  the  free  school  law  in  1858 
a  journal,  which  sought  to  provide  the  means  of  com- 
munication between  the  educational  agencies  and  also 
to  promote  generally  the  interests  in  public  instruc- 
tion, had  been  provided.  Broken  files  of  this  early 
publication,  as  well  as  of  other  journals  subsequently 
established  and  abandoned,  have  been  preserved. 
For  example,  it  is  of  interest  to  note  the  contents  of 
number  eight,  volume  two,  of  the  Iowa  Journal  of 
Education  issued  in  August,  1854,  at  Dubuque  by  E. 
Spaulding,  editor  and  proprietor.  This  publication 
had  been  established  in  1853  as  the  District  School 
Journal  of  Education  for  the  State  of  Iowa,  but  at 
the  beginning  of  the  second  volume  the  title  had 
been  changed.  It  appears  that  one  R.  R.  Gilbert  was 
the  first  editor,  while  R.  Spaulding,  a  book-seller, 
was  the  publisher  and  later  also  the  editor. 

The  issue  here  referred  to  was  more  than  educa- 
tional in  its  scope,  since  it  contained  general 
information  relative  to  agriculture  as  well  as  mis- 
cellaneous news  items.  There  were,  indeed,  but  two 
items  of  State  school  news,  namely,  a  mention  of  the 
catalog  of  Denmark  Academy  for  1853  and  a  refer- 
ence to  the  Iowa  Medical  Journal  —  the  publication 

255 


256         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

of  the  medical  college  at  Keokuk  which  was  at  one 
time  affiliated  with  the  State  University  of  Iowa. 
While  the  Iowa  Journal  of  Education  seems  to  have 
had  a  fair  circulation  it  was,  nevertheless,  suspended 
at  the  end  of  the  second  volume.255 

That  some  permanent  support  might  be  given  to 
such  a  publication,  which  it  was  clear  would  be 
patronized  by  an  interested  element  in  the  popula- 
tion, Superintendent  James  D.  Eads  recommended 
legislation  authorizing  his  office  to  subscribe  for  a 
sufficient  number  of  copies  to  supply  each  district  in 
the  State.  With  such  encouragement  it  was  believed 
that  private  enterprise  would  undertake  the  publica- 
tion. At  the  same  time  it  was  declared  that  this 
"medium  of  communication",  which  should  contain 
all  laws  and  instructions  of  the  Superintendent  rela- 
tive to  schools,  should  be  under  the  general  control 
of  that  officer.256  It  remained,  however,  for  the 
State  Teachers'  Association  to  inaugurate  a  move- 
ment to  provide  the  desired  means  of  communication. 

In  1857,  therefore,  The  Voice  of  Iowa,  edited  by 
Mr.  James  L.  Enos  under  an  agreement  with  the 
executive  committee  of  the  Association,  was  begun 
and  continued  for  a  year  and  a  half  or  through  three 
volumes.  The  financial  support  thereafter  would 
warrant  no  further  contracts  on  the  part  of  the  com- 
mittee; and  so  for  nearly  a  year,  or  until  October, 
1859,  the  State  was  without  an  educational  journal. 
It  appears,  then,  that  The  Voice  of  Iowa  was  the 
second  Iowa  journal  devoted  to  the  interests  of 
education.  It  was  in  the  first  issue  that  the  editor 


EDUCATIONAL  JOUKNALS  257 

made  the  observation  that  "  history  must  treasure 
our  growth  as  a  State,  and  in  no  form  can  it  be  more 
conveniently  referred  to  than  in  this.  We  shall 
therefore  seek  to  gather  all  of  interest  in  our  early 
history  and  seal  it  from  decay. ' '  In  this  connection 
reference  was  made  by  the  editor  to  the  assistance 
that  might  be  available  through  the  organization  of  a 
State  Historical  Society  then  contemplated,  and 
which  he  hoped  to  see  effected  ' '  early  in  the  present 
year"  (1857).  The  Voice  of  Iowa,  he  declared,  occu- 
pied a  new  field.257 

The  recommendation  made  by  Mr.  Eads  in  1854 
was  enacted  into  law  in  1858,  when  The  Voice  of  Iowa 
was  recognized  as  the  official  educational  journal  and 
when  school  district  clerks  were  authorized  to  sub- 
scribe for  one  copy  for  the  use  of  the  district.  More- 
over, upon  the  formation  of  a  school  library  the 
statute  required  the  librarian  to  protect  the  copies  of 
this  journal  as  in  the  case  of  other  property.  The 
aim  in  this  legislation,  it  will  be  observed,  was  the 
distribution  of  official  communications  and  decisions 
of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.258  The 
enterprise  was  also  privately  encouraged  by  Mr. 
Andrew  J.  Stevens  of  Des  Moines,  who,  "with  a  view 
to  lend  it  some  pecuniary  support  as  well  as  to  dis- 
seminate educational  intelligence  among  our  peo- 
ple", proposed  to  send  the  publication  free  of  charge 
to  each  school  district  and  literary  institution  in 
Polk  County.259  Within  three  months  of  the  first 
issue  The  Voice  of  Iowa  had  found  its  way  into 
nearly  every  county  in  the  Commonwealth  as  well  as 

18 


258         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

into  many  other  States;  while  a  majority  of  the  dis- 
tricts had  acted  under  the  statute  authorizing  sub- 
scriptions by  the  clerk  thus  assuring  a  circulation  of 
about  one  thousand  copies.260  Nevertheless,  it  was 
suspended  at  the  conclusion  of  the  third  volume. 

The  State  Teachers'  Association  in  1859  again 
undertook  the  publication  of  a  journal  through  the 
management  of  the  executive  committee,  and  in 
October  of  that  year  the  first  number  of  The  Iowa 
Instructor  appeared.  It  was  edited  by  the  chairman 
of  the  committee,  Mr.  C.  C.  Nestlerode,  who  for 
some  time  bore  the  greater  part  of  the  necessary 
expense  of  publication.  This  journal  was  main- 
tained under  unfavorable  financial  conditions  until 
1862,  when  it  was  united  with  The  Iowa  School 
Journal,  which  had  been  published  by  Mills  Brothers 
of  Des  Moines  from  July,  1859.  Of  The  Iowa  School 
Journal  Mr.  Andrew  J.  Stevens  was  the  first  editor. 
There  were  good  reasons  for  the  combination  of 
these  two  journals  for  it  was  recognized,  it  seems, 
that  only  by  this  means  could  the  educational  inter- 
ests of  the  State  be  united.  It  was  said,  indeed,  that 
such  a  union  was  quite  necessary  in  order  to  heal  "a 
division  that  was  unhappily  springing  up  among  us ' ' 
—  an  expression  which  suggested  an  "East"  and  a 
"West"  within  the  borders  of  the  Commonwealth. 
Some  diplomacy  was  exercised,  it  appears,  in  bring- 
ing about  this  consolidation,  for  an  entire  day  was 
spent  in  conferring  before  a  plan  was  fully  com- 
pleted and  the  title,  The  Iowa  Instructor  and  School 
Journal,  agreed  upon.  In  September,  1862,  the  ex- 


EDUCATIONAL  JOURNALS  259 

ecutive  committee  of  the  State  Teachers '  Association 
at  a  meeting  in  Muscatine  ratified  the  arrangement 
by  which  only  one  publication  appeared  in  the  fol- 
lowing month,  with  Mills  Brothers  as  publishers. 
The  editing  of  this  publication  was  provided  for 
through  the  cooperation  of  the  Teachers'  Associa- 
tion, the  publishers,  and  the  Secretary  of  the  State 
Board  of  Education.261 

In  May,  1859,  Mr.  S.  S.  Howe  had  ventured  to 
establish  at  Iowa  City  a  small  journal  known  as  The 
Literary  Advertiser  and  Public  School  Advocate, 
which,  although  begun  previous  to  the  other  two  of 
that  year,  was  the  least  pretentious,  its  form  being 
that  of  a  quarto  of  eight  pages.  It  was  published 
monthly  at  twenty-five  cents  a  year.  Moreover,  when 
The  Voice  of  Iowa  suspended  publication  its  sub- 
scription list  was  transferred  to  this  new  journal; 
and  so,  it  came  to  pass  that  the  editor  claimed  the 
support  of  the  law  of  1858  which  authorized  the  dis- 
trict clerks  to  provide  a  copy  for  each  school,  because 
in  the  statute  The  Voice  of  Iowa  was  specified. 
"When  all  three  journals  offered  their  pages  for  the 
use  of  the  Board  of  Education  and  its  Secretary,  it 
was  ordered  that  each  should  become  a  "medium" 
of  communication,  one  of  which  was  located  in  Des 
Moines,  one  in  Iowa  City,  and  one  wherever  the 
executive  committee  of  the  State  Association  should 
determine.262  After  the  consolidation  of  the  two 
journals  above  named  there  was  no  disagreement 
since  The  Literary  Advertiser  and  Public  School 
Advocate  had  gone  the  way  of  its  predecessor,  while 


260         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

an  act  of  1864  recognized  The  Iowa  Instructor  and 
School  Journal  as  the  official  organ  of  the  State 
Superintendent  and  authorized  him  to  distribute 
copies  thereof  to  all  county  superintendents,  pro- 
vided it  contained  his  decisions  and  instructions.263 

It  was  not  until  1868  that  the  long  title  produced 
by  the  consolidation  of  the  two  journals  was  aban- 
doned for  that  of  The  Iowa  School  Journal,  which 
was  retained  until  1875  when  the  publication  was 
transferred  to  the  Common  School  journal  projected 
in  1874  by  Mr.  W.  E.  Crosby,  superintendent  of  the 
Davenport  schools.  For  sixteen  years,  from  1859  to 
1875,  The  Iowa  School  Journal  was  edited  by  persons 
of  ability  who  gave  their  services,  for  the  most  part, 
to  the  State  Teachers'  Association  —  at  least  until 
that  organization  determined  in  1870  to  assume  no 
further  responsibility  relative  to  any  journal. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education  and 
the  State  Superintendent  were  charged  at  differ- 
ent times  with  the  editorial  management.  It  was  in 
1868  that,  owing  to  the  increasing  duties  of  the  office, 
Superintendent  Wells  declined  to  continue  as  the 
editor,  declaring  that  such  duties  were  incompatible 
with  official  functions  imposed  by  law.  Although  he 
resigned  in  May  the  State  Association  refused  to 
accept  the  resignation  at  the  subsequent  session ;  and 
Mr.  Wells  was  retained  as  resident  editor.  At  the 
same  time  he  said  that,  ' '  for  whatever  of  confidence 
and  appreciation  the  election  may  indicate,  I  am  pro- 
foundly grateful.  The  honor  and  emoluments  I 
would  gladly  resign  to  another;  for  the  honor  is 


EDUCATIONAL  JOURNALS  261 

vanity,  and  the  emoluments,  vexation  of  spirit."264 
Mr.  Jerome  Allen  had  been  selected  as  editor  in 
1869;  but  owing  to  absence  from  the  State  he  re- 
signed his  office,  thus  making  it  necessary  for  the 
executive  committee  of  the  State  Association  to  sub- 
stitute others,  among  them  Jonathan  Piper,  S.  N. 
Fellows,  William  H.  Beach,  and  Major  Hamill.265 

It  was  in  1872  that  a  second  consolidation  of  The 
Iowa  School  Journal  occurred,  this  time  with  The 
Manual,  a  publication  which  seems  to  have  been  be- 
gun in  1871  in  Keokuk  under  the  management  of 
Mr.  C.  M.  Greene  who,  by  the  union,  assumed  the 
control  of  the  Journal  until  its  transfer  to  the 
Common  School  as  mentioned  above.  The  latter 
publication  appears  to  have  been  short  lived,  since  in 
1877  there  was  a  distinct  demand  for  a  new  under- 
taking in  educational  journalism. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  State  Institute  in  1877  there 
was  begun  a  movement  which  had  for  its  object  the 
establishment  of  a  journal  upon  a  new  basis.  Mr. 
L.  B.  Raymond  of  Hampton  was  requested  to  under- 
take the  editorial  management,  but  owing  to  official 
duties  he  declined,  the  more  firmly  he  declared,  when 
he  learned  that  Mr.  W.  J.  Shoup  of  Dubuque  was 
prepared  to  assume  the  responsibility.  It  was  in 
August,  1877,  therefore,  that  The  Iowa  Normal 
Monthly  was  founded  with  Mr.  Shoup  as  editor ;  and 
from  that  date  until  1912,  under  the  patronage  of 
Iowa  teachers  it  was  issued  each  month.  Its  first 
editor  fostered  and  successfully  maintained  a  vigor- 
ous publication.  Indeed,  the  files  of  this  journal  will 


262         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

remain  the  source  not  only  of  very  much  of  State 
educational  history  but  also  of  the  views  of  educa- 
tional leaders  as  expressed  from  time  to  time  through 
formal  papers.  Since  it  was  the  official  journal  of 
the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  it  became 
important  also  to  preserve  it  in  all  educational  and 
general  libraries.  It  is  fortunate,  indeed,  that  such 
a  journal  was  projected  and  sustained  during  this 
period  of  Iowa  history.266 

It  was  in  1877  that  the  Central  School  Journal 
was  established  at  Keokuk  under  the  management  of 
Mr.  J.  W.  Eowley.  Several  editors  succeeded  him 
before  the  Journal  was  purchased  in  1883  by  Miss 
L.  G.  Howell,  who  was  to  have  the  editorial  assist- 
ance of  Mr.  S.  M.  Clark  of  the  KeokuJc  Gate-City. 
The  Central  School  Journal,  it  appears,  was  main- 
tained until  1895.  But  there  were  yet  other  pub- 
lications, The  Normal  Index,  edited  by  Mr.  E.  R. 
Eldridge  of  the  Eastern  Iowa  Normal  School, 
together  with  The  Iowa  Teacher,  appearing  in  1882 
at  Marshalltown  under  the  management  of  Marvin, 
Morissey,  and  Churchill,  would  seem  to  have  pro- 
vided school  journals  enough  for  one  State.  Never- 
theless, The  Northwestern  Journal  of  Education  was 
projected  in  1885  in  Des  Moines  by  Miss  Ella  Ham- 
ilton as  editor  and  Mr.  G.  S.  Cline  as  business 
manager.  The  latter  publication  took  over  in  1886 
The  Iowa  Teacher,  which  had  suspended  publication 
in  that  year.  Although  The  Northwestern  Journal 
of  Education  had  announced  the  consolidation  in 
May,  1886,  it,  too,  before  the  next  issue  had  trans- 


EDUCATIONAL  JOURNALS  263 

f erred  its  subscriptions  to  the  Teachers'  Institute 
of  New  York,  thus  clearing  the  field  for  those  re- 
maining.267 

The  Iowa  Teacher  had  championed  the  "new 
education";  while  The  Northwestern  Journal  of 
Education  was  ambitious  to  occupy  a  territory  much 
larger  than  the  State.  On  the  other  hand,  The  Iowa 
Normal  Monthly  was  established  as  an  Iowa  journal 
and  designed  to  occupy  that  field  more  especially. 
It  was  said  by  Henry  Sabin  in  1893  that  Mr.  W.  J. 
Shoup  was  "absolutely  fearless  as  an  editor,  and  did 
not  hesitate  to  express  his  opinion  upon  the  educa- 
tional vagaries  of  that  day.  He  edited  his  own  paper 
in  every  sense  of  the  word."268 

Of  the  publications  above  named,  not  one  is  now 
published.  Midland  Schools,  the  only  surviving 
school  journal  in  Iowa,  was  not  established  until 
1889  under  the  title  of  The  Iowa  School  Journal, 
which  was  changed  to  Iowa  Schools  in  1892,  when  for 
two  years  Henry  Sabin  was  its  editor.  Later  Mr. 
F.  B.  Cooper  occupied  the  position  of  editor  and  was 
followed  by  a  number  of  men  who  at  some  time  have 
been  actively  identified  with  the  public  school  work 
of  the  State. 

A  journal  of  special  interest  to  school  officers, 
The  Directors  Round  Table,  was  undertaken  by  Mr. 
J.  H.  Eichards  at  Iowa  Falls  in  1894.  A  stock  form 
for  counties  consisting  of  general  educational  matter 
was  issued  for  several  years  under  the  name  of  The 
Iowa  Teacher,  at  Charles  City.  This  publication  was 
distributed  through  the  county  superintendents  who 


264         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

supplied  the  local  matter  for  one  or  two  outside 
pages. 

Although  the  school  journals  of  Iowa  had  been 
many  in  number  and  quite  different  in  character, 
according  to  the  particular  field  to  be  reached,  it  was 
the  opinion  of  Henry  Sabin,  expressed  in  1895,  that 
the  educational  journal  most  needed  in  Iowa  was 
one  that  would  "reach  the  people  in  their  homes  as 
well  as  the  teachers  in  their  school  rooms. ' '  That  is 
to  say,  such  a  publication  should  aim  to  shape  public 
opinion  in  favor  of  certain  important  measures 
which  were  necessary  to  improvement.  Moreover, 
"the  directness  of  its  utterances  should  command 
the  respectful  attention  of  other  papers";  while  all 
questions  should  be  discussed  from  the  standpoint 
of  public  utility.  He  granted  that  such  a  paper 
would  be  voted  "dull  and  uninteresting"  to  such  as 
were  unprepared  for  the  higher  views  of  educational 
work,  but  this  was  but  an  indication  of  the  training 
yet  necessary  before  persons  should  be  permitted  to 
enter  the  teaching  profession.269 

For  sixty  years,  therefore,  individuals  as  well  as 
the  State  Teachers'  Association  have  attempted  to 
promote  the  interests  of  education  through  the  publi- 
cation of  periodicals  with  the  certainty  that  a  time 
would  come  when  each  would  be  abandoned  for  a 
new  venture.  Whether  the  profession  has  been  at 
fault,  or  whether  the  courage  of  the  promoter,  editor, 
or  publisher  has  failed  at  a  critical  time  is  not  clear. 
Nevertheless,  the  record  reveals  the  fact  that  in  Iowa 
several  types  of  educational  journalism  have  been  at- 
tempted, encouraged,  and  finally  abandoned. 


XVIII 
SCHOOL  LIBEAEIES 

AMONG  the  provisions  of  the  educational  laws  of 
Michigan,  from  which  Iowa  drew  one  of  her  earliest 
statutes,  was  one  authorizing  districts  to  levy  a  tax 
"for  the  purchase  of  a  suitable  library  case",  and 
also  an  amount  not  to  exceed  ten  dollars  annually  for 
books  which  were  to  be  selected  by  the  district  board 
when  so  directed  by  the  electors.  This  provision 
became  effective  in  Iowa  by  the  adoption  of  the  gen- 
eral school  law  of  1840,  and  was  applied  in  some  of 
the  earliest  organized  districts.  Where  and  by  whom 
this  public  property  should  be  cared  for  was  also  to 
be  determined  by  the  district  but  under  rules  defined 
by  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.270  To 
be  sure,  there  was  no  general  effort  to  apply  such  a 
statute  in  its  entirety,  as  has  been  frequently  ob- 
served, but  it  is  significant  that  such  a  provision  was 
not  forgotten  when  in  May,  1846,  the  constitutional 
convention  included  in  its  proposals  to  Congress  that 
"one  quarter  section  of  land  in  each  township  be 
granted  to  the  State  for  the  purpose  of  purchasing  a 
common  school  library  for  the  use  of  such  town- 
ship."271 

Subsequent  legislation  encouraged  the  formation 
of  libraries,  although  other  equipment  was  held  to  be 

265 


266         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

more  important  by  those  responsible  for  the  admin- 
istration of  the  schools.  While  it  was  said  in  1857 
that  attention  was  being  drawn  to  such  means  of 
education,  it  was  declared  by  the  county  superin- 
tendents in  convention  in  1858  that  good  buildings 
should  precede  everything  else  while  text-books  and 
apparatus  should  follow.  Furthermore,  it  was  the 
opinion  of  that  body  that  the  tax  for  libraries  should 
be  assessed  upon  the  township  rather  than  upon  the 
district. 

While  the  statutes  provided  abundant  authority 
for  district  action  it  remained,  nevertheless,  for  the 
teachers  again  to  take  the  initiative  in  arousing 
public  interest  and  in  contributing  the  funds  for  the 
maintenance  of  a  working  equipment;  and  so,  what 
were  designated  as  teachers  educational  libraries 
were  collected  in  several  counties.  As  early  as  1877 
Keokuk  County  reported  four  hundred  volumes, 
valued  at  $700  —  the  voluntary  offerings  of  more 
than  one  hundred  teachers  aided  by  a  few  enter- 
prising citizens.  At  that  time  the  income  of  the 
library  association  amounted  to  twelve  dollars  per 
month,  which  was  applied  to  its  support  through  the 
county  superintendent,  Mr.  H.  D.  Todd.  In  1879  this 
collection  had  increased  to  six  hundred  volumes  — 
all  available  to  the  teachers  of  the  county.  A  similar 
plan  was  pursued  in  Mahaska  County,  where  three 
hundred  volumes  were  provided  through  branches  in 
convenient  places.272  This  arrangement  was  made 
possible  through  a  county  association  with  a  town- 
ship organization.  Other  counties  also  adopted  the 


SCHOOL  LIBRARIES  267 

same  methods,  among  them  being  Cerro  Gordo, 
which  organized  a  library  association  in  1878. 
Grundy  County  organized  a  similar  association  in 
1880,  Polk  County  in  1882,  while  the  Mason  City 
public  and  the  county  teachers  library  were  placed 
under  one  management  in  the  same  year  —  both 
libraries  being  made  available  to  teachers  for  a  mod- 
erate fee. 

While  this  movement  was  in  progress  certain 
communities  were  providing  more  liberally  for  the 
districts.  For  instance,  in  1883  Jasper  County  re- 
ported more  than  twenty  schools  with  independent 
libraries,  while  as  much  as  $200  was  voted  for  a 
township  library  in  Jackson  County.  About  the 
same  time  (in  1884)  there  were  in  the  State,  it  was 
declared,  not  more  than  ten  townships  and  seventeen 
cities  and  towns  with  libraries  of  more  than  three 
hundred  volumes.273  During  the  decade  from  1881  to 
1891,  however,  there  was  an  increase  of  nearly  72,000 
volumes  in  the  district  libraries  of  the  State  —  that 
is  to  say,  from  about  27,000  to  nearly  99,000  —  while 
all  of  the  schools  in  the  twenty-four  cities  of  four 
thousand  or  more  in  population  possessed  a  library 
of  greater  or  less  value,  varying,  it  is  true,  from 
4300  volumes  in  the  highest  to  thirty  in  the  lowest. 
In  1897  there  were  one  hundred  and  ninety  districts 
with  libraries  above  two  hundred  and  fifty  volumes, 
the  cities  of  Marshalltown  and  Clinton  being  far  in 
the  lead  in  this  respect.274 

By  the  provisions  of  the  Code  of  1897,  which 
authorized  boards  to  expend  twenty-five  dollars  for 


268         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

this  purpose  without  a  vote  of  the  electors,  it  was 
hoped  that  an  impetus  would  be  given  to  the  selec- 
tion and  purchase  of  library  books.  To  assist  in  this 
matter,  Superintendent  Sabin  issued  a  circular  of 
information  concerning  the  names,  list  prices,  and 
the  publishers  of  not  less  than  two  hundred  choice 
books,  each  of  which  was  briefly  described  as  to 
content  so  that  all  might  understand  the  nature  of 
the  volume  purchased.  Again,  the  General  Assembly 
in  1898  requested  the  State  Superintendent  to  make, 
during  the  succeeding  biennial  period,  a  full  investi- 
gation of  the  question  of  free  school  libraries  in 
other  States.  Accordingly,  that  officer  compiled  and 
submitted  a  report  to  the  General  Assembly  in  1900. 
The  conclusions  from  this  investigation,  conducted 
by  Mr.  Richard  C.  Barrett,  led  to  the  recommenda- 
tion of  an  act  requiring  the  withholding,  for  the  pur- 
chase of  library  books,  of  a  definite  annual  amount 
from  school  money  received,  thus  providing  a  legal 
minimum  that  must  be  expended  for  books  in  all 
districts.275 

While  the  Code  of  1897  permitted  the  expenditure 
of  a  given  amount  without  a  special  vote,  the  statute 
of  1900,  passed  in  accordance  with  the  recommenda- 
tion above  mentioned,  required  the  withholding  by 
the  district  treasurer  of  each  school  township  and 
rural  independent  district  of  a  sum  equivalent  to 
"not  less  than  five  nor  more  than  fifteen  cents",  as 
the  board  might  determine,  for  each  person  of  school 
age.  The  fund  thus  withheld  should  be  expended 
under  the  direction  of  the  president  and  secretary  of 


SCHOOL  LIBRARIES  269 

the  board  in  conjunction  with  the  county  superin- 
tendent in  the  purchase  of  books  selected  from  lists 
prepared  by  the  State  Board  of  Examiners.  It  be- 
came the  duty  of  the  district  secretary  to  distribute 
these  volumes  among  such  districts,  and  thereafter, 
at  least  semi-annually,  to  collect  and  redistribute  the 
same.  That  is  to  say,  the  secretary  became  ex  officio 
the  township  librarian,  while  the  director  in  sub- 
districts  and  the  secretary  in  rural  independent 
districts  were  required  to  act  in  that  capacity. 

At  the  same  time  there  was  created  a  State  Li- 
brary Commission  which  should  assist  in  the  forma- 
tion of  school  and  public  libraries  by  advising  as  to 
their  establishment  and  administration.276  Thus  an 
opportunity  was  not  only  offered  to  each  district  to 
provide  library  facilities,  but  the  law  required  action 
relative  to  the  accumulation  of  choice  books,  which, 
in  the  opinion  of  the  best  informed,  was  the  only 
method  which  would  improve  the  taste  for  good 
literature. 

Although  it  must  be  said  that  some  boards  re- 
fused to  enforce  this  act,  it  was  very  generally 
observed  —  but  probably  not  at  the  maximum 
amount  which  the  law  specified.  In  this  connection 
it  is  worthy  of  mention  that  a  citizen  of  O'Brien 
County,  Mr.  Geo.  W.  Schee,  employed  his  wealth  in 
encouraging  districts  not  only  to  use  the  full  amount 
allowed  but  also  to  raise  additional  sums  by  offering 
prizes  to  those  most  successful  in  northwest  Iowa. 
His  own  county  was  so  well  managed  that  in  1901, 
after  a  period  of  five  years  growth,  it  possessed 


270         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

10,500  volumes  representing  an  expenditure  of  $6300 
for  the  rural  schools,  or  an  average  of  eighty  books 
for  each  district  in  the  county.  At  the  same  time  the 
graded  school  libraries  of  that  county  included  4000 
additional  volumes ;  while  a  special  collection  of  650 
volumes  for  teachers  was  maintained  through  the 
generosity  of  Mr.  Schee,  who  gave  $100  annually  for 
five  years  for  this  purpose. 

Other  counties  in  the  northwest  were  pursuing 
similar  plans.  Osceola  County  reported  an  average 
of  sixty-four  volumes  for  each  rural  and  ninety-four 
for  each  of  the  graded  schools,  while  400  volumes 
constituted  the  professional  library  for  teachers. 
Here,  also,  the  influence  of  the  money  and  inspiration 
of  Mr.  Schee  was  apparent.  During  the  biennial 
period  ending  in  1901  the  county  of  Palo  Alto  had 
raised  $9000  through  private  subscriptions  for  li- 
brary purposes,  while  Calhoun  County  increased  its 
library  equipment  by  3000  volumes  during  the  same 
period.  Webster  County  likewise  had  a  teachers 
library  of  1200  volumes,  with  a  central  station  from 
which  eight  traveling  sets  of  about  one  hundred 
volumes  were  sent  over  the  county  for  local  groups 
of  readers.277  No  section  of  the  State  was  able  to 
equal  these  counties  in  the  rapid  improvement  in 
library  equipment. 

Previous  to  the  legislation  for  and  also  before 
great  attention  was  given  to  the  instituting  of  li- 
braries, the  teachers  reading  circle  was  established 
under  the  direction  of  the  State  Teachers'  Associa- 
tion. The  reading  circle  was  inaugurated,  it  appears, 


SCHOOL  LIBRARIES  271 

through  a  suggestion  or  recommendation  made  by 
the  president  of  the  Association,  Mr.  Homer  H. 
Seerley  of  Oskaloosa,  in  1884.  The  committee  on 
president's  address  proposed  in  their  report  the  ap- 
pointment of  nine  members  to  arrange  such  a  course 
of  reading.278  Immediate  action  seems  to  have  been 
taken,  resulting  in  the  adoption  of  the  plan  by  more 
than  half  the  counties  of  the  State  before  June,  1885. 
The  county  superintendents  had  become  the  leaders 
in  the  organization  of  such  circles.  While  the  insti- 
tution seems  to  have  been  begun  in  the  proper  spirit, 
it  was  said  in  1889  that  the  reading  circle  had  not 
prospered  as  in  other  States;  and  so,  a  reorganiza- 
tion appeared  to  be  necessary.  It  had  been  suggest- 
ed, furthermore,  that  the  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction  should  be  authorized  to  name  certain 
professional  books  as  the  basis  of  an  examination  on 
the  reading  course,  thus  providing  an  incentive 
which  would  result  in  greater  interest.  While  it  was 
true  that  some  counties  had  not  neglected  this  matter 
it  was  considered  that  uniformity  in  the  course  and 
some  method  of  testing  the  thoroughness  of  the 
reading  was  desirable. 

It  appears,  then,  that  in  1889  the  reading  circle 
board,  composed  of  six  members  selected  from  the 
county  superintendents  section  of  the  State  Associ- 
ation with  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction 
as  chairman,  established  a  uniform  course  with  a 
definite  working  plan  for  the  four  years.  From  the 
commencement  in  1889  with  a  small  enrollment  it 
was  shown  that  by  1895  " nearly  30,000  teachers" 


272         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

had  profited  by  such  reading.279  The  plan  originated 
in  1889  has  prevailed  practically  to  the  present  time ; 
and,  moreover,  while  this  movement  was  in  progress 
that  for  the  extension  of  library  facilities  was  also 
being  developed,  the  two  thus  supplementing  each 
other  doubtless  to  the  advantage  of  both.  It  is  in 
accordance  with  the  original  design,  too,  that  teach- 
ers are  required  by  the  certificate  law  now  in  force  to 
pursue  a  course  of  professional  reading  before  cer- 
tain licenses  will  be  granted. 

Another  agency  which  for  a  time  influenced  the 
growth  of  libraries  originated  in  1891  and  was  desig- 
nated as  the  ' '  Iowa  Pupils '  Beading  Circle ' '.  It  was 
modeled  to  some  extent  upon  the  plan  provided  for 
the  teachers.  There  was  much  machinery  connected 
with  it,  and  numerous  inducements  were  offered  to 
secure  activity  upon  the  part  of  pupils,  while  books 
were  prescribed  for  grades  from  the  second  to  the 
twelfth  of  the  graded  systems.  Four  years  from  the 
time  of  organization  more  than  50,000  children  were 
registered  in  these  reading  circles.280  With  the  in- 
creased facilities  offered  by  library  equipment, 
however,  the  purchase  of  the  books  required  through 
the  pupils  reading  circle  was  no  longer  necessary, 
and  therefore  such  a  scheme  had  no  place  in  the 
economy  of  administration. 

Such  a  combination  of  effort  as  these  forces  rep- 
resent has  resulted  in  the  accumulation  of  a  great 
collection  of  books  in  numerous  libraries  and  at  a 
large  outlay.  Indeed,  it  has  been  said  that  $100,000 
annually  is  expended  in  additions  to  these  free  li- 


SCHOOL  LIBRARIES  273 

braries,  while  the  total  accumulation  in  1910  was 
estimated  at  nearly  1,100,000  volumes.  Of  this  num- 
ber the  greater  part,  or  644,000,  were  in  the  rural 
schools.  Although,  as  mentioned  above,  the  State 
Board  of  Examiners  provided  lists  from  which  selec- 
tions were  to  be  made,  their  authority  did  not  extend 
any  farther ;  and  there  was  not  then,  nor  is  there  at 
present,  any  general  State  supervision  over  this 
feature  of  the  educational  equipment.  It  has  been 
recommended,  therefore,  that  the  Library  Commis- 
sion be  given  authority  over  such  libraries  so  that 
expert  advice  may  be  available  in  their  selection  and 
maintenance.281  Finally,  it  is  observed  that  the  most 
recent  tendency  is  toward  a  consolidation  of  school 
and  free  public  library  interests  either  through 
management  or  cooperation. 


19 


XIX 
INDUSTEIAL  TRAINING 

IT  was  in  1808  that  Father  Richard  on  the  Michigan 
frontier  provided  that  the  schools  which  he  estab- 
lished for  girls  should  instruct  in  l '  sewing,  spinning, 
knitting,  and  weaving",  while  at  the  same  time  the 
young  men  in  other  institutions  should  devote  them- 
selves to  Latin.282  Such  provisions  were  in  accord- 
ance with  the  views  of  a  day  when  higher  education 
consisted  in  classical  training  adapted  to  men,  and 
when  the  domestic  duties  of  women  required  a 
knowledge  of  certain  household  industries. 

Nearly  forty  years  later  when  Iowa  was  admitted 
to  the  Union,  the  Constitution  contained  a  section 
which  required  the  General  Assembly  to  encourage 
' '  agricultural  improvement  "•  -  it  being  foreseen  that 
the  people  must  for  some  time  devote  themselves 
largely  to  that  pursuit.  Such  a  provision  was  as 
much  adapted  to  the  needs  of  those  who  would  till 
the  soil  as  the  industrial  training  of  the  school  of 
Father  Richard  was  suited  to  those  taught  therein. 
Moreover,  this  reference  to  "  agricultural  improve- 
ment" did  not  pass  unnoticed,  for  Governor  Ansel 
Briggs  in  his  biennial  message  of  1850  called  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  no  steps  had  been  taken  by  the 

274 


INDUSTRIAL  TRAINING  275 

General  Assembly  since  the  adoption  of  the  Consti- 
tution, for  the  advancement  of  agriculture.  "This 
portion  of  the  Constitution",  he  declared,  "is  as 
obligatory  and  binding  as  any  other.  It  was  prob- 
ably inserted  for  the  reason  that  our  State  has  every 
facility  for  becoming,  in  an  eminent  degree,  an  agri- 
cultural State.  The  best  method  of  cultivating  the 
soil  is,  and  it  is  believed  ever  will  be,  a  subject  of  the 
first  importance  to  a  large  majority  of  the  citizens 
of  the  State.  The  greater  portion  of  those  who  at- 
tend our  Common  schools  will  become  agriculturists, 
when  the  term  of  their  education  expires ;  and  conse- 
quently, any  knowledge  which  they  may  obtain, 
touching  that  branch  of  industry,  will  be  to  them  of 
the  most  essential  service.  It  would  therefore  seem 
to  become  your  duty  to  enquire  whether  books  rela- 
tive to  agricultural  science,  can,  with  propriety,  be 
introduced  into  our  Normal  and  Common  Schools.  I 
feel  confident  that,  if  introduced,  the  most  beneficial 
results  may  be  anticipated."283 

It  was  not,  however,  until  ten  years  later  that  the 
State  undertook  any  movement  in  this  direction ;  and 
it  is  well  known  that  agriculture  in  the  common 
schools  is  of  such  recent  introduction  that  it  can 
hardly  be  regarded  as  established.  Moreover,  it  re- 
mained for  one  of  the  first  colleges  founded  in  Iowa 
to  introduce  scientific  instruction  in  agriculture  in 
connection  with  what  was  designated  the  "Manual 
Labor  Department".  This  institution,  now  known 
as  Leander  Clark  College,  but  then  as  Western  Col- 
lege, selected  its  location  with  the  view  of  providing 


276         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

such  instruction.  Indeed,  when  the  institution  was 
organized  in  1857  Professor  S.  S.  Dillman  had  been 
engaged  "to  take  charge  of  the  College  farm,  to 
furnish  work  to  students,  and  conduct  the  whole, 
upon  scientific  principles ' '.  It  was  said  further  that 
this  arrangement  would  afford  to  students  "not  only 
the  privilege  of  becoming  scientific  farmers,  but  of 
paying  a  considerable  part  of  their  current  expenses, 
in  labor."284 

Through  some  unknown  philanthropist  a  half 
section  of  Iowa  land  was  offered  at  the  State  Teach- 
ers'  Association  in  1857  to  be  appropriated  to  the 
purpose  of  establishing  a  manual  labor  school  that 
should  be  a  model  for  similar  institutions.  A  certain 
writer,  commenting  upon  this  offer,  cited  as  an  ex- 
ample of  what  might  be  done  in  Iowa  the  practical 
results  derived  from  an  institution  of  this  character 
in  another  State  from  which  it  was  said  every  boy 
was  discharged  at  sixteen  "a  practical  farmer,  and 
some  are  shoemakers  besides",  while  girls  learned 
"housework,  and  to  measure,  cut  out,  and  make  all 
garments  worn  by  both  sexes.  "285  Moreover,  it  was 
about  this  time  White's  Iowa  Manual  Labor  School 
was  projected  under  the  auspices  of  the  Friends  in 
Lee  County,  and  had  its  plans  succeeded  the  results 
would  have  been  equal  to  those  of  similar  institutions 
in  other  States.286  To  be  sure  these  undertakings 
were  largely  dependent  upon  the  land  for  their  de- 
velopment; but  it  was  clear  that  the  time  was  ap- 
proaching when  a  different  training  would  be 
demanded. 


INDUSTRIAL  TRAINING  277 

Indirectly  the  General  Assembly  of  Iowa  pro- 
vided for  the  introduction  of  industrial  training  in 
the  common  schools  of  the  State  in  1874.  That  is  to 
say,  in  authorizing  the  "board  of  directors  of  inde- 
pendent school-districts,  and  the  subdirector  of  each 
subdistrict"  to  provide  at  their  discretion  for  in- 
dustrial expositions  "in  connection  with  each  school 
under  their  control",  there  was  the  implied  authority 
to  promote  instruction  in  the  preparation  of  the 
material  for  such  a  display.  It  is  noteworthy  also 
that  the  statute  was  specific  in  requiring  that  these 
exhibits  should  consist  of  useful  articles  made  by 
pupils  "such  as  samples  of  sewing,  and  cooking  of 
all  kinds,  knitting,  crocheting,  and  drawing,  iron  and 
woodwork  of  all  kinds,  from  a  plain  box  or  horse- 
shoe to  a  house  or  steam  engine  in  miniature ;  also, 
all  other  useful  articles  known  to  the  industrial 
world,  or  that  may  be  invented  by  the  pupils  in  con- 
nection with  farm  and  garden  products  in  their  sea- 
son, that  are  the  results  of  their  own  toil." 
Furthermore  ' '  ornamental  work ' '  should  be  encour- 
aged when  ' '  accompanied  by  something  useful  made 
by  the  same  pupil."287 

In  the  report  of  Superintendent  von  Coelln  for 
the  period  ending  in  1881  mention  was  made  of  the 
growing  interest  in  the  practical  phase,  as  it  was 
called,  of  education,  which  he  declared  was  becoming 
"stronger  and  stronger"  in  order  to  provide  some 
"substitute  for  the  old  apprenticeship".  How  this 
demand  should  be  met  remained  to  be  answered,  but 
he  was  certain  that  a  law  permitting  boards  of  edu- 


278         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

cation  to  establish  schools  for  the  training  of  boys  in 
mechanical  pursuits  would  do  no  harm  and  indeed 
might  result  in  great  good.  He  made  the  suggestion 
that  drawing  at  least  should  be  taught  in  all  schools, 
and  that  with  special  reference  to  its  practical  use. 
Subsequently  Superintendent  Akers  declared  that 
a  " practical  education"  was  better  comprehended 
under  the  caption  of  "industrial  training",  and  that 
the  demand  for  this  sort  of  education  came  through 
the  feeling  that  the  schools  were  educating  away 
from  manual  work,  thus  inducing  a  loss  of  respect 
for  the  advanced  subjects  offered  in  the  schools  as 
well  as  leading  to  the  conclusion  that  what  did  not 
minister  to  the  immediate  needs  was  decidedly  im- 
practical.288 

While  definite  plans  had  not  yet  been  matured 
the  first  report  of  the  Iowa  Commissioner  of  Labor 
appeared  in  1886,  in  which  the  declaration  was  made 
that  a  "far  better  education"  was  needed  to  make  a 
successful  laborer  than  was  then  offered.  That  is  to 
say,  an  education  that  would  better  fit  him  for  service 
was  not  only  desirable  but  it  was  demanded.  Four 
reasons  were  assigned  for  the  change  which  seemed 
necessary  and  desirable  in  educational  facilities: 
first,  competition  had  become  universal ;  second,  man- 
ufactories were  endless  in  variety;  third,  there  was 
a  decay  in  the  system  of  apprenticeship ;  and  fourth, 
certain  land  once  fertile  had  become  old  and  impover- 
ished. It  was  concluded,  therefore,  that  education 
should  include  not  only  head  work  but  hand  work 
as  well. 


INDUSTRIAL  TRAINING  279 

The  Commissioner  dwelt  at  length  upon  this 
phase  of  instruction,  using  the  results  obtained  in  the 
Washington  Manual  Training  School  of  St.  Louis 
as  illustrative  of  what  should  be  expected.  It  was 
shown,  furthermore,  that  experiments  were  then 
being  conducted  in  industrial  training  in  the  schools 
of  other  States  as  well  as  in  commercial  centers 
where  it  had  been  demonstrated  that  such  work 
could  be  "joined  to  the  ordinary  grammar  school 
work  with  good  effect."  With  such  examples  it  was 
declared  that  "Iowa,  with  its  splendid  record  upon 
educational  interests,  ought  not  to  be  behind  in  this 
practical  education",  which  would  "dignify  labor" 
and  serve  as  a  means  of  making  a  living.289  The 
matter  relative  to  such  instruction  was  submitted 
by  the  Commissioner  in  accordance  with  that  provi- 
sion of  the  statute  creating  his  office  which  required 
that  he  should  report  "what  progress  has  been  made 
with  schools  now  in  operation  for  the  instruction  of 
students  in  the  mechanic  arts  and  what  systems 
have  been  found  most  practical  with  the  details 
thereof."290  This  last  provision  was  due  to  an 
amendment  to  the  original  bill  as  introduced  in  1884 
indicating,  it  appears,  the  interest  of  certain  public 
men  in  the  adoption  of  some  such  form  of  instruction 
in  the  Iowa  public  schools. 

Among  other  influences  affecting  the  introduc- 
tion of  industrial  education  in  this  State  the  prox- 
imity of  the  National  Educational  Association  meet- 
ing at  Madison,  Wisconsin,  in  1884,  may  be  included. 
Many,  if  not  great  numbers,  of  the  leading  Iowa 


280         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

teachers  were  in  attendance  at  that  meeting,  where 
the  exhibit  of  this  form  of  work,  the  actual  results 
of  the  schools  where  such  experiments  had  been 
made,  was  indicative  of  its  possibilities.  While 
elementary  as  compared  to  the  more  recent  collec- 
tions of  this  nature,  it  was  sufficient  to  enlighten 
the  educational  leaders  in  many  States.  It  is  signifi- 
cant, indeed,  that  Superintendent  Akers,  in  a  report 
made  subsequent  to  this  meeting,  explained  his  pre- 
vious attitude  toward  industrial  training  and  devel- 
oped more  fully  the  notion  of  this  form  of  education, 
declaring  his  sympathy  with  the  movement  while  at 
the  same  time  pointing  out  the  "stubborn  problems" 
which  confronted  the  schools  at  the  outset.  He  con- 
cluded that  methods  then  employed  must  be  modified 
to  meet  the  conditions  which  must  arise  upon  the 
introduction  of  this  practical  form  of  instruction. 
Nevertheless,  it  was  believed  that  the  public  mind 
was  prepared  for  the  change  which  it  was  declared 
should  come  "without  unnecessary  delay." 

The  direct  methods  suggested  by  the  State  Super- 
intendent at  this  time  (in  1885)  would  lead  to  the 
development  of  the  shop  department  of  the  State 
Agricultural  College,  and  to  the  establishment  and 
equipment  of  a  similar  department  at  the  State 
University.  The  State  should  provide  also  for  "at 
least  one  great  industrial  school,  where  large  num- 
bers of  young  people  could  receive  that  training 
which  would  fit  them  for  the  position  of  masters  or 
foremen  in  shops  connected  with  the  public  schools". 
Moreover,  the  law  should  permit  the  creation  of  such 


INDUSTRIAL  TRAINING  281 

departments  in  county  high  schools,  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  which  the  statute  already  made  pro- 
vision; while  cities  and  towns  of  a  ''specified 
population  should  also  be  empowered  to  establish 
industrial  schools  or  workshops,  to  be  connected 
with  and  form  a  part  of  the  school  system".  With 
such  an  arrangement  it  was  suggested  that  the 
customary  classification  of  pupils  would  also  serve 
as  a  basis  for  divisions  in  the  new  department,  while 
the  daily  schedule  should  be  "so  adjusted  that 
classes  could  pass  from  one  school  to  the  other  with- 
out friction  or  interruption."291  Nor  was  this  mere 
theory:  the  plan  had  been  tested  in  the  schools  of 
other  States,  although  in  centers  of  large  popula- 
tion.292 

It  was  not,  however,  until  1888  that  any  city  of 
Iowa  undertook  to  carry  out  these  suggestions 
which,  it  is  clear,  required  no  further  legislation, 
since  all  necessary  authority  had  been  granted  in 
statutes  already  in  force.  The  credit  of  leadership 
in  this  movement,  as  in  many  others  described  in 
these  pages,  belongs  to  Davenport,  which  provided 
first  for  a  "cooking  school"  in  charge  of  a  special 
instructor.  Both  the  science  and  the  art  of  cooking, 
it  was  declared,  were  included  in  the  instruction. 
The  attendance  in  this  instance  was  optional  and 
limited  to  pupils  of  the  ninth  grade  and  above. 
During  the  following  year  (1889)  manual  training 
for  boys  was  also  introduced  in  a  course  which  pro- 
vided for  work  in  both  wood  and  metal,  with  drawing 
as  an  important  element.  From  the  beginning  this 


282         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

work  was  not  confined  to  the  high  school,  since  boys 
of  fourteen  years  and  over  in  other  grades  were 
admitted.  Although  optional,  when  once  selected  its 
pursuit  was  required  for  an  entire  year.293 

About  1890  instruction  in  "sewing  and  baking" 
was  provided  by  a  ladies  society  of  Oskaloosa  in 
conjunction  with  the  public  schools.  The  school 
board  appropriated  $200  to  aid  the  work;  and  the 
classes  in  this  "industrial  school",  as  it  was  desig- 
nated, assembled  on  Saturday  afternoon  for  a  ses- 
sion of  two  hours.  In  the  same  year  Des  Moines 
introduced  both  domestic  science  and  manual  train- 
ing for  girls  —  a  course  of  one  year  in  each  —  while 
for  boys  the  instruction  covering  two  years  included 
"drawing,  joinery  and  wood  turning."  In  this 
instance  it  was  provided  that  such  work  might  be 
substituted  for  indicated  subjects  in  other  courses.294 
While  it  is  true  that  these  early  introductions  of 
industrial  work  were  mainly  for  higher  grade  in- 
struction it  is  evident  that  the  elementary  schools 
were  not  excluded.  It  is  proper,  therefore,  to  in- 
clude some  of  the  details  of  organization  in  this 
chapter. 

Iowa  City  was  the  third  school  corporation  to 
establish  shop  work,  its  equipment  being  provided  in 
1892.  In  no  other  place,  it  appears,  were  such 
courses  adopted  until  after  the  year  1900.  Further- 
more, of  the  nearly  one  hundred  fifty  schools  offer- 
ing industrial  work  at  present  (1914),  not  more 
than  five  were  in  operation  in  1900.  Moreover,  more 
than  two-thirds  of  the  entire  number  have  estab- 


INDUSTRIAL  TRAINING  283 

lished  these  departments  since  1906  —  at  least 
twenty  of  them  being  organized  in  1913.  The  intro- 
duction of  manual  work  for  girls  is  still  more  recent, 
inasmuch  as  out  of  the  total  of  about  one  hundred 
forty-five  schools  where  such  training  is  offered, 
almost  two-thirds  have  made  the  necessary  pro- 
visions since  1910.  Indeed,  twenty-one  schools  in- 
stalled such  equipment  in  1913. 

Likewise,  domestic  science,  while  the  first  form  of 
industrial  training  to  be  introduced  in  the  schools  of 
the  State,  was  not  adopted  to  any  extent  until  1911 
or  thereafter.  In  1911  there  were  about  fifty  schools 
with  such  departments,  but  in  1914  there  are  more 
than  one  hundred  fifty  —  forty-four  having  been 
organized  in  1913.  Not  more  than  five  schools  in  the 
State  were  teaching  domestic  science  before  1906. 
Thus  the  greater  part  of  all  activities  along  these 
lines  is  very  recent. 

Finally,  there  are  the  courses  in  agriculture, 
which,  although  the  first  to  be  recommended,  are  yet 
the  last  in  adoption.  Probably  one  hundred  seventy- 
five  schools  are  presenting  (in  1914)  such  work, 
varying  in  quantity  from  one-half  to  four  years. 
Of  the  number  mentioned,  all  but  twenty-eight  have 
taken  up  the  work  since  1910.  Forty-three  or  more 
began  instruction  along  this  line  in  1913 ;  and  out  of 
the  total  nearly  half  confine  the  course  to  one-half 
year.  Actual  experimental  work  in  agriculture  is 
carried  on  by  at  least  twenty-five  on  plots  of  ground 
varying  in  size  from  three  by  ten  feet  to  eight  and 
one-half  acres.  It  is  true  that  this  field  of  operation 


284         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

is  as  yet  confined  for  the  most  part  to  high  schools, 
but  in  some  instances  the  work  is  already  made  avail- 
able in  the  subordinate  grades.  If  the  history  of  in- 
struction in  agriculture  follows  that  of  the  other 
industrial  subjects,  it  will  not  be  limited  to  advanced 
students.  Moreover,  of  rural  schools  no  account  has 
been  taken  in  this  summary ;  but  in  these  institutions 
one  may  expect  to  find  the  most  fruitful  field  in  agri- 
cultural instruction.  It  may  be  added  that  during 
the  period  in  which  manual  training  or  industrial 
courses  have  developed,  the  instruction  for  boys  has 
been  extended  to  include  pupils  ranging  from  the 
fourth  to  the  twelfth  grades  of  the  public  schools ;  in 
needlework,  from  the  fifth  to  the  twelfth;  and  in 
domestic  science,  from  the  sixth  to  the  twelfth. 
Thus,  one  may  assume  that  agriculture  will  not  long 
be  maintained  as  a  subject  for  those  above  the  eighth 
grade  only  in  the  schools  of  town  districts.295 

It  was  said  in  1903  that  "  because  of  prevailing  or 
erroneous  ideals  and  the  lack  of  funds  to  provide 
rooms  and  equipment,  only  a  few  schools  have  estab- 
lished manual  training  departments."  Although  it 
was  true  that  only  some  half  dozen  towns  had  dared 
to  undertake  this  work  there  was  a  general  interest 
in  the  subject  and  a  "more  general  awakening"  was 
observed.  The  statistics  quoted  above  demonstrate 
the  truth  of  this  observation.  It  seems  clear  that 
when  it  was  discovered  that  a  comparatively  small 
sum  was  sufficient  to  equip  a  shop  for  half  a  hundred 
boys  the  development  of  the  work  was  very  rapid. 
At  the  same  time,  the  promotion  of  this  movement 


INDUSTRIAL  TRAINING  285 

by  the  National  Educational  Association  had  in  some 
measure  affected  the  introduction  of  manual  training. 
The  Committee  of  Twelve  on  rural  schools,  of  which 
Henry  Sabin  was  the  chairman,  had  declared  in  favor 
of  manual  training  in  the  country  school,  although  it 
was  recognized  as  a  remote  possibility  under  the 
existing  systems  of  organization.  Furthermore,  the 
State  Teachers '  Association  in  1902  gave  its  support 
to  the  introduction  of  industrial  work  when  it  adopt- 
ed the  report  of  the  educational  council  in  substance 
as  follows:  manual  training  should  be  introduced 
into  the  public  schools  of  Iowa  in  the  form  of  free- 
hand and  mechanical  drawing ;  cutting,  weaving,  and 
folding  of  paper  and  straw ;  basketry  and  clay  model- 
ing ;  work  in  cardboard,  wood,  and  metals ;  designing, 
bench-work,  sewing,  cooking;  and  care  of  domestic 
animals  and  gardening.  All  of  this  was  recommend- 
ed for  the  purpose  of  investing  dull  subjects  with 
new  life,  and  of  developing  an  idea  of  values  and  a 
wholesome  respect  for  labor.  Moreover,  it  would 
make  schooling  a  vital  part  of  life,  not  simply  a 
preparation  for  life.296 

It  is  probable  that  the  publication  of  information 
relative  to  the  details  of  equipment  necessary  in 
carrying  on  this  form  of  instruction,  and  possibly 
also  the  efforts  of  certain  companies  to  promote  a 
system  of  correspondence  by  which  the  regular  in- 
structor would  be  enabled  to  direct  manual  training, 
had  a  hastening  effect  in  ripening  the  sentiment  rela- 
tive to  such  courses.  Superintendent  Barrett,  as- 
sisted by  Mr.  A.  C.  Newell,  supervisor  of  manual 


286         HISTORY  OP  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

training  in  the  West  Des  Moines  schools,  issued 
through  his  biennial  report  in  1894  carefully  pre- 
pared instructions  as  to  the  introduction  as  well  as 
the  management  of  such  departments.  All  of  these 
influences  focused  about  the  time  when  the  greatest 
advances  were  made.297  It  is  true,  however,  that,  as 
in  many  other  innovations,  a  definite  period  of  agita- 
tion preceded  the  adoption  of  industrial  training  as  a 
component  part  of  the  public  school  curriculum. 

It  was  the  opinion  of  the  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction  in  1903  that  the  greatest  obstacle 
to  the  successful  introduction  of  industrial  work 
would  be  found  in  the  insufficient  supply  of  qualified 
teachers,  and  that  the  Commonwealth  would  be  com- 
pelled to  draw  upon  other  States  until  a  sufficient 
number  could  be  prepared.  Again,  in  1908  the  same 
observation  was  made  relative  to  instructors  in  agri- 
culture, there  being  no  provision  by  which  the  State 
could  meet  the  demand.  It  seems  clear  that  these 
new  features  for  which  the  schools  were  made  re- 
sponsible were  in  advance  of  the  ability  of  the  dis- 
tricts to  provide  for  their  presentation  —  a  situation 
apparently  not  foreseen,  or  at  least  not  seriously 
considered  by  those  who  insisted  upon  their  adoption. 
Thus  the  recommendation  of  Superintendent  Akers 
in  1885  relative  to  the  preparation  of  instructors  was 
decidedly  in  season,  and  it  would  have  been  well  for 
the  State  had  it  pursued  some  plan  similar  to  that 
suggested  by  him. 

The  last  investigation  and  report  on  this  subject 
was  made  by  the  Better  Iowa  Schools  Commission  of 


INDUSTRIAL  TRAINING  287 

the  State  Teachers'  Association  in  1912  through  a 
special  committee  which  concluded  to  recommend  the 
extension  of  industrial  education  in  the  schools,  by 
giving  it  a  place  in  all  courses  of  study  and  includ- 
ing in  its  presentation  "the  germs  and  educative 
extracts  of  as  many  trades  and  industries  as  pos- 
sible". Furthermore,  the  farmer  member  of  this 
committee,  Mr.  Thomas  H.  Barnes,  after  a  special  in- 
vestigation made  a  personal  recommendation  relative 
to  industrial  training  for  the  boys  and  girls  of  the 
rural  schools.  The  arrangement  proposed  would  in- 
clude special  supervisors  in  counties  and  townships 
for  the  work  adapted  to  the  two  sexes.  The  super- 
visors were  to  work  under  the  county  superintendent, 
while  the  State  was  to  aid  in  some  manner  all  such 
special  work.  It  was  declared  by  Professor  E.  C. 
Bishop  that  the  first  need  of  instruction  in  agricul- 
ture was  better  prepared  teachers  and  a  legal  re- 
quirement that  this  subject  become  a  part  of  the 
qualifications.  Moreover,  the  correlation  of  the  home 
work,  in  which  more  than  14,000  boys  and  girls  were 
enrolled  in  1912,  with  the  school  interests  was  be- 
coming a  strong  factor  in  the  efficiency  not  only  of 
the  rural  but  also  of  the  town  and  village  schools  of 
the  State.298 

From  these  facts  one  may  conclude  that  the  call 
for  what  has  been  designated  as  "the  practical  in 
education"  has  led  to  the  introduction  of  several 
forms  of  industrial  training  as  a  part  of  the  public 
school  curriculum.  But  the  public  school  authorities 
have  proceeded  cautiously  in  adopting  measures  to 


288         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

provide  such  instruction,  although  when  convinced 
of  its  practicability  they  have  been  ready  in  many 
communities  to  admit  the  new  department.  At  the 
same  time  qualified  instructors  have  been  insufficient 
to  meet  the  demand,  thereby  producing  some  delay  in 
instituting  such  work.  It  seems  certain,  however, 
that  the  industrial  education  of  the  present  is  but 
preliminary  to  a  much  larger  development  in  the 
future. 


EDUCATIONAL  EXHIBITS 

NATIONAL  and  international  expositions  have  pro- 
vided in  increasing  proportions  for  the  presentation 
of  material  illustrative  of  the  actual  work  of 
education.  At  Vienna  in  1873  Iowa  had  a  collection 
of  material  from  the  physical  laboratory  of  the 
State  University,  but  there  seems  to  have  been  no 
effort  to  represent  any  other  form  of  instruction  in 
the  State.  Indeed,  it  was  only  the  advanced  methods 
in  Physics  then  practiced  in  the  State  University 
that  induced  Professor  Gustavus  Hinrichs  to  carry 
a  hundred  or  more  laboratory  notebooks  of  his  stu- 
dents to  the  European  city  for  display  alongside 
with  the  work  of  similar  schools  of  science  on  the 
continent.299 

The  later  exposition  at  Paris  in  1878  seems  not 
to  have  attracted  the  educational  interests  of  the 
elementary  schools  in  this  Commonwealth.  But  the 
intervening  centennial  exhibition  at  Philadelphia 
was  productive  of  activity  which  resulted  in  a  repre- 
sentative exhibit  of  school  work  from  fifty  or  more 
towns  of  the  State.  In  1875  Superintendent  Aber- 
nethy  had  issued  instructions  for  the  preparation  of 
material  for  this  exhibit ;  and  while  no  such  elaborate 
presentation  was  made  as  on  later  occasions  of  the 

20  289 


290         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

same  kind,  Iowa  had  creditable  mention  in  the  final 
reports.  The  exhibition,  it  was  said,  was  compara- 
tively small  and  in  no  way  remarkable  —  all  the  work 
being  the  product  of  some  five  hundred  classes  in 
the  public  schools. 

The  general  report  of  the  judges  declared  that 
while  the  "average  quality  was  good,  perhaps  it  will 
be  conceded  by  all  that  Davenport  acquitted  herself 
best.  Her  schools  presented  work  of  nearly  every 
sort  shown  by  the  foremost  schools  of  the  large  cities 
of  the  country.  The  map-drawing  was  especially 
noticeable,  both  for  amount  and  excellence."  It  was 
mentioned  also  that  the  exhibit  of  the  Davenport 
training  classes  was  the  only  one  outside  the  range 
of  common  schools.  It  was  said,  further,  that  Iowa 
was  considered  as  one  of  the  great  States  of  the 
West,  and  why  she  did  not  acquit  herself  better  in 
this  portion  of  the  exposition  was  "for  her  to 
say."300 

There  was  a  somewhat  better  understanding  of 
the  importance  of  such  matters  when  the  exhibit  was 
prepared  for  the  National  Educational  Association 
meeting  at  Madison,  Wisconsin,  in  1884,  and  for  the 
New  Orleans  exposition  in  1884-1886.  For  the  latter 
the  material  used  at  Madison  was  re-collected  from 
the  schools  to  which  it  had  been  returned,  re- 
arranged, and  put  in  charge  of  the  department  of 
public  instruction.  The  personal  supervision  of  the 
exhibit  was  assigned  to  Professor  Thomas  H.  Mac- 
bride,  who  was  later  assisted  by  Mr.  Frank  M. 
Leonard. 


EDUCATIONAL  EXHIBITS  291 

The  General  Assembly  had  provided  $1000  for 
financing  the  Madison  exhibit  on  condition  that  the 
collection  would  be  returned  to  the  State  and  there- 
after remain  the  permanent  possession  of  the  office 
of  the  State  Superintendent,  in  so  far  as  he  might 
indicate  a  desire  for  the  use  of  the  same.301  Never- 
theless, a  double  effort  in  a  single  year  was  necessary 
to  prepare  for  the  New  Orleans  and  the  Madison 
exhibits,  since  the  latter  meeting  was  in  July  while 
the  former  was  designed  to  open  in  December  follow- 
ing. It  was  for  the  display  at  New  Orleans  that  a 
map  containing  nearly  12,000  dots  representing  the 
exact  location  of  every  school  house  in  the  State  was 
prepared  with  great  care.  To  make  this  map  accu- 
rate and  authoritative  sectional  maps  of  the  several 
counties  were  first  compiled.  This  was  the  work  of 
the  State  department;  while  forty  towns  and  cities 
and  at  least  seven  counties,  as  well  as  all  the  State 
educational  institutions,  made  due  preparation.  Re- 
porting on  the  matter  Professor  Macbride  said  that 
''only  those  who  saw  and  studied  the  exhibit  in 
place"  were  prepared  to  "give  an  opinion  of  its 
excellence";  and  he  observed  that  in  "comprehen- 
siveness" the  exhibit  from  Iowa  was  unrivalled. 

The  New  Orleans  exposition  appears  to  have  been 
the  first  instance  in  which  the  educational  system  of 
the  State  and  all  the  forces  connected  therewith 
were  brought  together  in  a  material  way.  Some- 
thing of  every  grade  of  instruction  from  the  kinder- 
garten to  the  University  was  presented.  The 
experience  gained  in  the  earlier  effort  at  Madison 


292         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

had  aided  greatly  in  the  preparation  of  this  later 
collection.302 

The  influence  of  these  general  exhibitions  was 
reflected  in  subsequent  local  displays  in  cities  and 
counties,  and  in  their  maintenance  since  then  at  the 
annual  fairs  in  many  communities.  The  constantly 
increasing  effort  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  great 
international  expositions  reveals  the  pride  that  the 
State  has  had  in  keeping  its  place  educationally  well 
up  among  neighboring  Commonwealths.  As  the  time 
approached  for  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition 
at  Chicago  activity  among  the  public  schools  and 
higher  institutions  in  preparation  therefor  was  first 
observed  at  the  State  Teachers'  Association  late  in 
1890.  In  the  following  February  the  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction  advised  the  presentation  of 
the  matter  at  all  meetings  of  teachers  and  wherever 
people  connected  with  the  schools  were  assembled. 
Then  the  plans,  so  far  as  formulated,  were  presented 
to  the  General  Assembly  for  consideration.  To  that 
body  six  specific  recommendations  were  made  as  to 
the  content  of  the  display  in  1893 :  first,  a  general 
view  of  all  the  educational  forces  of  the  State; 
second,  a  complete  statistical  history ;  third,  material 
equipment;  fourth,  a  financial  record;  fifth,  the 
means  of  teacher  training ;  and  sixth,  a  tabulation  of 
results.303  This  was  the  general  plan  suggested, 
although  it  was  well  known  that  developments  in 
preparation  would  determine  many  unforeseen  pro- 
visions. 

Owing  to  the  demand  of  school  men  for  a  separate 


EDUCATIONAL  EXHIBITS  293 

building  devoted  to  educational  interests,  and  also 
to  the  uncertainty  in  some  arrangements,  the  prep- 
aration of  the  exhibit  for  the  World's  Columbian 
Exposition  was  delayed  so  that  not  more  than  one 
year  remained  to  complete  it.  In  order  to  stimulate 
effort  the  Iowa  commission,  through  Mr.  J.  W. 
Jarnagin,  the  member  in  charge  of  educational  mat- 
ters, determined  to  offer  a  series  of  prizes  to  be 
granted  under  established  rules  at  a  preliminary  dis- 
play which  should  be  held  during  the  session  of  the 
State  Teachers'  Association  at  Cedar  Rapids.  Ac- 
cordingly, provision  was  made  for  installing  this 
preliminary  display  in  December,  1892,  and  for  the 
awards  under  a  competent  committee.  In  passing 
upon  the  various  collections  the  committee  declared, 
first  of  all,  that  those  who  had  responded  to  the 
invitation  to  participate  had  shown  commendable 
enterprise,  while  the  collection  in  general  was  pro- 
nounced as  being  nearer  a  real  exhibition  of  actual 
work  than  was  usual.  More,  indeed,  was  presented 
than  the  prizes  would  warrant,  since  certain  cities 
sent  general  collections  which  were  not  entered  in 
the  contest  —  Sioux  City,  Iowa  City,  Oskaloosa,  and 
Cedar  Rapids  being  specified. 

In  the  awards  at  the  Cedar  Rapids  preliminary 
display  Cedar  Falls  secured  first  honors  for  the  best 
general  exhibit  from  any  city  or  town ;  while  the  first 
prize  for  the  best  display  from  rural  schools  went  to 
District  No.  8  of  Nokomis  Township  in  Buena  Vista 
County.  Mason  City  stood  second  among  towns,  and 
District  No.  2  of  Blue  Grass  Township  in  Scott 


294         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

County  stood  second  among  rural  schools.  Clinton 
came  third  in  its  class,  while  District  No.  5  of  Adams 
Township  in  Greene  County  came  third  among  the 
rural  districts.  In  the  four  groups  of  work  —  writ- 
ten, drawing,  apparatus,  and  photography  —  the 
awards  were  well  distributed  among  the  competing 
schools.  For  the  best  individual  effort  Minnie 
Shafer  of  Cedar  Falls  was  granted  the  first  prize; 
the  second  prize  went  to  Daisy  Heath  of  Brooklyn; 
and  the  third  prize  to  Emma  Gulbrauson  of  District 
No.  8  of  Nokomis  Township  in  Buena  Vista  County. 

Thus  the  nucleus  for  the  Iowa  educational  ex- 
hibit at  Chicago  in  1893  was  formed.  After  all  this 
had  been  done,  however,  and  the  inspiration  of  the 
movement  had  begun  to  have  the  desired  effect,  it 
was  somewhat  discouraging  to  the  commission  to 
find  associations  and  round  tables  declaring  that 
under  no  circumstances  would  they  have  anything  to 
do  with  the  exhibit  unless  a  separate  building  could 
be  secured.  For  a  time  uncertainty  prevailed  every- 
where, since  the  colleges,  too,  were  refusing  to  have  a 
part  in  the  exhibit  until  it  should  be  determined 
whether  the  exposition  would  open  its  gates  on  the 
Sabbath.  But  finally  Iowa  accepted  the  two  thou- 
sand feet  allotted  in  the  gallery  of  the  great  liberal 
arts  building,  where,  pushed  up  against  the  German 
Empire,  she  was  soon  requested  to  surrender  three 
hundred  feet  of  her  space  to  that  government. 

Thirty-five  cities  and  towns  contributed  to  this 
exhibit  at  Chicago,  while  six  counties  —  Poweshiek, 
Clinton,  Marshall,  Boone,  Hardin,  and  Greene  — 


EDUCATIONAL  EXHIBITS  295 

maintained  general  displays  from  rural  districts. 
At  the  conclusion  of  the  exposition  the  commission- 
ers from  France  and  Germany  solicited  a  part  of  the 
Iowa  collection  for  illustrative  purposes  in  the 
training  schools  of  their  respective  countries,  and  the 
proposed  Columbian  Museum  also  applied  for  a 
portion.  Likewise  the  Philadelphia  Educational 
Museum  and  the  Bureau  of  Education  at  Washing- 
ton formally  requested  a  donation  of  a  part  of  the 
exhibit.304 

Although  different  opinions  relative  to  the  value 
of  school  exhibits  were  expressed  during  these  years, 
and  views  were  publicly  announced  both  in  condem- 
nation and  approval,  it  is  significant  that  only  about 
ten  years  after  the  Columbian  Exposition  another 
commission  was  preparing  for  even  greater  things 
at  St.  Louis.  When  it  is  remembered  that  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  in  1884  kindly  set  aside  $1000  to  aid 
in  the  Madison  exhibit  —  an  elementary  undertaking 
—  and  that  the  Iowa  Commission  designated  a  fund 
of  $8000  for  the  work  to  be  sent  to  St.  Louis,  it 
seems  conclusive  that  those  who  found  no  advantage 
in  such  exhibits  were  not  upon  the  popular  side. 
Furthermore,  the  part  taken  in  this  last  great  inter- 
national exposition  by  more  than  ninety  different 
colleges,  city,  town  and  rural  schools  indicates  any- 
thing but  disapproval  of  advertising  the  best  things 
that  may  be  produced;  while  the  presentation  of 
work  from  twenty-two  county  school  systems  reveals 
an  increasing  attention  to  the  concrete  in  instruction, 
as  well  as  a  disposition  to  conserve  results  in  various 


296         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

forms.  Many  things  have  conspired  to  produce  this 
marked  change,  not  the  least,  it  may  be  said,  being 
the  introduction  of  industrial  work  and  the  develop- 
ment of  the  rural  school  along  so-called  practical 
lines. 

In  collecting  the  material  for  the  Louisiana  Pur- 
chase Exposition  a  plan  similar  to  that  carried  out  in 
1893  was  presented,  the  work  being  brought  together 
for  temporary  display  during  the  meeting  of  the 
State  Teachers'  Association  at  Des  Moines  and 
thereafter  prepared  by  the  commissioner,  Mr.  F.  J. 
Sessions,  for  transportation  and  installation.  When 
thus  established  it  was  pronounced  by  observers  as 
at  least  equal  to  other  exhibits  where  a  much  larger 
fund  had  been  available.  In  many  respects,  notably 
in  the  industrial  education  exhibit,  Iowa  ranked 
among  the  first.305 

The  local  interest  which  may  be  awakened  by  a 
collective  exhibit  of  the  plainest  work  preserved 
from  day  to  day,  for  which  the  law  of  1874  had  pro- 
vided, is  but  an  elementary  type  of  that  which  arises 
when  larger  groups  are  formed.  Then,  if  there  be 
added  to  the  elementary  product  the  multiplied 
forms  of  industrial  work,  which  appeal  to  the  multi- 
tude, the  literary  collections,  artistic  productions, 
and  individual  inventions,  one  may  understand  the 
cause  for  the  continued  interest  in  and  the  demand 
for  a  repetition  of  State,  national,  and  international 
educational  exhibits. 


ELEMENTARY  INSTRUCTION  UNDER 
CHURCH  DIRECTION 

WITHOUT  some  reference  to  the  private  parochial  or 
sectarian  schools  a  history  of  education  in  Iowa 
would  be  incomplete.  Indeed,  the  two  hundred  or 
more  of  these  institutions,  enrolling  approximately 
20,000  pupils  in  elementary  work,  are  an  important 
element  in  the  educational  equipment  of  the  State. 
While  the  data  upon  which  to  base  a  discussion  of 
this  phase  of  education  are  meagre,  a  general  view 
may,  nevertheless,  be  presented. 

In  preceding  chapters  the  early  private  schools 
which  provided  instruction  to  all  children  who  were 
able  to  pay  the  small  tuition  fee  have  been  described, 
but  the  schools  now  under  consideration  have  been 
established  for  an  entirely  different  purpose.  Al- 
though it  may  have  been  true  that  the  moral  and 
religious  training  was  not  neglected  in  the  private 
schools  of  the  early  days,  the  church  has  recognized 
a  weakness  in  this  particular  in  the  public  school  of 
the  present.  Accordingly,  schools  which  feature  in- 
struction in  religious  doctrine  and  morals  and  which 
are  supported  by  contributed  funds  are  provided  in 
communities  where  adherents  of  a  particular  belief 
dwell  in  sufficient  numbers.  These  schools,  it  need 

297 


298         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

hardly  be  said,  are  located  at  strategic  points  and 
are  conducted  in  some  instances  during  that  part  of 
the  year  when  the  public  school  is  not  in  session; 
and  they  offer  not  only  academic  training  but  also 
special  instruction  in  morals  and  religion.  With  the 
State  and  church  wholly  separated  such  schools  have 
been  held  by  some  sects  to  be  essential  to  church  and 
family  life.  It  is  therefore  to  those  sections  of  the 
State  where  the  followers  of  certain  teachings  have 
settled  in  considerable  numbers  that  one  must  turn 
for  types  of  sectarian  schools.  Unfortunately  no 
clear  and  comprehensive  record  of  such  schools  has 
been  preserved  by  the  State  department  of  education. 
In  this  connection  it  is  observed  that  the  Lutheran 
denomination  is  largely  represented  in  Bremer 
County,  but  it  has  established  schools  in  other  parts 
of  the  State  as  well  —  notably  in  the  counties  of 
Crawford,  Calhoun,  Iowa,  and  Marshall.  Nor  is  its 
field  limited  by  these  institutions  for  elementary 
instruction,  for  it  has  also  secondary  schools  and 
colleges  which  will  be  considered  elsewhere.  The 
Catholic  schools  of  elementary  grade,  and  one  may 
include  also  their  schools  for  higher  instruction,  are 
most  numerous  in  Dubuque  County ;  indeed,  the  old- 
er established  communities  along  the  eastern  border 
of  the  State  as  well  as  Carroll,  Chickasaw,  Howard, 
and  Pottawattamie  counties  are  centers  in  which 
these  Catholic  schools  predominate  among  the  pri- 
vate institutions.  Moreover,  it  is  true  that  the 
Catholic  schools  outnumber  those  of  any  other 
organization  in  the  State.  Besides  these  the  Evan- 


ELEMENTARY  CHURCH  SCHOOLS  299 

gelical,  the  Swedish  and  Norwegian  Lutherans,  the 
Friends,  and  the  Hollanders  in  recent  years  have 
established  elementary  or  secondary  schools  having 
practically  the  same  end  in  view.  Thus  one  may  find 
in  the  same  community  various  kinds  of  private 
parochial  schools,  as  for  example  in  Sioux  County 
where  several  of  the  groups  mentioned  are  well 
represented. 

The  earliest  in  this  field  of  sectarian  education 
were  the  Catholics,  who  established  a  school  at 
Davenport  under  Father  Pelamourgues,  so  it  is  said, 
as  early  as  1838;  St.  Raphael's  school,  at  Dubuque 
in  1846 ;306  St.  Matthew's  school,  at  Muscatine  in 
1852;  St.  Anthony's  school,  at  Davenport  in  1853; 
St.  John's  parochial  school,  at  Burlington  in  1854, 
and  Holy  Trinity,  at  Richmond  in  Washington 
County  in  1855.  There  may  have  been  other  church 
schools  during  this  period,  but  they  do  not  appear  to 
be  reported  as  such.  St.  Mary's  school  was  estab- 
lished at  Dubuque  in  1866,  and  there  were  two  others 
located  at  the  same  place  in  the  following  year.  One 
was  opened  at  Lyons  in  1864;  another  at  Independ- 
ence in  1869;  and  still  others  at  Fort  Atkinson  and 
Spillville  in  Winneshiek  County  in  1870.  St.  James ' 
school  at  Washington  was  provided  in  1871 ;  another 
was  organized  at  Clinton  in  1878;  and  another  at 
Marshalltown  in  1878.  In  1879  the  first  of  such 
schools  was  assigned  to  Le  Mars,  Plymouth  County, 
and  in  1883  to  Creston,  while  Haverhill  in  Marshall 
County  was  selected  for  another  in  1885.  Osceola 
County  was  entered  in  1887.  Thus,  settlements 


300         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

have  been  provided  with  Catholic  schools  in  the  suc- 
ceeding years  until  there  are  very  few  counties  that 
have  no  school  under  the  direction  of  this  church. 

It  was  in  1862  that  St.  Paul's  Academy,  which 
seems  to  have  been  organized  for  elementary  in- 
struction, was  established  by  the  Lutherans  at 
Denver  in  Bremer  County.  Within  the  subsequent 
twenty  years,  however,  a  number  of  others  of  similar 
character  have  been  opened  in  the  same  county; 
while  at  present  there  are  at  least  sixteen  of  these 
institutions  located  in  that  community.  The  same 
denomination  in  1871  founded  another  parochial 
school  in  Minerva  Township  in  Marshall  County, 
and  two  years  later  one  was  organized  in  Iowa  Town- 
ship in  Iowa  County.  About  the  same  time  also  oth- 
ers were  established  at  Lowden  in  Cedar  County  and 
at  Eldorado  in  Fayette  County.  Again,  in  1878 
Boyden  in  Sioux  County  was  occupied;  and  during 
the  succeeding  year  Lincoln  Township  in  the  same 
county  supported  a  Lutheran  school.307  It  seems 
clear,  then,  that  these  two  denominations,  namely, 
the  Catholics  and  Lutherans,  are  the  most  active  in 
the  establishment  and  control  of  private  schools,  not 
only  for  elementary  but  for  higher  instruction  as 
well. 

The  enrollment  in  these  sectarian  institutions 
varies  from  six  pupils  in  the  smallest  reported  to 
seven  hundred  or  more  in  the  largest.  Moreover,  in 
some  instances  of  the  one-teacher  schools,  of  which 
there  are  many,  the  number  assigned  to  an  instruc- 
tor seems  to  be  exceedingly  large.  In  consideration 


ELEMENTARY  CHURCH  SCHOOLS  301 

of  the  recorded  income  of  many  of  these  institutions 
one  may  conclude  that  they  are  managed  on  a  re- 
markably economical  plan  as  compared  with  the 
public  schools  —  although  any  definite  conclusion 
from  such  limited  data  would  be  questionable. 

Among  schools  of  this  type  may  be  mentioned 
those  established  by  the  Hollanders,  which  for  a  time 
were  maintained  at  Pella  and  then  abandoned  for  the 
public  schools,  only  to  be  revived  in  more  recent 
years.  Coming  to  Marion  County  in  1847,  the  Hol- 
landers established  schools  under  the  laws  of  the 
State ;  and  it  would  appear  that  an  opportunity  was 
then  presented  for  the  adoption  of  a  complete  organ- 
ization which  might  have  been  controlled  by  the 
settlement  just  as  the  Amana  Colony  dominates 
today  in  its  township.  But  no  effort  was  made  to 
provide  that  instruction  in  religious  doctrine  which 
the  settlement  approved  until  about  1861  when  the 
first  attempt  to  establish  a  Christian  school  was 
made  in  the  village  of  Pella.  A  committee  having 
the  matter  under  consideration  reported  favorably 
at  that  time,  and  the  necessary  financial  support 
was  thereafter  provided  until  about  1867  when  the 
parochial  school  was  suspended.  No  further  effort 
was  made  in  this  direction  until  1903,  when  a  new 
movement  resulted  in  a  provision  for  the  founding 
of  a  sectarian  institution  at  Orange  City  in  Sioux 
County  in  1904.  In  each  instance  the  objects  set 
forth  included  training  in  the  fundamentals  of  reli- 
gious doctrine  and  instruction  in  the  Dutch  language 
—  neither  of  which  could  be  expected  from  the  pub- 
lic school. 


302         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

The  Christian  school  at  Orange  City  enrolls  about 
two  hundred  pupils  under  four  teachers ;  and  another 
of  the  same  character  at  Sioux  Center  provides  in- 
struction for  one  hundred  thirty  under  three  teach- 
ers. In  addition  to  these  the  farmers  in  the  vicinity 
have  supported  another  institution,  contributing 
$500  for  that  purpose.  The  Hollanders  residing 
in  Richland  Township  in  Mahaska  County  maintain 
a  school  of  sixty  pupils,  all  of  whom  are  taught  by 
one  teacher.  Other  schools  have  been  projected  by 
this  denomination,  more  especially  in  the  settlements 
in  northwestern  Iowa,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note 
that  at  Pella  where  the  school  was  abandoned  in  1867 
there  is  a  movement  to  restore  it.308 

Such  schools  as  are  described  above  have  ob- 
viously no  connection  with  the  public  school  system. 
This  is  not  true,  however,  of  the  schools  at  the 
Amana  Colony.  Here,  it  seems,  all  the  opportunity 
desired  for  instruction  in  the  traditions  and  beliefs 
of  the  sect  is  present,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
schools  are  organized  under  county  or  State  super- 
vision. This  is  made  possible  through  the  fact  that 
an  entire  school  township  is  owned  and  controlled  by 
the  Community  of  True  Inspiration  and  in  the  seven 
independent  districts  organized  under  the  statutes 
of  the  Commonwealth  the  officers  are  chosen  by  mem- 
bers of  the  Community,  taxes  are  levied  upon  the 
property  of  the  Community  for  school  support,  and 
teachers  are  employed  from  among  the  adherents  of 
True  Inspiration.  Thus,  while  the  law  is  complied 
with  in  all  respects  there  remains  a  control  by  which 


ELEMENTARY  CHURCH  SCHOOLS  303 

the  favored  instruction  peculiar  to  one  people  may 
be  secured  without  molestation.  Moreover,  the 
schools  are  entitled  to  participation  in  the  interest 
upon  the  permanent  fund  —  although,  as  is  well 
known,  the  amount  is  almost  negligible  when  the 
entire  support  of  schools  is  considered. 

Not  only  in  the  matter  of  instruction  is  there 
peculiar  privilege,  but  in  the  original  and  voluntary 
continuation  of  schools  for  fifty-two  weeks  in  the 
year  and  six  days  in  the  week  the  Community  has 
provided  an  example  which  the  State  at  large  might 
profitably  study.  Moreover,  the  divisions  of  the  day 
into  the  Lehrschule,  or  the  period  of  intellectual 
training,  the  Spielstunde,  or  the  play  time,  and  the 
Arbeitsschule,  or  the  period  of  work  in  which  the 
industrial  features  of  instruction  are  predominant, 
offer  many  suggestions  to  the  critic  of  our  public 
school  routine.  All  things,  it  seems,  are  adjusted  by 
the  administrators  of  the  school  unit  to  promote 
contentment,  while  the  wished-for  result  —  a  child 
trained  in  the  beliefs  of  his  ancestors  —  is  but  a 
matter  of  time. 

It  is  said  that  the  yard  about  one  of  these  Amana 
schools  is  truly  a  "German  Kindergarten  with 
plenty  of  green  grass,  big  shade-trees,  enticing 
grape-arbors,  and  a  profusion  of  flowerbeds. ' '  Here 
the  play  time  of  the  spring  and  summer  is  fully  im- 
proved, while  the  work  includes  the  care  of  the  school 
garden.  In  the  winter  season  the  younger  children, 
both  boys  and  girls,  are  taught  to  knit  and  crochet. 
"Here  the  stranger  is  amazed  to  learn  that  five  year 


304         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

old  Minchen  is  knitting  her  second  pair  of  stockings, 
and  that  little  Wilhelm,  brim  full  of  mischief,  is 
knitting  his  father's  hose."  And  it  is  pointed  out 
that  "the  atmosphere  about  the  Amana  school  is 
more  like  that  of  a  large  household  than  of  the  ordi- 
nary school."  Yet  this  is  a  public  school  which  any 
child  of  school  age  is  entitled  to  attend. 

From  the  authority  quoted  above  one  may  learn 
that  the  teachers  of  the  Amana  Community  are  se- 
lected for  this  particular  service  and  the  greater 
number  are  "old  men  —  men  who  have  devoted  a 
lifetime  to  the  training  of  Amana 's  youth.    Some  of 
them  have  taught  so  long  that  their  pupils  to-day  are 
for  the  most  part  the  children  and  even  the  grand- 
children of  their  former  pupils."     While  there  is 
general  supervision  by  the  Great  Council  of  the  Com- 
munity, each  master  is  practically  free  to  pursue  his 
own  individual  method.    The  instruction  extends  to 
the  branches  taught  in  the  usual  grammar  grades  of 
the  public  school,  but  in  addition  there  are  the  daily 
Bible    readings    and    a    study    of    the    catechism. 
Furthermore,  an  interesting  and  suggestive  feature 
is  noted  in  the  custom  of  devoting  an  hour  at  definite 
periods  for  instruction  in  the  "history  of  the  Com- 
munity" as  well  as  some  account  of  the  leaders  in  its 
establishment.309    The  entire  organization,  indeed,  is 
an  interesting  study  in  community  life  existing  in  the 
midst  of  the  distracting  influences  of  a  rapidly  devel- 
oping  Commonwealth   and   maintaining   its    early 
policies,  and  at  the  same  time  complying  with  the 
statutes  relative  to  the  establishment  of  public  in- 


ELEMENTARY  CHURCH  SCHOOLS  305 

struction.  Where  the  entire  community  approves 
many  otherwise  unpopular  features  may  be  permit- 
ted as  the  illustration  here  presented  shows. 

In  addition,  therefore,  to  the  general  elementary 
school  system  of  the  State,  organized  under  statu- 
tory requirements,  many  other  schools  are  providing 
instruction  for  thousands  of  pupils,  and  may,  indeed, 
carry  them  from  the  lowest  grade  of  instruction 
through  the  college  course  under  the  direction  of 
sectarian  authorities.  Moreover,  there  are  those 
who  patronize  the  public  schools  for  the  usual  ses- 
sions and  prolong  the  period  of  instruction  and 
supplement  it  by  taking  the  desired  religious  train- 
ing in  vacation  schools.  There  are  likewise  instances 
where  the  schools,  although  public,  are  yet  so  con- 
trolled that  they  perform  the  functions  of  parochial 
schools;  and,  while  a  part  of  a  State  system  and 
under  the  present  laws  subject  to  State  inspection, 
they  are  not  conducted  on  the  same  plan  as  other 
schools  of  the  county  in  which  they  are  located.  One 
might  wish  that  the  moral  and  religious  atmosphere 
of  the  public  school  was  such  that  all  would  subscribe 
to  its  management  and  thus  make  supplementary 
methods  unnecessary. 


21 


PAET  VI 
PROPOSED  LEGISLATION 


307 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  EECONSTEUCTION 

FROM  the  history  of  school  legislation  and  adminis- 
tration in  Iowa  it  is  evident  that  the  enactment  of  a 
complete  and  satisfactory  code  of  school  legislation 
is  a  most  complicated  and  difficult  undertaking.  It  is 
therefore  not  surprising  to  find  that  many  important 
recommendations  though  seriously  and  earnestly 
advocated  were  never  written  into  the  statutes  of 
the  Commonwealth.  Moreover,  a  summary  of  these 
recommendations  and  other  suggestions  relative  to 
school  legislation  will  not  only  contribute  to  the  his- 
tory of  education  in  Iowa  but  be  of  interest  and 
value  to  the  student  of  educational  reform. 

As  early  as  1848  the  Superintendent,  Thomas  H. 
Benton,  Jr.,  advised  the  repeal  of  the  laws  of  1840 
and  1847  and  the  enactment  of  a  new  statute,  retain- 
ing the  fundamental  principles  of  the  former  but 
constituting  a  clear  and  definite  piece  of  constructive 
legislation.  The  new  law  need  not,  he  said,  be  more 
compact,  but  it  should  be  more  explicit.  And  when 
enacted  no  delay  should  operate  to  prevent  its  pub- 
licity throughout  the  State.  That  his  authority 
might  be  sufficient  to  secure  observance  of  the  pro- 
visions of  the  statute  he  recommended  that  his  office 
be  empowered  to  prepare  forms  for  local  use.  More- 

309 


310         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

over,  it  was  his  opinion  that  the  compensation  of  all 
school  officers  should  be  fixed  by  law  and  in  no  in- 
stance be  referred  to  the  discretion  of  other  authori- 
ties. 

That  the  public  had  a  right  to  have  easy  access 
to  the  school  laws  seems  not  to  have  occurred  to 
legislators,  and  it  is  well  known  that  for  the  greater 
part  of  our  history  only  officers  responsible  for  the 
execution  of  the  provisions  of  the  law  were  provided 
with  such  information.  At  the  same  time  it  was  de- 
clared by  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction 
in  1849  that  every  family  in  the  State  should  have 
information  relative  to  school  legislation,  although 
the  meagre  supply  of  printed  laws  would  in  no  sense 
permit  of  such  extended  distribution.  To  be  sure  all 
educational  legislation  previous  to  1851  was  included 
by  the  code  commissioners  under  one  title  (XIV),  in 
accordance  with  the  recommendation  of  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction,  and  thus  the  school 
laws  became  available  to  all  to  whom  the  Code  of 

1851  was  distributed. 

But  the  Code  of  1851  was  soon  out  of  date.    In 

1852  the  suggested  amendments  were  indicative  of 
the  school  legislation  that  must  soon  follow.     For 
example,  it  was  apparent  that  since  the  title  to  school 
lands  was  often  questioned  the  Secretary  of  State 
should  be  required  to  preserve  an  accurate  record  of 
each  patent  (this  was  before  the  creation  of  the  land 
office) ;  that  district  secretaries  should  be  empowered 
to  assess  the  property  therein  without  reference  to 
the  county  assessment  roll,  for  it  was  often  more 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  RECONSTRUCTION    311 

difficult  to  correct  the  county  assessment  transcript 
than  to  make  the  property  list  entire;  that  some 
method  of  admitting  non-resident  pupils  should  be 
devised;  that  some  provision  also  should  be  made 
which  would  permit  towns  or  districts  to  continue 
schools  throughout  the  year;  that  a  rate  bill  was 
desirable  (it  being  pointed  out  that  such  a  statute 
was  in  force  in  most  States  that  had  made  much 
progress  in  education) ;  that  it  should  be  made  ob- 
ligatory for  districts  to  expend  their  money  equally 
upon  the  summer  and  winter  terms,  it  being  the 
practice,  it  is  inferred,  for  some  to  invest  the  whole 
amount  in  a  winter  school ;  that  the  duties  then  per- 
formed by  the  township  trustees  relative  to  survey- 
ing and  plotting  the  sixteenth  section,  and  also  those 
executed  by  the  prosecuting  attorney  in  collecting 
delinquent  interest,  would  be  discharged  as  well  by 
the  county  school  fund  commissioner;  and  finally, 
the  school  law  as  a  whole  should  be  made  more 
specific.310 

From  1854  to  1857  there  were  few  direct  recom- 
mendations relative  to  educational  legislation.  In- 
deed, the  only  recommendation  in  1854  was  the 
modest  suggestion  that  the  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction  be  authorized  to  subscribe  for  a  school 
journal  as  the  official  organ  of  his  department.  In 

1856  there  were  no  recommendations  —  due,  to  be 
sure,  to  the  sitting  of  the  Mann  commission.    But  in 

1857  Superintendent  Fisher  quoted  largely  from  the 
recommendations  of  the  commission  of  the  previous 
year,    emphasizing    especially    the    provision    that 


312         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

would  substitute  the  district  township  for  the  inde- 
pendent districts.  Moreover,  the  hope  was  expressed 
that  "we  have  arrived  at  a  new  epoch  in  our  legis- 
lation on  the  subject  of  education".  At  the  same 
time  the  Superintendent  pointed  out  that  a  question 
relative  to  the  amount  that  should  be  raised  by  tax- 
ation was  about  to  be  presented  to  the  approaching 
General  Assembly.  As  an  illustration  of  the  serious- 
ness of  this  problem  it  was  shown  that  if  Iowa  kept 
pace  with  Massachusetts  not  less  than  $650,000  must 
be  collected  —  that  is  to  say,  one  dollar  for  each 
inhabitant.  Since  this  appeared  to  be  impossible  it 
was  suggested  that  a  compromise  be  effected  by  rais- 
ing the  levy  from  the  extremes  of  one-half  and  one 
and  one-half,  to  not  less  than  one  and  one-half  nor 
more  than  two  and  one-half  mills. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  influences  outside  of  the 
State  were  used  on  this  occasion  to  impress  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  with  the  importance  of  the  situation, 
since  it  was  declared  that,  "the  adversity  which  has 
fallen  so  heavily  [in  1857]  on  the  Eastern  States, 
and  so  lightly  on  this,  has  turned  the  eyes  of  many 
people  to  the  West.  They  are  watching  with  anx- 
iety, your  legislation  with  regard  to  education,  to 
determine  whether  they  will  cast  their  lot  in  this 
State.  If  your  legislation  is  such  as  there  is  every 
reason  to  anticipate  that  it  will  be,  a  great  addition 
may  be  expected  to  our  population  during  the  en- 
suing year,"311 

The  first  General  Assembly  which  met  under  the 
Constitution  of  1857  was  much  in  doubt  as  to  its 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  RECONSTRUCTION    313 

authority  relative  to  educational  legislation  since 
that  instrument  located  the  initiation  of  such  legis- 
lation with  a  new  department  —  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation. In  the  dilemma  one  of  two  things  could  be 
done  by  the  General  Assembly :  enact  no  legislation 
whatever,  or  pass  laws  and  assume  the  risk  of  their 
being  declared  unconstitutional  in  those  sections 
which  were  not  immediately  associated  with  the 
financial  part  of  the  system.  No  action  would  mean 
the  postponement  or  suspension  of  school  organiza- 
tion, since  the  legislature  alone  could  make  appro- 
priations and  the  Board  of  Education  would  hold  no 
session  until  the  following  December.  It  was  deter- 
mined, finally,  to  enact  a  general  education  law, 
although  it  was  well  understood  that  such  legislation 
would  in  no  way  affect  the  authority  of  the  Board  of 
Education.  The  act  was  based  upon  the  principle 
that  "it  is  the  duty  of  the  government  to  make  pro- 
vision for  the  education,  under  its  own  supervision, 
of  all  the  youth  of  the  State"  and  that  "sufficient 
money  should  be  provided,  by  taxation  on  the  whole 
property  of  the  State,  to  accomplish  this  pur- 
pose."312 

While  hesitation  was  manifested  in  the  General 
Assembly  the  people  were  not  inactive.  This  is  in- 
dicated in  a  communication  of  February,  1858, 
wherein  it  was  observed,  "with  deep  regret",  that 
there  was  in  the  General  Assembly  a  disposition  to 
oppose  the  enactment  of  a  school  law,  partly  on  the 
ground  that  it  would  be  unconstitutional  and  partly 
because  it  would  be  acting  discourteously  toward  the 


314         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

new  Board  which  would  thereafter  be  elected.  Such 
an  attitude  in  the  legislature  would  not  satisfy  the 
people  who  for  four  years,  it  was  declared,  had  been 
demanding  a  change  in  the  school  organization  — 
especially  since  it  was  evident  to  everyone  that  the 
interests  of  the  State  required  such  action.  "While  it 
was  agreed  that  the  Constitution  did  provide  for  a 
legislative  body  which  should  confine  its  law-making 
to  the  interests  of  education,  it  was  absurd  to  think 
that  it  was  the  intention  of  the  constitutional  con- 
vention to  leave  all  the  agencies  of  popular  education 
without  any  power  to  regulate  their  affairs  for  a 
period  of  sixteen  months  —  the  time  that  would 
elapse  from  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  to  the 
first  session  of  the  Board  of  Education. 

The  people,  it  was  affirmed,  were  insistent  in  their 
demand  for  action  and  feared  to  leave  the  matter  of 
legislation  to  the  Board  of  Education  because  the 
Constitution  had  put  it  beyond  their  power  to  appro- 
priate any  funds  to  carry  their  legislation  into  effect. 
It  was  therefore  essential  that  the  General  Assembly 
should  make  some  provision  during  the  session  of 
1858;  otherwise  the  old  law  must  stand  for  at  least 
two  years  more  —  a  condition  not  to  be  thought  of 
after  the  long  period  of  agitation  for  advancement. 
No  legislator  could  excuse  himself,  it  was  declared, 
should  there  be  a  failure  at  this  session  to  grant  that 
which  had  been  so  universally  expected  from  the 
legislature  of  1856-1857.  Furthermore,  the  bill  then 
(February  17,  1858)  in  the  hands  of  the  committee 
was  of  such  a  nature  that  it  would  doubtless  meet 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  RECONSTRUCTION    315 

with  the  approval  of  the  Board  of  Education,  while 
it  would  at  once  set  in  motion  the  machinery  of  the 
educational  system.  The  adjustment  of  its  parts, 
which,  it  was  thought  the  Constitution  imposed  upon 
the  Board  of  Education,  could  be  attended  to  later ; 
while  if  the  whole  matter  was  devolved  upon  that 
body  the  defect  due  to  lack  of  authority  relative  to 
funds  would  destroy  the  whole  structure.313  That  is 
to  say,  the  Board  of  Education,  in  the  opinion  of 
some  at  least,  was  created  to  cure  defects  in  legis- 
lation only  and  not  to  promote  fundamental  changes. 

Following  the  approval  of  the  law  of  March  12, 
1858,  favorable  views  were  expressed  as  to  the  legis- 
lation, since  the  best  talent  of  the  State  had  been 
engaged  in  perfecting  it.  All  parties  —  for  it  was 
clear  that  political  interest  had  cooperated  to  bring 
about  its  enactment  —  were  called  upon  to  support 
the  measure  in  order  that  it  should  not  "lose  vitality 
by  negligence  and  inattention. ' '  Again,  it  was  said 
that  the  State  was  about  to  enter  upon  a  new  era 
educationally  under  this  new  statute  which,  there 
was  reason  to  believe,  was  "equal  if  not  superior  to 
that  of  any  other  State  of  the  Union."314 

Not  all  views  were  of  this  character,  however,  and 
the  observation  of  Governor  Ralph  P.  Lowe  that 
repeated  and  radical  changes  in  school  laws,  al- 
though sometimes  necessary,  were  always  attended 
with  temporary  inconveniences  and  sometimes  with 
serious  injury  was  shown  to  be  true  in  this  instance. 
In  the  year  immediately  following  the  enactment  of 
the  new  system  there  was  a  demand  for  its  repeal  on 


316         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

account  of  what  was  called  the  "bungling  system" 
provided  through  the  district  organization.  Some 
political  capital,  it  appears,  was  made  out  of  this 
point  in  1859 ;  and  it  was  believed  in  some  parts  that 
the  law  was  a  mixture  of  the  plans  of  Horace  Mann 
and  the  peculiar  notions  of  Senators  Jonathan  W. 
Cattell  and  J.  B.  Grinnell.315  The  Board  of  Educa- 
tion seems  to  have  been  forgotten  along  with  its 
deliberations  in  December,  1858. 

It  must  be  concluded,  however,  that  the  radical 
changes  incorporated  in  the  law  of  1858  were  in  its 
favor  since  interest  was  at  once  aroused  —  even  if 
only  the  interest  of  opposition.  It  was  said,  indeed, 
that  up  to  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  the  new  Consti- 
tution few  knew  under  what  school  law  they  were 
operating;  while  it  was  clear  that  no  such  attention 
had  ever  been  paid  to  the  cause  of  popular  education 
as  within  the  months  subsequent  to  the  approval  of 
the  new  legislation.316  But  the  opposition  was  im- 
portuning the  General  Assembly  to  restore  what  was 
termed  the  former  independence,  for  it  was  well 
understood  that  the  legislature  possessed  authority 
to  overturn  any  proposition  of  the  State  Board  of 
Education.  It  was  a  critical  period  in  educational 
legislation  in  Iowa. 

Although  nearly  8000  officers,  who  were  to  be  the 
agents  in  its  execution,  were  elected  under  this  act, 
very  few  had  any  acquaintance  with  the  provisions 
of  the  law  previous  to  their  selection.  There  was 
naturally  some  confusion;  and  numerous  questions 
were  submitted  to  the  State  Superintendents,  as  well 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  RECONSTRUCTION    317 

as  to  county  superintendents,  relative  to  duties  de- 
volving upon  subordinates.  The  opposition  often 
encountered  in  the  old  districts  must  be  met  by  those 
endeavoring  to  establish  a  new  organization  on 
which  they  personally  were  not  fully  informed,  and 
which  it  was  said  was  not  easily  comprehended  in  all 
its  parts.  But  these  were  recognized  by  good  people 
as  temporary;  and  to  relieve  the  situation  the  con- 
vention of  county  superintendents  was  called  at  Iowa 
City  in  1858.  The  questions  submitted  to  Superin- 
tendent M.  L.  Fisher  and  answered  by  him  —  al- 
though the  replies  are  not  recorded  —  seem  to  have 
cleared  the  atmosphere  to  some  extent,  while  sundry 
amendments  were  proposed  for  consideration  by  the 
Board  of  Education  or  by  the  General  Assembly. 
Among  these  the  very  first  suggested  the  abolition 
of  the  subdistrict,  since  this  provision  of  the  statute 
had  caused  more  trouble  than  all  others  put  together. 
Such  divisions,  it  was  declared,  were  "  uselessly  mul- 
tiplied", certain  townships  having  nine  or  ten  when 
four  or  five  would  be  sufficient.  There  was  a  recom- 
mendation, also,  that  scholarships  be  established  in 
every  district  (township)  in  the  State  in  order  to 
provide  for  trained  teachers  —  a  plan  to  which  ref- 
erence has  been  made  in  former  chapters.  There 
was  another  suggestion,  likewise,  that  would  author- 
ize the  establishment  of  schools  for  a  limited  time 
for  the  exclusive  training  of  teachers  in  counties 
unable  to  sustain  a  high  school.317 

In  the  following  year,  1859,  the  Secretary  of  the 
Board  of  Education,  although  opposing  any  change 


318         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

of  importance,  recommended  some  minor  corrective 
amendments  to  the  new  statute.  Had  it  not  been,  he 
said,  for  certain  difficulties  which  must  be  overcome 
his  suggestions  would  have  assumed  "an  entirely 
different  character."  One  direct  amendment  he 
would  have,  however,  which  would  fix  the  salary  of 
the  county  superintendent  by  law  rather  than  leave 
it  to  the  determination  of  the  presidents  of  the 
district  boards  as  the  statute  then  provided.  County 
superintendents  in  their  several  communications 
were  not,  it  appears,  so  conservative  as  the  Secre- 
tary in  their  suggestions  relative  to  the  reconstruc- 
tion of  the  law.  Among  the  many  recommendations 
the  following  are  common:  let  the  civil  township  be 
made  the  school  district  with  a  board  of  three  mem- 
bers, a  president,  a  secretary,  and  a  treasurer,  each 
of  whom  should  be  compensated  for  his  services,  and 
let  the  subdistricts  be  abolished ;  there  should  be  an 
institute  held  annually  in  each  county  at  the  expense 
of  the  same ;  the  county  superintendent  should  not  be 
compelled  to  visit  schools  more  than  once  a  year,  but 
he  should  be  required  to  explain  the  law  governing 
the  common  school;  the  county  superintendent 
should  control  the  school  fund;  subdistricts  should 
be  authorized  to  employ  their  own  teachers  and  to 
levy  taxes  for  all  purposes.  Since  nine-tenths  of  the 
trouble  in  some  counties  grew  out  of  the  subdistrict 
system  its  abolition  was  repeatedly  recommended. 
Another  would  make  each  subdistrict  independent  as 
under  the  old  law.  At  the  same  time  one  leader  in 
educational  opinion  declared  that  the  law  should  re- 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  RECONSTRUCTION    319 

main  unchanged ;  while  another  like-minded  educator 
expressed  his  admiration  for  the  "main  features"  of 
the  statute. 

To  some  a  permanent  law  was  impossible  under 
the  provisions  of  the  Constitution,  since  the  two 
controlling  legislative  bodies  would  not  or  could  not 
harmonize  their  actions.  Again,  that  part  of  the  act 
relative  to  the  apportionment  of  school  money  was 
not  just  since  some  other  basis  than  the  ages  of  five 
to  twenty-one  must  be  adopted,  for  the  advantages 
were  not  equal  under  such  a  method.  It  was  said 
further  that  there  should  not  be  generally  more  than 
four  districts  in  a  township  and  no  subdistrict  with 
less  than  forty  to  sixty  pupils.  Another  would  re- 
peal the  whole  system  and  abolish  the  office  of  county 
superintendent.  Still  others  found  the  system  de- 
fective in  working  power  through  omission  of  im- 
portant features.  On  the  other  hand  just  as  strong 
declarations  were  made  as  to  the  positive  success  of 
the  act.  Moreover,  it  was  suggested  in  this  sympo- 
sium of  county  superintendents  that  the  district 
secretary  should  be  required  to  supervise  the  schools 
therein,  make  monthly  visits,  examine  the  records, 
and  see  that  they  were  properly  kept,  while  the 
school  month  and  year  should  be  fixed  by  statute.318 
Thus,  local  opinion  was  expressed  through  the  only 
channel  of  communication  —  the  county  superintend- 
ent—  who  usually  reflected  the  attitude  of  his 
constituents. 

It  has  been  shown  that  in  1859  the  Board  of 
Education  amended  the  first  law  (that  of  March  12, 


320         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

1858)  without  fundamentally  changing  it,  and  the 
reasons  therefor  were  later  presented  to  the  General 
Assembly  by  the  Secretary  who  urgently  requested 
that  body  not  to  interfere  with  its  operation.  It  was 
shown  in  the  communication  of  the  Secretary  that 
the  law  of  1858  was  accepted  by  the  Board  almost 
without  modification  because  it  had  already  been  in 
force  for  six  months,  and  any  radical  reconstruction 
would  have  been  demoralizing.  Moreover,  modifica- 
tions would  have  but  added  to  the  confusion  arising 
over  the  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court.  Finally,  it 
was  felt  that  a  defective  statute,  if  well  understood, 
would  prove  of  greater  advantage  than  a  new  one. 
At  the  same  time  early  action  by  the  General  Assem- 
bly (in  1860)  was  desirable  that  the  Secretary  might 
know  that  there  would  be  no  modification  before  he 
proceeded  to  publish  and  distribute  the  school  laws. 
The  General  Assembly  profited  by  these  sugges- 
tions, the  only  amendments  made  being  those  neces- 
sary to  give  vitality  to  the  law  —  namely,  those 
providing  for  the  collection  or  expenditure  of  money 
without  which  the  legislation  of  the  Board  would 
have  been  ineffective.  It  was  soon  recognized  that 
the  chief  trouble  in  legislating  for  schools  was  in  the 
''peculiar  provision  of  the  constitution"  whereby 
there  was  required  the  concurrence  of  two  legisla- 
tive bodies  —  the  General  Assembly  and  the  Board 
of  Education  —  which  were  never  in  session  at  the 
same  time.  It  was  doubtful  therefore  whether  a 
perfect  understanding  would  ever  be  possible. 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  RECONSTRUCTION    321 

Furthermore,  the  people  did  not  comprehend  the 
situation  under  which  these  two  branches  of  govern- 
ment were  often  embarrassed.  This,  it  was  asserted, 
was  the  chief  reason  for  letting  the  law  stand  until 
the  time  came  when  the  General  Assembly  should 
have  a  clear  field,  that  is  to  say,  could  do  all  the 
legislating  for  schools. 

During  the  period  immediately  following  the 
enactment  of  the  law  of  1858  there  was  manifested 
in  some  sections  a  disposition  to  take  advantage  of 
subdistricts  in  the  construction  of  new  buildings  —  a 
feature  of  the  law  which  the  Board  of  Education 
sought  without  complete  success  to  remedy  in  1859. 
Two  distinct  features  had  to  be  adjusted,  namely, 
the  provision  for  the  equalization  of  taxes  among  the 
subdistricts  of  the  township,  and  that  requiring  the 
electors  of  the  township  to  vote  a  tax  for  a  sub- 
district  house.  It  had  become  quite  common  for  the 
voters  to  refuse  to  sanction  a  tax  after  the  majority 
of  districts  were  accommodated.  For  instance,  a 
township  having  seven  districts  might  cheerfully 
erect  buildings  in  five  of  them  and  absolutely  refuse 
to  assist  the  other  two.  Although  such  practices 
were  recognized  as  dishonest  they  were  nevertheless 
accepted  as  typical  of  human  nature ;  and  so,  it  was 
recommended  in  1861  that  an  amendment  should 
compel  such  a  tax  levy,  the  method  proposed  being 
through  authority  conferred  upon  the  county  board 
of  supervisors  (recently  created)  to  levy  a  tax  upon 
a  township  wherein  a  subdistrict  was  demanding 
improvements.319  In  this  there  appears  the  sugges- 

22 


322         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

tion  of  centralization  of  authority  in  the  county 
government  to  enforce  a  statutory  provision  which 
should  be  primarily  enforceable  by  a  township  board 
of  education. 

In  1863,  after  the  publication  of  the  amended  law 
of  1862,  Secretary  Benton  observed  that  many  objec- 
tions previously  made  seemed  to  have  been  removed. 
It  was  clear  to  him,  moreover,  that  the  chief  diffi- 
culty, as  he  had  formerly  stated,  was  in  the  "conflict 
of  jurisdiction"  between  the  Board  of  Education  and 
the  General  Assembly.  He  expressed  the  opinion, 
also,  that  the  original  intention  of  those  who  had 
proposed  a  Board  of  Education  had  been  thwarted 
in  the  constitutional  convention  by  "an  injudicious 
compromise"  and  that  it  was  not  intended  to  possess 
legislative  authority.  Such  an  opinion,  however,  ap- 
pears not  to  have  been  in  accordance  with  what  took 
place  in  the  convention.  Indeed,  from  a  careful  sur- 
vey of  the  debates  on  the  matter,  one  must  conclude 
that  this  authority  was  prominently  in  view  during 
the  entire  discussion.  It  was  at  this  time  (in  1863) 
that  the  abolition  of  the  Board  of  Education  was 
.advised  by  Mr.  Benton;  and  in  anticipation  of  a 
return  to  the  independent  district  system,  which  he 
felt  to  be  certain  when  the  General  Assembly  came 
into  full  control,  he  recommended  a  special  act  pro- 
viding for  the  transition  from  the  township  district 
to  the  independent  system.  It  is  noteworthy  that 
Secretary  Benton  distinguished  between  a  general 
education  act  and  one  that  might  be  adopted  to 
designate  the  details  of  procedure  in  passing  from 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  RECONSTRUCTION    323 

one  form  of  organization  to  another  —  the  first  a 
permanent  and  the  second  a  temporary  statute. 

The  prevention  of  errors  in  legislation  was  a 
feature  of  the  recommendation  of  the  Secretary ;  and 
in  his  final  report  in  1863  he  pointed  out  the  conse- 
quences of  a  custom  that,  although  common,  should 
be  avoided,  namely,  ''the  practice  of  selecting  cer- 
tain sections  from  a  variety  of  old  laws,  and  associ- 
ating them  together  in  a  new  one. ' '  Confusion  had 
often  arisen,  he  affirmed,  from  this  practice,  the 
language  of  the  statutes  being  frequently  ambiguous. 
Indeed,  too  little  care  was  exercised  in  expressing 
the  law  and  many  misconstructions  of  the  school  law 
of  1858  might  be  traced  to  this  fault.  A  law  should 
not  be  amended  by  changing  it  in  part  through  a  new 
act  which  did  not  specify  clearly  the  section  of  the 
law  affected.  Indeed,  it  would  be  far  better  to  repeal 
the  law  or  section  and  enact  an  entirely  new  statute. 
No  legislation  was  advised  —  with  the  exceptions 
noted  above  —  since  it  was  considered  unwise  to 
make  any  changes  at  the  time  when  the  attention  of 
the  people  was  so  occupied  with  the  exciting  inter- 
ests of  war.  Furthermore,  the  system  was  working 
well  and  no  cause  for  immediate  action  existed.320 

In  the  consolidation  of  the  several  school  acts  (in 
1862),  and  in  the  minor  amendments  incorporated 
therein,  the  recommendations  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Board  of  Education  were  generally  adopted  without 
modification.  The  respect  with  which  these  recom- 
mendations were  treated  is  indicative  of  the  confi- 
dence placed  in  his  knowledge  of  the  needs  of  the 


324         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

State,  as  well  as  of  the  acknowledgment  on  the  part 
of  legislators  that  acquaintance  with  the  problems 
confronting  the  administration  would  be  of  greater 
value  in  proposing  amendments  than  petitions  from 
constituents.  Mr.  Benton  had  observed  the  inequi- 
ties arising  under  the  system  of  levying  school  taxes, 
and  had  noted  the  fact  that  some  restrictions  were 
necessary  in  communities  having  but  few  settlers. 
It  was  well  known,  he  observed,  that  some  counties 
contained  but  one  or  two  townships  in  which  large 
areas  frequently  were  taxed  for  the  construction  of 
school  houses  in  a  distant  corner  of  the  district. 
Indeed,  cases  were  reported  (in  1862),  and  one  was 
specified,  where  "a  tax  was  levied  on  land  situated 
over  twenty  miles ' '  from  the  proposed  school  build- 
ing, while  there  were  other  instances  in  which  ex- 
pensive houses  had  been  erected  so  far  from 
settlements  that  the  people  were  unable  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  them  for  school  purposes.  To  remedy 
this  " abuse  of  power"  some  legislation,  therefore, 
was  desirable,  since  the  statute  then  provided  that 
certain  lands  might  be  taxed  again  and  again  for  the 
construction  of  buildings  which  in  no  way  served 
their  possessors.321 

As  a  concession  to  those  advocating  the  inde- 
pendent district,  the  school  law  was  so  amended  in 
1864  that  the  subdistrict  might  levy  a  special  tax 
on  property  therein  for  the  support  of  a  term  beyond 
the  limit  required  by  law  or  even  that  ordered  by  the 
township  board  of  directors.  There  were  two  rea- 
sons, it  appears,  for  this  action :  first,  it  was  held  by 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  RECONSTRUCTION    325 

some  that  no  authority  permitted  boards  to  extend 
the  term  beyond  the  legal  requirement  of  six 
months;  and  second,  the  needs  or  desires  of  some 
communities  in  the  same  township  varied.  At  the 
same  time,  another  amendment  prohibited  the  com- 
pensation of  directors  out  of  the  school  fund,  for, 
.although  the  statute  made  no  provision  for  such 
payments,  it  appears  to  have  been  the  custom  in 
some  sections  to  allow  directors  either  a  fixed  amount 
or  a  per  diem  for  their  services.  This  is  to  say, 
there  was  no  uniform  practice  since  some  were  paid 
as  indicated,  while  the  majority,  it  seems,  served 
without  compensation.  It  was  the  duty  of  the  sub- 
director  then  to  make  the  annual  report  to  the  county 
superintendent  —  a  function  which,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  should 
be  performed  by  the  township  district  secretary 
as  it  finally  came  to  be  through  subsequent  legisla- 
tion. A  third  amendment  of  this  session  required 
the  county  treasurer  to  keep  a  separate  account  of 
the  school  house  fund  where  a  subdistrict  built  its 
own  house;  while  a  fourth  involved  new  provisions 
already  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  functions 
of  the  county  superintendent.322 

It  was  quite  generally  agreed  at  this  time  in  the 
history  of  the  schools  that  some  more  satisfactory 
method  of  securing  the  required  information  rela- 
tive to  the  district  organization,  and  all  local  data 
essential  to  a  correct  summary  by  county  and  State 
officers,  must  be  adopted.  It  was  recommended, 
therefore,  in  1865  that  all  school  officers  be  paid,  and 


326         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

furthermore  that  they  be  compelled  to  perform  the 
functions  imposed  upon  them.  It  was  not  uncom- 
mon for  the  reports  of  the  county  superintendent 
to  be  made  up  from  information  obtained  by  indi- 
rect methods  rather  than  by  the  processes  which  the 
law  contemplated.  It  had  been  observed  in  certain 
instances  that  officers,  who,  under  the  law,  should 
be  responsible  were  compensated  much  more  liber- 
ally than  the  county  superintendent  who  was  forced 
to  perform  his  duties  or  be  counted  delinquent  by 
the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  Thus, 
among  the  recommendations  for  improvement  some 
would  provide  for  a  deputy  county  superintendent 
in  counties  containing  eighty  or  more  districts  and 
also  for  a  more  adequate  salary  for  the  county 
superintendent. 

It  was  further  suggested  that  a  uniform  system 
of  grading  teachers  be  adopted  throughout  the  State 
under  the  inspection  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction,  while  a  penalty  should  be  enforced  for 
employing  any  person  not  possessing  a  license. 
Again,  a  fine  of  five  dollars  per  day  should  be  im- 
posed upon  all  teachers  presuming  to  teach  without 
legal  authority.  Furthermore,  all  teachers  should 
have  free  instruction  in  methods  of  teaching  four 
weeks  each  year,  and  all  holding  low  grade  certifi- 
cates should  be  compelled  to  attend  the  county  insti- 
tute. A  school  year,  too,  should  consist  of  ten 
months  instruction,  for  five  months  of  which  all 
pupils  should  be  compelled  to  attend;  the  State 
should  appropriate  fifty  dollars  for  the  beginning  of 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  RECONSTRUCTION    327 

a  library  in  each  subdistrict,  the  latter  being  re- 
quired to  add  ten  dollars  annually  or  to  lose  the 
whole  amount;  the  Board  of  Examiners  should  be 
required  to  hold  sessions  in  every  congressional  dis- 
trict; the  office  of  Assistant  State  Superintendent 
should  be  created,  which  should  have  full  control 
over  county  institutes ;  a  limit  should  be  fixed  as  to 
the  size  of  the  subdistrict,  or  there  should  be  a  return 
to  the  independent  system,  for  under  the  latter  form 
the  small  district  would  die  out ;  text-books  should  be 
uniform  throughout  the  State;  all  large  schools 
should  be  graded  while  monthly  examinations  should 
be  abolished,  since  it  was  thought  that  once  a  quarter 
was  often  enough ;  and  finally  private  schools  supply- 
ing teachers  and  promoting  the  educational  interests 
of  the  State  should  be  encouraged,  at  least  by  so 
much  as  to  exempt  their  property  from  taxation. 

There  were  many  other  proposed  amendments  — 
of  which  indeed  there  seemed  to  have  been  no  limit 
—  some  practicable  and  others  visionary.  It  was 
pointed  out  by  a  county  superintendent  that  compen- 
sating directors  in  the  hope  of  securing  better  ob- 
servance of  functions  would  not  prove  satisfactory. 
He  therefore  proposed  a  statute  requiring  the  town- 
ship board  to  appoint  a  competent  man  to  have 
charge  of  all  the  schools  of  the  township,  to  examine 
all  teachers  therein,  and  to  make  all  necessary  re- 
ports directly  to  the  State  Superintendent,  to  visit 
and  supervise  the  schools,  in  short  to  make  the  town- 
ship an  independent  educational  unit.  It  is  notice- 
able that  this  was  in  some  particulars  a  proposition 


328         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

to  restore  the  provisions  of  the  law  of  1840,  and  since 
it  came  from  Jones  County  the  Monticello  Township 
organization  may  have  grown  out  of  this  suggestion. 
At  the  same  time  there  were  those  who  deemed  the 
school  law  radically  wrong  in  that  too  many  individ- 
uals were  concerned  in  its  administration.  It  was 
on  this  occasion  that  George  B.  Dennison,  superin- 
tendent of  Muscatine  County,  repeated  a  recom- 
mendation that  he  had  made  to  the  Board  of 
Education  in  1858  relative  to  the  election  of  the 
county  superintendent  by  a  convention  of  school 
officers  who  should  prescribe  his  duties  and  fix  his 
salary.  Again,  a  plan  of  supervision  proposed  by 
Rev.  Simon  Barrows,  superintendent  of  Polk  County, 
would  abolish  the  office  of  county  superintendent  and 
provide  for  some  thirty  departments  or  districts 
containing  from  one  to  four  counties  according  to 
population.  Therein  the  people  should  elect  a  com- 
missioner or  inspector  to  hold  office  for  four  years, 
the  same  to  be  regarded  as  a  State  officer  and  be 
paid  from  the  treasury  while  his  functions  should 
include  the  examination  of  teachers,  the  holding  of 
institutes,  lecturing,  and  supervising  the  schools  of 
his  district.  To  hold  such  a  position,  furthermore, 
no  one  should  be  eligible  until  he  had  qualified  before 
the  Board  of  Examiners,  it  being  thought  that  men 
of  such  a  type  would  be  induced  by  the  power  and 
honor  conferred  to  accept  the  office.  Another  propo- 
sition looking  toward  centralization  would  make  the 
building  of  all  school  houses,  except  possibly  in 
cities,  a  function  of  the  State,  the  cost  to  be  assessed 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  RECONSTRUCTION    329 

by  the  Commonwealth  upon  the  locality  interested.323 
From  these  illustrative  recommendations  one  may 
conclude  that  the  school  law  was  not  yet  fully  up  to 
the  expectations  of  many  persons  who  were  vitally 
interested  in  educational  progress. 

The  majority,  however,  would  not  recommend 
any  radical  change  in  the  law  as  originally  provided, 
since  frequent  changes  were  regarded  as  detri- 
mental—  especially  in  legislation  that  touched  so 
many  interests  as  that  affecting  education.  The  ad- 
vancement in  the  ten  years  from  1858  to  1868  was 
indicative  of  the  gradual  establishment  of  the  law  in 
the  estimation  of  the  people,  and  the  only  need  for 
the  present  was  the  removal  of  defects  as  they  were 
pointed  out.  At  the  same  time  it  was  declared  by 
some  that  the  less  the  law  was  subjected  to  "legis- 
lative tinkering"  the  better. 


XXIII 
MORE  LEGISLATION  ADVISED 

ABOUT  1870  there  were  evidences  of  a  demand  for  a 
more  business-like  conduct  of  school  affairs.  For 
instance,  it  was  shown  that  the  financial  rewards  of 
the  teacher  were  often  less  than  they  appeared  to  be, 
since  it  was  not  uncommon  for  them  to  be  paid  in 
orders  which  must  be  discounted  or  held  until  the 
district  secured  the  necessary  funds.  It  was  to  cor- 
rect this  injustice  that  an  amendment  was  proposed 
which  would  require  the  monthly  payment  of  teach- 
ers and  likewise  the  paying  over  of  district  funds  by 
the  county  treasurer  at  the  end  of  the  same  period. 
It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  the  promoters  of 
these  changes  were  successful  before  the  legislature. 
There  was,  moreover,  a  disposition  to  look  with 
favor  upon  a  smaller  number  in  the  constitution  of 
boards,  both  in  independent  and  township  districts. 
For  example,  the  suggestion  was  made  that  three 
members  —  a  president,  a  secretary  and  a  treasurer, 
who  should  be  compensated  for  their  services  and  be 
held  responsible  for  specific  functions  —  should  com- 
pose the  board  for  all  forms  of  districts.  Another 
proposition  would  establish  a  compensated  township 
board  of  six  members,  two  being  elected  each  year 
according  to  the  system  then  current  in  Pennsyl- 

330 


331 

vania.  It  seems  clear  that  at  this  time  board  mem- 
bers were  often  excused  for  neglect  of  duty  on  the 
plea  that  they  were  not  allowed  any  compensation.324 

In  1873  reference  was  again  made  to  the  fact  that 
the  school  law  had  remained  practically  unchanged 
since  1858.  Although  the  great  number  of  recom- 
mendations relative  to  certain  phases  of  the  system 
had  been  published  through  the  office  of  the  Super- 
intendent of  Public  Instruction,  few  of  them  seemed 
to  have  been  taken  seriously.  It  is  interesting  to 
observe  that  while  the  compulsory  attendance  law 
was  not  openly  proposed  until  about  1872,  it  was 
foreseen  sometime  before  that  it  would  become  a 
factor  in  subsequent  legislation,  and  that  while  the 
school  treasurer  is  still  (in  1914)  an  officer  of  the 
district  it  was  declared  in  1873  that  the  office  should 
be  abolished  and  the  functions  thereafter  performed 
by  the  county  treasurer.  There  was,  however,  some 
legislation  in  1872  which,  according  to  the  view  of 
Superintendent  Abernethy,  would  create  serious  dis- 
turbance, namely,  that  providing  for  the  formation 
of  rural  independent  districts.  Two  causes  were 
assigned  for  the  enactment  of  this  law:  first,  the 
removal  of  the  objectional  features  of  the  township 
system  which  was  representative  of  territory  in  its 
organization  rather  than  of  population ;  and  second, 
the  restoration  to  the  people  of  the  district  of  the 
entire  control  over  their  schools. 

It  was  the  opinion  of  the  State  Superintendent 
that  "material  changes  ought  not  to  be  made  with- 
out due  deliberation",  but  there  were  in  1875  some 


332 


amendments  that  seemed  desirable.  Officers  should 
be  held  to  a  stricter  accountability  in  handling  funds ; 
or  it  would  be  more  satisfactory  for  the  county 
treasurer  to  disburse  funds  directly  to  those  holding 
claims  against  the  several  districts.  Some  action 
should  be  taken  also  to  prevent  further  misapplica- 
tion of  the  school  revenue.  Again,  he  would  provide 
more  efficient  supervision  for  the  ungraded  schools ; 
and  he  endorsed  the  recommendations  of  the  State 
Teachers'  Association  relative  to  the  creation  of  a 
Board  of  Examiners,  as  well  as  the  addition  of 
elementary  physics,  drawing,  or  vocal  music  to  the 
required  list  of  subjects  in  the  examination  of 
teachers.  It  may  be  said  that  a  recommendation  of 
two  years  before  would  require  a  knowledge  of  the 
Constitution  and  civil  government  of  Iowa  —  a  pro- 
vision as  reasonable,  it  would  appear,  as  that  men- 
tioned above,  but  which  seems  not  to  have  been  so 
considered.  Further  suggestions  in  1875  would 
amend  the  law  relative  to  county  institutes  with  a 
view  to  increasing  their  usefulness,  especially  by 
relieving  teachers  of  a  part  of  the  expense  ''attend- 
ing their  management ' '.  County  high  schools  should 
be  adequately  provided  for  also,  their  special  func- 
tion being  "to  afford  industrial  education,  and  in- 
struction in  the  higher  branches  and  in  teaching." 
And  finally,  the  school  year  should  be  so  defined  as 
to  make  the  annual  return  of  school  statistics  more 
satisfactory.326 

The    Fifteenth    General    Assembly    (in    1874) 
authorized  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction 


MORE  LEGISLATION  ADVISED  333 

to  issue  and  distribute  to  school  officers  20,000  copies 
of  the  school  laws  then  in  force.  It  appears,  how- 
ever, that  it  required  a  subsequent  issue  of  12,000 
more,  under  orders  from  the  next  Assembly,  before 
the  local  officers  were  all  supplied.  But  no  provision 
was  made  for  the  distribution  to  any  citizen,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  he  might  be  willing  to  pay  for 
the  same  for  his  own  enlightenment. 

Through  the  biennial  reports  of  county  superin- 
tendents a  great  variety  of  possible  legislation,  much 
of  which  has  or  will  become  a  part  of  the  laws  of  the 
State,  has  been  proposed.  The  fact  that  these  rec- 
ommendations were  repeated  year  after  year 
suggests  the  customary  procedure  in  securing  legis- 
lation, that  is,  there  was  a  period  of  agitation  before 
attention  could  be  sufficiently  drawn  to  a  matter  to 
secure  its  serious  consideration  by  the  public  author- 
ities. For  example,  as  early  as  1877  a  law  to  compel 
attendance  upon  some  normal  school  previous  to 
teaching  was  suggested.  Yet  this  proposition  was 
not  seriously  considered  until  1913,  and  then,  under 
a  commission  report.  In  the  same  year  State  uni- 
formity in  examinations  was  recommended;  and  it 
was  held  important  that  no  one  should  be  permitted 
to  teach  longer  than  one  year  upon  a  second  class 
certificate,  and  but  eight  months  upon  a  third  class 
certificate,  thereby  forecasting  the  provisional  cer- 
tificate of  recent  legislation.  The  large  number  of 
officers  provided  for  under  the  statutes  was  declared 
to  be  unfortunate;  while  it  was  thought  that  the 
recently  established  independent  districts  should  be 


334         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

wholly  abolished,  the  township  as  a  single  district 
being  substituted  therefor.  Furthermore,  all  towns 
of  less  than  three  hundred  population  should  be  in- 
cluded in  the  township  district  with  a  board  of  six 
members  elected  at  large.  Once  more,  too,  the  feasi- 
bility of  abolishing  the  numerous  treasurers  and 
requiring  the  county  treasurer  to  disburse  all  funds 
was  shown  to  be  not  only  a  more  safe,  but  also  a 
more  accurate  and  economical  method  of  the  admin- 
istration of  school  funds.  Indeed,  this  change  would 
prove  to  be  of  greater  convenience  to  all  concerned, 
while  saving  several  hundred  dollars  in  salaries  to 
petty  officers.326 

Since  there  had  been  no  general  systematic  re- 
vision of  the  school  law  since  the  adoption  of  the 
fundamental  act  of  March  12,  1858,  it  was  pointed 
out  in  1879  that ' '  our  school  laws  have  been  amended, 
changed,  altered  and  modified,  until  they  are  very 
difficult  to  interpret. ' '  To  remedy  this  condition  the 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  proposed  to 
codify  and  rearrange  the  laws  without  further  ex- 
pense than  the  necessary  clerk  hire.  But  no  author- 
ity had  been  granted  by  the  previous  Assembly  by 
which  the  department  could  even  publish  the  laws, 
and  it  was  currently  reported  that  nearly  all  districts 
were  without  copies  of  the  statutes  by  which  they 
were  governed.  That  this  situation  might  be  re- 
lieved it  was. proposed  to  authorize  boards  of  educa- 
tion to  purchase  the  statutes  by  appropriations  from 
the  contingent  fund,  provided  the  State  could  not 
meet  the  expense  of  publication,  since  it  was  essential 


MORE  LEGISLATION  ADVISED  335 

that  some  such  provision  be  made  in  order  that  local 
officers  might  have  some  means  of  informing  them- 
selves. 

As  predicted  some  years  before,  a  bill  providing 
for  compulsory  attendance  passed  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives in  1878  but  failed  to  secure  sufficient 
support  in  the  Senate.  It  was  not  recommended, 
however,  by  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion, for  he  was  quite  certain  that  such  a  statute 
could  not  be  enforced.  Furthermore,  he  believed 
that  other  methods  would  prove  more  acceptable  and 
that  the  desired  ends  could  be  obtained  through  a 
personal  investigation  of  children  whose  education 
was  neglected.  The  General  Assembly,  however,  did 
succeed  in  passing  one  law  relative  to  the  organiza- 
tion of  boards  which  proved  exceedingly  annoying, 
namely,  that  by  which  the  president  in  town  boards 
of  six  directors  was  prohibited  from  voting.  In- 
tended to  prevent  deadlocks,  it  had  resulted  in  pre- 
venting the  organization  of  boards  for  long  periods 
owing  to  the  fact  that  no  one  would  accept  the  office 
of  president  and  thus  be  disfranchised  as  a  member. 
To  change  this  situation,  and  yet  avoid  the  difficulty 
which  the  statute  sought  to  correct,  it  was  proposed 
to  restore  the  vote  of  the  president  and  permit  the 
secretary  to  cast  a  ballot  in  case  of  a  tie.327 

Superintendent  von  Coelln  declared  in  1881  that 
he  had  purposely  refrained  from  recommending 
legislation  that  would  involve  any  change  in  the 
organic  law.  Nevertheless,  the  great  need  of  general 
and  systematic  revision  and  reconstruction  of  the 


336         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

statutes  was  again  emphasized  since  they  had  become 
so  "thoroughly  obscured"  that  it  was  difficult  to 
"unravel  them."  It  was  observed  further  that, 
while  the  law  originally  provided  for  the  district 
township,  such  modifications  had  occurred  that  in 
1881  approximately  one-fourth  of  the  rural  schools 
were  included  under  independent  district  manage- 
ment. Therefore,  the  often-repeated  proposition  to 
make  the  township  the  unit  was  again  presented. 
At  all  events  let  there  be  one  township  treasurer  for 
all  independent  districts,  who  should  be  appointed 
by  the  township  trustees  or  county  board  of  super- 
visors with  a  compensation  determined  by  statute. 
Moreover,  let  him  be  required  not  only  to  receive  and 
disburse  all  money  for  the  districts  included  within 
the  township  but  also  to  visit  the  schools  therein, 
and  to  cooperate  with  the  county  superintendents 
and  school  boards  in  the  classification  and  inspection 
of  schools.328  In  short,  it  appears  that  the  office 
should  develop  into  that  of  a  township  supervisor, 
while  the  chief  reason  for  its  creation  was  declared 
to  be  financial.  Nor  was  there  any  suggestion  of  a 
suitable  selection  for  supervisory  duties  other  than 
in  the  possible  judgment  of  the  appointing  authority. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  there  had  been  other 
recommendations  relative  to  such  supervision  and 
some  instances  of  its  actual  practice  in  this  State. 

The  "unwise  and  ruinous  system"  of  independ- 
ent districts  continued  to  be  the  theme  about  which 
many  other  minor  subjects  centered  in  the  official 
reports  of  school  officers  for  many  years  subsequent 


MORE  LEGISLATION  ADVISED  337 

to  the  passing  of  the  unfortunate  statute  which 
authorized  their  organization.  In  1885  the  question 
seemed  as  conspicuous  as  ever,  since  it  was  observed 
that  confusion  was  continually  arising  over  boun- 
daries as  the  State  became  more  fully  settled.  No 
provision  existed,  it  was  declared,  for  the  adjustment 
of  differences  which  arose  when  subdistricts  which 
had  been  a  part  of  a  district  township  were  attached 
to  another  having  independent  districts.  Another 
difficulty  experienced  in  independent  city  and  town 
districts,  and  which  the  legislature  had  attempted  to 
remedy,  existed  in  the  equal  number  on  the  board 
which  often  resulted  in  "ties".  It  was  therefore 
proposed  to  provide  for  a  president  to  be  elected 
outside  the  board  of  six  members,  but  who  should 
have  no  vote  except  in  the  case  of  an  equal  division. 
It  was  inquired,  too,  whether  there  was  any  reason 
in  having  a  term  of  three  years  for  board  members 
in  independent  districts  and  but  one  in  the  district 
township.  Why,  it  was  asked,  should  there  be  any 
distinction  ? 

That  the  controversy  over  the  introduction  and 
change  of  text-books  might  be  forever  settled,  Super- 
intendent Akers  made  the  direct  recommendation  in 
1885  that  the  district  purchase  and  loan  such  sup- 
plies, the  contingent  fund  being  employed  for  this 
purpose.  It  was  further  advised  by  others  that  the 
three  funds  —  teachers,  school  house,  and  contingent 
—  be  consolidated  and  known  thereafter  as  * '  school 
fund  benefits".  To  these  recommendations  may  be 
added  the  following:  the  establishment  of  a  district 

23 


338         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

graded  library;  the  requirement  that  all  schools  be 
closed  during  the  normal  institute;  permission  to 
teachers  to  attend  conventions  without  loss  of  pay; 
a  county  training  school  for  teachers  which  the  State 
should  aid  in  the  beginning  by  the  appropriation  of 
$1000;  uniformity  in  the  financial  year  and  other 
required  records ;  the  distribution  of  the  interest  on 
the  permanent  fund  on  the  basis  of  attendance  rather 
than  upon  enumeration ;  the  course  of  instruction  in 
normal  institutes  should  be  established  by  law  and 
should  include  instruction  relative  to  teachers  con- 
tracts, bonds  of  secretaries  and  treasurers,  term 
reports  and  official  records ;  and  finally,  all  completed 
registers  and  records  of  the  several  districts  should 
be  deposited  with  the  county  superintendent  "for 
safe  keeping".329 

As  the  law  stood  in  1887  the  reports  submitted  to 
the  succeeding  General  Assembly  contained  no  data 
more  recent  than  October,  1886  —  that  is  to  say,  al- 
most an  entire  year  of  events  most  nearly  related  to 
the  time  of  the  session  could  not  be  included.  It  was 
therefore  recommended  that  the  statistical  year  be 
changed  to  remedy  this  condition.  It  appears  that 
the  suggestion  was  accepted  by  the  Twenty-second 
General  Assembly  and  the  year  so  changed  that  sub- 
sequent biennial  reports  would  include  information 
relative  to  the  preceding  year.  While  this  was  vital 
to  an  understanding  of  current  matters  it  was  de- 
clared at  the  same  time  that  the  "crying  evil"  of  the 
school  system  existed  mainly  in  the  disjointed  rela- 
tion of  school  officials.  That  this  might  be  remedied 


MORE  LEGISLATION  ADVISED  339 

it  was  proposed  to  provide  a  county  board  of  educa- 
tion constituted  of  representatives  from  each  dis- 
trict. Or,  by  another  plan  this  county  board  would 
consist  of  the  presidents  of  the  various  boards  only, 
with  power  to  adopt  courses  of  study,  rules  and 
regulations  to  govern  the  schools  of  the  county,  and 
possibly  text-books.  A  board  of  this  character,  it 
was  said,  would  create  no  additional  expense  — 
always  a  very  great  argument  in  favor  of  an  educa- 
tional institution.330 

,  From  1880  to  1888  the  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction  had  been  authorized  to  arrange  the 
school  laws  with  amendments,  notes,  rulings,  forms, 
and  decisions  as  might  in  his  opinion  be  of  value  to 
school  officers,  and  to  distribute  the  same  every  four 
years.  Furthermore,  cloth-bound  volumes  should  be 
put  into  the  hands  of  each  county  superintendent  in 
sufficient  numbers  to  supply  the  school  officers .  of 
their  respective  counties,  while  other  copies  in  paper 
covers  should  be  provided  for  the  public  through  the 
county  auditor  at  a  fixed  price.  In  1888,  however, 
the  ''paper  bound"  portion  of  this  act  was  repealed. 
But  under  such  legislation  no  one  except  school  of- 
ficers could  obtain  copies  of  the  school  laws  —  a 
situation  that  produced  considerable  complaint  in 
the  following  year  because  persons  preparing  for  the 
teachers  examination  were  unable  to  provide  them- 
selves with  the  statutes  upon  which  they  might  be 
examined. 

It  was  recommended  by  Superintendent  Sabin  in 
1889  that  the  provision  relative  to  the  publication 


340         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

and  distribution  of  the  school  statutes  be  not  only 
restored  but  that  when  bound  they  should  include 
* '  the  constitution,  and  an  outline  of  the  civil  govern- 
ment of  the  State".  Subsequently  (in  1892)  40,000 
copies  of  the  laws  were  issued  and  distributed  to 
district  officers,  but  at  the  same  time  no  provision 
was  made  whereby  the  expectant  teacher,  or  one  al- 
ready employed,  could  obtain  a  copy  except  through 
a  loan  from  those  officially  entitled  to  benefit  by  the 
distribution.  It  was  considered,  indeed,  as  "glaring- 
ly inconsistent",  in  the  opinion  of  Superintendent 
Knoepfler,  for  the  State  to  establish  a  qualification 
for  a  certificate  and  then  provide  no  opportunity  for 
meeting  it.  It  was  not  demanded  that  the  State 
should  distribute  these  laws  without  charge,  but  it 
was  thought  that  any  individual  citizen  should  be 
given  the  opportunity  to  purchase  them  at  cost.  It 
was  not,  however,  until  1898  that  the  county  auditor 
was  authorized  to  sell  the  school  statutes  in  paper 
binding  at  the  uniform  price  of  twenty  cents.331 
Thus,  another  decade  was  required  to  secure  action 
on  what  seemed  a  reasonable  request. 

That  greater  stability  and  a  more  certain  ma- 
turity of  plans  might  obtain,  Superintendent  Sabin 
in  1889  repeated  the  suggestions  previously  made, 
that  the  provisions  for  perpetuating  the  independent 
district  board  be  applied  to  the  district  township.  It 
was  proposed  further  that  the  entire  township  board 
should  be  required  to  approve  the  appointment  of 
teachers;  while  to  qualify  for  service  as  a  member 
one  should  be  able  "to  speak,  read,  and  write  the 


MORE  LEGISLATION  ADVISED  341 

English  language  with  reasonable  facility. ' '  But  the 
improvement  of  the  rural  schools  through  the  em- 
ployment of  better  teachers,  closer  supervision,  and 
more  suitable  equipment  patterned  after  the  best 
obtainable  was  held  by  the  same  authority  to  be  the 
legislation  most  needed.  Although  the  school  system 
as  a  unit  must  be  duly  considered,  that  which  was 
apparently  the  most  neglected  could  not  be  permitted 
to  remain  in  such  a  condition. 

The  revision  of  the  laws  under  the  direction 
of  a  commission  was  urged  again  in  1893,  when 
it  was  suggested  that  the  members  of  such  a  body 
should  include  not  less  than  two  educators  —  one  of 
whom  should  be  the  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction, or  one  who  had  but  recently  held  that  office 
—  and  competent  legal  talent.  It  was  pointed  out 
that  the  acquaintance  with  the  school  system  and 
with  the  problems  connected  with  its  administration 
would  qualify  the  Superintendent  for  expert  service 
in  this  capacity.332 

It  was  in  1895  that  Mr.  A.  H.  Davison  of  the 
eighth  representative  district  presented  the  claims  of 
the  State  to  an  educational  system  which,  from  a 
survey  of  the  statutes  governing  it,  he  declared,  did 
not  appear  to  exist.  That  is  to  say,  since  the  man- 
agement of  educational  matters  rested  largely  with 
local  boards  without  centralization  of  authority,  it 
was  evident  that  much  remained  to  be  done  before 
one  could  assert  that  this  was  really  a  system  of 
public  instruction.  His  recommendations,  therefore, 
relative  to  the  reconstruction  of  the  school  laws  — 


342         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

which  he  observed  had  been  urged  for  fifteen  years 
by  the  heads  of  the  State  department  —  would  pro- 
vide a  central  board  of  education  to  control  all  the 
educational  agencies  of  the  State.  But  that  con- 
servative action  might  mark  all  deliberations,  it  was 
proposed  that  a  joint  commission  from  the  two 
houses  of  the  legislature  should  arrange  a  compre- 
hensive measure  as  a  substitute  for  Title  XII  of  the 
Code  of  1873.  Every  General  Assembly,  it  was  said, 
had  among  its  members  a  number  of  experienced 
educators  who  could  do  such  work,  and  they  should 
be  assisted  by  other  competent  men  in  studying  the 
details  of  other  school  systems  as  well  as  local  con- 
ditions. This  advisory  body  should  include  "not 
only  school  men,  but  men  of  affairs",  for  it  was  a 
''notorious  fact  that  those  who  have  only  such  views 
of  education  as  they  acquire  in  the  school  room  are 
unfit  for  so  comprehensive  a  work." 

In  this  scheme  of  reorganization  it  was  advised 
that  the  next  General  Assembly  (in  1896)  should 
provide  for  some  institution  within  each  county  for 
teacher  training.  The  bill  before  the  previous  legis- 
lature, which  had  proposed  a  training  school  of  six- 
teen weeks  annually  in  each  county,  was  commended 
as  a  worthy  measure ;  while  another  plan  presented 
at  this  time  would  establish  a  permanent  normal 
school  instead  of  the  sixteen  weeks  training.  To 
such  an  institution  the  graduates  from  the  township 
high  school  —  also  a  part  of  the  proposed  arrange- 
ment —  should  be  admitted  not  only  for  the  purposes 
of  instruction  in  methods  and  management  but  also 


MORE  LEGISLATION  ADVISED  343 

for  preparation  in  English,  the  sciences,  drawing, 
and  elementary  mechanics,  so  that  the  teacher  in  the 
rural  school  might  be  fitted  to  "construct  simple 
apparatus  for  illustrations  of  school  room  work". 
Such  schools,  it  was  pointed  out,  need  not  be 
equipped  with  expensive  buildings;  but  the  faculty 
should  be  of  a  high  order.  With  such  an  institution 
in  every  county  the  necessity  for  more  than  two  or 
three  State  normals  for  advanced  training  would 
disappear.  Furthermore,  the  county  institute  would 
be  enabled  to  devote  its  energies  to  work  of  a  pro- 
fessional character;  and  indeed,  it  should  be  retained 
as  an  inspirational  institution  which,  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  proposed  State  Board  of  Education,  could 
be  "led  in  new  lines"  as  circumstances  might 
suggest. 

With  the  establishment  of  the  township  central 
high  school  there  should  be  incorporated  a  provision 
for  "township  superintendence" — by  which,  it  was 
declared,  the  1 1  farmers '  school ' '  would  be  made  much 
more  efficient.  It  was  suggested  further  that  "all 
public  schools  should  be  required  to  use  a  course  of 
study  authorized  by  the  department ' '  with  the  privi- 
lege, however,  of  adding  other  branches  upon  a  vote 
of  the  district  electors.  It  was  observed  also  that 
many  schools  were  crippled  because  they  undertook 
work  out  of  proportion  to  their  abilities,  with  the 
result  that  habits  of  superficial  study  were  "estab- 
lished for  life. ' '  With  the  adoption  of  the  township 
as  the  district  unit,  the  abolition  of  the  office  of  sub- 
director,  and  the  establishment  of  an  annual  term 


344         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

for  which  teachers  should  be  employed  it  was  as- 
serted that  the  evils  resulting  from  the  short  period 
of  contracts  and  lack  of  permanence  in  teaching 
positions  would  be  largely  overcome.  Then,  too,  the 
centralization  made  possible  through  a  township 
school  would  enable  the  authorities  to  maintain  more 
extensive  libraries  which,  while  distributed  from 
house  to  house  in  the  subdistricts,  would  yet  form  a 
unit  in  organization.  Finally,  the  law  should  pro- 
hibit the  construction  of  any  school  house  the  plan 
for  which  had  not  been  first  approved  by  the  State 
department.  There  should  be  no  "patchwork  legis- 
lation", but  a  comprehensive  rearrangement  by 
which  a  system  complete  in  its  details  should  be 
made  effective  in  this  State.333 

These  views  expressed  in  1895  were  supported  in 
1897  when  Superintendent  Sabin  commented  upon 
the  evils  associated  with  the  "constant  tendency  to 
amend  and  patch"  the  school  law  by  successive  legis- 
latures, until  "it  was  almost  impossible  to  interpret 
it."  He  therefore  urged  the  Twenty-seventh  Gen- 
eral Assembly  not  to  interfere  with  the  provisions  of 
the  Code  of  1897  but  to  permit  a  fair  trial  thereof. 
It  would,  he  believed,  be  a  great  advantage  to  the 
interests  of  education  if  some  years  should  pass  be- 
fore any  change  was  made.  Nevertheless,  the  next 
biennial  report  contained  recommendations  that 
would  make  rather  radical  changes  in  the  statutes 
governing  schools,  for  Superintendent  Barrett 
enumerated  no  less  than  nineteen  specific  items 
which  he  considered  worthy  of  legislation.  With 


MORE  LEGISLATION  ADVISED  345 

few  exceptions,  however,  these  were  but  restatements 
of  old  problems  presented  from  time  to  time  and 
already  mentioned  in  these  chapters.  Again,  in  1901 
the  same  authority  declared  that  legislation  which 
would  keep  pace  with  economic  changes  must  pro- 
vide laws  different  from  those  which  were  suitable 
when  schools  were  first  established.  It  was  only 
necessary  to  consider,  for  example,  that  when  there 
were  no  industries  affecting  the  unreasonable  em- 
ployment of  children  no  laws  relative  thereto  were 
necessary,  but  under  different  conditions  favorable 
legislation  was  absolutely  essential.  Certain  stat- 
utes likewise  were  not  up  to  date,  and  so  new  ones 
should  be  substituted. 

Two  years  later  (in  1903),  in  his  final  report, 
Superintendent  Barrett  submitted  among  many  rec- 
ommendations, the  following :  the  term  of  the  Super- 
intendent of  Public  Instruction  should  be  extended 
to  four  years  with  a  salary  fixed  by  law  at  not  less 
than  $4000;  there  should  be  appropriated  to  each 
county  for  institutes  not  less  than  $200,  instead  of 
$50,  thus  relieving  teachers  from  the  support  of 
institutes  for  which  they  were  paying  $50,000,  while 
county  agricultural  societies  were  receiving  from  the 
State  nearly  $20,000  and  the  militia  nearly  $60,000 
during  the  same  period;  and  the  requirements  rela- 
tive to  examinations  should  be  revised  if  men  and 
women  were  to  be  retained  as  teachers  for  any  ex- 
tended period,  for  every  obstacle  to  professional 
recognition  should  be  removed,  while  State-wide  op- 
portunity to  engage  in  such  employment  ought  to  be 


346         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

provided.  It  was  clearly  inconsistent  for  the  com- 
pensation of  county  superintendents  to  be  inversely 
as  their  labor  —  for  under  the  statute  they  were 
required  to  pay  their  own  traveling  expenses;  and 
so,  the  more  they  traveled  to  supervise  the  schools  of 
their  county  the  greater  the  expense. 

There  were  other  amendments  which  seemed 
desirable,  and  some  entirely  new  legislation  was 
proposed  at  this  time.  One  recommendation  is  espe- 
cially noteworthy  in  that  it  appears  neither  to  have 
been  suggested  before  nor  since  in  this  Common- 
wealth, nor  up  to  the  present  time  to  have  been 
adopted  in  more  than  three  or  four  States.  It  had 
in  view  the  employment  of  the  State  department  to 
meet  the  demands  frequently  made  by  school  authori- 
ties for  qualified  teachers  and  to  aid  teachers  in 
securing  positions.  That  is  to  say,  the  bringing 
together  of  the  employer  and  the  employee  should  be 
made  a  State  function  under  the  direction  of  some 
competent  individual  attached  to  the  office  of  the 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  It  was  de- 
clared that  the  expenditure  of  $6,000,000  annually  in 
the  salaries  of  teachers  would  justify  such  super- 
vision over  their  employment.  Since  teachers 
agencies  were  engaged  in  this  very  important  busi- 
ness there  appeared  to  be  no  valid  reason  why  the 
State  should  not  exercise  a  control  through  the 
agencies  it  already  possessed.  It  was  expressly 
stated,  however,  that  such  a  suggestion  was  made 
solely  for  the  advantage  of  the  contracting  parties 
and  not  as  against  teachers  agencies  in  general.  If 


MORE  LEGISLATION  ADVISED  347 

it  should  be  asserted  that  the  State  could  not  bear 
the  expense,  a  fee  of  one  dollar  might  be  collected 
for  the  service  to  teachers.  Any  balance  above  the 
actual  cost  of  the  service  should  be  turned  into  the 
treasury  of  the  State.334  Thus,  it  appears,  the  legis- 
lature was  confronted  with  new  problems  or  with  a 
reiteration  of  old  ones  at  every  session. 

After  many  years  of  agitation  the  General  As- 
sembly finally  acceded  to  the  recommendation  rela- 
tive to  the  appointment  of  a  commission  "to 
rearrange,  revise  and  codify  the  existing  laws  re- 
lating to  the  public  schools,  and  to  recommend  addi- 
tional needed  legislation."  While  some  of  the 
results  of  the  work  of  this  commission  have  already 
been  mentioned  it  may  be  pointed  out  in  this  con- 
nection that  its  recommendations  were  more  revolu- 
tionary than  any  theretofore  proposed.  Indeed, 
one  cause  for  the  defeat  of  the  unified  measure  which 
was  proposed  by  the  commission  lay  in  the  nature  of 
the  proposed  changes.  It  is  certain  that  the  three 
members,  to  each  of  whom  definite  problems  were 
assigned,  sought  the  best  type  of  organization  and 
consulted  the  best  authority  thereon  before  submit- 
ting their  conclusions  for  the  joint  approval  of  the 
commission.  Moreover,  the  most  important  phases 
of  their  report  were  passed  upon  by  leading  edu- 
cators, by  boards  of  education,  and  citizens  gener- 
ally, so  that  there  might  be  a  consensus  of  opinion 
previous  to  formulating  a  bill.  Not  only  through 
correspondence  but  also  through  personal  consulta- 
tion and  attendance  upon  the  sessions  of  conventions 


348         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

and  sessions  of  other  commissions  was  the  best  in- 
formation obtainable  brought  to  the  use  of  this 
commission. 

When  the  report  was  finally  submitted  to  the 
Thirty-third  General  Assembly,  as  the  law  required, 
it  contained  the  following  principal  recommenda- 
tions which  were  new  to  the  legislation  of  this 
Commonwealth :  the  county  unit  of  organization  with 
a  county  board  of  education  of  three  members,  who 
should  control  the  educational  officers  of  the  county, 
aided  by  a  local  board  of  three  trustees  in  the  school 
township  which,  under  ordinary  conditions,  should 
correspond  in  boundaries  with  the  civil  township; 
the  election  of  the  county  or  a  district  superintend- 
ent by  this  county  board;  the  creation  of  a  State 
board  of  education;  the  classification  of  districts 
according  to  population;  the  substitution  of  the 
county  treasurer  for  the  school  treasurers  of  the 
county;  the  abolition  of  the  teachers'  written  con- 
tract; provision  for  a  State  supervisor  of  schools 
with  the  necessary  assistants;  and  many  minor 
changes  to  secure  the  effective  application  of  the 
revised  statutes. 

All  of  these  principles  were  incorporated  in  one 
bill  which,  perhaps  because  of  that  fact,  failed  to 
meet  with  the  approval  of  the  General  Assembly.  It 
may  be  noted,  however,  that  while  this  report  was 
submitted  in  November,  it  was  not  available  for  dis- 
tribution, on  account  of  the  delay  in  printing,  until 
the  session  of  the  legislature  was  well  under  way, 
and  thus  its  favorable  consideration  was  greatly 


MORE  LEGISLATION  ADVISED  349 

handicapped.  Not  only  was  the  bill  rejected  but 
measures  proposed  in  committee  as  substitutes  for 
certain  provisions  never  went  any  farther.  Since 
there  was  not  sufficient  time  for  full  deliberation,  it 
was  recommended  that  the  commission  be  continued 
with  a  larger  membership  and  for  a  longer  period.335 
Although  at  the  time  of  presentation  the  recom- 
mendations of  the  commission  may  have  seemed  in 
certain  respects  revolutionary  some  of  their  sugges- 
tions have  since  been  followed,  in  substance  at  least, 
and  it  is  highly  probable  that  subsequent  legislation 
will  enact  a  large  part  of  the  original  bill.  Governor 
Carroll  observed  in  his  inaugural  address  in  1909 
that  the  report  of  the  commission  would  require 
careful  consideration  since  it  involved  some  "wide 
departures"  from  the  law  then  in  force.  These,  he 
thought,  should  neither  commend  nor  condemn  the 
report  but  be  productive  rather  of  more  careful  con- 
sideration. Personally  he  was  favorably  impressed 
with  the  proposed  changes,  and  with  the  fact  that 
there  was  need  of  a  reconstruction  of  the  school  code. 
The  importance  of  the  work  of  the  commission, 
therefore,  could  not  be  overestimated.336 

In  the  preparation  of  their  report  the  commission 
obtained  opinions  from  more  than  fifty  county  and 
city  superintendents  and  college  men,  among  which 
appear  the  following:  there  should  be  eight  months 
in  the  legal  school  year ;  a  minimum  wage  law ;  com- 
pulsory attendance  on  county  institutes;  unlimited 
renewal  of  certificates  after  a  certain  minimum  of 
experience;  the  office  of  school  treasurer  should  be 


350         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

abolished,  and  the  three  funds  reduced  to  two ;  more 
definite  authority  of  the  school  over  outside  matters 
that  affect  it;  the  closing  of  small  schools  and  con- 
solidation of  districts;  the  clear  codification  of  the 
laws,  with  no  theory  or  radical  changes  introduced ; 
State  aid  to  high  schools  doing  a  definite  amount  of 
work  in  agriculture,  manual  training,  domestic 
science,  and  pedagogy;  the  retention  of  the  election 
of  county  superintendent  by  the  people ;  the  removal 
of  the  office  of  county  superintendent  from  the  in- 
fluence of  politics,  and  the  requirement  that  this 
officer  possess  at  least  a  five-year  State  certificate ;  a 
provision  for  more  definite  rural  supervision ;  a  more 
effective  enforcement  of  the  truancy  law;  county 
uniformity  in  text-books  under  the  direction  of  a 
board  composed  of  the  county  superintendent  and 
two  teachers ;  the  privilege  of  contracting  with  teach- 
ers for  more  than  one  year;  a  revision  of  the  law 
relative  to  instruction  in  stimulants  and  narcotics; 
the  coordination  of  institutions  in  some  definite  way ; 
the  inspection,  under  State  authority,  of  all  schools ; 
more  judicious  classification  of  colleges  on  some 
basis  other  than  dollars-and-cents  and  size ;  a  county 
unit  of  organization  with  a  board  endowed  with 
power  to  manage  all  rural  schools ;  a  legal  status  for 
the  city  superintendent ;  a  recognition  of  the  contract 
which  was  often  broken  without  penalty;  the  sys- 
tematizing of  the  law  without  attempting  too  much ; 
a  civil  township  unit  of  organization;  the  abolition 
of  the  institute  fee;  the  enlargement  of  the  State 
Board  of  Examiners  to  seven  members ;  the  require- 


MORE  LEGISLATION  ADVISED  351 

merit  of  high  school  facilities  for  rural  districts; 
some  required  amount  of  training  before  being  ad- 
mitted to  teachers'  examinations,  the  same  to  be 
offered  in  all  secondary  schools ;  more  thoroughness 
required  in  the  work  of  the  grades ;  the  classification 
of  school  corporations ;  the  establishment  of  a  stand- 
ard for  high  school  teachers;  and  the  compulsory 
attendance  of  school  officers  upon  conventions  called 
by  the  county  superintendent,  with  provision  for 
expenses  and  a  per  diem.337  Thus  the  commissioners 
were  confronted  with  a  variety  of  suggestions,  some 
of  which  they  were  able  to  follow  either  wholly  or 
partially  in  the  bill  submitted. 

The  final  report  of  Superintendent  Biggs  reiter- 
ated some  of  the  above  recommendations  without 
undertaking  to  include  many  thereof.  First,  he 
would  provide  for  some  simple  and  efficient  form  of 
rural  school  organization  and  control,  thus  eliminat- 
ing the  three  forms  which  were  then  authorized  by 
law.  This  recommendation  seemed  to  imply  a  pref- 
erence for  the  independent  township  district  as 
provided  for  in  Section  2752  of  the  Code  of  1897. 
Second,  he  believed  there  should  be  a  county  board 
of  education  having  well  defined  functions.  Third, 
the  office  of  school  treasurer  should  be  abolished  — 
which  appears  to  have  been  a  recommendation  made 
so  frequently  that  it  has  come  to  be  a  standing 
problem  for  every  legislature.  Fourth,  the  small 
school  should  be  temporarily  closed.  Fifth,  there 
should  be  a  high  school  within  reasonable  reach  of 
every  district  school  which  pupils  might  attend 


352         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

at  district  expense.  Sixth,  lie  concurred  in  the  rec- 
ommendation of  his  predecessor  relative  to  his  own 
office,  namely,  the  extension  of  the  term  to  four  years 
and  the  increase  of  compensation  to  $4000.  Further- 
more, the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction 
should  be  appointed  by  the  Governor  or  the  State 
Board  of  Education,  a  change  he  declared  which 
would  be  in  harmony  with  policies  then  adopted  in 
not  less  than  fifteen  States.  Seventh,  there  should 
be  amendments  removing  certain  restrictions  upon 
the  tax  levy,  and  securing  greater  safety  for  the 
health  of  pupils ;  while  the  institute  registration  and 
other  fees  levied  upon  teachers  to  the  amount  of 
$68,000  should  be  abolished.338 

It  was  in  the  early  sixties  that  the  State  Teach- 
ers' Association  supported,  through  contributions 
from  individuals  and  their  meagre  treasury,  a  State 
agent  heretofore  mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  insti- 
tutes. This  practice  was  abandoned  when  funds 
failed.  It  was,  moreover,  in  harmony  with  precedent 
that  the  Association  in  1911  set  aside  $2000  from  its 
increasing  resources  for  the  perfectly  plain  purpose 
of  bringing  to  the  front  certain  reforms  in  the  educa- 
tional policies  of  the  State.  With  a  commission 
serving  without  pay  a  full  investigation  of  conditions 
was  undertaken  with  the  aim  of  being  thoroughly 
informed  relative  to  needed  legislation.  In  the  com- 
position of  this  body  the  interests  of  "farming,  busi- 
ness, household  duties,  and  professional  life"  were 
to  be  represented  for  the  purpose,  it  appears,  of 
having  the  sanction  of  these  social  elements  for  what- 


MORE  LEGISLATION  ADVISED  353 

ever  might  be  submitted.  In  arriving  at  conclusions 
the  subcommittees  made  extensive  investigation  of 
the  following:  school  administration  in  Iowa  (State 
county,  and  district) ;  rural  schools;  graded  schools; 
high  schools;  industrial  education;  State  aid;  the 
school  as  a  community  center;  and  facilities  for 
training  teachers.  Having  summarized  these  sep- 
arate reports  the  commission  presented  their  find- 
ings to  the  State  Association  in  1912,  in  which  at 
least  twenty-three  distinct  recommendations  for 
enactment  into  law  were  made. 

While  it  is  well  known  that  some  of  the  most 
important  suggestions  became  laws  under  the  skill- 
ful leadership  of  the  legislative  committee  appointed 
by  the  Association,  the  general  scope  of  the  reorgan- 
ization proposed  may  be  briefly  presented  as  follows : 
there  should  be  voluntary  consolidation  of  the  rural 
schools  with  a  minimum  district  area  of  sixteen 
sections,  with  State  aid  for  a  certain  period;  the 
encouragement  of  rural  high  schools  which  should 
offer  courses  of  study  adapted  to  the  community ;  an 
increase  in  the  amount  of  aid  already  granted  to 
high  schools  offering  normal  training;  four  addi- 
tional normal  schools  should  be  established  within 
the  coming  five  years ;  at  least  twelve  weeks  training 
should  be  required  of  every  applicant  for  a  certifi- 
cate; the  normal  institute  should  be  abolished  and 
short  sessions  inspirational  in  nature  be  substituted, 
with  compulsory  attendance  and  no  loss  of  pay; 
there  should  be  an  increase  in  the  powers  of  the  State 
department  by  providing  inspectors  and  an  official 

24 


354         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

force  sufficient  to  reach  all  grades  of  instruction ;  the 
office  of  county  superintendent  should  be  made  equal 
in  importance  to  any  other  county  office,  with  raised 
standards  of  qualification,  and  a  term  of  four  years, 
while  both  that  and  the  office  of  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction  should  become  non-partisan 
whether  elective  or  appointive;  the  county  superin- 
tendent should  enforce  the  truancy  law ;  the  township 
should  be  the  unit  of  the  district  organization;  all 
school  officers  should  be  required  to  meet  in  annual 
convention  with  compensation  for  attendance;  pro- 
vision should  be  made  for  a  reorganization  of  that 
which  is  designated  the  county  board  of  education; 
abolition  of  the  office  of  school  treasurer  and  the 
substitution  of  the  county  treasurer  therefor,  with 
the  requirement  that  all  school  funds  draw  interest 
as  other  county  funds ;  and  provision  should  be  made 
for  the  holding  of  all  school  elections  on  the  same  day 
in  March  and  likewise  the  organization  of  all  boards 
at  the  same  time.  There  were  also  recommendations 
providing  for  the  extension  of  industrial  instruction ; 
for  the  safe-guarding  of  school  elections;  for  the 
privilege  of  contracting  to  teach  for  more  than  one 
year ;  for  the  use  of  but  two  funds  instead  of  three, 
namely,  the  school  house  and  a  general  fund;  and 
finally  for  the  recodification  of  the  school  laws.339 

From  the  foregoing  paragraphs  it  appears  that  in 
the  field  of  school  legislation  there  remains  but  little 
to  be  recommended  although  there  is  still  much  to  be 
enacted.  It  would  seem  to  be  hardly  possible  to 
mention  any  subject  which  is  known  in  educational 


MORE  LEGISLATION  ADVISED  355 

legislation  in  any  part  of  the  country  that  has  not  at 
some  time  been  proposed  in  this  Commonwealth.  To 
develop  a  school  code  which  would  be  inclusive  and 
conservative,  offering  in  a  single  statute  explicit, 
complete,  and  definite  powers,  duties,  rights,  and 
remedies,  is  a  problem  difficult  of  attack  and  still 
more  difficult  of  solution.  Here  as  elsewhere  the 
reformer  must  patiently  wait  upon  the  processes  of 
gradual  evolution. 


APPENDICES 


357 


APPENDIX  A 

A  COMPARISON  OF  THE  MICHIGAN  LAW  OF  1838 
AND  THE  IOWA  LAW  OF  1840 

THE  school  law  of  Michigan  of  1838  and  the  statute  enacted 
in  1840  in  the  Territory  of  Iowa  are  presented  below  in 
parallel  columns.  With  the  exception  of  Sections  21  and  22 
there  is  no  variation  in  the  order  in  which  the  subject  is 
treated.  There  are  slight  changes  only  in  some  provisions 
—  for  example,  the  change  in  the  school  census  age  of  from 
five  to  seventeen  to  from  five  to  twenty-one.  Thus,  as  is 
pointed  out  in  the  text  (Vol.  I,  p.  9)  one  could  not  mistake 
the  source  of  the  Iowa  act.  Particular  attention  is  called  to 
the  sections  which  mention  a  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction and  for  which  the  Iowa  Legislative  Assembly 
made  no  provision  until  a  year  later.  One  may  notice 
further  some  provisions  which  seem  to  have  been  retained 
throughout  subsequent  legislation. 


THE  MICHIGAN   STATUTE 

Sec.  1.  Whenever  any  school 
district  shall  be  formed  in  any 
township  by  the  board  of  school 
inspectors,  it  shall  be  the  duty 
of  said  board  to  deliver  a  notice 
in  writing  describing  the  bounda- 
ries of  said  district,  and  the  time 
and  place  of  the  first  meeting,  to 
a  taxable  inhabitant  of  such  dis- 
trict. 

See.  2.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of 
such  inhabitant  to  notify  every 


THE  IOWA  STATUTE 
Sec.  1.  Whenever  any  school 
district  shall  be  formed  in  any 
township  by  the  board  of  school 
inspectors,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of 
said  board  to  deliver  a  notice  in 
writing  describing  the  boundaries 
of  said  district,  and  the  time  and 
place  of  the  first  meeting,  to  a 
taxable  inhabitant  of  such  dis- 
trict. 

Sec.  2.    It  shall  be  the  duty  of 
such   inhabitant   to  notify  every 

359 


360 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 


qualified  voter  of  such  district, 
either  personally  or  by  leaving  a 
written  notice  at  his  place  of  resi- 
idence,  of  the  time  and  place  of 
said  meeting,  at  least  six  days 
before  said  meeting. 
.  See.  3.  Whenever  such  inhab- 
itant shall  neglect  or  refuse  to 
serve  notice  as  required,  he  shall 
forfeit  to  the  district,  for  the  use 
of  its  library,  the  sum  of  ten  dol- 
lars, to  be  recovered  in  an  action 
of  debt  by  the  assessor,  when 
said  district  shall  be  organized, 
before  any  court  of  competent 
jurisdiction. 

See.  4.  The  qualified  voters, 
when  assembled  pursuant  to  such 
previous  notice,  and  also  at  each 
annual  meeting,  shall  choose  a 
moderator,  director  and  assessor. 

Sec.  5.  Every  white  male  in- 
habitant of  the  age  of  twenty- 
one  years,  residing  in  such  dis- 
trict, liable  to  pay  a  school  dis- 
trict tax,  shall  be  entitled  to  vote 
at  any  district  meeting. 

Sec.  6.  In  case  the  inhabitants 
of  a  district  fail  to  organize  the 
same,  or  if  any  district  after 
formation  shall  be  dissolved,  such 
notice  shall  be  renewed  in  the 
manner  prescribed  in  the  first 
two  sections  of  this  chapter. 

Sec.  7.  Whenever,  from  what- 
ever cause,  any  district  shall  be- 
come destitute  of  the  three  of- 
ficers provided  for  in  this  act  for 
the  period  of  six  months,  or 
whenever  any  district  shall  neg- 


qualified  voter  of  such  district, 
either  personally  or  by  leaving  a 
written  notice  at  his  place  of  res- 
idence, of  the  time  and  place  of 
said  meeting,  at  least  six  days  be- 
fore said  meeting. 

Sec.  3.  Whenever  such  inhab- 
itant shall  neglect  or  refuse  to 
serve  notice  as  required,  he  shall 
forfeit  to  the  district,  for  the  use 
of  its  library,  the  sum  of  ten  dol- 
lars, to  be  recovered  in  an  action 
of  debt  by  the  assessor,  when 
said  district  shall  be  organized, 
before  any  court  of  competent 
jurisdiction. 

Sec.  4.  The  qualified  voters, 
when  assembled,  pursuant  to  such 
previous  notice,  and  also  at  each 
annual  meeting,  shall  choose  a 
moderator,  director  and  assessor. 

Sec.  5.  Every  white  male  in- 
habitant of  the  age  of  twenty- 
one  years,  residing  in  such  dis- 
trict, liable  to  pay  a  school  dis- 
trict tax,  shall  be  entitled  to  vote 
at  any  district  meeting. 

Sec.  6.  In  case  the  inhabitants 
of  a  district  fail  to  organize  the 
same,  or  if  any  district,  after 
formation,  shall  be  dissolved,  such 
notice  shall  be  renewed  in  the 
manner  prescribed  in  the  first 
two  sections  of  this  act. 

Sec.  7.  Whenever  from  what- 
ever cause  any  district  shall  be- 
come destitute  of  the  three  offi- 
cers provided  for  in  this  act  for 
the  period  of  six  months,  or  when- 
ever any  district  shall  neglect  or 


APPENDIX  A 


361 


lect  or  refuse  to  hold  two  suc- 
cessive annual  meetings,  it  shall 
be  taken  and  held  to  be  dissolved. 

Sec.  8.  Special  meetings  may 
be  called  by  the  district  board, 
or  by  any  one  of  them,  on  the 
written  request  of  three  legal 
voters  of  the  district,  by  giving 
the  required  previous  notice;  but 
in  all  such  cases  the  object  of  the 
meeting  shall  be  clearly  stated  in 
said  notice. 

Sec.  9.  All  notices  for  district 
meetings,  except  such  as  are  pro- 
vided for  in  the  first  two  sections 
of  this  chapter,  whether  annual 
or  special,  shall  set  forth  the  day 
and  hour  and  place  of  meeting, 
and  be  given  at  least  six  days 
previous  to  such  meeting,  by  be- 
ing posted  up  in  the  most  public 
place  in  the  district. 

Sec.  10.  The  annual  meeting 
of  each  school  district  shall  be  on 
the  first  Monday  of  October. 

Sec.  11.  Each  school  district 
organized  under  this  act,  shall  be 
a  body  corporate,  by  the  name  and 
style  of  "school  district  number 
,  of  the  township  of  , 

in  the  county  of  and  state 

of  Michigan ; ' '  and  in  that  name 
capable  of  suing  and  being  sued, 
and  of  holding  such  real  and  per- 
sonal estate  as  is  authorized  to  be 
purchased  by  the  provisions  of 
this  act,  and  of  selling  the  same. 

Sec.  12.  Whenever  any  suit 
shall  be  brought  against  any 


refuse  to  hold  two  successive  an- 
nual meetings,  it  shall  be  taken 
and  held  to  be  dissolved. 

Sec.  8.  Special  meetings  may 
be  called  by  the  district  board, 
or  by  any  one  of  them,  on  the 
written  request  of  three  legal 
voters  of  the  district,  by  giving 
the  required  previous  notice;  but 
in  all  such  cases  the  object  of 
meeting  shall  be  clearly  stated  in 
said  notice. 

Sec.  9.  All  notices  for  district 
meetings,  except  such  as  are  pro- 
vided for  in  the  first  two  sections 
of  this  act,  whether  annual  or 
special,  shall  set  forth  the  day 
and  hour  and  place  of  meeting, 
and  be  given  at  least  six  days 
previous  to  such  meeting,  by  be- 
ing posted  up  in  the  most  public 
place  in  the  district. 

Sec.  10.  The  annual  meeting 
of  each  school  district  shall  be  on 
the  first  Monday  of  October. 

Sec.  11.  Each  school  district 
organized  under  this  act,  shall  be 
a  body  corporate  by  the  name  and 
style  of  "school  district  number 
,  of  the  township  of  , 

in  the  county  of  , 

and  territory  of  Iowa,"  and  in 
that  name  capable  of  suing  and 
being  sued,  and  of  holding  such 
real  and  personal  estate  as  is 
authorized  to  be  purchased  by  the 
provisions  of  this  act,  and  of 
selling  the  same. 

Sec.  12.  Whenever  any  suit 
shall  be  brought  against  any 


362 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 


school  district,  the  process  shall 
be  by  summons,  a  copy  of  which 
shall  be  left  with  the  assessor  of 
said  district  at  least  ten  days 
previous  to  the  return  day  there- 
of. 

Sec.  13.  Whenever  lawfully  as- 
sembled, the  qualified  voters  in 
each  district  shall  have  power, 

First.  To  adjourn  from  time 
to  time,  as  may  be  necessary. 

Second.  To  designate  a  site 
for  a  school-house,  and  to  change 
the  same  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds 
at  any  regular  meeting :  Provided, 
That  when  no  site  can  be  estab- 
lished by  said  inhabitants,  the  in- 
spectors of  the  township  or  town- 
ships shall  determine  where  the 
site  shall  be ;  and  said  determi- 
nation shall  be  final. 

Third.  To  purchase  or  lease 
an  appropriate  site,  and  to  build, 
hire  or  purchase  a  school-house, 
and  to  impose  such  tax  as  shall  be 
sufficient  for  the  payment  thereof : 
Provided,  That  the  amount  of 
such  tax  shall  not  exceed  in  any 
one  year  the  sum  of  five  hundred 
dollars. 

Fourth.  To  impose,  from  time 
to  time,  such  tax  as  may  be  re- 
quired to  keep  the  school-house 
in  repair,  and  provide  for  the 
necessary  appendages:  Provided, 
That  all  expenses  for  fuel  shall  be 
a  tax  upon  the  inhabitants  sending 
pupils  to  school,  in  proportion  to 
the  number  of  pupils  and  the 
time  they  shall  attend  school: 


school  district,  the  process  shall 
be  by  summons,  a  copy  of  which 
shall  be  left  with  the  assessor  of 
said  district  at  least  ten  days 
previous  to  the  return  day  there- 
of. 

Sec.  13.  Whenever  lawfully  as- 
sembled, the  qualified  voters  in 
each  district  shall  have  power, 

First.  To  adjourn  from  time 
to  time  as  may  be  necessary. 

Second.  To  designate  a  site 
for  a  school-house,  and  to  change 
the  same  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds, 
at  any  regular  meeting:  Provid- 
ed, That  when  no  site  can  be 
established  by  said  inhabitants, 
the  inspectors  of  the  township  or 
townships  shall  determine  where 
the  site  shall  be,  and  said  deter- 
mination shall  be  final. 

Third.  To  purchase  or  lease  an 
appropriate  site,  and  to  build, 
hire  or  purchase  a  school-house, 
and  to  impose  such  tax  as  shall  be 
sufficient  for  the  payment  there- 
of :  Provided,  That  the  amount  of 
such  tax  shall  not  exceed  in  any 
one  year  the  sum  of  five  hundred 
dollars. 

Fourth.  To  impose  from  time 
to  time  such  tax  as  may  be  re- 
quired to  keep  the  school-house 
in  repair,  and  provide  for  the 
necessary  appendages:  Provided, 
That  all  expenses  for  fuel  shall 
be  a  tax  upon  the  inhabitants 
sending  pupils  to  school  in  pro- 
portion to  the  number  of  pupils, 
and  the  time  they  shall  attend 


APPENDIX  A 


363 


and  provided  also,  that  when  any 
district  in  which  a  school-house 
shall  have  been  built,  shall  within 
two  years  thereafter  be  divided, 
and  there  shall  be  a  tax  for  a 
school-house  raised  in  the  district 
to  which  any  portion  of  such 
aforesaid  district  shall  have  been 
attached,  the  remaining  portion 
of  such  district  in  which  the 
schoolhouse  shall  have  been  built, 
shall  refund  to  the  newly  formed 
district  that  portion  of  the  tax 
contributed  by  such  portion  of 
the  district  so  set  off. 

Fifth.  To  impose  a  tax  suf- 
ficient for  the  purchase  of  a  suit- 
able library  case;  also,  a  sum  not 
exceeding  ten  dollars  annually 
for  the  purchase  of  books,  to  be 
selected  by  a  vote  of  the  district, 
or  by  the  district  board  when  so 
directed. 

Sixth.  To  designate  the  place 
where  the  library  shall  be  kept, 
and  the  person  by  whom  it  shall 
be  kept;  and  the  superintendent 
of  public  instruction  shall  estab- 
lish the  necessary  rules  for  the 
regulation  of  the  library. 

Seventh.  To  determine  at  each 
annual  meeting  the  length  of 
time,  which  shall  not  be  less  than 
three  months,  the  school  shall  be 
kept;  and  to  fix  the  amount  of 
money,  in  addition  to  its  appor- 
tionment, which  may  be  raised 
for  the  support  of  its  school 
teachers  the  ensuing  year;  the 


school:  And  provided  also,  That 
when  any  district  in  which  a 
school-house  shall  have  been  built, 
shall,  within  two  years  there- 
after, be  divided,  and  there  shall 
be  a  tax  for  a  school-house  raised 
in  the  districts  to  which  any  por- 
tion of  such  aforesaid  district 
shall  have  been  attached,  the  re- 
maining portion  of  such  district 
in  which  the  school-house  shall 
have  been  built,  shall  refund  to 
the  newly  formed  district  that 
portion  of  the  tax  contributed  by 
such  portion  of  the  district  so  set 
off. 

Fifth.  To  impose  a  tax  suf- 
ficient for  the  purchase  of  a  suit- 
able library  case,  also  a  sum  not 
exceeding  ten  dollars  annually, 
for  the  purchase  of  books  to  be 
selected  by  a  vote  of  the  district 
by  the  district  board,  when  so 
directed. 

Sixth.  To  designate  the  place 
where  the  library  shall  be  kept, 
and  the  person  by  whom  it  shall 
be  kept;  and  the  superintendent 
of  public  instruction  shall  estab- 
lish the  necessary  rules  for  the 
regulation  of  the  library. 

Seventh.  To  determine  at  each 
annual  meeting,  the  length  of 
time,  which  shall  not  be  less  than 
three  months,  the  school  shall  be 
kept,  and  to  fix  the  amount  of 
money,  in  addition  to  its  appor- 
tionment, which  may  be  raised 
for  the  support  of  its  school 
teachers  the  ensuing  year,  the 


364 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 


sum  so  voted  not  to  exceed  in  any 
one  year  ninety  dollars:  Pro- 
vided, That  in  case  no  sum  for 
the  support  of  schools  shall  be 
voted  at  the  annual  meeting  of 
any  district,  the  director  may  call 
a  special  meeting  for  the  purpose 
of  voting  such  tax,  at  which 
meeting,  the  district  may,  by  a 
vote  of  two-thirds,  vote  any  sum, 
not  exceeding  that  authorized  to 
be  raised  at  the  annual  meeting. 

Eighth.  To  order  and  direct 
the  sale  of  any  site,  that  may  be- 
long to  the  district,  whenever  the 
school-house  shall  have  been  re- 
moved, on  [or]  the  sale  of  such 
other  property  and  buildings,  as 
may  belong  to  the  district. 

Sec.  14.  The  moderator,  di- 
rector and  assessor,  shall  hold 
their  respective  offices  until  the 
annual  meeting  next  following 
their  appointment,  and  until  oth- 
ers are  chosen:  Provided,  They 
shall  not  hold  their  offices  beyond 
the  time  of  a  second  annual 
meeting  without  re-election. 

Sec.  15.  Every  person  elected 
to  any  one  of  the  above  offices, 
who,  without  sufficient  cause, 
shall  neglect  or  refuse  to  serve, 
shall  forfeit  to  the  district  for 
the  use  of  the  library  the  sum  of 
ten  dollars,  to  be  recovered  in  an 
action  of  debt,  by  the  assessor, 
before  any  court  of  competent 
jurisdiction. 

Sec.  16.  The  moderator  shall 
have  power,  and  it  shall  be  his 


sum  so  voted  not  to  exceed  in  any 
one  year  ninety  dollars :  Provided, 
That  in  case  no  sum  for  the  sup- 
port of  schools  shall  be  voted  at 
the  annual  meeting  of  any  dis- 
trict, the  director  may  call  a  spe- 
cial meeting  for  the  purpose  of 
voting  such  tax;  at  which  meet- 
ing the  district  may,  by  a  vote  of 
two-thirds,  vote  any  sum  not  ex- 
ceeding that  authorized  to  be 
raised  at  the  annual  meeting. 

Eighth.  To  order  and  direct 
the  sale  of  any  site  that  may  be- 
long to  the  district,  whenever  the 
school-house  shall  have  been  re- 
moved or  the  sale  of  such  other 
property  and  buildings  as  may 
belong  to  the  district. 

Sec.  14.  The  moderator,  direc- 
tor and  assessor  shall  hold  their 
respective  offices  until  the  annual 
meeting  next  following  their  ap- 
pointment and  until  others  are 
chosen:  Provided  They  shall  not 
hold  their  offices  beyond  the  time 
of  a  second  annual  meeting  with- 
out re-election. 

Sec.  15.  Every  person  elected 
to  any  one  of  the  above  offices 
who,  without  sufficient  cause, 
shall  neglect  or  refuse  to  serve 
shall  forfeit  to  the  district  for 
the  use  of  the  library  the  sum  of 
ten  dollars,  to  be  recovered  in  an 
action  of  debt  by  the  assessor  be- 
fore any  court  of  competent 
jurisdiction. 

Sec.  16.  The  moderator  shall 
have  power  and  it  shall  be  his 


APPENDIX  A 


365 


duty,  to  preside  at  all  meetings 
of  the  district,  to  sign  all  war- 
rants for  the  collection  of  taxes, 
and  all  orders  for  the  payment  of 
moneys  to  be  disbursed  by  the 
district,  and  countersign  all  war- 
rants of  the  director  upon  the 
township  board  of  inspectors,  for 
the  moneys  apportioned  to  the 
district  by  said  board  of  school 
inspectors. 

Sec.  17.  The  assessor  shall 
have  power,  and  it  shall  be  his 
duty, 

First.  To  obtain,  within  thirty 
days  of  his  election,  a  transcript 
of  so  much  of  the  last  assess- 
ment roE  of  the  township  or 
townships  as  relates  to  his  dis- 
trict, and  shall  add  to  such  tran- 
script all  the  property  of  persons 
who  may  have  become  residents 
since  the  last  assessment  roll  was 
made,  and  all  the  property  pur- 
chases by  non-residents  since  the 
making  of  said  roll;  said  prop- 
erty to  be  rated  according  to  the 
rule  of  valuation  adopted  in 
making  out  the  township  assess- 
ment roll:  Provided,  That  no 
property  shall  be  twice  assesied, 
and  the  said  transcript,  together 
with  such  additions  as  shall  be 
made  as  aforesaid,  shall  be  the 
assessment  roll  of  said  district; 
and  all  taxes  to  be  raised  in  such 
district,  shall  be  levied  upon  the 
taxable  property  thereof,  in  pro- 
portion to  such  valuation. 

Second.     To  post  up,  whenever 


duty  to  preside  at  all  meetings  of 
the  district,  to  sign  all  warrants 
for  the  collection  of  taxes  and  all 
orders  for  payment  of  moneys  to 
be  disbursed  by  the  district,  and 
countersign  all  warrants  of  the 
director  upon  the  township  board 
of  inspectors  for  the  moneys  ap- 
portioned to  the  district  by  said 
board  of  school  inspectors. 

Sec.  17.  The  assessor  shall 
have  power  and  it  shall  be  his 
duty, 

First.  To  obtain  within  thirty 
days  of  his  election,  a  transcript 
of  so  much  of  the  last  assessment 
roll  of  the  township  or  townships 
as  relates  to  his  district,  and 
shall  add  to  such  transcript  all 
the  property  of  persons  who  may 
have  become  residents  since  the 
last  assessment  roll  was  made, 
and  all  the  property  purchased  by 
non-residents  since  the  making  of 
said  roll;  said  property  to  be 
rated  according  to  the  rule  of 
valuation  adopted  in  making  out 
the  township  assessment  roll: 
Provided,  That  no  property  shall 
be  twice  assessed,  and  the  said 
transcript,  together  with  such  ad- 
ditions as  shall  be  made  as  afore- 
said, shall  be  the  assessment  roll 
of  said  district;  and  all  taxes  to 
be  raised  in  such  district  shall  be 
levied  upon  the  taxable  property 
thereof  in  proportion  to  such 
valuation. 

Second.     To  post  up  whenever 


366 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 


any  tax  shall  have  been  assessed 
upon  the  property  of  his  district, 
in  the  most  frequented  and  cen- 
tral place,  a  list  of  persons  taxed, 
with  the  amount  set  opposite 
their  respective  names,  so  far  as 
their  names  shall  be  known,  and 
also  a  description  of  the  property 
of  persons  whose  names  shall  be 
known,  and  also  a  description  of 
the  property  of  persons  whose 
names  are  not  known,  at  least 
thirty  days  previous  to  the  same 
being  offered  for  collection. 

Third.  To  call  a  meeting  of 
the  district  board,  in  case  any 
person  shall  complain  to  him  dur- 
ing the  above  named  period,  of 
being  taxed  beyond  his  due  pro- 
portion, who  shall  examine  into 
the  ground  of  said  complaint,  and 
revise,  alter  or  confirm  said  as- 
sessment, as  in  their  judgment 
justice  shall  require;  and  at  the 
end  of  the  time  specified,  he  shall 
certify  the  same  upon  the  tax 
list,  and  present  it  to  the  moder- 
ator for  his  warrant. 

Fourth.  It  shall  be  the  duty 
of  the  assessor  to  collect  all  taxes 
assessed  upon  the  taxable  prop- 
erty of  his  district,  and  pay  them 
over  on  the  warrant  of  the  moder- 
ator; and  in  case  any  person 
shall  neglect  or  refuse  to  pay 
such  tax  when  called  upon,  it 
shall  be  the  duty  of  the  assessor 
to  collect  the  same  by  distress 
and  sale  of  the  goods  and  chat- 
tels of  such  person,  wheresoever 


any  tax  shall  have  been  assessed 
upon  the  property  of  his  district, 
in  the  most  frequented  and  cen- 
tral place,  a  list  of  persons  taxed, 
with  the  amount  set  opposite 
their  respective  names,  so  far  as 
their  names  shall  be  known,  and 
also  a  description  of  the  property 
of  persons  whose  names  shall  be 
known,  and  also  a  description  of 
property  of  persons  whose  names 
are  not  known  at  least  thirty  days 
previous  to  the  same  being  offered 
for  collection. 

Third.  To  call  a  meeting  of 
the  district  board  in  case  any 
person  shall  complain  to  him, 
during  the  above  named  period, 
of  being  taxed  beyond  his  due 
proportion,  who  shall  examine 
into  the  ground  of  said  com- 
plaint, and  reverse,  alter  or  con- 
firm said  assessment  as,  in  their 
judgment,  justice  shall  require, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  time  speci- 
fied, he  shall  certify  the  same 
upon  the  tax  list,  and  present  it 
to  the  moderator  for  his  warrant. 

Fourth.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of 
the  assessor  to  collect  all  taxes 
assessed  upon  the  taxable  prop- 
erty of  his  district,  and  pay  them 
over  on  the  warrant  of  the  mod- 
erator, and  in  case  any  person 
shall  neglect  or  refuse  to  pay 
such  tax  when  called  upon,  it 
shall  be  the  duty  of  the  assessor 
to  collect  the  same  by  distress 
and  sale  of  the  goods  and  chat- 
tels of  such  person  whenever 


APPENDIX  A 


367 


found  in  said  district,  having  first 
published  such  sale  for  at  least 
ten  days,  by  posting  up  notice 
thereof  in  the  most  public  place 
in  the  district;  and  in  the  collec- 
tion of  taxes  upon  lands  and  tene- 
ments, said  assessor  shall  make 
returns  to  the  treasurer  of  the 
county  in  the  same  manner  as 
township  collectors;  and  it  shall 
be  the  duty  of  the  treasurer  to 
sell  the  lands  and  tenements  for 
the  collection  of  said  school  tax, 
in  the  same  manner  as  is  re- 
quired for  the  collection  of  town- 
ship and  county  taxes. 

Fifth.  It  shall  also  be  the 
duty  of  the  assessor  to  appear 
for  and  in  behalf  of  his  district 
in  all  suits  brought  by  or  against 
said  district,  except  the  case  pro- 
vided for  in  the  nineteenth  sec- 
tion of  this  chapter. 

Sec.  18.  The  director  shall 
have  power,  and  it  shall  be  his 
duty, 

First.  To  record  all  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  district  in  a  book 
to  be  kept  for  that  purpose,  and 
preserve  copies  of  all  reports 
made  to  the  board  of  school  in- 
spectors. 

Second.  To  employ,  by  and 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  moderator  and  assessor,  or 
either  of  them,  qualified  teachers, 
and  pay  them  by  a  draft  upon 
the  township  board  of  inspectors, 
said  draft  not  to  exceed  the 
amount  due  said  district  on  ac- 


found  in  said  district,  having 
first  published  such  sale  for  at 
least  ten  days  by  posting  up  no- 
tice thereof  in  the  most  public 
place  in  the  district;  and  in  the 
collection  of  taxes  upon  lands 
and  tenements  said  assessor  shall 
make  returns  to  the  county  col- 
lector; and  it  shall  be  the  duty 
of  the  county  collector  to  sell  the 
lands  and  tenements  for  the  col- 
lection of  said  school  tax,  in  the 
same  manner  as  is  required  for 
the  collection  of  township  and 
county  taxes. 

Fifth.  It  shall  also  be  the 
duty  of  the  assessor  to  appear 
for  and  in  behalf  of  his  district 
in  all  suits  brought  by  or  against 
said  district,  except  the  case  pro- 
vided for  in  the  nineteenth  sec- 
tion of  this  act. 

Sec.  18.  The  director  shall 
have  power  and  it  shall  be  his 
duty, 

First.  To  record  all  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  district  in  a  book 
to  be  kept  for  that  purpose,  and 
preserve  copies  of  all  reports 
made  to  the  board  of  school  in- 
spectors. 

Second.  To  employ  by  and 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  moderator  and  assessor,  or 
either  of  them,  qualified  teachers, 
and  pay  them  by  a  draft  upon 
the  township  board  of  inspectors, 
said  draft  not  to  exceed  the 
amount  due  said  district  on  ac- 


368 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 


count  of  the  apportionment  of 
the  board  of  school  inspectors. 

Third.  Whenever  the  appor- 
tionment shall  not  be  sufficient  to 
pay  for  the  services  of  any  such 
teachers,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of 
the  director  to  call  a  meeting  of 
the  district  board  for  the  purpose 
of  levying  the  balance  upon  the 
taxable  property  of  the  district, 
the  amount  so  levied  not  to  ex- 
ceed the  sum  voted  by  the  district 
at  its  annual  meeting:  and  in 
case  said  sum  so  voted,  together 
with  the  apportionment,  shall  be 
found  insufficient  the  deficit  shall 
be  assessed  upon  the  parents  or 
guardians  of  the  children  in  pro- 
portion to  the  length  of  time  they 
shall  severally  have  attended 
school  during  the  term  or  terms 
when  such  deficiency  shall  have 
arisen. 

Fourth.  Within  ten  days  of 
the  time  of  the  annual  meeting, 
the  director  shall  take  the  census 
of  his  district,  by  registering  the 
names  of  all  belonging  to  it,  be- 
tween the  ages  of  five  and  seven- 
teen years  inclusive. 

Fifth.  A  copy  of  this  list  he 
shall  furnish  to  each  and  every 
teacher  employed  within  the  dis- 
trict, and  require  every  such 
teacher  carefully  to  note  the  time 
of  attendance  of  each  and  every 
scholar,  and  to  make  a  return  of 
the  same  to  the  director. 

Sixth.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of 
the  director  to  provide  the  neces- 


count  of  the  apportionment  of  the 
board  of  school  inspectors. 

Third.  Whenever  the  appor- 
tionment shall  not  be  sufficient  to 
pay  for  the  services  of  any  such 
teachers,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of 
the  director  to  call  a  meeting  of 
the  district  board  for  the  purpose 
of  levying  the  balance  upon  the 
taxable  property  of  the  district, 
the  amount  so  levied  not  to  ex- 
ceed the  sum  voted  by  the  dis- 
trict at  its  annual  meeting;  and 
in  case  said  sum  so  voted,  to- 
gether with  the  apportionment, 
shall  be  found  insufficient  the  de- 
ficit shall  be  assessed  upon  the 
parents  or  guardians  of  the  chil- 
dren in  proportion  to  the  length 
of  time  they  shall  severally  have 
attended  school  during  the  term 
or  terms  when  such  deficiency 
shall  have  arisen. 

Fourth.  Within  ten  days  of 
the  time  of  the  annual  meeting, 
the  director  shall  take  the  census 
of  his  district  by  registering  the 
names  of  all  belonging  to  it  be- 
tween the  ages  of  five  and  twenty- 
one  years  inclusive. 

Fifth.  A  copy  of  this  list  he 
shall  give  to  each  and  every 
teacher  employed  within  the  dis- 
trict, and  require  every  such 
teacher  carefully  to  note  the  time 
of  attendance  of  each  and  every 
scholar,  and  to  make  a  return  of 
the  same  to  the  director. 

Sixth.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of 
the  director  to  provide  the  neces- 


APPENDIX  A 


369 


sary  appendages  for  the  school- 
house,  and  keep  the  same  in  good 
condition  and  repair,  during  the 
time  of  school,  and  an  accurate 
account  of  all  expenses  incurred. 

Seventh.  He  shall  present  said 
account  to  the  district  board,  to 
be  assessed  and  collected  in  the 
manner  hereinbefore  prescribed. 

Eighth.  It  shall  be  his  duty 
to  give  the  prescribed  notice  of 
the  annual  district  meeting,  and 
all  such  special  meetings  as  shall 
be  called  for  in  accordance  with 
the  provisions  of  this  chapter. 

Ninth.  At  the  end  of  the  year, 
the  school  director  shall  report  to 
the  township  board  of  inspectors 
at  the  office  of  the  township  clerk, 

First.  The  whole  number  of 
children  between  the  ages  of  five 
and  seventeen; 

Second.  The  number  attend- 
ing school  under  five  and  over 
seventeen ; 

Third.  Whole  number  that 
have  attended  school  during  the 
year; 

Fourth.  Length  of  time  a 
school  has  been  kept  by  a  quali- 
fied teacher; 

Fifth.  Amount  of  money  re- 
ceived from  the  board  of  school 
inspectors ; 

Sixth.  Amount  received  for  li- 
brary; 

Seventh.  Amount  of  money 
raised  in  the  district; 

Eighth.  Purposes  for  which  it 
was  raised;  and 


sary  appendages  for  the  school- 
house,  and  keep  the  same  in  good 
condition  and  repair  during  the 
time  of  school,  and  an  accurate 
account  of  all  expenses  incurred. 

Seventh.  He  shall  present  said 
account  to  the  district  board  to 
be  assessed  and  collected  in  the 
manner  hereinbefore  prescribed. 

Eighth.  It  shall  be  his  duty  to 
give  the  prescribed  notice  of  the 
annual  district  meeting,  and  all 
such  special  meetings  as  shall  be 
called  for  in  accordance  with  the 
provisions  of  this  act. 

Ninth.  At  the  end  of  the  year 
the  school  director  shall  report  to 
the  township  board  of  inspectors 
at  the  office  of  the  township  clerk. 

First.  The  whole  number  of 
persons  between  the  ages  of  five 
and  twenty-one. 

Second.  The  number  attending 
school  under  five  and  over  twenty- 
one. 

Third.  Whole  number  that 
have  attended  school  during  the 
year. 

Fourth.  Length  of  time  a 
school  has  been  kept  by  a  quali- 
fied teacher. 

Fifth.  Amount  of  money  re- 
ceived from  the  board  of  school 
inspectors. 

Sixth.  Amount  received  for  li- 
brary. 

Seventh.  Amount  of  money 
raised  in  the  district. 

Eighth.  Purposes  for  which  it 
was  raised,  and, 


25 


370 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 


Ninth.  Books  used  in  said 
school. 

Sec.  19.  The  moderator,  direc- 
tor and  assessor  shall  constitute 
the  district  board,  and  they  shall 
have  power,  and  it  shall  be  their 
duty, 

First.  To  levy  and  assess  upon 
the  taxable  property  all  moneys 
voted  by  the  district,  and  the  de- 
ficit, if  any,  agreeably  to  the 
third  provision  of  the  eighteenth 
section  of  this  chapter,  and  the 
sums  requisite  for  the  necessary 
appendages  and  fuel  for  the 
school-house,  during  the  contin- 
uance of  any  school. 

Second.  To  equalize  the  as- 
sessment roll  of  fractional  school 
districts,  formed  from  different 
counties,  whenever  in  their  judg- 
ment the  assessment  rolls  of  the 
townships  out  of  which  said  dis- 
trict was  formed,  shall  be  un- 
equal. 

Third.  To  purchase  or  lease  a 
site,  as  designated  by  the  dis- 
trict, for  the  school-house,  in  the 
corporate  name  thereof;  to  build, 
hire  or  purchase  such  .school- 
house  out  of  the  funds  collected 
for  that  purpose,  and  to  make 
sale  of  any  site  or  property  of 
the  district,  as  directed  by  the 
inhabitants  thereof,  at  an  annual 
or  special  meeting. 

Fourth.  To  divide  the  public 
moneys  received  by  the  district, 
for  the  year  into  not  more  than 
two  parts,  and  to  assign  and  ap- 


Ninth.  Books  used  in  said 
school. 

Sec.  19.  The  moderator,  direc- 
tor, and  assessor  shall  constitute 
the  district  board,  and  they  shall 
have  power  and  it  shall  be  their 
duty, 

First.  To  levy  and  assess  upon 
the  taxable  property  all  moneys 
voted  by  the  district,  and  the  de- 
ficit, if  any,  agreeably  to  the 
third  provision  of  the  eighteenth 
section  of  this  act,  and  the  sums 
requisite  for  the  necessary  ap- 
pendages and  fuel  for  the  school 
house  during  the  continuance  of 
any  school. 

Second.  To  equalize  the  assess- 
ment roll  of  fractional  school  dis- 
tricts formed  from  different 
counties,  whenever,  in  their  judg- 
ment, the  assessment  rolls  of  the 
townships  out  of  which  said  dis- 
trict was  formed  shall  be  unequal. 

Third.  To  purchase  or  lease  a 
site  as  designated  by  the  district 
for  the  school-house  in  the  cor- 
porate name  thereof,  to  build, 
hire  or  purchase  such  school-house 
out  of  the  funds  collected  for 
that  purpose,  and  to  make  sale  of 
any  site  or  property  of  the  dis- 
trict as  directed  by  the  inhabit- 
ants thereof,  at  an  annual  or 
special  meeting. 

Fourth.  To  divide  the  public 
moneys  received  by  the  district 
for  the  year  in  not  more  than  two 
parts,  and  to  assign  and  apply 


APPENDIX  A 


371 


ply  one  of  such  portions  to  each 
term  a  school  may  be  kept,  in 
payment  of  the  teachers  for  ser- 
vices for  the  same:  Provided, 
That  no  money  shall  be  paid  to 
any  teacher  who  has  not  received 
a  certificate,  as  provided  in  the 
twenty-ninth  section  of  this  chap- 
ter. 

Fifth.  To  require  of  the  as- 
sessor a  bond,  to  be  given  to  the 
district,  in  double  the  amount  of 
taxes  to  be  collected  in  the  dis- 
trict, with  two  sufficient  sureties, 
to  be  approved  by  the  moderator 
and  director,  conditioned  for  the 
faithful  appropriation  of  all  mon- 
eys that  may  come  into  his  hands 
by  virtue  of  his  office;  said  bond 
to  be  lodged  in  the  hands  of  the 
moderator,  and  in  ease  of  a  non- 
fulfilment  of  the  condition  there- 
of, the  moderator  and  director,  or 
either  of  them,  may  cause  a  suit 
for  the  penalty  of  said  bond  to 
be  commenced  in  the  name  of  the 
district,  before  any  court  of  com- 
petent jurisdiction. 

Sixth.  To  present  at  each  an- 
nual meeting  of  the  district  a  re- 
port setting  forth  an  accurate 
account  of  all  moneys  received  by 
them,  or  any  of  them,  during  the 
preceding  year,  and  of  the  dis- 
bursement of  the  same;  which 
report  shall  contain  the  items  of 
such  receipts  and  disbursements, 
and  such  report  shall  be  record- 
ed by  the  director  in  a  distinct 
book  to  be  provided  and  kept  for 
that  purpose. 


one  of  such  portions  to  each  term 
a  school  may  be  kept,  in  payment 
of  the  teachers  for  services  for 
the  same:  Provided,  That  no 
money  shall  be  paid  to  any  teach- 
er who  has  not  received  a  certifi- 
cate as  provided  in  the  twenty- 
ninth  section  of  this  act. 

Fifth.  To  require  of  the  as- 
sessor a  bond  to  be  given  to  the 
district  in  double  the  amount  of 
taxes  to  be  collected  in  the  dis- 
trict, with  two  sufficient  sureties 
to  be  approved  by  the  moderator 
and  director,  conditioned  for  the 
faithful  appropriation  of  all 
moneys  that  come  into  his  hands 
by  virtue  of  his  office:  said  bond 
to  be  lodged  in  the  hands  of  the 
moderator;  and  in  case  of  a  non- 
fulfilment  of  the  condition  there- 
of, the  moderator  and  director, 
or  either  of  them,  may  cause  a 
suit  for  the  penalty  of  said  bond 
to  be  commenced  in  the  name  of 
the  district,  before  any  court  of 
competent  jurisdiction. 

Sixth.  To  present  at  each  an- 
nual meeting  of  the  district,  a 
report  setting  forth  an  accurate 
account  of  all  moneys  received  by 
them  or  any  of  them  during  the 
preceding  year  and  of  the  dis- 
bursement of  the  same,  which  re- 
port shall  contain  the  items  of 
such  receipts  and  disbursements, 
and  such  report  shall  be  recorded 
by  the  director  in  a  distinct  book 
to  be  provided  and  kept  for  that 
purpose. 


372 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 


Sec.  20.  The  district  board 
shall  have  power  to  fill  by  ap- 
pointment any  vacancy  that  shall 
occur  from  whatever  cause,  and 
it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  board 
to  supply  such  vacancy  within  ten 
days  after  the  time  of  its  occur- 
rence. 

Sec.  21.  Each  member  of  the 
district  board  shall  receive  such 
compensation  for  his  services  as 
shall  be  voted  in  district  meet- 
ings. 


Sec.  22.  Each  and  every  dis- 
trict that  shall  comply  with  the 
fifth  provision  of  the  thirteenth 
section  of  this  chapter,  shall  be 
entitled  to  its  proportion  of  the 
clear  proceeds  of  all  fines  col- 
lected within  the  several  counties, 
for  any  breach  of  the  penal  laws ; 
and  also  its  proportion  of  the 
equivalent  for  exemption  from 
military  duty,  which  fines  and 
equivalents  shall  be  paid  over  by 


Sec.  20.  The  district  board 
shall  have  power  to  fill  by  ap- 
pointment any  vacancy  that  shall 
occur,  from  whatever  cause,  and 
it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  board 
to  supply  such  vacancy  within  ten 
days  after  the  time  of  its  occur- 
rence. 

Sec.  21.  Each  and  every  dis- 
trict that  shall  comply  with  the 
fifth  provision  of  the  thirteenth 
section  of  this  act,  shall  be  en- 
titled to  its  proportion  of  the 
clear  proceeds  of  all  fines  col- 
lected within  the  several  counties 
for  any  breach  of  the  penal  laws, 
and  also  its  proportion  of  the 
equivalent  for  exemption  from 
military  duty,  which  fines  and 
equivalent  shall  be  paid  over  by 
the  several  officers  collecting  the 
same  to  the  treasurers  of  their 
respective  counties,  to  be  by  them 
apportioned  amongst  the  several 
townships  in  the  county  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  persons 
between  the  ages  of  five  and 
twenty-one  years  inclusive. 

Sec.  22.  Each  member  of  the 
district  board  shall  receive  such 
compensation  for  his  services  as 
shall  be  voted  in  district  meet- 
ings. 


APPENDIX  A 


373 


the  several  officers  collecting  the 
same,  to  the  treasurers  of  their 
respective  counties,  to  be  by  them 
apportioned  amongst  the  several 
townships  in  the  county,  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  children 
between  the  ages  of  five  and  sev- 
enteen years  inclusive. 

Sec.  23.  There  shall  be  chosen 
at  each  annual  township  meeting, 
three  school  inspectors,  in  the 
same  manner  as  other  township 
officers  are  chosen,  who  shall  hold 
their  office  until  others  are  chosen. 

Sec.  24.  Said  inspectors  shall 
have  power,  and  it  shall  be  their 
duty, 

First.  To  meet  within  ten 
days  of  their  election  at  the  office 
of  the  township  clerk,  who  shall 
be  ex-officio  clerk  of  the  board, 
and  organize  by  choosing  one  of 
their  number  chairman,  who  shall 
preside  at  their  meetings. 

Second.  To  divide  the  town- 
ship into  such  a  number  of  dis- 
tricts, and  to  regulate  and  alter 
the  boundaries  of  said  school  dis- 
tricts, as  may  from  time  to  time 
be  necessary:  Provided,  no  dis- 
trict shall  contain  more  than  nine 
sections. 

Third.  To  describe  and  num- 
ber the  school  districts  of  their 
township. 


Sec.  23.  There  shall  be  chosen 
at  each  annual  township  meeting, 
three  school  inspectors  in  the 
same  manner  as  other  township 
officers  are  chosen,  who  shall  hold 
their  office  until  others  are  chosen. 

Sec.  24.  Said  inspectors  shall 
have  power  and  it  shall  be  their 
duty, 

First.  To  meet  within  ten 
days  of  their  election  at  the  office 
of  the  township  clerk,  who  shall 
be  ex-officio  clerk  of  the  board, 
and  organize  by  choosing  one  of 
their  number  chairman,  who  shall 
preside  at  their  meetings. 

Second.  To  divide  the  town- 
ship into  such  a  number  of  dis- 
tricts, and  to  regulate  and  alter 
the  boundaries  of  said  school  dis- 
tricts, as  [may]  from  time  to 
time  be  necessary. 


Third.  To  apply  for  and  re- 
ceive from  the  county  treasurer 
all  moneys  appropriated  for  the 
primary  schools  and  district  li- 
braries in  their  townships,  and 
from  the  collector  of  the  township 
all  moneys  raised  therein  for  the 
same  purpose,  as  soon  as  the 
same  may  be  due. 


374 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 


Fourth.  To  apply  for  and  re- 
ceive from  the  county  treasurer, 
all  moneys  appropriated  for  the 
primary  schools  and  district  li- 
braries in  their  townships,  and 
from  the  collector  of  the  town- 
ship all  moneys  raised  therein  for 
the  same  purpose,  as  soon  as  the 
same  shall  be  due. 

Fifth.  To  apportion  the  school 
and  library  money  received  by 
them  on  or  before  the  first  of 
March  in  each  year,  among  the 
several  school  districts  in  their 
township,  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  children  in  each,  be- 
tween the  ages  of  five  and  seven- 
teen years,  as  the  same  shall  be 
shown  by  the  last  annual  report 
of  the  director  of  each  district: 
Provided,  No  school  money  shall 
be  apportioned  to  any  district, 
from  which  a  report  shall  not 
have  been  received,  nor  to  any 
district  in  which  a  school  shall 
not  have  been  kept,  at  least  three 
months  during  the  year  immedi- 
ately preceding,  by  a  qualified 
teacher,  except  the  first  distribu- 
tion, and  provided  that  no  library 
money  shall  be  apportioned  to 
any  district  that  shall  not  have 
complied  with  the  fifth  provision 
of  the  thirteenth  section  of  this 
chapter. 

Sec.  25.  The  chairman  of  the 
board  of  inspectors,  shall  be  the 
treasurer  of  said  board;  and  it 
shall  be  the  duty  of  the  inspec- 
tors to  require  of  said  chairman 


Fourth.  To  describe  and  num- 
ber the  school  districts  of  their 
township. 


Fifth.  To  apportion  the  school 
and  library  money  received  by 
them,  on  or  before  the  first  day 
of  March  in  each  year,  among  the 
several  school  districts  in  their 
township,  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  persons  in  each  be- 
tween the  ages  of  five  and  twenty- 
one  years,  as  the  same  shall  be 
shown  by  the  last  annual  report 
of  the  director  of  each  district: 
Provided  no  school  money  shall 
be  apportioned  to  any  district 
from  which  a  report  shall  not 
have  been  received,  nor  to  any 
district  in  which  a  school  shall 
not  have  been  kept  at  least  three 
months  during  the  year  immedi- 
ately preceding  by  a  qualified 
teacher,  except  the  first  distribu- 
tion: And  provided,  That  no  li- 
brary moneys  shall  be  apportioned 
to  any  district  that  shall  not  have 
complied  with  the  fifth  provision 
of  the  thirteenth  section  of  this 
act. 

Sec.  25.  The  chairman  of  the 
board  of  inspectors,  shall  be  the 
treasurer  of  said  board,  and  it 
shall  be  the  duty  of  the  inspec- 
tors to  require  of  said  chairman 


APPENDIX  A 


375 


a  bond,  to  be  given  to  the  town- 
ship in  double  the  amount  to  be 
received  by  him,  in  two  sufficient 
sureties,  to  be  approved  by  the 
township  clerk,  conditioned  for 
the  faithful  appropriation  of  all 
moneys  that  may  come  into  his 
hands  by  virtue  of  his  office;  said 
bond  to  be  lodged  with  the  town- 
ship clerk,  who  is  hereby  author- 
ized, in  case  of  the  non-fulfilment 
of  the  condition  of  said  bond,  to 
sue  for  the  penalty  thereof,  be- 
fore any  court  of  competent  juris- 
diction. 

Sec.  26.  On  or  before  the  twen- 
tieth day  of  October  of  each  year, 
they  shall  make  out  and  transmit 
to  the  county  clerk  a  report,  set- 
ting forth  the  whole  number  of 
districts  in  their  township,  to- 
gether with  the  several  particu- 
lars set  forth  in  the  reports  of 
the  school  directors. 

Sec.  27.  If  any  board  of  school 
inspectors  shall  neglect  or  refuse 
to  make  such  report  by  the  time 
set  forth  in  the  preceding  section, 
they  shall  forfeit  to  the  use  of 
the  schools  of  their  township  the 
sum  of  fifty  dollars,  and  the  full 
amount  of  the  money  lost  by 
their  failure,  with  interest  on  the 
same,  to  be  recovered  in  an  action 
of  debt  by  the  township  collector, 
before  any  court  having  com- 
petent jurisdiction  of  the  same. 

Sec.  28.     Whenever  it  may  be 


a  bond  to  be  given  to  the  town- 
ship in  double  the  amount  to  be 
received  by  him,  in  two  sufficient 
sureties  to  be  approved  by  the 
township  clerk,  conditioned  for 
the  faithful  appropriation  of  all 
moneys  that  may  come  into  his 
hands  by  virtue  of  his  office,  said 
bond  to  be  lodged  with  the  town- 
ship clerk,  who  is  hereby  author- 
ized, in  case  of  the  non-fulfilment 
of  the  condition  of  said  bond,  to 
sue  for  the  penalty  thereof  be- 
fore any  court  of  competent  juris- 
diction. 

Sec.  26.  On  or  before  the 
twentieth  day  of  October  of  each 
year,  they  shall  make  out  and 
transmit  to  the  clerk  of  the  dis- 
trict court  a  report  setting  forth 
the  whole  number  of  districts  in 
their  township,  together  with  the 
several  particulars  set  forth  in 
the  reports  of  the  school  direc- 
tors. 

Sec.  27.  If  any  board  of 
school  inspectors  shall  neglect  or 
refuse  to  make  such  report  by  the 
time  set  forth  in  the  preceding 
section,  they  shall  forfeit  to  the 
use  of  the  schools  of  their  town- 
ship the  sum  of  fifty  dollars,  and 
the  full  amount  of  the  money  lost 
by  their  failure,  with  interest  on 
the  same,  to  be  recovered  in  an 
action  of  debt  by  the  township 
collector  before  any  court  having 
competent  jurisdiction  of  the 
same. 

See.  28.     Whenever  it  may  be 


376 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 


necessary  or  convenient  to  form 
a  district  from  two  or  more  ad- 
joining townships,  the  inspectors, 
or  a  majority  of  them,  from  each 
of  such  adjoining  townships,  may 
form  a  district,  regulate  and  alter 
the  same;  and  the  director  of 
such  district  so  formed,  shall 
make  returns  to  each  township 
from  which  said  district  is 
formed,  specifying  in  said  returns 
that  only  which  belongs  to  said 
township. 

Sec.  29.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of 
the  inspectors  to  examine  annual- 
ly all  persons  offering  themselves 
as  candidates  for  teaching  pri- 
mary schools  in  their  township,  in 
regard  to  moral  character,  learn- 
ing, and  ability  to  teach  school; 
and  if  satisfied  that  such  candi- 
dates possess  the  requisite  quali- 
fications, they  shall  deliver  to  the 
person  so  examined  a  certificate, 
signed  by  them,  in  such  form  as 
shall  be  prescribed  by  the  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction, 
which  certificate  shall  be  in  force 
one  year  from  the  date  thereof. 

Sec.  30.  Whenever  the  inspec- 
tors shall  deem  it  necessary,  they 
may  re-examine  any  teacher  of 
any  primary  school  in  their  town- 
ship, and  if  found  wanting  in  the 
requisite  qualifications,  they  may 
annul  any  certificate  given  to 
such  teacher,  by  giving  to  such 
person  ten  days'  written  notice 
to  that  effect,  and  filing  the  same 


necessary  or  convenient  to  form  a 
district  from  two  or  more  ad- 
joining townships,  the  inspectors, 
or  a  majority  of  them  from  each 
of  such  adjoining  townships,  may 
form  a  district,  regulate  and  alter 
the  same;  and  the  director  of 
such  district  so  formed  shall  make 
returns  to  each  township  from 
which  said  district  is  formed, 
specifying  in  said  returns  that 
only  which  belongs  to  said  town- 
ship. 

Sec.  29.  It  shall  be  the  duty 
of  the  inspectors  to  examine  an- 
nually all  persons  offering  them- 
selves as  candidates  for  teaching 
primary  schools  in  their  township, 
in  regard  to  moral  character, 
learning  and  ability  to  teach 
school,  and  if  satisfied  that  such 
candidates  possess  the  requisite 
qualifications,  they  shall  deliver 
to  the  person  so  examined  a  cer- 
tificate signed  by  them,  in  such 
form  as  shall  be  prescribed  by  the 
superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion, which  certificate  shall  be  in 
force  one  year  from  the  date 
thereof. 

See.  30.  Whenever  the  in- 
spectors shall  deem  it  necessary, 
they  may  re-examine  any  teacher 
of  any  primary  school  in  their 
township,  and  if  found  wanting 
in  the  requisite  qualifications, 
they  may  annul  any  certificate 
given  to  such  teacher  by  giving 
to  such  person  ten  day's  written 
notice  to  that  effect,  and  filing 


APPENDIX  A 


377 


in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  their 
township. 

Sec.  31.  It  shall  be  the  duty 
of  the  inspectors  to  visit  all  such 
schools  in  their  township,  at  least 
twice  in  each  year,  as  shall  be 
organized  according  to  law,  to  in- 
quire into  their  condition,  exam- 
ine the  scholars,  and  give  such  ad- 
vice to  both  teachers  and  scholars 
as  they  shall  deem  proper. 

Sec.  32.  In  case  of  the  death, 
or  removal,  or  disability  to  act  of 
any  one  of  the  inspectors,  the 
board  shall  fill  such  vacancy  by 
appointment. 

Sec.  33.  Whenever  any  district 
board  shall  fail  to  supply  any 
vacancy  within  the  time  limited 
in  section  twenty,  the  board  of 
inspectors  shall  fill  the  same  by 
appointment. 

Sec.  34.  The  inspectors  shall 
be  entitled  to  receive  for  their 
services  the  sum  of  one  dollar 
and  fifty  cents  per  day,  to  be 
audited  and  paid  as  the  accounts 
of  other  township  officers  are 
audited  and  paid. 

Sec.  35.  Any  person  elected  or 
appointed  school  inspector,  who 
shall  neglect  or  refuse,  without 
sufficient  cause,  to  serve  as  such, 
shall  forfeit  to  the  use  of  the 
school  fund  of  his  township  the 
sum  of  twenty-five  dollars,  to  be 
recovered  as  prescribed  in  the 
twenty-fifth  section  of  this  chap- 
ter. 

Sec.    36.      The   township   clerk 


the  same  in  the  office  of  the  clerk 
of  their  township. 

Sec.  31.  It  shall  be  the  duty 
of  the  inspectors  to  visit  all  such 
schools  in  their  township,  at  least 
twice  in  each  year,  as  shall  be 
organized  according  to  law,  to  in- 
quire into  the  condition,  examine 
the  scholars,  and  give  such  advice 
to  both  teachers  and  scholars  as 
they  shall  deem  proper. 

See.  32.  In  case  of  the  death, 
or  removal,  or  disability  to  act  of 
any  one  of  the  inspectors,  the 
board  shall  fill  such  vacancy  by 
appointment. 

See.  33.  Whenever  any  district 
board  shall  fail  to  supply  any 
vacancy  within  the  time  limited 
in  section  twenty,  the  board  of 
inspectors  shall  fill  the  same  by 
appointment. 

See.  34.  The  inspectors  shall 
be  entitled  to  receive  for  their 
services  the  sum  of  one  dollar  per 
day,  to  be  audited  and  paid  as 
the  accounts  of  other  township 
officers  are  audited  and  paid. 

Sec.  35.  Any  person  elected  or 
appointed  school  inspector  who 
shall  neglect  or  refuse,  without 
sufficient  cause,  to  serve  as  such, 
shall  forfeit  to  the  use  of  the 
school  fund  of  his  township  the 
sum  of  twenty-five  dollars,  to  be 
recovered  as  prescribed  in  the 
twenty-fifth  section  of  this  act. 

Sec.    36.      The   township   clerk 


378 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 


shall  be  ex-officio  clerk  of  the 
board  of  school  inspectors,  and 
shall  have  power,  and  it  shall  be 
his  duty, 

First.  To  attend  all  meetings 
of  the  inspectors,  and  to  prepare, 
under  their  direction,  all  their 
reports,  estimates  and  apportion- 
ments of  school  moneys,  and  re- 
cord the  same,  and  all  their 
proceedings,  in  a  book  to  be  kept 
for  that  purpose. 

Second.  To  receive  and  keep 
all  reports  made  to  the  inspectors 
from  the  directors  of  the  several 
school  districts,  and  all  the  books 
and  papers  belonging  to  the  in- 
spectors, and  file  the  same  in  his 
office. 

Third.  To  receive  all  such  com- 
munications as  may  be  directed 
to  him  by  the  superintendent  of 
public  instruction,  and  dispose  of 
the  same  in  the  manner  directed 
therein. 

Fourth.  To  transmit  to  the 
clerk  of  the  county  all  such  re- 
ports as  may  be  made  for  such 
clerk  by  the  inspectors  within  the 
time  limited  in  this  chapter,  and 
generally  to  do  and  execute  all 
such  things  as  belong  to  his  of- 
fice and  may  be  required  of  him 
by  the  inspectors. 

Sec.  37.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of 
each  and  every  county  clerk  to  re- 
ceive all  such  communications  as 
may  be  directed  to  him  by  the 
superintendent  of  public  instruc- 


shall  be  ex-officio  clerk  of  the 
board  of  school  inspectors,  and 
shall  have  power  and  it  shall  be 
his  duty, 

First.  To  attend  all  meetings 
of  the  inspectors  and  to  prepare, 
under  their  direction,  all  their  re- 
ports, estimates  and  apportion- 
ments of  school  moneys,  and 
record  the  same  and  all  their  pro- 
ceedings in  a  book  to  be  kept  for 
that  purpose. 

Second.  To  receive  and  keep 
all  reports  made  to  the  inspectors 
from  the  directors  of  the  several 
school  districts,  and  all  the  books 
and  papers  belonging  to  the  in- 
spectors, and  file  the  same  in  his 
office. 

Third.  To  receive  all  such 
communications  as  may  be  di- 
rected to  him  by  the  superintend- 
ent of  public  instruction,  and  dis- 
pose of  the  same  in  the  manner 
directed  therein. 

Fourth.  To  transmit  to  th'e 
clerk  of  the  district  court  all  such 
reports  as  may  be  made  for  such 
clerk  by  the  inspectors,  within  the 
time  limited  in  this  act,  and  gen- 
erally to  do  and  execute  all  such 
things  as  belong  to  his  office,  and 
may  be  required  of  him  by  the 
inspectors. 

Sec.  37.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of 
each  and  every  clerk  of  the  dis- 
trict court,  to  receive  all  such 
communications  as  may  be  direct- 
ed to  him  by  the  superintendent 


APPENDIX  A 


379 


tion,  and  dispose  of  the  same  in 
the  manner  therein  directed. 

See.  38.  It  shall  be  the  duty 
of  the  clerk  of  each  county,  on  or 
before  the  twentieth  of  November 
of  every  year,  to  make  and  trans- 
mit to  the  superintendent  of  pub- 
lic instruction  a  report  in  writing, 
containing  the  whole  number  of 
townships  in  his  county,  distin- 
guishing townships  from  which 
the  required  reports  have  been 
made  to  him  by  the  inspectors  of 
schools,  and  containing  a  certified 
copy  of  all  their  reports;  and  the 
board  of  supervisors  or  commis- 
sioners of  each  county  are  hereby 
authorized  to  allow  to  the  clerk 
of  their  counties  such  compensa- 
tion as  they  may  deem  proper  for 
the  services  he  may  perform  un- 
der and  by  virtue  of  the  provi- 
sions of  this  chapter. 

Sec.  39.  Any  clerk  who  shall 
neglect  or  refuse  to  make  such 
report,  by  the  time  so  limited, 
shall,  for  each  offence,  forfeit  the 
sum  of  one  hundred  dollars  to  the 
use  of  the  schools  of  said  county, 
to  be  recovered  in  an  action  of 
debt,  to  be  commenced  forthwith 
by  and  in  the  name  of  the  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction; 
and  the  money  so  recovered  shall, 
when  received  by  the  superintend- 
ent, be  paid  into  the  treasury  of 
the  county,  to  the  credit  and  for 
the  use  of  the  district  or  districts 


of  public  instruction,  and  dispose 
of  the  same  in  the  manner  there- 
in directed. 

Sec.  38.  It  shall  be  the  duty 
of  each  clerk  of  the  district  court, 
on  or  before  the  twentieth  of  No- 
vember of  every  year,  to  make 
and  transmit  to  the  superintend- 
ent of  public  instruction,  a  report 
in  writing,  containing  the  whole 
number  of  townships  in  his  coun- 
ty, distinguishing  townships  from 
which  the  required  reports  have 
been  made  to  him  by  the  in- 
spectors of  schools,  and  contain- 
ing a  certified  copy  of  all  their 
reports;  and  the  board  of  super- 
visors or  commissioners  of  each 
county  are  hereby  authorized  to 
allow  to  the  clerk  of  the  district 
courts  such  compensation  as  they 
may  deem  proper  for  the  services 
he  may  perform  under  and  by 
virtue  of  the  provisions  of  this 
act. 

Sec.  39.  Any  clerk  who  shall 
neglect  or  refuse  to  make  such 
report  by  the  time  so  limited, 
shall,  for  each  offence,  forfeit  the 
sum  of  one  hundred  dollars,  to 
the  use  of  the  schools  of  said 
county,  to  be  recovered  in  an 
action  of  debt  to  be  commenced 
forthwith  by  and  in  the  name  of 
the  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction. And  the  money  so  re- 
covered shall,  when  received  by 
the  superintendent,  be  paid  into 
the  treasury  of  the  county,  to  the 
credit  and  for  the  use  of  the  dis- 


380 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 


which  may  suffer  from  such  neg- 
lect of  the  clerk,  and  the  sum 
may  be  drawn  out  by  the  proper 
authority  of  said  district  or  dis- 
tricts. 

Sec.  40.  The  moneys  to  be 
hereafter  distributed  annually  for 
the  support  of  primary  schools, 
shall  be  payable  on  the  first  Mon- 
day of  January  in  each  year,  on 
the  warrant  of  the  auditor  gen- 
eral, to  the  treasurers  of  the  sev- 
eral counties. 

See.  41.  The  treasurers  of  the 
counties  shall  apply  for  and  re- 
ceive such  moneys  as  are  appor- 
tioned to  their  respective  coun- 
ties, when  the  same  shall  become 
due. 

Sec.  42.  The  treasurer  of  each 
county,  when  he  shall  receive  such 
moneys,  shall  give  notice  in  writ- 
ing to  the  chairman  or  clerk  of 
the  board  of  school  inspectors  of 
each  township  in  his  county,  of 
the  amount  of  school  and  library 
moneys  apportioned  to  such  town- 
ship, and  shall  hold  the  same, 
subject  to  the  order  of  the  in- 
spectors. 

Sec.  43.  In  ease  any  moneys 
apportioned  to  any  township  shall 
not  be  applied  for  by  such  in- 
spectors, the  moneys  so  remaining 
shall  be  added  to  the  moneys  next 
received  by  the  treasurer  for  dis- 
tribution from  the  superintendent 
of  public  instruction,  and  in  the 
same  proportion  distributed. 

Sec.  44.    Whenever  the  clerk  of 


trict  or  districts,  which  may  suf- 
fer from  such  neglect  of  the 
clerk;  and  the  sum  may  be  drawn 
out  by  the  proper  authority  of 
said  district  or  districts. 

Sec.  40.  The  moneys  to  be 
hereafter  distributed  annually  for 
the  support  of  primary  schools, 
shall  be  payable  on  the  first  Mon- 
day of  January  in  each  year,  on 
the  warrant  of  the  auditor  of 
public  accounts  to  the  treasurers 
of  the  several  counties. 

Sec.  41.  The  treasurers  of  the 
counties  shall  apply  for  and  re- 
ceive such  moneys  as  are  appor- 
tioned to  their  respective  counties 
when  the  same  shall  become  due. 

Sec.  42.  The  treasurer  of  each 
county,  when  he  shall  receive  such 
moneys,  shall  give  notice  in  writ- 
ing to  the  chairman  or  clerk  of 
the  board  of  school  inspectors  of 
each  township  in  his  county,  of 
the  amount  of  school  and  library 
moneys  apportioned  to  such  town- 
ship, and  shall  hold  the  same  sub- 
ject to  the  order  of  the  inspectors. 

Sec.  43.  In  case  any  moneys 
apportioned  to  any  township  shall 
not  be  applied  for  by  such  in- 
spectors, the  moneys  so  remaining 
shall  be  added  to  the  moneys  next 
received  by  the  treasurer  for  dis- 
tribution from  the  superintendent 
of  public  instruction,  and  in  the 
same  proportion  distributed. 

Sec.  44.    Whenever  the  clerk  of 


APPENDIX  A 


381 


any  county  shall  receive  from  the 
superintendent  notice  of  the 
amount  of  moneys  to  be  dis- 
bursed in  the  several  townships 
in  his  county,  he  shall  file  the 
same  in  his  office,  and  within  one 
week  transmit  a  certified  copy 
thereof  to  the  clerk  of  the  board 
of  commissioners,  which  copy  said 
clerk  shall  lay  before  the  com- 
missioners at  their  next  annual 
meeting. 

Sec.  45.  It  shall  be  the  duty 
of  the  commissioners  at  such 
meeting,  to  add  to  the  sums  of 
money  to  be  raised  in  each  of  the 
townships  of  the  county,  a  sum 
equal  to  that  which  shall  have 
been  apportioned  to  such  town- 
ship from  the  school  fund,  to  be 
levied  and  collected  in  the  same 
manner  as  other  moneys  are  di- 
rected to  be  raised  in  the  town- 
ships. 

Sec.  46.  The  commissioners 
shall  cause  and  require  the  col- 
lector of  each  township,  by  their 
warrant,  to  pay  such  moneys, 
when  collected,  to  the  chairman  of 
the  board  of  school  inspectors,  in 
such  township,  for  the  use  of 
schools  therein. 

Sec.  47.  Should  any  township 
neglect  or  refuse  to  elect  a  board 
of  school  inspectors,  the  collector 
shall  pay  the  moneys  so  collected 
to  the  county  treasurer,  to  be  ap- 
portioned among  the  several 
townships,  as  provided  in  the 
fortieth  section  of  this  chapter. 


any  county  shall  receive  from  the 
superintendent  notice  of  the 
amount  of  money  to  be  disbursed 
in  the  several  townships  in  his 
county,  he  shall  file  the  same  in 
his  office,  and  within  one  week 
transmit  a  certified  copy  thereof 
to  the  clerk  of  the  board  of  com- 
missioners, which  copy  said  clerk 
shall  lay  before  the  commission- 
ers at  their  next  regular  meeting. 

Sec.  45.  It  shall  be  the  duty 
of  the  commissioners,  at  such 
meeting,  to  add  to  the  sums  of 
money  to  be  raised  in  each  of  the 
townships  of  the  county,  a  sum 
equal  to  that  which  shall  have 
been  apportioned  to  such  town- 
ship from  the  school  fund,  to  be 
levied  and  collected  in  the  same 
manner  as  other  moneys  are  di- 
rected to  be  raised  in  the  town- 
ships. 

Sec.  46.  The  commissioners 
shall  cause  and  require  the  col- 
lector of  each  township  by  their 
warrant  to  pay  such  moneys, 
when  collected,  to  the  chairman 
of  the  board  of  school  inspectors 
in  such  township  for  the  use  of 
schools  therein. 

Sec.  47.  Should  any  township 
neglect  or  refuse  to  elect  a  board 
of  school  inspectors,  the  collector 
shall  pay  the  moneys  so  collected 
to  the  county  treasurer  to  be  ap- 
portioned among  the  several 
townships  as  provided  in  the 
fortieth  section  of  this  act. 


382 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 


See.  48.  Each  and  every  officer 
created  by  the  provisions  of  this 
chapter,  who  shall  receive,  by  vir- 
tue of  his  office,  any  books,  pa- 
pers or  moneys,  and  shall  refuse 
to  deliver  the  same  to  his  suc- 
cessor in  office,  or  shall  wilfully 
mutilate  or  destroy  the  same,  or 
any  part  thereof,  shall  be  deemed 
guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  li- 
able to  a  fine  of  not  less  than 
fifty  dollars,  nor  more  than  five 
hundred,  at  the  discretion  of  the 
court. —  Eevised  Statutes  of  Mich- 
igan, 1837-1838,  pp.  238-249. 


Sec.  48.  Each  and  every  officer 
created  by  the  provisions  of  this 
act,  who  shall  receive,  by  virtue 
of  his  office,  any  books,  papers, 
or  moneys,  and  shall  refuse  to 
deliver  the  same  to  his  successor 
in  office,  or  shall  wilfully  mutilate 
or  destroy  the  same,  or  any  part 
thereof,  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of 
a  misdemeanor  and  liable  to  a  fine 
of  not  less  than  fifty  dollars  nor 
more  than  five  hundred,  at  the 
discretion  of  the  court. 


Sec.  49.  All  acts  and  parts  of 
acts  coming  within  the  purview 
of  this  act,  are  hereby  repealed. 
—  Laws  of  the  Territory  of  Iowa, 
1839-1840,  pp.  101-110. 


APPENDIX  B 

A  COMPARISON  OF  THE  UNION  SCHOOL  LAW  OF 
OHIO  OF  1854  AND  THE  IOWA  LAW  OF  1857 

THE  Union  school  law  of  Ohio  (1854),  passed  originally,  it 
appears,  for  the  benefit  of  the  cities  of  Akron  and  Massil- 
lon,  was  submitted,  after  minor  changes,  for  adoption  by 
the  General  Assembly  of  Iowa  early  in  1857.  But  it  is 
believed  that  none  of  the  members  of  the  Assembly  knew 
the  source  of  the  statute,  owing  to  the  indirect  manner  of 
its  presentation.  As  was  said  in  the  text  (Vol.  I,  pp.  36-38), 
the  act  possessed  features  not  common  to  the  school  legis- 
lation of  this  Commonwealth.  The  parts  in  which  it  under- 
went changes  in  the  adaptation  to  Iowa  conditions  may  be 
seen  below. 


THE  OHIO  STATUTE 
Sec.  I.  That  any  incorporated 
city  or  town  in  this  state,  or  any 
incorporated  town  or  village,  ex- 
cept such  city,  town  or  village  as 
is  now  in  whole  or  part  governed 
as  to  schools  by  some  special  law 
heretofore  passed,  containing 
within  the  town  or  village  plot, 
as  laid  out  and  recorded,  two 
hundred  inhabitants  or  more,  with 
the  territory  attached  or  here- 
after to  be  attached  to  said 
city,  town  or  village,  for  school 
purposes,  may  be  organized  into 
and  established  as  a  single 


THE  IOWA  STATUTE 
Sec.  1.  That  any  incorporated 
city,  town  or  school  district  in 
this  State,  containing  two  hun- 
dred inhabitants  or  more,  with 
the  territory  attached,  or  here- 
after to  be  attached  to  said  city, 
town  or  district,  for  school  pur- 
poses, may  be  organized  into  and 
established  as  a  single  district, 
in  the  manner  and  with  the  pow- 
er hereinafter  specified. 


383 


384 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 


school  district,  in  the  man- 
ner and  with  the  powers  herein- 
after specified,  but  the  provisions 
of  this  act  shall  not  apply  to  any 
city,  town  or  village,  or  any  part 
thereof,  which  is  now  governed 
as  to  schools  by  any  special  law. 

Sec.  II.  That  in  order  to  such 
organization,  written  notices 
shall  be  posted  up  in  three  or 
more  of  the  most  public  places  in 
said  contemplated  district,  signed 
at  least  by  six  resident  freehold- 
ers of  the  same,  requesting  the 
qualified  electors  in  said  district 
to  assemble  upon  a  day,  and  at 
some  suitable  place  in  said  dis- 
trict, to  be  named  in  said  notices, 
then  and  there  to  vote,  by  ballot, 
for  or  against  the  adoption  of 
this  act,  which  notices  shall  be 
so  posted  up  at  least  ten  days 
next  prior  to  said  meeting. 

Sec.  III.  That  the  electors  as- 
sembled at  said  time  and  place 
shall  proceed  to  appoint  a  chair- 
man, assistant  chairman,  and 
clerk,  who  shall  be  judges  of  said 
election.  That  the  electors  in 
favor  of  the  adoption  of  this  act 
for  said  district,  shall  write  upon 
their  ballots  "school  law,"  and 
those  opposed  thereto,  shall  write 
upon  their  ballots  "no  school 
law,"  the  adoption  or  rejection 
of  this  act  to  be  determined  by  a 
majority  of  the  votes  to  be  cast 
in  manner  aforesaid. 

Sec.  IV.  That  in  case  a  ma- 
jority of  votes  shall  have  been 


Sec.  2.  That  in  order  to  such 
organization,  written  notices  shall 
be  posted  up  in  three  or  more  of 
the  most  public  places  in  said 
contemplated  district,  signed  by 
at  least  one-fourth  of  the  voters 
of  said  city  or  town,  requesting 
the  qualified  electors  in  said  dis- 
trict to  assemble  upon  a  day,  and 
at  some  suitable  place  in  said 
district,  to  be  named  in  said  no- 
tices, then  and  there  to  vote  by 
ballot  for  or  against  the  adoption 
of  this  act,  which  notices  shall  be 
so  posted  up  at  least  ten  days 
prior  to  said  meeting. 

Sec.  3.  That  the  electors  as- 
sembled at  said  time  and  place 
shall  proceed  to  appoint  a  chair- 
man, assistant  chairman  and 
clerk,  who  shall  be  the  judges  of 
said  election.  The  electors  in 
favor  of  the  adoption  of  this  act 
for  said  district,  shall  have  upon 
their  ballots  ' '  For  the  law ; ' '  and 
those  opposed  thereto  shall  have 
upon  their  ballots  "Against  the 
law;"  the  adoption  or  rejection 
of  this  act  to  be  determined  by  a 
majority  of  the  votes  cast  in  man- 
ner aforesaid. 

Sec.  4.  That  in  case  a  ma- 
jority of  votes  shall  have  been 


APPENDIX  B 


385 


cast  for  said  law,  the  electors  of 
said  districts  shall  assemble  at 
the  place  last  aforesaid,  within 
twenty  days  from  the  time  of 
the  adoption  of  said  act,  of 
which  at  least  ten  days'  previous 
notice  shall  be  given  by  said 
chairman  and  clerk,  in  the  man- 
ner aforesaid,  and  shall  then 
choose  by  ballot  six  directors  of 
the  public  schools  of  said  district, 
two  of  whom  shall  serve  for  one 
year,  two  for  two  years,  and  two 
for  three  years;  the  time  that 
each  shall  serve  to  be  designated 
on  the  ballots,  and  annually 
thereafter  there  shall  be  chosen 
in  the  same  manner  two  directors, 
each  of  whom  shall  serve  for 
three  years,  and  until  their  suc- 
cessors shall  be  elected  and  quali- 
fied; such  intermediate  vacancies 
as  may  occur  to  be  filled  by  the 
acting  directors  till  the  next  an- 
nual election,  when  such  vacan- 
cies shall  be  filled  by  the  electors. 

Sec.  V.  That  said  directors, 
within  ten  days  after  their  ap- 
pointment as  aforesaid,  shall 
meet  and  organize  by  choosing 
from  their  number  a  president, 
secretary,  and  treasurer;  that 
said  treasurer,  before  he  enters 
upon  the  duties  of  his  office,  shall 
give  bond  payable  to  the  state  of 
Ohio,  with  security  to  be  ap- 
proved by  said  board,  and  to  be 
by  them  kept,  conditioned  for  the 


cast  for  said  law,  the  electors  of 
said  district  shall  assemble  at  the 
place  last  aforesaid,  within  twen- 
ty days  from  the  time  of  the 
adoption  of  said  act,  of  which  at 
least  ten  days'  previous  notice 
shall  be  given  by  said  chairman 
and  clerk,  in  the  manner  afore- 
said, and  shall  then  choose  by 
ballot  six  directors  for  the  public 
schools  of  said  district,  two  of 
whom  shall  serve  for  one  year, 
two  for  two  years,  and  'two  for 
three  years;  the  time  that  each 
shall  serve  to  be  designated  on 
the  ballots,  and  annually  on  the 
second  Monday  of  March  there- 
after, there  shall  be  chosen  in  the 
same  manner,  two  directors,  each 
of  whom  shall  serve  for  three 
years  and  until  their  successors 
are  elected  and  qualified;  such 
intermediate  vacancies  as  shall 
occur,  to  be  filled  by  the  acting 
directors  till  the  next  annual  elec- 
tion, when  such  vacancies  shall  be 
filled  by  the  electors. 

Sec.  5.  That  said  directors 
within  two  days  after  their  elec- 
tion as  aforesaid,  shall  each, 
having  taken  an  oath  or  affirma- 
tion for  the  faithful  performance 
of  the  duties  of  his  office,  meet 
and  organize  by  choosing  from 
their  number  a  president,  secre- 
tary, and  treasurer;  that  said 
secretary  and  treasurer  each,  be- 
fore he  enters  upon  the  duties  of 
his  office,  shall  give  bond  payable 


26 


386 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 


faithful  discharge  of  his   duties 
as  such  treasurer. 


See.  VI.  That  said  directors 
and  their  successors  in  office  shall 
be  a  body  corporate,  by  the  name 
of  the  board  of  education  of  said 
city,  town  or  village,  and  as  such, 
and  by  such  name,  shall  receive 
all  moneys  and  other  property 
belonging  or  accruing  to  said  dis- 
trict, or  to  said  city,  town,  or  vil- 
lage, or  any  part  of  the  same,  for 
the  use  or  benefit  of  the  public 
schools  therein,  and  the  said 
board  shall  be  capable  of  con- 
tracting and  being  contracted 
with,  suing  and  being  sued, 
pleading  and  being  impleaded,  in 
any  court  of  law  or  equity,  and 
also  shall  be  capable  of  receiving 
any  gift,  grant,  bequest,  or  de- 
vise, made  for  the  use  of  the 
public  schools  in  said  city,  town, 
or  district,  and  all  moneys  accru- 
ing to  said  city,  town,  or  district, 
for  school  purposes,  under  any 
law  of  this  state,  shall  be  paid 
over  to  the  treasurer  of  said 
board  of  education. 

Sec.  VII.  Said  board  of  edu- 
cation may  hold  stated  meetings 
at  such  times  and  places  in  said 
district  as  they  may  appoint,  four 
members  of  said  board  at  all 
meetings  thereof  constituting  a 
quorum  for  business;  that  special 
meetings  thereof  may  be  called 


to  the  State  of  Iowa,  with  se- 
curity to  be  approved  by  said 
board,  and  to  be  kept  by  the 
president,  conditioned  for  the 
faithful  discharge  of  his  duties 
as  such  officer. 

Sec.  6.  That  said  directors, 
and  their  successors  in  office,  shall 
be  a  body  corporate  by  the  name 
of  the  board  of  education  of  said 
city  or  town,  and  as  such  and  by 
such  name  shall  receive  all  monies 
and  other  property  belonging  or 
accruing  to  said  district  or  to 
said  city  or  town,  or  any  -part 
of  the  same,  for  the  use  or  benefit 
of  the  public  schools  therein;  and 
the  said  board  shall  be  capable  of 
contracting  and  being  contracted 
with,  suing  and  being  sued, 
pleading  and  being  impleaded,  in 
any  court  of  law  or  equity;  and 
also  be  capable  of  receiving  any 
grant,  gift,  bequest,  or  devise, 
made  for  the  use  of  the  public 
schools  of  said  city,  town,  or  dis- 
trict; and  all  monies  accruing  to 
said  city,  town,  or  district,  for 
school  purposes,  under  any  law 
of  this  State,  shall  be  paid  over 
to  the  treasurer  of  said  board  of 
education. 

Sec.  7.  Said  board  of  edu- 
cation may  hold  stated  meetings, 
at  such  times  and  places  in  said 
district,  as  they  may  appoint,  four 
members  of  said  board  at  all 
meetings  thereof  constituting  a 
quorum  for  business;  and  special 
meetings  thereof  may  be  called 


APPENDIX  B 


387 


by  the  president  or  by  any  two 
members,  on  giving  one  day's  no- 
tice of  the  time  and  place  of  the 
same,  and  said  board,  by  resolu- 
tion, shall  direct  the  payment  of 
all  moneys  that  shall  come  into 
the  hands  of  the  treasurer,  and 
no  money  shall  be  paid  out  of 
the  treasury  except  in  pursuance 
of  such  resolution,  and  on  the 
written  order  of  the  president, 
countersigned  by  the  secretary. 

Sec.  VIII.  That  whenever  said 
board  shall  deem  it  necessary  to 
purchase  or  erect  a  school  house, 
or  school  houses  for  said  district, 
or  to  purchase  sites  for  the  same, 
they  shall  call  a  meeting  of  the 
legal  voters  in  said  district,  by 
giving  at  least  ten  days '  notice  of 
the  time,  and  place,  and  object 
of  said  meeting,  in  some  news- 
paper printed  in,  and  in  general 
circulation  in  such  district,  if  any 
such  there  be,  and  if  there  be  no 
such  newspaper,  then  by  posting 
up  written  or  printed  notices 
thereof,  at  five  or  more  of  the 
most  public  places  in  said  dis- 
trict, and  the  president  of  said 
board,  and  in  his  absence,  one  of 
the  other  directors,  shall  act  as 
chairman  of  said  meeting,  and 
said  meeting  may  determine  by 
a  majority  vote  upon  the  erection 
of  a  school  house  or  school 
houses,  and  the  purchase  of  a 
site  or  sites  therefor,  and  the 
amount  of  money  to  be  raised  for 
the  purpose  aforesaid,  and  the 


by  the  president  or  by  any  two 
members,  on  giving  one  day's  no- 
tice of  the  time  and  place  of  the 
same,  and  said  board  by  resolu- 
tion shall  direct  the  payment  of 
all  monies  that  shall  come  into 
the  hands  of  the  treasurer,  and 
no  money  shall  be  paid  out  of 
the  treasury  except  in  pursuance 
of  such  resolution,  and  on  the 
written  order  of  the  president 
countersigned  by  the  secretary. 

Sec.  8.  That  whenever  said 
board  shall  deem  it  necessary  to 
purchase  or  erect  a  school  house 
or  school  houses  for  said  district, 
or  to  purchase  sites  for  the  same, 
they  shall  call  a  meeting  of  the 
legal  voters  in  said  district,  by 
giving  at  least  ten  days '  notice  of 
the  time  and  place  and  object 
of  said  meeting  in  some  news- 
paper printed  in  and  of  general 
circulation  in  such  district,  or  by 
posting  up  written  or  printed  no- 
tices thereof,  at  five  or  more  of 
the  most  public  places  in  said  dis- 
trict; and  the  president  of  said 
board,  and  in  his  absence,  one  of 
the  other  of  said  directors  shall 
act  as  chairman  of  said  meeting, 
and  said  meeting  may  determine 
by  a  majority  vote  upon  the  erec- 
tion of  a  school  house  or  school 
houses,  and  the  purchase  of  a  site 
or  sites  therefor,  and  the  amount 
of  money  to  be  raised  for  the 
purpose  aforesaid,  and  the  time 
or  times  when  the  same  shall  be 
paid,  which  monies  so  voted  shall 


388 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 


time,  or  times,  when  the  same 
shall  be  paid,  which  moneys,  so 
voted,  shall  be  thereupon  certi- 
fied by  the  board  of  education  by 
its  chairman  and  secretary,  to 
the  auditor  of  the  county,  and 
shall  be  assessed  in  said  district, 
collected  and  paid  over  to  the 
treasurer  of  said  district,  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  tax  herein- 
after provided  for  in  the  twelfth 
section  of  this  act. 

See.  IX.  It  shall  be  the  duty 
of  said  board,  so  soon  as  the 
means  for  that  purpose  can  be 
provided,  to  establish  in  said  dis- 
trict an  adequate  number  of  pri- 
mary schools  to  be  so  located  as 
best  to  accommodate  the  inhabit- 
ants thereof,  and  in  which  the 
rudiments  of  education  shall  be 
taught,  and  it  shall  be  the  further 
duty  of  said  board,  to  establish 
in  said  district,  a  suitable  num- 
ber of  other  schools  of  a  higher 
grade  or  grades,  wherein  instruc- 
tion shall  be  given  in  such  studies 
as  may  not  be  provided  for  in  the 
primary  schools,  the  number  of 
schools  and  also  of  the  different 
grades  thereof,  to  be  determined 
by  said  board;  and  it  shall  be 
the  further  duty  of  said  board  to 
decide  what  branches  shall  be 
taught  in  each  and  all  of  said 
schools:  Provided,  that  no  other 
language  than  the  English  or 
German,  shall  be  taught  therein, 
except  with  the  concurrence  of 
two-thirds  of  said  board. 


be  assessed  and  collected  by  the 
secretary  of  said  board,  in  like 
manner  as  taxes  for  school  house 
purposes  are  now,  or  may  here- 
after be  collected  under  the  laws 
of  the  State,  and,  on  the  order  of 
the  president,  paid  over  to  the 
treasurer  of  the  board. 


Sec.  9.  It  shall  be  the  duty 
of  said  board  as  soon  as  the 
means  for  that  purpose  can  be 
provided,  to  establish  in  said  dis- 
trict an  adequate  number  of  pri- 
mary schools  to  be  so  located  as 
best  to  accommodate  the  inhabit- 
ants thereof,  and  in  which  the 
rudiments  of  education  shall  be 
taught ;  and  it  shall  be  the  further 
duty  of  said  board  to  establish 
in  said  district  a  suitable  num- 
ber of  other  schools  of  a  higher 
grade  or  grades,  wherein  instruc- 
tion shall  be  given  in  such  studies 
as  may  not  be  provided  for  in  the 
primary  schools;  the  number  of 
schools  and  also  of  the  different 
grades  thereof,  to  be  determined 
by  said  board;  and  it  shall  be 
the  further  duty  of  said  board  to 
decide  what  branches  shall  be 
taught  in  each  and  all  of  said 
schools:  Provided,  That  no  other 
language  than  the  English  shall 
be  taught  therein,  except  with  the 
concurrence  of  two-thirds  of  said 
board. 


APPENDIX  B 


389 


Sec.  X.  Admission  to  said 
schools  shall  be  gratuitous  to  the 
children,  wards,  and  apprentices 
of  all  actual  residents  in  said  dis- 
trict, who  may  be  entitled  to  the 
privileges  of  the  public  schools, 
under  the  general  laws  of  this 
state:  Provided,  that  said  board 
shall  have  power  to  admit  to  said 
schools  other  pupils,  upon  such 
terms,  or  upon  the  payment  of 
such  tuition,  as  they  may  pre- 
scribe. 

Sec.  XL  Said  board  shall  have 
power  to  make  all  necessary  reg- 
ulations for  said  schools,  to  pre- 
scribe and  enforce  rules  for  the 
admission  of  pupils  into  the 
same,  not  inconsistent  with  the 
preceding  section,  and  the  exam- 
ination that  pupils  must  pass 
preparatory  to  admission  into 
the  schools  of  higher  grades  than 
the  primary;  to  subdivide  said 
school  district,  if  they  shall  think 
proper;  to  select  sites  for  school 
houses;  to  superintend  the  build- 
ing of  the  same,  and  to  pay 
therefor,  their  appurtenances, 
furniture  and  apparatus;  to  bor- 
row money  for  the  erection  of 
school  houses  upon  a  majority 
vote  of  said  district  therefor,  and 
to  incur  all  other  expenses  of 
said  school  system,  and  pay  the 
same  from  the  public  moneys  of 
said  district. 

Sec.  XII.  It  shall  be  the  duty 
of  said  board  to  keep  said  schools 


Sec.  10.  Admission  to  said 
schools  shall  be  granted  to  the 
children,  wards  and  apprentices 
of  all  actual  residents  in  said  dis- 
trict who  may  be  entitled  to  the 
privileges  of  the  public  schools 
under  the  general  laws  of  this 
State,  subject  to  the  provisions  of 
section  13  of  this  act:  Provided, 
That  said  board  shall  have  power 
to  admit  to  said  schools  other 
pupils,  upon  such  terms,  or  upon 
the  payment  of  such  tuition  as 
they  may  prescribe. 

Sec.  11.  Said  board  shall  have 
power  to  make  all  necessary  reg- 
ulations for  said  schools,  to  pre- 
scribe and  enforce  rules  for  the 
admission  of  pupils  into  the 
same,  not  inconsistent  with  the 
preceding  section,  and  the  exam- 
ination that  pupils  must  pass 
preparatory  to  admission  into 
the  schools  of  higher  grades  than 
the  primary;  to  subdivide  said 
school  district  if  they  shall  think 
proper,  to  select  sites  for  school 
houses,  to  superintend  the  build- 
ing of  the  same,  and  to  pay 
therefor,  and  for  their  appur- 
tenances, furniture  and  apparat- 
us; to  borrow  money  for  the 
erection  of  school  houses,  upon  a 
majority  vote  of  said  district 
therefor,  and  to  incur  all  other 
expenses  of  said  .school  system, 
and  pay  the  same  from  the  public 
monies  of  said  district. 

Sec.  12.  It  shall  be  the  duty 
of  said  board  to  keep  said  schools 


390 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 


in  operation  not  less  than  thirty- 
six,  nor  more  than  forty-four 
weeks  of  each  year,  to  determine 
the  amount  of  the  annual  tax  to 
be  raised  for  the  purpose  afore- 
said, including  all  the  necessary 
expenses  of  said  schools,  except 
for  the  erection  of  school  houses 
and  the  purchase  of  sites;  and  on 
or  before  the  first  day  of  July, 
of  each  year,  to  make  known  the 
amount  of  such  tax  to  the  audi- 
tor of  the  county  in  which  said 
district  is  situate;  and  thereupon 
it  shall  be  the  duty  of  said  audi- 
tor to  assess  the  same  upon  the 
taxable  property  of  the  said  dis- 
trict as  the  same  appears  on  the 
grand  list  in  his  office,  and  the 
said  tax  shall  be  collected  by  the 
county  treasurer,  in  the  same 
manner,  and  at  the  same  time, 
with  the  state  and  county  taxes, 
and  when  collected  shall  be  paid 
over  to  the  treasurer  of  said 
board:  (a)  Provided,  however, 
that  the  tax  to  be  assessed  under 
this  section  shall  not  exceed  four 
mills  on  the  dollar  upon  the  tax- 
able property  of  said  district,  as 
the  same  appears  upon  the  grand 
list;  provided  further,  that  in 
case  the  amount  so  authorized  to 
be  raised,  together  with  the  other 
school  moneys  of  said  district, 
shall  be  insufficient  to  support 
said  schools  for  the  portion  of 
the  year  mentioned  in  this  sec- 
tion, that  said  board  of  education 


in  operation  not  less  than  thirty, 
nor  more  than  forty-four  weeks 
in  each  year,  to  determine  the 
amount  of  the  annual  tax  to  be 
raised  for  the  purposes  aforesaid, 
including  all  the  necessary  ex- 
penses of  said  school,  except  for 
the  erection  of  school  houses  and 
the  purchase  of  sites;  and  on  or 
before  the  first  day  of  September 
in  each  year,  the  secretary  of  said 
board  shall  obtain  a  transcript  of 
the  last  assessment  roll  of  the 
county,  and  shall  add  thereto  any 
taxable  property  in  said  district, 
therein  omitted,  having  himself 
assessed  the  value  thereof,  and 
shall  collect  said  tax  in  such 
manner  as  is  now  or  may  here- 
after be  prescribed  for  the  col- 
lection of  other  school  district 
tax:  Provided,  That  it  shall  be 
the  duty  of  the  secretary  to  re- 
turn to  the  treasurer  of  the  coun- 
ty, on  or  before  the  fifteenth  day 
of  November  in  each  year,  a 
transcript  from  said  district  as- 
sessment, containing  the  descrip- 
tion of  each  parcel  of  real  estate 
on  which  the  said  taxes  remain 
due  and  unpaid,  with  the  amount 
of  tax  against  the  same,  and 
thereupon  it  shall  be  the  duty  of 
said  treasurer  to  collect  said 
taxes  as  county  any  [and]  State 
taxes;  and  all  such  taxes  as  shall 
remain  due  and  unpaid  after  the 
15th  day  of  November,  shall 
draw  interest  from  and  after  said 


APPENDIX  B 


391 


may  require  such  sum  as  may  be 
necessary  to  support  the  same  for 
the  residue  of  said  time,  to  be 
charged  at  the  discretion  of  said 
board  upon  the  tuition  of  the 
pupils  attending  such  schools: 
Provided,  however,  that  the  chil- 
dren of  indigent  parents,  or 
orphans,  who  are  unable  to  pay 
such  charges,  shall  not  be  ex- 
cluded from  said  schools  for  the 
non-payment  of  the  same;  and  it 
shall  be  the  further  duty  of  said 
board  to  keep  an  accurate  ac- 
count of  their  proceedings,  and 
of  their  receipts  and  disburse- 
ments for  school  purposes,  and  at 
the  annual  meeting  for  the  choice 
of  directors  in  said  district  to 
make  report  of  such  receipts,  and 
the  sources  from  which  the  same 
were  derived,  and  of  said  dis- 
bursements, and  the  objects  to 
which  the  same  were  applied,  and 
they  shall  also  make  report  at  the 
same  time  of  such  other  matters 
relating  to  said  schools  as  they 
may  deem  the  interests  of  the 
same  to  require. 

Sec.  XIII.  That  said  board  of 
education,  within  twenty  days 
after  their  election,  shall  appoint 
three  competent  persons,  citizens 
of  said  district,  to  serve  as  school 
examiners  of  the  public  schools 
therein,  one  to  serve  for  one  year, 
one  for  two  years,  and  one  for 
three  years,  from  the  time  of 
their  appointment,  and  until  their 
successors  shall  be  appointed, 


date  at  the  same  rate  as  delin- 
quent county  and  State  taxes. 


Sec.  13.  The  tax  provided  for 
in  the  preceding  section  shall  in 
no  case  exceed  five  mills  on  the 
dollar  upon  the  taxable  property 
of  said  district  in  any  one  year, 
and  in  case  the  amount  so  auth- 
orized to  be  raised,  together  with 
the  other  school  monies  of  said 
district,  shall  be  insufficient  to 
support  such  schools  for  the  por- 
tion of  the  year  mentioned  in  the 


392         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 


and  annually  thereafter  said 
board  shall  appoint  one  examiner 
to  serve  for  three  years,  and  till 
his  successor  is  appointed  and 
qualified;  and  said  board  shall 
fill  all  vacancies  that  may  occur 
from  death,  removal,  or  other- 
wise. Said  examiners,  or  any  two 
of  them,  shall  examine  any  per- 
sons that  may  apply  for  that 
purpose  with  the  intention  of  be- 
coming teachers  in  any  of  the 
schools  in  said  district,  and  if 
they  find  the  applicant,  in  their 
opinion,  qualified  to  teach  in  any 
of  said  schools,  and  to  govern 
the  same,  and  of  good  moral 
character,  they  shall  give  said  ap- 
plicant a  certificate  naming  the 
branches  in  which  the  holder  of 
said  certificate  was  found  quali- 
fied to  teach,  and  no  person  shall 
be  permitted  to  teach  in  said 
schools  without  such  certificate  — 
and  said  examiners  may,  in  all 
cases,  when  two  of  their  number 
concur,  have  power  to  annul  such 
certificate,  and  when  so  annulled, 
the  person  holding  the  same  shall 
be  discharged  as  a  teacher  of 
said  schools;  said  examiners  shall 
also  separately,  or  otherwise,  to- 
gether with  said  board  of  educa- 
tion, or  any  of  them,  or  such 
person  as  they  may  appoint,  or 
invite,  visit  said  schools  as  often 
as  once  in  every  term,  and  ob- 
serve the  discipline,  mode  of 
teaching,  progress  of  the  pupils, 
and  such  other  matters  as  they 


12th  section  of  this  act,  said 
board  of  education  may  require 
such  sum  as  may  be  necessary  to 
support  the  same  for  the  residue 
of  said  time,  to  be  charged  at  the 
discretion  of  said  board,  upon  the 
tuition  of  the  pupils  attending 
such  schools:  Provided,  however, 
that  the  children  of  indigent 
parents  or  orphans  who  are  un- 
able to  pay  such  charges,  shall 
not  be  excluded  from  said  schools 
for  the  non-payment  of  the  same. 


APPENDIX  B 


393 


may  deem  of  interest,  and  make 
such  suggestions  and  report  there- 
upon to  said  board  as  they  may 
think  proper,  which  report  may 
be  published  at  the  discretion  of 
said  board. 

Sec.  XIV.  Upon  the  adoption 
of  this  act  in  the  manner  herein 
provided  by  any  city,  town,  vil- 
lage, or  district,  all  laws  now  in 
force  therein,  inconsistent  here- 
with, are  hereby  repealed. 


Sec.  XV.  That  said  board  of 
education  or  the  treasurer  there- 
of, shall  have  power  to  collect 
any  charge  or  account  for  tui- 
tion, in  the  same  manner  as  the 
treasurer  of  any  common  school 
district  in  this  state,  is  now  or 
may  hereafter  be  authorized  to 
collect  any  such  charge  or  ac- 
count.—  Swan 's  Revised  Statutes 
of  Ohio,  1854,  pp.  858-861. 


Sec.  14.  It  shall  be  the  duty 
of  said  board  of  education  to 
keep  an  accurate  account  of  their 
proceedings,  and  of  their  receipts 
and  disbursements  for  school 
purposes,  and  at  the  annual  meet- 
ing for  the  choice  of  directors  in 
said  district,  to  make  report  of 
such  receipts,  and  the  sources 
from  which  the  same  were  de- 
rived, and  of  said  disbursements, 
and  the  objects  to  which  the  same 
were  applied;  and  they  shall  also 
make  report  at  the  same  time  of 
such  other  matters  relating  to 
said  schools  as  they  may  deem  the 
interests  of  the  same  to  require. 

Sec.  15.  That  said  board  of 
education,  within  twenty  days  of 
their  election,  shall  appoint  three 
competent  persons,  citizens  of 
said  district,  to  serve  as  school 
examiners  of  the  public  schools 
therein,  each  of  whom  shall  be 
sworn  or  affirmed  to  the  faithful 
discharge  of  the  duties  of  his  of- 
fice, one  to  serve  for  one  year,  one 
for  two  years,  and  one  for  three 
years  from  the  time  of  their  ap- 
pointment and  until  their  succes- 
sors shall  be  appointed;  and 
annually  thereafter  said  board 
shall  appoint  one  examiner,  to 
serve  for  three  years,  and  till  his 


successor  is  appointed  and  quali- 
fied, and  said  board  shall  fill  all 
vacancies  that  may  occur  from 
death,  removal,  or  otherwise. 
Said  examiners  or  any  two  of 
them,  shall  examine  any  person 
that  may  apply  for  that  purpose, 
with  the  intention  of  becoming 
teachers  in  any  of  the  schools  in 
said  district,  and  if  they  find  the 
applicant  in  their  opinion,  quali- 
fied to  teach  in  any  of  said 
schools,  and  to  govern  the  same, 
and  of  good  moral  character, 
they  shall  give  said  applicant  a 
certificate  naming  the  branches  in 
which  the  holder  of  said  certifi- 
cate was  found  qualified  to  teach, 
and  no  person  shall  be  permitted 
to  teach  in  said  schools  without 
such  certificate;  and  said  exam- 
iners may  in  all  cases,  when  two 
of  their  number  concur,  have 
power  to  annul  such  certificate, 
and  when  so  annulled,  the  person 
holding  the  same  shall  be  dis- 
charged as  a  teacher  of  said 
schools;  said  examiners  shall  also 
separately  or  otherwise,  together 
with  said  board  of  education,  or 
any  of  them,  or  such  person  as 
they  may  appoint,  or  invite,  visit 
said  schools  as  often  as  once  in 
each  school  month,  and  observe 
the  description,  mode  of  teaching, 
progress  of  the  pupils,  and  such 
other  matters  as  they  deem  of 
interest,  and  make  suggestions, 
and  report  thereupon  to  said 
board  as  they  may  think  proper, 


APPENDIX  B  395 

which  report  may  be  published  at 
the  discretion  of  said  board. 

See.  16.  That  said  board  of 
education,  or  the  secretary  there- 
of, shall  have  power  to  collect  any 
charge  or  account  for  tuition,  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  secretary 
of  any  common  school  district  in 
this  State,  is  now,  or  may  here- 
after be  authorized  to  collect  any 
such  charge  or  account. 

See.  17.  That  upon  the  adop- 
tion of  this  act,  in  the  manner 
herein  provided,  by  any  city, 
town  or  district,  such  adoption 
shall  not  affect  the  debts  due  to 
or  from  said  district,  or  any  eon- 
tract  with  said  district  existing 
at  the  time  of  such  adoption. 

Sec.  18.  All  laws  and  parts  of 
laws  relating  to  schools,  which 
conflict  with  the  provisions  of 
this  act,  shall  be  so  construed  as 
not  to  interfere  with  the  pro- 
visions of  this  act. 

Sec.  19.  This  act  shall  be  in 
force  and  take  effect  from  and 
after  its  publication  according  to 
law. 

Approved  January  28,  1857. 

Laws  of  Iowa,  1856-1857,  pp. 
234-240. 


APPENDIX  C 

CHRONOLOGICAL    LIST    OF    MEETINGS    OF    THE 
IOWA    STATE    TEACHERS'    ASSOCIATION 


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HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 


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NOTES  AND  BEFERENCES 


399 


NOTES  AND  REFERENCES 

CHAPTER  I 

1  Laws  of  the  Territory  of  Iowa,  1838-1839,  p.  180. 

2  Laws   of   the   Territory   of  Iowa,   1839-1840,  p.   108 ;    see   also 
Appendix  A  in  this  volume.     Inspectors  in  Iowa  were  allowed  one 
dollar  a  day  for  their  services,  whereas  in  Michigan  the  compensation 
was  one  dollar  and  a  half. 

a  Laws  of  Iowa,  1846-1847,  p.  128 ;  Laws  of  Iowa,  1848-1849,  p. 
106. 

The  "financial  necessity"  was  the  chief  reason  it  seems  for  the 
change  in  management.  Indeed,  the  use  of  such  a  term  as  "super- 
vision" in  relation  to  any  division  less  than  the  State  was  not  then 
admitted. 

4  Lows  of  the  Territory  of  Iowa,  1839-1840,  p.  101;  Laws  of  the 
Territory  of  Iowa,  1840-1841,  p.  37;  Laws  of  Michigan  (Eevised 
Statutes),  1838,  p.  238. 

The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  was  allowed  a  compen- 
sation of  $250  annually. 

B  Laws  of  the  Territory  of  Iowa,  1841-1842,  p.  93. 

6  Journal  of  the  Council,  1841-1842,  Appendix,  p.  278. 

7  Journal  of  the  Council,  1841-1842,  Appendix,  p.  291;  Laws  of  the 
Territory  of  Iowa,  1841-1842,  p.  93. 

The  clerk  of  the  boards  of  county  commissioners  became  thereafter 
the  means  of  communication  between  the  counties  and  the  legis- 
latures. 

CHAPTER  II 

8  Laws   of   Iowa,    1846-1847,   pp.    121-133.      The    Superintendent 
would  be  chosen   on  the  first   Monday  in   April,   1847,  according  to 
Section  24  of  this  act,  since  that  was  the  ' '  next  annual  election ' '. 

»  See  Brigham's  James  Harlan,  Chs.  V,  VI;  also  1  Greene  (Iowa) 
27  401 


402         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

68.  The  adverse  decision  of  the  court  was  made  on  the  ground  that 
the  publication  of  a  statute  in  newspapers  without  the  direct  authority 
of  the  General  Assembly  was  not  sufficient  to  make  it  effective  under 
the  Constitution.  The  law  had  been  distributed  by  the  Secretary  of 
State  throughout  the  Commonwealth  and  was  well  known  to  the 
people  who  believed  it  to  be  in  force  and  who  therefore  had  acted  in 
accordance  therewith. —  See  Art.  Ill,  Sec.  27  of  the  Constitution  of 
1846. 

10  See  Brigham  's  James  Harlan,  pp.  58-63. 

11  Journal  of  the  Senate,  1848-1849,  pp.  302-304,  309-321. 

12  Laws  of  Iowa,  1848-1849,  pp.  95,  96.     The  Constitution  did  not 
permit  the  Governor  to  receive  a  larger  annual  salary  than  $1000  for 
the  first  ten  years  of  statehood. 

is  Laws  of  Iowa,  1848-1849,  p.  151.  See  chapters  on  school  funds 
in  Vol.  I  of  this  work. 

A  minor  act  during  this  session  required  the  Superintendent  to 
certify  to  the  Auditor  of  State  the  fact  that  certain  dumb  or  blind 
persons  were  entitled  to  aid  from  the  State  in  securing  an  education. 
These  facts  were  to  form  a  part  of  his  report  to  the  General  Assembly. 
—  Laws  of  Iowa,  1848-1849,  p.  148. 

i*  Statutes  of  the  State  of  Iowa  Relating  to  Common  Schools 
Including  Forms,  Regulations,  and  Instructions,  1849,  pp.  3,  4,  87-103. 

IB  Statutes  of  the  State  of  Iowa  Relating  to  Common  Schools 
Including  Forms,  Regulations,  and  Instructions,  1849,  pp.  104-112. 
There  was  no  school  journal  then  published  in  Iowa;  but  Mr.  J.  L. 
Enos,  later  identified  with  The  Iowa  Instructor,  was  publishing  The 
Northwestern  Educator  at  Chicago,  this  being  among  the  journals 
recommended. 

16  Laws  of  Iowa,  1849,  p.  93 ;  Laws  of  Iowa,  1851,  pp.  175,  179, 
228. 

17  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  in  the  Jour- 
nal of  the  Senate,  1850-1851,  Appendix,  pp.  124,  125. 

Mr.  D.  Franklin  Wells  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  new  building  in 
District  No.  1,  Bloomington  Township,  when  its  building  was  com- 
pleted, and  it  was  furnished  under  his  direction. —  Annual  Report, 
District  No.  1,  Bloomington  Township,  1854,  p.  4. 

Superintendent    Benton    recommended    that    at    least    two    copies 


NOTES  AND  REFERENCES  403 

of  Barnard's  School  Architecture  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  school 
fund  commissioners  for  the  use  of  the  districts  in  the  county. 

is  Beport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  in  the  Jour- 
nal of  the  Senate,  1850-1851,  Appendix,  p.  171.  It  has  been  said  that 
the  ' '  creation  of  this  office  with  a  slight  change  of  name  was  deduced 
from  the  Prussian  system." 

i»  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  in  the  Jour- 
nal of  the  Senate,  1852-1853,  Appendix,  pp.  109,  110. 

The  term  "regular"  is  essential  here,  for  a  supplementary  report 
was  issued  later  by  Superintendent  Benton  and  submitted  during  the 
administration  of  his  successor. 

20  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  in  the  Jour- 
nal of  the  Senate,  1854-1855,  Appendix,  pp.  143,  144,  160-163. 

The  Code  of  1851  provided  that  the  election  of  the  Superintendent 
should  occur  in  April,  1851,  and  triennially  thereafter,  so  that  Thomas 
H.  Benton,  Jr.,  served  six  years  beginning  with  1848. —  Code  of  1851, 
p.  170. 

The  average  wage  for  men  teachers  in  1854  was  less  than  $20  and 
for  women  less  than  $10  per  month,  the  lowest  being  $12  and  $6.70 
respectively,  according  to  reports  of  that  date. 

21  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  14-16, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1857. 

22  Journal  of  the  Board  of  Education,  First  Session,  pp.  31,  32 ; 
Acts,  Resolutions  and  Forms,  Adopted  by  the  Board  of  Education, 
First  Session,  p.  25. 

CHAPTER  III 

23  Laws  of  Iowa,  1858,  p.  76. 

24  Journal  of  the  Board  of  Education,  First  Session,  pp.  69,  70 ; 
Acts,  Resolutions  and  Forms,  Adopted  by  the  Board  of  Education, 
First  Session,  pp.  25-30. 

The  compensation  of  the  State  Superintendent  had  been  fixed  at 
$1500  with  a  contingent  fund  not  to  exceed  $250.  The  Board  of  Edu- 
cation, however,  increased  the  contingent  allowance  for  the  secretary 
to  $750. 

26  Beport  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education,  1859,  pp. 
3-11,  15,  16;  Acts,  Resolutions  and  Forms,  Adopted  by  the  Board  of 


404         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

Education,  First  Session,  p.  24.    The  report  for  1859  here  cited  is  not 
a  part  of  the  bound  volume  of  the  Journal  of  the  Board  of  Education. 

26  Eeport  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Soard  of  Education,  1861,  in  the 
Journal  of  the  Board  of  Education,  pp.  8,  10-13,  16,  22,  23. 

27  Eeport  of  Thomas  H.  Benton,  pp.  3,  6,  7,  in  the  Iowa  Legis- 
lative Documents,  1864,  Vol.  I. 

28  Eeport  of  the  Acting  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education,  pp. 
26-34,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1864,  Vol.  I.     Mr.  H.  A. 
Wiltse  submitted  an  outlined  course  of  study  in  six  grades  which  he 
deemed  suitable  for  adoption  in  all  the  rural  schools. 

2»  Eeport  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education,  pp.  5-25,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1864,  Vol.  I. 

Thomas  H.  Benton,  Jr.,  had  then  served  ten  years  as  the  head  of 
the  school  system  —  six  as  Superintendent  from  1848  to  1854,  and 
four  as  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education  from  1858  to  1862. 

so  Laws  of  Iowa,  1864,  p.  53 ;  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction,  p.  9,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1868, 
Vol.  I. 

Mr.  Faville  had  acquired  a  noteworthy  reputation  in  his  campaign 
for  Lieutenant  Governor  in  the  fall  of  1857.  The  papers  of  the  State 
commented  on  the  fact  that  while  he  was  addressing  the  German 
voters  in  Dubuque  he  spoke  in  their  own  tongue,  thereby  making  a 
"marked  impression  on  that  class  of  our  citizens."  He  was  every- 
where spoken  of  as  a  "gentleman  of  high  moral  worth  and  ability" 
as  well  as  "a  statesman  of  a  pure  and  lofty  type ' '. —  The  Iowa 
Citizen  (Des  Moines),  Vol.  II,  No.  34,  Oct.  7,  1857. 

si  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  14,  22, 
23-25,  26,  28,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1866,  Vol.  I. 

32  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  16-28, 
36-55,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1868,  Vol.  I. 

It  was  probably  Mr.  Jerome  Allen  who  chronicled  the  death  of 
Mr.  D.  Franklin  Wells  and  who  prepared  for  the  Iowa  School  Journal 
(of  which  Mr.  Wells  was  the  editor-in-chief)  the  sketch  of  his  life. — 
Iowa  School  Journal,  Vol.  X,  p.  86. 

At  the  age  of  nineteen  Mr.  Wells  began  teaching  a  small  school 
in  New  York,  at  a  compensation  of  $12  per  month  in  money.  He 
"boarded  around",  as  was  the  custom  in  that  day.  After  a  second 


NOTES  AND  REFERENCES  405 

term  taught  in  New  Jersey,  he  entered  the  Albany  Normal  School, 
graduating  in  1852.  It  was  fresh  from  his  student  life  that  he  came 
to  the  schools  of  Muscatine  which  he  served  three  years,  leaving  them 
for  the  State  University  of  Iowa,  then  but  recently  organized.  When 
the  Normal  Department  of  the  State  University  was  temporarily 
abandoned  in  1866  he  was  chosen  as  State  Agent  of  the  State  Teach- 
ers' Association,  and  it  was  from  this  position  that  he  was  called  by 
appointment  to  the  office  of  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 
Elected  by  the  people  in  1868,  he  had  entered  upon  his  duties  when 
death  halted  him  at  his  home  in  Iowa  City. 

ss  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  24,  28- 
34,  35,  36,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1870,  Vol.  I. 

Mr.  A.  S.  Kissell  commenced  his  educational  work  in  Iowa  in  1858 
as  principal  of  the  grammar  school  in  Davenport.  Within  the  same 
year,  when  the  districts  of  that  city  were  consolidated,  he  became  city 
superintendent  —  the  first  position  of  such  a  character  in  Iowa  — 
where  he  remained  for  six  years.  It  was  he  who  organized  the  train- 
ing school  at  Davenport  and  placed  over  it  a  teacher  from  the  Oswego, 
New  York,  Normal  School.  He  served  also  as  county  superintendent 
of  Scott  County  from  May,  1858,  to  October,  1859.  Appointed  as 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  he  was  later  elected  to  the  same 
office,  not  only  for  the  unexpired  term  but  also  for  the  subsequent 
two  years.  His  educational  work  was  completed  in  Iowa,  for  on  re- 
moving to  another  State  he  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits  until  his 
death  in  1888. —  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction, 
pp.  17,  18,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1890,  Vol.  II. 

Governor  Merrill  said  that  Mr.  Kissell  was  appointed  by  him  to 
the  office  without  his  ( Kissell 's)  solicitation  and  against  his  protest. 
The  Governor  insisted  on  making  the  appointment  because  he  believed 
that  Mr.  Kissell  was  possessed  of  a  degree  of  enthusiasm  rarely  ex- 
celled. In  accepting  the  place  Mr.  Kissell  surrendered  a  position 
which  offered  a  compensation  double  that  of  the  office  of  State  Super- 
intendent. 

s*  School  Law  Decisions,  1884,  pp.  63,  64;  Laws  of  Iowa,  1868,  p. 
157;  Revision  of  1860,  p.  98. 
35  Laws  of  Iowa,  1868,  p.  224. 

se  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  141,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1872,  Vol.  I;  Shambaugh's  Messages 
and  Proclamations  of  the  Governors  of  Iowa,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  270. 


406         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

37  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  17-119, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1872,  Vol.  I. 

CHAPTER  IV 

ss  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  40-46, 
58,  59,  74,  164,  184,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1874,  Vol.  I. 

39  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  14-50, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1876,  Vol.  I.  Each  State  had 
been  invited  by  the  department  of  superintendence  of  the  National 
Educational  Association  to  prepare  a  history  of  its  educational 
system  for  the  centennial  exhibition  at  Philadelphia  in  1876.  Perhaps 
this  influenced  the  preparation  of  the  material  as  submitted  in  this 
report. 

•to  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  47-51, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1878,  Vol.  I;  the  same,  p.  59,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1880,  Vol.  Ill;  the  same,  pp.  30,  31, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1882,  Vol.  II. 

Mr.  Carl  W.  von  Coelln  was  trained  in  the  University  of  Bonn, 
where  he  was  a  classmate  of  Carl  Schurz.  Coming  to  America  in  1855 
he  was  employed  on  a  dairy  farm  in  Ohio,  during  which  time  he  ac- 
quired the  English  language.  He  came  to  Des  Moines  in  1861  and 
there  taught  for  six  months  in  the  public  schools.  Later  he  estab- 
lished an  academy  in  Dubuque  County,  and  soon  after  was  engaged  as 
teacher  of  mathematics  in  Iowa  College.  Still  later  he  taught  in 
Missouri  and  served  as  principal  of  the  west  side  schools  in  Waterloo, 
from  which  place  he  was  chosen  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 
His  last  work  was  that  of  editor  of  the  Henry  County  Times. —  Mid- 
land Schools,  Vol.  XXVII,  p.  265. 

41  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  29,  44, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1884,  Vol.  II;  the  same,  pp.  8,  52, 
87,  100,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1886,  Vol.  V;  the  same, 
p.  10,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1888,  Vol.  II. 

Mr.  John  W.  Akers  was  elected  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion while  city  superintendent  of  the  Cedar  Eapids  schools.  He  had 
previously  been  in  charge  of  the  Vinton  schools  and  also  those  of 
Waterloo.  Since  his  retirement  from  the  office  of  State  Superintend- 
ent he  has  been  identified  with  the  Chicago  schools. 

42  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  52,  82, 


NOTES  AND  REFERENCES  407 

in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1890,  Vol.  II;  the  same,  pp.  21,  22, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1892,  Vol.  II;  the  same,  pp.  157, 
160,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1896,  Vol.  II;  the  same,  pp. 
112-117,  158,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1898,  Vol.  II. 

The  Iowa  Educational  Directory,  now  so  essential  to  every  school 
man,  was  inaugurated  by  Superintendent  Henry  Sabin  in  1894.  The 
publication  of  papers  on  current  topics,  begun  by  Superintendent 
Akers,  was  extended  by  Mr.  Sabin. 

On  the  occasion  of  his  final  address  before  the  State  Teachers' 
Association  in  1898  the  most  sincere  attitude  of  respect  and  even 
affection  was  evidenced  when  Superintendent  Sabin  came  forward  to 
introduce  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris,  who  had  once  been  his  pupil.  And  again 
when  he  set  out  for  his  home  on  the  distant  Pacific  coast  in  September, 
1913,  there  was  a  feeling  of  the  deepest  regret  among  the  school 
men  who  knew  him  personally.  The  best  twenty-five  years  of  his  life 
were  given  to  the  schools  of  Iowa. 

See  Midland  Schools,  Vol.  XII,  p.  141,  and  also  Vol.  XXVIII, 
p.  36. 

The  services  of  Mr.  Ira  C.  Kling  as  Deputy  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction  are  noteworthy.  For  eight  years  he  was  with 
Superintendent  Henry  Sabin,  who  said  of  him:  "Fifteen  years'  ser- 
vice in  this  office  has  given  him  a  knowledge  of  the  school  laws  un- 
surpassed by  any  man  in  Iowa.  .  .  .  For  purity  of  design  and 
honesty  of  purpose,  his  official  record  is  without  spot  or  blemish.  In 
the  revision  of  the  school  law  he  was  often  in  consultation  with  the 
committees  and  was  mainly  instrumental  in  securing  some  of  the  most 
important  changes.  .  .  .  He  has  been  to  me  a  wise  adviser,  an 
able,  loyal  assistant,  and  a  faithful  friend." — Beport  of  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction,  p.  144,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Docu- 
ments, 1898,  Vol.  II. 

43  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.   118, 
119,  129,  130,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1894,  Vol.  II. 

Mr.  John  B.  Knoepfler  had  been  in  charge  of  the  schools  of  Fay- 
ette,  West  Union,  and  Lansing,  Iowa.  After  the  expiration  of  his 
term  in  the  State  office  he  returned  to  Lansing,  but  was  called  later 
to  the  State  Teachers'  College  as  head  of  the  Department  of  Modern 
Languages. — See  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  XV,  p.  255. 

44  Beport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  25,  26, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1900,  Vol.  II;  the  same,  p.  27,  in 


408         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1902,  Vol.  Ill;  the  same,  p.  xxii,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1904,  Vol.  IV. 

Mr.  Biehard  C.  Barrett  was  for  twelve  years  county  superintendent 
in  Mitchell  County,  and  after  his  six  years  of  service  in  the  State 
office  was  appointed  to  the  department  of  civics  in  the  State  College 
of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts  at  Ames.  At  the  time  of  his  death 
in  1909  he  had  held  this  position  for  five  years.  Mr.  A.  C.  Eoss,  his 
deputy,  was  among  those  who  had  aided  in  establishing  the  graded 
schools  in  the  Commonwealth. 

45  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Pt.  I,  pp. 
16,  66,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1906,  Vol.  V;  the  same, 
pp.  15,  50-65,  in  the  loWa  Legislative  Documents,  1907,  Vol.  I;  the 
same,  pp.  40-45,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1909,  Vol.  I;  the 
same,  Pt.  I,  pp.  18-35,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1911,  Vol.  I. 

Mr.  John  F.  Biggs  was  formerly  county  superintendent  of  Henry 
County,  city  superintendent  of  the  Mt.  Pleasant  schools,  and  when 
elected  to  the  State  office  was  superintendent  of  the  schools  at 
Sigourney. 

46  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  31,  32, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1913,  Vol.  Ill;   Laws  of  Iowa, 
1913,  pp.  88-90. 

The  act  of  1913  extends  the  term  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction  to  July  1,  1915,  when  the  first  appointee  to  this  office  will 
assume  his  duties. 

The  present  Superintendent,  Mr.  A.  M.  Deyoe,  was  elected  to  this 
office  from  Hancock  County  while  serving  his  third  term  as  county 
superintendent. 

CHAPTEE  V 

47  Laws  of  Iowa,  1858,  p.  72 ;  Acts,  Resolutions  and  Forms,  Adopt- 
ed  by  the  Board  of  Education,  First  Session,  p.  20. 

Before  the  law  of  March  12,  1858,  had  been  declared  unconstitu- 
tional William  Y.  Lovell,  county  superintendent  of  Dubuque  County, 
issued  a  full  report  which  included  the  required  data  from  every 
township.  This  is  probably  the  first  report  of  the  kind  in  the  State. 

«  Laws  of  Iowa,  1858,  pp.  72-75;  Acts,  Resolutions  and  Forms, 
Adopted  by  the  Board  of  Education,  First  Session,  pp.  21-23. 

As  originally  provided  in  the  bill  the  county  would  have  been  re- 


NOTES  AND  REFERENCES  409 

quired  to  pay  the  traveling  expenses  of  the  county  superintendent  to 
meetings  called  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education.  But  the 
people,  it  was  feared,  would  be  opposed  to  such  an  expense. 

49  The  Voice  of  Iowa,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  50,  74.  In  commenting  on  this 
convention  Superintendent  Fisher  observed  that  the  attendance  was 
remarkable  since  there  was  no  railroad  east  or  west  beyond  Iowa  City 
or  Cedar  Eapids,  and  none  north  and  south.  Superintendents  were 
there  from  the  "Missouri  line,  and  the  confines  of  Minnesota,  from 
the  banks  of  the  Mississippi,  and  from  those  of  the  Missouri. ' ' 

eo  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  21,  in  the 
Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1859-1860. 

6i  Eeport  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education,  1859,  pp. 
4-14. 

52  The  Iowa  Instructor,  Vol.  I,  pp.  115,  154. 

63  The  Iowa  Instructor,  Vol.  I,  pp.  378,  379. 

The  compensation  permitted  under  the  act  of  the  State  Board  of 
Education  in  1859  might  not,  under  ordinary  conditions,  exceed  $28 
annually  —  two  dollars  a  day  for  holding  about  fourteen  examina- 
tions. For  a  special  examination  a  fee  of  one  dollar  might  be  col- 
lected, but  these  charges  were  uncertain. 

54  Eeport  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education,  1861,  in  the 
Journal  of  the  Board,  pp.  14,  15. 

While  this  agitation  was  prominent  in  Iowa,  neighboring  States 
were  concerned  with  similar  problems.  In  Illinois,  for  example,  the 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  declared  that  the  want  of  super- 
vision in  the  State  was  very  great,  pervading  "its  whole  framework, 
from  the  central  department  at  Springfield,  to  the  smallest  and  re- 
motest district  in  the  State."  It  was  his  belief  that  the  remedy  lay 
' '  in  the  plan  of  county  superintendencies  —  the  committal  of  the 
educational  interests  of  each  county  to  the  direct  supervision  of  one 
person ' '  who  should  devote  his  entire  time  to  that  work. —  From  a 
Eeview  of  the  Eeport  of  Newton  Bateman  by  Dr.  J.  Maynard  in  The 
Iowa  Instructor,  Vol.  II,  p.  248. 

It  was  about  this  time  that  Wisconsin  provided  that  each  county 
should  elect  one  superintendent  of  schools;  while  those  counties  having 
25,000  population  might  elect  two  superintendents  at  the  discretion  of 
the  board  of  county  supervisors.  Moreover,  any  county  which  con- 
tained two  senatorial  districts  must  elect  two  superintendents.  The 


410         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

salary  was  to  be  determined  by  the  county  board,  but  a  minimum  of 
$600  was  established  for  counties  of  15,000,  with  a  minimum  of  $400 
for  all  above  8000.  Any  sum  above  this,  however,  was  permitted. — 
Wisconsin  Journal  of  Education  quoted  in  The  Iowa  Instructor,  Vol. 
II,  p.  316. 

ss  Laws  of  Iowa,  1862,  p.  218. 

56  Laws  of  Iowa,  1864,  p.  117. 

57  Laws  of  Iowa,  1866,  pp.  159,  161. 

58  The  loiva  Instructor,  Vol.   II,  p.   371.     Mr.   T.  S.  Parvin  of 
Johnson  County,  Mr.  James  McClung  of  Cedar  County,  and  Mr.  Amos 
Dean  of  Benton  County  composed  this  committee. 

69  The  Iowa  Instructor  and  School  Journal,  Vol.  V,  p.  110. 
60  The  Iowa  Instructor  and  School  Journal,  Vol.  VIII,  p.  31. 

si  The  Iowa  School  Journal,  Vol.  X,  pp.  263-270.  Two  members  of 
this  committee,  Superintendent  L.  M.  Hastings,  then  of  Ottumwa,  and 
Mr.  W.  A.  Willis,  then  principal  of  the  West  Des  Moines  high  school, 
are  now  residents  of  Iowa  City,  the  latter  being  actively  engaged  as 
proprietor  of  the  Iowa  City  Academy. 

62  The  Iowa  School  Journal,  Vol.  XI,  pp.  216-221.    A  request  was 
made  at  this  time  that  the  next  convention  be  called  at  the  same  time 
and  place  as  the  meeting  of  the  State  Teachers'  Association.     In  the 
same  year  (1870)   a  district  meeting  of  county  superintendents  was 
called  at  Manchester  to  cover  a  program  outlined  for  four  days. 

63  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  42,  in  the 
Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1870,  Vol.  I;  see  also  17  Iowa  228. 

64  Laws   of   Iowa,   1870,   pp.    31,    98,    140,    165;    Laws   of   Iowa 
(General),  1872,  p.  118. 

65  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  31,  32, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1872,  Vol.  I. 

66  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  55,  57, 
58,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1872,  Vol.  I. 

«7  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  41,  42, 
101,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1874,  Vol.  I. 


NOTES  AND  REFERENCES  411 

CHAPTEE  VI 

es  Journal  of  the  House,  1872,  pp.  179,  180. 
6»  The  Iowa  School  Journal,  Vol.  XIII,  pp.  190-193. 

70  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.   129, 
130,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1876,  Vol.  I.     The  report  of 
the  committee  on  school  legislation  is  quoted  in  full. 

71  Journal  of  the  House,  1878,  p.  197;  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly, 
Vol.  II,  pp.  111-113;  Bowman's  The  Administration  of  Iowa  in  the 
Columbia  University  Studies  in  History,  Economics  and  Public  Law, 
p.  51. 

The  republican  convention  in  Johnson  County  recommended  that 
nominees  for  office  do  all  in  their  power  to  secure  the  abolition  of  the 
office  of  county  superintendent.  At  the  same  time,  however,  the  con- 
vention nominated  a  man  for  the  office. —  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly, 
Vol.  Ill,  p.  54. 

72  52  Iowa  111;  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  15. 

73  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  VII,  p.  25,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  19-23. 
In  December  following  Mr.  J.  S.  Shoup  made  a  report  on  a  course  of 
study  for  rural  schools  before  the  section  of  county  superintendents 
at  the  State  Teachers'  Association. —  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State 
Teachers'  Association,  Vol.  XXXI,  p.  186. 

T *  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  76,  in  the 
Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1888,  Vol.  II. 

75  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  129,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1888,  Vol.  II. 

76  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  23,  in  the 
Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1892,  Vol.  II;  the  same,  pp.  159,  160,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1896,  Vol.  II;    The  Iowa  Normal 
Monthly,  Vol.  XVII,  p.  406. 

Wisconsin,  Indiana,  Pennsylvania,  and  New  Jersey  were  cited  by 
Superintendent  Sabin. 

A  resolution  of  the  State  Teachers'  Association  in  1861  had  de- 
clared for  a  non-partisan  in  the  office  of  county  superintendent.  He 
should  be  a  practical  and  experienced  teacher,  and  the  only  question 
should  concern  his  fitness  for  the  place. —  The  Iowa  Instructor,  Vol.  II, 
p.  370. 


412         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

77  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  24,  25, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,   1892,  Vol.  II;   Journal  of  the 
House,  1892,  pp.  47,  101,  307,  308,  737. 

78  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  18,  19, 
26,  27,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1900,  Vol.  II. 

President  Homer  H.  Seerley  and  County  Superintendent  B.  P. 
Hoist  pointed  out  the  influences  that  were  interfering  with  effective 
service  in  the  county  superintendency. —  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly, 
Vol.  XXI,  pp.  132,  192. 

7»  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  112,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1898,  Vol.  II. 

It  was  in  1876  that  legislation  provided  that  no  one  should  be 
deprived  of  the  office  of  county  superintendent  or  of  any  other  school 
office  on  account  of  sex. —  Laws  of  Iowa,  1876,  p.  126. 

so  Laws  of  Iowa,  1874,  p.  45;  Laws  of  Iowa,  1876,  p.  126;  Laws  of 
Iowa,  1878,  p.  36;  Laws  of  Iowa,  1882,  pp.  23,  42;  Laws  of  Iowa, 
1900,  p.  84. 

si  Laws  of  Iowa,  1898,  p.  50;  Laws  of  Iowa,  1902,  p.  76;  Laws  of 
Iowa,  1906,  p.  87;  Laws  of  Iowa,  1913,  pp.  94,  95. 

The  first  application  of  the  new  method  of  selecting  the  county 
superintendent  appears  to  have  been  in  the  case  of  filling  a  vacancy 
in  Buena  Vista  County.  In  this  instance  Mr.  H.  C.  Moeller  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  convention  of  school  board  presidents,  although  he  was 
not  a  resident  of  the  county  —  thus  demonstrating  the  principle  for 
which  the  law  stands,  namely,  the  professionalizing  of  the  county 
superintendency. 

CHAPTER  VII 

82  Acts,  Eesolutions  and  Forms,  Adopted  by  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, First  Session,  pp.  15,  34.  This  action  seems  to  have  been  in  part 
a  response  to  a  petition  from  Mr.  A.  S.  Kissell  of  Davenport  who 
advised  legislation  to  permit  the  employment  of  a  city  superintendent. 

8s  Eeport  of  the  Directors  of  Public  Schools,  District  No.  1,  Bloom- 
ington  Township,  Muscatine,  Iowa,  1856,  p.  9;  The  Iowa  Instructor, 
Vol.  Ill,  p.  349;  The  Iowa  Citizen  (Des  Moines),  Vol.  II,  No.  44, 
Dec.  16,  1857;  Eeport  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education, 
Dubuque,  1858,  pp.  14,  15,  16. 


NOTES  AND  REFERENCES  413 

8*  Rules  and  Regulations,  Common  Schools  of  Iowa  City,  1865,  pp. 
2-4. 

ss  The  Iowa  Instructor  and  School  Journal,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  350,  351, 
383,  Vol.  VIII,  p.  249;  The  Iowa  School  Journal,  Vol.  X,  p.  377. 

Mr.  W.  E.  Crosby  was  Secretary  of  the  National  Educational 
Association  at  its  meeting  in  Trenton,  New  Jersey,  in  1869. 

86  Muscatine  City  Schools,  1870-1871,  p.  2;  Bules  and  Regulations 
Independent  District,  Clinton,  1870,  p.  23. 

87  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  124,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1896,  Vol.  II;    The  Iowa  Normal 
Monthly,  Vol.  XVIII,  p.  90,  Vol.  XX,  pp.  73,  87,  93,  207. 

In  this  connection  it  is  impossible  to  make  more  than  the  briefest 
reference  to  these  deserving  men. 

as  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  23,  in  the 
Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1900,  Vol.  II;  Oldt's  History  of  Du- 
buque  County,  pp.  917,  923;  The  Iowa  School  Journal,  Vol.  XII,  p. 
224. 

89  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  XII,  p.  217 ;  Report  of  the 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  151,  152,  in  the  Iowa  Legis- 
lative Documents,  1892,  Vol.  II. 

so  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers '  Association,  1876,  p. 
83;  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  XII,  p.  220. 

si  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  Ixxxvi,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1904,  Vol.  IV. 

»2  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  63,  in  the 
Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1884,  Vol.  II.  The  reference  is  to  a 
paper  upon  City  Supervision  by  President  Homer  H.  Seerley. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

93  Constitutional  Debates,  1857,  Vol.  I,  pp.  39,  40,  78.  The  resolu- 
tion which  brought  the  matter  before  the  convention  was  introduced 
by  Mr.  Edward  Johnstone  of  Lee  County. 

s*  Constitutional  Debates,  1857,  Vol.  II,  pp.  726,  727,  728,  756. 
Mr.  J.  C.  Hall  who  supported  the  amendment  was  a  delegate  from 
Des  Moines  County. 


414         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

as  Constitutional  Debates,  1857,  Vol.  II,  p.  729.  The  true  reason 
for  the  failure  of  the  Mann  commission  bill  in  1857  was  declared  to 
have  been,  not  the  incompetency  of  the  General  Assembly,  but  rather 
because  it  did  not  discriminate  between  white  and  colored  youths. 

96  Constitutional  Debates,  1857,  Vol.  II,  p.  745;  Shambaugh's 
Messages  and  Proclamations  of  the  Governors  of  Iowa,  Vol.  II,  pp. 
45,  46. 

»7  Constitutional  Debates,  1857,  Vol.  II,  p.  749. 

98  Constitutional  Debates,  1857,  Vol.  II,  p.  753. 

99  Constitutional  Debates,  1857,  Vol.  II,  p.  757. 

100  Constitutional  Debates,  1857,  Vol.  II,  p.  843.    This  amendment 
by  substitution  was  introduced  by  Mr.  Rufus  L.  B.  Clark  of  Henry 
County,  a  native  of  Connecticut.     Such  a  board  as  he  proposed  exists 
in  Connecticut  and  the  provisions  relative  thereto  have  been  in  force 
since  1849. 

The  question  of  taxation  for  public  education  brought  forth  an 
amendment  to  exclude  the  property  of  colored  persons  from  such 
levies,  inasmuch  as,  in  the  opinion  of  some  delegates,  it  would  be  ad- 
mitting that  this  State  was  not  exclusively  for  "white  men". 

101  Constitutional  Debates,  1857,  Vol.  II,  pp.  767,  934,  945.     It 
was  fortunate  that  the  Board  of  Education  had  for  its  first  "consti- 
tutional president"  Oran  Faville,  the  first  Lieutenant  Governor,  since 
no  one  was  better  qualified  for  such  an  important  position. 

102  Constitutional  Debates,  1857,  Vol.  II,  p.  944;  Constitution  of 
Iowa,  Art.  IX,  See.  8. 

103  Constitutional  Debates,  1857,  Vol.  II,  pp.  949,  1030. 

104  Constitutional  Debates,  1857,  Vol.  II,  pp.  957,  1029 ;  Constitu- 
tion of  Iowa,  Art.  IX,  Pt.  I. 

About  the  word  "youths"  much  bitter  discussion  ensued,  for  by 
the  insertion  of  the  term  the  provision  would  admit  "blacks"  as  well 
as  ' '  whites ' '  to  school  privileges. 

CHAPTER  IX 

105  Journal  of  the  Board  of  Education,  First  Session,  p.  3 ;   The 
Iowa  Citizen  (Des  Moines),  Vol.  Ill,  No.  43,  Dec.  8,  1858;  Bowman's 


NOTES  AND  REFERENCES  415 

The  Administration  of  Iowa  in  the  Columbia  University  Studies  in 
History,  Economics  and  Public  Law,  p.  31. 

MEMBERS  OP  THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION 
DISTRICT          TERM  NAME  LOCATION 

First          Four  years  <Charles  Mason         Burlington,  Des  Moines  Co. 
Second       Four  years   T.  B.  Perry  Albia,  Monroe  County 

Third          Two  years     George  P.  Kimball   Clarinda,  Page  County 
Fourth        Four  years  D.  E.  Brainard        Magnolia,  Harrison  County 
Fifth          Four  years  Dan  Mills  New  Jefferson,  Greene  Co. 

Sixth  Two  years    Samuel  F.  Cooper     Grinnell,  Poweshiek  Co. 

Seventh      Two  years     Thomas  H.  Canfield  Bellevue,  Jackson  County 
Eighth        Four  years   Frank  M.  Connelly   Marengo,  Iowa  County 
Ninth         Two  years     O.  H.  P.  Koszelle       Independence,  Buchanan  Co. 
Tenth         Four  years  A.  B.  F.  Hildreth      St.  Charles,  Floyd  County 
Eleventh    Two  years     Isaac  J.  Mitchell      Boonsboro,  Boone  County 
Ex  Officio  Gov.  E.  P.  Lowe        Keokuk,  Lee  County 

President  Lieut.  Gov.  Oran      Mitchell,  Mitchell  County 

Faville 

—  From  The  Literary  Advertiser  and  Public  School  Advocate,  Vol. 
I,  No.  2,  p.  3;  Journal  of  the  Board  of  Education,  p.  7. 

Six  members  therefore  served  during  the  entire  active  history  of 
the  board,  inasmuch  as  they  drew  the  four  year  term.  Of  the  other 
five  only  one,  Mr.  S.  F.  Cooper,  was  reflected. 

loe  7  Iowa  262.  This  case  came  up  from  the  lower  court  in  Du- 
buque  County,  where  in  a  suit  of  the  District  Township  of  the  City 
of  Dubuque  vs.  The  City  of  Dubuque  the  matter  was  decided  in  favor 
of  the  plaintiff.  This  decision  was  reversed  in  the  higher  tribunal. 

107  Acts,  Eesolutions  and  Forms,  Adopted  by  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, First  Session,  p.  4.    Judge  John  F.  Dillon,  of  the  seventh  district, 
urged  the  passage  of  this  act  early  in  the  session. 

108  The  Iowa  Citizen  (Des  Moines),  Vol.  Ill,  No.  44,  Dec.  15,  1858. 
Mr.  T.  B.  Perry  consistently  maintained  the  attitude  that  the  people 
should  have   large   powers  in   regulating  school   affairs,   not   only   in 
district  and  local  matters  but  also  in  the  selection  of  State  officers. 
It  was  he  who  contended  for  the  retention  of  the  office  of  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction  and  stoutly  maintained  the  superiority 
of  the  independent  district. 


416         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

109  The  Iowa  Citizen  (Des  Moines),  Vol.  Ill,  No.  45,  Dee.  22,  1858. 

no  Journal  of  the  Board  of  Education,  First  Session,  p.  19;  The 
Iowa  Citizen  (Des  Moines),  Vol.  Ill,  No.  45,  Dee.  22,  1858. 

The  constitutional  debates  were  cited  as  containing  evidence  that 
it  was  not  the  intention  to  limit  the  authority  of  the  Board  so  as  to 
exclude  the  Agricultural  College. 

in  Acts,  Eesolutions  and  Forms,  Adopted  ~by  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, First  Session,  pp.  39,  40. 

Mr.  J.  B.  Grinnell  was  chairman  of  the  committee  which  drafted 
the  educational  law  of  March  12,  1858.  There  was  doubt,  he  wrote 
later,  as  to  the  authority  of  the  General  Assembly  to  legislate  on  the 
subject.  Nevertheless,  some  action  was  deemed  imperative  since  mat- 
ters were  such  that  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  had  re- 
ceived 1400  letters  in  reference  to  provisions  of  former  acts  in  a  single 
year.  And,  although  there  may  have  been  some  question  as  to  juris- 
diction, the  General  Assembly  had  prepared  the  basis  for  future  action 
by  the  Board  and  had  provided  funds  to  carry  out  its  legislation. 
While  the  courts  had  decreed  that  such  authority  did  not  rest  with  the 
General  Assembly  it  would  be  a  simple  matter  to  correct  the  error  by 
reenaetment. —  From  a  letter  appearing  originally  in  the  Montezuma 
"Republican,  but  summarized  in  The  Iowa  Citizen  (Des  Moines),  Vol. 
Ill,  No.  45,  Dee.  22,  1858. 

112  The  Iowa  Citizen  (Des  Moines),  Vol.  Ill,  Nos.  45,  46,  Dec.  22, 
29,  1858;  Acts,  Eesolutions  and  Forms,  Adopted  ~by  the  Board  of 
Education,  First  Session,  p.  8. 

us  The  Iowa  Citizen  (Des  Moines),  Vol.  IV,  No.  45,  Dec.  21,  1859. 
It  is  probable  that  the  "Black  man"  referred  to  was  a  protege  of 
John  Brown. 

ii*  The  Iowa  Citizen  (Des  Moines),  Vol.  IV,  No.  42,  Nov.  30,  1859. 

us  Laws  of  Iowa,  1858,  p.  340;  Shambaugh's  Messages  and  Procla- 
mations of  the  Governors  of  Iowa,  Vol.  II,  pp.  141,  143,  230,  359,  360. 

lie  The  Iowa  State  Register,  Vol.  V,  No.  3,  March  14,  1860.  Eefer- 
ence  was  made  in  this  editorial  to  the  fact  that  Judge  Hall  had  sup- 
posed himself  immortalized  by  this  feature  of  the  new  Constitution. 

I"  The  Iowa  State  Register,  Vol.  VI,  No.  46,  Dec.  25,  1861. 
"8  The  Iowa  State  Register,  Vol.  VI,  No.  44,  Dec.  11,  1861,  p.  2. 


NOTES  AND  REFERENCES  417 

"9  The  Iowa  State  Register,  Vol.  VI,  No.  45,  Dec.  18,  1861.  The 
founders  of  Guttenberg  came  to  this  country  in  a  government  vessel  in 
company  with  Kossuth  as  refugees  following  the  Hungarian  War. 

120  The  Iowa  State  Register,  Vol.  VI,  No.  45,  Dec.  18,  1861;  School 
Laws  of  Iowa,  1864,  p.  25.     Samuel  J.  Kirkwood,  Philip  Viele,  and 
D.  W.  Ellis  composed  the  committee  which  submitted  this  bill.    It  was 
unanimously  adopted. —  Journal  of  the  Board  of  Education,  Third 
Session,  p.  38. 

121  Shambaugh  's  Messages  and  Proclamations  of  the  Governors  of 
Iowa,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  7,  8. 

122  The  Iowa  Instructor  and  School  Journal,  Vol.  V,  pp.  182,  215; 
School  Laws  of  Iowa,  1864,  p.  31. 

Only  one  member  of  this  Board  survives,  and  he  is  consistently 
maintaining  his  attitude  on  the  questions  presented  to  the  Board  in  its 
deliberations,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  following  letter  addressed  to 
the  writer  under  date  of  January  28,  1914: 

"Yours  of  26th  inst.  is  duly  received.  I  was  a  member  of  the 
State  Board  of  Education  as  you  have  stated.  According  to  my  best 
information,  I  am  the  only  surviving  member  of  that  old  board.  The 
others  have  all  passed  away.  As  you  have  a  copy  of  the  Journal  before 
you,  you  can  understand  what  were  the  various  measures  proposed, 
and  how  they  were  disposed  of. 

"That  grand  and  good  old  man,  Judge  Charles  Mason  of  Burling- 
ton, and  I,  were  closely  associated  in  our  views  Of  the  various  questions 
that  arose  during  the  most  important  contests.  The  Horace  Mann  Sys- 
tem of  township  district  schools  arose,  and  was  presented  by  warm  ad- 
vocates. But  Judge  Mason  and  I  opposed  the  plan,  and  insisted  upon 
the  independent  district  system,  which  has  finally  prevailed. 

"I  am  still  opposed  to  the  township  district  system,  and  consider 
it  not  so  practical  as  the  independent  district  system. 

"If  there  is  anything  further  that  you  may  wish  to  inquire  about, 
please  inform  me,  and  I  shall  gladly  respond  as  fully  as  I  may  be 
able.  I  assure  you  I  am  very  glad  to  have  heard  from  you. 

Respectfully, 

T.  B.  PERRY" 


28 


418 


CHAPTEB  X 

123  School  Laws  of  Iowa,  1864,  p.  26 ;  Report  of  the  Secretary  of 
the  State  Board  of  Education,  p.  16,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Docu- 
ments, 1861-1862,  Vol.  I. 

124  The  Iowa  Instructor,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  319,  320.    The  announcement 
of  these  resolutions  was  signed  by  Anson  Hart,  the  ex  officio  Secre- 
tary of  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  the  University. 

125  The  Iowa  Instructor  and  School  Journal,  Vol.  V,  pp.  196-198. 
These  certificates  being  perpetual  were  equivalent  in  duration  to  the 
diploma  granted  under  laws  governing  the  second   State  Board  of 
Examiners. 

126  The  Iowa  School  Journal,  Vol.  XIV,  No.  5,  p.  188. 

127  The  Iowa  Instructor  and  School  Journal,  Vol.  V,  p.  183. 

128  The  Iowa  Instructor  and  School  Journal,  Vol.  VI,  p.  26. 

129  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  47,  in  the 
Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1868,  Vol.  I. 

iso  The  Iowa  School  Journal,  Vol.  XIV,  No.  5,  p.  188. 

131  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  127,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1876,  Vol.  I. 

132  From  the  proceedings  of  the  State  Teachers '  Association  in 
1874  as  set  forth  in  the  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction, p.  129,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1876,  Vol.  I. 

isa  Journal  of  the  Senate,  1876,  pp.  356,  454.  For  a  copy  of  this 
bill  see  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  7,  in  the 
Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1878,  Vol.  I. 

134  Shambaugh  's  Messages  and  Proclamations  of  the  Governors  of 
Iowa,  Vol.  IV,  p.  330. 

iss  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  88,  in  the 
Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1880,  Vol.  III. 

136  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  V,  pp.  148,  266,  267;  Laws  of 
Iowa,  1882,  pp.  153,  154. 

is?  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  VI,  p.  105. 

iss  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  47,  48, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1884,  Vol.  II. 


NOTES  .AND  REFERENCES  419 

The  system  of  examinations  which  Iowa  had  endured  for  years  was 
set  forth  by  Mr.  A.  B.  Warner  in  1884.  He  explained  to  some  extent 
the  reasons  why  so  few  came  up  for  State  licenses,  finding  in  the  long 
list  of  subjects  not  common  to  the  schools  an  obstacle  that  would  not 
soon  be  overcome.  Then,  the  practice  of  limiting  county  certificates  in 
validity  not  only  to  one  jurisdiction  but  also  in  time,  and  a  refusal  to 
recognize  in  any  way  the  diplomas  from  high  schools,  State  institu- 
tions, and  colleges  was  entirely  inconsistent. — See  The  Iowa  Normal 
Monthly,  Vol.  VII,  p.  423. 

139  Shambaugh  's  Messages  and  Proclamations  of  the  Governors  of 
Iowa,  Vol.  V,  p.  267 ;  Laws  of  Iowa,  1890,  p.  35. 

140  Code  of  1897,  p.  908 ;  Laws  of  Iowa,  1900,  pp.  74,  83. 

1*1  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  51,  in  the 
Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1896,  Vol.  II. 

142  Laws  of  Iowa,  1902,  p.  71 ;  Laws  of  Iowa,  1906,  p.  87 ;  Laws  of 
Iowa,  1907,  p.  148;  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion, pp.  23-27,  142,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1906,  Vol.  V. 

143  Midland  Schools,  Vol.  XXII,  p.  143.    This  includes  a  review  of 
one  year  under  the  new  certificate  law  by  Superintendent  John  F. 
Eiggs. 

i**  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  25,  27, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1909,  Vol.  I. 

145  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  47,  in  the 
Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1911,  Vol.  I. 

146  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  117,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1909,  Vol.  I. 

CHAPTER  XI 

147  From  a  letter  by  Dr.  J.  L.  Pickard,  dated  March  19,  1913. 

148  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  in  the  Jour- 
nal of  the  Senate,   1850-1851,  Appendix,  pp.   144,   145,   146.     The 
"National  Convention  of  the  friends  of  Public  Education"  in  which 
Thomas  H.  Benton,  Jr.,  of  Iowa  had  a  prominent  part,  met  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1849.     The  next  year  the  "American  Association  for  the 
advancement  of  Education ' '  was  permanently  organized. 

149  Catalogue  of  the  Teachers '  Institute,  Tipton,  Iowa,  1856,  pp. 


420         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

4-8.  Since  the  institute  adopted  a  resolution  to  the  effect  that  this 
was  the  first  of  its  kind,  in  the  absence  of  evidence  to  the  contrary,  it 
may  be  concluded  that  those  of  an  earlier  day  were  different  in  man- 
agement. 

iso  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  20,  in  the 
Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1857. 

isi  Eeport  of  the  Commissioners  of  Revision  of  the  School  Laws, 
1856,  p.  196. 

152  Laws  of  Iowa,  1858,  p.  78 ;  Acts,  Eesolutions  and  Forms,  Adopt- 
ed by  the  Board  of  Education,  1858,  p.  29. 

iss  Report  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education,  1859,  pp. 
18,  19. 

15*  Educational  Laws  of  Iowa,  State  Board  of  Education,  p.  33 ; 
Revision  of  1860,  p.  358;  Journal  of  the  Board  of  Education,  Second 
Session,  1859,  p.  46. 

155  Report  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education,  pp.  17,  19, 
55,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1861-1862;   School  Laws  of 
Iowa,  1864,  p.  25. 

156  The  Iowa  State  Register,  Vol.  VI,  No.  4,  March  6,  1861,  No.  8, 
April  3,  1861. 

A  private  school  conducted  by  Mr.  E.  D.  Hawes  was  postponed 
because  of  the  institute  being  held  in  the  rooms  which  the  school  was 
to  occupy. 

157  The  Iowa  Instructor,  Vol.  I,  p.  387,  Vol.  II,  pp.  27,  152,  153. 
The  county  institutes  each  to  be  held  one  week  and  scheduled  for 

1861  were  as  follows: 

COUNTY  PLACE  TIME  OF  BEGINNING 

Lee  Keokuk  March  25th,  1861 

Des  Moines  Burlington  April     1,  1861 

Louisa  Wapello  April     8,  1861 

Muscatine  Muscatine  April  15,  1861 

Scott  Davenport  April  22,  1861 

Clinton  De  Witt  April  29,  1861 

Jackson  Bellevue  May     6,  1861 

Dubuque  Dubuque  May  13,  1861 

Clayton  Garnavillo  May  20,  1861 


NOTES  AND  REFERENCES 


421 


COUNTY 
Allainakee 
Winneshiek 
Fayette 
Buchanan 
Delaware 
Jones 
Linn 
Cedar 
Johnson 
Washington 
Henry 
Van  Buren 
Jefferson 
Keokuk 
Iowa 
Benton 
Black  Hawk 
Bremer 
Chickasaw 
Floyd 
Hardin 
Marshall 
Tama 
Poweshiek 
Jasper 
Marion 
Mahaska 
Wapello 
Davis 
Appanoose 
Monroe 


PLACE 

Waukon 

Decorah 

West  Union 

Independence 

Delhi 

Anamosa 

Marion 

Tipton 

Iowa  City 

Washington 

Mount  Pleasant 

Keosauqua 

Fairfield 

Sigourney 

Marengo 

Vinton 

Waterloo 

Waverly 

/Bradford 

St.  Charles  City 

Eldora 

Marshall 

Toledo 

Montezuma 

Newton 

Knoxville 

Oskaloosa 

Ottumwa 

Bloomfield 

Centerville 

Albia 


TIME  OF  BEGINNING 
May  27,  1861 
June    3,  1861 
June  10,  1861 
June  17,  1861 
June  24,  1861 
July     1,  1-861 
July     8,  1861 
July  15,  1861 
July  22,  1861 
July  29,  1861 
August     5,  1861 
August  12,  1861 
August  19,  1861 
August  26,  1861 
September     2,  1861 
September     9,  1861 
September  16,  1861 
September  23,  1861 
September  30,  1861 
October     7,  1861 
October  14,  1861 
October  21,  1861 
October  28,  1861 
November     4,  1861 
November  11,  1861 
November  18,  1861 
November  25,  1861 
December     2,  1861 
.December     9,  1861 
December  16,  1861 
December  23,  1861 


(Signed)  THOMAS  H.  BENTON,  JB. 
Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education. 
Copied  from  The  Iowa  Instructor,  Vol.  II,  p.  153. 

iss  The  Iowa  Instructor,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  61,  93 ;  Keokuk  County  News, 
November  8,  1861,  cited  in  The  Iowa  Instructor. 

The  county  institutes  each  to  be  held  one  week  and  scheduled  for 


422 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 


1861-1862  were  as  follows,  the  place  being  assumed  as  announced  in 
1861: 

TIME  OF  BEGINNING 
October  14,  1861 
October  21,  1861 
October  28,  1861 
November     4,  1861 
November  11,  1861 
November  18,  1861 
November  25,  1861 
December     2,  1861 
December     9,  1861 
December  16,  1861 
December  23,  1861 
December  30,  1861 
January     6,  1862 
January  13,  1862 
January  20,  1862 
January  27,  1862 
February     3,  1862 
February  10,  1862 
February  17,  1862 
February  24,  1862 
March     2,  1862 
March  10,  1862 
March  17,  1862 
March  24,  1862 
March  31,  1862 
April     7,  1862 
April  14,  1862 
April  21,  1862 
April  28,  1862 
May     5,  1862 
May  12,  1862 
May  19,  1862 
May  26,  1862 
June     2,  1862 
June     9,  1862 
June  16,  1862 


COUNTY 

PLACE 

Des  Moines 
Lee 

Burlington 
Keokuk 

Davis 

Bloomfield 

Appanoose 
Clarke 
Lucas 
Monroe 

Centerville 

Albia 

Wapello 
Jefferson 

Ottumwa 
Fairfield 

Henry 
Louisa 
Washington 
Keokuk 
Mahaska 

Mount  Pleasant 
Wapello 
Washington 
Sigourney 
Oskaloosa 

Poweshiek 

Montezuma 

Iowa 
Johnson 
Cedar 
Scott 
Clinton 

Marengo 
Iowa  City 
Tipton 
Davenport 
De  Witt 

Jackson 

Bellevue 

Jones 

Anamosa 

Linn 

Marion 

Benton 

Vinton 

Tama 

Toledo 

Marshall 

Marshall 

Hardin 
Grundy 
Black  Hawk 

Eldora 

Waterloo 

Buchanan 
Delaware 

Independence 
Delhi 

Dubuque 
Clayton 
Fayette 
Bremer 
•RntW 

Dubuque 
Garnavillo 
West  Union 
Waverly 

NOTES  AND  REFERENCES  423 

COUNTY  PLACE  TIME  OF  BEGINNING 

Franklin  June  23,  1862 

Cerro  Gordo  June  30,  1862 

Floyd  St.  Charles  City  July     7,  1862 

Chickasaw  Bradford  July  14,  1862 

Winneshiek  Decorah  July  21,  1862 

Allamakee  Waukon  July  29,  1862 

Howard  August     4,  1862 

Mitchell  August  11,  1862 

A.  S.  KISSELL, 

D.  F.  WELLS, 


M.  K.  CROSS, 


Executive  Committee. 


S.  F.  COOPER, 
E.  Y.  LANE, 

The  Iowa  Instructor,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  61. 

iss  The  Iowa  Instructor  and  School  Journal,  Vol.  V,  p.  3.  Other 
agents  were  appointed  to  succeed  Moses  Ingalls  —  Mr.  A.  S.  Kissell, 
Mr.  Jonathan  Piper,  and  Mr.  D.  F.  Wells  serving  at  different  periods 
in  this  capacity. 

iso  Report  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education,  pp.  17-21, 
43,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1864,  Vol.  I. 

161  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  27,  35, 
37,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1868,  Vol.  I;  Laws  of  Iowa, 
1864,  p.  55;  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  XII,  p.  389. 

It  was  not  until  1866  that  the  State  department  began  to  preserve 
a  record  of  institute  attendance. 

162  The  Iowa  Instructor  and  School  Journal,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  118, 
119,  157,  251,  Vol.  IX,  p.  54. 

There  were  but  thirty-seven  teachers'  institutes  held  in  Ohio  in 
1866,  this  being  the  largest  number  since  their  establishment  in  1854, 
although  it  was  said  that  the  State  made  liberal  provision  for  their 
support. —  The  Iowa  Instructor  and  School  Journal,  Vol.  VIII,  p.  252. 

163  The  Iowa  Instructor  and  School  Journal,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  155-156. 
16*  The  Iowa  Instructor  and  School  Journal,  Vol.  X,  p.  57. 

165  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  73,  in  the 
Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1870,  Vol.  I. 

Some  of  the  opposition  to  institutes  was  produced  by  that  pro- 


424         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

vision  of  the  law  permitting  the  payment  to  teachers  who  attended 
while  schools  were  in  session.  It  would  cease,  it  was  said,  if  teachers 
bore  all  the  expense. 

166  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  53,  153, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1872,  Vol.  I. 

There  were  institutes  in  1871  conducted  entirely  by  teachers  them- 
selves, as  was  the  practice  in  those  first  established. 

IST  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  162, 
168,  175,  186,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1872,  Vol.  I. 

IBS  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  193, 
206,  208,  212,  213,  214,.  215,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1872, 
Vol.  I. 

169  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  141,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1874,  Vol.  I. 

170  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  93,  96, 
122,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1874,  Vol.  I. 

CHAPTEE  XII 

171  Laws  of  Iowa    (Public),   1874,  p.   45.     The  normal  institute 
under  voluntary  support  was  in  evidence  previous  to  this  time  —  not 
less  than  fifteen  from  four  to  eight  weeks  in  duration  being  held  in 
1873. 

172  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  130,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1876,  Vol.  I.    The  resolutions  adopt- 
ed by  the  State  Teachers'  Association  in  1875  are  included  in  this 
report. 

173  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  I,  p.  227 ;  Eeport  of  the  Super- 
intendent of  Public  Instruction,  pp.   8-10,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative 
Documents,  1878,  Vol.  I. 

174  Minutes  of  the  Faculty  of  the  State  University  of  Iowa,  Vol.  I, 
pp.  457,  471;  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  II,  pp.  23-25. 

i"  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  II,  p.  232,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  204, 
205. 

176  Proceedings  of  the  State  Teachers'  Association  in  The  Iowa 
Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  IV,  p.  211. 

The  committee  appointed  to  compile  a  course  of  study  met  at 


NOTES  AND  REFERENCES  425 

Cedar  Eapids  in  the  following  March  during  a  terrific  snow  storm 
which  prevented  the  presence  of  one  of  the  members,  Mr.  Jacob 
Wernli  of  Le  Mars. 

Dubuque  County  had  operated  under  a  four  years '  course  for  insti- 
tutes a  year  previous  to  the  State  movement. 

ITT  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  88,  95, 
97,  99,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1886,  Vol.  V. 

178  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  25,  27, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1888,  Vol.  IL 

179  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  165,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1888,  Vol.  II;    The  Iowa  Normal 
Monthly,  Vol.  X,  p.  61. 

The  convention  at  Washington  was  held  in  the  spring  of  1872. 
During  the  summer  a  four  weeks  normal  institute  was  conducted  at 
the  same  place.  In  1873  Superintendent  Abernethy  called  a  conven- 
tion of  county  superintendents  at  this  place  to  observe  the  methods 
employed,  and  as  a  result  there  was  formulated  a  bill  for  normal 
institutes  which  became  a  law  in  1874.  It  is  probable  the  State 
Normal  Institute  was  also  projected  here. 

iso  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  66,  in  the 
Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1890,  Vol.  II;  the  same,  pp.  51,  52,  in  the 
Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1892,  Vol.  II;  the  same,  pp.  28-31,  in  the 
Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1896,  Vol.  II. 

isi  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  141, 
142,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1898,  Vol.  II. 

By  a  provision  of  the  Code  of  1897  no  school  could  remain  in  ses- 
sion during  an  institute  meeting  without  permission  from  the  county 
superintendent. —  Code  of  1897,  p.  941. 

isa  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  XXII,  p.  318,  Vol.  XXIV,  p. 
57.  To  provide  a  course  for  those  completing  the  established  four 
years  of  institute  work,  Cherokee  County  in  1896  added  a  fifth  or 
professional  year.  Woodbury  County  had  a  similar  arrangement. 

iss  Eeport  of  the  Better  Iowa  Schools  Commission,  1912,  pp.  53, 
64;  Laws  of  Iowa,  1913,  pp.  246-248. 

is*  See  Midland  Schools,  Vol.  XXII,  p.  205.  Mr.  James  C.  Gil- 
christ,  the  first  principal  of  the  State  Normal  School,  and  Mr.  A.  S. 
Welch,  the  first  president  of  the  State  Agricultural  College,  both  men 


426         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

of  experience  in  the  normal  schools  of  Pennsylvania  and  Michigan, 
were  conspicuous  leaders  in  institute  work  in  1869.  They  did  not 
hesitate  to  announce  their  availability  through  the  only  educational 
journal  in  the  State. 

CHAPTEE  XIII 

iss  Barnard's  Journal  of  Education,  Vol.  I,  p.  3. 
IBS  The  Voice  of  Iowa,  Vol.  II,  p.  30. 
187  The  Voice  of  Iowa,  Vol.  II,  pp.  120-125. 

iss  Parker's  Higher  Education  in  Iowa,  Bureau  of  Education  Cir- 
cular of  Information  No.  6,  1893,  pp.  186,  187. 

189  Constitutional  Debates,   1857,  Vol.   II,  p.   727.     See  also  the 
chapters  in  this  volume  on  the  State  Board  of  Education. 

190  The  Voice  of  Iowa,  Vol.  I,  p.  121,  Vol.  II,  pp.  8-13,  Vol.  I, 
p.  156,  Vol.  II,  p.  29.    The  last  two  citations  are  to  pages  containing 
phonetic  type  —  a  style  which  provided  a  character  for  every  sound. 
It  is  not  probable  that  these  pages  could  be  reproduced  at  this  time. 

The  Phonetic  Association  was  an  active  organization  in  Iowa  for 
several  years,  keeping  lecturers  in  the  field  to  promote  the  movement 
for  the  introduction  of  the  system  in  the  public  schools. 

191  The  Voice  of  Iowa,  Vol.  II,  pp.   112-117.     The  first  annual 
meeting  of  the  Iowa  Phonetic  Association  was  held  at  the  conclusion 
of  the  meeting  of  the  State  Teachers'  Association  which  was  held  at 
the  same  place   (Iowa  City).     Mr.  J.  H.  Sanders,  the  agent  of  the 
Phonetic  Association,  had  been  in  the  field  since  April  1,  1858,  and 
declared  now  that  a  large  majority  of  the  teachers  had  assured  him 
that  the  system  would  be  introduced  ' '  as  soon  as  the  necessary  school- 
books  could  be  obtained ' ' —  that  is  to  say,  books  in  phonetic  type. — 
The  Voice  of  Iowa,  Vol.  II,  p.  109. 

192  The  Voice  of  Iowa,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  33-43.    The  treasurer's  report 
for  the  first  three  years  was  first  submitted  at  this  meeting  in  the 
following  form : 

' '  There  has  been  received  in  the  Treasury,  from  memberships,  since 
June  15th,  1856,  $34.00. 


NOTES  AND  REFERENCES  427 

'Paid  out  on  vote  of  the  Association,  Aug.  14th,  1856, 

C.  Child's  bill  $4.00 

For  Printing  Programme  6.00 

"          "         cards  2.00 

"    Janitor's  Bill  9.00 


Total  $21.00 

G.  B.  DENISON 

Treasurer ' ' 
Davenport,  Sept.  8,  1858. 

193  The  Iowa  Instructor,  Vol.  I,  pp.  4-16. 

194  The  Iowa  Instructor,  Vol.  I,  pp.  317,  370. 

195  The  Iowa  Instructor,  Vol.  I,  p.  378.    The  globes  and  maps  used 
by  Dr.  Beynolds  are  still  preserved  by  Mrs.  Gilbert  E.  Irish,  whose 
father  purchased  them  from  the  widow  of  Dr.  Eeynolds.     These  in- 
clude a  terrestrial  and  a  celestial  globe. 

196  The  Iowa  Instructor,  Vol.  I,  pp.  371-377.    Iowa  had  five  repre- 
sentatives at  the  National  Teachers'  Association  which  met  at  Buffalo, 
New  York,  in  1860,  namely,  Miss  Eliza  A.  Worline  (Mrs.  S.  W.  Eath- 
bun  of  Marion,  Iowa),  Mary  J.  A.  Gillaspie,  and  Mr.  C.  C.  Nestlerode, 
all  from  Tipton,  and  Dr.  William  Eeynolds  and  Mr.  D.  F.  Wells  of 
Iowa  City.     The  two  ladies  mentioned  were  the  only  ones  present 
' '  from  the  North-West ' '. —  The  Iowa  Instructor,  Vol.  I,  p.  387. 

i9r  The  Iowa  Instructor,  Vol.  II,  pp.  27,  282,  283,  317,  345,  362- 
378.  According  to  the  report  of  the  treasurer  the  expenses  of  the 
Association  in  1858  were  $15.85,  and  in  1860  they  were  $16.40,  the 
balance  on  hand,  $28.00,  being  the  same  for  both  years. 

i»8  The  Iowa  Instructor,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  366-379,  382.  Mr.  Charles 
K.  Adams  of  Michigan,  being  present  on  this  occasion,  was  invited  to 
become  an  honorary  member  of  the  Association.  While  the  number  of 
delegates  present  was  not  officially  recorded  it  was  reported  as  two 
hundred. 

199  The  Iowa  Instructor  and  School  Journal,  Vol.  V,  pp.   1-14. 
These  journals  were  united  in  1862. 

200  The  Iowa  Instructor  and  School  Journal,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  1-13. 

201  The  Iowa  Instructor  and  School  Journal,  Vol.  VI,  p.  330. 


428         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

202  The  Iowa  Instructor  and  School  Journal,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  1-9. 

203  The  Iowa  Instructor  and  School  Journal,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  8-19,  27. 

CHAPTEE  XIV 

204  The  Iowa  Instructor  and  School  Journal,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  52,  53. 

205  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  50-52, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1868,  Vol.  II. 

The  Mississippi  &  Missouri  (or  Eoek  Island)  Bailroad  reached  the 
city  limits  of  Des  Moines  on  August  30,  1867,  and  trains  were  running 
early  in  September,  but  too  late  to  accommodate  the  members  of  the 
State  Association. 

206  The  Iowa  School  Journal,  Vol.  X,  pp.  1-11. 

207  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers '  Association,  1869,  p.  4. 
The  proceedings  of  this  session  were  published  by  Hanf  ord  &  Holt  of 
Vinton. 

208  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers '  Association,  1869,  pp. 
6,  7,  12. 

209  The  Iowa  School  Journal,  Vol.  XI,  pp.  356-383.     Mr.  W.  E. 
Crosby,  then  superintendent  of  the  Davenport  schools  and  formerly 
secretary  of  the  National  Association,  had  presented  an  invitation  to 
that  body  previous  to  the  meeting  in  Waterloo,  and  so  this  was  but 
an  endorsement  of  his  action. 

210  See  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp. 
114-117,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1872,  Vol.  I. 

211  The  Iowa  School  Journal,  Vol.  XII,  pp.  407-414. 

212  The  Iowa  School  Journal,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  41-49.    The  committee 
appointed  to  collect  material  for  a  history  of  education  in  Iowa  adver- 
tised for  ' '  full  and  minute  information ' '  under  six  specified  heads : 
(1)    school  legislation;    (2)    on   the  period  preceding  free   schools; 
(3)  each  high  school,  training  school,  or  normal  school;   (4)  the  acad- 
emies, colleges,  and  universities  of  Iowa,   "living  and  dead";    (5) 
county  institutes;  and   (6)   the  early  history  of  the  State  Teachers' 
Association,  the  records  previous  to  1869  having  been  lost. —  The  Iowa 
School  Journal,  Vol.  XIV,  p.  95. 

It  was  said  in  1873  that  this  committee  had  gathered  a  large 
amount  of  material. 


NOTES  AND  REFERENCES  429 

213  Seport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  72-74, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1874,  Vol.  I. 

2i*Beport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  128- 
130,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1876,  Vol.  I. 

215  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers '  Association,  1876,  pp. 
3-9,  17,  69. 

2ie  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers '  Association,  1876,  pp. 
29,  55,  62,  68. 

The  committee  on  the  "History  of  Education  in  Iowa",  which 
now  consisted  only  of  Professor  Leonard  P.  Parker,  the  chairman, 
made  a  final  report  in  1876.  Originally  appointed  in  1872,  Mr. 
Jonathan  Piper  and  Mr.  C.  C.  Nestlerode  were  the  other  members,  but 
for  the  three  years  thereafter  the  chairman  alone  was  continued.  The 
methods  employed  were  outlined  and  it  was  recommended  that  the 
material  collected  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  librarian  of  the  State 
University. —  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers '  Association, 
1876,  p.  72. 

217  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  I,  pp.  146,  173,  182,  183,  206, 
209,  215. 

sis  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  II,  pp.  177,  200,  212,  220,  239. 
The  enrollment  at  Marshalltown  in  1878  was  reported  as  204.  In  the 
previous  year  it  had  been  160;  in  1876  it  was  179;  in  1875  it  was 
146;  in  1874  it  was  101;  in  1873  it  was  93;  in  1872  it  was  80;  and  in 
1871,  at  the  meeting  in  Council  Bluffs,  it  was  131. 

219  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  11,  13. 

220  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  127,  172,  225. 

221  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  150,  175,  207. 

222  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  V,  pp.  154,  189,  222. 

The  Southwestern  Association  comprising  the  territory  in  twenty- 
five  counties  met  at  Eed  Oak  in  the  summer  of  1880  in  order  not  to 
conflict  with  the  State  meeting.  As  early  as  1881  its  members  recom- 
mended that  the  organization  be  made  permanent. 

223  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  146,  147,  192,  193,  199, 
208,  252. 


430         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

CHAPTER  XV 

224  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  221-223,  315.    During 
the  session  of  1883,  Mr.  T.  S.  Parvin  suggested  that  the  executive  com- 
mittee make  an  effort  to  obtain  the  history  of  education  in  Iowa  from 
1834  to  1844. 

225  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  211,  269,  277.    For  a 
full  report  of  this  session  see  the  January,  February,  and  March  num- 
bers of  Vol.  VIII  of  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly. 

226  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  215,  216. 

227  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers '  Association,  1886,  pp. 

6,  9,  10 ;  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  X,  p.  232. 

Miss  E.  J.  Hyndman  of  Epworth  Seminary  was  the  only  woman 
honored  with  a  place  among  the  speakers  of  1886. 

228  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers'  Association,  1887,  pp. 

13,  15,  17;  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  XI,  p.  265. 

The  names  of  the  women  appearing  in  1887  were  as  follows:  Lou 
M.  Wilson,  city  superintendent  in  West  Des  Moines;  Anna  E.  Mc- 
Govern,  State  Normal  School;  Mrs.  A.  E.  Thomas,  Drake  University; 
Mrs.  A.  N.  Filson,  superintendent  in  Cedar  County;  Mrs.  L.  G.  Mur- 
dock,  superintendent  in  Wapello  County;  Lottie  E.  Granger,  superin- 
tendent in  Page  County;  Mrs.  C.  B.  Webster  of  Winterset;  and  Lizzie 
K.  Matthews  of  Des  Moines. 

229  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers '  Association,  1888,  pp. 

14,  15;  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  89,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1892,  Vol.  II. 

230  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers '  Association,  1889,  pp. 

7,  16. 

231  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers '  Association,  1890,  pp. 
2,  16. 

232  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers '  Association,  1891,  pp. 
40,  55,  189. 

ass  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers '  Association,  1892,  pp. 
12,  13,  64. 

234  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers'  Association,  1893,  pp. 
102,  103 ;  Laws  of  Iowa,  1894,  p.  88. 


NOTES  AND  REFERENCES  431 

As  early  as  1866  the  General  Assembly  had  been  requested  to  pro- 
vide for  the  publication  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Association.  In  the 
published  proceedings  of  1893  one  may  find  the  call  for  and  the  min- 
utes of  the  first  session,  that  of  May,  1854,  in  Muscatine.  These 
papers  were  discovered  in  1888. 

235  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers '  Association,  1895,  pp. 

6,  8,  1896,  p.  5. 

Special  papers  relative  to  "Fifty  Years  of  Education  in  Iowa" 
were  presented  at  this  meeting  by  some  who  had  been  connected  with 
the  former  reminiscent  program  at  Cedar  Eapids. —  See  Proceedings 
of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers'  Association,  1896,  pp.  84-108. 

236  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers '  Association,  1897,  pp. 

7,  16. 

237  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  XXII,  pp.  282,  283 ;  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers'  Association,  1898,  pp.  61,  83,  106, 
107. 

238  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers '  Association,  1899,  pp. 

4,  91,  128;  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  XXIII,  pp.  270-275. 

239  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers '  Association,  1900,  p.  9. 

240  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers '  Association,  1900,  pp. 

5,  7;  1901,  pp.  3,  4,  6,  7. 

241  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers'  Association,  1902,  pp. 

6,  8,  11;  1903,  p.  8. 

242  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers '  Association,  1904,  pp. 
20-75.     The  papers  of  this  anniversary  occasion  form  a  part  of  the 
published  proceedings,  and  one  must  consult  them  for  details. 

243  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers '  Association,  1905,  pp. 

7,  49;  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  XXIX,  p.  315. 

244  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers '  Association,  1906,  pp. 
5,  6;  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  XXXI,  pp.  103,  319,  460. 

245  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers '  Association,  1908,  p. 
10;  1909,  p.  18;  1910,  pp.  17,  20,  122;  Midland  Schools,  Vol.  26,  p.  117. 

246  Midland  Schools,  Vol.  26,  pp.  107,  108,  110 ;  Proceedings  of  the 
Iowa   State   Teachers'   Association,   1912,  pp.   26,   27;    see   also   the 
Eeport  of  the  Better  Iowa  Schools  Commission,  1912. 


432         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

For  a  chronological  list  of  the  meetings  of  the  State  Teachers' 
Association  see  Appendix  C. 

CHAPTEE  XVI 

2*7  The  Voice  of  Iowa,  Vol.  I,  pp.  148-151 ;  The  Iowa  Instructor, 
Vol.  II,  p.  188. 

248  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  XI,  pp.  175,  423,  Vol.  XII, 
pp.  71,  161. 

2*9  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  XIII,  pp.  174,  176,  177,  252, 
320.  It  is  not  expedient  to  follow  these  different  institutions  to  their 
dissolution,  although  it  is  possible  to  do  so. 

sso  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  XVII,  p.  458,  Vol.  XVIII,  p. 
124. 

251  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  XVIII,  pp.  310,  311. 

252  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  XVIII,  pp.  362,  426,  441,  469, 
Vol.  XIX,  pp.  230,  442. 

253  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.   XXXIII,   p.   167.     Among 
those  appearing  before  the   district  associations  during  these  years 
mention  may  be  made  of  the  following:  Superintendent  Henry  Sabin 
and  his  successors  in  office,  President  Homer  H.   Seerley,  Governor 
Leslie  M.  Shaw,  Jonathan  Piper,  Col.  Francis  W.  Parker,  William 
Hawley  Smith,  President  J.  E.  Kirk,  Ira  W.  Howerth,  Arnold  Tomp- 
kins,  S.  Y.  Gillan,  E.  Benjamin  Andrews,  Jessie  L.  Gaynor,  George  E. 
Vincent,   M.    V.    O'Shea,   Eobert    Mclntyre,    Charles    Emory    Smith, 
Benjamin  Terry,  Albert  E.  Winship,  Orville  T.  Bright,  Jane  Addams, 
William  A.  Quayle,  and  many  citizens  of  the  localities  in  which  the 
meetings  were  held. 

254  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  46,  in  the 
Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1896,  Vol.  II. 

CHAPTEE  XVII 

255  The  Iowa  Journal  of  Education,  Vol.  II,  No.  8,  p.  189;  Eeport 
of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  131,  in  the  Iowa  Legis- 
lative Documents,  1876,  Vol.  I. 

Copies  of  the  journal  may  be  found  in  the  Dubuque  City  Library. 
The  one  mentioned  above  is  bound  with  a  miscellaneous  collection  of 
catalogs  in  the  library  of  The  State  Historical  Society  of  Iowa. 


NOTES  AND  EEFEEENCES  433 

sse  Journal  of  the  Senate,  1854,  Appendix,  p.  159. 

257  The  Voice  of  Iowa,  Vol.  I,  p.  2. 

258  Laws  of  Iowa,  1858,  p.  107. 

259  The  Voice  of  Iowa,  Vol.  I,  p.  90.    This  offer  of  Mr.  Stevens,  a 
Des  Moines  banker,  was  made  through  President  E.  Weiser  of  Central 
College  of  Iowa. 

260  The  Voice  of  Iowa,  Vol.  I,  pp.  115,  134.    Mr.  J.  L.  Enos,  the 
editor  of  The  Voice  of  Iowa,  had  been  the  publisher  of  the  Progressive 
Era  in  1854  —  a  publication  known  later  as  the  Cedar  Valley  Times. 
Subsequently  Mr.  Enos  established  the  Cedar  Valley  Farmer,  which  it 
appears  was  abandoned  for  The  Voice  of  Iowa. 

261  The  Iowa  Instructor  and  School  Journal,  Vol.  V,  pp.  1,  2 ;  The 
Iowa  Instructor,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  381. 

262  Journal  of  the  State  Board  of  Education,  Second  Session,  pp. 
49,  52. 

263  Laws  of  Iowa,  1864,  p.  54.     The  small  paper  of  Mr.  Samuel 
Storrs  Howe  was  printed  at  the  job  office  of  William  Crum  at  No.  10, 
Iowa  Avenue,  Iowa  City,  first  in  four  pages  and  later  in  eight.     It 
was  sold  at  three  cents  a  number,  or  twelve  numbers  for  twenty-five 
cents. —  See   The  Literary  Advertiser  and  Public   School  Advocate, 
Vol.  I,  No.  2,  p.  1. 

264  The  Iowa  School  Journal,  Vol.  X,  p.  28. 

265  The  Iowa  School  Journal,  Vol.  XI,  p.  21. 

266  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  I,  p.  1.    W.  J.  Shoup  continued 
in  editorial  charge  of  this  journal  until  1884,  when  owing  to  ill  health 
he  disposed  of  his  interests.    Mr.  G.  W.  Jones  succeeded  as  editor  and 
James  A.  Edwards  as  business  manager  —  the  latter  remaining  with 
the  publication  as  business  manager  or  editor  until  his  death  in  1912. 

267  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  463,  464. 

268  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  XVII,  p.  88. 

269  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  102, 
103,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1896,  Vol.  33. 


29 


434         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

CHAPTEE  XVIII 

270  Laws  of  Iowa,  1839-1840,  p.  103 ;  Journal  of  the  Council,  1841- 
1842,  Appendix,  pp.  281,  282.    See  also  Appendix  A  in  this  volume. 

In  1841,  District  No.  1  of  Denmark  Township  in  Lee  County  voted 
$13.21  for  a  library,  while  District  No.  4  appropriated  $5  for  the  same 
purpose. 

271  Journal  of  the  Constitutional  Convention,  1846,  p.  xxi. 

272  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  69,  91, 
96,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  187S,  Vol.  I;  the  same,  p.  84, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1880,  Vol.  III. 

273  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  388,  390 ;  Eeport  of 
the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  86,  in  the  Iowa  Legis- 
lative Documents,  1884,  Vol.  II. 

274  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  138, 
209,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1892,  Vol.  II;  the  same,  p. 
104,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1898,  Vol.  II. 

275  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  81,  90, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1900,  Vol.  II;  Code  of  1897,  Sec. 
2783. 

Not  less  than  400  districts  had  taken  advantage  of  the  Code  pro- 
visions previous  to  1900. 

276  Laws  of  Iowa,  1900,  pp.  83,  87. 

277  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Publie  Instruction,  pp.  287, 
322,  324,  326,  344,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1902,  Vol.  Ill; 
see  also  Midland  Schools,  Vol.  XIX,  p.  82. 

278  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  VIII,  p.  278. 

270  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  204,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1896,  Vol.  II. 

280  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  205,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1896,  Vol.  II. 

281  Midland  Schools,  Vol.  XX,  p.  37 ;  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  29,  50,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents, 
1911,  Vol.  I. 

It  was  not  until  1907  that  the  National  Education  Association 
provided  for  a  library  section  in  its  programs. 


NOTES  AND  REFERENCES  435 

CHAPTER  XIX 

282  Cooley  's  Michigan :  A  History  of  Governments,  p.  307. 

The  first  vocational  school  on  Iowa  soil  was  established  under  the 
authority  of  the  government  of  the  United  States  in  1835  in  accord- 
ance with  the  Indian  treaty  of  1832.  It  was  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
structing the  children  of  the  Winnebagoes  in  "reading,  arithmetic, 
gardening,  agriculture,  carding,  spinning,  weaving  and  sewing"  and 
such  other  branches  as  the  president  of  the  United  States  might 
recommend.  It  was  located  on  the  Yellow  Eiver  in  what  is  now  Fair- 
view  Township,  Allamakee  County,  and  was  in  charge  of  Eev.  David 
Lowry,  assisted  by  Colonel  Thomas  as  farmer  and  two  women  instruc- 
tors.—  A.  M.  May  in  The  ^Register  and  Leader,  April  16,  1913,  p.  6 ; 
also  Kappler's  Indian  Affairs  —  Laws  and  Treaties,  Vol.  II,  p.  346. 

2«s  Shambaugh  's  Messages  and  Proclamations  of  the  Governors  of 
Iowa,  Vol.  I,  pp.  403,  404;  Constitution  of  1846,  Art.  X. 

There  is  extant  a  press  item  that  in  1843  twelve  congregational 
clergymen  proposed  to  establish  in  Buchanan  County  a  manual  labor 
«ollege,  and  purchased  therefor  the  water  rights  at  a  certain  point  on 
the  Wapsipinicon  Eiver  that  a  mill  might  become  a  part  of  the  equip- 
ment in  connection  with  other  industrial  appliances.  This  refers, 
doubtless,  to  the  "Iowa  Band"  of  congregational  ministers  who  came 
to  Iowa  in  1843. —  The  Miners  Express  (Dubuque) ,  Dec.  15,  1843,  as 
quoted  in  The  Iowa  Capitol  'Reporter  (Iowa  City),  Dec.  23,  1843. 

2s*  Western  College  Advocate  (1858),  Vol.  Ill,  No.  1,  pp.  2,  7. 
"When  it  was  proposed  in  1858  to  establish  an  agricultural  college  in 
this  State  it  was  suggested  that  Western  College,  already  employing 
a  professor  of  agriculture  and  agricultural  chemistry,  be  recognized 
as  possessing  the  means  to  teach  "both  the  theory  and  practice  of 
scientific  agriculture ' '. —  Western  College  Advocate,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  1, 
p.  13. 

2«s  The  Voice  of  Iowa,  Vol.  II,  p.  140-142. 

286  Jones's  The  Quakers  of  Iowa,  Pt.  IV,  Ch.  III. 

287  Laws  of  Iowa,  1874,  p.  59.    In  a  paper  prepared  for  the  use  of 
the  Bureau  of  Education  (1876)  Mr.  J.  Fred  Myers  of  Denison,  Iowa, 
among  other  important  recommendations  for  improvement  in  public 
school  efficiency,  suggested  the  establishment  of  "County  Normal  and 
Industrial  Colleges"  which  were  to  be  free  to  all  within  the  county, 
and  the  courses  therein  were  to  include  many  of  the  features  which 


436         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

have  become  a  part  of  the  instruction  in  industrial  training. —  Report 
of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  41-43,  in  the  Iowa 
Legislative  Documents,  1876,  Vol.  I. 

288  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  30,  31, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1882,  Vol.  II;  the  same,  p.  21,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1884,  Vol.  II. 

289  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Labor,  pp.  67,  71,  80,  87,  in  the 
Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1886,  Vol.  IV. 

290  Laws  of  Iowa,  1884,  p.  135. 

291  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  137, 
138,  140,  141,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1886,  Vol.  V. 

292  Report    of    the    Commissioner    of    Education,    1882-1883,    p. 
celxxxvii. 

293  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  170,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1892,  Vol.  II. 

In  1890  there  were  236  girls  enrolled  in  the  Davenport  school  of 
domestic  science,  and  155  boys  in  the  shop  work. 

294  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  162, 
194,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1892,  Vol.  II. 

296  See  The  Iowa  Educational  Directory,  1913-1914,  pp.  78-80,  85- 
87,  91-95,  99-101. 

296  Proceedings  of  the  Iowa  State   Teachers '  Association,  1902- 
1903,  p.  10;  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp. 
3,  4,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1904,  Vol.  IV. 

297  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  6-28, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1904,  Vol.  IV. 

298  Report  of  the  Better  Iowa  Schools  Commission,  1912,  pp.  40-49, 
65.    The  State  aid  now  granted  to  schools  teaching  industrial  subjects 
is  noted  in  the  chapters  which  deal  with  school  districts. 

CHAPTEE  XX 

299  The  School  Laboratory  of  Physical  Science  (Iowa  City),  1872, 
Vol.  II,  p.  49. 

BOO  General  Report  of  the  Judges  of  Group  XXVIII,  pp.  31,  32,  in 
Reports  and  Awards,  International  Exhibition,  1876,   (Philadelphia) 


NOTES  AND  REFERENCES  437 

Vol.  VIII.  The  judges  reported  further  that  "The  State,  strangely 
enough,  has  no  normal  school  belonging  to  its  system,  and  hence  could 
not  be  represented  by  one;  but  it  has  a  State  University  in  rather  a 
prosperous  condition,  with  a  normal  department,  and  a  most  excellent 
and  flourishing  State  College  of  Agriculture  and  the  Mechanic  Arts, 
neither  of  which  made  itself  known  at  the  Exhibition. ' ' 

soi  Laws  of  Iowa,  1884,  p.  138. 

302 Report  of  the  Commission,  World's  Industrial  and  Cotton 
Centennial,  1884-1886,  pp.  26-28,  41-45.  The  report  contains  detailed 
information  relative  to  the  cities,  towns,  counties,  and  institutions 
making  this  exhibit. 

303  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  145— 
147,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1892,  Vol.  II. 

so*  Report  of  the  Iowa  Columbian  Commission,  1893,  pp.  199-208; 
Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  174—180,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1894,  Vol.  II. 

sos  Report  of  the  Iowa  Commission  to  the  Louisiana  Purchase 
Exposition,  1904,  pp.  124-130.  The  amounts  appropriated  by  some 
other  States  for  the  educational  exhibit  are  as  follows:  Missouri, 
$50,000;  New  York,  $35,000;  Massachusetts,  $20,000;  Pennsylvania, 
Kansas,  and  Minnesota,  each,  $10,000.  Iowa  appropriated  $8000,  of 
which  $500  was  not  used  for  the  purpose. 

CHAPTER  XXI 

soe  Burns 's  The  Growth  and  Development  of  the  Catholic  School 
System  in  the  United  States,  pp.  26-29,  89,  148;  Oldt's  History  of 
Dubuque  County,  p.  932;  Downer's  History  of  Davenport  and  Scott 
County,  Vol.  I,  p.  945;  Annals  of  Iowa  (1st  Series),  Vol.  I,  p.  170. 

SOT  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  82-96, 
208-220,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1913,  Vol.  III. 

sos  Van  der  Zee's  The  Hollanders  of  Iowa,  pp.  266-270. 

309  Mrs.  Shambaugh's  Amana:  The  Community  of  True  Inspira- 
tion, pp.  198,  199,  201,  202,  205,  208. 

CHAPTER  XXII 

BIO  Journal  of  the  Senate,  1850-1851,  Appendix,  pp.  119,  175; 
1852-1853,  pp.  109-112. 


438         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

sii  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  24,  25, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1857. 

312  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  7,  8,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1859-1860. 

sis  The  Iowa  Citizen  (Des  Moines),  Vol.  Ill,  No.  1,  February  17, 
1858. 

si*  The  Iowa  Citizen  (Des  Moines),  Vol.  Ill,  No.  9,  April  14,  1858, 
No.  10,  April  21,  1858. 

SIB  Shambaugh's  Messages  and  Proclamations  of  the  Governors  of 
Iowa,  Vol.  II,  p.  142;  The  Iowa  State  Journal  (Des  Moines),  Vol.  Ill, 
No.  27,  August  13,  1859. 

sie  The  Iowa  Instructor,  Vol.  I,  pp.  27,  28.  The  collection  of  the 
school  tax  under  the  new  act  was  enjoined  in  the  independent  district 
of  the  Tipton  Union  School.  It  was  dissolved  by  the  district  judge, 
W.  E.  Miller,  but  being  carried  to  the  Supreme  Court  was  contested 
there  by  the  district  authorities,  the  result  being  a  decision  in  their 
favor  in  1861.  In  the  meantime  the  teachers  had  no  salary,  although 
they  continued  to  fill  their  respective  positions. —  Proceedings  of  the 
Second  Eeunion  of  the  Tipton  Union  School,  1887,  p.  53;  12  Iowa  409. 

3i7  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  21,  22, 
23,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1859-1860. 

sis  Eeport  of  the  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Education,  1859, 
pp.  20,  25-48. 

sis  Eeport  of  the  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Education,  1861, 
in  the  Journal  of  the  Board,  pp.  8,  9,  10-14. 

320  Eeport  of  the  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Education,  pp. 
3-5,  7,  8,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1864,  Vol.  I.    Beferences 
here  are  to  the  report  of  Thomas  H.  Benton,  Jr.,  there  being  three 
separate  reports  relative  to  this  period. 

321  The  Iowa  School  Journal,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  36,  37. 

322  The  Iowa  Instructor  and  School  Journal,  Vol.  V,  pp.  215,  216. 
An  instance  illustrating  the  need  of  regulating  payments  to  school 
officers  of  the  township  was  cited  in  which  they  drew  $107  for  ser- 
vices, while  the  other  expenses  connected  with  maintenance  of  the 
school  for  twenty-eight  weeks  amounted  to  but  $140. —  Eeport  of  the 


NOTES  AND  REFERENCES  439 

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  57,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative 
Documents,  1864,  Vol.  I. 

323  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  39,  40, 
47,  53,  58,  62,  68,  73,  76,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1866, 
Vol.  I.    Keferences  here  are  to  abstracts  from  the  reports  of  county 
superintendents. 

From  Sand  Creek  Township  in  Union  County  a  resolution  was  sent 
up  declaring  that  "we  judge  the  School  Laws  of  Iowa  ought  to  be 
modified  so  as  to  allow  the  Board  of  School  Directors  to  pay  for  their 
labor.  Also  the  laws  for  dividing  the  School  Fund,  so  the  county  tax 
could  be  divided  equally  to  townships. ' ' —  The  Iowa  Instructor  and 
School  Journal,  Vol.  VI,  p.  349. 

CHAPTEE  XXIII 

324  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  58,  69, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1870,  Vol.  I;  the  same,  pp.  152, 
171,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1872,  Vol.  I. 

325  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  33,  119, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1874,  Vol.  I;  the  same,  pp.  132, 
133,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1876,  Vol.  I. 

326  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  67,  96, 
105,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1878,  Vol.  I. 

327  Journal  of  the  House,  1878,  p.  357;  Laws  of  Iowa,  1878,  p. 
100 ;  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  61,  62,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1880,  Vol.  III. 

328  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  32,  33, 
78,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1882,  Vol.  II. 

329  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  164— 
166,  168,  170,  172,  173,  174,  176,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents, 
1886,  Vol.  V. 

The  contingent  fund  was  created  by  the  State  Board  of  Education 
in  1859,  and  has  since  been  maintained  as  one  of  the  three  funds  with 
which  treasurers  must  keep  a  separate  account. 

330  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  3,  155, 
176,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1888,  Vol.  II;  Laws  of  Iowa, 
1888,  p.  114. 

331  Laws  of  Iowa,  1880,  p.  141,  1888,  p.  82 ;  Eeport  of  the  Super- 


440         HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  IOWA 

intendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  51,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Docu- 
ments, 1890,  Vol.  II;  the  same,  pp.  136,  137,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative 
Documents,  1894,  Vol.  II;  Laws  of  Iowa,  1898,  pp.  51,  52. 

Under  the  provisions  of  the  Code  of  1873  the  Superintendent  might 
at  his  discretion  publish  the  school  laws  after  the  adjournment  of 
each  General  Assembly.  Such  authority  had  been  granted  him  since 
1864. 

332  Report  of  ihe  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  55,  56, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1890,  Vol.  II;  the  same,  p.  18,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1892,  Vol.  II;  the  same,  p.  137,  in  the 
Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1894,  Vol.  II. 

333  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  243- 
247,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1896,  Vol.  II. 

The  address  incorporated  in  this  report  was  delivered  before  the 
school  directors'  section  at  the  Northwestern  Teachers'  Association  in 
1895. —  See  The  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  Vol.  XVIII,  p.  444. 

334  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  p.  144,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1898,  Vol.  II;  the  same,  pp.  18,  19,  in 
the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1900,  Vol.  II;  the  same,  p.  11,  in  the 
Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1902,  Vol.  Ill;   the  same,  pp.  Ixxviii- 
Ixxxvi,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1904,  Vol.  IV. 

The  States  of  Massachusetts,  Michigan,  and  Minnesota  have  adopt- 
ed provisions  of  this  nature.  The  Minnesota  statute  was  enacted  in 
1913. 

335  Laws  of  Iowa,  1907,  p.  225;  Eeport  of  the  Educational  Com- 
mission, 1908,  pp.  73,  74,  76,  77,  84,  85,  90,  93 ;  Midland  Schools,  Vol. 
XXIII,  pp.  163,  227. 

This  commission  was  composed  of  three  members:  Professor 
Frederick  E.  Bolton  of  the  State  University,  to  whom  was  assigned 
for  investigation  the  certification  of  teachers,  the  State  Board  of 
Education,  the  county  superintendency,  teachers  institutes,  and  the 
classifying  of  schools;  Mr.  W.  H.  Baily,  who  was  to  investigate  the 
plans  for  the  codification  of  the  laws,  the  unit  of  school  organization, 
school  officers,  and  the  adoption  of  text-books;  and  Mr.  Arthur 
Springer,  who  was  charged  with  the  special  work  on  school  taxes, 
trials  and  appeals,  and  former  school  law  decisions. 

A  similar  commission  composed  of  seven  members  was  engaged 
during  this  year  in  the  same  work  in  Illinois.  That  body  was  em- 


NOTES  AND  REFERENCES  441 

powered  to  employ  a  permanent  secretary  at  a  salary  of  $4000,  while 
a  fund  of  $10,000  was  placed  at  their  disposal. 

In  Iowa  the  whole  amount  available  for  the  work  of  the  com- 
mission was  but  $3000.  Moreover,  the  commission  declared  that  they 
were  "handicapped  by  the  limited  amount  of  time",  and  therefore 
would  make  no  claim  to  a  perfect  bill. —  Eeport  of  the  Educational 
Commission,  1908,  pp.  73,  93. 

336  Inaugural  Address,  p.  17,  in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents, 
1909,  Vol.  I. 

337  Midland  Schools,  Vol.  XXII,  pp.  176-180. 

sss  Eeport  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  pp.  18-28, 
in  the  Iowa  Legislative  Documents,  1911,  Vol.  I. 

339  Eeport  of  the  Better  Iowa  Schools  Commission,  1912,  pp.  3,  64- 
66.  Not  less  than  fifty  persons  were  designated  as  members  of  com- 
mittees which  had  in  charge  the  special  investigations. 


INDEX 


443 


INDEX 


Abbott,  Mr.,  72 

Abernethy,  Alonzo,  administration  of, 
49 ;  report  of,  49,  50 ;  complaint  of, 
50,  51;  history  of  Iowa  school  sys- 
tem by,  51,  52;  opinion  of,  218, 
331;  exhibit  requested  by,  289; 
convention  called  by,  425 
Academies,  place  of,  in  school  system, 
121;  view  of,  in  1868,  211;  en- 
dowed, 233 

Accredited  high  schools,  212 
Activities,  miscellaneous,  253-306 
Adams,  Charles  K.,  invitation  to,  427 
Adams    Township    (Greene    County), 

294 
Addington,  Julia  C.,  welcome  given  to, 

75;   election  of,  89 
Administration,     school,     investigation 

of,  353 

Agencies,   teachers,   346 
Agricultural     College,     State,     control 
over,  119,  120;  shop  department  of, 
280 ;  proposed  establishment  of,  435  ; 
reference  to,  437 
Agricultural   societies,    State    aid   for, 

181 

Agriculture,  instruction  in,  199;  in- 
formation on,  255 ;  encouragement 
of,  by  legislature,  274,  275;  schools 
giving  instruction  in,  283,  284; 
teachers  in,  286;  need  of  teachers 
in,  287 

Aid,  State,  investigation  of,  353 
Akers,  John  "W.,  administration  of, 
54;  proposal  of,  179,  181;  refer- 
ence to,  232 ;  statement  of,  278 ; 
explanation  of,  280;  recommenda- 
tion by,  286,  337;  educational  ser- 
vices of,  406 

Akron   (Ohio),  law  for  benefit  of,  383 
Albany  Normal  School,  43,  405 
Allamakee    County,    school    report   of, 
in  1869,  75 


Allen,  Jerome,  statement  of,  166;  in- 
stitute directed  by,  168 ;  address  by, 
190;  reference  to,  193,  236,  261, 
404;  report  by,  212 

Allerton,  meeting  at,  226 

Amana  Colony,  schools  of,  301,  302- 
305 ;  school  term  in,  303 ;  teachers 
of,  304 

Anamosa,  schools  at,   26 

Andrews,  Lorin,  fitness  of,   161 

Apparatus,  recommendation  relative 
to,  in  1849,  22;  reference  to,  266 

Appeals,  limits  and  benefits  of,  73 

Appendices,  357-398 

Apprenticeship,  decline  of,  277,  278 

Arbeitsschule,  303 

Architecture,  school,  196 

Arey,  Melvin  F.,  100 

Armstrong,  Allen,  98,  99;  report  by, 
212 

Arnold,  Fanny,  137 

Assessors,  district,  powers  and  duties 
of,  365-367 

Atlantic,   98 

Atlantic  City,  schools  of,  25 

Attorney  General,  appeal  to,  117 

Auditor,  county,  sale  of  school  laws 
by,  340 

Audubon  school,  98 

Auxiliaries,  institute,  169 

Bailey  vs.  Enart,  decision  of,  82 
Baily,    W.    H.,    subjects    assigned   to, 

440 

Baker,  E.f   170 
Baking,  instruction  in,  282 
Barnard's  School  Architecture,  403 
Barnes,    Thomas   H.,   recommendation 

of,  287 

Barnes  &  Burr,  203 
Barrett,     Richard    C.,    administration 

of,  59;  recommendations  of,  60,  61, 

88,     268;     instructions    issued    by, 


445 


446 


INDEX 


285;    changes    suggested    by,    344, 

345 ;  sketch  of  life  of,  408 
Barrows,   Rev.   Simon,  plan  proposed 

by,  328 

Bartlett,  Rev.  E.  N.,  166 
Bartlett,  Moses  W.,  53,  228 
Basketry,  285 

Bateman,  Newton,   206,  226 
Beach,  Wm.  H.,  261 
Beckley,  J.  G.,   72 
Bedell,  Edgar  T.,   142 
Beede,   Samuel  E.,   137 
Bemis,   Wells   A.,    96,    137;    influence 

of,  211 

Benham,  W.  I.,  142 
Benton,   Thomas  H.,   Jr.,   election  of, 

14 ;    services    of,    as    school   officer, 

14,  18,    403,    404;    first  report  of, 

15,  34;  higher  schools  and  tax  rec- 
ommended   by,     16,     17;     circulars 
distributed    by,     18-21;     series    of 
texts  recommended  by,  22 ;  general 
duties  assigned  to,   22,   23 ;   travels 
of,   23;   complaint  of,  in  1850,   24; 
third    report    of,    24,    39,    40;    im- 
portance  of   administration  of,   25 ; 
administration   of,    as   Secretary   of 
Board    of    Education,     32,     34-41; 
resignation   of,   33,   41,   42;    second 
report    of,    37;    plan    of,    38,    39; 
recommendations  of,    68,    152,   323, 
324,  402;  suggestion  of,  relative  to 
county     superintendent,      69,      70 ; 
question  referred  to,  125 ;  presence 
of,  at  institute,   152;  suggestion  of, 
158;   lecture  by,    160;   part  of,    in 
national  education  movement,   189 ; 
reference  to,  198,  419;  address  by, 
199;    repeal    of    laws    advised    by, 
309;    view    of    law    of    1862    ex- 
pressed by,  322 

Bessey,  Charles  E.,  53,  230,  231 
Better  Iowa  Schools  Commission,  rec- 
ommendation of,   184;   appointment 
of,     244;     report    by,     on    manual 
training,    286,    287;    purpose    and 
composition    of,    352,    353;    conclu- 
sions of  subcommittees  of,  353;  re- 
port by,  853 
Bi-county  associations,  247 


Bible,  use  of,  in  schools,  121,  197, 
213;  use  of,  in  Amana  Colony,  304 

Bishop,  E.  C.,  statement  by,  287 

Black,  Rev.  James,  address  by,  73 

Blanchard,  E.  E.,  143 

Blind,  report  of  number  of,   76,  402 

Bloomer,  D.  C.,  view  of,  126,  127 

Bloomington  Township  (Muscatme 
County),  402 

Blue  Grass  Township  (Scott  Coun- 
ty), prize  won  by  school  of,  293 

Board  of  Education,  State  (see  Edu- 
cation, State  Board  of) 

Board,   School   (see  Directors) 

Boards,    State,    history   of,    103-147 

Bolton,  Frederick  E.,  subjects  as- 
signed to,  440 

Bonner,  C.  E.,  supervision  by,  85 

Book  companies,  contributions  by,  203 

Books,  listing  of,  for  libraries,  143, 
269 

Boone,  meeting  at,  248 

Boone  County,  school  exhibit  from, 
294 

Bowman,  J.  R.,   175 

Boyd,   S.  T.,   228 

Boyden,  parochial  school  at,  300 

Boyes,  N.  W.,   176 

Boynton,  B.  L.,  154 

Boys,  industrial  training  of,  277,  278, 
281;  age  of,  for  manual  training, 
284 

Brainard,  D.  E.,  415 

Bremer  County,  church  schools  in, 
298,  300 

Briggs,   Ansel,   message  of,   274 

Brooklyn  (New  York),  22 

Brown,  John,  prote'ge'  of,  416 

Brown,    Manily   T.,    137 

Buchanan  County,  school  planned  in, 
435 

Buck,  Samuel  J.,  80,  138,  220;  ad- 
dress by,  217 

Buena  Vista  County,  293 ;  appoint- 
ment of  superintendent  in,  412 

Buildings,  school,  practical  designs  of, 
in  1849,  20 ;  Benton's  recommenda- 
tion relative  to,  20,  21;  cost  of,  21; 
construction  of,  23,  24,  73 ;  com- 
mendation of,  in  1855,  26;  selec- 


INDEX 


tion  of  suitable  sites  for,  74;  com- 
fort in,  156;  attractive,  need  of, 
205;  priority  of,  266;  erection  of, 
under  law  of  1858,  321,  322;  levy 
of  taxes  for,  in  1862,  324;  plans 
of,  344 

Burlington,  school  houses  at,  24; 
schools  of,  26,  43 ;  reference  to, 
84 ;  superintendent  of  schools  at, 
95 ;  examination  held  at,  140,  142 ; 
convention  at,  220 ;  parochial  school 
at,  299 

Calhoun  County,  school  libraries  in, 
270;  church  schools  in,  298 

Calvin,  Samuel,  early  teaching  by, 
98;  reference  to,  215,  232 

Canfield,  Thomas  H.,  415 

Capitol,  Old,  cost  of,  21;  teachers 
meeting  in,  190,  191;  meeting  in, 
194,  219 

Carroll,  A.  B.,  142 

Carroll,  B.  P.,  address  by,  349 

Carroll,  meeting  at,  248 

Carson,   C.   H.,    100 

Cass  County,  supervision  in,  84 

Catechism,  study  of,  304 

Catholics,  Roman,  schools  established 
by,  298,  299,  300 

Cattell,  Jonathan  W.,  notion  of,   316 

Cedar  County,  petition  from,  117; 
colored  children  in,  122;  teachers 
institute  in,  153-156;  model  pri- 
mary school  in,  180 ;  teachers  asso- 
ciation of,  245,  246;  early  school 
history  of,  246 

Cedar  Falls,  schools  at,  26;  examina- 
tion held  at,  140,  142 ;  convention 
at,  227;  prize  won  by  schools  of, 
293 

Cedar  Rapids,  conventions  at,  72,  207, 
209,  223,  233,  236,  248,  251; 
school  exhibit  at,  in  1892,  293; 
schools  of,  406 

Centennial  Exposition,  Iowa  at,  220, 
221 

Centerville,   schools  at,   26 

Central  School  Journal,  262 

Cerro  Gordo  County,  library  associa- 
tion of,  267 


Certificates,  teachers,  61,  62,  65 ;  is- 
sue of,  72 ;  need  for  permanent, 
82,  200;  issue  of  life,  133,  134, 
137;  few  applications  for,  135; 
suggestions  relative  to  grant  of,  in 
1867,  136;  need  of  legislation  for 
grant  of,  after  1873,  138,  139;  is- 
sue of  five-year,  140;  requirements 
of  candidates  for,  141,  165,  272, 
353 ;  issue  of  primary,  143 ;  revo- 
cation of,  144,  164;  issue  of  spe- 
cial, 141;  county  uniformity  of, 
144,  145 ;  recognition  of,  from  oth- 
er States,  144,  145 ;  grant  of,  with- 
out examinations,  146,  147;  appli- 
cations for,  in  1911,  147;  demands 
relative  to,  240,  241;  provisional, 
333;  unlimited  renewal  of,  349; 
system  of,  in  1884,  419 

Chamberlain,  C.  C.,  215 

Chambers,  John,   8 

Chancellor,  office  of,   109 

Charles  City,  round  table  at,  250 

Charts,   22 

Chase,  Mr.,  view  of,   129 

Chase,  C.  T.,  address  by,  199 

Chemistry,  need  of  knowledge  of,  120; 
utility  of,  190 

Cherokee  County,  institute  of,  425 

Chevalier,  W.  F.,  100 

Chicago,  Superintendent  of  Schools 
of,  152 ;  teachers  institute  held  at, 
152;  exhibit  at,  292,  293,  294 

Chicago,  Iowa  and  Nebraska  Railroad, 
198 

Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railroad, 
210 

Chickasaw  County,  church  schools  in, 
298 

Child  labor,  345 

Child  Study,  Iowa  Society  for,  237 

Childs,  Chandler,  193 ;  address  by,  196 

Christian  schools,  movement  for, 
among  Hollanders,  301,  302 

Church  schools,  history  of  elementary 
instruction  in,  297-305;  purpose  of, 
297;  incomplete  record  of,  298;  es- 
tablishment of,  by  Lutherans  and 
Catholics,  298-300;  attendance  at, 
305 


448 


INDEX 


Churches,  cost  of,  21 

Cincinnati,   examinations  at,   136 

Cities,  school  supervision  in,  52,  79, 
91,  413;  history  of  school  super- 
vision in,  93-102;  need  of  training 
schools  in,  165 ;  need  of  grades  in, 
216;  school  reports  of,  224;  school 
libraries  in,  267;  need  of  indus- 
trial training  in,  281;  school  ex- 
hibits in,  292;  exhibit  of,  at  Chi- 
cago, 294 

Citizenship,  training  for,   175 

Civil  township,  318 

Civil  War,  effect  of,  42,  201;  out- 
break of,  199 

Clarinda,  97 

Clark,  Ben  W.,  134,  137 

Clark,  Eufus  L.  B.,  proposal  of,  414 

Clark,  S.  M.,  address  by,  233;  refer- 
ence to,  262 

Classics,  teaching  of,  129;  defence  of, 
211 

Classification,  27 

Clay  modeling,  285 

Clear  Lake,  convention  at,  82,  225 

Clerk,  township,  duty  of,  6,  377-380 

Clerks,  county,  reports  by,  in  1841, 
8;  salary  of,  66 

Cline,  G.  S.,  262 

Clinton,  schools  of,  55 ;  reference  to, 
81,  96;  supervision  at,  96,  97; 
school  library  in,  267;  parochial 
school  at,  299 

Clinton  County,  institutes  held  in, 
170;  school  exhibit  from,  294 

Code  of  school  laws,  question  of,  125 ; 
difficulty  of  enactment  of,  309,  355; 
proposal  of,  in  1879,  334 ;  nature 
of,  proposed  in  1909,  347-349 ;  need 
of,  354 

Code  of  1851,  school  laws  in,  310 

Code  of  1873,  136;  school  provisions 
of,  342 

Code  of  1897,  145,  267,  351;  school 
provisions  of,  344 

Co-education,  subject  of,   197,  235 

Colesburg,  school  at,  26 

Colleges,  place  of,  in  school  system, 
121;  certificates  granted  to  gradu- 
ates of,  145;  classification  of,  146, 


350;  preparation  for,  212,  229; 
representatives  of,  at  Teachers'  As- 
sociation, 213,  225;  opposition  of, 
to  exhibit,  294;  church,  298 

Colored  pupils,  instruction  of,  17; 
schools  for,  122,  414 

Columbian  Exposition,  preparation 
for,  235,  249;  school  exhibit  at, 
292,  293,  294,  295 

Columbian  Museum,   295 

Commissioners,  board  of  county, 
school  reports  to,  5;  duty  of,  381; 
duty  of  clerks  of,  401 

Common  School,  publication  of,  260, 
261 

Common  schools,  nature  of,  128,  129; 
Federal  aid  for,  229 

Community  of  True  Inspiration, 
schools  of,  302-305 

Competition,  278 

Compulsory  attendance  law,  need  of, 
42,  47,  165,  218;  views  relative  to, 
196;  draft  of,  235;  reference  to, 
240;  proposal  of,  331;  failure  of 
bill  for,  335 

Congregationalists,  Iowa  Band  of,  435 

Congress,  memorial  to,  203 ;  memorial 
to  Iowa  men  in,  229 ;  proposal  to, 
265 

Connecticut,   boards  in,   414 

Connelly,  Frank  M.,  415 

Connolly,  Mr.,  view  of,  119 

Consolidati  in,  recommendation  of, 
350,  353 

Constitution  of  1846,  provision  of, 
11;  debates  on,  105,  106 

Constitution  of  1857,  provision  for 
educational  system  in,  41,  107, 
313,  314;  attack  upon  educational 
provisions  of,  118,  119;  amend- 
ment to,  229;  provisions  of,  for  ag- 
ricultural improvement,  274,  275 

Constitutional  convention  of  1857, 
educational  matters  proposed  in, 
105 ;  debates  on  Board  of  Educa- 
tion in,  106-114;  blunders  of,  118; 
race  problem  in,  122 ;  debates  of, 
191,  322 

Contingent  fund,  proposed  use  of, 
837;  creation  of,  439 


INDEX 


449 


Conventions,  meeting  of  county  super- 
intendents at,  33,  34,  54;  teachers', 
38,  46,  55,  245 ;  discussions  at,  50 ; 
expense  of  travel  to,  76 

Cook,  Rev.  J.  T.,  95 

Cooking  school,   first,   281 

Cooley,  Edwin  G.,  248 

Cooper,  Frank  B.,  100,  263 

Cooper,  Samuel  F.,  opinion  of,  119, 
121;  reference  to,  415 

Corporations,  school,  classification  of, 
351 

Coryell,  Hattie,  137 

Coulter,  John  M.,  238 

Coulter,  Lewis  I.,  services  of,  45,  46 

Council  Bluffs,  supervision  of  schools 
at,  98 ;  teaching  of  language  at, 
127;  convention  at,  216,  248,  249 

Counties,  school  supervision  in,  6 ; 
school  report  of,  in  1841,  8,  9; 
wages  of  teachers  reported  by,  17; 
visitation  of,  IS;  isolation  of  settle- 
ments of,  23 ;  need  of  high  schools 
in,  29;  school  law  distributed  to,  in 
1860,  37;  nature  of  school  super- 
vision in,  49;  institutes  held  in, 
157,  163;  institutes  organized  in, 
161;  opposition  to  institutes  held 
in,  166,  167;  length  of  institutes 
in,  170;  uniformity  of  institutes  in, 
171,  172,  177;  summer  schools  in, 
184;  representatives  of,  at  Teach- 
ers' Association  in  1861,  200;  need 
of  high  schools  in,  217;  teachers 
libraries  in,  266;  teachers  reading 
circles  in,  270,  271;  school  exhibits 
in,  292 ;  school  exhibits  from,  at 
Chicago,  294;  school  exhibits  from, 
at  St.  Louis,  295;  parochial  schools 
in,  299,  300;  normal  schools  needed 
in,  342,  343 ;  list  of  institutes  held 
in,  for  1861  and  1862,  420-423 

County  Judge   (see  Judge) 

County  supervision,  history  of,  64; 
duty  of,  65 

County  teachers  associations,  history 
of,  245-249;  programs  of,  248; 
number  of,  252 

Course  of  study,  recommendation  of, 
18;  report  on,  42;  report  of,  for 


ungraded  schools,  83 ;  uniform, 
need  of,  212,  216;  suggestions  rela- 
tive to,  343 

Cramer,  "W.  F.,  100 

Crawford  County,  Lutheran  schools 
in,  298 

Creston,  parochial  school  at,  299 

Crime,  psychology  of,  227 

Crosby,  W.  E.,  96,  137,  413;  journal 
projected  by,  260 ;  invitation  pre- 
sented by,  428 

Cross,  Rev.  M.  K.,  154,  201,  202 

Crouch,  Richard  J.,   72 

Currier,  Amos  N.,   100 

Curry,  Mrs.  Tirzah  F.  M.,  137 

Curtis,    Lucy,    101 

Cutter,  Josephine  A.,   137 

Cyclone  of  1882,  228 

Davenport,  school  houses  at,  26;  su- 
pervision in,  79;  principal  of 
schools  at,  94;  reference  to,  96, 
191;  normal  training  school  at, 
165,  198,  214;  convention  at,  196, 
217;  industrial  training  at,  281, 
282,  436;  school  exhibit  from,  290; 
parochial  schools  at,  299;  schools 
of,  405 

Davis,  Lavinia,   137 

Davis  County,   institutes  held  in,   170 

Davison,  A.  H.,  recommendations  of, 
341 

Deaf  and  dumb,  report  of  number  of, 
76,  402 

Dean,  Amos,   72,  410 

Decatur  County,  normal  institute  of, 
167 

Delaware  County,  institute  held  in, 
170 

Denmark,  schools  at,  26 

Denmark  Academy,   211,   255 

Dennison,  George  B.,  193 ;  suggestion 
of,  234;  recommendation  of,  328 

Dennison,  Mrs.  George  B.,  236 

Des  Moines,  conventions  at,  72,  209, 
219,  227,  230,  231,  232;  East, 
meeting  at,  74 ;  supervision  in,  79 ; 
early  principal  of  schools  at,  95 ; 
East,  reference  to,  96,  99;  West, 
supervision  in,  100;  reference  to, 


30 


450 


INDEX 


116;  written  examinations  at,  135; 
examination  held  at,  140,  142 ; 
travel  to,  in  1867,  210,  428;  meet- 
ings of  Teachers'  Association  at, 
234;  meetings  fixed  at,  236;  in- 
dustrial training  at,  282 

Des  Moines  County,   70 

Desks,  school,  early,  20 

Dewell,  Samuel,   154,   245 

Dewey,  M.,  letter  of,  224 

Deyoe,  A.  M.,  administration  of,  62, 
63;  election  of,  408 

Dickenson,  Harriet  S.,  137 

Didactics,  teaching  of,   175 

Dillman,  S.  S.,  work  of,  276 

Dillon,  John  F.,  act  urged  by,  415 

Diplomas,  life   (see  Life  diplomas) 

Directors,  school,  board  of,  visitation 
of  schools  by  committee  of,  21;  su- 
pervision by,  49;  visits  to  counsel 
with,  50 ;  schools  operated  by,  53 ; 
need  of  school  inspection  by,  74 ; 
selection  of  county  superintendent 
by,  77;  proposed  power  of,  84;  ad- 
vice given  to,  85 ;  disagreement  of, 
90;  authority  of,  relative  to  indus- 
trial training,  277;  levy  of  taxes  by, 
324,  325;  compensation  of,  325; 
recommendation  relative  to  size  of, 
330,  331;  law  of  1878  relative  to 
organization  of,  335;  trouble  over 
organization  of,  337;  provisions  rel- 
ative to,  340;  need  of  central  con- 
trol over,  341,  342 ;  powers  and 
duties  of,  867-370;  duties  of,  370- 
372;  election  and  duties  of,  under 
law  of  1857,  385-395 

Directors  Round  Table,  The,  263 

District  conventions,  provision  for, 
238 

District  School  Journal  of  Education 
for  the  State  of  Iowa,  255 

District  teachers  association,  organ- 
ization of,  249,  250;  attendance  at, 
250;  popularity  of,  250,  251,  252; 
procedure  of,  251;  speakers  at 
meetings  of,  432 

District  township  system,  47,  336; 
question  of,  125;  advocate  of,  312 

Districts,  school  supervision  in,  5,   6, 


45,  75 ;  uncertainty  about  forma- 
tion of,  15,  16;  formation  of,  19; 
school  records  of,  19,  83 ;  progress 
in  organization  of,  in  1850,  23 ; 
support  of  schools  in,  25;  establish- 
ment of,  30,  123 ;  law  of  1858  rela- 
tive to,  37;  reference  to,  44;  lack 
of  supervision  in,  49;  status  of,  51; 
school  officers  of,  65 ;  provision  for 
supervision  in,  94 ;  problem  of, 
117,  118;  problems  of  schools  of, 
122;  debts  of,  129;  journal  sup- 
plied to,  257;  libraries  in,  265, 
267;  legal  provision  for  libraries 
in,  269;  money  expended  by,  311; 
organization  of,  under  law  of  1858, 
316;  need  of  classification  of,  348; 
consolidation  of,  350 ;  organization 
of,  under  law  of  1857,  383-385 

Dolliver,  Jonathan  P.,  address  by,  232 

Domestic  science,  teaching  of,  274, 
282,  283 

Doty,  Duane,  address  by,  220 

Dow,  James  E.,   95,  96 

Downs,  T.  L.,   72 

Doxology,  singing  of,  227 

Drake,   George  W.,   193 

Draper,  Andrew  S.,  address  by,  236 

Drawing,  45,  221,  278,  281,  285 

Dubuque,  school  houses  at,  24 ;  ward 
principals  at,  95 ;  principals  of 
schools  at,  98;  first  institute  at, 
152;  convention  at,  193,  194,  204, 
251;  church  schools  in,  298,  299; 
German  address  at,  404 

Dubuque  County,  academy  in,  406 ; 
report  of,  408;  institute  course  of, 
425 

Dudley,  Charles  C.,  services  of,  99, 
100 

Dutch  language,  instruction  in,  301, 
302 

Eads,    James    D.,    administration    of, 
25-28;    towns    commended    by,    26; 
graded  schools  favored  by,  27;  rec- 
ommendations of,  27,  29,   30,   256 
Eaton,  John,  176;  address  by,  227 
Edson,    H.    K.,    201,    215,    228,    236; 
message  of,  204;  influence  of,  211 


INDEX 


451 


Education,  history  of,  217;  theory 
and  art  of,  225 ;  materials  for  his- 
tory of,  428,  429 

Education,  American  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of,  organization 
of,  189,  419 

Education,  local  boards  of,  need  of, 
53,  54;  organization  of,  61;  city 
superintendents  and,  101,  102  (see 
also  Directors) 

Education,  county  board  of,  80,  339, 
348,  350;  advocate  of,  222;  need 
of,  351;  reorganization  of,  354 

Education,  National  Bureau  of,  203, 
295 

Education,  State  Board  of,  Superin- 
tendent let  out  of  office  by,  30,  31; 
functions  of,  31,  108;  journal  of 
proceedings  of,  33 ;  reports  to,  34 ; 
distribution  of  laws  of,  34;  ordi- 
nance power  conferred  on,  36;  last 
session  of,  40 ;  abolition  of,  42, 
130;  provisions  of,  for  county  su- 
pervision, 65,  66 ;  recommendations 
to,  67;  revision  of  law  by,  in  1859, 
68;  resolution  against  action  of, 
68,  71;  provision  of,  for  graded 
schools,  94 ;  proposed  provision  for, 
105,  106,  111-114;  debate  on  con- 
stitution of,  107,  109;  selection  of, 

109,  110;    legislative    function    of, 

110,  115,     313,     319,     320,     322; 
Governor's    place    on,    112;    reason 
for     constitutional     provision     for, 
113;   composition  of,    114;   sessions 
of,     115;     compensation     of,     115; 
school    legislation    under,    116-131; 
first  meeting  of,   116-122;  petitions 
to,    117;    ineffectiveness    of,    118; 
doubt  as  to  authority  of,  119,   120; 
prejudice  against,   123 ;   second  ses- 
sion of,   123;  third  session  of,   123, 
125-130;  bill  for  abolition  of,    123, 
124;    teaching    of    German    consid- 
ered  by,    126-129 ;    reason   for   end 
of,    131;    Examiners    provided    by, 
132 ;    provision    of,    for    institutes, 
157,    158,    159;   amendment  of  law 
by,   319,   320;   need  of,  for  control 


over  local  boards,  342 ;  reference 
to,  348;  names  of  members  of,  415 
(see  also  Secretary  of  State  Board 
of  Education) 

Education  and  school  lands,  commit- 
tee on,  instructions  to,  105 ;  reports 
of,  106;  membership  of,  114 

Educational  advancement,    154 

Educational  Board  of  Examiners,  pro- 
vision for,  132;  resolutions  of,  133; 
written  examinations  given  by,  134, 
135,  137;  abolition  of,  136 

Educational  Commission,  appointment 
and  purpose  of,  347;  recommenda- 
tions in  report  of,  348 ;  failure  of 
bill  of,  348,  349;  opinions  obtained 
by,  349-351;  work  of,  440;  appro- 
priation for,  441 

Educational  Directory,  Iowa,  93 ;  first 
issue  of,  407 

Educational  exhibits,  history  of,  289- 
296 

Educational  journals    (see  Journals) 

Educational  meetings,  81 

Educational  progress,  report  on,  235 

Educational  Society,   167 

Edwards,  James  A.,  433 

Edwards,  Richard,  institute  conducted 
by,  169 

Efficiency,  increase  of,  by  means  of 
institutes,  152 

Eldorado,  parochial  school  at,  300 

Eldridge,  Edwin  R.,  80,  138,  169, 
176,  220,  236;  journal  edited  by, 
262 

Election,  contested,  14,  15 

Elections,  school,  123 ;  recommenda- 
tion relative  to,  354 

Electors,  power  of,  relative  to  courses 
of  study,  129;  powers  of,  in  school 
affairs,  268,  362-364,  384,  385; 
vote  of  taxes  by,  321 

Elementary  instruction,  history  of,  in 
church  schools,  297-305 

Elliott,  J.  R.,  83 

Ellis,  D.  W.,  417 

English,  teaching  of,  128 

Enos,  James  L.,  institute  conducted 
by,  160;  opinion  of,  189;  election 


452 


INDEX 


of,  as  officer  of  association,  189, 
190,  193;  journal  edited  by,  256, 
402;  newspapers  published  by,  433 

Environment,  importance  of,  in  train- 
ing, 21 

Evangelicals,  schools  established  by, 
298,  299 

Evening  schools,  45 

Ewart,  R.  M.,  case  involving  author- 
ity of,  82 

Examinations,  monthly,  in  schools, 
327 

Examinations,  teachers,  fees  for,  70 ; 
conducting  of,  88 ;  history  of  pro- 
vision for,  132-147;  subjects  of, 
133,  141 ;  giving  of,  at  Iowa  City, 
134;  oral  and  written,  in  1862, 
135,  136;  proposal  of  1874  for, 

138,  139;     county    uniformity    of, 

139,  144;  provision  for,  after  1882, 

140,  141;   reference  to,  240;    State 
uniformity     of,     333;     qualification 
for  admission  to,  351;  system  of,  in 
1884,  419 

Examiners,  local  boards  of,  establish- 
ment of,  132;  need  of  three,  219 

Examiners,  State  Board  of,  need  of, 
38,  332;  reference  to,  44,  129,  327; 
president  of,  56;  diplomas  approved 
by,  87;  history  of,  132-147;  estab- 
lishment of,  in  1882,  139;  composi- 
tion of,  140;  first  meeting  of,  140; 
preparation  of  questions  by,  141; 
increasing  functions  of,  142,  143 ; 
need  of  clerk  for,  143,  144 ;  author- 
ity of,  over  all  teachers,  144,  145; 
proposed  duty  of,  173 ;  institute  at- 
tendance favored  by,  178;  advo- 
cates of,  220;  lists  of  books  pre- 
pared by,  269,  273;  enlargement  of, 
850 

Executive  council,  140 

Exhibits,  educational,  236;  history  of, 
289-296;  number  of,  in  Europe, 
289;  nature  of,  in  national  exposi- 
tions, 290,  291,  293,  294;  prizes 
offered  for,  293,  294;  views  rela- 
tive to,  295;  interest  in,  296 

Expositions,   exhibits  at,  289-296 


Fairfax  Township  (Linn  County),  su- 
pervision in,  85 

Fairfield,  meeting  at,  249 

Fairs,   county,   school  exhibits  in,  292 

Farmers,  education  for,   120,  276 

Farnham,  G.  L.,  228,  230 

Faville,  Oran,  39,  72,  116,  415;  re- 
port of,  42 ;  election  of,  as  Super- 
intendent, 42 ;  administration  of, 
43 ;  resignation  of,  43 ;  recommen- 
dation of,  136;  address  by,  204, 
214;  reputation  of,  404 

Fayette  County,  salary  of  superintend- 
ent of,  78;  parochial  school  in,  300 

Feeble-minded  children,  report  of,  90 

Fellows,  Stephen  N.,  176,  212,  228, 
261;  work  of,  215 

Fisher,  Maturin  L.,  administration  of, 
28;  two  grades  of  schools  recom- 
mended by,  28,  29;  report  of,  30, 
311;  reference  to,  32;  convention 
called  by,  66;  school  law  inter- 
preted by,  67;  recommendation  of, 
156;  questions  submitted  to,  317; 
meeting  described  by,  409 

Floyd  County,  quarterly  meetings  in, 
167 

Fort  Atkinson,  parochial  school  at, 
299 

Fort  Dodge,  99 

Fort  Madison,  school  houses  at,  24 

Frain,  G.,  letter  of,  122 

France,  part  of  Iowa  exhibit  asked  by, 
295 

Franklin  County,  institute  held  in,  164 

Friends,  schools  of,  299 

Frost,  Rufus  H.,  53 ;  opinion  of,  84, 
85,  86 

Fund  commissioners,  creation  of  office 
of,  6;  school  reports  of,  in  1848, 
15;  examination  of  books  of,  18; 
recommendations  relative  to  records 
of,  20 ;  compensation  of,  22 ;  recom- 
mendation of  new  power  of,  29 ; 
reference  to,  64;  proposed  duties 
of,  811 

Funds,  school,  care  and  disposition  of, 
in  Iowa  Territory,  7;  law  of  1847 
relative  to,  11,  12;  Superintend- 


INDEX 


453 


ent's  control  of,  15 ;  prevention  of 
waste  in,  22 ;  need  of  change  in 
management  of,  25 ;  Bads'  manage- 
ment of,  28;  reference  to,  42,  44; 
resolution  relative  to,  82 ;  invest- 
ment of,  105 ;  law  relative  to,  117 ; 
institutions  aided  from,  119,  120 ; 
apportionment  of,  319;  school 
house,  325;  handling  of,  332,  334; 
recommendation  relative  to,  337; 
reduction  of,  to  two,  350,  354; 
need  of  interest  on,  354 
Furniture,  school,  selection  of,  20 

Galena   (Illinois),  170 
Gates,  John  C.,  72 
Gear,  John  H.,  176 
General  Assembly,  school  reports  made 
to,    12,    13 ;    extra    session    of,    in 

1848,  15 ;  school  laws  passed  by,  in 

1849,  17,   18;   conflict  of  authority 
between    Board   of   Education    and, 
40,    41,    111;    school    questions   be- 
fore,  in   1870,    74;   bills   in,   hostile 
to   office   of   county   superintendent, 
79,  81,  83;  education  neglected  by, 
108;  veto  power  of,   113,   114;   ac- 
tion   and    non-action    of,    in    1858, 
116,    117,    118,    122;   stinginess  of, 
toward    Board    of    Education,    119, 
120;  veto  of  bill  of,  123,  124;  mes- 
sages  to,    124;    restoration    of   con- 
trol of  schools  to,  124,  130;  Board 
of  Examiners   established  by,    139; 
institutes    aided    by,    157;    Normal 
School  bill  before,   215;   recommen- 
dation to,  221,  268;  legislation  pro- 
posed to,  by  Teachers'  Association, 
242,  243,  244;   agriculture  encour- 
aged by,  275;  school  exhibits  aided 
by,  291,  292;  school  legislation  pro- 
posed   to,    312-355;    legislative    au- 
thority   of,    from    1857-1864,    313- 
316,  319,  320;  school  code  submit- 
ted to,  348;  act  of  1858  passed  by, 
416 

Geography,  lectures  on,  198,  199 
Geologist,  State,  98 
Geology,  teaching  of,  98 


German,  teaching  of,  125,  126-129 
German    Empire,    school    exhibit    of, 

294;    part   of   Iowa   exhibit  sought 

by,  295 

German-English  normal  school,   170 
Germans,  address  to,  404 
Gilbert,  0.  B.,  238 
Gilbert,  R.  R.,  255 
Gilchrist,  James  C.,  law  proposed  by, 

218;  reference  to,  222,  425 
Gillaspie,   Mary  J.  A.,   427 
Gilson,  R.   G.,   168 
Girls,  domestic  duties  taught  to,  274, 

276,   282,    283;   industrial  training 

of,    277;    cooking  school   for,    281; 

age  of,  for  manual  training,  284 
Globes,  terrestrial,  22,  427 
Governor,    early    salary   of,    18,    420; 

appointive  power  of,  109,  110;  new 

duty  of,  114;  proposed  appointment 

by,  352 
Graded  schools,   advantage  of,  26,  27; 

report    on,    42 ;    reference    to,    43 ; 

township,  44 ;  progress  of,  52 ;  need 

of  supervision  of,  59 ;  provision  for, 

94;    lectures   on,    154;    increase   in 

number  of,   162;   libraries  of,   270; 

investigation  of,  353 
Grades,  thoroughness  in,  351 
Graham,    Robert,    address    by,    176; 

reference  to,  226 
Grammar,   175 
Granger,  Lottie  E.,  234,  430 
Greek,  value  of,  225 
Greene,  0.  M.,  261 
Greene    County,    school    exhibit    from, 

294 

Greenwood,  J.  M.,  232 
Grimes,   James  W.,   view  of,   on  elec- 
tions, 109,  110 
Grinnell,   J.   B.,   notions  of,   316;   bill 

drafted  by,  416 
Grinnell,     teachers'    conventions    held 

at,   202,   221 
Grundy  County,  library  association  in, 

267 

Gulbrauson,  Emma,  prize  won  by,  294 
Guttenberg,       petition       from,       128; 

founders  of,  417 


454 


INDEX 


Hall,  J.  C.,  work  of,  106,  108,  111; 
report  defended  by,  191;  reference 
to,  413;  belief  of,  416 

Halstead,  Murat,  address  by,  239 

Hamill,  Major,  261 

Hamilton,  Ella,  262 

Hammond,  Wm.  G.,  address  by,  220 

Hancock  County,  superintendent  of, 
408 

Hardin  County,  institute  held  in,  167; 
school  exhibit  from,  294 

Harlan,  James,  election  of,  13 ;  ser- 
vices of,  13,  14 ;  report  of,  14,  15 ; 
reference  to,  198;  address  by,  199 

Harlan,  M.  T.,  72 

Harper,  William,  plan  adopted  by,  70 

Harris,  Dr.  William  T.,  opinion  of, 
84;  address  by,  225;  reference  to, 
238,  407 

Hart,  Anson,  418 

Hartford    (Connecticut),    151 

Hastings,  L.  M.,  96,  410 

Haverhill,  parochial  school  at,  299 

Hawes,  E.  D.,  160;  school  of,  420 

Heath,  Daisy,  prize  won  by,  294 

Henry  County,  teachers  institute  in, 
153 ;  superintendent  of,  408 

Hiatt,  Amos,  100 

High  school  manual,  first,  240 

High  schools,  recommendation  of,  28; 
preparation  of  teachers  at,  29 ;  ad- 
vantages of,  43 ;  proposed  course  of 
study  of,  48 ;  influence  of,  73 ;  su- 
pervision in,  93-102;  consideration 
given  to,  212,  216,  217;  encourage- 
ment of,  233 ;  agriculture  taught  at, 
284;  State  aid  to,  850,  353;  in- 
vestigation of,  353 

High  schools,  county,  76;  normal 
training  at,  196;  advocates  of,  217; 
encouragement  of,  233 ;  manual 
training  needed  at,  281;  purpose 
of,  332 

High  schools,  township,  need  of,  342, 
343,  851,  353 

Hildreth,  A.  B.  P.,  opinion  of,  119; 
reference  to,  415 

Hinrichs,  Gustavus,  notebook  dis- 
played by,  289 


Hiskey,   W.   O.,   96 

Historical  Society,  State,  organization 

of,  257 

History,  examination  in,  133 
Holbrook,  Florence,  238 
Holbrook's  apparatus,  22 
Hollanders,  settlement  of,  127;  church 

schools  of,  299,  301 
Hollen,  Miss  A.  C.,  137 
Hollen,  B.  C.,   137 
Hoist,  B.  P.,  412 
Houses,   school,   construction  of,   19 

(see  Buildings) 
Howard    County,    church    schools    in, 

298 
Howe,   Samuel  S.,   190 ;  statement  by, 

195;  journal  edited  by,  259;  paper 

published  by,  433 
Howe,  W.  B.,   97 
Howell,  Miss  L.  G.,  262 
Howland,   George,   235 
Hubbard,  Rufus,  plan  of,  70 
Hukill,  Anson  T.,   100 
Hull,   Amaziah,    168 
Humphrey,    Frederick,    193 ;    address 

by,  196 

Hungarians,  settlement  of,  417 
Hyndman,  Miss  E.  J.,  430 

Ideal  school,  233 

Ijams,  W.  E.,  195 

Illinois,  Normal  University  of,  166; 
supervision  in,  409;  school  commis- 
sion of,  440 

Illinois  Normal  School,   169 

Independence,  convention  at,  226;  pa- 
rochial school  at,  299 

Independent  districts,  restoration  of, 
49,  125,  322,  327,  331,  336;  oppo- 
sition of,  to  outside  interference, 
78,  91;  opponent  of,  312,  333,  336, 
337;  care  of  school  funds  of,  336; 
advocate  of,  417 

Indians,  school  for,  435 

Industrial  exhibitions,  director  of,  89 

Industrial  training,  218,  228,  242, 
303;  history  of,  274-288;  introduc- 
tion of,  in  schools,  277;  advocates 
of,  277,  278-281;  experiments  in, 


INDEX 


455 


279;  first  city  school  for,  281;  num- 
ber of  schools  offering,  282,  283, 
284;  various  forms  of,  285;  agita- 
tion for,  285,  286;  need  of  teachers 
in,  287,  288;  exhibit  representative 
of,  296;  county  high  schools  for, 
332;  investigation  of,  353;  exten- 
sion of,  354 

Ingalls,  Moses,  work  of,  161,  198; 
report  of,  161,  162,  201,  202,  205; 
opinion  of,  185 

Insanity,  education  opposed  to,  226 
Inspection,   State,  350;  need  of,  3~53 
Inspectors,     school,     request    for,    by 

Superintendent,  57 

Inspectors,  township,  supervision  of 
schools  by,  3,  4;  statute  relative  to 
duties  of,  5,  373-377;  reduction  of 
number  of,  5,  6 ;  end  of  office  of,  6 ; 
duty  of  conferring  with,  12 ;  resto- 
ration of  functions  of,  30 ;  need  of, 
52,  53,  54;  compensation  of,  401 
Institutes,  teachers,  provision  for,  34; 
report  on,  42 ;  lectures  at,  46 ;  ref- 
erence to,  47,  123,  129,  200,  213, 
338,  345;  Superintendent's  visits 
to,  in  1877,  52;  inspection  of,  54; 
direction  of,  57;  denunciation  of, 
75;  attendance  at,  81,  154,  326, 
423 ;  need  of,  82 ;  law  commended 
by,  126;  history  of,  149-186;  pur- 
pose of,  151,  155 ;  Benton  as  advo- 
cate of,  152,  153 ;  early  instances 
of,  152,  153,  420;  resolutions  of, 
155,  165;  need  of  State  support  of, 
156 ;  Mann  report  on,  156,  157 ; 
State  aid  of,  157,  158,  162;  in- 
crease in  number  of,  in  1860,  159, 
163 ;  compulsory  attendance  at,  159, 
162,  164,  197,  349;  State  agent  to 
conduct,  160,  161;  failure  of  or- 
ganization of,  161,  162;  teachers  at, 
162,  167;  appreciation  of,  163;  sta- 
tistics relative  to,  163 ;  lack  of  con- 
trol over,  163,  164,  165;  length  of, 
165 ;  opposition  to,  166 ;  normal  in- 
stitute distinguished  from,  167; 
branches  taught  at,  169,  210;  uni- 
formity of,  in  counties,  171;  hold- 


ing of,  202;  better  control  of,  221, 
327;  expense  of,  332;  place  of,  343; 
registration  fee  of,  352;  list  of,  for 
1861-1862,  420-423;  conduct  of,  by 
teachers,  424 ;  courses  for,  424,  425 

Institutions,  classification  of,  146 

Instruction,  nature  of,  in  1848,  16; 
improvement  in  methods  of,  27; 
supervision  of,  65 ;  methods  of, 
153;  importance  of  methods  of,  162; 
thoroughness  of,  222 

Intuitional  teaching,  48 

Iowa,  State  of,  history  of  school  su- 
pervision in,  11-102;  tour  of  in- 
spection of  schools  of,  in  1870,  47; 
teachers  of,  from  other  States,  137; 
excellent  school  system  of,  215; 
northwest,  school  libraries  in,  269, 
270;  school  law  of,  compared  with 
Ohio  law,  383-395 

Iowa,  Territory  of,  history  of  school 
supervision  in,  3-10;  school  report 
of,  8,  9;  comparison  of  Michigan 
law  of  1838  with  that  of,  359-382 

Iowa  Band,  plan  of,  435 

Iowa  City,  cost  of  buildings  at,  in 
1849,  21;  meeting  of  county  super- 
intendents at,  38;  early  principal 
of  schools  at,  95;  teachers  exam- 
inations given  at,  134 ;  State  nor- 
mal institute  at,  174,  175;  conven- 
tions at,  190,  191,  194,  219,  224, 
317,  409;  manual  training  at,  282; 
school  exhibit  from,  293 

Iowa  City  Academy,  410 

Iowa  College,  losses  of,  228 ;  reference 
to,  406 

Iowa  County,  church  schools  in,  298, 
300 

Iowa  Falls,  168 

Iowa  Instructor,  The,  editor  of,  161 ; 
publication  of,  202,  258;  sale  of 
volumes  of,  203 

Iowa  Instructor  and  School  Journal, 
The,  publication  of,  258,  259 ;  State 
aid  to,  260 

Iowa  Journal  of  Education,  nature  of, 
255;  end  of,  256 

Iowa  Medical  Journal,  255 


456 


INDEX 


Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  The,  proceed- 
ings published  in,  231;  reference 
to,  234;  publication  of,  261;  nature 
of,  261,  262,  263 

Iowa  School  Journal,  The,  197,  263; 
publication  of,  258;  editors  of,  260; 
consolidation  of,  261 

Iowa  Schools,  263 

Iowa  Teacher,  The,  publication  of, 
262,  263 

Iowa  Township  (Iowa  County),  paro- 
chial school  in,  300 

Irish,  Mrs.  Gilbert  B.,  427 

Irish,  Thomas  M.,  95,  98,  175 

Jackson  County,  institutes  held  in, 
168;  library  in,  267 

Jamieson,  Win.  W.,  97 

Jarnagin,  J.  W.,  293 

Jasper  County,  district  libraries  in, 
267 

Jennings,  Berryman,  letter  sent  to, 
233 

Johnson  County,  political  convention 
in,  81;  petition  from,  117,  126;  op- 
position to  county  superintendent 
in,  411 

Johnston,  Ellen  E.,  137 

Johnstone,  Edward,  413 

Jones,  G.  W.,  433 

Jones  County,  teachers  institute  in, 
153;  recommendation  from,  328 

Jordan,  David  Starr,  238 

Journals,  school,  22,  213,  214,  311; 
influence  of,  43;  need  of,  in  1857, 
155 ;  steps  toward  establishment  of, 
192;  question  of,  200,  201;  history 
of,  255-264;  recommendation  of 
State  aid  to,  256,  257;  combination 
of,  258;  abandonment  of,  264 

Judges,  county,  87,  68;  proposed  duty 
of,  158 

Judicial  districts,  conventions  of  su- 
perintendents held  in,  83,  34,  38, 
68;  election  of  members  of  Board 
of  Education  from,  112,  114 

Jurisprudence,   school,    167 

Juvenile  offenders,  special  school  for, 
194 


Kansas,  Agricultural  College  of,  142 

Kasson,  John  A.,  address  by,  207 

Kelley,  Dennis  M.,  100 

Keokuk,  medical  school  at,  23 ;  school 
buildings  at,  26;  supervision  at, 
96;  reference  to,  97;  convention 
at,  211 

Keokuk  County,  petition  from,  117; 
teachers  library  in,  266 

Kimball,  George  P.,  415 

Kindergarten,  48 ;  German,  instances 
of,  in  Iowa,  303 

King,  Florella,   137 

King,  William  F.f  53 ;  classics  de- 
fended by,  211 

Kirkwood,  Samuel  J.,  41,  417;  ap- 
pointment by,  42;  bill  vetoed  by, 
124;  view  of,  on  school  system, 
125 ;  petition  presented  by,  126, 
127 

Kissell,  Abram  S.,  administration  of, 
44,  45 ;  tour  of  inspection  by,  46, 
47;  final  report  of,  47,  48;  refer- 
ence to,  73,  94,  96,  198,  212;  sug- 
gestion of,  167;  meeting  called  to 
order  by,  195 ;  address  by,  196, 
214;  nomination  of,  204;  proposed 
work  of,  205;  position  of,  206; 
resignation  of,  207;  sketch  of  life 
of,  405;  petition  of,  412 

Klinefelter,  L.  L.,  230 

Kling,  Ira  C.,  statement  of,  237; 
Sabin's  praise  of,  407 

Knoepfler,  John  B.,  administration  of, 
58;  recommendation  of,  86,  87; 
reference  to,  248 ;  opinion  of,  340 ; 
educational  work  of,  407 

Kossuth,  Louis,  417 

Kratz,   H.  E.,   237 

Kretschmer,  Charles  G.,  98 ;  address 
by,  214 

Labor,  Commissioner  of,  report  of,  on 

industrial  labor,  278,  279 
Ladies  society,  work  of,  282 
Lake  conventions,  81 
Lake  Okoboji,  convention  at,  82,   83 
Land,   request  of,   for  libraries,    265 ; 

need  of  improvement  of,  278 


INDEX 


457 


Land  offices,  credentials  sent  to  reg- 
isters of,  15 

Lands,  school,  management  of,  7; 
need  of  care  of,  in  1841,  9 ;  selec- 
tion of,  in  1847,  13 ;  selection  and 
sale  of,  by  Superintendent,  15 ;  rec- 
ord of  sales  of,  20;  duties  relative 
to,  64;  law  relative  to,  117;  in- 
secure titles  of,  310 

Lane,   D.,    193 

Languages,  teaching  of,  73,  127-129; 
examination  in,  133 

Lansing,  58 

Larrabee,  William,  address  by,  232 

Lathrop,  Henry  W.,  236 

Latin,  teaching  of,  127,  274;  value 
of,  225 

Laws,  school,  provisions  of,  in  1847, 
11,  12;  interpretation  of,  15,  35, 
46,  56;  repeal  of,  in  1847,  17,  18; 
explanation  of,  to  school  officers, 
18,  19 ;  evolution  of,  19 ;  distribu- 
tion of,  9,  310,  333,  339,  340;  ob- 
servation of,  in  1850,  23 ;  defense 
of,  in  1859,  34,  35 ;  administration 
of,  40;  review  of,  down  to  1875, 
52;  questions  arising  under,  in 
1858,  67;  defects  of,  73;  confusion 
due  to,  82,  215,  322,  323;  revision 
of,  in  1856,  108;  reference  to,  123, 
144,  145  ;  codification  of,  125,  242  ; 
examination  in,  133 ;  need  of  sim- 
plification of,  in  1873,  219;  history 
of  recommendations  and  sugges- 
tions relative  to,  309-355;  popular 
agitation  for,  from  1857-1868,  313- 
329 ;  consolidation  of,  323 ;  pro- 
posed amendments  of,  after  1870, 
329;  need  of  reconstruction  of,  in 
1881,  335,  336;  recommendations 
of  1885  relative  to,  337,  338;  sale 
of,  340 ;  need  of  revision  of,  in 
1893,  341;  proposal  of,  in  1909, 
348,  349;  need  of  code  of,  354, 
355;  comparison  of,  359-382,  383- 
395;  drafting  of,  416 
Lawyers,  compensation  of,  77 
Laylander,  O.  J.,  100 
Leander  Clark  College,  275 


Lectures,  institute,   154,  155 

Lee  County,  70;  institute  held  in, 
167;  Friends'  school  in,  276 

Legislation,  school,  under  Board  of 
Education,  116-131;  recent,  on  ed- 
ucation, 167;  history  of,  204,  214, 
215;  source  of,  since  1912,  244; 
proposed,  sketch  of,  307-355 

Legislative  Assembly,  office  abolished 
by,  10 

Legislators,  value  of  historical  data 
to,  51,  52 

Lehrschule,   303 

Le  Mars,  parochial  school  at,   299 

Leonard,   Frank  M.,  290 

Leonard,  Nathan  R.,  175;  address 
by,  201,  223 

Lewis,  Daniel  \V.,  100,   175,  237 

Liberal  education,  opportunity  for, 
29 

Libraries,  school,  17,  45,  207,  267; 
volume  recommended  for,  22 ;  rec- 
ommendation of  books  for,  33; 
books  listed  for,  143 ;  school  jour- 
nal supplied  to,  257;  history  of, 
265-273;  legal  provision  for,  265, 
267,  268;  teachers  educational, 
266;  growth  of,  267,  269,  273; 
benefactor  of,  269,  270;  extension 
of  facilities  of,  272;  expense  of, 
272,  273;  proposed  legislation  on, 
327;  recommendation  relative  to, 
344 

Library  associations,  266,  267 

Library  Commission,  State,  creation 
of,  269;  suggestion  relative  to,  273 

Licenses,  revocation  of,  6 ;  grant  of, 
to  teachers  before  1873,  137 

Lieutenant  Governor,  duty  of,  113, 
114 

Life     diplomas,     proposed     grant     of, 
138;    issue    of,    140;    qualifications 
of  candidates  for,   141,   143;  recog- 
nition of,  144;  number  of,  147 
Lincoln    Township     (Sioux    County), 

parochial  school  in,  300 
Linn    County,     township    supervision 
in,  85 ;   institute  held  in,   164,   166, 
167 


458 


INDEX 


Literary  Advertiser  and  Public  School 
Advocate,  197,  259 

Loughridge,  Sarah  F.,  137 

Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition,  school 
exhibit  at,  295,  296;  State  appro- 
priations for  exhibits  at,  437 

Lovell,  William  Y.,  report  by,  408 

Lowden,  parochial  school  at,  300 

Lowe,  Ralph  P.,  view  of,  121,  315; 
message  of,  124;  reference  to,  415 

Lowry,  Rev.  David,  school  under,  435 

Lucas,  Robert,   appointment  by,   7 

Lucas  County,  institute  held  in,   164 

Lusk,  I.  C.,  137 

Lutherans,  schools  established  by, 
298,  300 

Lyceums,    45 

Lyman,  Jacob  P.,  137 

Lyons,  schools  at,  26;  parochial 
school  at,  299 

McBride,  Mary  E.,   137 

Macbride,  T.  H.,  232 ;  school  exhibits 
supervised  by,  236,  290;  report  of, 
291 

McCarty,  Joseph,  96,  134,   137 

McClain,   Emlin,  address  by,  228 

McClain,  Wm.,   154,  245 

McClellan,  John  W.,   100 

McClung,  James,  schools  visited  by, 
246;  reference  to,  410 

McConnell,  Joseph  J.,  100 

McGonegal,  Mrs.  M.  A.,  lesson  given 
by,  73;  reference  to,  137,  198,  216; 
address  by,  214 

McKim,  Oscar,   142 

McLane,   Samuel  B.,  96 

McNaughton,  James,  100 

McNutt,   S.,   193 

Madison  (Wisconsin),  exhibit  at,  236, 
279,  290,  291 

Mahaska  County,  institute  held  in, 
164,  168,  170;  teachers  library  in, 
266;  parochial  school  in,  302 

Mann,  Horace,  work  of,  126;  prin- 
ciple of,  160;  resolutions  on  death 
of,  198;  address  on,  251;  plans  of, 
816;  township  districts  favored  by, 
417 


Mann  Commission,  report  of,  29,  106; 
office  recommended  by,  64 ;  bill  pro- 
posed by,  108,  126,  155;  institutes 
favored  by,  156,  157;  reference  to, 
311;  failure  of  bill  of,  414 

Manual,  The,  261 

Manual,  high  school,  first,  240 

Manual  labor  college,  plan  of,  435 

Manual  Labor  Department,   275 

Manual  labor  school,  land  offered  for, 
276 

Manufactories,  spread  of,  278 

Map-drawing,  290 

Maps,    22 

Maquoketa,    100 

Marengo,  97 

Marion,  96,   100;  schools  at,  26 

Marion  County,  parochial  schools  in, 
301,  302 

Marshall  County,  school  exhibit  from, 
294;  church  schools  in,  298,  299, 
300 

Marshalltown,  97;  convention  at, 
212,  225;  school  library  in,  267; 
parochial  school  at,  299;  enroll- 
ment at,  429 

Martin,   S.  B.,   166 

Marvin,  A.  H.,  statement  of,  114 

Mason,  Charles,  bill  of,  118;  view  of, 
on  use  of  Bible,  121;  reference  to, 
415 ;  independent  districts  favored 
by,  417 

Mason  City,  library  at,  267;  prize 
won  by  schools  of,  293 

Massachusetts,  school  inspection  in, 
47;  institutes  in,  156;  truancy  law 
of,  197;  boasted  schools  of,  204; 
school  taxes  in,  312 

Massillon  (Ohio),  law  for  benefit  of, 
383 

Mathematics,  examination  in,  133 ; 
high  school,  223 

Maynard,  Joshua,   154 

Maynard,   Sibbel,  154 

Mechanic  arts,  instruction  in,  279 

Mechanic's  Institute,  cost  of,  21 

Medical  college,  Keokuk,  appropria- 
tion to,  23 ;  reference  to,  256 

Men  teachers,  wages  of,  403 


INDEX 


459 


Merrill,  Jacob  T.,  100 

Merrill,  Samuel,  44,  73 ;  recommenda- 
tion of,  47 ;  appointment  by,  405 

Messer,   Nicholas,    142 

Metric  Bureau,  session  of,  224 

Metric  system,  44,  175,  223,  224;  ap- 
proval of,  166;  address  on,  207; 
recommendation  of,  222 

Michigan,  Territory  of,  school  law  of, 
265 ;  school  law  of,  compared  with 
Iowa  law,  359-382 

Midland  Schools,  publication  of,  263 

Military  instruction,   129 

Miller,  W.  E.,  438 

Mills,   Dan,   415 

Mills  Brothers,  258,  259 

Minerva  Township  (Marshall  Coun- 
ty), parochial  school  in,  300 

Mining  Region  Teachers'  Association, 
152 

Ministers,  salary  of,  77 

Minneapolis,    96 

Minnesota,  200;  statute  of,  440 

Mississippi     and    Missouri    Railroad, 

198,  210,  428 

Mississippi  River,  travel  by,  193,  200, 
206 

Mississippi  Valley,    education   in,    189 

Mississippi  Valley  Educational  Asso- 
ciation, 195 

Mitchel,  Isaac  J.,  415 

Mitchell  County,  59;  superintendent 
of,  408 

Model  school,  director  of,  198 

Moeller,  H.  C.,   appointment  of,   412 

Monticello  Township  (Jones  County), 
328 

Moral  education,  47,  154,  223,  240; 
need  of,  297;  school  for,  298 

Morrow,  Mrs.  S.  L.,  101 

Mount  Pleasant,  96;  convention  at, 
201 

Moyer,  S.  J.,  166 

Muscatine,  school  houses  at,  24,  26; 
teacher  of,  43 ;  principal  of  schools 
at,  94,  213;  supervision  at,  96; 
teachers  convention  at,  190,  192, 

199,  200;  parochial  school  at,  299; 
schools  of,  405 


Muscatine   County,    institute   held   in, 

165 

Music,  45 
Myers,  J.  Fred,  paper  by,  435 

National  Educational  Association,  ef- 
fect of,  on  Iowa,  279,  280;  manual 
training  advocated  by,  285;  school 
exhibit  at,  meeting  of,  290,  291; 
invitation  of,  406 

National  Teachers'  Association,  organ- 
ization of,  189 ;  Iowa  man  chair- 
man of,  190 ;  Iowa  delegates  to,  in 
1869,  212;  invitation  extended  to, 
216;  appropriation  to  Iowa  dele- 
gate to,  230;  Iowa's  representatives 
at,  in  1860,  427 

Negroes,  schools  for,  17,  122 ;  discrim- 
ination against,  414 

Nestlerode,  C.  C.,  94,  198,  234,  236, 
245,  427,  429;  institute  directed 
by,  153,  154;  address  by,  201; 
journal  edited  by,  258 

New  Orleans,  exposition  at,  54,  232, 
236,  290,  291,  292 

New  York,  history  of  school  law  of, 
19;  teachers  institutes  in,  151,  156 

New  York  City,  22 

Newbold,  Joshua  G.,  79;  opinion  of, 
139 

Newell,  A.  C.,  285 

Newton,  normal  school  at,   166 

Nichols,  Ernest  R.,  142 

Nokomis  Township  (Buena  Vista 
County),  prize  won  by  school  in, 
293 

Non-partisanship,  resolution  in  favor 
of,  411 

Normal  and  Industrial  Colleges,  Coun- 
ty, 435 

Normal  Department,  University,  43, 
44,  74,  132,  133;  life  certificates 
to  graduates  of,  137;  model  school 
in,  198 ;  need  of  appropriation  for, 
212;  head  of,  213 

Normal  Index,  The,  262 

Normal  institutes,  need  of,  82 ;  law 
relative  to,  89,  156,  172;  nature 
of,  167,  168;  holding  of,  168,  169, 


460 


INDEX 


170;  fund  of,  172;  large  attend- 
ance at,  172,  174,  180;  course  of 
study  of,  173,  176,  177,  178; 
State  and  county  appropriations  to, 
174,  181;  uniformity  of,  177,  178; 
disadvantages  of  large  attendance 
at,  178,  180 ;  entrance  requirement 
needed  to,  179,  180;  need  of  aca- 
demic work  in,  180,  181;  beginning 
of,  181;  expense  of,  181;  licensing 
of  instructors  at,  182 ;  need  of  in- 
spection of,  182;  grading  of,  183; 
demand  for  abolition  of,  183 ;  de- 
crease in  attendance  at,  184;  law 
of  1913  relative  to,  184;  abolition 
of,  353;  support  of,  424 

Normal  Institute,  State  (see  State 
Normal  Institute) 

Normal  school,  need  of,  74,  165; 
opening  of,  at  Newton,  166;  coun- 
ty, proposed  function  of,  179 ; 
county,  need  of,  342,  343 

Normal  School,  State,  advocate  of,  44, 
47,  196,  210;  president  of  board 
of  directors  of,  56;  president  of, 
99;  duty  of  president  of,  140;  cer- 
tificates issued  to  graduates  of, 
143;  demand  for,  197;  argument 
for,  204;  recommendation  of,  212; 
memorial  for,  215;  principal  of, 
222 

Normal  schools,  legislation  for,  in 
1849,  22;  establishment  of,  29; 
local,  establishment  of,  166;  course 
in,  167;  reference  to,  213,  219; 
need  of,  353 

Normal  training,  classes  in,  200;  ap- 
propriation for,  in  high  schools,  353 

Norman,  J.  J.  F..,  opinion  of,  163 

Northwestern  Educator,  The,  402 

Northwestern  Journal  of  Education, 
The,  262;  ambition  of,  263 

Norwegian  language,   127 

Norwegian  Lutherans,  schools  of,  299 

Objective  teaching,   48,   73 

O'Brien    County,    school    libraries    in, 

269 
Officers,  school,  functions  of,  17;  law 


explained  to,  in  1849,  18,  19;  rec- 
ommendation relative  to  records  of, 
19,  20;  counsel  needed  by,  57; 
terms  of,  61 ;  Superintendent's 
communication  with,  65 ;  appoint- 
ment of  county  superintendent  by, 
91;  efficiency  of,  200;  meeting  of, 
249;  compensation  of,  310;  con- 
fusion of,  in  1858,  316,  317;  fail- 
ure of,  to  report,  325,  326;  ac- 
countability of,  332;  laws  distrib- 
uted to,  333,  339,  340;  large  num- 
ber of,  333 ;  disjointed  relation  of, 
338,  339;  suggested  control  of, 
348 ;  attendance  of,  at  conventions, 
351;  proposed  duty  of,  354;  need 
of  regulating  payments  to,  438 

Ohio,  statute  of,  compared  with  Iowa 
law  of  1857,  383-395 ;  institutes  in, 
423 

Oldt,  Franklin  T.,  100 

Omnibuses,  travel  by,  206 

Orange  City,  parochial  school  at,  301, 
302 

Ornamental  work,  277 

Osceola  County,  school  libraries  in, 
270;  parochial  schools  in,  299 

Oskaloosa,  schools  at,  26,  99 ;  con- 
vention at,  205,  206,  227;  manual 
training  at,  282;  school  exhibit 
from,  293 

Osmond,  Rev.  Jonathan,  72 

Ottumwa,  superintendent  of  schools 
at,  96 ;  reference  to,  99 

Palo  Alto  County,  school  libraries  in, 
270 

Parents,  cooperation  of,  with  teachers, 
154 

Paris,  school  for  American  girls  at, 
101;  school  exhibit  at,  289 

Parish,  Leonard  W.,  230 

Parker,  Leonard  F.,  166,  202,  216; 
report  by,  429 

Parochial  schools,  history  of,  297-305; 
incomplete  record  of,  298;  estab- 
lishment of,  by  Lutherans  and 
Catholics,  298-300;  sketch  of, 
among  Hollanders,  801,  302;  na- 


INDEX 


461 


ture  of,  in  Amana  Colony,  302-305; 
attendance  at,  305 

Parvin,  J.  A.,  address  by,  190 

Parvin,  T.  S.,  7,  212,  236,  410;  pro- 
posal of,  221;  suggestion  of,  233, 
430 

Pee  Dee,  letter  of,  122 

Pelamourgues,   Father,  school  of,   299 

Pella,  Hollanders  at,  127;  parochial' 
schools  at,  301,  302 

Penmanship,  175 

Penmanship  and  drawing,  department 
of,  234 

Pennsylvania,  200;  board  system  in, 
330 

Peoria  (Illinois),  96 

Perry,  T.  B.,  view  of,  31;  reference 
to,  127;  attitude  of,  415;  letter  of, 
on  independent  districts,  417 

Phelps,  William  F.,  206;  address  by, 
220 

Philadelphia,  meetings  at,  189 ;  expo- 
sition at,  221,  289,  406 

Philadelphia  Educational  Museum, 
295 

Philbrick,  P.  H.,  address  by,  223; 
letter  to,  224 

Philosophy,  natural,  221 

Phonetic  Association,  Iowa,  192;  ac- 
tivity of,  428 

Phonetic  system,  recommendation  of, 
196 

Phonetic  type,  illustration  of,  194 

Physicians  and  surgeons,  college  of, 
23 

Physics,  teaching  of,  at  State  Univer- 
sity, 289 

Physiology,  teaching  of,  175;  exam- 
ination in,  219,  246 

Pickard,  Josiah  L.,  53 ;  history  of 
teachers  institutes  by,  151;  address 
by,  223 ;  regrets  sent  by,  232 

Pierce,  S.  G.,  72 

Piper,  Jonathan,  letter  of,  75;  ora- 
tion by,  175;  statement  of,  185; 
proposed  work  of,  205 ;  resignation 
of,  206;  address  by,  213;  refer- 
ence to,  261,  429 

Plymouth  Church,  meeting  in,  231 


Plymouth  County,  parochial  schools 
in,  299 

Political  science,  teaching  of,  222,  223 

Politics,  result  of,  77 

Polk  County,  supervision  in,  80;  in- 
stitute held  in,  159,  160;  instruc- 
tion of  teachers  in,  181;  teachers 
from,  198;  reference  to,  257;  li- 
brary association  in,  267 

Porter,  Rev.  G.  D.,  154 

Pottawattamie  County,  church  schools 
in,  298 

Potter,  Waldo  M.,  address  by,  220 

Poweshiek  County,  school  exhibit  of, 
294 

Practical  education,  history  of,  in 
Iowa,  274-288 

Prescott  school,  98 

Presidents,  State  Teachers'  Associa- 
tion, names  of,  396-398 

Press,  observations  of,  118,  124;  use 
of,  for  school  purposes,  225 

Primary  schools,  report  on  condition 
of,  7;  provision  for  organization  of, 
7;  branches  to  be  taught  in,  28; 
interest  in  work  of,  180 

Primrose,   schools   at,   26 

Principals,  supervisory,  first  instance 
of,  26;  supervision  by,  91;  status 
of,  93,  94,  102 ;  history  of  omce  of, 
94,  98,  102;  duties  of,  97;  office 
of,  held  by  women,  101;  association 
of,  225,  247 

Private  schools,   162,   297 

Prohibitory  amendment,  supporters  of, 
229 

Prussia,  school  system  of,  403 

Publishers,  conference  with,  194;  con- 
tributions by,  203 

Pupils,  supervision  of,  5 ;  grouping  of, 
16;  desks  of,  in  early  days,  20; 
non-resident,  admission  of,  24,  311; 
examination  of,  95;  age  of,  221; 
health  of,  352 

Pupils'  Reading  Circle,  Iowa,  organ- 
ization of,  272 

Pusey,  M.  J.,  142 

Quintrell,  Emma,  214 


462 


INDEX 


Race  problem,  solution  of,  122 

Ranney,  Dr.  Mark,  address  by,  226 

Rate  bill,  recommendation  of,  25; 
need  of,  311 

Rathbun,  Mrs.  S.  W.,  427 

Raymond,  L.  B.,  journal  edited  by, 
261 

Reading,  teaching  of,  73 ;  model  lesson 
in,  214;  course  of,  233 

Reading  circles,  course  for,  88 ;  organ- 
ization of,  270-272;  uniformity  of, 
271;  organization  of,  for  pupils, 
272 

Records,  school,  system  recommended 
relative  to,  19 ;  reference  to,  162 

Reeder,  P.  W.,  72 

Reform  School,  State,  demand  for, 
162,  165;  first  step  toward,  194; 
establishment  of,  211 

Religious  education,  47;  need  of,  297; 
schools  for,  298;  nature  of,  among 
Hollanders,  301 

Reports,  school,  law  of  1847  relative 
to,  12 ;  nature  of,  12,  13 ;  neglect 
of,  214;  district,  system  of,  224; 
annual  return  of,  332 

Reynolds,  William,  appointment  of,  7; 
proposal  of,  7,  8 ;  report  of,  8,  9 ; 
reference  to,  15,  190,  198 ;  lectures 
by,  198,  199;  globes  used  by,  427 

Rich,  Benjamin  C.,  137 

Rich,  Mrs.  J.  W.,  appointment  of,  140 

Richard,  Father,  schools  of,  274 

Richards,  J.  H.,  263 

Richland  Township  (Mahaska  Coun- 
ty), parochial  school  in,  302 

Richmond,  parochial  school  at,  299 

Rigby,  E.  C.,  72 

Riggs,  John  P.,  administration  of,  61, 
62 ;  report  of,  on  teachers  certifi- 
cates, 144,  145;  final  report  of,  351, 
352;  educational  work  of,  408;  ref- 
erence to,  419 

Riley,  Dr.,  175 

Ringgold  County,  select  school  in,  168 

Ritz,  Rev.  S.,  154 

Roberts,  William,  189 

Rochester,  schools  at,  26;  reference 
to,  245 


Rock  Island,  96 

Rogers,  C.  P.,  80,  138,  173,  216,  220, 
237;  leadership  of,  97;  address  by, 
221,  229 

Ronalds,  Wm.  J.,  72 

Rose,  Leonard  A.,  137,  175 

Ross,  A.  C.,  408 

Roszelle,  O.  H.  P.,  415 

Round  tables,  need  of,  for  rural  teach- 
ers, 237;  local,  247,  248;  loss  of 
interest  in,  250 

Rowley,  John  W.,  140;  journal  of,  262 

Rural  schools,  supervision  of,  3,  350; 
need  of  supervision  of,  52,  59 ; 
Sabin's  view  of  supervision  of,  56; 
specialists  for  supervision  of,  86 ; 
withdrawal  of  teachers  from,  92 ; 
buildings  of,  205 ;  dissatisfaction 
with,  in  1872,  218;  round  table  of, 
237;  libraries  of,  269,  270;  extent 
of  libraries  of,  273 ;  agriculture 
taught  at,  284;  need  of  manual 
training  in,  285,  287;  prizes  won 
by,  293,  294 ;  exhibit  of,  at  Chicago, 
295;  view  on,  331;  management  of, 
in  1881,  336;  need  of  improvement 
of,  341;  need  of  better  teachers  in, 
342,  343;  better  facilities  for,  351; 
need  of  simple  organization  of,  351; 
investigation  of,  353 ;  consolidation 
of,  353 ;  course  of  study  for,  404, 
411 

Sabin,  Henry,  school  supervision  plan 
of,  3,  4 ;  administration  of,  55 ;  rec- 
ommendations of,  56,  57,  248; 
quotation  from  last  report  of, 
58;  successor  of,  59;  county 
superintendent  defended  by,  81; 
opinion  of,  86,  263 ;  reference  to, 
100,  175,  285;  address  by,  176, 
251;  injustice  pointed  out  by,  181, 
182;  good  will  of  teachers  toward, 
239 ;  call  issued  by,  249 ;  statement 
of,  about  teachers,  252;  journal 
edited  by,  263 ;  opinion  of,  on  edu- 
cational journals,  264;  circular  is- 
sued by,  268;  recommendation  of, 
on  publication  of  school  laws,  339; 


463 


suggestion    of,    340;    evils    pointed 

:  out  by,  344;  directory  first  issued 
by,  407 ;  Kling  praised  by,  407 ;  ex- 

i  cellent  services  of,  407;  States  cited 
by,  411 

St.  Louis,  manual  training  at,  279; 
school  exhibit  at,  295,  296 

St.  Paul's  Academy,  300 

Saline  lands,  proceeds  from,  22,  23 

Salter,  William,  address  by,  201 

Sand  Creek  Township  (Union  Coun- 
ty), resolution  of,  439 

Sanders,  J.  H.,  193,  426 

Sanford,  John  F.,  193;  address  by, 
195 

Sanitary  board,  district,  221 

Saunderson,  Robert  G.,  suggestion  of, 
84;  reference  to,  99,  224 

Schaeffer,  President,   143 

Schee,  George  W.,  liberality  of,  269, 
270 

Schofield,  Phoebe,  137 

Scholarships,   317 

School-Masters  Round  Table,  meet- 
ings of,  247 

School  commission,  changes  proposed 
by,  347,  348;  failure  of,  349; 
sources  of  report  of,  349,  350 

School  supervision,  history  of,  in  Iowa, 
2-102 

School  system,  attempt  at  organization 
of,  down  to  1854,  25 ;  history  of, 
down  to  1875,  51,  52;  severe  crit- 
icism of,  in  1872,  217,  218 

School  systems,  State  and  foreign,  in- 
formation on,  193 

Schools,  oversight  of,  by  Superintend- 
ent, 12;  recommendation  of  two 
grades  of,  28,  29;  small,  need  of 
abandonment  of,  62,  350,  351;  pub- 
lic, reorganization  of,  105 ;  need  of 
teaching  agriculture  in,  275;  num- 
ber of,  offering  manual  training, 
282,  283;  number  of,  in  1884,  291; 
need  of  moral  training  in,  305 

Schurz,  Carl,  406 

Science,  teaching  of,  97,  129;  exam- 
ination in,  133 ;  value  of,  225 

Science  and  Arts,  Institute  of,  98 


Scott,  John,  220 

Scott,  O.  C.,  237 

Scott  County,  supervision  in,  80 ;  in- 
stitutes held  in,  168;  reference  to, 
293  ;  superintendent  of,  405 

Secondary  schools,  recommendation  of, 
28;  actual  results  of,  in  1872,  48; 
reference  to,  222 

Secretaries,  school,  compensation  of, 
78;  property  assessment  by,  310 

Secretary  of  State,  proposed  duty  of, 
310;  law  distributed  by,  402 

Secretary  of  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, 14,  25;  election  of,  32;  func- 
tions of,  33 ;  reports  of,  34,  37, 
123;  Benton's  services  as,  34-36; 
ordinance  power  of,  36;  travels  of, 
38,  126;  final  report  of,  39;  con- 
ventions attended  by,  67,  68;  re- 
ports to,  68 ;  petition  suggested  by, 
71;  duty  of,  115;  discussion  about 
selection  of,  117,  118;  recommenda- 
tion of,  132,  134,  317,  318,  322, 
323 ;  institutes  provided  by,  157, 
158;  teachers'  preference  for,  204; 
address  by,  204;  official  organ  of, 
259,  260;  report  of,  to  General  As- 
sembly in  1859,  320;  meetings 
called  by,  409 

Sectarian  schools,  history  of  elemen- 
tary instruction  in,  297-305;  in- 
complete record  of,  298;  establish- 
ment of,  by  Lutherans  and  Cath- 
olics, 298-300;  sketch  of,  among 
Hollanders,  301,  302;  nature  of,  in 
Amana  Colony,  302-305 

See,  Mrs.  Cynthia,  137 

Seerley,  Homer  H.,  53,  99,  175,  230, 
4T2;  recommendation  of,  143;  opin- 
ion of,  185;  suggestion  by,  271; 
paper  by,  413 

Sessions,  Frank  J.,  report  of,  85;  ref- 
erence to,  296 

Settlements,  schools  for,  324 

Sewing,  instruction  in,  282 

Shafer,  Minnie,  prize  won  by,  294 

Sheldon,  meeting  at,  248 

Sherman,  Buren  R.,  opinion  of,  142 

Shoemakers,  276 


464 


INDEX 


Shops,  training  needed  for,  280 

Shoup,  J.  S.,  83 

Shoup,  Wm.  J.,  98,  175,  228;  address 
by,  176;  suggestion  of,  224;  journal 
edited  by,  261,  433;  report  by,  411; 
fearlessness  of,  263 

Sigourney,   schools   of,   408 

Sioux  Center,  parochial  school  at,  302 

Sioux  City,  supervision  of  schools  at, 
99;  meeting  at,  250;  school  exhibit 
from,  293 

Sioux  County,  parochial  schools  in, 
299,  300,  301,  302 

Smith,  J.  A.,  96 

Smith,  T.  H.,  137 

Smith  and  Co.,  203 

Southwestern  Teachers'  Association, 
429 

Spaulding,  J.  L.,  address  by,  240 

Spaulding,  R.,  journal  edited  by,  255 

Speer,  W.  W.,  230 

Spielstunde,  303 

Spillville,  parochial  school  at,  299 

Springer,  Arthur,  subjects  assigned  to, 
440 

Stage  coach,  travel  by,  193,  198 

Starr,  H.,  245 

State,  separation  between  church  and, 
298 

State  Agent,  200,  205,  352,  405;  re- 
port of,  201,  202,  207;  difficulties 
of,  206;  holders  of  position  of,  423 

State  Center,  woman  principal  at,  101 

State  normal  institute,  173,  425;  im- 
portance of,  174;  session  of,  174, 
175;  union  of,  with  State  Teachers' 
Association,  176;  proposal  of,  179; 
journal  of,  261 

States,  teachers  associations  in,  189 ; 
Eastern,  panic  of  1857  in,  312 

Statutes,  school,  comparison  of,  359- 
382,  383-395 

Sleigerwalt,  Wm.  F.,   137 

Stevens,  Andrew  J.,  gift  of,  257,  433 ; 
journal  edited  by,  258 

Stewart,  J.  W.,  178 

Stone,  Professor,  196 

Stone,  Wm.  M.,  appointment  by,  43 ; 
recommendation  of,  130 


Storm  Lake,  meeting  at,  249 

Stuart,  Albion  W.,  services  of,  99; 
reference  to,  96 

Sub-districts,  system  of,  125 ;  abolition 
of,  213,  317,  318;  opponent  of, 
215;  levy  of  taxes  in,  324 

Sudlow,  Phoebe  W.,  lesson  given  by, 
73 ;  services  of,  100 ;  election  of,  222 

Summer  schools,  168,  174;  methods 
taught  at,  181;  advocates  of,  183; 
opening  of,  184;  legal  provision  for, 
194 

Sunday  school,  influence  of,  240 

Superintendent,  county,  creation  of  of- 
fice of,  29,  64;  powers  of,  30;  re- 
port relative  to,  30;  reference  to, 
42,  44 ;  importance  of  office  of,  43 ; 
assistants  needed  by,  52 ;  need  of 
supervision  by,  53 ;  law  of  1858 
relative  to  election  of,  64,  65;  rea- 
sons for  creation  of  office  of,  65; 
State  supervision  of,  65;  duties  of, 
65,  76;  compensation  of,  66,  70, 
71,  77,  78,  90,  91;  first  election  of, 
66 ;  appreciation  of  work  of,  76 ; 
hostile  influences  on  office  of,  77 ; 
height  of  opposition  to,  78,  79 ;  bills 
relative  to,  79,  83 ;  attacks  upon  of- 
fice of,  80,  81,  83 ;  change  of  atti- 
tude toward,  84 ;  necessity  of,  86 ; 
proposed  qualifications  of,  87;  waste 
in  office  of,  87,  88;  increasing  du- 
ties of,  89,  90 ;  qualifications  of,  90, 
91;  reasons  for  opposition  to  office 
of,  91,  92;  question  of  abolition  of 
office  of,  123 ;  teachers'  examina- 
tions given  by,  132 ;  written  exam- 
inations by,  134;  reduction  of  sal- 
ary of,  158;  supporters  of,  219, 
409;  fixed  salary  of,  318;  report  of 
sub-directors  to,  825;  recent  recom- 
mendations relative  to  office  of,  354 ; 
first  appointment  of,  412  (see  also 
Superintendents,  county) 

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction, 
State,  provision  for,  5,  359;  func- 
tion of,  6,  7,  18;  appointment  of, 
7,  352,  354;  proposal  of,  7,  8;  re- 
port of,  8,  9,  12,  13,  15-17;  aboli- 


INDEX 


465 


tion  of  office  of,  10,  30,  105;  re- 
establishment  of  office  of,  11,  42, 
130;  duties  of,  12,  22,  23;  election 
of,  in  1847  and  1848,  13,  14;  com- 
pensation of,  18,  352,  401,  403; 
circular  issued  by,  18-21;  complaint 
of,  24;  separation  of  educational 
from  financial  duties  of,  28;  succes- 
sors of,  36,  117,  118;  increase  of 
duties  of,  46,  52,  56,  61,  62 ;  per- 
sonality of,  down  to  1872,  48;  cler- 
ical duties  of,  50,  63 ;  demand  for 
relief  of,  53,  54,  57,  59;  advisory 
council  of,  53,  227;  incumbents  of 
office  of,  62,  63 ;  assistance  granted 
to,  63;  meetings  called  by,  90,  91; 
opposition  to  office  of,  108,  109 ; 
proposed  duty  of,  130,  138,  173, 
341 ;  duty  of,  as  examiner,  140 ; 
examination  papers  sent  to,  142; 
duty  of,  in  regard  to  institutes, 
157;  institutes  appointed  by,  165; 
request  of,  177;  official  organ  of, 
192,  257,  260,  311;  teachers'  pref- 
erence for,  204;  membership  of,  on 
reading  circle  board,  271;  distribu- 
tion of  laws  by,  333 ;  proposed  term 
of,  345 ;  term  of  office  of,  352 

Superintendents,  city,  first  instance  of, 
26;  choice  of,  77;  reference  to,  91; 
status  of,  93,  102,  350;  history  of 
office  of,  94-102;  functions  of,  95; 
change  of  positions  of,  101;  asso- 
ciation of,  174,  225,  247 

Superintendents,  county,  supervision 
of,  33,  60;  conventions  of,  34,  38, 
55,  72-75,  174,  317;  views  of,  on 
new  school  law,  35 ;  laws  distribut- 
ed to,  37,  339;  reports  of,  43;  pro- 
vision for  conventions  of,  46 ;  need 
of  school  inspection  by,  50 ;  efforts 
of,  at  inspection,  54;  need  of  def- 
inition of  functions  of,  55 ;  assist- 
ants needed  by,  for  supervision,  59 ; 
waste  in  office  of,  60 ;  need  of  re- 
lief of,  from  clerical  duties,  61; 
qualifications  of,  61 ;  first  State  con- 
vention of,  66,  67;  suggestion  of,  in 
1858,  67;  supporter  of,  68;  reaction 


against,  in  1859,  68,  69;  appeals 
heard  by,  68 ;  plans  for  restoration 
of  inspection  by,  69,  70;  record  of 
convention  of,  in  1866,  72 ;  lake 
conventions  of,  81,  82,  83;  reports 
of  work  of,  88 ;  women  as,  89 ;  law 
commended  by,  126;  proposed  su- 
pervisor of,  130;  wish  of,  in  regard 
to  certification,  139;  uniformity  of 
certification  favored  by,  146 ;  re- 
ports of,  relative  to  institutes,  159; 
attendance  at  institutes  secured  by, 
164;  institute  managed  by,  172, 
173;  indifference  of,  177;  appoint- 
ment of,  220,  222,  328,  348;  asso- 
ciation of,  225 ;  journal  issued  to, 
260;  good  buildings  favored  by, 
266;  reading  circles  organized  by, 
271;  school  law  of  1858  opposed 
by,  318;  reports  of,  in  1865,  326; 
legislation  proposed  in  reports  of, 
333;  compensation  of,  346;  pro- 
posed qualification  of,  350 ;  district 
meeting  of,  410 

Supervision,  school,  history  of,  in  Ter- 
ritory of  Iowa,  3-10;  Sabin's  ideal 
plan  of,  3,  55,  56;  changes  in  mat- 
ter of,  4 ;  first  statute  relative  to,  5 ; 
opposition  to,  in  1842,  10 ;  history 
of,  during  1846-1858,  11-31;  lack 
of,  down  to  1872,  48;  history  of, 
from  1872  to  1912,  49-63;  three- 
fold plan  of,  49;  Abernethy's  work 
in  matter  of,  50 ;  whole  purpose  of, 
61;  evolution  of,  63;  suggestions 
relative  to,  210;  Barrows'  plan  of, 
328;  plan  of,  336;  State,  348 

Supervisors,  board  of,  provision  by, 
for  visitation  of  schools,  71;  liber- 
ality of,  76 ;  institute  supported  by, 
166;  reference  to,  219 

Supervisors,  school,  qualifications  of, 
4;  plan  of,  for  townships,  336 

Supreme  Court,  Iowa,  Harlan's  elec- 
tion declared  illegal  by,  13,  14 ;  case 
before,  82;  decision  of,  117,  196, 
320,  415;  adverse  decision  of,  401, 
402 

Swedish  language,  127 


31 


466 


INDEX 


Swedish  Lutherans,  schools  of,  299 
Sweeney,  John  K.,  100,  215 

Tama  County,  meetings  in,  168 
Taxes,  levy  of,  for  schools,  16,  324; 
need  of,  for  schools,  25 ;  levy  of,  for 
school  houses,  123 ;  levy  of,  for  li- 
hraries,  265;  amount  of,  for  schools, 
312;  equalization  of,  321;  restric- 
tions upon  levy  of,  352 ;  levy  of, 
for  union  schools,  390-392;  negroes 
exempted  from,  for  schools,  414 
Teachers,  supervisory  power  over,  5 ; 
examination  of,  6,  68,  73,  132,  218, 
332;  duty  of  lecturing  to,  12;  quali- 
fications of,  16;  payment  of,  16; 
question  of  wages  of,  17,  28;  dis- 
trict, duty  of  giving  aid  to,  21; 
need  of,  27,  207;  preparation  of, 
28,  43,  44,  180,  338,  342,  353; 
need  of  schools  for,  29 ;  blank  forms 
for  certificates  of,  33 ;  history  of 
wages  of,  52 ;  rural,  need  of  inspec- 
tion of,  53 ;  need  of  counsel  by,  57 ; 
professionalizing  of,  62,  345 ;  cer- 
tification of,  65,  145,  146,  147,  241 ; 
need  of  higher  standard  of,  72 ;  em- 
ployment of,  by  district  boards,  75 ; 
inexperience  of,  in  1872,  80;  at- 
tendance of,  at  institutes,  81,  162, 
163,  167,  173 ;  convention  of,  in 
1880,  83 ;  supervision  of,  in  Linn 
County,  85;  change  of  location 
sought  by,  101;  qualifications  of,  in 
1861,  129;  provision  of  life  certifi- 
cates for,  133,  134,  137;  written 
examinations  for,  135,  136,  142; 
petition  of,  for  State  Board  of  Ex- 
aminers, 139 ;  raising  of  standard 
of,  after  1882,  142 ;  authority  of 
State  Board  over,  144;  history  of 
institutes  or  assemblies  of,  151-186; 
value  of  institutes  to,  152,  153 ;  in- 
stitutes organized  by,  159,  160, 
164;  instruction  of,  at  institutes, 
170;  institute  credentials  of,  178; 
provision  for  inexperienced,  178, 
179;  expenses  of,  at  institutes,  181, 
184,  185,  424;  graduation  of,  from 


institutes,  183 ;  compulsory  attend- 
ance of,  at  institutes,  184;  legal 
rights  and  duties  of,  228;  number 
of  meetings  of,  in  1895,  252;  fail- 
ure of,  to  support  journal,  264;  li- 
brary for,  270;  organization  of 
reading  circles  for,  270-272;  need 
of,  for  manual  training,  286,  287, 
288;  opposition  of,  to  exhibit,  294; 
long  service  of,  in  Amana  Colony, 
304;  trained,  need  of,  317;  need  of 
uniform  grading  of,  in  1865,  326; 
monthly  payment  of,  330;  need  of 
distribution  of  school  laws  to,  339, 
340 ;  supervision  over  employment 
of,  346;  contracts  of,  350,  354; 
fees  paid  by,  352 

Teachers  agencies,  business  of,  346 
Teachers'  Association,  State,  44,  97, 
98,  136,  153;  superintendent  aided 
by,  53 ;  president  of  educational 
council  of,  56;  resolution  of,  in 
1860,  69,  71;  session  of,  in  1866, 
72 ;  expense  of  travel  to,  76 ;  rec- 
ommendation of,  80,  84;  request  of 
executive  committee  of,  86 ;  presi- 
dents of,  99,  396-398;  law  com- 
mended by,  126;  recommendation 
of  board  of  examiners  by,  138; 
agent  put  in  field  by,  160,  161,  352; 
suggestion  of,  172;  State  normal 
institute  merged  with,  174,  176; 
meetings  of,  in  1878  and  1879, 
176;  request  of,  177;  first  sessions 
of,  190,  191,  195;  permanent  or- 
ganization of,  191;  journal  of,  192, 
193,  197,  200,  202,  214,  256,  258, 
260;  aim  of,  192;  officers  of,  in 
1856,  192,  193;  State  institute 
merged  with,  194;  third  session  of, 
196;  fourth  session  of,  197;  fifth 
session  of,  198 ;  selection  of  early 
officers  of,  199;  sixth  session  of, 
200;  women  members  of,  201,  202, 
430;  seventh  session  of,  201;  re- 
port of  State  Agent  of,  201,  202, 
205,  207;  eighth  session  of,  202; 
debt  of,  203;  ninth  session  of,  204; 
tenth  session  of,  205 ;  eleventh  ses- 


INDEX 


467 


sion  of,  207;  work  of,  down  to 
1867,  208;  expense  of,  209,  211; 
twelfth  meeting  of,  209 ;  thirteenth 
meeting  of,  211;  fourteenth  session 
of,  212;  history  of,  212;  fifteenth 
session  of,  213;  college  men  in, 
213;  Normal  School  urged  by,  215; 
sixteenth  session  of,  216;  divisions 
of,  216;  seventeenth  session  of, 
217;  eighteenth  session  of,  219; 
nineteenth  session  of,  219,  220; 
twenty-first  meeting  of,  220 ;  twenty- 
second  meeting  of,  221;  twenty- 
third  session  of,  223 ;  archives  of, 
224;  twenty-fourth  session  of,  225; 
twenty-fifth  session  of,  225,  226; 
twenty-sixth  session  of,  227;  twen- 
ty-seventh session  of,  227;  twenty- 
eighth  session  of,  227,  228;  work 
of,  down  to  1883,  229;  twenty- 
ninth  session  of,  230;  departments 
of,  230,  231,  233,  234,  243;  edu- 
cational council  of,  231,  235,  241, 
243;  thirtieth  session  of,  231;  thir- 
ty-first session  of,  232  ;  thirty-second 
session  of,  232 ;  thirty-third  session 
of,  233 ;  incorporation  of,  233,  234, 
238,  242 ;  thirty-fourth  session  of, 
234;  thirty-fifth  session  of,  235; 
membership  of,  235,  237,  238; 
thirty-sixth  session  of,  235 ;  thirty- 
seventh  session  of,  236;  thirty- 
eighth  session  of,  236 ;  pioneers  of, 
236;  publication  of  proceedings  of, 
237;  sessions  of,  in  1893-1896,  237, 
238;  section  meetings  of,  237;  re- 
vision of  constitution  of,  238; 
meetings  of,  in  1897-1900,  239; 
emergency  fund  of,  239;  sessions 
of,  in  1901-1904,  240,  241;  sessions 
of,  in  1906-1910,  242;  date  of 
meeting  of,  242 ;  legislative  commit- 
tee of,  242,  243,  353 ;  attendance 
at  meetings  of,  243 ;  use  of  funds 
by,  243,  244;  progress  of,  in  sixty 
years,  244 ;  reading  circles  under 
direction  of,  270,  271;  manual 
training  recommended  by,  285; 
school  exhibit  at  meeting  of,  293, 


296;  State  agent  and  State  commis- 
sion supported  by,  352;  chronolog- 
ical list  of  meetings  of,  396-398 

Teachers  associations,  influence  of, 
43 ;  Superintendent's  visits  to,  52 ; 
origin  of,  151;  nature  of,  155; 
history  of,  187-252;  various  kinds 
of,  247 

Teachers  educational  libraries,  collec- 
tion of,  266,  267 

Teachers'  Institute,  263 

Teachers'  Institute,  State,  merging  of, 
with  State  Teachers'  Association, 
194 

Teachers'  institutes   (see  Institutes) 

Teaching,  theory  and  practice  of,  133, 
168 ;  recognition  of,  as  profession, 
139;  provision  for  brief  course  in 
theory  and  practice  of,  151;  lec- 
tures on,  154 

Temperance  question,  207 

Tennessee,  200 

Text-books,  need  of  uniformity  of,  17, 
28,  74,  327,  350;  Superintendent's 
duty  relative  to,  in  1849,  18 ;  rec- 
ommendation of  series  of,  in  1849, 
22,  33 ;  report  on,  42 ;  reference  to, 
44,  123,  266;  law  of  1868  relative 
to  selection  of,  46 ;  use  of,  48 ;  coun- 
ty superintendent's  duty  relative  to, 
90;  views  on,  153;  history  of,  196; 
change  of,  337 

Thomas,  Colonel,  435 

Thompson,  James  H.,  137,  175 

Tipton,  schools  at,  26 ;  superintendent 
of  schools  at,  94 ;  union  school  of, 
153,  438;  action  of  board  of  educa- 
tion of,  154;  institute  at,  154-156, 
419,  420;  convention  at,  198;  loca- 
tion of,  in  1860,  198 

Tirrill,  Mr.,   72 

Tobacco,  condemnation  of  use  of,  155 

Todd,  H.  D.,  266 

Towns,  recommendation  relative  to 
schools  in,  16 ;  extension  of  school 
year  in,  24;  need  of  school  taxes  in, 
25;  union  schools  in,  26,  27;  school 
supervision  in,  52,  78,  91,  94;  his- 
tory of  school  supervision  in,  93- 


468 


INDEX 


102 ;  need  of  manual  training  in, 
281,  284;  prizes  won  by  schools  of, 
293,  294;  exhibit  of,  at  Chicago, 
294 

Township  districts,  advocates  of,  213, 
214,  334,  336,  343,  351,  417;  refer- 
ence to,  219;  recommendation  of, 
354 

Township  inspectors   (see  Inspectors) 

Township  teachers  associations,  247; 
number  of,  252 

Townships,  school  supervision  in,  5, 
30 ;  need  of  supervision  in,  85 ; 
provision  for  supervision  in,  94; 
institutes  in,  170;  high  schools  in, 
212,  342,  343,  344;  graded  schools 
in,  233;  libraries  in,  267;  erection 
of  school  house  in,  321;  educational 
independence  of,  327 

Trades,  teaching  of,  287 

Training  schools,  demand  for,  183 ; 
county,  need  of,  342 

Transportation,  difficulties  of,  193, 
194,  206 

Treasurer,  county,  accounts  of,  325; 
funds  in  hands  of,  331,  332,  334, 
380 

Treasurer,  township,  proposed  duties 
of,  336 

Treasurers,  school,  compensation  of, 
78;  reference  to,  331;  opponents  of, 
334;  abolition  of,  348,  354;  need  of 
abolition  of  office  of,  351 

Treasury,  State,  source  of  revenue  of, 
147 

Trees,  law  relative  to  planting  of,  90 

Tri-county  associations,  247 

Truancy  law,  need  of,  197,  218,  221; 
enforcement  of,  350,  354 

Trustees,  school  supervision  by,  5 

Tubby,  Josiah  T.,  32;  school  law  in- 
terpreted by,  35,  86 

Tuition,  payment  of,  297 

Union  schools,  advantages  of,  26,  27; 
provision  for,  94 ;  lecture  on,  154 ; 
advocates  of,  165 ;  laws  of  Ohio 
and  Iowa  relative  to,  883-895 

University,  State,  Normal  Department 


of,  29,  43,  74,  212,  213,  405,  437; 
member  of  board  of  regents  of,  56; 
relation  of  public  school  to,  73 ; 
teaching  of  science  at,  97;  location 
of,  105;  proposed  trustees  of,  107; 
control  over,  119,  120;  view  of, 
129 ;  military  instruction  at,  129 ; 
duty  of  faculty  of,  132,  133 ;  exam- 
inations given  by,  133,  134;  life 
certificates  granted  to  graduates  of, 
137;  duty  of  president  of,  140; 
former  president  of,  152 ;  teaching 
of  institute  instructors  at,  182 ;  in- 
vestigation of,  201;  summer  school 
of,  224 ;  regrets  sent  by  faculty  of, 
232;  shop  department  at,  280; 
physical  laboratory  of,  289 

Vacation  schools,  305 

Van  Buren  County,  meetings  in,  168 

Ventilation,  school,  73,  162 

Viele,  Philip,  view  of,  128 ;  reference 
to,  417 

Vienna,  school  exhibit  at,  289 

Villages,  schools  in,  16 

Vinton,  100 

Visitation,  duty  of,  in  Iowa  Territory, 
5 ;  law  of  1847  relative  to,  12 ; 
duty  of,  18,  21,  33 ;  inquiry  relative 
to,  by  county  superintendents,  50 ; 
county  superintendent's  duty  of,  65 ; 
restoration  of  power  of,  71;  im- 
portance of,  73 ;  repeal  of  provision 
for,  81;  opposition  to,  83;  reports 
of,  88 ;  expense  of,  90 

Vocational  school,  first,  435 

Voice  culture,  need  of,  45,  197,  210 

Voice  of  Iowa,  The,  publication  of, 
193,  194,  256,  257;  failure  of,  197 

Von  Coelln,  Carl  W.,  administration 
of,  52-54 ;  supervision  by,  52 ;  relief 
asked  by,  53 ;  reference  to,  173, 
176;  report  of,  277;  recommenda- 
tion of,  335 ;  sketch  of  life  of,  406 

Voters,  powers  of,  in  school  districts, 
862-364 

Wages,  teachers,  payment  of,  16 ;  per- 
ennial question  of,  17,  28;  history 


INDEX 


469 


of,  52 ;  basis  of,  165 ;  suggestions 
relative  to,  in  1867,  210;  women's, 
248 ;  minimum,  349 ;  amount  of,  in 
1854,  403 

Wapello  County,  normal  class  in,   169 

Ward  schools,  principal  of,  93,  98 

Warner,  A.  B.,  419 

Washington,  Booker  T.,  238 

Washington,  convention  at,  197,  425 ; 
parochial  school  at,  299 

Washington,  D.  0.,   15 

Washington  County,  petition  from, 
117;  institute  held  in,  169,  170,  181 

Washington  Manual  Training  School, 
279 

Waterloo,  convention  at,  213,  249; 
West,  schools  of,  406 

Weaving,  285 

Webster  County,  teachers  library  in, 
270 

Webster's  dictionary,  recommendation 
of,  17,  22 

Weiser,  B.,  433 

Welch,  A.  S.,  address  by,  218;  refer- 
ence to,  425 

Weld,  L.  T.,  100 

Weld,  Mrs.  L.  T.,  234 

Wells,  D.  Franklin,  administration  of, 
43,  44;  reference  to,  94,  166,  193, 
198,  245,  427;  duty  of,  132;  opin- 
ion of,  164,  165 ;  convention  called 
by,  190 ;  statement  of,  194 ;  resolu- 
tion of,  203;  appointment  of,  207; 
memorial  service  for,  212;  editorial 
duties  of,  260;  building  in  charge 
of,  402 ;  sketch  of  life  of,  404,  405 

Wells,  W.  H.,  address  by,  201 

Wernli,  Jacob,  83,  170,  425 

West,  proposed  teachers  association 
in,  195 

West  Point,  schools  at,  26 

Western  College,  agricultural  instruc- 
tion at,  275,  435 


Western  Stage  Company,  lines  of,  206, 

210 

White,  E.  E.,  235 
White's   Iowa   Manual   Labor    School, 

276 

Wilcox,  William,  services  of,  98 
Wilcox,  Wm.  M.,  218 
Wilkins,  D.,  proposal  of,  195 
Willis,  W.  A.,  academy  of,  410 
Wilson,    James   F.,    services   of,    107; 

view  of  Board  of  Education  held  by, 

110,  111 

Wilson,  Mrs.  L.  M.,  100 
Wilson,  W.  Duane,  193 
Wilton,  meeting  at,  199 
Wiltse,  H.  A.,  conclusions  of,  39,  40, 

41 ;  recommendation  of,  42 ;  outline 

course  submitted  by,  404 
Winnebago  Indians,  school  for,  435 
Wisconsin,    Superintendent   of   Public 

Instruction  in,  152 ;  supervision  in, 

409 
Witter,  Finley  M.,  96,  212,  215,  216; 

statement  of,  211 
Women,    office   opened   to,    75 ;    offices 

held    by,     88,     89 ;    supervision    of 

schools  by,  100,  101;  life  certificates 

granted  to,  137;  membership  of,  in 

Teachers'     Association,     192,     201, 

202,  203,  233;  right  of  suffrage  of, 

197;  education  of,  223;  organization 

of,  234 
Women  teachers,  employment  of,  27; 

ability  of,    156;   reference  to,   232; 

round  table  of,  248;  wages  of,  403 
Wood,  J.  A.,  97 

Woodbury  County,  institute  of,  425 
Woodruff,  Anna  M.,  137 
Worline,  Eliza  A.,  427 
Wright,  George  G.,  address  by,  225 

Yellow  River,  school  on,  435 
Young,  J.  B.,  100 


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