HISTORY
OF
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA
(1781-1893.)
HISTORY
OF
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
ITS RISE, DEVELOPMENT, PROGRESS, PRESENT CONDITION AND PROSPECTS,
BEING
A NARRATIVE OF THE VARIOUS PHASES OF EDUCATIONAL POLICY AND MEASURES
ADOPTED UNDER
THE BRITISH RULE FROM ITS BEGINNING TO THE PRESENT PERIOD,
(1781 to 1893)
COMPRISING
EXTRACTS FROM PARLIAMENTARY PAPERS, OFFICIAL REPORTS, AUTHORITATIVE
DESPATCHES, MINUTES AND WRITINGS OF STATESMEN,
RESOLUTIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT,
AND
STATISTICAL TABLES ILLUSTRATED IN COLOURED DIAGRAMS.
BY
SYED MAHMOOD
OF LINCOLN'S iifo, BARRISTER-AT-LAW ; FELLOW OF THE UNIVERSITIES OF CALCUTTA AND ALLAHABAD; TRUSTEE AND
HONORARY JOINT SECRETARY OF THE MUHAMMADAN ANGLO-ORIENTAL COLLEGE, ALIGARH.
The Author has made a gift of the Copyright of this Edition to the M. A.-O. College, Aligarh,
and the proceeds of the sale will go to the Funds of the College.
PUBLISHED AND SOLD BY THE HONORARY SECRETARY OK 1KB
M. A.-O. COLLEGE, ALIGAKH.
18O5.
(All rights reserved.) Price Rs. 8.
LA
Cl-
••Ar.C'UTTA : — PRINTED AT THK HARI1ST MISSION I'KESS.
TO
SIR JOHN STRACHEY, G.C.S.I.
The illustrious statesman who, during his long and brilliantly successful career in India as a member
of the Supreme Government and as Lieutenant-Governor of the North-West Provinces, appreciated the
social and political drawbacks and difficulties which thwarted the progress of English education among
Muhammadans, and who, with his timely sympathy and good will, generous support and liberal encourage-
ment, helped them in their endeavours to spread knowledge of the English language, literature and
sciences among their countrymen,
THIS WORK IS DEDICATED
.as a token of esteem, admiration and gratitude.
PREFACE.
Towards the end of 1893, I was invited by some of the leading members of the Muhammadan Edu-
tional Conference to deliver a Lecture in Hindustani on the rise, development, progress, and present
condition of English Education in India with special reference to the Muhammadans. I accordingly
delivered a somewhat elaborate Lecture which occupied two entire sittings of the Eighth Session of the
Conference on the 28th December 1893, in the Central Hall of the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College,
Aligarh, where more than 600 of the Members from all pdrts of India had assembled. Nearly 2,000 copies
of that lecture have been distributed among the members and circulated during the last year. I was again
requested by them to deliver, in continuation of my lecture, another discourse dealing with the present
rate of progress of English education among the Muhammadans and their future prospects in this respect.
I accordingly delivered my second lecture during the Ninth Session of that Conference, which assembled
at Aligarh in December last. These two lectures form the substratum of this work, but their substance
has undergone much alteration and amplification, and many important Statistical Tables, and extracts from
the original sources and authorities relied on, have been added to render this work a useful book of
information and reference for those interested in the cause of English education in India.
This work has no claims to originality, as my object has not been to write a book of my own, in the
shape of an essay or dissertation, but to furnish a full history of the early origin, gradual growth, internal
development, and present condition of English education among the Natives of India, together with the
various phases of policy which it has undergone, and the various measures which have been adopted,
from time to time, in this behalf, by the Government. The importance of the subject may be said to be
universally recognized, and it frequently forms the theme of essays or articles in the periodical literature of
the day. But, I think, it may, without exaggeration, be said, that the means of obtaining accurate informa-
tion as to the facts and figures connected with the subject are very inaccessible, and so scattered among
Parliamentary Blue-books and Official Reports, that no ordinary reader can be expected to afford the time,
,trr " and expense of collecting such a vast mass of materials to enable him to master the subject and
fo. i opinion of his own in regard to a matter of such acknowledged importance to the moral, social,
and political progress of India in the future.
In 1838, Sir Charles E. Trevelyan, then a young member of the Bengal Civil Service, published an
essay on the Education of the People of India, not long after the controversy, between the supporters of
Oriental Learning on the one hand and the advocates of English Education on the other, had been decided
in favour ol the latter by Lord Macaulay's celebrated Minute of 2nd February 1835, which was adopted
by Lord William Bentinck's Government in its Resolution of the 7th March 1835. The essay is very in-
teresting and instructive, as setting forth the contending arguments of the two parties, and as describing
the earliest phases of the history of English education. But the work has long been out of date and out
of print. There is also another essay on Education in India, in the form of a letter to tie Marquis of
Ripon, when Viceroy and Governor-General of India, written by Dr. John Murdoch, LL. D., Indian Agent
of The Christian Vernacular Education Society for India, and published at Madras in 1 881 . More recent
is the Le Bus Prize Fi'say for 1890, on the history and prospects of British Education in India, written
by Mr. F. V,7". Thomas, Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge, printed and published at that place in
1891. I became acquainted with it only when nearly the whole manuscript of this work had gone
to the Press. The Essay is very interesting, and an able exposition of views entertained by the essayist.
Pamphlets and articles on the subject of English education in India have also been written at different
times, dealing with isolated points or Sectarian subjects ; but such compositions are only transitory and
are not intended to supply the requirements of a permanent source of historical and statistical information
upon the important subject of English education in India, taken as a whole and in its various aspects.
The present work has a different object for its aim. It seeks to avoid all controversial discussion or
polemical arguments. Its aim is to narrate as fully, clearly, and simply as possible all the various facts,
opinions, and measures which any person, interested in the cause of English education in India, would like
PRE1
mow in order to form his own opinion or adopt measures for promoting that education in the future.
„, facts or Statistics have been stated in this work without reference to Parliamentary
Ulue-books or Official Reports, and wherever reference to Government Resolutions, or Minutes recorded by
Statesmen, has been found necessary, I have preferred to give ample extracts rather than only the sub-
stance and purport of their opinions. The figures and statistics have invariably been taken from University
ndars, or ot> loritetir* ottieial publications, though, for the sake of the reader's convenience
exposition of the subject, the figures thus obtained have been considerably manipulated in presenting
Tabu! I adapted to the purposes of this work.
The subject of primary and secondary English education has been only indirectly touched upon in
this work. Such education though important in itself is so completely blended with Vernacular education
that any attempt to do justice to it would unduly enlarge the size of this work, and would render it more in
the nature of a Departmental publication than a book for the general reader interested in the broad
'ect of English education, its past, present, and future, with reference to its moral, social, and political
bearings upon the welfare of the people of India. High English education is, therefore, the main theme
of this work, and it is only as subsidiary thereto that English secondary education and its statistics have
also been mentioned where reference to them has been considered necessary.
The subject of English education among the European, Eurasian, and Native Christian population of
India rests for its discussion upon considerations so materially different from those affecting the advance of
Hnropean enlightenment among the Natives of India, whether Hindus or Muhammadans, that it was
uded expressly from the consideration of the Indian Education Commission of 1882, of which I had
the honour of bein^ a Mi>tnl«er. For similar reasons I have limited the scope of this work to the subject
of English education., as anvcting the main bulk of the native population which consists of Hindus and
Muhammadans, though in the former term, Sikhs, Jains and other similar sects, denominating themselves
Hindus, have also been included. The Buddhists, who are almost entirely limited to Burma, and the
smaller sections of the population play no important part in high English education, but statistics relating
to them are included in the general official returns wherever these have been quoted.
Again, English education, especially of the higher type, has made no perceptible progress among the
Native female population of India. In Presidency towns a few Native young ladies have pursued the
University course, but their number is so infinitesimally small that it is intangible in any general calcula-
tion of the statistics of high Knglish education, whilst this work is not concerned with Vernacular educa-
tion. Female education therefore has not been included among the subjects of this work.
According to the census of 1891, the Hindu population of India amounted to 207,731,727, and the
Muhammadan to 57,321,164. The two Communities thus form the main bulk of the Indian population which,
including all sects, has been stated in the General Report of the Census (page 171), to amount to 287,223,431
bearing a ratio to the population of the world, as at present computed, of about one-fifth, and being the
largest appertaining to any single country with the exception of China. The Hindus therefore form the/
vast majority of the Indian population, but among others, by far the largest minority consists of Muham-
madans though their proportion varies in different Provinces. As predecessors of the British in the
supremacy of India, as also in point of their numerical strength, as well as social and political conditions,
the educational interests of this community, which numbers more than the German-speaking population of
"ope, cannot bo considered insignificant. To quote the words of Lord Macaulay in his celebrated
speech* in the House of Commons : " Her Majesty is the ruler of a larger heathen population than the
world ever saw collected under the sceptre of a Christian sovereign since the days of the Emperor Theo-
dosius. What the conduct of rulers in such circumstances ought to be is one of the most important moral
questions, one of the most important political questions, that it is possible to conceive. There are subject
the British rule in Asia a hundred millions of people who do not profess the Christian faith. The
Muhammadans are a minority : but their importance is much more than proportioned to their number : for
they are an united, a y.i-aluus, an ambitious, a warlike class."
These words were spoken so long ago as the 9th of March, 1843, since which time the British Empire
in India has greatly expanded, Her Majesty has become the ruler of many more scores of millions and
* On the Gates of Somnauth.
PEEPACE. Ill
fills the unique position of being the Sovereign of a larger Muhammadan population than any other
monarch in the world including even the Sultan of Turkey. According to the General Report of the
Census of 1891 (at p. 174), " the Musalman population of the world has been roughly estimated at various
amounts from 70 to 90 millions, so that whatever the real figure may be between those limits, the
Indian Empire contains a large majority of the followers of the Prophet." This circumstance should
never be lost sight of in considering any measures affecting the general welfare and prosperity of India,
and attention has been invited to it here to explain the reason why a considerable portion of this work
has been devoted to giving an accurate delineation of the state of English education among Muham-
madans and the great and urgent need which still exists for promoting it by special efforts in that com-
munity. Upon the question, whether the present condition of English education among Muhammadans and
the rates at which it has recently been progressing are satisfactory, much misapprehension exists, although,
since the Education Commission of 1882, the Official Reports of the Educational Department are required
to devote a separate section to this subject every year. As an illustration of such misapprehension the
following passage may be quoted from Mr. F. W. Thomas' Essay, to which reference has already been
made. He says (at page 143) : —
" The education of the Muhammadans can now scarcely be said to need special encouragement. In
1881-82, the scholars of this religion were in number less than a fourth of the Hindus. In 1887-88, they
number over a third, and the proportion of Muhammadan scholars is greater than the proportion of
Muhammadan population. How far the sentiments of Musalmans towards their rulers have changed, is
perhaps uncertain. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, who was one of the chief promoters of the education move-
ment among his co-religionists, has always been very favourably inclined towards the English and towards
English education. His great services have long been recognized by the Government ; but the effect on
the general body of Muhammadans is undetermined."
Such views are so plausible that they frequently find currency not only among the European officers
of Government and other educationists, but also among the Muhammadans themselves, leading to a feeling
of self-sufficiency and satisfaction at the prospects of English education in that community. But such
opinions, though they cannot be denounced as misrepresentations, are so vague and general that "they
become delusive for want of precision. The incessant efforts of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and his fellow-
workers for spreading English education among Muhammadans', during more than a quarter of a century,
have no doubt had beneficial effects on the Muhammadan population of that part of Upper India of which
Aligarh, where the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College is situate, may be said to be the geographical
centre, namely, the North- Western Provinces, Rohilkhand, Oudh, Behar, Punjab, and such portions of the
Rajputana territories as are easily accessible by railways. But though the general effects of the educa-
tional movement, as represented by the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College and the Muhammadan Educa-
tional Conference, may have been felt far and wide, the Provinces included in the Presidencies of Madras
and Bombay, as well as Bengal, Assam, and Burma, are so remote from the centre of the movement that its
effects cannot fail to be very faint.
Again, in considering educational questions with reference to the Muhammadan population, it is
supremely important to bear in mind the distinction between the various classes and grades of education
included within the scope of the Department of Public Instruction. It has never been the crying com-
plaint of the Muhammadans that they have been backward either in vernacular or primary education or
even in the higher kind of education of the Oriental type. A knowledge of the Muhammadan Vernaculars
has always been prevalent among that community, and the Maktabs or Primary schools teaching the Koran
and elements of Persian and Arabic, are scattered all over the country, and the higher grades of Muham-
uiudan learning are still taught and cultivated by eminent Maulvis, here and there, who charge no fees and
devote their lives to advancing Muhammadau learning from motives of piety and religion. In respect of
the elementary stages of English education, also, the Muhammadans have during recent years made a
satisfactory advance ; but such education is not sufficiently pursued further by them up to the higher
grades of English standards, and falls far short of meeting the social, economical, and political needs of
their population under the exigencies of the British Rule. For any tangible social economical and poli-
tical effects on a community, the spread of higher English education is necessary in India, whilst it is
1V I'KKPACE.
obvious that for all the higher walks of life under the British Rule a competent knowledge of the English
"W indispensable.
Tin' uvm'ral advance of the Muhammadans in India is therefore dependent upon the progress of high
education among them, and in the Chapters of this work, specially devoted to the subject,
,}„. ,f HI,' spread of Knglish education among them has been extricated from the confusion which
,.„ ,:lking il) all classes of education en masse, and deducing general conclusions from
such jmnliled statistic*. For the purpose of 'precisely showing the facts, many Tabular Satements have
prepared from olHcial figures, and coloured Diagrams have been inserted to illustrate the great
liaekwardne.-s of th.- Muhamimidaus in high English education. It will be seen, for instance, from the
Tabular Statcim-nt, at pa -re 194 of this work, that during the 36 years of University education,
f,.,,,. aclusive, i he aggregate number of Hindu and Muhammadan graduates in the various
[ties of i he Indian Universities amounted to 15,627, of which only 546 were Muhammadans, yielding
a p.. ... Of only 3-5 instead of 23' 75, which is the percentage of Muhammadaus in the total Hindu
and .Muhammadan population. Again, from the calculations shown in the Tabular Statement at page 198,
it will be observed that in the matter of University Degrees, the Muhammadans are still so backward that
even according to the highest rate of progress yet achieved by them, more than half a century is still
for rai.-intr the percentage of Muhammadan graduates up to the level of the percentage of
their co-ivligiomMs in the total Hindu and Muhammadan population of India.
• leral impression prevails even in high quarters, and among educationists in general, that,
although in the past the Muhammadans were backward in English education, they have during recent
rears been making ver 'etory progress, leaving no further room for anxiety, or need of any excep-
tional effort or special encouragement. To expose the great fallacy of such views, is the main object of tin;
latter part of Chapter XXX (pages 196 to 198), and of the whole of Chapter XXXI, which shows the present
rule of the progress of English education among Muhammadans in Colleges and Secondary Schools, and
their future prospects in this respect (vide pp. 201 to 205). From the calculations contained in the Tabular
a pages 198, 203 and 205, it will appear : first, that the approximate number of years still
required to raise the percentage of Muhammadan graduates in the Indian Universities to the level of the
proportion of Muhammadaus in the total Hindu and Muhammadan population varies in different Faculties
of learning; but taking all the University Faculties together, the Muhammadans are no less than 53 years,
or more than half a century, behind their fellow-countrymen ; secondly, that they are no less than 45 years
id their compatriots in the matter of English education in Arts Colleges ; and thirdly, that even in
iish Secondary Schools their backwardness is prominent, and the deficiency cannot be expected to be
made up in less than 10 years, even according to the most favourable calculations based upon the highest
of progress yet achieved by Muhammadans during any period. Thus the higher the standard of
•i the more prominent becomes the backwardness of Muhammadans, — a matter which seriously
as their economical, social, and political welfare and prospects as subjects of the British Empire in India.
Another matter of supreme importance, in connection with the subject of the spread of English edu-
.11 among Muhammadans, deserves to be mentioned here. In estimating the proportionate progress
• •• M uiiaininadans in English education, the usual method adopted in Official Reports is to compare the
i luunmadana in the total general population with the percentage of Muhammadan students
glish Colleges and Schools, and the backwardness of the Muhammadans is estimated according
to the deficiency in their percentage among the total number of students in such educational institutions.
This method of calculation which has passed into fashion, has also been adopted in this work in Chapter
XXXI v.-hich deals with the present rate of the progess of English education among Muhammadans, and
their future prospects. But, in truth, much fallacy lurks in this method of calculation, when the past
political history of the Muhammadans and their present social and economical condition and position in the
population of India is duly borne in mind. Mr. J. A. Baines of the Indian Civil Service, in his very in-
teresting, able, and lucid General Report on the Census of India in 1891, after noticing (at page 8), "the
very high proportion in all parts of the country of the population living by agriculture," goes on to say :
"Taking it as a whole, about two-thirds, and indirectly perhaps nearly three-fourths, of the community are
wholly or partially dedicated to Mother Earth, and in this case the uniformity is real, not merely nominal."
PREFACE.
This significant fact should never be lost sight of in considering the import of any great political, social, or
educational measure adopted for the prosperity of India. India is essentially an agricultural country, and
discussions relating to the spread of English education in general, and high English education in particular,
do not apply to agriculturists, but to the Urban population to whom English Colleges and Secondary
Schools, established in cities and towns, are naturally most accessible. This fact is all the more important
in connection with forming an estimate of the progress of English education among Muhammadans, owing
to their past history and politico-economical position in the Indian Empire. From a practical point <>!'
view also, the significance of the distinction between the percentage of the Muhammadans in the total
population of India (including agriculturists), and their percentage in the Urban population is prominent,
and worthy of serious consideration. Mr. Baines, in his General Report on the Census of India in 1891,
(at page 175), goes the length of suggesting that "so far as regards the large and heterogeneous clays of
urban Musalmaus found all over the country, it is possible that that growth may have been actually im-
peded by the difficulty found in getting a living under the new conditions of British rule. For the mini-
mum of literary instruction required now as a passport to even the lower grades of middle-class public
employ is decidedly higher than it used to be, whilst the progress of learning amongst this class of Musal-
mans has not proportionately advanced, and with the comparatively small number of recruits for the arniv,
police, and menial offices, that is now found sufficient, few outlets remain available."
It seerns, therefore, clear, both in view of the past history of the Muhammadans and their present
social, political, and economical condition, that the proportion of the Muhammadans in the Urban popula-
tion, rather than their percentage in the total population of India, is the best standard for testing their
progress in English education. Attention to this important matter has bee.n invited at pages 181 and 206 and
207 of this work, and the calculations have been illustrated by Diagram VI, inserted opposite to page 200 ;
whilst the general backwardness of Muhammadans in the University Examinations, with reference to their
percentage in the general total population in 1891, is illustrated by Diagram VII, inserted opposite to
page 207. It will, however, not be out of place here to give a succinct view of the condition of English
education among Muhammadans in 1891-92, which is the latest period of which statistics are available, and
to draw attention to the significant difference between the percentage of the Muhammadans in the general
total population, and their percentage in the Urban population according to the Census of 1891. For this
purpose the following Table has been prepared from the Tabular Statements at page 177 and 181, as well
as 201 and 203 of this work — the figures in all those Tables having been taken from Official Reports : —
PROVINCE.
PERCENTAGE OF MUHAMMADANS IN—
DEFICIENCY IN THE PERCENTAGE OF
MUHAMMADANS IN-
Total
population.
Urban
population.
English
Arts
Colleges.
English
Secondary
Schools.
ENGLISH AKTS COLLEGES.
ENGLISH SECONDARY
SCHOOLS.
According to
percent, in
total popula-
tion.
According to
percent, in
Urban popu-
lation.
According to
percent, in
total popu]n-
tiou.
According to
percent, in
Urban popu-
lation.
Minlraa ...
6-3
142
1-5
5-3
4-8
127
1-0
8-9
Bombay...
16-3
17-8
2-0
4-9
137
152
11-4
12-9
Bongal ...
32-9
27 5
57
13-5
27-2
21-8
19-4
14-0
N.-W. Provinces and Oudh
13-5
339
19-0
21-9
-5-5
149
-8-1
12-0
Punjab ...
55-8
50-8
18-2
33-1
37-6
326
227
17-7
Central Provinces ...
24
160
5-6
9-3
-3-2
104
-a-9
6-7
r Upper
Uurma<
(.Lower
1-4
4-5
103
...
3-6
5-3
...
-2-2
-0-8
6'7
5-0
Ansam ...
27-1
28-8
16-0
..
12-1
13-8
Coorg
7'3
233
...
1-0
03
2-2-3
•ierar
7-2
207
8-3
...
-1-1
12-4
PREFACE.
It will thus appear from the preceding Table that, backward as the condition of the Muhammadans
,s ,„ Kn-lish education with reference to their proportion in the general total population of India, their
decadence is even much more deplorable when the agricultural population of India (to whom English
education does not apply) is excluded, and the percentage of Muhammadans in the Urban population i
taken into consideration. It is obvious, therefore, that if aforecast of the prospects of the Muhammadans in
the matter of English education, especially of the higher type, were to be prepared by calculating the
approximate number of years required to raise the percentage of Muhammadan students in English
Colleges and schools to the level of the percentage of the Muhammadans in the Urban population, the
result"* of the calculation would be even more lamentable than the calculations, in Chapter XXXI,
which have been made with reference to the percentage of the Muhammadans in the total population.
Closely connected with the spread of English education in India, and almost its sequence and outcome,
are the subjects of the Liberty of the Press, the employment of the Natives in the higher ranks of the
Public Service, and the growth of Representative Institutions, such as Municipalities, District and Local
Boards, and Legislative Councils. A historical narrative of the facts and statistics connected with these
subjects, would no doubt be interesting, and, it would afford a fit opportunity for discussing, with
reference to facts and figures, how far the English systems of suffrage by representation, and selection of
candidates for Public Service by open competition, are applicable to the social, religious and political
conditions of India, where, in addition to the multifarious diversities of race and creed, considerable
difficulties are liable to arise in consequence of the vast disparity which exists in the matter of high
Kic.'lish education among various sections of the population, especially between the Hindus and the
Muhammadans. It is for the statesmen and politicians to consider how far the principles of representa-
tive (Government are applicable, to a country like India, where diversities of race and religion are com-
plicated with the further difficulties arising from vast disparity not only in point of numbers of the
population but also in point of the standards of education achieved by the various nationalities of the
people. Even the modern demi-god of democracy, republicanism and representative Government, Joseph
Mazzini in his celebrated work, " On the Duties of Man" does not lose sight of the conditions requisite
for the application of representative principles of Government ; and whilst dwelling upon the national
demand : " We seek a common education," he does not forget in addressing his readers, in language which he
calls. " words of conviction, matured by long years of study, of experience, and of sorrow," to caution
them in the following terms : —
" Doubtless universal suffrage is an excellent thing. It is the only legal means by which a people may
govern itself without risk of continual violent crises. Universal suffrage in a country governed by a
common faith is the expression of the national will ; but in a country deprived of a common belief, what
can it be but the mere expression of the interests of those numerically the stronger, to the oppression of
all the rest?"
The comparative spread of higher English education among the two most important sections of the
population of India is therefore, even more important than purely educational discussions, and Chapter
XXX of this work has therefore been devoted to a general survey of the comparative statistics of high
Knirlish education among Hindus and Muhammadans from the earliest time of the establishment of the
Indian Universities, in 1857, to the end of the year 1893, covering a period of 36 years. Calculations have
a made in that Chapter with reference to the Census of 1881, because the statistics of that Census are
hcttcr adapted for testing results of high English education, (which ordinarily requires a course of study
nding over ten or twelve years), than the statistics of the Census of 1891. The proportion between
the two populations, however, has undergone no change during the interval, and there can be no fallacy
MI drawing conclusions for purposes of comparison as to the spread of high English education in the two
communities, whichever Census be taken as the basis of calculation. In the next Chapter, XXXI, relating
to the present rate of the progress of English education among Muhammadans, and its future prospects,
the statistics of the Census of 1891, have been taken into account, with reference to the figures contained
in the Official Hducation Reports. Among these, the most important are Sir Alfred Croft's Review of
Kihtrntion in India in 1880, and Mr. A. M. Nash's Second Quinquennial Review of the Progress of Edu-
n in India from 1887 to 1892.
PREFACE. Vii
In Chapter XXXII (at pp. 208-13) of this work the latest available statistics of the general spread of
English education in India, have been extracted from the General Report of the Census of India in 1891
by Mr. J. A. Baines, and the Tabular Statements given there show in detail the statistics of the extent
of the English language among various classes of the population. From that Table it will appear that the
entire number of literates in India, at the time of the Census, was 120,71,249, of whom only 5,37,811
were returned as knowing English (including Europeans, Americans, and Eurasians), and in regard to
these figures, the following remarks of Mr. Baines (at page 224 of his Report) must be kept in view: —
" The return of those who know English shows a ratio of 4'4 per cent, on the total literates. We must
subtract, however, the Europeans and Eurasians from the account, which then amounts to 3'2 only, or 1/4 in
every thousand of the community The entire number returned as knowing English,
including Europeans and Eurasians, was 537,811, or 386,032, if the foreign element be excluded. This, too,
includes a certain proportion of those who are not yet emancipated from their studies." Of this aggregate
amount, viz., 386,032, which is the number of the English-knowing Natives of India, only 15,627 have taken
degrees during the last 36 years of the Indian Universities, and out of this last number, the number of
Muhammadan graduates was only 546. From these figures it may be judged how far English education,
even in its widest sense, has spread in India, notwithstanding nearly a century of more or less
energetic efforts in its behalf ; how far the small English-knowing section can be said to be capable of
representing the thoughts, feelings, and aspirations of the vast mass of nearly 287 millions which inhabit
India (according to the Census of 1891), and also how far modern democratic institutions, which rely for
their success in India upon the progress of English ideas of enlightenment and social and political advance-
ment, are suited to the present conditions of the Indian population. Attention has been invited here to
these broad facts of English education in India as they will be interesting alike to the statesman, the
politician, the educationist and the philanthropist who may be concerned in the present welfare and future
destinies of the Indian Empire.
In conclusion, I gladly acknowledge my obligations to the eminent statesmen and authors from whose
works I have borrowed ample extracts, to make their views upon the important subject of English educa-
tion in India easily accessible to the reader. I have also much pleasure in expressing my best thanks to
my worthy friend Babu Jadav Chandra Chakravarti, M. A., Professor of Mathematics in the Muhammadan
Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh, to whose mathematical talent and labour I am indebted for the elaborate
calculations contained in the Tabular Statements in Chapter XXX of this work, and also for the ready
assistance which he has kindly given me in connection with other statistics whenever I have had occa-
sion to consult him.
ALIGARH, ~) SYED MAHMOOD.
March, 1895. )
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.
Page
The subject proposed ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• 1
Its importance ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ib.
Its arrangement ... ... — ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ... 2
CHAPTER II.
EARLY POLICY OPPOSED TO THE INTRODUCTION OF ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA. — MR. CHARLES GRANT'S TREATISE WRITTEN IN
1792-97, A.D., ON THE MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL CONDITION or INDIA.
Education no part of the early Administrative Policy ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2
The Right Honourable Mr. Charles Grant, an eminent Director of the East India Company ... ... ... 3
His philanthropic treatise on the moral and intellectual condition of the Natives of India, written during 1792-97, A.D., ... ib.
His views as to Indian Society ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 4
Aa to the character of the Bengalis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Want of veracity ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ... ... ib.
Betrayal of confidence ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ... ... 5
Venality of the Natives of India in the distribution of justice ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Their Corruption, and Perjury ... ... ... ••• •• ••• ••• ... ... ib.
Selfishness and Avarice ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ... ib.
Cunning and hypocritical obsequiousness, mutual discord, malice, calumnies, &e. ... ... ... ... ... V6.
Robberies, thefts, and other secret crimes in Bengal ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 6
Hindus not really benevolent, but cruel ... ... ... ... — ... ... ... ib.
Absence of patriotism ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ... ... 7
Great moral and intellectual advance in Bengal ... ... ... — ... ... ... ib.
Mr. Grant's views as to the character of Muhammadans ... ... .,- ... ... ... ... ib.
Proud, fierce, lawless, perfidious, licentious and cruel ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Regard secular business irreconcilable with strict virtue and religion ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Vices of Hindus and Muhammadans, on the whole, similar, owing to their intermixture ... ... ... ... ib.
Degeneracy of the Natives of India .. ... . ... ... ... ... ... .. ... \b.
Remarks on Mr. Grant's estimate of character of Muhammadans '... ... ... ... ... ... 8
Elegy, in the form of a Ghazal, composed by Shah Alam after being deprived of his eye-sight in 1788, — on the downfall of the
Mngal Empire ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ... ib.
CHAPTER III.
MR. CHABIES GRANT'S SCHEME FOR THE INTELLECTUAL, MORAL, AND SOCIAL REGENERATION OF THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, AS PROPOUNDED
IN HIS TEEATISE, 1792-97, A.D. — INTRODUCTION OF ENGLISH EDUCATION A MORAL DUTY OF THE STATE, AND NOT FRAUGHT WITH
POLITICAL DANGER.
Mr. Grant's scheme for the improvement of the Natives of India represents typical notions of early English philanthropists ... 10
Healing principle ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Great Britain not bound to preserve the enormities in the Hindu system ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Example of Mexico ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... t'6.
No attempt made to recall the Hindus to the dictates of truth and morality ... ... ... ... ... ib.
No force but reason to be employed ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 11
Knowledge should be communicated 1,0 Natives of India ... ... ... ... ••• ... ... ib
Whether through their own languages or through English ... .• ... ... — ... ... ib.
English language the superior mediuja of instruction ... ... ... ••• ••• ... t'6.
English language should bo taught tj tihe Natives ... ... ... ••• — ... t'6.
Example of Muhammadan Conqueroi^iintroducing Persian ... ... ... ... 12
Should have been followed by the BriUsh, with much benefit to Administration ... ••• ... ib.
Facility of imparting English Educatioa gratuitously, to supplant Persian in Administration ... ... t'j>.
Art of Printing great help to dissemination of English ideas ... ... ... — ••• ... ib.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page
18
A true knowledge of Nature would break the fabric of Hindu religion
And cnliRliini tin- Hindus by promoting mechanical inventions
Improvement in Agriculture, Ac., would ensue by introduction of machinery
And enlighten the Hindus by promoting mechanical inventions
Improvement in Agriculture, Ac., would ensue by introduction ^
Most important communication to the Hindus through English, would be Christianity snpplant.ng Idolatry and superst,t,on ...
14
ifc.
ib.
Though such effects would be gradual
Objections to Mr. Grant's Scheme : the main objection being Political Danger ...
English language should be introduced, and failing that, Indian languages may be adopted as the medium of instruction
Mr Grant's summary of his Thesis, and conclusions in regard to introduction of English education in India
Improvement of India can be effected by the introduction of the English language, and Christianity ...
From which no political danger should be anticipated
And no reasons to the contrary have been shown
It would be odious and immoral to keep India ignorant, owing to apprehended risks to British Rule
Imparting knowledge and moral instruction a strict duty of the British to India ...
Extension of British commerce will ensue from the enlightenment of India
Mnhammadans, though for centuries intermixed with the Hindus, produced no radical change in their character ... ... ib.
For similar reasons, the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the French failed to produce a permanent effect upon India ...
Novelty of the Educational Scheme no valid objection against its introduction
CHAPTER IV.
EABLY EFFORTS FOB THE EDUCATION OP THE NATIVES OF INDIA.— THE CALCUTTA MADRASSA FOUNDED IN 1781, AND THE SANSKRIT
COLLEGE AT BENAEES IN 1791.— LORD MINTO'S MINUTE ON EDUCATION, 1811.
Mr. Fisher's Memoir on Education in India : written in 1827-32
Calcutta Madrassa founded in 1781 ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• — tb-
Reforms in 1788-91, and subjects of study prescribed
Benares Sanskrit College founded in 1791, and the subjects of study prescribed ...
Lord Minto's Minute on education, dated 6th March, 1811 ... — ••• lb-
Decay of learning in India ... ... •••
And its causes,— Want of Patronage ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• tb-
Ignorance of the Natives of India obstructs good Government, and is conducive to crime ... ... 20
Which can be remedied by education ... ... ••• ••• ••• — ••• *••
Observations as to Revival of learning among the Muhammadans, in Lord Minto's Minute of 1811 ... ... tb.
CHAPTER V.
FIRST LEGISLATIVE PROVISION FOR PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN INDIA. — ACT OF PARLIAMENT, 63 GEO. III., C. 155. — DESPATCH OP THE
COURT OF DIRECTORS, DATED SRD JUNE, 1814, ON EDUCATION. — EARLY EDUCATIONAL EFFORTS OF THE MISSIONARIES. — LORD
MoiRA's EDUCATIONAL MlNUTE OP 2ND OCTOBER, 1815.
Public instruction not yet recognized as part of a settled State Policy . ... ... ... ••• ••• 21
Inquiry by Parliament into Indian affairs, and renewal of the E. I. Company's Charter, by Act 53, Geo. III., C. 155, in 1813 ... ib.
Statutory recognition of the policy of education in India ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• 22
Lord Castlereagh's Resolution recognizing the duty of Great Britain to educate the Natives of India, passed by Parliament in 1813 ib.
M 43, Statute 53, Geo. III., C. 155, quoted as marking a new epoch ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Tbe first Despatch of the Court of Directors to the Governor-General, dated 3rd June, 1814, conveying directions on the subject
of education ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 23
Directions as to the mode of giving effect to Sec. 43, of Statute 53, Geo. III., C. 155 ... ... ... ... ib.
Two objects of the Clause in the Act of Parliament, — cannot be gained by establishing Colleges ... ... ... ib.
1'olitical aspect of education with respect to the feelings of the Natives as to the sanctity of Benares ... ... ... ib.
Sanskrit learning to be encouraged ... .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 24
Three noticeable points in the Despatch of the Court of Directors, dated 3rd June, 1814 .. ... ... ... «b
Omission to act upon the Charter of 1813 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... «6.
nary movement in behalf of education ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Lord Moira's Educational Minute of 2nd October, 1815 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 25
CHAPTER VI.
ORIGIN OF ENGLISH EDUCATION. — THE " Vidyalaya" OR ANGLO-INDIAN COLLEGE FOUNDED BY HINDUS op CALCUTTA IN 1816. —
RAJA RAM MOUUN HOY'S ADVOCACY OF ENGLISH EDUCATION. — COMMITTEE OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION ESTABLISHED IN CALCUTTA
IN 1823. — ITS PROCEEDINGS UP TO THE END OF 1831. t,
Apathy of the Indian Government towards English education, and zeal of the advanced Hindus 4Ao founded the " Vidyalaya " or
Anglo-Indian College at Calcutta, in 1816 ... ... ... ... ... • ... ... ... 25
Origin of English education in India. Mr. David Hare and Raja Ram Mohun Roy ... ... ... ... ib.
Popularity and success of the " Vidyalaya " or Indian College ... ... ... ... ... ... 26
TABLE OP CONTENTS. XI
Page
An advanced Hindu, Joynarain Ghossal, founds an English School at Benares, in 1818 ... ... ... ... 26
Inactivity of the Muhammadans as to English education. The Calcutta School-Book Society formed in 1817 ... ... 27
The Calcutta Sanskrit College founded by Government at the suggestion of Mr. H. H. Wilson, in 1821 ... ... ... ib.
Committee of Public Instruction appointed at Calcutta in 1823. ... ... ... ... ... ... ,'(,
Most significant protest by enlightened Hindus, through Baja Ram Mohuu lloy in 1823, against expenditure of money on Sans-
krit learning instead of English education ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... if,.
Bishop Heber's opinion of Raja Ram Mohun Roy ... ... .. ... .. ... 28
Raja Ram Mohun Roy's Memorial, in favour of English education, presented to Lord Amherst in 1823 ... ... ... ift.
The Memorial disregarded by Government ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Views of the Court of Directors as to the nature of the studies, in their Despatch of 18th February, 1824, ... ...
Useful knowledge to be encouraged ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Oriental sciences useless ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ;&.
Observations on the above Despatch by the Committee of Public Instruction, in their letter to Government, dated 18th August,
1824 ... ... ... ... ... ... 31
Measures adopted by Committee of Public Instruction. Agra College founded in 1823, and a College at Delhi in 1829 ;f>.
First indications of the policy of English education in the Court of Director's Despatch, dated 29th September, 1830 32
Separate Colleges for the study of English ... ... ... ... __ {b_
English Science may be encouraged by translations ... ... ... ... ... ... 33
Natives to be educated for Public Service ... ... ... ... ... ... ... _ i6
English to be gradually adopted in official business ... ... ... ... ... ... ^
Justice to be administered in the language of the people ... ... ... ... ... ... 34
Principles of their proceedings explained by the Committee of Public Instruction in their report in December, 1831 ,-j
Spread of English ideas ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 35
CHAPTER VII.
EARLY MEASURES FOR EDUCATION IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. — SIR THOMAS MUNRO'S MINUTES ON EDUCATION, IN 1822 AND 1826
COMMITTEE OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION APPOINTED IN MADRAS, IN 1826.
Early educational measures in Madras ... ... ... ... ... __ 3g
Sir Thomas Munro's Minutes on Education, dated 25th June, 1822, and 10th March 1826 ... ... ... 36
Low state of Education in Madras ... ... ... ... ... ___ ib
Endowment of Schools by Government ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ;h
Committee of Public Instruction appointed in Madras, 1826 ... ... ... ... ... __ ib
Approval by the Court of Directors : their Despatch of the 29th September, 1830, as to English education ... 37
Higher branches of knowledge to be encouraged by Public Service ... .. ... ... .... ^
English education to be encouraged on same Principles as in Bengal ... ... ... ... ^
CHAPTER Till.
EARLY MEASURES FOR EDUCATION IN THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY DURING 1815-23. — MINUTES BY THE HON'BLE MOUNTSTUAHT ELPHIN-
STONE AND THE HON'BLE F. WARDEN, ON EDUCATION, IN 1823 AND 1828.— SlR JOHN MALCOLM'S VIEWS AGAINST GENERAL EDU-
CATION IN ENGLISH, IN HIS MINUTE op 1828.— DESPATCH OF THE COURT OF DIRECTORS TO THE BOMBAY GOVERNMENT, DATED
21sT SEPTEMBER, 1829, FAVOURING STUDY OF ENGLISH. — SIR JOHN MALCOLM'S MODIFIED VIEWS, IN HIS MINUTE, DATED IOTH
OCTOBER, 1829. — DESPATCH OF THE COURT OF DIRECTORS TO THE BOMBAY GOVERNMENT, DATED 29TH SEPTEMBER, 1830 IN FAVOUR
OF ENGLISH EDUCATION. — THE ELPHINSTONE INSTITUTION FOR ENGLISH EDUCATION IN BOMBAY.
Early educational measures in Bombay ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3g
Society for Promotion of education in Bombay, founded in 1815 ... ... ... ... ,-j
V Hindu College founded at Poona, in 1821 ... ... ... ... ... ib
Bombay Native School-Book Society, founded in 1823 ... ... ... ... ... ... ih
Hon'ble Mr. Elphinstone's Minute on education, dated 13th December, 1823 ... ... ... ... 3<j
The Bombay Education Society to be helped by Government ... ... ... ... ... ^
Educational measures suggested ... ... ... ... .__ ib_
Education as a Duty of the State, .ind its benefits ... ... ... ... ... ... jj_
Religious sensitiveness of the Natives ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 40
Neglect of education, a reproach to the British Rule ... ... ... ... ... ... ,^
Religious neutrality in education ... ... .. ... ... ... ... ... t-6
Dissentient Minute of Hon'ble F. Wavdeu, dated 29th December, 1823 ... ... ... ... t-fe
Government should not undertake too great responsibility in education ... ... ... ... t-j
Missionaries should be indirectly encolraged and helped by Government ... ... ... ... 41
Dangers of introducing printing in^Jia ... ... ... ... i6
English language the best means lucation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .__ jj
tl..
46
TAP:. i . KXTS.
Xll
s of Bombay aid and . udv of English, by founding English Professorships in honour of Mr. Blphin.tone,- ^ ^
l.s-7 ... ... ,_,
Dissentient opinions in roiiar.l to promotion of English edncation in Bombay
{ iMih March, IHL'S.in favour of encouraging EngHsh
ly, primary object of Native edncation
Sir John Ma' ; I education in English
,tton in 1828. in favour of Vernacular education
... »•• *0.
-h History
Further enij Nativisin Administration
i,f Knglisli nut necessary for Natives beyond the Presidency
Court of Dir,-.-iors of 21st September, 1826, to the Government of Bombay, favouring the study of Enghs
Heotort 1 ,1 in favour of English education, in his Minute, dated 10th October, 1829
...
,f the Court of Directors to the Bombay Government, dated 29th September, 1830, in favour of English edncation
: ile of successful English edncation in Bengal
Institution may be helped, like the Anglo-Indian College at Calcutta
Sullf KlpMnstone Institution. The Court of Directors' Despatch to the Bombay Government, dated 12th
December, 1832, regarding aid and superintendence of the Institution
CHAPTER IX.
SUMMARY or THE VARIOUS STAGES OF THE MEASURES FOE KIT, ATION OF THK NATIVES OK INDIA, AND EXPENDITURE INCURRKI. m
THE EAST INDIA COMPANY UNDER THE ACT OF PARLIAMENT, STATUTE 53, GKO. III.. CHAPTER 155 — FROM 1813 TO 1830.
Stages of the policy of Education in India. The earliest stage — Inactivity
The 2nd Stage — Encouragement of Oriental studies, 1781 to 1791
The 3rd Stage— Unorganized Individual efforts
The 4th Stage — Legislative recognition of edncation as a duty of the State, in 1813
The 5th Stage — Apathy of the Indian Government towards education'...
The 6th Stage — Appointment of Committees of Public Instruction, 1823 to 1826 ... ... ••• ••• l!l-
The question of EngHsh education remains unsettled
n.liturc on education in India, under section 43 of Act of Parliament, 53, Geo. III., Chapter 155, 1813 to 1830
Actual expenditure donble the minimum amount required by the Act of Parliament
CHAPTER X.
i. EAST INDIA COMPANY'S CHARTER IN 1833.— ARRIVAL OF LORD MACAULAY IN INDIA AS A MEMBER OF THK
I'M, MIL, IN IS34.— CONTHOVKKSY AS TO THE COMPARATIVE MKKITS OK ORIENTAL LEARNING AND ENC1.1SII
I1ATCHE FOR EDUCATION.— LORD WILLIAM BENTINCK'g EDUCATIONAL RESOLUTION OF 1H35.- PROTEST OF MUH AMMADAN.-- U
THE RKSOH-T!
Ttant period in the History of education in India- 1830 to 1835 ... ... ... ••• ••• 4s
U< India ('. ..mem, in 1883 ... ... ••• ^~
i of odiicntinft India ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• "'•
duty of the Company's Government. Absence of interest in Indian affairs in Piirlia-
,1
•vernment of India, 3 and 4 Wm. FV., C. 85, received Royal assent on 28th August, 1833.—
med ... .. ... ••• ••• ••• ^9
iM.porlan: I ucational policy
•'I with Oriental learning ... ... ••• '&•
of the Education Committee as to comparative claims of English and Oriental learning ... ib.
50
n English and Oriental learning ... ... ... ... «'&.
Lord Manuilay'.-- • .• in favour of K; . dated 2nd February, 1835 ... ... ib.
Kntflisb literati;: «i- e<lue:itinn in India ... ... ••• ••• ••• '''•
Annl nnl effort ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... •">!
of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th century ... ... ... ••• 16.
in Itussia ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• »&•
William Bentinrk adopts Lord Macanlay's views : Government Resolution, dated, 7th March, 1835, in favour of English
1 ••• ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• '''•
... ... ... 52
... ... •• i<>.
... ... ... ib.
:nfrsof the Hind. ! in favour of English education
niKiiiy as to the popularity of English education among the Hindus
Excessive sale of i hoot-books during 1834-35
TABLE OF CONTENTS. sii)
Page
Small sale of Oriental books ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 53
Hindu scholars educated in the Vidynlni/n, propugat.0 taste for English language and literature ... ... ... ib.
Muhammadans oppose English education and memorialize against the Government Resolution of 7th March, 1835. Testimony
of Mr. H. H. Wilson ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
CHAPTER XI.
CONTENDING ARGUMENTS OF THE ADVOCATES OF ENGLISH EDUCATION, AND THE SUPPORTERS OF ORIENTAL LEARNING IN ARABIC AND
SANSKRIT.
The controversy — English Education versus Oriental Learning ... ... ... ... ... ... 54
Arguments of the Advocates of English education ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Importance of the English language .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 55
Objections to the early proceedings of the Education Committee ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Professor H. H. Wilson's views in favour of Oriental learning, and criticism of the Government Resolution of 7th March, 1835 ... ib.
The promotion of Vernacular education not excluded by the Government Resolution of 7th March, 1835 ... ... 56
First Annual Report of the Education Committee recognizes importance of Vernacular Education ... ... ... ib.
CHAPTER XII.
RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION NO PART OF GOVERNMENT EDUCATIONAL POLICY. — MARQUIS OF TWEEDDALE'S MINUTE OF 1846, IN FAVOUR
Of RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION, DISAPPROVED BY COURT OF DIRECTORS. — PETITION OF THE NATIVES OF MADRAS TO PARLIAMENT,
IN 1852, ON THE SUBJECT. — RESULT OF THE CONTROVERSY.
Controversy as to religious neutrality in education ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 57
Religious neutrality in education adopted as State Policy ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 58
Proposal in Madras to introduce the Bible as a class-book ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Minute of the Marquis of Tweeddale, dated 24th August, 1846, in favour of the proposal ... ... ... ... ib.
Attendance on the Bible-class to be optional ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 59
Moral instruction necessary ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Religious instruction advisable ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
More solid foundation of morality required for Public Service, than that to be found in the Hindu or Muhammadan faith ... ib.
Despatch of the Court of Directors to the Government of Madras, dated 23rd March, 1847, prohibiting the introduction of the
Bible in Government Seminaries ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Petition to Parliament from the Natives of Madras, dated 10th December, 1852, protesting against religious interference in
education... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... i&.
Protest against appropriation of educational funds to Christian institutions «... ... ... ... ... 60
Educational Grant should not be devoted to Proselytism ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Complaint against the Marquis of Tweeddaie's Minute of 24th August, 1846 ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Complaint against the Marquis of Tweeddale's insulting language towards the Native Community ... ... ... 61
Study of the Bible no panatea for immorality ... ... .. ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Attempt to introduce the Bible in Government Seminaries not made in any other part of India ... ... ... ib.
Sir Frederick Halliday's evidence before the House of Commons, on 25th July, 1853, against the introduction of the Bible in
( « overnment Seminaries ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 62
The Bible not to be introduced even as an optional subject in Government Schools ... ... ... ... ib.
Testimony of Mr. John Clarke Marshman as to religious neutrality in Government Schools ... ... ... ... 63
His deposition given before the House of Commons, on 8th July, 1853 ... ... .- ... ... ... ib.
Kn.rlish Professors indifferent to Christianity ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Mr. Arthur Howell's views on religion5* neutrality in education ... ... ... ... ... ... 64
lii'liirious neutrality declared by Lord William Bentinck ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Ki'li'-i.Mis neutrality re-affirmed ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Despatch of the Court of Directors, dated 13th April, 1858, as to strict religious neutrality ... ... ... ... ib.
Religious neutrality considered ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 65
No religious teaching in Government Schools ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Question of religious instruction difficult ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
CHAPTER XIII.
EFFECTS OF PURELY SECULAR !>. i CATION ON THE NATIVE MIND. — VIEWS OF MR. MARSHMAN AND SIR CHARLES TREVELYAN
AS TO THE CHRISTIANIZING iNhn'KM K OF ENGLISH EDUCATION. — MR. HOWELL'S VIEWS AS TO THE FIRST EFFECTS OF ENGLISH
AND MISSIONARY TEACHING. TIIK '• HHAIIMO SAMAJ " MOVEMENT.
MR. Marsliman's views as to the effect of purely secular English education ... ... ... ... ••• 66
Sir Charles Trevelyan's views as to religious instruction in Government Seminaries for teaching English ... ... ib.
Sir Charles Trevelyan's opinions and expectations as to the Christianizing influence of English education ... ..• 69
\
XJV TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page
Christianizing influence of English education a fallacy ... ••• ••• •••
Kirat effects of English and Missionary teaching
The Brahmo Samaj movement
CHAPTER XIV.
VIKWS OP THE MISSIONARIES OPPOSED TO RELIGIOUS NEUTRALITY IN EDUCATION.— THE OBJECTS OF THE MISSIONARY* EDUCATIONAL
INSTITUTIONS.— BEV. A. DUFF'S STATEMENT BEFORE THE HOUSE OF LORDS, IN 1853, AS to MISSIONARY ENDEAVOURS FOR EDUCA-
TION.—His VIEWS AS TO EFFECTS OF PURELY SECULAR EDUCATION.— OPINIONS OF THE CELEBRATED PHILOSOPHIC THINKER, REV.
SYDNEY SMITH, AS TO THE EFFORTS OF THE MISSIONARIES IN INDIA.
Religious neutrality in education disapproved by Missionaries
Bev. Alexander Duffs opinion adverse to the religions neutrality in education ... ... ... ... ;'
Typical views of the Missionaries as to religious neutrality in education ... ... ... it.
Christianity should not be sacrificed to worldly expediency .- — ••• 72
Neglect of Government to propagate the Gospel should encourage the Christian Churches to undertake the task ... ib.
Proselytizing views limited to Missionaries and exceptionally enthusiastic Europeans ... ... ib.
itional policy of the Missionaries ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ib.
Statement of Rev. A. Duff before the House of Lords, on 3rd June, 1853
Hindu students in Missionary Schools become gradually Christianized ... ••• ... 73
Missionary views as to the effects of purely secular English education ... ••• ... ib.
Opinions of the celebrated philosophic thinker, Rev. Sydney Smith, as to the efforts of the Missionaries in India ... ... 7-t
Discussions as to English education take no special notice of Muhammadans, as they refrained from such education ... ... 75
CHAPTER XV.
PROGRESS OF ENGLISH EDUCATION UNDER THE POLICY OF LORD WILLIAM BENTINCK'S EDUCATIONAL RESOLUTION OF TTH MARCH,
1835. — LORD AUCKLAND'S EDUCATIONAL MINUTE OF 1839. — LORD HAHDINGE'S EDUCATIONAL RESOLUTION OF 1844. — POLICY OK
MAKING ENGLISH THE LANGUAGE OF OFFICIAL BUSINESS. — PROGRESS OF ENGLISH EDUCATION IN BENGAL.— VIEWS ot Siu
FREDERICK HALLIDAY.
Lord Auckland's educational Minute of 24th November, 1839, slightly modifying the policy of exclusive English education ... 76
Lord Hardinge's educational Resolution of 10th October, 1844, in favour of the employment of successful Native students ... ib.
Policy of making English the language of official business, was indicated so early as 1829 ... ... ... ... 77
r of the Government of Bengal, dated 26th June, 1829, announcing the future adoption of English in public offices ... <6.
Policy of adopting English as the language of official business announced so early as 1829, and followed in Lord Hardinge's
Henolution of 10th October, 1844 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 78
Dissatisfaction caused by the proceedings of the Education Committee under that Resolution ... ... ... ib.
« made by English education, especially in Bengal ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
- nti to Kn^lish education in 1852 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 79
Sir Frederick Halliday's general view as to the condition of English education in 1853 ... ... ... 80
CHAPTER XVI.
PROPOSALS TO ESTABLISH UNIVERSITIES IN 1845 — PARLIAMENTARY ENQUIRY INTO INDIAN AFFAIRS IN 1853. — PETITION TO PARLIAMENT
BY MB. C. H. CAMERON, FOR ESTABLISHING UNIVERSITIES IN INDIA. — VIEWS OK SIR CHARLES TREVELYAN, ME. MAKSUMAN,
PROFESSOR H. H. WILSON, AND SIR FREDERICK HALLIDAY, ON THE SUBJECT.
Scheme of a University at Calcutta, proposed in 1845 ... ... ... .... ... ... go
•Mtmiiiiicif tho proposed University at Calcutta ,.. ... ... ... ... 81
MIS expected from the proposed University at Calcutta ... ... ... ... ... ... ;;,
nposal for esi.-ilili^liinir a University at Calcutta remains in abeyance till Parliamentary eiqniry in 1853, preceding
Statutes 3 nntl 4. Win. IV., C. 85 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ,j
Petition to Parliament by Mr. Charles Hay Cameron for establishing Universities in India, dated 30*,h November, 1852 5*2
Views of eminc'ii: witnesses before the House of Lords, as to establishing Universities in India ... ... ... ,-(,.
Mr. Cameron's explanation of his proposals ... ... ... ... ... ... ,;,
Sir Charles Trevclyan's views s,
... ... ... ... 0,5
Mr. Marbhman's views
Professor H. H. WiUon's views opposed to the proposal ... ... ... ... ...
Sir Frederick HalliUuy'a apprehuusion as to failure of proposed Universities ... ... ...
-h
TABLE OF CONTENTS. xv
CHAPTEE XVII.
COMPREHENSIVE DESPATCH OF THE COURT OF DIRECTORS TO THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA, DATED 19TH JULY, 1854, ON THE SUBJECT
OF EDUCATION, KNOWN AS SIR CHARLES WOOD'S EDUCATIONAL DESPATCH OF 1854. — FORMATION OF THE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
Page
The educational Despatch of the Court of Directors, dated 19th July, 1854 ... ... ... ... g^
Its purport ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. ... ... gg
Directions as to educational policy ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ^
Policy of the educational Despatch of 1854 ... ... ... ... ... ... (-j
Formation of the Education Department, 1855-67 ... ... ... ... ... ... gg
Estimated extent of collegiate education at formation of the Education Department in various Provinces ... ,7,
Estimate of the extent of Collegiate Education in the First Departmental year, in the various Provinces of British India ... ib.
CHAPTER XVIII.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE INDIAN UNIVERSITIES, AND THE SCOPE AND CHARACTER OF THE EDUCATION RECOGNIZED AND CONTROLLBD BY
THEM. — STATISTICS OF UNIVERSITY COLLEGIATE EDUCATION, 1857 TO 1882.
Establishment of the Indian Universities ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... gy
Guiding principles for Indian Universities ... ... ... ... ... ... ... jj
London University to be taken as model ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. gg
Constitution of Indian Universities ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... jj,_
Functions of Indian Universities ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... #,.
Eeligious subjects to be excluded ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ,-;,_
Regulations for the examination for degrees ... ... ... ... ... ... ... jj
Professorships in connection with Universities, especially in Law ... .. ... ... ... ,-j
Civil Engineering may be a subject for degrees ... ... ... ... ... ... . . ... .;;,_
Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian may be included among the subjects consistently with religious neutrality ... gg
Councils of education at Calcutta and Bombay to constitute the Senates of the Universities, respectively ... ... $.
Additional Members of the Senate, including Natives of India ... ... ... ... ... ,-j
University to be founded at Madras also, if circumstances permit ... ... ... ... ... ,7,
Colleges and schools subsidiary to the Universities ... ... ... ... ... ... ... jj,.
The Universities founded in 1857 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ft.
The Calcutta University incorporated in January, 1857 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
The Bombay University incorporated in July, 1857, and the Madras University in September, 1857 ... ... ... 90
Constitution of the three Universities ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ,7,.
The Punjab University, its history and objects ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... #,.
Movement for a University in the Punjab, 1865-69 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... jj.
Nature of the University demanded by the promoters ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ,'j,.
Sympathy of Sir Donald McLeod with the movement ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 91
Desire for a University in the North-Western Provinces in 1867 ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
A University proposed for Lahore in 1868, but incorporation refused by Government of India in 1868 ... ... ... ib.
The Government of India give sanction to the Punjab University College ... ... ... ... ... 92
Approved by the Secretary of State ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib-
Notification of Government of India, dated 8th December, 1869, establishing Lahore University College ... ... ib.
Working of the Punjab University College from 1870 to 1876 ... ... ... ... ... ...
Study of Oriental languages ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Studies in Law ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Working of the Punjab University College, from 1877 to 1882 ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Large number of Institutions affiliated ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Examiners ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 95
Final constitution of a University demanded ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Lord Ripon's Government passes the Punjab University Act, XIX of 1882 ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Constitution of the governing body of the Punjab University ... ... ... ... ... .. u,.
The Allahabad University incorporated in September, 1887 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 96
Scope and character of Collegiate education ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Duration of College courses and standards of examination in the Universities of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay ... . ib.
Statistics of some important results of Collegiate education under the Universities of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, 1857-82 ... 97
Examinations conducted by the Punjab University ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
TABLE OP CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XIX.
THE INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION OF 1882, AND SOME IMPORTANT FACTS AND STATISTICS COLLECTED BY IT IN REGARD TO ENGLISH
COLLEGIATE EDUCATION.
Page
98
Indian Education Commission of 1882
Resolution appointing the Commission, dated 3rd February, 1882
Duties assigned to the Commission ...
Policy of encouraging the Grant-in-aid system to secure gradual withdrawal from high English education ... 99
Information as to Collegiate education collected by the Commission ...
scpne
Statistics of Collegiate instruction, 1881-82
Views of the Commission as to academic discipline
Average cost of Collegiate education per student, 1881-82
Tuition Fees in Arts Colleges in 1881-82
Approximate Statistics of the after career of Indian graduates, 1871-82
tb.
102
CHAPTER XX.
THE GRANT-IN-AID SYSTEM INAUGURATED BY THE BDUCATIONAL DESPATCH OF 1854, AND CONSIDERED BY THE INDIAN EDUCATION
COMMISSION OF 1882.
Objects of the Despatch of 1854, as to the Grant-in-aid system
102
1 01
Scope and character of the Grant-in-aid system ...
Relations of the State to private effort ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• *'
Necessity of encouraging private effort. Limitations of the policy of withdrawal ... ••• ••• **•
Limitation of State expenditure on higher education
Ultimate objects of the Grant-in-aid system ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• *"•
General financial result of private effort ... ... ••• •••
Summary of the views of the Education Commission as to private efforts ... ••• ••• ••• ••• *"•
CHAPTER XXI.
VIEWS OF THE INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION IN REGARD TO THE WITHDRAWAL OF THE STATE FROM HIGHER] ENGLISH EDUCATION.
Withdrawal of the State from higher education ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• 106
Opinions of witnesses before the Commission ... ... . ... ... ••• ••• ••• — *&•
Bearing of the policy of withdrawal on Missionary education ... ... ... ... ••• ••• 107
Withdrawal in favour of Missionaries to be avoided ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• *&•
Position of Missionary enterprise in education ... ... ... ... ••• ••• **•
Limits of opposing views within the Commission ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• 108
Considerations for and against the policy of withdrawal ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• *''•
General conclusion as to the policy of withdrawal ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• l6-
Recommendation as to withdrawal explained ... ... ... ... ... ••• — ••• 109
Expected result of withdrawal ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ib.
ral principles as to transfer of State Colleges to private management ... ... ... ••• ••• »b.
Views of the Commission as to its recommendations regarding transfer of Colleges to private management ... ... 110
Expectations of the Commission as to transfer of Colleges to bodies of Native Gentlemen ... ... ••• ••• ib.
KiTiirnmendations of the Commission as to high education summarized ... ... ... ••• ••• t'6.
Decision of Government as to policy of withdrawal from high education ... ... .. ••• 111
CHAPTER XXII.
MORAL TRAINING AND RELIGIOUS TEACHING IN COLLBGES. — VIEWS OF THE INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION. — MR. KASHINATH TRIM-
BUK TELANG'S DISSENTIENT MINUTE. — VIEWS OF THE LOCAL GOVERNMENTS AND THE DECISION OF THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
UPON THE SUBJECT.
Viewi of the Commission as to moral and religions instruction ... ... ... ... ... ... Ill
Moral training in Colleges ... ... ... ... ib.
Religion)) teaching in Colleges ... ... 112
Religions instruction in Aided Institutions ... ... ... ... 113
Recommendation as to a Text-book for moral instruction ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Mr. Telang's disst . ille against the preparation of a moral Text-book and Lectures ... * ... ... ... 114
Lectures on the duties of a man inefficacious for moral training ... ... ... tb.
Lectures on the duties of a citizen inadvisable ... 115
A moral Text-book will be useless ... Ug
Religions instruction impracticable ... ... ^
TABLE OP CONTENTS. IV11
Page
Views of the Local Governments as to introduction of a Moral Text-book ... ... ... ... ... 117
Decision of the Government of India as to the proposed Moral Text-book ... ... ... .. ib.
Orders of the Secretary of State (Lord Cross) as to preparation of a Moral Text-book. Summary of the views on the subject ib.
Resolution of the Government of India on the subject, dated 17th August, 1889 ... ... ... ... ... 118
CHAPTER XXIII.
SIR ALFRED CROFT'S REVIEW OF EDUCATION IN INDIA IN 1886, AND ITS STATISTICS.
Resolution of the Government of India reviewing the Education Commission's Report ... ... ... ... 119
Sir Alfred Croft's Review of Education in 1886 ... ... ... ... - ... ... ib.
Collegiate education defined ... ... ••• ••• — ••• ••• »&•
Comparative statistics of Collegiate education, 1881 to 1885 ... ... ... ... ... 120
Comparative expenditure on English Arts Colleges, 1881 to 1885 ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Average Fee of each pupil, 1881 to 1885 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 121
Increasing success of Non-Departmental Colleges in 1881 to 1885 ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Statistics of Collegiate education in 1885-86 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
English Arts Colleges, 1885-86 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 122
Expenditure in Arts Colleges, 1885-86 ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Proportionate expenditure from public and from private funds on Collegiate education, 1885-86 ... ... ... 123
Expenditure from Fees in Colleges, 1885-86 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... i6.
Proportion of Fee receipts to total cost in Colleges, 1885-86 ... ... ... ... ... ... 124
Average cost of the education of each pupil in Colleges, 1885-86 ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Result of University examinations in Arts, 1885-86 ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Comparative success of Government and other Colleges in University Examinations, 1885-86 ... ... ... 125
CHAPTER XXIV.
ME. NASH'S QUINQUENNIAL REVIEW OF THK PROGRESS OF EDUCATION IN INDIA, 1887-88 TO 1891-92, AND ITS SATISTICS. — FINANCIAL
POSITION OF THE INDIAN UNIVERSITIES. — RESOLUTION OP THE GOVERNMENT OP INDIA ON THE SAME, DATED ?TH SEPTEMBER,
1894. — SOME IMPORTANT MATTERS DEALT WITH IN THE RESOLUTION.
Mr. Nash's Review of education in India, 1887 to 1892 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 125
Increase of attendance in Arts Colleges, 1887 to 1892 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 126
Number of English Arts Colleges in 1887 and 1892 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Classification of Arts Colleges, 1887 to 1892 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 127
Most important Colleges in India ... ... ... ... ..{ ... ... ... ... 128
Expenditure on Arts Colleges, in 1887 to 1892 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... tf,.
Proportionate expenditure on Arts Colleges from public and private funds, 1887 to 1892 ... ... ... ... ib.
Average annual fees per pupil in Arts Colleges, in 18S7 and 1892 ... ... ... ... ... ... 129
Percentage of expenditure on Arts Colleges from fees in 1887 and 1892 ... ... ... ... ... 130
Average cost per pupil in Arts Colleges ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Average annual cost to Government per pupil in Government Colleges. .. ... ... ... ... ... 131
Average annual cost to Government in Aided Colleges ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Results of University Examinations in 1891-92 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
General advance in higher English education during 1887— 92 ... ... ... ... ... ... 132
Comparative success of Government and other Colleges in University examinations, in 1887 and 1892 ... ... ... ib.
Summary of expenditure on high English education in 1887 and 1892 ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Rise of fees in Colleges satisfactory ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 133
Financial position of the Indian Universities ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Madras University self-supporting ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... i!>.
Bombay University is partly dependent on Government ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Calcutta University independent of Government Grant-in-aid ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Expenditure on the Punjab University ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ij>.
Finances of the Allahabad University ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Resolution of the Government of India, dated 7th September, 1894, Reviewing Mr. Nash's Quinquennial Report on Education,
1887-92 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
University Collegiate Education, and its progress, 1882 to 1893 ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Statistics of Collegiate Education in 1893, as compared with previous years ... ... ... ... ... 134
Establishment of the AHaliabnd University in 18S7. Degrees granted by Indian Universities, and their condition ... ... 135
Some important educational topics in the Government of India's Resolution, dated 7th September, 1894 ... ... ib.
Policy of withdrawal, :is affecting the Educational Service ... ... ... ... ... ... ... i5.
Moral Training in Colleges and Schools ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Physical Education in Colleges acd Schools ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 136
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page
137
Edncational Conferences ...
: ion of School-books
Prominent educat ~^S7 to 1892
nt inspection of aided institutions necessary
CHAPTER XXV.
:.isn PROFESS.ONAL EDUCATOR IN COLLEGES IN 1881-82 to 1885-86, AND IN 1886-87 TO 1891-92.
1 SS
-ional subjects in the Indian Universities ...
1 SQ
Law Departments in Colleges
Medical Colleges
Colleges
neering Colleges
i nerring College at Poona
Civil Kn.-in., ,-ing College at Seebpore near Calcutta
Thomason Civil Engineering College at Roorkee ...
r,:il Colleges, 1881-82 to 1884-85
Cost of Professional Colleges in 1884-85
Law classes almost self-supporting. Results of the University Examinations in professional subjects, in 1881-1885
Professional Colleges, 1885-86
Cost of Professional Colleges, 1885-86
~ of University Professional Examinations, 1885-86 ...
Present condition of English Professional Education
Law Colleges, 1887 and 1892
:ible increase in Law Colleges ...
Legal studies almost self-supporting ...
Advance of legal studies in 1887 to 1892
I'roirress of Medical studies in 1887 to 1892
Expenditure on lucation in 1887 and 1892
rees and Licences in 1887 to 1892
<tics of Engineering Colleges in 1887 and 1892
CHAPTER XXVI.
BACKWARDNESS or MUHAMMADANS IN ENGLISH EDUCATION. — MEASURES ADOPTED BY GOVERNMENT TO ENCOURAGE EDUCATION AMONG
HCBAHHADANS IN 1871-73.— REFORMS IN THE CALCUTTA MADRASSA IN 1873.— IMPROVED APPLICATION OF THE MOHSIN ENDOWMENT
AT HOOGHLY TO MUIIAMMADAN EDUCATION IN BENGAL.
Early opposition of Muhammadans to English education ... ... ... ... ••• ••• 1*7
Persistent apathy of the Muhammadans towards English education, 1792-1832 ... ... ... ... ••• *&•
• uses of the backwardness of Muliinnmaduns in Knglish education summarized by the Education Commission ... ib.
i-tir-i of Muhammadan education in 1871-72 ... ... ... ... •• 14^
Resolution of the Government of India, No. 300, dated 7th August, 1871, on Muhammadan education ... ... ... »f».
Backwardness (•! ihammadans deplorable. Muhammadan literature may be encouraged ... •-• »!>.
Muhaminud:tTi irarhers of Knglish to be appointed and Muhammadans encouraged by grants-in-aid to create schools and
149
hiui "iiragc Arabic and Persian literature ... ... ... ... ... ••• *&•
The i -*ed hy the Secretary of State in his Despatch No. 12, dated 14th December, 1871 ... ... ... '''•
'f India as to Muliiinini;id:in education in 1871, summarized ... ... ... ii>.
Resolution of the Government of India, dated 13th June, 1873, on the condition of Education among Muhammadans ... tb.
,1 of the Government of India's Resolution of 7th August, 1871, on Muhammadan education ... ... ... il>.
nf MuhuniiiKuliin education reported upon ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 150
Primary education in ffects growth of Secondary and Higher Education among Mnhammadans who
!'icd tn H industani or Urdu characters .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
lne^s of Mnh:iTinn:i<l:ins in Higher Collegiate and University Education most remarkable. Unsuitability of the courses
of instruction a possible cause ; if so, it must be remedied ... ... ... ... ••• ••• t'6.
iirs to remedy Muhammadan educational backwardness gratifying ... ... ... ... ... 151
•iiken in M:ulnis and Bombay for Muhammadan Schools and encouragement of Persian and Arabic ... ... ib.
Measure!) b. 1 to restore Muhammadan education by aid of the Mohsin Endowments ... »6.
a Instruction in the N.-W. Provinces and Onclh and in the Punjab, as favourable to Muhammadans as to
Hindus. Attention to Muhammadan education in the Central Provinces, Mysore, Coorg and Berar ... ... ... ti>.
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XIX
Page
Principles on which Muhammadan education should be encouraged by the State ... ... ... ... 152
Local Governments to encourage Muhammailan education according to local circumstances ... ... il.
Summary purport of the Government of India's Resolution on Muhammadan education, dated 13th June, 1873 ... ... ib.
Reforms in the Calcutta Maflrassa in 1871-73 .. ... ••• ••• ... 153
Views of the Government of India upon the subject — 13th June, 1873 ... ib.
Application of the Mohsiu funds towards Muhammndan Education in general in Bengal ... 154
Sir George Campbell's Resolution regarding measures adopted for Muhammadan education. 29th July, 1873 ... ... t&.
Approval by the Secretrary of State of the abovementioned measures, 13th November, 1873 ... ... ... ... ib.
CHAPTER XXVII.
MEASURES ADOPTED BY THE VARIOUS LOCAL GOVERNMENTS AS TO MUHAMMADAN EDUCATION UNDER THK GOVERNMENT OF INDIA'S
RESOLUTION OF 1871, AS STATED IN THE REPORT OF THE EDUCATION COMMISSION OF 1882.
-nres taken in Madras for Muhammadan education under the Government of India's Resolution No. 300, dated 7th August,
1871 ... ... ••• - - — ]55
Results of measures for Muhammadan education taken in Madras ... ... ... ... ... ... 15C,
Measures for Muhammadan education taken in Bombay ... ... ... ... ... 157
Results of measures for M uhammadan education in Bombay ... ... ... ... 15^
Measures for Muhammadan education taken in Bengal ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 159
The Mohsin Endowment at Hooghly applied to English education among Muhammadans in Bengal .. ... .. ib.
Results of measures for Muhammadan education in Bengal ... ... ... ... ... ... 161
Measures for Muhammadan education taken in the North- Western Provinces ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Results of measures for Muhammadan education in the North-Western Provinces ... ... ... ... 1 62
Independent efforts made by the Muhammadans of the North-Western Provinces for English education... ... ... ib.
The Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, Aligarh ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 163
Measures for Muhammadan education taken in the Panjab ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 164
Measures for Muhammadan education taken in Oudh ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 165
Measures for Muhammadau education taken in the Central Provinces, Mysore, Coorg, and the Berars ... ... ... 167
CHAPTER XXVIII.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE EDUCATION COMMISSION OF 1882, ON THE SUBJECT OF MUHAMMADAN EDUCATION. — REPORTS
OF THE LOCAL GOVERNMENTS THEREON. — VlEWS OF THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA UPON THE SUBJECT.
Condition of English education among Mnhammadana in Colleges, and Schools, as indicated by the statistics of 1881-82, in the
Report of the Education Commission of 1882 ... ... ... ... ... ... .. 167
Table showing the attendance of Musalmans in the various Educational Institutions, Government, Aided and Unaided, as
compared with the totnl attendance in 1881-82 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 168
Noticeable points in regard to the low percentage of Muhammadan students in English Colleges and Schools as compared with
the percentage of Muhammadans in the population ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 169
Conclusions of the Education Commission as to the condition of education among Muhammadans in 1882 ... ... ib.
Recommendations of t,he Education Commission for promoting education among Muhammadans ... ... ... ib.
The recommendations formulated with reasons in brief ... ... ... ... ... ... 170
Government of India's Resolution dated 23rd October, 1881, reserved subject of Muhammadan education for separate con-
sideration ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... l"i
Memorial of the National Muhammadan Association of Calcutta on Muhammadan education, &c., in ISS2 .. ... ib.
Resolution of the Government of India, dated 15th July, 1885, reviewing Muhammadan education and declaring policy of
Government
Views of the Government of Madras on Muhammadan education in 1881 ... ... ... ... ... 172
Observations of the Government of Indi:i th^i n .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Views of the Government of Bombay on Muhammadan education, in 1884 ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Observations of the Government of India th"rcon ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Views of the Government of Bengal on Muhammadan education, in 1884 ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Auprovsil thereof by the Government of India ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 173
Views of the Government of the N.-W. P. and Oudh on Muhammadan education in 1881, and remarks of the Government of
India thereon ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ,;>.
Views of the Punjab Government on Muhammadan education in 1^84 ... ... ... ... ... ._ ib.
Views of : .minis-ioner of th» Central Provinces on Muhammadan education in 1884 ... ... ... ib.
Views of the Administrations of As*am, Coorg, Berar and ISritish Burma, on Muhammadan education, in 188 t ... ... ib.
Views and suggestions of the Government of India as to encouragement of Muhammadan education in the various provinces in
general ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. ... 174
Memorable passages in the Resolution of the Government of India, dated 15th July, 1885 ... ... ... ... .«
TATU.E OF CONTENTS.
Muhammadans cannot advance without placing themselves in line with the Hindus in English education
Muhammadans cannot be exempted from qualifying tests for public service. Their interests in this respect should
watched ...
.overnment is not neglectful of the efforts for educational improvement among Mnhammadatu
vs of the Government of India, in its Resolution of 15th July, 1885, on Muhammadan education, summarized ...
Page
174
175
ib.
CHAPTER XXIX.
PKOGKESS or ENGLISH EDUCATION AMONG MUHAMMADANS, 1881-82 to 1891-92.- RESOLUTIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT OP INDIA ON THE
SUBJECT, IK 1888 AND 1894.- DEFICIENCY OF HlGH ENGLISH EDUCATION AMONG MUHAMMADANS, 1882-92.
Statistics of Mnhammadans receiving English Collegiate education in 1881-82
Backwardness of Mnhammadans in English Collegiate education in 1882
Statistics of English education among Muhammadans during 183^-92
Deficiency in the progress of English Collegiate education among Muhammadans during 1882-92 ... 16.
Success of Muhnmmadans in University Examinations in 1887 and 1892
Statement showing the number of Mnhammadans who passed the various University Examinations in 1886-87 and in 1891-92 ... 178
Deficiency in I he success of Mnhammadans in Universities, compared with their percentage in the population, in 1891-92 ... 179
Views of the Government of India on Muhammadan education, in the Resolution dated 18th June, 1888
,,f the Government of India on Muhammadan education, in the Resolution dated 7th September, 1894 ... 180
Noticeable points in the above Resolution
i sties of higher education among Muhammadans considered apart from other education in general ... ... 181
Noticeable backwardness of Muhammadan Urban population in English Collegiate education ..
CHAPTER XXX.
GENERAL SCRTIY or THK STATISTICS OF HIGH ENGLISH EDUCATION AMONG MUHAMMADANS AS COMPARED WITH HINDUS, FROM
THB ESTABLISHMENT OF THB INDIAN UNIVERSITIES TO THE PRESENT PERIOD — 36 YEARS — 1858 TO 1893.
Comparative statistics of Hindu and Muhammadan graduates of Indian Universities, 1857-93 proposed ... .„ ... 182
Multifiiriousneas of the population of India ... ... ... ... ••• ••• «• ••• 'b.
Population of British India in 1881 ... .. ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• '''•
Consideration of comparative statistics limited to Hindu and Mnhammadan graduates, with reference to census of 1881, and
University statistics, 1857-93 ... ... ... ... . ... ••• ... ... 183
Distribution of Hindu and Muhammadan population into castes, sects, &c., in 1881 ... ... ... ... 16.
Distribution and percentages of the Hindu and Muhammadan population in the various provinces, in 1881 ... ... 184
Hindu; ]>nail:ui population classified according to jurisdiction of Indian Universities ... ... ... t'6.
Percentages calculated with reference to the total Hindu and Muhammadan population only .. ... ... ... 185
Comparative statistics of Hindu and Muhammadan graduates, prepared from Calendars of Indian Universities, 1858-93, divided
into periods of six years each ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Hi.
Extreme paucity of Muhammadan graduates during the first four periods, 1858 to 1881 ... ... ... ... 16.
« of progress among Muhammadan graduates during the 5th and 6th periods, 1882-93 ... ... ... ... 186
Statistics of graduates viewed in respect of tho whole period, 1858-93 ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Statistics of great disparity between Hindu and Mulmmmadans in high English education, 1858-93 ... ... t'fr.
Backwardness of high English education among Muhammadans in the various provinces, as shown by University statistics,
1858-93 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 187
Number of graduates per 100,000 of the Hindu and Muhiimmndnn population, respectively, 1858-93 ... ... ... ib.
Table showing the number of graduates per 100,000 of each population, and the number of each population among whom one is
a graduate, from the establishment of the various Indian Universities to the year 1893 ... ... ... ... 188
Progress of high English education among Hindus (en times as great as among Mnhammadans, calculated per 100,000 of the
population of each community. 1858— 93 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 189
Deficiency iu the number of Muhammadan graduates, according to the ratio of the Muhammadan to the Hindu population .
1858-93 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Table showing the number of Muhammadan graduates as it ought to be according to the ratio of the Muhammadan to the
Hindu population, the actual numlirr of Muliammadan graduates and the deficiency in their number, during 1858 to 1893 ... 190
Explanation of the preceding Table, as showing the extent of the deficiency of the Muhammadans in high English education,
u compared with the Hindus, 1858-93 ... ... J91
Proportionate number of Muhammadan graduates, as it should have been, according to the ratio of the Muhammadan to the
Hindu population, in 18.">8-93 ... ... ... ... „, ,-;,.
Table showing the number of graduates of each race per 100 of the total Hindu and Muhammadan graduates, and the propor-
tionate numl.er of Muhammadan graduates, as it should have been, according to the ratio of the Muhammandan to the
Hindu population ... ... ... j<(..
TABLE OF CONTENTS. xxi
Page
Calculations in the preceding Table explained ... ... ... ... ,.. ... ... ... 193
Diagram I. showing the comparative progress of high English education in Arts among Hindus and Muhammadans, 1858-93 ... ib.
Figures necessary to understand the calculations in the Diagram I ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
The foregoing Diagram explained ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 194
Abstract Tabular Statement, showing comparative progress of Hindus and Muhammadans in various branches of University
edncation, 1858-93 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. ... .. ib.
Statistics of the backwardness of Muhammadans in all Departments of University education, 1858-93 ... ... 195
Success of Muhammadans in University degrees only one-tenth of what it should have been in proportion to their population ... ib.
Diagram II. showing the comparative progress of Hindus and Muhammadans in the Degrees of the Indian Universities, in
various branches of learning, during 1858-93 ... ... ... ... ... ... 196
Rate of progress of Muhammadan graduates in various faculties of the Indian Universities, during 1858-93 ... ... ib.
Progress of Muhammadans in Indian Universities, up to 1875, inconsiderable ... ... ... ... ... 197
Rate of progress of Muhammadan graduates in the faculty of Arts, 1881-93 ... ... ... ... ... t'6.
Rate of progress of Muhammadan graduates in the faculty of Law, 1881-93 ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Rate of progress of Muhammadan graduates in the faculty of medicine and surgery, 1881-93 ... ... ... ... ib.
Rate of progress of Muhammadan graduates in the faculty of Engineering, 1881-93 ... ... ... ... ib.
Rate of progress of Muhammadan graduates in all the faculties of the Indian Universities, from 1881 to 1893 ... ... 198
Future prospects of the Muhammadans in regard to University Degrees ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Diagram III. showing the rate of progress of Muhammadans in Indian Universities, from 1858 to 1893, explained ... ... ib.
CHAPTER XXXI.
POSITION OF MUHAMMADANS IN THE GENERAL POPULATION OF INDIA.— THE PRESENT rate OF THE PROGRESS OF ENGLISH EDUCATION
AMONG MUHAMMADANS IN COLLEGES AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS, AND ITS FUTURE PROSPECTS.
Position of the Muhammadans in the general population of India... • ... ... ... ... ... ... 199
Territorial distribution of the Muhammadans in India ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Rate of progress of English education among Muhammadans in Arts Colleges, 1882-92 ... ... ... ... 201
Rate of progress of Muhammadans in English Arts Colleges in Madras, 1882-92 ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Rate of progress of Muhammadans in English Arts Colleges in Bombay, 1882-92 ... ... ... ... ... 202
Rate of progress of Muhammadans in English Arts Colleges in Bengal, 1882-92 ... ... ... ... ... 16.
Rate of progress of Muhammadans in English Arts Colleges in the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, 1882-92 ... ... ib.
Kate of progress of Muhammadans in English Arts Colleges in the Punjab, 1882-92 ... ... ... ... ib.
Total Rate of progress of Muhammadans in English Arts Colleges in India, 1882-92 ... ... ... ... ib.
Prospects of English education among Muhammadans in Arts Colleges ... ... ... ... ... 203
Diagram IV. explained ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Rate of progress of English education among Muhammadans in Secondary Schools, 1882-92 .. ... ... ... ib.
Rate of progress of Muhammadans in English Secondary Schools in Madras, 1882-92 ... ... ... ... 204
Rate of progress of Muhammadaus in English Secondary Schools in Bombay, 1882-92 ... ... ... ... ib.
Rate of progress of Muhammadans in English Secondary Schools in Bengal, 1882-92 ... ... ... ... ib.
Rate of progress of Muhammadans in English Secondary Schools in the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, 1882—92 ... ib.
Kate of progress of Muhammadans in English Secondary Schools in the Punjab, 1882-92 ... ... ... ... ib.
Total Rate of progress of Muhammadans in English Secondary Schools in India, 1882-92 ... ... ... ... 205
Prospects of English education among Muhammadans in Secondary Schools ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Diagram V. explained ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Apparent increase of English Education among Muhammadans in the N.-W. Provinces and Oudh explained ... ... 206
Urban population of India, considered for educational questions ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Proportion of Muhammadans in Urban population best test of progress of English education among them. Diagram VI.
explained ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Percentage of Mnhammadans in the Urban population of the N.-W. Provinces and Oudh ... .. ... ... 207
Sir Auckland Colviu's views as to the proportionate claims of Muhammadans in Education and Public Service in the N.-W.
Provinces and Oudh ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Diagram VII. explained ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
CHAPTER XXXII.
GENERAL SPREAD OF ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA, ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1891.
Statistics of the general spread of English education in 1891 ... .. ... ••• ••• ... 208
Table showing literacy and knowledge of the English language among the various classes of the population of India, according
to the Census of 1891 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib-
Concentration of literacy, especially English, in certain classes of the population ...
Proportion of the English-knowing Literates ... ... ... ... ... — ••• 211
. TABLE OP CONTENTS.
Page
... .. 245
New religious sects due to English education ... ^
Bnglish education will not impair the originality of the Natives ... ^
female education in need of benevolent effort ...
Indian vernacular literature encoin
What effect has English education on existing religions ? ...
Christianity has not affected MuhammadanUm.bnt the edaoated classes of Hindus adopt theism, and Chr,Bt,anity i. rap.dly
advancing among the masses, but not among the educated classes ... — ••• — ••• '6
•Caste is shaken among educated classes but not among the masses
Are educated Natives discontented ? ...
Discontent of educated Natives in British Territories as distinguished from Native States ...
Discontent of educated Natives owing to exclusion from European society in India
Demand by educated Natives for improved status and emoluments ... ••• ••• •• ' •
Importance of educating non-official Natives to feel public spirit
Natives will desire representative institutions
Elective franchise already allowed in Municipalities of Indian capital cities may be extended even for Legislative Councils ...
High education should not be abandoned owing to political discontent
The educated classes in India brought np under British supervision follow various professions
Intelligence, integrity, and loyalty of educated Natives satisfactory on the whole ...
Rectitude of native officials of the upper and middle grades traceable to influences of English education ... ib.
Misconduct of educated Natives of lower grade
Advance and improvement of the legal profession among Natives ••• li>-
Expansion of the Post-Office an instance of the mental and moral progress of the Natives ... ••• »&•
Importance of the effects of English education among the Natives with reference to the British Rule being a Foreign Govern-
A.
ment ... ... ••• ••• ••• •••
Aspirations of educated Natives for self-Government and political power
Part Uken by the Natives in local self-Government ... ... ••• •• — *•
Native Associations for representing wishes or grievances to the Government ... ... ... ... — 251
Personal kindness a loveable characteristic of the Natives ... ••• ••• ••• — ••• ••• *.
Charitable benevolence of the Natives ... ... ... ... — — ••• ••• »fc'
Recognition by Government of charitable endowments by Natives ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ib.
Education in India defective in respect of physical and natural sciences ... ... ••• ••• **•
Muhammndanism not shaken by English education, but educated Hindus become sceptics ... ... ... ib.
Educated Natives discard Hindu Mythology without becoming atheists or materialists. The Brahmos, or theists, likely to
expand .. ... ... ... ... ... ... - - 252
Educated Hindus investigate the ethics and primeval religion of their pre-historic ancestors, contained in the Vedas ... ib.
Unsatisfied ambition of educated Natives liable to find vent in disloyalty of native newspapers ... ... ib.
Danger of discontent among educated Natives for want of suitable employment ... ... ••• ••• ... »b.
Government unable to provide careers for all educated Natives ; but there is room for practical professions, such as Civil
Kngineering, Scientific Agriculture, &c. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 253
Good done by benevolent Societies, such as the National Indian Association in England ... ... ... ... »b.
English education tends to heart-felt allegiance of the Natives towards the English nation .. ... ... ib.
Promising prospect of the mental and moral progress of the Natives ... ... ... ... ••• ... ib.
Sir Richard Temple's views as to the moral instruction .. ... ... ... ... ... ... 254
Sir John Strachey's Lectures on India before the University of Cambridge, in 1884 ... .. ... ... «b.
His estimate of the expenditure on education in 1885-86, and the extent of literacy in India ... ... ... »&•
Number of highly educated Natives extremely small ; graduates being below 5,000 during 20 years ending with 1883 ... 255
Sir Henry Maine's estimate of 25,000 well educated Indian gentlemen is much above the actual number... ... ... ib.
English-knowing Natives fit for ordinary clerical work numerous, and some rise to higher ranks in the services and professions ib.
Enormous mass of Indian ignorance is a great danger to the British Rule ... ... ... ... ... it>.
Butfick'nt encouragement not yet given to science and industrial arts. Native Surgeons and Native Judges best results of
English education ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 256
Stmly of English rightly encouraged for Western knowledge, but Oriental literature nnduly ignored ... ... ... ib.
Further passages quoted from Sir Join s work on India ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
ush-speaking Bengalis support the zemindars, to the detriment of the ryots, and misrepresent motives of Government in
newspapers ... ... ... ... ... ... 257
Absence of sympathy among English-speaking Natives of Bengal towards their less instructed countrymen ... ... ib.
Native English newspapers of Bengal often disloyal, foolish, and shamcfnlly scurrilous ... ... ... ... ib.
Uncivilized customs and horrid and cruel practices still prevalent in India, and not reprobated by educated Hindus ... ib.
Child mnrriajes among Hindus lead to early degraded widowhood, yet educated Hindus do not reprobate the custom, or help
Government to sapress it ... 253
Educated Natives, whilst asking for political franchisement, have no real desire for reform in social and religious usages ... »i.
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XXV
Page
The Indian National Congress, whilst pntting forth political aspirations, excludes all social reforms, and is chiefly composed of
men of small education, who do not represent the people of India ... ... .., ... .„ ... 258
Legitimate claims of the Natives of India to hold important public offices should be satisfied ... ... ... 259
Appointments should be given to the Natives of India of approved merit and ability, but the same tests of selection whioh
apply to Englishmen are not applicable to the Natives of India ... ... ... ... ... ... ,;,.
The greater executive powers of Government cannot be entrusted to Natives, owing to the exigencies of the British dominion... ib.
Legitimate claims of Englishmen, and the feelings of the Muhammadans, in connection with the administration of India,
should not be ignored ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 260
Natives of Northern India unwilling to be governed by Bengali district officers ... ... ... ... ... ifc.
Speeches of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan on the political nostrums of the so-called National Congresses ... ... ... ib.
The Pax Britannica the greatest blessing to India ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 261
Lord Lawrence's saying as to prosperity of India under British Rule ... ... ... ... ... ... ;&.
Enlightened Government not likely to be popular in India ... ... ... ... ... ... ,'fc.
Imperfect sympathy between the Natives and their English rulers ... ... ... ... ... ... #,.
Conservatism of the Indian population prevents appreciation of enlightened improvements ... ... ... ib.
India should be governed on sound principles of political prudence, regardless of the prejudices and superstitutions of the
people ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 262
Sir James Stephen's view of the political situation of the British administration in India, quoted ... ... ... ib.
Sir Alfred Lyall's views on the influence of Europe on India and her prospects ... ... ... ... ... H.
Analogy between the Roman conquests in Europe and the English empire in India, and the religious future of the people ... ib.
Solid universal peace established by the British Rule in India will accelerate Indian progress and intellectual expansion; but
the cement of some binding idea necessary ... ... ... ... ... ... .., 263
Unwisdom of demolishing old-world fabrics suddenly must be obviated in India ... ... ... ,., 264
Duty of the English to mount guard over India during the transitional period ... ... ... ... ... 265
Educated Natives should realize that quarrels with the English Government upon administrative details are ruinously premature ib.
Sir Monier Williams' views on Government education in India ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Educational responsibility of the English in India ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Unsatisfactory general results of higher English education ... ... ... ... ... .. ... 266
Tendencies of English education ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... jj,.
Absence of effective scheme for educating the lower classes ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Sir Alexander Arbuthnot's views as to prospects of English education ... ... ... ... ib.
CHAPTER XXXIV.
RECAPITULATION AND PROSPECTS OF ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
Various stages of the policy of English education recapitulated ... ... ... ... ... ... 267
Present policy of English education, based upon the approved recommendations of the Education Commission of 1882 ... 268
Professor Seeley's views on the mutual influence of England and India ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Policy of non-interference with Indian life and thought abandoned in 1813 ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Policy of giving English education settled in 1835, and improved in 1854 ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Mr. F. W. Thomas' Essay on English education in India, 1890 ... ... ... ... ... ... 269
Summary of Mr. Thomas' views ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Importance of primary education in India ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Engish education has done very little for the masses of the people ... ... ... ... ... ... 270
Elementary education should be safe-guarded ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
The filtering-down theory of education is fallacious ... ... ... ... ... ... ... «J.
A highly educated literary class not needed for social requirements of India, and produces discontented sedition ... ib.
Technical and professional education needed for material prosperity of India, and good feeling among its population ... 271
Upper classes of India backward in Education ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 272
The future prospects of English education ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ,'(,.
No great improvements can be expected till the richer classes are attracted to English education ... ... ... ti.
Importance of English education to the emancipation of the lower classes ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Brief retrospect of the history of English education ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 273
Conclusion ... ... ... ,., ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.
HISTORY
OF
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.
The origin, rise and progress of English education in India, and its gradual development into an important
branch of the administration of the State, constitute one of the most signi-
The subject proposed. . ,
ficant episodes, not only in the annals of India, but in the history or the
civilized world. " The British rule in India is the most wonderful phenomenon the world has ever seen. That
a race living in a distant region, differing from us in language, in manners, in religion, — in short, in all that
distinguishes the inhabitants of one country from those of another, should triumph over the barriers which nature
has placed in its way, and unite under one sceptre the various peoples of this vast continent, is in itself
wonderful enough. But that they, who have thus become the masters of this soil, should rule its inhabitants,
not with those feelings and motives which inspired the conquerors of the ancient world, but should mal$e it the
first principle of their government to advance the happiness of the millions of a subject race, by establishing
peace, by administering justice, by spreading education, by introducing the comforts of life which modern
civilization has bestowed upon mankind, is to us a manifestation of the hand of Providence, and an assurance of
long life to the union of India with England."
Such were the words employed in an Address presented to Lord Lytton, when Viceroy of India, on
... the 8th January, 1877, on the occasion of his laying the foundation stone of the
Its importance. * .. ,, T • ,
Mahomedan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh, a few days after the Imperial
Assemblage at Delhi, held in honour of Her Majesty's assumption of the title of " Empress of India." The
words of the Address, when seriously considered, have greater significance than the figurative language of
Oriental rhetoric. Of all the measures which the British rule has adopted for the material and moral progress
and prosperity of India, none is more important or more enduring in its moral, social, and political effects than
the inauguration of the policy of imparting knowledge of the English language, literature, and sciences to the
people of India. The policy is unique in its nature ; it has never been tried on such a grand scale by any other
nation, within the range of ancient or modern history, and, indeed, though more than half a century old, lias not
yet passed the stage of experiment. That the spread of English education among the people of India has already
produced a vast effect upon their religious, moral, social, and political ideas and aspirations, cannot be denied
by any one acquainted with the country. Nor can it be denied, that, in all these respects, the spread of English
education will produce even greater consequences, and more potent effects, upon the moral and material, social and
political, condition of India in the approximate future. But so far as the present writer is aware, no attempt has
yet been made by any author to describe, with requisite accuracy of detail, in what manner the policy of spreading
education in India originated ; what were the objects with which it was inaugurated ; what were the principles
upon which it proceeded in its gradual development ; how it has steadily made progress, and what its general
outcome lias been, with reference to such statistical results as are within the reach of an historical account.
Writers upon the general history of British India are naturally more concerned with battles and treaties, conquests
and annexations, legislative measures and fiscal administrations, than with a subject such as the spread ot
1
EDUCATION IN INDIA.
n, education amoncr the people of India. They -uU not be expected to spare time, or find space for a
* wMo^ ho ,„„ all,l enduring its effect* maybe, presents so slow and gradual :,
K. ^ Illlti,.l, Of the writers of political hi-tory, and, nol onfreqnently, the attention even of the statesmen
,,' ,,ltll,.,llv „„ ned Witt, the argent work of present administration tl.an with the past history o
id branch of to adtninurtrative policy. Thus, whilst even the best histories of India are entirely, or ah
Lent npon the subject of the rise and progress of Knglish ednoation in India, the official and
information npon the snbjeotisso scattered among Department;, I Blue-books and Parliamentary Papers, I
no ordinary reader, howerer deeply interested, can beexpeotedto find easy access to those records, ,„- t
time to arrange the mainfacto, and leading featarw ami statistics of the subject of his inter
,k which would furnish ready information upon such an important subject seems to be growing with 1
location, and the growth of intellectual and political thought among the people of India;
and the present work is an attempt to supply such a need.
It will he readily observed, that in accomplishing the task thus set before me, a considerable portion of this
work must he devoted to describing the early history of the origin and objects
Its Arrangement. rf E^}1^ ,.,lu(..,ti(m in Inclia ; the motives with which it was undertaken, and
the principles upon which it has proceeded in its gradual advancement ; the establishment of colleges and schools,
as individual efforts in behalf of English education ; the development of a system of education, and the organi/ation
Of the I I' Public Instruction, as a branch of the State administration in India. It will then I. e
16 the subject further, by giving an account of the Indian Universities, and ascertaining the
us of the progress of high English education, under the system adopted by those Universi
during the la>t thirty-six years, that is, from their establishment since 1857, down to the present period, ending
with the year ISO:!. And in dealing with this part of the subject, it will be my duty to introduce, not an
invidious, but a friendly, comparison between the progress of high English education among the Hindus and
the Mahomedans, respectively, giving prominence to such facts and figures as may enable those interested in tin-
intellect nal and moral growth, and the social and political welfare of the Mahomedans of India, to form -
approximate estimate of the future prospects of that community, and the means which may be adopted for
their amelioration and prosperity, as contented and loyal subjects of the British rule in India
CHAPTER II.
KARLY POLICY OPPOSED TO THE INTRODUCTION OF ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
CHARLES GRANT'S TREATISE, WRITTEN IN 1792-97, A.I)., ON THE MORAL
AND INTELLECTUAL CONDITION OF INDIA.
During the early period of its administration, the Last India Company did not recognize the promotion of
education among the natives of India as part of its duty or concern. Like all
niipanies, its main object was n irain bv trade, and if
earJy Administrative Policy.
territorial acquisitions \\ere made, it was nun e in the nature of in vestal
ill' Imperial dominion, having for its object the progress, prosperity, and
9. In his statement before :i Select Committee of t lie Hi 080 of Lords, on the l.">lh June.
. the well-known historian of India, Mr. .lohn Clarke .Marshman, gave the following sketch of the early policy
L'lisli education in India : —
•• l-'cir a considerable time after the l.ritish (lovcrnment had been established in India, there was
opp CQ of instruction for the Natives. The feelings of the public authorities in this country
upon the subject in the year IT'.'L1, when Mr. VVilberforce proposed to add two clauses to the
M- sending out school m; I ndia ; this encountered the greatest opposition in tin
t of Proprietors, and it was found necessary to withdraw the clauses. That proposal trave rise to a ver\
ineini'iiible deliatc, in which, for the first time, the views of the Court of Directors upon the subject of education,
C we had obtained possession of the country, were di i -eloped. On that occasion one if the Directors stated
that WO had jut lost America from OUT folly, in having allowed the establishment of schools and colleges, and
thai it would not do for us to repeat the same act of folly iu regard to India ; and that if the Natives required
EARLY POLICY OPPOSED TO ENGLISH EDUCATION.
anything in the way of education, they must come to England for it. For 20 years after that period, down to the
year 1813, the same feeling of opposition to the education of the Natives continued to prevail among the ruling
authorities in this country. In the year 1813, Parliament, for the first time, ordered that the sum of £10,000
should be appropriated to the education of the Natives, at all the three Presidencies. In 1817, Lord Hastings,
after he had broken the power of the Mahrattas, for the first time, announced that the Government of India did
not consider it necessary to keep the Natives in a state of ignorance, in order to retain its own power : consequent
on this announcement, the Calcutta School-book Society and the Hindu College were immediately founded. Lord
Hastings also gave the largest encouragement to Vernacular Education, and even to the establishment of Native
newspapers ; but those who at that time, and for a considerable time after, enjoyed the confidence of the
Government in India, were entirely in favor of confining the assistance given to education to the encouragement
of Sanscrit and Arabic Literature. This state of things continued down to the year 1835, when Lord William
Bentinck, acting under the advice of Mr. Macaulay and Sir Charles Trevelyan, determined to withdraw the
Government support from the Sanscrit and Arabic Institutions, and to appropriate all the funds which were at its
disposal exclusively to English education."*
For the purposes of this work, however, it is necessary to trace, in fuller detail, and as far back as possible,
the historical origin of the idea of spreading a knowledge of the English language, literature, and sciences
among the people of India, and the various shades of political opinions which were, from time to time, entertained
upon the subject.
Among the most notable philanthropic British statesmen, of the latter part of the last century, was the Bight
T>I T?' ht TT able Mr Honourable Charles Grant, descended from a noble Highland family of
Charles Grant, an eminent Scotland, the Grants of Schewglie. " He went early to India, became one of
Director of the East India the most distinguished Directors of the East India Company, represented
Company. for manv years the County of Inverness in Parliament, and was, along with
Wilberforce, Thornton, Zachary Macaulay, and others, a leading member of the Clapham sect, described by
Sir James Stephen in his Ecclesiastical Essays. He died in 1823, aged 77. "f During his long, useful and distin-
guished career, the condition of the people of India and their future prosperity, were matters of great concern to
him, and his position as a Member of Parliament, and, at the same time, one of the members of the Court of Direc-
tors of the East India Company, enabled him to take particularly active interest in the affairs of this country. In
1792, he wrote a considerable treatise : " Observations on the state of Society among the Asiatic Subjects of Great Britain,
particularly with respect to Morals ; and on the means of Improving it." J This treatise, which appears to have been
kept by its author for some years for improvement and revision, was at last submitted by him to his colleagues,
the Court of Directors for the affairs of the East India Company, with 'a letter, dated 16th August, 1797, asking
them (to use his own words) : " That you may be pleased to receive this tract on the footing of one of those many
Papers of business, with which the records of your Governments have been furnished, by the observation and expe-
rience of men whose time and thoughts have been chiefly employed in the concerns of active life." The treatise
is a most valuable essay upon the moral, intellectual, and political condition of India at that time, and abounds in
philosophical suggestions, philanthropic sentiments, and sound principles of administrative policy. It appears,
however, to have remained buried in Parliamentary Blue-books as an appendix to the Parliamentary Papers of
1832, and I shall therefore quote considerable passages from it to throw light upon the early origin, reasons, and
principles of the policy of the British rule, in introducing a knowledge of the English literature and sciences among
the people of India.
The treatise begins with the following : —
" Whatever diversity of opinion may have prevailed respecting the past conduct of the English in the East,
all parties will concur- in one sentiment, that we ought to study the happiness
on the moral and intellectual °f ^'e vas* body of subjects which we have acquired there. Upon this pro-
condition of the Natives of position, taken as a truth of the highest certainty and importance, the following
India, written during 1792-97, observations, now submitted with great deference, are founded
A T\
Although in theory it never can have been
denied, that the welfare of our Asiatic subjects ought to be the object of our solicitude, yet, in practice, this
acknowledged truth has been but slowly followed up, and some of the inferences which are deducible from it,
remain, as it should seem, still to be discovered. Of late, undoubtedly much has been done, and excellently done,
* Printed Parliamentary Papers — Second Report of the Select Committee of tho House of Lords (1852-53) on Indian Territories,
p. 113.
t Chambers's Encyclopaedia, Sap. Vol. X., p. 548.
J Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to the affairs of India : General, Appendix I ; Public (1832), pp. 3 to b9.
4 FXOLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
to improve the condition of our subjects in the East ; yet upon an attentive examination it may, perhaps, be found.
that much still remains to the performed." <
n iriving a short historical sketch of the territorial acquisitions of the East India Company, and a I
review of the British administration of those territories, the treatise devotes Chapter II. to a " View of the State of
//,, //, ,-ts of Great Britain, particularly with respect to Morals," and the following extract,
taken from the earlier part of the chapter, represents Mr. Charles Grant's opinions upon the subject. It is quoted
hero, at the risk of prolixity, as deserving interesting consideration, being the views of an important statesman con-
nected with the administration of India, expressed a century ago. He says :—
• In prosecuting the proposed inquiry, the State of Society and Manners among the people of Hindoostan, and
more particularly among those who inhabit our territories, becomes, in the first place, a special object of attention.
an object which, perhaps, has never yet received that distinct and particular consideration, to which, from its
iiii[>ortance in a political and moral view, it is entitled.
" It has suited the views of some philosophers to represent that people as amiable and respectable ; and a few
late travellers have chosen rather to place some softer traits of their characters
6ty- in an engaging light, than to give a just delineation of the whole. The
LT.-uerality, however, of those who have written concerning Hindoostan, appear to have concurred in affirming what
foreign residents there hava as generally thought, nay, what the natives themselves freely acknowledge of each
other, that they are a people exceedingly depraved.
" In proportion as we have become better acquainted with them, we have found this description applica-
ble, in a sense, beyond the conception even of former travellers. The writer of this paper, after spending many years
in India, and a considerable portion of them in the interior of our provinces, inhabited almost entirely by natives,
towards whom, whilst acknowledging his views of their general character, he always lived in habits of good-will,
is obliged to add his testimony to all preceding evidence, and to avow that they exhibit human nature in a very
degraded, humiliating state, and are at once objects of dis-esteem and of commiseration. Discriminations in so
vast a body as the whole Hindoo people, there must be, though the general features are very similar.
"Amoniy that people, the natives of Bengal rank low; and these, as best known and forming the largest
division of our Asiatic subjects, are held more particularly in view in this
essay. The Mahomedans who are mixed with them, may, in regard to manners
Bengalis.
and morals, often be comprehended under the same observations ; but some-
thing distinct shall afterwards be subjoined concerning them.
••Of the Bengalese, then.it is true, most generally, that they are destitute, to a wonderful degree, of those
qualities which are requisite to the security and comfort of Society. They want truth, honesty, and good faith,
in an extreme, of which European Society furnishes no example. In Europe, those principles are the standard of
character and credit ; men who have them not are still solicitous to maintain the reputation of them, and those who
are known to be devoid of them sink into contempt. It is not so in Bengal. The qualities themselves are so gen-
erally gone, that men do not found their pretensions in Society u pon them ; they take no pains to acquire or to
keep up the credit of possessing them. Those virtues are not the tests by which connections and associations
are regulated ; nor does the absence of them, however plain and notorious, greatly lower any one in public estima-
tion, nor strip him of his acquaintance. Want of veracity, especially, is so habitual, that if a man has truth
to defend, he will hardly fail to recur to falsehood for its support. In matters of interest, the use of lying
seems so natural, that it gives no provocation, it is treated as an excusable indulgence, a mode of proceeding
i which general toleration lias taken away offence, and the practice of cheating, pilfering, tricking, and
imposing, in the ordinary transactions of life, are so common, that the Hindoos seem to regard them as they do
natural evils, against which they will defend themselves as well as they can, but at which it would be idle to
ngry. \>r. tlairrant breaches of truth and honesty pass without any deep or lasting stain. The scandalous
conduct of Tippoo, in recently denying to Lord Cornwallis, in the face of the world, the existence of that
capitulation which he had shamefully broken, was merely an example of the manners of the country, where such
thinir> occur in common life every day.
•• In the worst parts of Europe, there are no doubt great numbers of men who are sincere, upright, and
Want of veracity conscientious. In Bengal, a man of real veracity and integrity is a great phe-
nomenon ; one conscientious in the whole of his conduct, it is to be feared, is an
unknown character. Everywhere in tlii.s quarter of the globe, there is still much generous trust and confidence,
and men are surprised when they find themselves deceived. In Bengal, distrust is awake in all transactions ;
* Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to tlie affairs of India : General, Appendix I ; Public (1832), p. 4.
MR. GEAHTS VIEWS OP INDIAK SOCIETY.
bargains and agreements are made with mutual apprehensions of breach of faith, conditions and securities are
multiplied, and failure in them excites little or no surprise.
" A serious proposal made to a Native, that he should be guided in all his intercourses and dealings by
the principles of truth and justice, would be regarded as weak and impracticable. ' Do you know,' he would reply,
' the character of all those with whom I have to act ? How can I subsist if I take advantage of nobody, while
every person takes advantage of me r1 ' Frauds, deceptions, evasions, and procrastinations, in every line of life,
in all professions, perpetually occur, and forgeries also are often resorted to with little scruple.
" If confidence is from necessity or credulity at any time reposed, it is considered by the other party as the
Betrayal of confidence season of harvest. Pew will omit to seize such an opportunity of profit. The
chief agent or steward of a landholder or of a merchant, will commonly endea-
vour to transfer to himself what he can gradually purloin of the property and the influence of his principal ; this
agent is in the meantime preyed upon in a similar way, though on a smaller scale, by his dependents, especially
if prosperity has rendered him less vigilant. But suppose him, by a slow, silent, and systematic pursuit, to
have accumulated a large fortune, and to leave it on his death to his son, the son, rich and indolent, is in
turn imperceptibly fleeced by his domestics.
" Menial servants who have been long in place, and have even evinced a real attachment to their masters,
are nevertheless in the habitual practice of pilfering from them. If a nephew is entrusted by an uncle, or a son
by his father, with the management of his concerns, there is no certainty that he will not set up a separate
interest of his own. Wardships and executorships, trusts of the most necessary and sacred kind, which all men
leaving property and infant children must repose in surviving friends, are in too many instances grossly abused.
The confidence to which the Bengalese are most true, is in the case of illicit practices, on which occasions they
act upon a point of honour.
" Even the Europeans, though in general possessed of power and of comparative strength of character,
which makes them to be particularly feared, yet as often as they are careless or credulous in their transactions
with the Bengalese, find that they have fallen into the hands of harpies.
" Through the influence of similar principles, power entrusted to a native of Hindoostan seldom fails of
Venality of the Natives of being exercised tyrannically, or perverted to the purposes of injustice. Official
India in the distribution of or ministerial employments of all sorts, and in all gradations, are generally
Justice. used as means of peculation.
" It has already appeared that the distribution of justice, whenever it has been committed to natives, whether
_ . Hindoos or Mahomedans, has commonly become a traffic in venalitv ; the best
Their Corruption, and Perjury. ' '
cause being obliged to pay for success, and the worst having the opportunity of
purchasing it. Money has procured acquittance even for murder. Such is the power of money, that no crime is
more frequent, hardly any less thought of, than perjury. It is no extraordinary thing to see two sets of witnesses
swearing directly contrary to each other, and to find, upon a minute investigation, that few, probably, of the
witnesses on either side have a competent knowledge of the matter in question. Now, as these corruptions
begin, not in the practice of the Courts of Law, but have their origin in the character of the people, it is just to
state them, in illustration of that character ; for although the legal reforms introduced by Lord Corn wallis will
purify, it may be hoped, the fountains of justice, yet the best administration of law will not eradicate the
internal principles of depravity.
" Selfishness, in a word, unrestrained by principle, operates universally ; and money, the grand instrument of
selfish gratifications, may be called the supreme idol of the Hindoos. Deprived
Selfishness and Avarice.
for the most part of political power, and destitute of boldness of spirit, but
formed for business, artful, frugal, and persevering, they are absorbed in schemes for the gratification of avarice.
" The tendency of that abandoned selfishness is to set ' every man's hand against every man,' either in projects,
or in acts of open force. From violence, however, fear interposes to restrain
Cunning and hypocritical them The le of the Lower provinces in particular, with an exception of
obsequiousness mutual dis-
cord malice calumnies &c. tne milltary caste, are as dastardly as they are unprincipled. They seek their
ends by mean artifices, low cunning, intrigue, falsehood, servility, and hypocri-
tical obsequiousness. To superiors they appear full of reverence, of humble and willing submission, and readiness
to do every thing that may be required of them ; and as long as they discern something either to expect or to
fear, they are wonderfully patient of slights, neglects, and injuries. But under all this apparent passiveness
and meanness of temper, they are immovably persisting in their secret views. With inferiors, they indemnify
themselves by an indulgence of the feelings which were controlled before ; and towards dependents, especially
towards those whom an official situation subjects to their authority, they carry themselves with the mean pride
g ENGLISH EDUCATION IX IXDIA.
of low minds. In the inferior, and by far the most numerous class of the community, whore each man is nearly
on a level with his neighbour, the native character appears with less disguise. The passions have a freer range,
;u,,l new eonsequenees are seen to result from the absence of the primary virtues of society. Discord, hatred,
alms,-, danders, injuries, complaints, and litigations, all the effects • of selfishness unrestrained by principle,
prevail to a surprising degree. They overspread the land ; they come perpetually before all men in authority,
deliberate malice, the falsehood, the calumnies, and the avowed enmity with which the people pursue each other,
and sonu-tin.es from father to son, offer a very mortifying view of the human character. No stranger can sit
down among them without being struck with this temper of malevolent contention and animosity, as a prominent
feature in the eharacter of the society. It is seen in every village ; the inhabitants live among each other in a sort of
repulsive state ; nay, it enters into almost every family. Seldom is there a household without its internal
divisions and lasting enmities,, most commonly, too, on the score of interest. The women partake of this spirit
of discord. Held in slavish subjection by the men, they rise in curious passions against each other, which vent
themselves in such loud, virulent, and indecent railings, as are hardly to be heard in any other part of the world.
" Though the Bengalese, in general, have not sufficient resolution to vent their resentments against each other
in open combat, yet robberies, thefts, burglaries, river piracies, and all sorts of
Bobberies, thefts, and other Depredations, where darkness, secrecy, or surprise can give advantage, are ex-
ceedingly common, and have been so in every past period of which any account
is extant. There are castes of robbers and thieves, who consider themselves acting in their proper profession, and
ha ving united their families, train their children to it. Nowhere in the world are ruffians more adroit or more
hardened. Troops of these banditti, it is well known, are generally employed or harboured by the Zemindars of tin-
districts, who are sharers in their booty. They frequently make attacks in bodies, and on those occasions murder
is very common. But besides these regular corps, multitudes of individuals employ themselves in despoiling their
neighbours. Nor is it only in large and populous places, and their vicinity, that such violences are practised ;
no part of the country, no village, is safe from them. Complaints of depredations in every quarter, on the
highways, on the water as well as the land, are perpetual. Though these are the crimes more immediately
within the reach of justice, and though numbers of criminals have been, and are, executed, the evils still subsist.
Doubtless, the corrupt administration of criminal justice in Bengal, for many years under the authority of the
Nabob, has greatly aggravated disorders of this nature ; but they have their origin from the remoter springs.
Robbers among the Hindoos, and frequently thieves also, are educated from their infancy in the belief
that their profession is a right one. No ray of instruction reaches them to convince them of the contrary,
and the feeble stirrings of natural conscience are soon overborne by example and practice. Besides this, they
hold, in common with other Hindoos, the principle of fatalism, which in their case has most pernicious effects.
They believe that they are destined by an inevitable necessity to their profession, and to all that shall befall them
in it ; they therefore go on without compunction, and are prepared to resign life, whenever the appointed period
shall come, with astonishing indifference ; considering the law that condemns them, not as the instrument of
Justice, but as the power of a stronger party. And here, again, it is evident, that a radical change in principle
must be produced, before a spirit of rapine thus nourished can be cured.
" Benevolence has been represented as a leading principle in the minds of the Hindoos ; but those who make this
assertion know little of their character. How is it possible that benevolence
t really benevo- ghould be vigorollS) where justice, truth and good faith are so greatly wanting ?
Certain modes, indeed, of distributing victuals to mendicants, and a scrupulous
al>si in.'nee from some sorts of animal food, are prescribed by the religion of the Hindoos. But the ostentatious
distribution is frequently commutative; an offering from the gain of iniquity bestowed on idle and sturdy priests.
Ami thouirh a Hindoo would shrink with horror from the idea of directly slaying a cow, which is a sacred animal
among them, yet he who drives one in his cart, galled and excoriated as she often is by the yoke, beats her unmerci-
fully from hour to hour, without any care or consideration of the consequence. Though, therefore, the institution of
the t\vo practices in question may be urged as an argument for the originally benevolent turn of the religion which
enjoined them, it will not at all follow that individuals, who in future ages perform them, in obedience to that reli-
gion, must also be benevolent ; and he who is cruel even to that creature for which he is taught by his religfon to
entertain the highest reverence, gives the strongest proof of an unfeeling disposition. It is true, that in many cases
they are strict in observing forms. These are, indeed, their religion, and the foundation of their hopes ; their castes
arc implicated in them, and in their castes their civil state and comfort. But of the sentiments which the forms
would seem to indicate, they are totally regardless. Though from the physical structure of their bodies they are
ly susceptible of impressions, yet that they have little real tenderness of mind, seems very evident from several
circumstances. The first that shall be mentioned is the shocking barbarity of their punishments. The cutting off
MR. GKANT S VIEWS OP INDIAN SOCIETY. 7
legs, hands, noses, and ears, putting out of eyes, and other penal inflictions of a similar kind, all performed in the
coarsest manner, abundantly justify our argument.
" A similar disposition to cruelty is likewise shown in their treatment of vanquished enemies. And in
Ab oe f Patr' t' general a want of sensibility for others is a very eminent characteristic of this
people. The apathy with which a Hindoo views all persons and interests un-
connected with himself, is such as excites the indignation of Europeans. At any rate, his regards extend but to
a very narrow circle. Patriotism is absolutely unknown in Hindoostan."*
It is not within the province of this work to discuss how far the above-quoted views of Mr. Charles Grant,
in regard to the condition of Hindoo society, especially in Bengal, may be
Great moral and intellectual • ,•(. ,, TT- , ... , . ,.
'advance in Bengal justifiable. His views were recorded just a century ago, and if his estimate
of the moral condition of the Hindoo population- of India, especially of Bengal,
be taken to be even approximately correct, no one acquainted with the present condition of the Bengalis can help
admiring the vast strides towards intellectual, moral, social, and political progress which they have made during a
century of British rule, and nearly half a century of education in the languages, literature, and sciences of
Great Britian.
I will now quote Mr. Charles Grant's views, wTritten in the same treatise,
Mr. Grant's views as to the . , , ,, , . , ,.,. ,. ,, ,r , ,. T n.
„,„ „ _, . in regard to the moral and social condition or the Mahomedans of India a
character of Mahomedans.
century ago. He says : —
" Of the Mahomedans, who mix in considerable numbers -with the former inhabitants of all the countries
subdued by their arms in Hindoostan, it is necessary also to say a few words.
Proud, fierce, lawless, per- /»• • n c ±1 m
fldious, licentious and cruel. Originally of the lartar race, proud, fierce, and lawless ; attached also to their
superstition, which cherished their native propensities, they were rendered by
success yet more proud, sanguinary, sensual, and bigotted. Their government, though meliorated under the House
of Timonr, was undoubtedly a violent despotism, and the delegated administration of it, too often a severe oppression.
Breaking through all the restraints of morals which obstructed their way to power, they afterwards abandoned
themselves to the most vicious indulgences, and the most atrocious cruelties. Perfidy in them, was more signal
than in the Hindoos. Successive treacheries, assassinations, and usurpations, mark their history more, perhaps,
than that of any other people. The profession of arms was studied by them, and they cultivated the Persian
learning. They introduced Arabic laws, formed for rude and ignorant tribes, and in the administration of them,
as may be judged from the specimen above exhibited, were most corrupt.
" Every worldly profession, indeed every course of secular business, was in their avowed opinion (an opinion
Regard secular business ir- which they still hold), irreconcilab'le with strict virtue. Commerce, and the
reconcilable with strict Virtue details of the finances, they left chiefly to the Hindoos, whom they despised
and Religion. an(j insulted. Where their government still prevails, the character resulting
from their original temper and superstition, aggravated by the enjoyment of power, remains in force. In our pro-
vinces, where their authority is subverted, and where many of them fall into the lower lines of life, that character
becomes less obvious ; but with more knowledge, and more pretensions to integrity, they are as unprincipled as the
Hindoos. Their perfidy, however, and licentiousness, are the perfidy and licentiousness of a bolder people.
" From the government and intermixtlire of the Mahomedans, the Hindoos have certainly derived no
Vices of Hindoos and Maho improvement of character. The invaders may fairly be supposed to have
medans, on the whole, similar, contributed their share to the general evils, and even to have increased them,
owing to their intermixture. But they did not produce those evils, nor could they have perpetuated them,
in opposition to the genius and spirit of the Hindoos, who are in number, probably, as eight to one. Thev
may, therefore, be considered rather as constituting an accession, than as giving a character to the mass. The vice>.
however, of the Mahomedans and Hindoos are so homogenous, that in stating their effects, it is not inaccurate
to speak of both classes under the description of the one collective body into which they are now formed.
" Upon the whole, then, we cannot avoid recognizing in the people of Hindoostan, a race of men lamentably
degenerate and base, retaining but a feeble sense of moral obligation, yet obsti-
nate in their disregard of what they know to be right, governed by raalevolenl
and licentious passions, strongly exemplifying the effects produced 011 society
by grewfc and general corruption of manners, and sunk in misery by their vices, in a country peculiarly calculated,
y its natural advantages, to promote the happiness of its inhabitants. The delineation from which this conclusion
)•< i formed, has been a task so painful, that nothing except the consciousness of meaning to do good could have
ii
* Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to the affairs of India : General, Appendix I ; Public (1832), pp. 20-23.
EXfitlSTI EDUCATION IX INDIA.
induced the author to proceed in it. He trusts he has an affecting sense of the general imperfection of Iminan
vtl would abhor the idea of needlessly or contemptuously exposing the defects of any man or set of men.
If helia- u unfavourable description, his wish is not to excite detestation, but to engage compassion, and
to make it apparent, that what speculation may have ascribed to physical and unchangeable causes, springs
moral sources capable of correction."*
This estimate of the character of the Mahomedan population presents, no doubt, a painful picture, but the
Remarks on Mr Grant's esti- autllor himself has expressed his views in an apologetic manner, and we have no
mate of the character of Ma- reason to doubt the sincerity of philanthropic motives with which he appears to
homedans. have recorded them. Nor must we forget that his opinions were formed and
written about a century ago, between the years 1792 and 1797 — a period when the fall of the Mahomedan Empire
hud produced warfare and anarchy, devastating the country and breaking up the entire fabric of Mahomedan Society
•ind political organization. Constant rapine and bloodshed had for some time been raging in the land, creating a
insecurity and convulsion which is destructive not only of social order but also of all the arts of peace anil
progress of literature and sciences, which can thrive only in peace and under good government. Indeed, even
v view of the history of India of that period will show that, with the downfall of the Mahomedan system of
rnmeut. the pursuits and character of the Mahomedans had also decayed. One incident alone seems suffi
llnstrate the extreme anarchy and wreck of the social system of the Mahomedans during that period, even in the
Mahomedan Empire at Delhi, and its neighbouring provinces. It must be remembered that it was in tin-
17-^ that the ilahomedan system of government had so completely broken up, that the Rohilla chief, Ghulam
Kadir Khan, forcing an entrance into the imperial palace at Delhi, put out the eyes of the then monarch, Shah Alam,
and that it was not till the year 1803, when Lord Lake, after a very successful campaign against the Mahrattas.
captured Delhi on behalf of the East India Company, that peace and order were restored in the capital, and suitable
made for the blinded emperor, his family and dependents. It must never be forgotten that the
y and downfall of any political system creates anarchy, anarchy produces disrupture of social ties, and
manners, feelings, and motives of action ; and it can never be doubted that the political downfall of any race In
with it moral, intellectual, and social degradation : such, indeed, had become the condition of the Mahomedan
t India upon the downfall of the Mughal Empire, and if we carefully study the historical events of that
»l. in sober earnestness, we shall probably, find that much of Mr. Charles Grant's condemnatory estimat.
the moral and social condition of the Mahomedans had ample excuse at the time when he wrote.
Perhaps, nothing throws a more vivid and picturesque light upon the political and social decadence of the
Mughal Empire, about the time when Mr. Charles Grant wrote his Treatise.
Elegy, in the form of a Gli<i~
;«l. composed by Shah Alam than an EleSv comP°se(i in Persian, in the form of a Ghasal, by the Emperoi
after being deprived of his eye- Shah Alam himself, soon after he had been deprived of his eye-sight in
sight in 1788,— on the down- 1788. The poem has been printed in an Appendix to " The History of th,
fall of the Mughal Empire. Shah-Aulum," by Captain \V. Francklin, published, so long »_
17'.'*. with afrit> translation in English verse. The historical importance and interest of the poem justify it>
Unoted here in the original, together with Captain Francklin's translation and Notes : —
u c?;'^^ trf >}=?" -^
u 4.5; ^^ J.J — =?* * — J^ **-J *
u ^i J^ ^^j ;^ ^ .
Prinu-d Parliamentary Papers relating to the affairs of India : Central, Appendix I ; PMic (1832), pp 30-1.
SHAH AI.AM'S ET.EOY ON" THE DOWNFALL OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE.
**
" Whci'c * with bright pomp the stately domes arise,
In y on dark tower an aged monarch lies,
Forlorn, dejected, blind, replete with woes,
In tears his venerable aspect slices ;
As through the lonely courts I bent my way,
Sounds struck my ear, which said, or seemed to say : —
' Lo, the dire tempest gathering from afar,
In dreadful clouds has dimm'd the imperial star ;
Has to the winds, and broad expanse of heaven,
ily state, my royalty, and ki: iven!
Time was, 0 king! when clothed in power supreme,
Thy voice was heard, and nations hail'd the theme ;
Now sad reverse— for sordid lust of gold,
By traitorous wiles, thy throne and Empire sold.
Afghan,f with intemperate haste,
Gleams like a meteor through the palace waste,
Frowning, terrific, threatens with a grave
Thy progeny, O Timoor, good and brave ;
Yet, not the treatment from the inhuman foe,
X.jt all my kingly state in dust laid low,
Can to this In-east such torturing pain impart,
As does, 0 Nazir,t thy detested art:
But tho' too late, the day of reckoning come,
The tyrant whom thou serv'dst has seal'd thy doom,
Has hurled thee, rebel, headlong from the height
Of power abused, and done thy sovereign right :
Chaste partners of my bed, and joys serene,
Once my ddight, but now how changed the scene !
Condemned with me in plaintive strains to mourn,
The scanty pittance from our offspring torn !
The viper, whom wilh fostering cai-e I nurst,
Deep in my bosom plants his sting accurst ;
Riots in blood, and heedless of his word,
Pants for the ruin of his sovereign lord.
Nobles ingrate,§ upheld by power and pride,
To whom our favours never were denied ;
See to what misery and dire disgrace,
Your perfidy accursed, has brought a royal race :
Bright northern star from Cabul's realms advance,
Imperial Timoor || poize the avenging lance.
On these vile traitors quick destruction pour,
Redress my wrongs, and kingly rights restore ;
Thee, too, 0 Sindiah, illustrious chief,
Who once didst promise to afford relief ;
Thee I invoke, exert thy generous aid,
And o'er their heads high wave the avenging blade.
And ye, 0 faithful pillars of my State,
By friendship bound, and by my power elate,
Hasten, 0 Asuf,1T and ye English chiefs,**
Nor blush to sooth an injured monarch's griefs ;
But stay ! my soul, rinworthy rage disown ;
Learn to Sustain the loss of sight and throne ;
Learn that imperial pride, and star-clad power,
Are but the fleeting pageants of an hour ;
fn the true crucible of dire distress,
Purged of alloy, thy sorrows soon shall cease ;
What though the sun of empire and command,
Shorn of its beams, enlightens not the land !
Some happier day, a providential care
Again may renovate the falling star;
Again, O King, raise up thy illustrious race,
Cheer thy sad mind, and close thy days in peace !
tt
, to be better
* I have thoiiL'hf the first six lines, which are merely introductory and cannot be accounted any part of Jjjjf'ig
ilated to give satisfaction to the reader, than an abrupt commencement of the elegy, as in the, King's ovlar~ rds.
+ (ihulaiim Gaudir K t0 •
J Munsoor AM Khan, Superintendent of the Household. 1> '
\ * The Mo'_'til nubility, wim abandoned : he King on tho approach of tho rebels.
moor Shah. King of Cabul, on his father, the Abdaliee's, lust visit to Delhi, was married to a princess of the royal family,
which in, /iinaiiii Slia h. a claim to the throne of Hindoostan.
• ASM!' Al Duwla. S tzier nire.
»* It is much to lie lamented, that the state of politics at Calcutta could not, at that time, admit of Government interfering on
,c]i was the influence o'.' tin' llritish name, that had the detachment stationed at Auopshire, only marched out of
. the brutal tyrant would have de-isicd. and the King's misfortunes been averted.
ft It may not !.' ral .MS copies of the above Elegy having been circulated throughout India, various
rc;1(iii:'jj d. The one hci. obtained b\" tho author whilst at Delhi, and therefore, appeared to him
authentic; bin 1 >c t li ini. ^. li i t" :-el r bouml tu ac-l.niAvl'-duv he has read a poetic version of the same Elegy, which appeared
tor Ma\ I7H7, said to be written by Captain Symes. from whose researches into the history and anti-
:ing Kingdom of Avu, tho public may expect to derive much useful and instructive information.
]() MIOX IN* INPIA.
CHAPTER III.
MR CHARLES GRANT'S SCHEME FOR THE INTELLECTUAL, MORAL AND SOCIAL REGENERA-
TION OF THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, AS PROPOUNDED IN HIS TREATISE, 1792-97. A. D.
INTRODUCTION OF ENGLISH EDUCATION A MORAL DUTY OF THE STATE,
AND NOT FRAUGHT WITH POLITICAL DANGER.
Even more interesting than the passages quoted in the preceding chapter, is Chapter IV., of Mr. Charles
Grant's Treatise, under the heading : " Iwjniry into tin' Measures which miglit \,<-
Mr. Grant's Scheme for the pf ^e j vement of the COW(Kh'0,z Of her Asiatic Sub-
improvement of the natives
of India represents typical jects ; and Anmen to Objections." I may quote the following passages from i
notions of early English phi- as descriptive of the earliest ideas of British philanthropic statesmen regarding
lanthropists. the introduction of English education in India. They are all the more valuable,
as after the lapse of a century of British rule, they enable us to compare the past with the present state of the
policy of English education in India, and they are deeply interesting, as furnishing the means of judging how far the
anticipations of statesmen, in regard to the progress and effect of English education among the people of India,
have been realized. Mr. Charles Grant begins the chapter with the following observations :—
" We now proceed to the main object of this work,— for the sake of which all the preceding topics and dis-
cussions have been brought forward,— an inquiry into the means of remedying disorders, which have bed
thus inveterate in the state of society among our Asiatic subjects, which destroy their happiness, and obstriu-t
every species of improvement among them.
" That it is in the highest degree desirable, that a healing principle should be introduced, no man, surely, will
deny. Supposing it to be in our power to convince them of the criminality of
Healing principle. ^ annuai sacrifice of so many human victims on the funeral pile ; of the pro-
fession of robbery, comprehending murder ; of the indulgence of one class of people in the whole catalogue of flagi-
tious crimes, without any adequate punishment ; of the forfeiture of the lives of others, according to their institutes,
for the merest trifles ; of the arbitrary imposition of burthensome rites, devoid of all moral worth ; of the pursuit
of revenge, by offerings to vindictive deities ; of the establishment of lying, false evidence, gaming, and other im-
moralities, by law ; of the pardon of capital offences for money ; of trying to purchase the expiation of wilful and
habitual iniquity, by ceremonial observances; and of the worship of stocks, stones, impure and malevolent deities ;
no man living, surely, would affirm that we ought, that we are at liberty, to withhold from them this conviction.
"Are we bound for ever to preserve all the enormities in the Hindoo system ? Have we become the guardians
G t Britain not bound to °* evei7 monstrous principle and practice which it contains ? Are we pledged
preserve the enormities in the to support, for all generations, by the authority of our government and the
Hindoo system. power of our arms, the miseries which ignorance and knavery have so long
entailed upon a large portion of the human race ? Is this the part which a free, a humane, and an enlightened
nation, a nation itself professing principles diametrically opposite to those in question, has engaged to act tou:
its own subjects ? It would be too absurd and extravagant to maintain, that any engagement of this kind exists :
thai Great liritain is under any obligation, direct or implied, to uphold errors and usages, gross and fundamental,
Sub\' ihe lii-st principles of reason, morality, and religion.
"If we liinl conquered such a Kingdom as Mexico, where a number of human victims were regularly offered
— every year upon the altar of the Sun, slurald we have calmly acquiesced in this
j horrid mode of butchery ? Yet, for near thirty years, we have, with perfect
.n reality more cruel and atrocious, practised in our Indian territories. If human life must be
norificed to superstition, al least the more useless, worthless, or unconnected members of the society might be
devoted. Hut in Hindoostan, mothers of families are taken from the midst of their children, who have just lost
their father also, and by a most diabolical complication of force and fraud, are driven into the flames.
3 hall we be in all time to come, as we hitherto have been, passive spectators of this unnatural wickedness ?
No attempt made to recall Jt ma7> indeed, well appear surprising that in the long period during which
the Hindoos to the dictates of we have held those territories, we have made no serious attempt to recall the
Truth and Morality. Hindoos to the dictates of Truth and Morality. ' This is a mortifying proof
how little it has been considered, that the ends of government, and the good of society, have an inseparable
Example of Me
unconcern, seen rites
MR. CHARLES GRANT'S SCHE>fE. 11
connection with right principles. We have been satisfied with the apparent submissiveness of these people, and have
attended chiefly to the maintenance of our authority over the country, and the augmentation of our commerce and
revenues ; but have never, with a view to the promotion of their happiness, looked thoroughly into their internal state.
" If, then, we ought to wish for the correction of those criminal habits and practices which prevail among
them, it cannot reasonably be questioned, that we ought also to make allow-
No force but Reason to be able atte ts for this end and it rema;ns therefore, only to consider in what
employed.
manner this design may be best pursued.
" Shall we resort to the power we possess, to destroy their distinctions of castes, and to demolish their idols ?
Assuredly, not. Force, instead of convincing them of their error, would fortify them in the persuasion of being
right ; and the use of it, even if it promised happier consequences, would still be altogether unjust.
" To the use of reason and argument, however, in exposing their errors, there can be no objection. There is,
indeed, the strongest obligation to make those errors manifest, since they generate and tend to perpetuate all the
miseries which have been set forth, and which our duty, as rulers, instead of permitting us to view with silent
indifference, calls upon us by every proper method to prevent.
" The true cure of darkness, is the introduction of light. The Hindoos err, because they are ignorant ; and
their errors have never fairly been laid before them. The communication of
Knowledge should be com- our H tt and knowiedge to them, would prove the best remedy for their dis-
municated to Natives of India.
orders ; and this remedy is proposed, from a full conviction, that if judiciously
and patiently applied, it would have great and happy effects upon them : effects honourable and advantageous for us.
" There are two ways of making this communication : the one is, by the medium of the languages of those
Whether through their own countries ; the other is, by the medium of our own. In general, when foreign
Languages, or through Eng- teachers have proposed to instruct the inhabitants of any country, they have
lisn P used the Vernacular tongue of that people, for a natural and necessary reason'
that they could not hope to make any other means of communication intelligible to them. This is not our case in
respect of our Eastern dependencies. They are our own, we have possessed them long ; many Englishmen reside
among the Natives, our language is not unknown there, and it is practicable to diffuse it more widely. The choice,
. therefore, of either mode, lies open to us ; and we are at liberty to consider which is entitled to preference. Upon
this subject, it is not intended to pass an exclusive decision here ; the points absolutely to be contended for are, that
we ought to impart our superior lights, and that this is practicable : that it is practicable by two ways, can never be
an argument why neither should be attempted. Indeed, no great reason appears why either should be systema-
tically interdicted, since particular cases may recommend, even that which is, in general, least eligible.
" The acquisition of a foreign language is, to men of cultivated minds, a matter of no great difficulty. English
teachers could, therefore, be sooner qualified to offer instruction in the native
English Language the su- lan es than tlie ]ndians would be prepared to receive it in ours. This
perior medium of instruction.
method would hence come into operation more speedily than the other ; and it
would also be attended with the advantage of a more careful selection of the matter of instruction. But it would
be far more confined and less effectual ; it may be termed a species of deciphering. The decipherer is required to
unfold, in intelligible words, what was before hidden. Upon every new occasion, he has a similar labour to perform,
and the information obtained from him is limited to the single communication then made. All other writings, in
the same character, still remain, to those who are ignorant of it, unknown ; but if they are taught the character
itself, they can at once read every writing in which it is used. Thus, superior in point of ultimate advantage
does the employment of the English language appear ; and upon this ground, we give a preference to that mode,
proposing here, that the communication of our knowledge shall be made by the medium of our own language.
This proposition will bring at once to trial, both the principle of such communication, and that mode of convey-
ance which can alone be questioned ; for the admission of the principle must, at least, include in it the
admission of the narrowest means suited to the end, which we conceive to be the native languages. The princi-
ple, however, and the mode, are still distinct questions, and any opinion which may be entertained of the latter
cannot affect the former ; but it is hoped, that what shall be offered here concerning them, will be found sufficient
to justify both.
" We proceed, then, to observe, that it is perfectly in the power of this country, by degrees, to impart to the
Hindoos our language ; afterwards, through that medium, to make them ac-
quainted with our easy literary compositions, upon a variety of subjects ; and,
let not the idea hastily excite derision, progressively with the simple elements of
our arts, our philosophy, and religion. These acquisitions would silently undermine, and at length subvert, the
fabrick of error ; and all the objections that may be apprehended against such a change, are, it is confidently believed,
capable of a solid answer.
1-J ENGLISH EDUCATION IN
- The first communication, and the instrument of introducing the rest, must be the English language ; tins is
u key which will open to them a world of new ideas, and policy alone might have impelled us, long since, to put it
into their hands.
" To introduce the language of the Conquerors, seems to be an obvious means of assimilating a conquered people
Example of Mahomedan to them- Thc Mahomedans from the beginning of their power, employed the
Conquerors introducing Per- Persian language in the affairs of government, and in the public departments.
sian. This practice aided them in maintaining their superiority, and enabled them,
instead of depending blindly on native agents, to look into the conduct and details of public business, as well as
to keep intelligible regiatera of the income and expenditure of the State. Natives readily learnt the language
• Government, finding that it was necessary in every concern of Revenue and of Justice; they next became
hers of it; and in all the provinces over which the Mogul Empire extended, it is still understood and
taught by numbers of Hindoos.
It would have been our interest to have followed their example ; and had we done so, on the assumption of
Should have been followed the Deu>annee> or some years afterwards, the English language would now
V>y the British, with much bene- have been spoken and studied by multitudes of Hindoos throughout our
fit to Administration. provinces. The details of the revenue would, from the beginning, have been
open to our inspection ; and by facility of examination on our part, and difficulty of fabrication on that of
the natives, manifold impositions of a gross nature, which have been practiced upon us, would have been pre-
cluded. An easy channel of communication also, would always have been open between the rulers and the sub-
-. and numberless grievances would have been represented, redressed, or prevented, which the ignorance of the
former in the country languages, and the hinderances experienced by the latter in making their approaches, have
sometimes suffered to pass with impunity, to the encouragement of new abuses. We were long held in the dark,
both in India and in Europe, by the use of a technical Revenue language ; and a man of considerable judgment,
who was a member of the Bengal Administration near twenty years since, publicly animadverted on the absurdity
of our submitting to employ the unknown jargon of a conquered people. It is certain, that the Hindoos would easily
have conformed to the use of English ; and they would still bo glad to possess the language of their masters, the
language which always gives weight and consequence to the Natives who have any acquaintance with it, and which.
would enable every Native to make his own representation directly to the Governor-General himself, who, it may
be jr will not commonly, henceforth, be chosen from the line of the Company's servants ; and therefore, may
not speak the <li;ilects of the country. Of what importance it might be to the public interest, that a man in that
station should not be obliged to depend on a medium with which he is unacquainted, may readily be conceived.
" It would be extremely easy for Government to establish, at a moderate expense, in various parts of the pro-
Facility of imparting Eng- vinces' places of gratuitous instruction in reading and writing English ; multi-
lish Education gratuitously, to tudes, especially of the young, would flock to them ; and the easy books used in
supplant Persian in Adminis- teaching, might at the same time convey obvious truths on different subjects.
tration. The teachers should be persons of knowledge, morals, and discretion ; and men
of this character could impart to their pupils much useful information in discourse : and to facilitate the attainment
of that object, they might, at first, make some use of the Bengalese tongue. The Hindoos would, in time, become
hers of English themselves ; and the employment of our language in public business, for which every political
on remains in full force, would, in the course of another generation, make it very general throughout the country.
There is nothing wanting to the success of this plan, but the hearty patronage of Government. If they wish it to
ID and must succeed. Tin- introduction of English in the Administration of the Revenue, in Judicial
proi :ind in other business of Government, wherein Persian is now used ; and the establishment of free
'ils. for instruction in this language, would insure its diffusion over the country, for the reason already suggested,
that the interest of the Natives would induce them to acquire it. Neither would much confusion arise, even at
first, upon such a change ; for there are now a great number of Portuguese and Bengalese clerks in the provinces,
who understand both the Ilindoostanny and English languages. To employ them in drawing up petitions to
(iovi-i nment, or its officers, would be no additional hardship upon the poorer people, who are now assisted in that
way l'\ IVrsian clerks ; and the opportunity afforded to others who have sufficient leisure, of learning the language
of the (io\ eminent gratuitously, would be an advantage never enjoyed under Mahomedan Rulers.
•• \Vith our hmf,ruarre, much of our useful literature might. :r.id would, in time, be communicated. The art of
Art of Printing great help printing would enable us to disseminate our writings in a way the Persians
to dissemination of English never could have done, though their compositions had been as numerous as
ours. Hence the Hindoos would see the great use we make of reason on
all subjects, and in all affairs ; they also would learn to reason, thev would become acquainted with the history
MR. CHARLES GTUNT S SCHEME. 18
of their own species, the past and present state of the world ; their affections would gradually become interested
by various engaging works, composed to recommend virtue, and to deter from vice ; the general mass of their
opinions would be rectified ; and above all, they would see a better system of principles and morals. New views
of duty, as rational creatures, would open upon them ; and that mental bondage in which they have long been
holden would gradually dissolve.
" To this change, the true knowledge of Nature would contribute ; and some of our easy explanations of natural
A true knowledge of Nature philosophy might undoubtedly, by proper means, be made intelligible to
would break the fabrick of them. Except a few Brahmins, who consider the concealment of their learning
the Hindu Religion. ag part of their religion, the people are totally misled as to the system
and phenomena of Nature : and their errors in this branch of science, upon which divers important conclusions
rest, may be more easily demonstrated to them, than the absurdity and falsehood of their mythological legends.
From the demonstration of the true cause of eclipses, the story of Eagoo and Ketoo, the dragons, who when the
sun and the moon are obscured, are supposed to be assaulting them, a story which has hitherto been an article
of religious faith, productive of religious services among the Hindoos, would fall to the ground ; the removal of
one pillar, would weaken the fabrick of falsehood ; the discovery of one palpable error, would open the mind
to farther conviction ; and the progessive discovery of truths hitherto unknown, would dissipate as many super-
stitious chimeras, the parents of false fears, and false hopes. Every branch of natural philosophy might in time be
introduced and diffused among the Hindoos. Their understandings would thence be strengthened, as well as their
minds informed, and error be dispelled in proportion.
" But, perhaps, no acquisition in natural philosophy would so effectually enlighten the mass of the people, as
And enlighten the Hindus tne introduction of the principles of Mechanics, and their application to agri-
by promoting mechanical in- culture and the useful arts. Not that the Hindoos are wholly destitute of
ventions. simple mechanical contrivances. Some manufactures, which depend upon
patient attention and delicacy of hand, are carried to a considerable degree of perfection among them ; but for a
series of ages, perhaps for two thousand years, they do not appear to have made any considerable addition to the
arts of life. Invention seems wholly torpid among them ; in a few things, they have improved by their intercourse
with Europeans, of whose immense superiority they are at length convinced ; but this effect is partial, and not
discernible in the bulk of the people. The scope for improvement, in this respect, is prodigious.
" What great accessions of wealth would Bengal derive from a people intelligent in the principles of agricul-
Improvement in Agricul- ture> skille(i to make tne most of soils and seasons, to improve the existing
ture, &c., would ensue by modes of culture, of pasturage, of rearing cattle, of defence against excesses
introduction of machinery. Of drought, and of rain ; and thus 'to meliorate the quality of all the produce
of the country. All these arts are still in infancy. The husbandman of Bengal just turns up the soil with
a diminutive plough, drawn by a couple of miserable cattle ; and if drought parches, or the rain inundate the
crop, he has no resource ; he thinks he is destined to this suffering, and is far more likely to die from want, than
to relieve himself by any new or extraordinary effort. Horticulture is also in its first stage : the various fruits and
esculent herbs, with which Hindoostan abounds, are nearly in a state of nature; though they are planted in inclosed
gardens, little skill is employed to reclaim them. In this respect, likewise, we might communicate information
of material use to the comfort of life, and to the prevention of famine. In silk, indigo, sugar, and in many other
articles, what vast improvements might be effected by the introduction of machinery. The skilful application of
fire, of water, and of steam, improvements which would thus immediately concern the interest of the common
people, would awaken them from their torpor, and give activity to their minds. At present, it is wonderful to
see how entirely they resign themselves to precedent : custom is the strongest law to them. Following implicitly,
seems to be instinctive with them, in small things as well as great. The path which the first passenger has
marked over the soft soil, is trodden so undeviatingly in all its curves, by every succeeding traveller, that when
it is perfectly beaten, it has still only the width of a single track.
" But, undoubtedly, the most important communication which the Hindoos could receive, through the medium of
our language, would be the knowledge of our religion, the principles of which are
tion to the Hindus, through explained in a clear, easy way, in various tracts circulating among us, and are
English, would be Christiani- completely contained in the inestimable volume of Scripture. Thence they
ty, supplanting Idolatory and would be inbtructed in the nature and perfections of the One True God, and in
the real history of man : his creation, lapsed state, and the means of his re-
covery, on all which points they hold false and extravagant opinions ; they would see a pure, complete, and perfect
system of morals and of duty, enforced by the most awful sanctions, and recommended by the most interesting
motives; they would learn the accountableness of man, tho final judgment he is to undergo, and the Eternal statu
[.(. ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INPIA.
which is to follow. Wherever this knowledge should be recieved, Idolatry, with all the rabble of its impure deities,
its monsters of wood and stone, its false principles and corrupt practices, its delusive hopes and vain fears, its
ridiculous ceremonies and degrading superstitions, its lying legends and fraudulent impositions, would fall. The
reasonable service of the only, and the infinitely perfect God, would be established: love to Him, peace and good-
will towards men, would be felt as obligatory principles.
"It is not asserted, that such effects would be immediate or universal ; but admitting them to be progressive,
and partial only, yet how great would the change be, and how happy at length
Though such effects would fo], tnj outwar(j prosperity, and internal peace of society among the Hindoos !
Men would be restored to the use of their reason ; all the advantages of happy
soil, climate, and situation, would be observed and improved ; the comforts and conveniences of life would be
increased ; the cultivation of the mind, and rational intercourse, valued ; the people would rise in the scale of
human beings ; and as they found their character, their state, and their comforts improved, they would prix.o
more hisrhly the security and the happiness of a well-ordered Society. Such a change would correct those sad
disorders which have been described, and for which no other remedy has been proposed, nor is, in the natun
things, to be found." '
Having thus propounded his scheme for regenerating India and ameliorating the intellectual, social, and moral
" t M G t'a condition of the inhabitants, Mr. Charles Grant has devoted a considerable JK >i-
Scheme: the main objection tion of his treatise to the discussion and refutation of eight principal objections.
being Political Danger. urged on the opposite side by those who held different views as to the aims,
objects, and principles of the British Rule in India. Of those objections, there is one which deserves especial men-
tion here, as it is closely connected with the progress of English education in India, and has a direct bearing upon
its effects, so far as shey have shown themselves in the propaganda of the political agitation in India, which lias
during recent years been carried on by the "Indian National Congress." Put in its strongest and amplest terms, the
objection was thus expressed : " If the English language, if English opinions, and improvements, are introduced in
our Asiatic possessions, into Bengal, for instance ; if Christianity, especially, is established in that quarter ; and if,
together with these changes, many Englishmen colonize there, will not the people learn to desire English liberty
and the English form of Government, a share in the legislation of their own country, and commissions in the army
maintained in that country ? Will not the army thence become, in time, wholly provincial, officered by natives of
India, without attachment to the Sovereign State ? Will not the people at length come to think it a hardship to be
subject, and to pay tribute, to a foreign country ? And finally, will they not cast off that subjection, and assert their
independence ?"f
This question is discussed at considerable length by the author,J and he ends his discussion upon the subject
with the following observations, in regard to the introduction of the English language as the medium of instruction
to the people of India : —
" In coming, as we now do, to the close of the answer to the last and most material of the objections which are
English Language should be foreseen against the proposed scheme, that objection which questions the ex-
introduced, and failing that, In- pediency of using the English language, it will be proper to call to recollec-
dian Languages may be adopt- tion what was stated in the first opening of it, — that the principle of coin-
ed as the medium of instruction. municating our ]igllt antl knowledge, and the channel or mode of communica-
tion, were two distinct things ; that the admission of the former did not depend on the choice which might be made
of the latter, and was alone absolutely contended for. The channel of the English language, however, has been
preferred, in the present plan, as being deemed the most ample and effectual ; and though new, also safe and highly
ndv: Against this channel, however, the writer thinks it possible, that reluctancies may remain when
iments are obviated. Strongly as he is himself persuaded, that great and peculiar advantages would flow from
it, he nevertheless would do injustice to the cause for which he pleads, if he were to suspend its success entirely
upon the adoption of this mode. The channel of the country languages, though less spacious, less clear, less cal-
culated to transmit the general light of our opinions, our arts and sciences, letfiriree also for the conveyance of the
light of religion itself, is nevertheless so far capable of rendering this last jyafl most important service, in which are
essentially involved all the other proposed meliorations, that if the mj^stion were between making no attempt, or
making it in this way, undoubtedly, there could be no hesitation. Tilis mode ought by no means to be declined or
neglected, if there were no other. Through the medium of the .Country languages, though more contracted, more
• Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to the Affairs of India : Qe/eral, Appendix 1 ; Public (1832), pp. 59-62.
t Ib., p. -2.
J The remarks of Mr. Charles Grant are so interesting and instructive, that they have been extracted verbatim, and printed in
a later part of this work.
16
dim and distant, still something may be done, and that in a concern which is of the last importance to present and
to future happiness. But in choosing this method, more instruments ought necessarily to be employed ; and then
the meliorations which are so much wanted, may in time be partly effected ; and the apprehensions which some
may entertain from the diffusion of the English language, will have no place. But still it must be maintained,
that for every great purpose of the proposed scheme, the introduction and use of that language would be
most effectual ; and the exclusion of it, the loss of unspeakable benefits, and a just subject of extreme
regret."*
In summing up his treatise, as to the means of improving the intellectual, moral, and social condition of the
Mr Grant's Summary of his P°°ple °f India, Mr. Charles Grant has made certain observations as the cun-
Thesis, and conclusions in re- eluding portion of his thesis. Those observations are highly interesting, as
gard to introduction of Eng- showing the early policy of the scheme for spreading English education in
lish Education in India. jndiaj and w]iat wag afc thafc time expecte(j from it The passages may be
quoted here, as they are not easily accessible, being in an old Parliamentary Blue-book, printed so long ago as 1832.
They deserve perusal, both owing to their intrinsic worth and historical importance, in narrating the early phases
of the policy of English education in India. After stating his reasons, the author observes : —
" Thus, we trust, it has been evinced, that although many excellent improvements have of late years been
Improvement of India can be made in tne Government of our Indian territories, the moral character and
effected by the introduction condition of the Natives of them is extremely depraved, and that the state
of the English Language, and of society among that people is, in consequence, wretched. These evils have
Christianity, been shown to lie beyond the reach of our regulations, merely, political,
however good ; they have been traced to their civil and religious institutions ; they have been proved to inhere
in the general spirit and many positive enactments of their laws ; and more powerfully still in the false, corrupt,
impure, extravagant, and ridiculous principles and tenets of their religion. Upon any of these points, it is
conceived, that persons who either form their opinion, from actual observation, or from the current of testimony,
will not greatly differ ; shades of distinction there may be between them, but no substantial, radical contrariety.
A remedy has been proposed for these evils ; — the introduction of our light and knowledge among that benighted
people, especially the pure, salutary, wise principles of our divine religion. That remedy has appeared to be, in
its nature, suitable and adequate ; the practicability also of applying it, has been sufficiently established ; our
obligation to impart it has been argued, we would hope, convincingly, from the past effects of our administration
in those countries, from the more imperious consideration of the duties we owe to the people of them as our subjects,
and from our own evident interest, as involved and consulted in their welfare. Our obligation has been, likewise,
urged from another argument, the authority and command of that true religion which we have ourselves the
happiness to enjoy and profess.f As the leading subject of this Essay has been intentionally treated, chiefly upon
political grounds, the argument now mentioned has not been insisted upon at great length ; but all its just rights
are claimed for it, and it is transcendent and conclusive.
" Nothing, it would seem, besides these intrinsic properties of the proposed measure, and these powerful
extraneous motives, can be necessary to recommend the adoption of it. Yet
since some persons have appeared to think, that the improvement which they
danger should be anticipated. ^
allow to be likely from the prosecution 01 the suggested scheme, might, by
producing a course of increasing prosperity, at length, open the way to consequences unfavourable to the stability
of our Indian possessions ; these conceived consequences have also been largely examined ; and if the whole of the
reasoning used by the writer has not been erroneous, they have been found to resolve themselves, at last, into
mere apprehensions, conjectures, and general surmises, which the causes assigned for them seem so little to warrant,
that in proportion to the degree in which those causes may actually exist, effects propitious to the permanence,
as well as prosperity of our Eastern Dominion, effects more propitious than our present system can generate,
may rather be expected from them; as indeed, it would not be less a phenomenon in the political than in the
natural world, that from a ropt the most excellent, the worst fruit should be produced. The principle also upon
which such consequences are objected, and the improvement of our Heathen subjects opposed ; the principle
of keeping them for ever in darkness and error, lest our interest should suffer by a change, has been shown to be
utterly inadmissible in a moral view, as it is likewise contrary to all just policy.
\
* Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to the AffairsW India : General, Appendix I; Public (1832), pp. 85, 6.
t To disallow either the fitness of our religion as a remedy, or our obligation to promote the knowledge of it, would be to differ
from the reasoning of this Essay, in first principles ; and such\a difference, if any mind were influenced by it to resist the projected
communication, ought, in candour, to be avowed.
|,; \ltOX IX I
••In reasoning about tiling future and contingent, the writer would wish to stand remote from what ever
should have the appearance of dogmatical decision, which, indeed, is not the
And no reasons to the con- rio,ht of t,vpn SUp01.;or penetration, and to speak with that diffidence of him-
trary have been shown. ^ ^ deferenoe ,.„. ()tll(.1>s% wlli(.,, S1, well become him . he ,vonld wish to
k for no eaOM further than the truth will bear him out ; but the views lie entertain* of t lie present, subject,
! him no Other OOndMUHH than those lie has advanced, and in them he, thinks he is well supported. That a
nedy is wanted; that we have an excellent one in our hands ; that it is our duty, on general and special
;-p!y it; all these are. in his apprehension, positions nearly self-evident : from these alone a str
he conceives, arisen, thai it must be our interest to make the application ; and if rodent, spe,
,.,.;,„, ,.,],,,,. :,dduced. to prove that our interest would, in fact, thus be promoted: opposition to this scheme
oiiirht. in his opinion, to be justified by arguments very clear and very powerful; and such, he must honestly say.
lie h:: 'i able to discover.
••This subject has not hitherto received a formal consideration: but the objection which would resist all
improvement, lest future inconvenience should arise from it, necessarily brings
It would bo odious and im- . ., . . ,
moral to keep India ignorant, on this derisive question, whether we shall in all time to come, pa;
owing to apprehended risks to leave our subjects in the darkness, error, and moral turpitude m which they
British Rule. now grovel, or shall communicate to them the light of Truth, and t he means of
melioration, and of happiness, personal and social ? The question may more properly be,— Whether we should /
: For if improvement ought not to be communicated to them, we should nol
i-cful to exclude it; as, on the other hand, if it ought to be communicated; or if it is
Me that any rays of lisrht may fortuitously break in upon them, we should not leave the task to others, or to
chance, but be .nnselves the dispensers of the new principles they receive, and regulate the administ rat ion of 1!
This question then is to determine the grand moral and political principle, by which we shall heneelort h. and in
.,11 futi,,v -:is, govern and deal with our Asiatic subjects. Whether we shall make it our > impart
hem knowledge, li happiness ; or. under the notion of holding them more quiet ly in subject ion. shall
to keep them ignorant, corrupt, and mutually injurious, as they are now ? The question is not, whether
.-hall resnrt to any persecution, to any compulsion, to any sinister means. No ; the idea has been frequently i
ied : it is an odious idea, abhorrent from the spirit, of true religion ; but whether, knowing as we do the
hood and impiety of ido ions; knowing the cruelties, the immoralities. I ho di
Ogiea ;,,„! jlir of the Hind." shall silently and calmly leave them in all the fu!
tion, without telling OUT subjects, who !>e our children, that they are wrong, that :
Whether, instead of rationally, mildly explaining t" them the
divine principles of moral and religions truth, which have raised us in the scale of beinif. and are the foundation of all
and ha;. the si tipidity which we deem profitable to us ; avu nors. lie
feet, the CO bem whidb ipleP Whether, in a word, we shall do all this
fear, lest in emerging from ignorance anil error, they should be less easy to rule, and our dominion
^:posed to any risk.
••'!'; ..,•!! iis the fail-ness of such a proceeding, must also be determined; whether, on the whole, it
!d be the best poliey for our own ' if \\ e look only to t he nat ural operation of things: and here.
hoiild be careful and clear; for if we mistake our interest, u e lose our all, the very tiling to which
should In- I. whether, believing the moral government, of the
W(.r! •( tlieap]irob:r npporl ol t he Supreme Ruler of it. by willingly acquiescing in so
just: means for the alleviation of them are in our power.
•• T; inquiries \\hieh this su1 ; the inquiries which fidelity to it, and to all the
eats involved in it. would, not permit the Writer lo suppress when be
Imparting Knowledge and O1.i?iua]lv (,,Mside,.ed it ; and the same m< 0 which ho may add. the
Moral Instruction a strict duty , j j> , • ,
of the British to India duty of the station wherein he has since had the honour to be placed, forbid
him to keep them beck now. lint ih.es he. iu stating them, mean to point
them offensively to «ny individual OF body of men? No. lur from i; : they were, at first, penned, as they are
nou !. in '_<•!» id will and with a general aim ; in this great quest ion he si rives rat her to abstract his mind
. and if it glances involuntarily at the idea of any one who be fears may not accord
frith his sentiment ; to Mml among such any whom he particularly respects and
il wound iinv's. I Ic cannot wish to offend or to dispute, — he has no objects to -
nd is sufficiently aware of the situation ir, which a work of this nature may place him, both
. never to have brought it forward, but from some serious sense of duty. This question is a
MR. CHARLES GRAXT'8 SCHEME. 17
general one ; if it seem to carry in it any retrospective censure, that censure applies to the country and to the age.
Circumstances have now called for a more particular consideration of it, and of the result of that consideration he
entertains encouraging hopes. He will not allow himself to believe, that when so many noble and beneficial ends
may be served by our possession of an Empire in the East, we shall content ourselves with the meanest and the least,
and for the sake of this, frustrate all the rest. He trusts we shall dare to do justice, liberal justice, and be per-
suaded, that this principle will carry us to greater heights of prosperity, than the precautions of a selfish policy.
Future events are inscrutable to the keenest speculation, but the path of duty is open, the time present is ours.
By planting our language, our knowledge, our opinions, and our religion, in our Asiatic territories, we shall put a great
work beyond the reach of contingencies ; we shall probably have wedded the inhabitants of those territories to this
country ; but, at any rate, we shall have done an act of strict duty to them, and a lasting service to mankind.
" In considering the affairs of the world, as under the control of the Supreme Disposer, and those distant
territories, as by strange events, providentially put into our hands, is it not reasonable, is it not necessary, to
conclude that they were given to us, not merely that we might draw an annual profit from them, but that we might
diffuse among their inhabitants, long sunk in darkness, vice and misery, the light and the benign influences of
Truth, the blessings of well-regulated society, the improvements and the comforts of active industry ? And that,
in prudently and sincerely endeavouring to answer these ends, we may not only humbly hope for some measure of
the same success, which has usually attended serious and rational attempts for the propagation of that pure and
sublime religion which comes from God, but best secure the protection of his providential government, of whicli
we now see such awful marks in the events of the world.
" In every progressive step of this work, we shall also serve the original design with which we visited India,
that design still so important to this country — the extension of our commerce.
Extension of British Com- -.-Tr, • -, ,, , ,, ,. , ,.,. , , ,, .,
Why is it that so tew or our manufactures and commodities are vended there r
meree will ensue from the
enlightenment of India. ^°* merely because the taste of the people is not generally formed to the use
of them, but because they have not the means of purchasing them. The pro-
posed improvements would introduce both. As it is, our woollens, our manufactures in iron, copper, and steel ; our
clocks, watches, and toys of different kinds ; our glass-ware, and various other articles are admired there, and would
sell in great quantities if the people were rich enough to buy them. Let invention be once awakened among them,
let them be roused to improvements at home, let them be led by industry to multiply, as they may exceedingly, the
exchangeable productions of their country ; let them acquire a relish for the ingenious exertions of the human mind in
Europe, for the beauties and refinements, endlessly diversified, of European art and science, and we shall hence obtain
for ourselves the supply of four-and-twenty millions of distant subjects. How greatly will our country be thus aided
in rising still superior to all her difficulties ; and how stable, as well as unrivalled, may we hope our commerce
will be, when we thus rear it on right principles, and make it the means of 'their extension ! It might be too
sanguine to form into a wish, an idea most pleasing and desirable in itself, that our religion and our knowledge
might be diffused over other dark portions of the globe, where Nature has been more kind than human institutions.
This is the noblest species of conquest, and wherever, we may venture to say, our principles and language are
introduced, our commerce will follow.
" To rest in the present state of things, or to determine that the situation of our Asiatic subjects, and our connec-
tion with them, are such as they ought to be for all time to come, seems too daring a conclusion ; and if a change, a
great change, be necessary, no reason can be assigned for its commencement, at any future period, which will not
equally, nay, more strongly, recommend its commencement now. To say, that things may be left to their own
course, or that our European Settlements may prove a sufficient nursery of moral and religious instruction for the
Natives, will be, in effect, to declare, that there shall be no alteration : at least no effectual and safe one.
" The Mahomedans, living for centuries intermixed in great numbers with the Hindoos, produced no radical
Mahomedans though for cnange *n their character ; not merely because they rendered themselves dis-
centuries intermixed with the agreeable to their subjects, but because they left those subjects, during that
Hindus, produced no radical whole period, as uninstructed in essential points as they found them. We are
change in their character. called rather to imitate the Roman Conquerors, who civilized and improved
the nations whom they subdued ; and we are called to this, not only by the obvious wisdom which directed their
policy, hut by local circumstances, as well as by sounder principles and higher motives than they possessed.
" The examples also of modern European Nations pass in review before us. We are the fourth of those who
For similar reasons, the For- have Pressed \n Indian Empire. That of the Portuguese, though acquired
tuguese, the Dutch, and the by romantic braveW, was unsystematic and rapacious ; the short one of the
French failed to produce a per- French was the metk>r of a vain ambition; the Dutch acted upon the prin-
manent effect upon India. ciples of a ^IQ^ commercial policy ; and these, under which they apparently
a
KN<a,ISII KIH'CATIOX IX INDIA.
M for a time, have been the cause of their decline and fall. None of these nations sought to establish them-
w.|v,s in the affections of their acquired subjects, or to assimilate them to then- manners ; and those subjects, far
f,,,,n supporting then,, .vjouvd in their defeat ; some attempts they made to instruct the Nafcves, which had their
e but sordid views overwhelmed their effects. It remains for us to show how we shall be distinguished from
, I,,',, nation in the history of mankind ; whether conquest shall have been in our hands the means, not mere y of
lisplayini? '' (Sovemment unequalled in India for administrative justice, kindness, and moderation ; not me,
iMWMfeg the security of the subject and prosperity of the country, but of advancing social happiness, of mehorat-
iM the moral state of men, and of extending a superior light, further than the Roman Eagle ever flew.
" If the novelty, the impracticability, the danger of the proposed scheme, be urged against it, these objections
cannot all be consistent ; and the last, which is the only one that could have
Novelty of the Educational ^jo^t, pre-supposes success. In success would lie our safety, not our danger.
Scheme no valid objection Oul7 Danger must iie in pursuing, from ungenerous ends, a course contracted
against its intr ^ .^.^ _ ^ ^ following an opposite course, in communicating light,
knowledge, and improvement, we shall obey the dictates of duty, of philanthropy, and of policy ; we shall take the
most rational means to remove inherent, great disorders, to attach the Hindoo people to ourselves, to ensure the
safety of our possessions, to enhance continually their value to us, to raise a fair and durable monument to the
glory of this country, and to increase the happiness of the human race." 4
CHAPTER IV.
EAKLT EFFORTS FOR THE EDUCATION OF THE NATIVES OF INDIA. THE CALCUTTA
MADRASSA FOUNDED IN 1781, AND THE SANSKRIT COLLEGE AT BENARES,
IN 1791. LORD MINTO'S MINUTE ON EDUCATION, 1811.
Whilst opinions and sentiments, such as those of Mr. Charles Grant, quoted in the preceding chapter, were
Mr Fisher's Memoir on Edu- being entertained and discussed by philanthropic British Statesmen of the
cation in India : written in more advanced type, in their deliberations respecting the future moral and
1827-32. intellectual progress of the Natives of India, it is important to consider what
had actually been done by the Government of the East India Company in regard to the spread of Education in
India. Upon this part of the subject full and valuable information is contained in an elaborate Memoir, dated,
7th February, 1827, with a Supplement, dated 23rd February, 1832, prepared under official orders, by Mr. Thomas
Fisher, who then held the office of " Searcher of the Records" at the East India House, in London. This
Memoir has been printed f as an Appendix to the Parliamentary Papers of 1832, and I will borrow extracts from
it for the present purposes, as it is the most authoritative source of information available.
" Tiic Calcutta Madrissa, or Hahomedan College, was founded at the request of several Mahomedans of distinc-
tion, in the year 1781, by the Governor-General, Warren Hastings, Esquire,
Calcutta Madrassa founded who provided a building for it, at his own expense, amounting to Rs. 57,745,
but which was afterwards charged to the Company. The Bengal Government,
also, at the recommendation of Mr. Hastings, assigned lands of the estimated value of Rs. 29,000 per annum, for
thp support of the Institution. The original intention of the Founder appears to have been, to promote the
study of the Arabic and Persian languages, and of the Mahomedan Law, with a view, more especially, to the pro-
duction of well-qualified oliieers for the Courts of Justice. In 1785, the lands which had been granted for its support
were regularly assigned by Sunntttl, to be held during the pleasure of Government, to Mahomed Maiz-oo-deen, who
had been appointed Superior, or Guardian of the Institution, and to his successors. In this officer was vested the
immediate management of all the affairs of the Madrissa, and the administration of its revenues. He was directed to
deliver in to the Committee of Revenue, monthly statements of the number of students actually maintained on the
tlilishment, with their names and salaries. A Member of the Committee of Revenue was authorized and en-
joined, once in every three months or oftener, to visit the Madrissa, in order to see that the building was kept in
• Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to the Affairs of India-. General, Appendix I ; Public (1832), pp. 86-89.
t 16., pp. 395-483.
EARLY EFFORTS FOE THE EDUCATION OF NATIVES. 19
proper repair, and that, in all other respects, the efficiency of the Institution was maintained. The Naib Nazim, or
principal officer of the Native Courts of Law, was also instructed that, whenever vacancies should arise in the
Foujdarry courts, they should be filled from the students of the Madrissa, upon the production of certificates from
the Superior, that the individuals nominated by him were duly qualified for their respective appointments."*
In 1788 and 1791 certain reforms were introduced, as to the management and working of the College, and the
control of the Institution was placed in the hands of a Committee, and the
Beforms in 1788-91, and sub- ,. ,, ,, . . , ,. ., , ,
jects of study prescribed. following were the principal subjects prescribed for study :— Natural Philo-
sophy, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Geometry, Arithmetic, Logic, Ehetoric,
Oratory and Grammar. Subsequently, reforms and changes in the management of the Institution continued, but
it is needless to enter into the details, beyond saying that the English language was not introduced as one of the
subjects of study, although considerable sums of money were spent upon the Madrissa, — the amount appropriated
for its expenses, from its foundation in 1781 to the end of the year 1824, being no less than Rs. 12,20,479.f
The Hindoo Sanskrit College at Benares was projected by Mr. Jonathan Duncan, the Resident at Benares, in
Benares Sanskrit College 1791, as a means of employing, beneficially for the country, some part of a
founded in 1791, and the sub- surplus which the public revenues yielded over their estimated amount.
jects of study prescribed. Th§ expense fol, the first year was Hmited to Rs. 14,000— but in the
following year it was augmented to Rs. 20,000. The object of this Institution was the preservation and cultivation
of the Laws, Literature, and Religion of the Hindoos ( and more particularly of their laws) in their sacred city ; a
measure which it was conceived would be equally advantageous to the Natives, and honourable to the British
Government among them. The internal discipline was to be in all respects conformable to the Dharma Shastra,
in the Chapter on Education, and the prescribed course of studies in the College comprehended Theology and
Ritual, Medicine, including Botany, &c., Music, Mechanics, Arts, Grammar, Prosody, and Sacred Lexicography,
Mathematics, Metaphysics, Logic, Law, History, Ethics, Philosophy and Poetry.
Changes and reforms were made from time to time in this Institution, and a considerable amount of money was
spent upon it, the pecuniary aid given by Government, from its foundation in the year 1791 to the end of the year
1824, being no less than Rs. 6,7 4,000. J
On the 6th of March, 1811, Lord Minto, the then Governor-General, wrote a Minute § on the subject of
Education in India, and, as it forms an important document . connected with
Lord Mintors Minute on Edu- , , ,. ,. , D ... , „ . .
t' d t d 6th March 1811 early policy or the British Rule in regard to Education, some significant
passages may be quoted from it, as showing the beneficent spirit which then
prevailed in the Counsels of Government. The Governor-General observed : —
" It is a common remark, that science and literature are in a progressive state of decay among the Natives of
India. Prom every inquiry which I have been enabled to make on this
Decay of Learning in India. . , ,. ,.
interesting subject, that remark appears to me but too well founded. The
number of the learned is not only diminished, but the circle of learning, even among those who still devote them-
solves to it, appears to be considerably contracted. The abstract sciences are abandoned, polite literature neglected,
and no " inch of learning cultivated but what is connected with the peculiar religious doctrines of the people.
Tb° diate consequence of this state of things is, the disuse, and even actual loss, of many valuable books ;
be apprehended, that unless Government interpose with a fostering hand, the rivival of Letters may
me hopeless, from a want of books, or of persons capable of explaining them.
•inciple cause of the present neglected state of Literature in India is to be traced to the want of that
encouragement which was formerly afforded to it by Princes, Chieftains, and
opulent individuals under the Native Government. Such encouragement
must always operate as a strong incentive to study and literary exertions, but
•*re the learned professions have little, if any, other support. The justness of these observa-
'1 (Hailed consideration of the former and present state of Science and Literature
•;ng, viz., Benares, Tirhoot, and Nuddea. Such a review would bring
~rly bestowed, not only by Princes, and others in power and
istiuguished themselves by the successful cultivation
w the present neglected state of learning at those
;t that the cultivation of letters was now confined
Princes and others, under the former Govern-
pendix I ; Public (1832), pp. 396, 397.
§ Ib., p. 484.
i
20 TSH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
menK or to such of tlic immediate descendants of those persons as had imbibed a love of science from their
'.Is.
" I' isly to be lamented that a nation particularly distinguished for its love, and successful cultivation
of 1- - t her parts df the Empire, should liave failed to extend its fostering care to the Literature of the
Hindu. is. and to aid in opening to the learned in Europe the repositories of that literature.
"It is not, however, the credit alone of the national character which is affected by the present neglected state
. of learning in the East. The ignorance of the Natives in the different cla
Ignorance of the Natives of
India obstructs good Govern- °f society, arising from the want of proper education, is generally acknow-
ment, and is conducive to ledgcd. This defect not only excludes them as individuals from the enjoyin
ae' of all those comforts and benefits which the cultivation of letters is naturally
i la t I'd to afford, but operating, as it does, throughout almost the whole mass of the population, tends material Iv
in nlistniei tl g adopted for their better Government. Little doubt can be entertained that the preval
of pel-jury and forgery, so frequently noticed in the Official Reports, is in a great measure aseribaliie,
; in the Main and Hindus, to the want of due instruction in the moral and religious tenets of their
respeetive faiths. 1 1 ha - been even suggested, and apparently not without foundation, that to this uncultivated
of tlie minds of the Natives is in a great degree to be ascribed the prevalence of those crimes which were
•:i-ge to the country.
" The latter offences against the peace and happiness of Society have, indeed, for the present, been materially
checked by the vigilance and energy of the police, but it is probably onlv l>v
Which, can be remedied by
Education. e more general diffusion of knowledge amontr the great body of the people,
that the seeds of these evils can be effectually destroyed." *
The Goveronr-General's Minute, after suggesting the principles of a scheme for promoting and maintaining
Observations as to Revival of lcarnl'"£ <among the Hindus, contains the following observations in regard to
Learning among the Mahome- Mahomedans in particular : —
dans, in Lord Minto's Minute " It will be observed that, in the foregoing remarks, I have confined myself
almost exclusively to the plan necessary to be adopted for the restoration of
Hindu science and literature. Considerations similar to those which have weighed with me in recommending thai
plan, would naturally induce me to propose similar arrangements for the revival of Letters amoiiu- our Mahomed:in
sub jeets. and the more general diffusion of knowledge among that part of the community. With the difference
only in the population of Hindus and Mahomedans, all the arguments which have been above stated in support of
the arrangements proposed to bo adopted for the propagation of knowledge among the former, would equally app'
to similar institutions for the benefit of the Mahomedans. A sentiment of deference, however, for the Honou
Court of I In- trains me from recommending any extension of the plan until their orders shall have
received on the subject o-enerally of this Minute. I deem it, therefore, sufficient to add, on the present oceasioi
that .Mahoniedaii College.- might be beneficially established at Bhaugulpore, Jounpore (where Persian and Aral)''
literature formerly flourished), and at someplace in the Ceded and Conquered Provinces; and that it might I
to reform the Madrissa, or Mahomedan Collegiate Institution at Calcutta, on the principles recc tnende^
•with respect to the Hindu Colleges." f
* I'rintiMl Piirliamentary Papers relating to the Affairs of India: General, Appendix I; Pullic (1832), p. 484.
t lb., p 485.
te.
PCIiLIC INSTRUCTION AS STATE POLICY. 21
CHAPTER V.
FIRST LEGISLATIVE PROVISION FOR PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN INDIA. ACT OF PARLIAMENT,
53 GEO. III., C. 155. DESPATCH OF THE COURT OF DIRECTORS, DATED SKD JUNE,
1814, ON EDUCATION. EARLY EDUCATIONAL EFFORTS OF THE MISSIONARIES.
LORD MOIRA'S EDUCATIONAL MINUTE OF 2ND OCTOBER, 1815.
It will be observed, from the narrative contained in the preceding chapter, that, whilst during the thirty
Public instruction not yet years from the foundation of the Calcutta Madrassa, in 1781, down to the time
recognized as part of a settled when Lord Minto recorded his Minute of 6th March, 1811, individuals of high
State Policy. official rank in the Administration of India were not altogether oblivious of the
moral duty and administrative necessity of spreading knowledge among the people of India, no systematic effort
was made to place the education of the Natives upon a firm and organized footing, as a part of the State
Policy. There was indeed, a vast and powerful section of Anglo-Indian Administrators, who were far from
conceding that Public Instruction should either be undertaken by the State, or, was free from serious political
dangers to the security of British dominion in India. The only effect yet given to the policy of educating the
Natives of India consisted in the foundation of the Calcutta Madrassa by Warren Hastings, in 1781, and of the
Sanskrit College at Benares, by Mr. Jonathan Duncan, in 1791. But both these Institutions were, on the one hand,
purely Oriental in their course of studies (as has been described in the preceding chapter), and on the other hand,
their main object was to provide a regular supply of qualified Hindu and Mahomedan law-officers for the judicial
administration. The proposals contained in Lord Minto's Minute of 6th March, 1811, in regard to the establish-
ment of Hindu Colleges, in Nuddea and Tirhoot, proceed upon principles similar to those of the Sanskrit College
at Benares ; but those proposals seem to have remained in abeyance for some years, as will be shown hereafter,
and finally, they took the form of the establishment of a Hindu Sanskrit College at Calcutta.
Meanwhile, important events were taking place in England in regard to the renewal of the East India Com-
pany's Charter by the British Parliament, and since they have an important
Inquiry by Parliament into *
Indian affairs, and renewal of bearing upon the general advancement of India, and mark an epoch in the
the E I. Company's Charter, history of the educational policy of the British rule in India, a sbort account
by Act 53, Geo. Ill, c.155, in of tjle transactions of that period will not be out of place here. As earlv as
1 O 1 Q **
the year 1808, while the House of 'Commons appointed a Select Committee to
enquire into the state of affairs of the East India Company, Mr. Dundas, on the part of the Board of Control and
the Crown, suggested to the Directors the propriety of endeavouring, without delay, to come to an understanding on
.the subject of a new Charter, in order that it might be submitted to the early consideration of Parliament. Nego-
tiations between the Government and the Directors of the Company ended in failure, and " on the 22nd of March,
1 813, Lord Castlereagh submitted to the House of Commons a series of thirteen resolutions, containing the leading
provisions, which it was proposed to embody in an Act renewing the Company's Charter. Most of the questions
discussed were then novel, and both the dangers apprehended by the one party, and the expectations entertained
by the other, made it necessary for the Legislature to proceed with the utmost caution. Information was sought
from all quarters, and whole volumes of evidence were taken from those who were supposed most competent to give
it. In the debates which afterwards ensued, there were few speakers of eminence in either house who did not
deliver their sentiments, and deem them of so much importance as to justify the subsequent revisal and publication
of their speeches. So great, however, has been the progress of Political Economy as a science, and so strong the
light which has been thrown upon it by experience, since this famous debate, that many of the propositions most
elaborately argued, are now regarded as truisms, and much of the alarm sounded is felt to be mere exaggeration.
The result is, therefore, the only thing which now possesses much historical interest, and nothing more is necessary
here than to give a very brief analysis of the most important sections of the Act, 53 Geo. Ill, c. 155, which, while
essentially modifying and curtailing the privileges formerly possessed by the Company, renewed their Charter for
another period of twenty years, to be computed from the 10th day of April 1814." *
* Bevevidge's History of India Vol. III., pp. 3, 4.
•J.J ISII EDUCATION IN INDIA.
It is not necessary for the present purposes to give an account of the various provisions of the Act relating to
the iiilmini.strat.ion and trade of India, but it is desirable to describe the pro-
Statutory recognition of the vjs;ons Of the Act, so far as they related to the education of India, as they
Policy of Educatu>n in India. ^^ ^ first defmite gtep taken by the gtate in tllis direction) in tiie shapo
of legislative aflirmiition of the educational policy of the British Rule in India— a policy which till then was far
from being founded on a sound and stable basis. A passage from Mr. Beveridge's History of India (vol. Ill, p. 5)
l.r quoted he-re us containing the requisite information. Speaking of the provisions of the Act 53, Geo.
111. o. i:..">. which was passed in 1813, he goes on to say:—
" The above provisions for opening and regulating the trade with India constitute the main features in the
Act but there were others not of a commercial nature which met with strenu-
Lord Castlereagh's Resolu- .
tion recognizing the duty of ous opposition, and were denounced by many as dangerous m the extreme,
Great Britain to educate the if not absolutely incompatible with the existence of the British power in
Natives of India, passed by India. After reading the earnest and virulent declamation directed against
Parliament in 1813. the 13th Resolution proposed by Lord Castlereagh, one is surprised, and at
tin- same time relieved, on finding that, both as it was originally expressed and as it now stands embodied in the
i Section of the Act, it pledged the Legislature to nothing more than the following simple proposition : That ' it
is the duty of this country to promote the interest and happiness of the native inhabitants of the British dominions
in India, and such measures ought to be adopted as may tend to the introduction among them of useful knowledge,
iiiul of relii'ious and moral improvement; and in furtherance of the above objects, sufficient facilities ought to be
afforded l>v law to persons desirous of going to and remaining in India, for the purpose of accomplishing those
benevolent designs, so as the authority of the Local Governments, respecting the intercourse of Europeans with the
interior of the country, be preserved, and the principles of the British Government, on which the natives of India
have hitherto relied for the free exercise of their religion, be inviolably maintained.' In order to give effect to
this declaration, the Section proceeds to enact, that ' persons desirous of going to and remaining in India for the
above purposes,' or ' for other lawful purposes,' should apply for permission to the Court of Directors, who should
either erant it, or, in the event of refusal, transmit the application, within one month of the receipt of it, to the
Board of Control, who were empowered finally to dispose of it. All persons obtaining permission, whether from
the Court or from the Board, were to be furnished by the Directors with certificates, entitling them, ' so long as
they shall properly conduct themselves, lo the countenance and protection of the several Governments of the said
Company in the East Indies, and parts aforesaid, in their respective pursuits, subject to all such provisions and
restrictions as are now in force, or may hereafter he judged necessary with regard to persons residing in India.'
The only pecuniary provision made in connection with this Section, was the allotment of a sum of not less than
£ 10,000 annually, for the ' revival and improvement of literature, and the encouragement of the learned natives
of India, and for the introduction and promotion of a knowledge of the sciences among the inhabitants of the
British territories in India.' Such a sum, paltry as it was, was not permitted to do the good which might have been
expected >d of being employed in instructing the Natives generally, continued for many yeais
..• parilv paid away to learned Mahomedans and Hindus, for explaining and inculcating their respective dogmas,
and partly allowed to accumulate, as if expenditure for native education were impracticable or useless.* '
The aforementioned Section, 43, of the Act of Parliament, St. 53 Geo. III., Chap. ] •">.">, may l>e said to represent
the hei inning of a new epoch in the history of public education in India, and,
Section 43, Statute 53, Geo. j,^,,, |)u. f|1.s, ](.uris|atjve enactment in that behalf, possesses historical value
III., C. 155, quoted as mark- . ,. . . , ,. ., ...
h ' m**re8t, as indicating, in formal language, the early policy of public
instruction as part of the administration of the British Rule. The Section
runs in the following words : —
" And be it further enacted, that it shall be lawful for the Governor-General in Council to direct that out
of any surplus which may remain of the rents, revenues, and profits arising from the said territorial acquisitions,
after defraying the ex penses of I lie military, civil, and commercial establishments, and paying the interest of the debt,
in manner hereinafter provided, a sum of not less than one lac of rupees in each year shall be set apart and applied
tot! ] inn! improvement of Literature, and the encouragement of the learned natives of India, and for the
introduction and promotion of a knowledge of the sciences among the inhabitants of the British territories in India ;
and that any schools, public lectures, or other institutions, for the purposes aforesaid, which shall be founded at
the Presidencies of I-'ort William, Fort St. George, or Bombay, or in any other parts of the British territories in
India, iu virtue of this Act, shall be governed by such Regulations as may from time to time be made by the said
* Beveridge's llistory of India, Vol. III., pp. 4, 5.
FIRST EDUCATIONAL DESPATCH OF TEE COURT OP DIRECTORS. 23
Governor- General in Council ; subject, nevertheless, to such powers as are herein vested in the said Board of
Commissioners for the Affairs of India, respecting colleges and seminaries ; provided always, that all appointments
to offices in such schools, lectureships, and other institutions, shall be made by or under the authority of the
Governments within which the same shall be situated."
In a letter dated the 6th September, 1813, the Court of Directors called the attention of the Governor-
r» **.»**. General in Council to the above Section of the new Act of Parliament, and
The first Despatch of the
Court of Directors to the Go- Promised to take an early opportunity of communicating their instructions
vernor-General, dated 3rd as *° t'ie m°de in which " the wise and liberal intention of the Legislature
June, 1814, conveying direc- in this respect should be accomplished." Accordingly, on the 3rd June, 1814,
tions on the subject of educa- they despatched a letter to the Governor-General in Council upon the
subject. That letter appears to be the first Official Despatch addressed by
the Court of Directors to the authorities in India, on the subject of education, and possesses much historical
interest, as showing the earliest beginning of the State policy in regard to the nature of the measures which might
be adopted for the education of the people of India. Some passages from the letter may be quoted here with
advantage : —
" In our letter of the 6th September last, in the Public Department, we directed your attention generally
Directions as to the m d f *° ^e ^r<^ Clause in the Act of the 53rd of the King, by which our Governor-
giving effect to Sec. 43, of Sta- General in Council is empowered to direct that a sum of not less than one lac
tute 53, Geo. III., C. 155. of rupees, out of any surplus revenues that may remain, shall be annually
applied to the revival and improvement of Literature, and the encouragement
of the learned natives of India. We purpose in this Despatch to convey to you our sentiments as to the mode in
which it will be advisable you should proceed, and the measures it may be proper you should adopt with reference
to that subject. In the consideration of it, we have kept in view those peculiar circumstances of our political
relation with India which, having necessarily transferred all power and preeminence from Native to European
Agency, have rendered it incumbent upon us, from motives of policy as well as from a principle of justice, to
consult the feelings, and even to yield to the prejudices, of the Natives, whenever it can be done with safety to our
dominions.
" The clause presents two distinct propositions for consideration : First, the encouragement of the learned
Two objects of the Clause in Datives °f India, and the revival and improvement of Literature ; secondly, the
the Act of Parliament,— can- promotion of a knowledge of the sciences amongst the inhabitants of that
not be gained by establishing country. Neither of these objects, is, we apprehend, to be obtained through
the medium of public Colleges, if established under the rules, and upon a plan
similar to those that have been founded at our Universities, because the Natives of caste and of reputation will not
submit to the subordination and discipline of a College ; and we doubt whether it would be practicable to devise
any specific plan which would promise the successful accomplishment of the objects under consideration. We are
inclined to think that the mode by which the learned Hindoos might be disposed to concur with us in prosecuting
those objects, would be by our leaving them to the practice of an usage, long established amongst them, of giving
instruction at their own houses, and by our encouraging them in the exercise and cultivation of their talents, by
the stimulus of honorary marks of distinction, and in some instances by grants of pecuniary assistance.
" In a political point of view, considerable advantages might, we conceive, be made to flow from the measure
Political aspect of Education Pr°P°sed, ^ i* should be conducted with due attention to the usages and habits
with respect to the feelings of of the Natives. They are known to attach a notion of sanctity to the soil, the
the Natives as to the sanctity buildings, and other objects of devout resort, and particularly to that at
of Benares. Benares, which is regarded as the central point of their religious worship, and
as the great repository of their learning. The possession of this venerated city, to which every class and rank of
the Hindoos is occasionally attracted, has placed in the hands of the British Government a powerful instrument of
connexion and conciliation, especially with the Mahrattas, who are more strongly attached than any other to the
supposed sanctity of Benares. Deeply impressed with these sentiments, we desire that your attention may be
directed in an especial manner to Benares, and that you call upon your public representatives there to report to you
what ancient establishments are still existing for the diffusion of knowledge in that city ; what branches of science
and literature are taught there ; by what means the professors and teachers are supported ; and in what way their
present establishments might be improved to most advantage. In the pursuit of this information they will have
opportunities of obtaining a knowledge of individual characters, which may enable them to point out to your notice
those natives with whom it might be desirable you should consult, and through whose instrumentality the liberal
intentions of the Legislature might most advantageously be advanced
.,.}. EXHUSH KIHVATKiX IX INDIA.
" We arc informed that there are in the Sanscrit language many excellent systems of ethics, with Codes of
Laws and compendiums of the duties relating to every class of the people,
Sanskrit Learning to be en- tho study of wnicn might be useful to those natives who may be destined for
couraged. the Judicial Department of Government. There are also many tracts of
merit, we are told, on the virtues of plants and drugs, and on the application of them in medicjne, the knowledge
,,f whieh might prove desirable to the European practitioner; and there are treatises on Astronomy and Mathema-
ry and Algebra, which, though they may not add new lights to European science, might be
made to form links of communication between the natives and the gentlemen in our service, who are attached to
the Observatory and to the Department of Engineers, and by such intercourse the Natives might gradually be
led to adopt the modern improvements in those and other sciences. With a view to these several objects, we
have determined that due encouragement should be given to such of our servants, in any of those departments, as
may be disposed to apply themselves to the study of the Sanskrit language, and we desire that the teachers, who
may be employed under your authority for this purpose, may be selected from those amongst the Natives who
may have made some proficiency in the sciences in question, and that their recompense should be liberal.
"We encourage ourselves to hope, that a foundation may in this way be laid for giving full effect in the
course of time to the liberal intentions of the Legislature , and we shall consider the money that may be allotted to
this service as beneficially employed, if it should prove the means, by an improved intercourse of the Europeans with
the Natives, to produce those reciprocal feelings of regard and respect which are essential to the permanent interests
of the British Empire in India." *
Such were the earliest instructions issued by the Court of Directors to the authorities in India on the subject
, . . . . noints in °^ education. They represent the embryonic or infantile stage of the policy
the Despatch of the Court of of spreading Education and enlightenment among the people of India. Three
Directors, dated 3rd June, important points are, however, noticeable in them : First, that they are confined
1814. to the promotion of Sanskrit learning among the Hindus; secondly, that they
entirely ignore the interests of the Mahomedan Community, and of their learning and sciences, contained in Arabic
and Persian works ; and, thirdly, that they do not afford the least indication of any intention to introduce a
knowledge of the English language, literature, and sciences among the people of India.
At the time when the Despatch arrived, the Government of India was engaged in the war with Nepal, and
subsequently in tranquilising Central India, and the expense and financial
Omission to act upon tne embarrassnients entailed by these measures, prevented immediate attention
Charter of 1813.
being paid to the views of the Court of Directors in regard to education, and
the Indian Government, during this period, seems to have had no settled policy or even intention on the subject
of education.
" About this time a new stimulus began to be applied to the cause of education in India, of a nature which has
been steadily increasing in power from that day to this ; which is growing,
Missionary movement in be- and rf which £t ig impossible to foresee the resuit. jt W0uld unreasonably
half of education. .
prolong this Note to attempt to give any history of Missionary enterprise in
this country, except in so far as it bears upon educational progress, but the alliance of the two had been celebrated
in 1813, and the fruits of the alliance were now to appear. Towards the end of 1799, two Baptist Missionaries,
Maishman and Ward, of small means and humble origin, landed in Calcutta, with the intention of joining Mr.
Carey, who had been deputed thither by the same Society about six years previously. Being provided with no
license from the East India Company, and fearful of being sent back to England, they settled themselves in the
small Danish Settlement of Serampnr. Their professed object was conversion, and if, ridicule f in England or dis-
:ragement in India could have thwarted them, their efforts would have been short-lived. Not that the Governor-
(leneral |n -i sonally was inclined to treat them with rigour. On the contrary, Lord Wellesley appointed Mr. Carey
Sanscrit Professor m t.lie newly-established College of Port AVilliam, and generally seems to have held an even balance
veen the section represented by Mr. Charles Grant and Sir John Shore on the one hand, and the anti-educational
i the other. In 1807, however, the little colony had a narrow escape. Certain addresses to the Hindus and
.Mnssalmans, published at Serampore, and marked by more fervour than discretion, attracted the attention of Lord
.Minto's (loverninent, and an order was passed that the Press, and those who maintained it, should be removed to
surveillance at Calcutta. The order was withdrawn at the instance of the Danish Government, and on the
receipt of a temperate and respectful memorial from the missionaries, who regretted the publications complained
* Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to the Affairs of India : General, Appendix I ; Public (1832), pp. -i8G, 487.
t See Edinburgh-Seview — "Indian. Missions," 1808.
THE " VIDTALAYA " OE ANGLO-INDIAN COLLEGE. 25
of, and promised to issue no more of a similar character. But the warning was unmistakeable, and the pro-
ceedings of the Government were approved by the Court of Directors, in a despatch (dated 7th September, 1808)
which contains their first declaration of strict religious neutrality, and of the refusal to add the influence of
authority to any attempt made to propagate the Christian religion. From that date until the renewal of the
Charter in 1813, the Mission was contemptuously tolerated by the local authorities ; but its labours were incessant,
it continued the Printing Press, and edited a series of Vernacular works for educational purposes, and by 1815, it
had established no less than 20 schools in the neighbourhood of Calcutta, containing about 800 native children.
The Calcutta Benevolent Institution, founded in 1809, for the instruction of poor Christian and other children,
still remains as a monument of the Mission's exertions.
" On his return from the North- Western Provinces, Lord Moira issued, on the 2nd October, 1815, a Minute
declaring his solicitude for the moral and intellectual condition of the Natives,
Lord Moira's Educational ,,. . ^ i_i- i_ j • ± • ^ <• T,-
••••• .co j/-,ii. 10-1 = and his anxiety to see established and maintained some system ot public
Minute of 2nd October, 1815.
education. He thought that the humble but valuable class of village school-
masters claimed the first place in the discussion, and that the efforts of Government should be directed to the
improvement of existing tuition, and to the diffusion of it to places and persons now out of its reach. The Minute
was followed by a direct application to the Court of Directors for permission to encourage schools formed on
principles altogether different from the Oriental Institutions, which alone, up to that date, had enjoyed the regular
support of Government. In November, J815, Lord Moira visited the little colony at Serampore, a step worth
recording, as the first kind of direct encouragement, which Missionary effort in behalf of education had received
from a Governor- General of India."*
CHAPTER VI.
ORIGIN OF ENGLISH EDUCATION.— THE " VIDTALAYA " OR ANGLO-INDIAN COLLEGE
FOUNDED BY HINDUS OF CALCUTTA IN 1816.— RAJA RAM MOHUN ROY'S
ADVOCACY OF ENGLISH EDUCATION.— COMMITTEE OF PUBLIC
INSTRUCTION ESTABLISHED IN CALCUTTA IN 1823.— ITS
PROCEEDINGS UP TO THE END OF 1831.
The subject of Education seems to have been regarded with much apathy by the authorities in India at the
time when the Court of Directors sent their first Eductional Despatch of
Apathy of the Indian Govern-
ment towards English Edu- ' a no S1gnlficant measures seem to have been adopted for some years
cation, and zeal of the advanced to fulfil the intentions of the Act of Parliament abovementioned. The more
Hindus who founded the advanced section of the Hindu community, however, seem to have been alive
"Vi<l >/al<iVa,» or Anglo-Indian to the expediency and benefit of introducing a knowledge of the English
College at Calcutta m 1818.
literature and sciences among their countrymen, and in the year 1816 some
of the native gentlemen of Calcutta, possessing wealth, intelligence, and public spirit, associated together and
subscribed a capital sum of Rs. 113,179, to found a Seminary for the instruction of the sons of Hindus in the
European and Asiatic languages and sciences. The institution was called the Vidyalaya or Anglo-Indian College,
and represents the first effort made by the natives of India themselves, for the education of their children in the
English language and literature. The origin of the institution is extremely interesting, and may be described in
the words of Rev. A. Duff, D.D., in his evidence before a Select Committee of the House of Lords, on the 3rd
.rune, 1853. He said : —
" English Education was in a manner forced upon the British Government ; it did not itself spontaneously
Origin of English Education originate it. The system of English Education commenced in the following very
in India. Mr. David Hare simple way in Bengal. There were two persons who had to do with it, one was
and Eaja Bam Mohun Roy. Mr. David Hare; and the other was a Nativej Ram Mohun Roy. In the year
* Education in British India, prior to 1854. By Arther Howell, Esquire, pp. 8, 9.
20 KM! MSB EDUCATION IN INDIA.
1815, they were in consultation one evening with a few friends, as to what should be done with a view
to the elevation of the native mind and character. Rain Mohun Roy's proposition was that they should
.lish an Assembly, or Convocation, in which, what are called the higher or purer dogmas of Veduntism
or ancient Hinduism, might be taught ; in short, the Pantheism of the Vedas, or their Dponwfewfo, but what
Ru,n Mnhim Roy delighted to call by the more genial title of Monotheism. Mr. David Hare was a watch-make*
in f.tlrutta. an ordinary illiterate man himself; but being a man of great energyandstronppracticalsense.be
said the plan should be to inst itute an English School, or College, for the instruction of native youth. Accord-
ingly, he soon drew up. and issued a circular on the subject, which gradually attracted the attention of the leading
B, and among others, of the Chief Justice, Sir Hyde East. Being led to consider the proposed measure.
he entered heartily into it, and got a meeting of European gentlemen assembled in May 1816. He invited also
some of the influential Natives to attend. Then it was unanimously agreed that they should commence an in-
stitution for the teaching of English to the children of the higher classes, to be designated ' The Hindu College of
itta.' A large Joint Committee of Europeans and Natives was appointed to carry the design into effect.
In the beginning of 1817 the College, or rather school, was opened ; and it was the very first English Seminary in
Bengal, or even in India, as far as I know. In the Joint Committee there was a preponderance of Natives:
and partly from their inexperience and inaptitude, and partly from their absurd prejudices, and jealousies, it
was not verv well managed nor very successful. Indeed, had it not been for the untiring perseverance of Mr. Hare,
it would have soon come to an end. The number of pupils enrolled at its first opening was but small, not exceed-
ing 20 ; and even, all along, for the subsequent five or six years, the number did not rise above 60 or 70. Then it
was, when they were well nigh in a state of total wreck, and most of the Europeans had retired from the manage-
ment in disgust, that Mr. Hare and a few others resolved to apply to the Government for help, as the only means
of saving the sinking Institution from irretrievable ruin. The Government, when thus appealed to, did come
forward and proffer its aid, upon certain reasonable terms and conditions ; and it was in this way that the British
Government was first brought into active participation in the cause of English Education."*
The Institution grew in popularity, and soon claimed superiority over any other Seminary (such as Missionary
Popularity and success of Schools. &c-) affording instruction to the Natives in the English language. The
the " J~i<tij<il(ti/u,'' or Indian. Report of 1825 gives a still more favourable view of the general character of
College. the Institution, the benefits of which the most respectable classes of the
native community of Calcutta had evinced a disposition to secure to their children, by sending them to pay for
their education,-^ state of things ascribed principally to " the diffusion of liberal ideas, and to the confidence felt
by the parents/of the pupils to the present system of management." The number of scholars w:is stated at 200,
and it was titled that, so long as such a number, all respectably connected, "can be trained in useful knowledge
and the English language, a great improvement may be confidently anticipated in the intellectual character of the
principal inhabitants of Calcutta. "f The reports of 1827 and 1828 state that " The studies in this Institution were
natural and experimental philosophy, chemistry, mathematics, algebra, Tytler's Elements of General History,
Russell's Modern Kurope, with Milton and Shakespeare ; that the progress of the students had been satisfactory ;
that it had increased gradually, and was in the year 1828, greater than in any preceding year " — the number of
students having gradually risen to 436.J
Nor was Calcutta the only place where the Hindus evinced their desire to advance English Education among
An advanced Hindu, Joy na- their countrymen. '• When the Governor-General visited the Upper Provinces
rain Ghossal, founds an Eng- in 1814, Joyiuimin Ghossnl, an inhabitant of Benares, presented a petition to
lish School at Benares, in 1818. jjjs ijOnisl,jp. with proposals for establishing a school in the neighbourhood of
that city, and requesting that Government would receive in deposit the sum of Rs. 20,000, the legal interest of
which, together with the revenue arising from certain lands, he wished to be appropriated to the expense of the
•tutidii. The design meeting with the approbation of Government, Joynarain Ghossal was acquainted there-
with. Accordingly, in July 18J8, he founded his school, appointing to the management thereof, the Rev. D. Corrie,
Corresponding Member of the Calcutta Church Missionary Society, and a member of their Committee, and at the
lime constituting the members of that Committee trustees. "§ In this school the English, Persian, Hindustani
and Bengali languages were taught, and in April 1825, the son of the founder enhanced the endowment by a dona-
tion of Rs. 20,000.
* Printed Parliamentary Papers (1852-53) : Second Report of the Select Committee of the House of Lords on Indian Territories,
pp. 48, 49.
f Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to the Affairs of India : General, Appendix 1 ; Public (1832), p. 410.
J II., p. 437. § 16., p. 404.
COMMITTEE OF PUBLIC 1XSTI! HC TK IN AT CALCUTTA. ~2t
Thus whilst the Hindus were showing readiness, zeal, and generosity towards the spread of English Educa-
Inact' 't f the Mahome ^on amonn their countrymen, even at such an early period, the Mahomedans
dans as to English. Education, seem to have remained completely dormant, and indeed, took up a hostile
The Calcutta School-book So- attitude towards the progress of English education among them, as will be
Ciety formed in 1817. shown later on. Among other efforts which were made on behalf of educa-
tion was the foundation of the Calcutta School-book Society. " This institution had its origin in the year 1817,
and was formed with a view to the promotion of the moral and intellectual improvement of the Natives, by the
diffusion among them of useful elementary knowledge. The plan of the Society carefully excludes all means
calculated to excite religious controversy ; and its affairs are conducted by a Committee composed of English
gentlemen, Mahomedans, and Hindus, in about equal proportions. In May, 1821, the Society, having at that time
put into circulation 326,446 copies of various useful works, found its finances in so low a state as to render it
necessary to seek assistance from the Government, which assistance was immediately granted, to the extent of
Rs. 7,000. An annual grant of Rs. 6,000, in aid of the Institution, was also ordered, accompanied by the most
unreserved expression of the Government's satisfaction with the plan and object of the Society, and with the
mode in which its affairs appeared to have been conducted." *
The most significant measure adopted by Government at that period was the foundation of the Calcutta
Th r 1 tt S krit Col ' Hindu Sanskrit College, in lieu of the two Colleges in Nuddea and Tirhoot,
lege founded by Government which had been projected in Lord Minto's Minute of 1811, from which pas-
at the suggestion of Mr. H. H. sages have already been quoted in this work. " On the 21st of August, 1821,
Wilson, in 1821. ^jle Governor- General in Council having taken into consideration the state of
the projected Institutions for the advancement of Hindu Literature in Nuddea and Tirhoot, the failure of which
appearing to admit of no doubt, it was considered that the Government was relieved from the pledge given in
1811, for the establishment of those institutions. A communication from Mr. H. H. Wilson, a member of the
Benares Committee, was at the same time brought upon record, containing several reasons for abandoning the
design of forming Colleges in Nuddea and Tirhoot, and suggesting instead thereof, the foundation at the Presi-
dency of a similar Institution to that of Benares, but upon a larger scale. The necessity for European Superin-
tendence, the facility with which it might be obtained in Calcutta, the accessibility of that city to all parts of
India, together with several other reasons suggested by Mr. Wilson, determined the Governor- General in Council
to adopt the measure proposed by that gentleman, and establish in Calcutta a Hindu College similar to that at
Benares, under a Committee of Superintendence.'^
During this period the subject of education appears to have engaged special attention of the Government,
and active measures were adopted to place public instruction upon an orga-
Committee of Public Instruc- nized footing as a part of the state administration. "On the 17th July
tion appointed at Calcutta in _, . .
jaoo 1823, the Governor- General in Council took into consideration a Note or
Memorandum, 011 the subject of Education and of the improvement of the morals
of the Natives of India, which had been prepared and submitted to them by Mr. Holt Mackenzie, their Secretary
in the Territorial Department, and which is recorded on the proceedings of that date. In pursuance of suggestions
contained in the paper abovementioned, the Bengal Government resolved to form a General Committee of Public
Instruction at the Presidency, for the purpose of ascertaining the state of education in the territories under the
Bengal Presidency, and of the public institutions, designed for its promotion, and of ' considering, and from
time to time submitting to Government the suggestion of such measures as it might appear expedient to adopt
with a view to the better instruction of the people, to the introduction among them of useful knowledge,
and to the improvement of their moral character.' "J The annual sum of one lac of rupees, which by the Act of
Parliament, 53, Geo. Ill, C. 155, was appropriated to the purposes of education, was placed at the disposal
of the Committee, which from this period must be regarded as the sole organ of the Government in everything
that concerns public instruction.
Soon after the Committee had entered upon its deliberations, a most significant event occurred^ which, on the
one hand, throws light upon the condition of advancement and enlightenment
Most significant Protest by , ,e . ,6 .
enlightened Hindus, through which some of the more prominent Hindus of Bengal had arrived, in regard
Kaja Ham Mohun Roy, in 1823, to their desire to acquire a knowledge of English literature and sciences,
against expenditure of Money and, on the other hand, shows the comparative apathy of the Government
on Sanskrit Learning instead towards the introduction of the English language and literature among the
of English Education. .
people of India. Just as the Hindus of Calcutta were foremost in founding
* Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to the Affairs of India : Oeneral, Appendix 1 ; Public (18321, p. 405.
t 16., p. 406. J It,., p. 408.
•_> FNdl.ISH EDUCATION IS INDIA.
tin- ViJi/nlii/'i, or Anglo-Indian College, in 1816, for educating their sons in the English language, literature and
sciences, so tlu-v were now foremost in protesting against the measures which the Government was then adopting
to devote further funds to the promotion of Sanskrit learning in the Sanskrit College at Calcutta. " In December
I -.':!, (Raja) Ram Mohun Roy addressed the Governor-General, in the name of his countrymen, expressing an opinion
adverse to the supposed object of the British Government, in the foundation of this College in Calcutta, which he
considered as calculated only to perpetuate a species of literature, which was, in his judgment, and that of those
whom he represented, utterly worthless, and recommending, instead thereof, the employment of Knropeans of
diameter to instruct the Natives of India in mathematics, natural philosophy, chemistry, anatomy, and those
other useful sciences, which the nations of Europe had carried to a pitch of perfection, that had raised them above
tin- inhabitants of other parts of the world. (Raja) Ram Mohun Roy particularly adverted to that period in the
history of Great Britain, when Lord Bacon is considered, as having by his writings, set aside the legendary lore of
the dark ages, and introduced true science in its stead."*
Raja Ram Mohun Roy was a distinguished patriot, having the improvement of his countrymen sincerely at
heart, and was sufficiently well acquainted, both with Oriental and European
Bishop Heber's opinion of ]iterature to be abie to form a C0rrect opinion of their relative value. Speak-
Raja Ham Mohun Roy.
ing of him, and of his address to Lord Amherst, against Oriental studies,
Bishop Heber, in a letter to Sir Wilmot Harton, dated March, 1824, published in' the Appendix, to his Journal, said :
•• Rum Mohun Roy, a learned Native, who has sometimes been called, though, I fear, without reason, a Christian,
remonstrated against this system last year, in a paper which he sent me to be put into Lord Amherst's hands, and
which, for its good English, good sense, and forcible arguments, is a real curiosity, as coming from an Asiatic."
The Memorial fully deserves the eulogium bestowed on it by Bishop Heber, and, as it is an important document,
throwing light upon the mode of thought and educational aims, it may be quoted here with advantage, in extenso.
The Memorial runs thus : —
" To His Excellency the Right Honourable Lord Amherst, Governor-General in Council.
" MY LORD,
Humbly reluctant as the natives of India are to obtrude upon the notice of Government the sentiments
they entertain on any public measure, there are circumstances when silence would be carrying this respectful feel-
Raja Ram Mohun Roy's Me- *n= *° Cu'pabh3 excess. The present rulers of India, coming from a distance
morial, in favour of English of many thousand miles, to govern a people whose language, literature,
Education, presented to Lord manners, customs, and ideas, are almost entirely new and strange to them,
cannot easily become so intimately acquainted with their real circumstances
as the natives of the country are themselves. • We should, therefore, be guilty of a gross dereliction of duty to
ourselves, and afford our rulers just ground of complaint at our apathy, did we omit, on occasions of importance
like the present, to supply them with such accurate information as might enable them to devise and adopt
measures calculated to be beneficial to the country, and thus second, by our local knowledge and experience, their
declared benevolent intentions for its improvements.
" The establishment of a new Sanskrit School in Calcutta evinces the laudable desire of Government to im-
prove the natives of India by education, — a blessing for which they must ever be grateful ; and every well-wisher of
the human race must be desirous that the efforts made to promote it should be guided by the most enlightened
principles, so that the stream of intelligence may flow in the most useful channels.
" When this seminary of learning was proposed, we understood that the Government in England had ordered
a considerable sum of money to be annually devoted to the instruction of its Indian subjects. We were filled with
•.ruiiio hopes that this sum would be laid out in employing European gentlemen of talents and education to
instruct the natives of India in mathematics, natural philosophy, chemistry, anatomy, and other useful sciences,
which the nations of Europe have carried to a degree of perfection that has raised them above the inhabitants of
other parts of the world.
'• While we looked forward with pleasing hope to the dawn of knowledge thus promised to the rising gene-
ration, our hearts were filled with mingled feelings of delight and gratitude ; we already offered up thanks to
Providence for inspiring the most generous and enlightened nations of the West with the glorious ambition of
planting in Asia the arts and sciences of modern Europe.
" We find that the Government are establishing a Sanskrit School under Hindu Pundits, to impart such
knowledge as is already current in India. This seminary (similar in character to those which existed in Europe
* Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to the Affairs of India: General, Appedix 1 ; Public (1832), p. 436.
RAJA RAM MOHUN ROt's MEMORIAL. 29
before the time of Lord Bacon) can only be expected to load the minds of youth with grammatical niceties and
metaphysical distinctions, of little or no practical use t'o the possessors or to Society. The pupils will there acquire
what was known two thousand years ago, with the addition of vain and empty subtilties since produced by
speculative men, such as is already commonly taught in all parts of India.
" The Sanskrit language, so difficult that almost a lifetime is necessary for its acquisition, is well-known to
have been for ages a lamentable check on the diffusion of knowledge ; and the learning concealed under this
almost impervious veil, is far from sufficient to reward the labour of acquiring it. But if it were thought neces-
sary to perpetuate this language for the sake of the portion of valuable information it contains, this might be
much more easily accomplished by other means than the establishment of a new Sanskrit College ; for there have
been always, and are now, numerous professors of Sanskrit in the different parts of the country, engaged in teaching
this language as well as the other branches of literature which are to be the object of the new Seminary. There-
fore, their more diligent cultivation, if desirable, would be effectually promoted by holding out premiums, and grant-
ing certain allowances to their most eminent professors, who have already undertaken, on their own account, to teach
them, and,would by such rewards be stimulated to still greater exertions.
" From these considerations, as the sum set apart for the instruction of the natives of India, was intended
by the Government in England for the improvement of its Indian subjects, I beg leave to state, with due deference
to your Lordship's exalted situation, that if the plan now adopted be followed, it will completely defeat the
object proposed ; since no improvement can be expected from inducing young men to consume a dozen of years
of the most valuable period of their lives in acquiring the niceties of Byakaran, or Sanskrit grammar. For in-
stance, in learning to discuss such points as the following : khad, signifying to eat, khadut-i, he, or she, or it eats ;
query, whether does khaduti, taken as a whole, convey the meaning he, she, or it eats, or are separate parts of this
meaning conveyed by distinctions of the words ? As if, in the English language, it were asked, how much mean-
ing is there in the eat, how much in the s ? and is the whole meaning of the word conveyed by these two portions
of it distinctly, or by them taken jointly ?
" Neither can much improvement arise from such speculations as the following, which are the themes suggested
by the Vedant : — In what manner is the soul absorbed into the Deity ? What relation does it bear to the divine
essence ? Nor will youths be fitted to be better members of Society by the Vedantic doctrines, which teach them
to believe that all visible things have no real existence ; that as father, brother, Ac., have no actual entity, they con-
sequently deserve no real affection, and, therefore, the sooner we escape from them, and leave the world, the better.
Again, no essential benefit can be derived by the student of the Mimangsa, from knowing what it is that makes the
killer of a goat sinless on pronouncing certain passages of the Vedant, and what is the real nature and operative
influence of passages of the Vedas, &c.
" The student of the Nyayushastra cannot be said to have improved his mind after he has learned from it into
how many ideal classes the objects in the Universe are divided, and what speculative relation the soul bears to the
body, the body to the soul, the eye to the ear, &c.
" In order to enable your Lordship to appreciate the utility of encouraging such imaginary learning as above
characterized, I beg your Lordship will be pleased to compare the state of science and literature in Europe before
the time of Lord Bacan with the progress of knowledge made since he wrote.
" If it had been intended to keep the British nation in ignorance of real knowledge, the Baconian philosophy
would not have been allowed to displace the system of the school-men, which was the best calculated to perpetuate
ignorance. In the same manner the Sanskrit system of education would be the best calculated to keep this country
in darkness, if such had been the policy of the British Legislature. But as the improvement of the native population
is the object of the Government, it will consequently promote a more liberal and enlightened system of instruction ;
embracing mathematics, natural philosophy, chemistry, anatomy, with other useful sciences, which may be accom-
plished with the sum proposed, by employing a few gentlemen of talents and learning, educated in Europe, and
providing a College furnished with the necessary books, instruments, and other apparatus.
" In representing this subject to your Lordship, I conceive myself discharging a solemn duty which I owe to
my countrymen, and also to that enlightened sovereign and legislature which have extended their benevolent care
to this distant land, actuated by a desire to improve its inhabitants, and, therefore, humbly trust you will excuse
the liberty I have taken in thus expressing my sentiments to your Lordship.
" I have the honour, &c.,
(Signed) RAM MOHUN ROT."*
* Trevelyan, on the Education of the People of India, pp. 65-71.
30 nos ix ixniA.
The Government of Bengal regarded this letter as having been penned under a somewhat erroneous im-
pression respecting the views of Government in the establishment of the
The Memorial disregarded Sanskrit College, but forwarded the lette'r to the Committee of Public In-
by Government.
struction for their information. The fate it met with may be conjectured from
the spirit which then animated that body. The Memorial remained unanswered, and the design of founding a new
Sanskrit Cnlleire was carried into execution.
The question as to the nature of the studies to be encouraged in India, appears to have been the subject of
Views of the Court of Di- consideration by the Court of Directors, on an occasion when the Bengal
rectors as to the nature of tha Government had reported certain measures adopted by it for the reform of
studies, in their Despatch of the existing Oriental Colleges, and the establishment of the new Sanskrit
18th February, 1824. _ College, at Calcutta. The Despatch* of the Court of Directors to the
lieipj-al (internment, dated the 18th February, 1.^24, contains observations, as follows : —
" The ends proposed in the institution of the Hindoo College, and the same maybe affirmed of the Mahomedan.
were two : the first, to make a favourable impression, by our encouragement
Useful knowledge to be en- of thpir ]ite,.ature upon the minds of the Natives ; and the second, to promote
couraged.
useful learning. You acknowledge that if the plan has had any effect of the
former kind, it has had none of the latter ; and you add, that 'it must be feared that the discredit attaching to such
lure has gone far to destroy the influence which the liberality of the endowment would otherwise have had.'
" Wo have from time to time been assured that these Colleges, though they had not till then been useful.
were, in consequence of proposed arrangements, just about to become so; and we have received from you a similar
prediction on the present occasion.
" We are by no means sanguine in our expectation that the slight reforms which you have proposed to intro-
duce will be followed by much improvement ; and we agree with you in certain doubts, whether a greater degree
of activity, even if it were produced, on the part of the masters, would, in present circumstances, be attended
with the most desirable results.
"With respect to the sciences, it is worse than a waste of time to employ persons either to teach or to learn
them, in the state in which they are found in the Oriental books. As far as
Oriental sciences useless. , . . , , , . . „ .
any historical documents may be found in the Oriental languages, what is
desirable is, that they should be translated, and this, it is evident, will best be accomplished by Europeans, who have
acquired the requisite knowledge. Beyond these branches, what remains in Oriental literature is poetry, but it
has never been thought necessary to establish Colleges for the cultivation of poetry ; nor is it certain that this
would lie the most effectual expedient for the attainment of the end. In the meantime, we wish you to be fully
apprized of our zeal for the progress and improvement of education among the Natives of India, and of our will-
ingness to make considerable sacrifices to that important end, if proper means for the attainment of it could be
pointed out to us. Hut we apprehend that the plan of the institutions, to the improvement of which our attention
,v directed, was originally and fundamentally erroneous. The great end should not have been to teach Hindoo
learning, or Mahomedan learning, but useful learning. No doubt, in teaching useful learning to the Hindoos or
Maliomedans, Hindoo media or Mahomedan media, as far as they were found most effectual, would have been proper
to be employed, and Hindoo and Mahomedan prejudices would have needed to be consulted, while every thing
which was useful in Hindoo or Mahomedan literature, it "would have been proper to retain ; nor would there have
lieen anv insuperable' difficulty in introducing, under these reservations, a system of instruction, from which great
ad vii' have been derived. In professing, on the other hand, to establish seminaries for the purpose of
Hindoo, or men' Mahomedan literature, you bound yourselves to teach a great deal of what was fri-
volous, not a little of what was purely mischievous, and a small remainder, indeed, in which utility was in any way
nied. We tliink that you have taken, upon the whole, a rational view of what is best to be done. In the
institutions which exist on a particular footing, alterations should not be introduced more rapidly than a due regard
.,ting interests and feelings will dictate, at the same time, that incessant endeavours should be used to super-
\\hat is useless or worse, in the present course of study, by what your better knowledge will recommend. "f
The letter of the Court of Directors, from which these extracts have been taken, was communicated by the
Hentral (lovernment to the Committee of Public Instruction, who in reply, submitted some observations, which
may be quoted here, as showing the views then entertained by them in regard to the principles and nature
• The Despatch is said to hare been drafted by Mr. Jamea Mill, the philosophical historian of British India, who was then
employed in the India Office.
t Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to the Affairs of India: General, Appendix 1 ; Public (1832), p 43G, also at p. 488.
COLLEGKS FOUNDED AT AGRA AND DELHI. '.', 1
of the education entrusted to their supervision and control. They defend their views in a letter,* dated tlic
18th August, 1824, addressed to Lord Ambers t, Governor-General in Council.
Observations on the above
Despatch by the Committee of They observe :-
Public Instruction, in their " In the first place, without denying that the object of introducing Euro-
letter to Government, dated pean literature and science may have been somewhat too long overlooked, it
may be questioned whether the Government could originally have founded
any other seminaries than those which it actually established, viz,, the Madressa, to teach Mahomedan literature
and law, and the Benares College, to teach Sanscrit literature and Hindoo law. Those Colleges were founded for
Mahoniedans and Hindoos, respectively, and would have been of little value to either, if they had proposed to teach
what neither were disposed to learn. It may be added — -What else had the Government to offer on any extensive
scale ? What means existed of communicating anything but Mahomedan and Hindoo literature, either by teachers
or books ? It was, therefore, a case of necessity ; and almost all that the Government, in instituting a seminary
for the higher classes, could give, or the people would accept, through such a channel, was Oriental literature,
Mahomedan or Hindoo. Instruction in the English language and literature could have been attempted only on the
most limited scale, and as they could not, we apprehand, have been at all introduced into seminaries designed for
the general instruction of the educated and influential classes of the Natives, the success of the attempt may well
be doubted. *********
" In proposing the improvement of men's minds, it is first necessary to secure their conviction that such
improvement is desirable. Now, however satisfied we may feel that the Native subjects of this Government
stand in need of improved instruction, yet every one in the habit of communicating with both the learned and
unlearned classes, must be well aware that they continue to hold European literature and science in very slight
estimation. A knowledge of English, for the purpose of gaining a livelihood is, to a certain extent, a popular
attainment ; and a few of the Natives employed by Europeans, accustomed to an intimate intercourse with their
masters, may perceive that their countrymen have something in the way of practical science to learn. These impres-
sions, however, are still very partial, and the Maulavi and Pundit, satisfied with his own learning, is little inqui-
sitive as to anything beyond it, and is not disposed to regard the literature and science of the West as worth
the labour of attainment. As long as this is the case, and we cannot anticipate the very near extinction of such
prejudice, any attempt to enforce an acknowledgment of the superiority of intellectual produce amongst the Natives
of the West, could only create dissatisfaction, and would deter those whose improvement it is most important to
promote, as the best means of securing a more general amelioration, the members of the literary classes, from
availing themselves of the beneficence of the Government, by placing themselves within the reach of instruction.
# # * * * * *( * * * *
"Without wishing to enhance the value of Oriental studies beyond a fair and just standard, we must beg
further permission to state, that in our judgment the Honourable Court has been led to form an estimate of their
extent and merits not strictly accurate. The Honourable Court are pleased to observe, that ' it is worse than
a waste of time ' to employ persons either to teach or learn the sciences, in the state in which they are found in
Oriental books. This position is of so comprehensive a nature, that it obviously requires a considerable modifi-
cation, and the different branches of science intended to be included in it, must be particularised, before a correct
appreciation can be formed of their absolute and comparative value. The metaphysical sciences, as found in
Sanskrit and Arabic writings, are, we believe, fully as worthy of being studied in those languages as in any other.
The Arithmetic and Algebra of the Hindoos lead to the same results, and are grounded on the same principles
as those of Europe ; and in the Madressa, the elements of mathametical sciences which are taught, are those of
Euclid ; law, a principal object of study in all the institutions, is one of vital importance to the good government
of the country, and language is the ground-work upon which all future improvements must materially depend.
To diffuse a knowledge of these things, language and law especially, cannot therefore be considered a waste of
time ; and, with unfeigned deference to the Honourable Court, we most respectfully bring to their more deliberate
attention, that in the stated estimate of the value of the Oriental sciences, several important branches appear to
have escaped their consideration." f
Whilst holding these views, the first measures of the Committee of Public Instruction were to complete the
Measures adopted by Com- organization of the Sanskrit College, then lately established by the Govern-
mittee of Public . Instruction. mont at Calcutta, to take under their patronage and greatly to improve the
Aera College founded in 1823, _,. . , , T ,. „ ,, , , , -, , •, •.
d C lleee at Delhi in 1829 Vidyalaya or Anglo-Indian College, which, as has already been stated, had been
* Printed Parliamentary Papers : Sixth Report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons on Indian Territories (1853),
pp. 18-20. t Ib; PP- 18-20.
32 ENfiUSH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
founded so far back as 1816, by the voluntary contributions of the Hindoo gentry for the education of their youth
in English literature and science. The Committee also founded two entirely new Colleges, one at Agra in 1823,
and another about the same time at Delhi, for the cultivation of Oriental literature. Its further measures were
" to commence the printing of Sanskrit and Arabic books on a great scale, besides liberally encouraging such
undertakings by others ; and to employ an accomplished Oriental scholar in translating European scientific works
into Arabic, upon which undertaking large sums were subsequently expended. English classes were afterwards
established in connection with the Mahomedan and Sanskrit Colleges at Calcutta, the Sanskrit College at Benares,
and the Agra College ; and a separate institution was founded at Delhi, in 1829, for the cultivation of Western
learning, in compliance with the urgent solicitation of the authorities at that place."*
At this stage it is important to consider the exact nature of the educational policy which the Court of Direc-
Pirst indications of the Policy *ors had in view. It has already been shown, that in their earlier Despatches
of English. Education in the no stress was laid upon the promulgation of English education among the
Court of Directors' Despatch, ,mtives of India. Almost the first indication of their change of policy in
dated 29th September. 1830. , -• ™ v . j •• • , i, t j •
favour of English education is to be found in a letter addressed by them to
the Governor-General in Council of Bengal, dated the 29th September 1830, from which the following extracts are
sulliciently important to be quoted. After a review of the state of the several Colleges which had been placed
under the supervision and control of the Committee of Public Instruction, the letter goes on to say : —
" Such having been the success of the seminaries for native education already established, and the proficiency
as well as the number of the students at each, receiving every year a considerable increase, those institutions must
now annually send forth a number of students, who have learned all which the Colleges where they were educated
are adequate, on their present footing, to teach ; and it is therefore of the greatest importance, that to these and to
others of the native youth, the means should be afforded of cultivating the English language and literature, and
acquiring a knowledge of European science, and a familiarity with European ideas, in a higher degree than has yet
lieen within their power. The documents now under review afford most gratifying proofs that a scheme of this ex-
tended nature would now be warmly welcomed by the higher ranks of the Natives under your Government. Of
the spirit which prevails in the Lower Provinces, the establishment and success of the Anglo- Indian College is
sufficient evidence. And we learn with extreme pleasure the opinion of the General Committee of Public Instruc-
tion, partly founded on , the personal observation and inquiries of several of their members, that ' the time has
arrived when English tuition will be widely acceptable to the Natives in the Upper Provinces.'
" Your attention has been anxiously directed to the means of accomplishing this object, and, in particular,
to the comparative expediency of establishing separate English colleges, or of enlarging the plan of the existing
institutions, so as to render them adequate to that more extensive purpose. You have transmitted to us several
most interesting communications from the General Committee of Public Instruction, and from the Local Com-
mittee of the Delhi College, on this question.
" Both the Committees give a decided preference to the plan of establishing separate Colleges for the study
of English, and for the cultivation of European knowledge, through the
fOF the medium of the EnSlish language. They urge, that a thorough knowledge
of English can only be acquired by Natives through a course of study, begin-
ning early in life and continued for many years ; that the knowledge of our language and of European science,
which could be acquired in a course of education mainly directed to other objects, would not contribute in any
high degree to the improvement of the native character and intellect, while the native languages and literature
may be adequately pursued, as a subordinate branch of education, in an English college ; and that anything
lieyond the mere elements of European knowledge is most advantageously taught through the European languages,
with the additional recommendation, that, when so taught, it comes into less direct collision with the sacred books
of the Mahomedans and Hindoos.
" By these arguments you have been convinced, and you have accordingly authorized the establishment of an
English college at Delhi, and another at Benares. The project of establishing one at Calcutta seems to have been
taeitly abandoned ; the Anglo-Indian College, under its present superintendence, being found capable of answering
the {inr|H
" While we attach much more importance than is attached by the two Committees, to the amount of useful
instruction which can be communicated to the Natives, through their own languages, we fully concur with them in
thinking it highly advisable to enable and encourage a lai-ge number of the Natives to acquire a thorough know-
ledge of English ; being convinced that the higher tone and better spirit of European literature, can produce their
* Trevelyan, on the Education of the People of India, pp. 3, 4.
ENGLISH TO BE THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGE. 33
full effect only on those who become familiar with them in the original languages. While, too, we agree with the
Committee that the higher branches of science may be more advantageously studied in the languages of Europe,
than in translations into the Oriental tongues, it is also to be considered that the fittest persons for translating
English scientific books, or for putting their substance into a shape adapted to Asiatic students, are Natives who
have studied profoundly the original works.
" On these grounds we concur with you in thinking it desirable that the English course of education should be
kept separate from the course of Oriental study at the native Colleges, and should be attended for the most part
by a different set of students. This, however, does not necessarily imply that the two courses of study should be
prosecuted in two separate institutions. At the Agra College the Persian and the Hindoo branches are perfectly
distinct, and though some of the students are attached to both departments, the greater number confine themselves
to one or the other. If an English department were similarly attached to that College, or to the College at Delhi,
the English language and literature might be taught classically, and the sciences might be taught in English, not-
withstanding that studies of another character were pursued within the same walls. * * * * *
" While we thus approve and sanction the measures which you propose for diffusing a knowledge of the Eng-
lish language, and the study of European science through its medium, we
English Science may be en- nmst ftt the game time t Qn ,d inst a disposition Of wllic]l
couraged by translations.
we perceive some traces in the (general Committee, and still more in the local
Committee of Delhi, to underrate the importance of what may be done to spread useful knowledge among the
Natives through the medium of books and oral instruction in their own languages. That more complete education
which is to commence by a thorough study of the English language, can be placed within the reach of a very small
proportion of the Natives of India ; but intelligent Natives who have been thus educated, may, as teachers in
colleges and schools, or as the writers or translators of useful books, contribute in an eminent degree to the more
general extension among their countrymen of a portion of the acquirements which they have themselves gained,
and may communicate in some degree to the native literature, and to the minds of the native community, that im-
proved spirit which it is to be hoped they will themselves have imbibed from the influence of European ideas and
sentiments. You should cause it to be generally known that every qualified Native who will zealously devote him-
self to this task, will be held in high honour by you ; that every assistance and encouragement, pecuniary or other-
wise, which the case may require, will be liberally afforded ; and that no service which it is in the power of a Native
to render to the British Government, will be more highly acceptable, "f *
* * * * * •.***••*•
" In the meantime we wish you to be fully assured, not only of our anxiety that the judicial offices to which
Natives are at present eligible should be properly filled, but of our earnest
Natives to be educated for .
p , ,. „ . wish and hope to see them qualified tor situations 01 higher importance and
trust. There is no point of view in which we look with greater interest at th
exertions you are now making for the instruction of the Natives, than as being calculated to raise up a class of
persons qualified, by their intelligence and morality, for high employments in the Civil Administration of India. As
the means of bringing about this most desirable object, we rely chiefly on their becoming, through a familiarity
with European literature and science, imbued with the ideas and feelings of civilized Europe, on the general cultiva-
tion of their understandings, and specifically on their instruction on the principles of morals and general jurispru-
dence. We wish you to consider this as our deliberate view of the scope and end to which all our endeavours with
respect to the education of the Natives should refer. And the active spirit of benevolence, guided by judgment,
which has hitherto characterized your exertions, assures us of your ready and zealous co-operation towards an end
which we have so deeply at heart.
" With a view to give the Natives an additional motive to the acquisition of the English language, you have it
in contemplation gradually to introduce English as the language of public
English to be gradually business in all its departments ; and you have determined to begin at once by
adopted in official business. ... . , ,. ,T . ,-, .
adopting the practice of corresponding 111 English with all JNative Princes or
persons of rank who are known to understand that language, or to have persons about them who understand it.
From the meditated change in the language of public business, including judicial proceedings, you anticipate
several collateral advantages, the principal of which is, that the judge, or other European officer, being thoroughly
acquainted with the language in which the proceedings are held, will be, and appear to be, less dependent upon the
Natives by whom he is surrounded, and those Natives will, in consequence, enjoy fewer opportunities of bribery or
other undue emolument.
f Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to the Affairs of India : General, Appendix I ; Public (1832), pp. 49i, 493.
5
;', I ENGLISH EDUCATION IN IXPIA.
''If the question were solely between retaining the Persian as the language of public business and replacing it
by the English, the change would not be primd fane decidedly objectionable, and we should willingly rely upon
your judgment and superior local knowledge as a security that its advantages and inconveniences would be duly
weighed. But if any change be made in the existing practice, it is deserving of great consideration, whether that
change ought not rather to be the adoption of the Vernacular language than of our own, as the language at least of
judicial proceedings.
" It is highly important that justice should be administered in a language familiar to the judge, but it is of
no less importance that it should be administered in a language familiar to the
Justice to be administered H . parties to their Vakeels, and to the people at large ; and it is easier for
in the language of the people.
the judge to acquire the language 01 the people than tor the people to acquire
the language of the judge. You are indeed partly influenced by a desire to render this last acquirement more
common ; but the poorer classes, who are the parties concerned in the great majority of the cases which come
before our courts, cannot be expected to learn a foreign language, and we, therefore, are of opinion, that at least
the proceedings of the Courts of Justice should be excepted from the practice which yon propose gradually to in-
troduce, and be conducted in the Vernacular language of the particular zillah, or district, unless, upon considera-
tion, you should see good reasons for adhering to the present practice."*
While such was the policy in regard to education laid down by the Court of Directors in their Despatch
of the 29th September, 1830, from which the above extracts have been quoted,
Principles of their proceed- . , . . .
'nes explained by the Com- jt 1S important to consider the principles which guided the proceedings of the
mittee of Public Instruction Committee of Public Instruction since its establishment under the Governor-
in their report in December, General's Resolution of 17th July, 1823. Those principles were explained
by the Committee in their printed report dated in December, 1831, and the
following extracts from it may be quoted as throwing light upon one important stage of the progress of education
in India. The Report of the Committee runs thus : —
" The introduction of useful knowledge is the great object which they have proposed as the end of the
measures adopted or recommended by them, keeping in view the necessity of consulting the feelings and con-
ciliating the confidence of those for whose advantage their measures are designed.
" The Committee has, therefore, continued to encourage the acquirement of the native literature of both
Mahomedans and Hindoos, in the institutions which they found established for these purposes, as the Madrissa of
Calcutta and Sanskrit College of Benares. They have also endeavoured to promote the activity of similar estab-
lishments, of which local considerations dictated the formation, as the Sanskrit College of Calcutta and the
Colleges of Agra and Delhi, as it is to such alone, even in the present day, that the influential and learned
classes, those who are by birthright or profession teachers and expounders of literature, law, and religion, Mau-
lavis and Pundits, willingly resort.
" In the absence of their natural patrons, the rich and powerful of their own creeds, the Committee have
felt it incumbent upon them to contribute to the support of the learned classes of India, by literary endowments,
which provide, not only directly for a certain number, but indirectly for many more, who derive from collegiate
acquirements, a consideration and subsistence amongst their countrymen. As far also, as Mahomedan and Hindoo
law are concerned, an avenue is thus opened for them to public employment, and the State is provided with a
supply of able servants and valuable subjects ; for there is no doubt that, imperfect as Oriental learning may
be in many respects, yet the higher the degree of the attainments even in it, possessed by any Native, the more
intelligent and liberal he will prove, and the better qualified to appreciate the acts and designs of the Government.
"But whilst every reasonable encouragement is given to indigenous native education, no opportunity has been
omitted by the Committee of improving its quality and adding to its value. In all the Colleges the superin-
tendence is European, and this circumstance is of itself an evidence and a cause of very important amelioration.
.Madrissa of Calcutta, and the Hindoo College of Benares, institutions of earlier days, European superintendence
was l.ir many years strenuously and successfully resisted. This opposition has long ceased. The consequences
HIV a s\ Mcmatic course of study, diligent and regular habits, and an impartial appreciation of merits, which no
in>t it nt ion li'li to Native superintendence alone has ever been known to maintain.
l'he plan of study adopted in the Colleges is, in general, an improvement upon the Native mode, and is
to convey a well-founded knowledge of the languages studied, with a wider range of acquirement than
is common, and to effect tliis in the least possible time. Agreeably to the Native mode of instruction, — for instance,
a Hindoo or Mahomedan lawyer devotes the best years of his life to the acquirement of law alone, and is very
• Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to the Affairs of India : General, Appendix I; Public (1832), p. 497.
EARLY EDUCATIONAL MEASURES IN MADRAS. 35
tnperfectly acquainted with the language which treats of the subject of his studies. In the Madrissa and Sanskrit
College the first part of the course is now calculated to form a really good Arabic and Sanskrit scholar, and a
competent knowledge of law is then acquired, with comparative facility, and contemporaneously with other branches
of Hindoo or Mahomedan learning.
" Again, the improvements effected have not been limited to a reformation in the course and scope of native
study ; but whenever opportunity has favoured, new and better instruction has been grafted upon the original plan.
Thus in the Madrissa, Euclid has been long studied, and with considerable advantage : European anatomy has
also been introduced. In the Sanskrit College of Calcutta, European anatomy and medicine have nearly supplant-
ed the native systems. At Agra and at Delhi the elements of geography and astronomy, and mathematics, are also
part of the College course. To the Madrissa, the Sanskrit College of Calcutta, and the Agra College, also, English
classes are attached, whilst at Delhi and Benares distinct schools have been formed for the dissemination of the
English language. Without offering therefore any violence to native prejudices, and whilst giving liberal en-
couragement to purely native education, the principle of connecting it with the introduction of real knowledge has
never been lost sight of, and the foundation has been laid of great and beneficial change in the minds of those who,
by their character and profession, direct and influence the intellect of Hindustan.
" In addition to the measures adopted for the diffusion of English in the provinces, and which are yet only in
their infancy, the encouragement of the Vidyalaya, or Hindoo College of
Spread of English, ideas. „ , ,, ,, , . ,. , . * a. n •,, .
Calcutta, has always been one ot the chiet objects or the Committee s atten-
tion. The consequence has surpassed expectation. A command of the English language, and a familiarity with
its literature and science have been acquired to an extent rarely equalled by any schools in Europe. A taste
for English has been widely disseminated, and independent schools, conducted by young men reared in the Vidyalaya,
are springing up in every direction. The moral effect has been equally remarkable, and an impatience of the
restrictions of Hinduism, and a disregard of its ceremonies are openly avowed by many young men of respectable
birth and talents, and entertained by many more who outwardly conform to the practices of their countrymen.
Another generation will probably witness a very material alteration in the notions and feelings of the educated
classes of the Hindoo community of Calcutta." *
CHAPTER VII.
EAELY MEASURES FOR EDUCATION IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY.— SIR THOMAS
MUNRO'S MINUTES ON EDUCATION, IN 1822 AND 1826.— COMMITTEE OF
PUBLIC INSTRUCTION APPOINTED IN MADRAS IN 1826.
It will not be out of place here to take a brief survey of what had in the meantime been done in the Presi-
dencies of Madras and Bombay, in regard to the education of the Natives of those territories.
In the Presidency of Madras it appears that from a very early period, " the Protestant Mission, under the pa-
tronage of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, had schools at their
Early Educational Measures several stati of Madras, Cuddalore, Tanjore and Trichinopoli, in which
in Madras. . .
they instructed the Natives, and in aid of which they obtained occasional grants
from the Local Governments, and permission from the Court of Directors to receive from the Society in England
various supplies free of freight. In 1787 the Court of Directors authorized a permanent annual grant
towards the support of three schools, which had been established with the sanction of the respective Rajas, at Tan-
jore, Ramenedaporam and Shevagunga, of 250 pagodas each. These schools were under the direction of Mr.
Swartz. The Court further directed that a similar allowance should be granted to any other schools which might
be opened for the same purpose." f Accordingly, a Protestant School was opened at Combaconum, and in January
1812, a Sunday School was established at St. Thomas' Mount, at the suggestion and under the direction of the
Military Chaplain at that cantonment, and by the voluntary contributions of several Europeans of the Presidency.
The object of this school was to afford elementary instruction to the half-caste and native children of the military
and others resident there. In 1817 and 1818, the Reverend Mr. Hough, Chaplain at Palamcottah, established a Free
* Quoted in Trevelyan, On the Education of the People of India, pp. 4-9.
t Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to the Affairs of India: General, Appendix I ; Public (1832), p. 412.
36 ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
School there, and another at Tinnevelly, under the auspices of the Madras Corresponding Committee of the Church
Missionary Society, for the instruction of native youth in reading, writing, arithmetic, and the elements of English
grammar, but these were not supported by the Government.
No systematic effort, however, appears to have been made in Madras by the Government till Sir Thomas Munro,
Sir Thomas Munro's Minutes Governor of the Presidency, wrote a Minute * On the subject, on the 25th June
on Education, d;i ted 25th June 1822, recommending, as an object of interest and importance, that the best infor-
1822, and 10th March 1826. mation should be obtained of the actual state of education in its various branches
among the native inhabitants of the provinces under the Madras Government. A Circular Letter was accordingly
addressed to the several Collectors, requiring them to furnish information upon certain specified points, and on the
10th March, 1826, Sir Thomas Munro recorded another Minute t reviewing the information which had thus been col-
lected, and some passages may be quoted from it, as showing the educational condition of the people at that time, and
the nature of the measures which that eminent statesman proposed for the progress of education. He observed :—
" The state of education here exhibited, low as it is compared with that of our own country, is higher than
it was in most European countries at no very distant period. It has no doubt
Low state of Education in been better in earlier timeg . but for the iast century it does not appear to
have undergone any other change than what arose from the number of schools
diminishing in one place and increasing in another in consequence of the shifting of the population, from war,
and other causes. The great number of schools has been supposed to contribute to the keeping of education in a low
state, because it does not give a sufficient number of scholars to secure the service of able teachers. The monthly
rate paid by each scholar is from four, to six or eight annas. Teachers, in general, do not earn more than six
or seven rupees monthly, which is not an allowance sufficient to induce men properly qualified to follow the
profession. It may also be said that the general ignorance of the teachers themselves is one cause why none of
them draw a large body of scholars together; but the main causes of the low state of education are the little
encouragement which it receives, from there being but little demand for it, and the poverty of the people.
" These difficulties may be gradually surmounted : the hindrance which is given to education by the poverty of
the people, may in a great degree, be removed by the endowment of schools
Endowment of Schools by througjlout ^ COUntry by Government, and the want of encouragement will be
remedied by good education being rendered more easy and general, and by the
preference which will naturally be given to well-educated men in all public offices. No progress, however, can be
made without a body of better- instructed teachers than we have at present ; but such a body cannot be had with-
out an income sufficient to afford a comfortable livelihood to each individual belonging to it ; a moderate allowance
should, therefore, be secured to them by Government, sufficient to place them above want ; the rest should be
derived from their own industry. If they are superior, both in knowledge and diligence, to the common village
schoolmasters, scholars will flock to them and augment their income.
Whatever expense Government may incur in the education of the people, will be amply repaid by the improvement
of the country ; for the general diffusion of knowledge is inseparably followed by more orderly habits, by increasing
industry, by a taste for the comforts of life, by exertion to acquire them, and by the growing prosperity of the
people. It will be advisable to appoint a Committee of Public Instruction, in order to superintend the establishing
of the public schools ; to fix on the places most proper for them, and the books to be used in them ; to ascertain in
what manner the instruction of the Natives may be best promoted, and to report to Government the result of their
inquiries on this important subject."J
Sir Thomas Munro's views were accepted by the Madras Council, with very slight modifications, and a Commit-
Committee of Public Instruc- *ee °^ P^lic Instruction was appointed at Madras, and the members were
tion, appointed in Madras, informed that the object of their appointment was the general improvement
1826. of the education of the people in the territories subject to Fort St. George.
They were directed to acquaint themselves fully with its actual state, and to consider and to report to Government,
from time to time, the results of their enquiries and deliberations respecting the best means of improving it. They
were also informed that it was intended to commit to them the duty of directing and superintending the conduct of
such measures as might be deemed proper to adopt with reference to that great object. Detailed instructions were
given to them, founded on the suggestions contained in the Minute by Sir Thomas Munro, and nearly in the terms
of that Minute, and the Committee submitted its preliminary report on the ]6th May 1826. A School-Book Society
was also established in Madras, the constitution of which was similar to that at Calcutta. §
* Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to the Affairs of India : General, Appendix I j Public (1832), p. 500.
t Ib., pp. 506, 507. J It,., pp. 506, 507. § /!>., p. 417.
ENCOURAGEMENT TO HIGH EDUCATION FOR PUBLIC SERVICE. 37
The measures adopted by the Government of Madras, and especially the appointment of the Committee of
, , „ Public Instruction, were approved by the Court of Directors, but the Commit-
Approval by the Court of
Directors • their Despatch of *ee limited its efforts to primary or elementary education. The Court of
the 29th September, 1830, asto Directors, however, in a Despatch, dated the 29th September, 1830, communi-
English Education. cated important instructions to the Government of Madras, and the following
passages may be quoted from it, as showing the improvement which the Educational Policy had undergone in favour
of higher education of the English type : —
" By the measures originally contemplated by your Government, no provision was made for the instruction of
Higher branches of Know- anJ portion of the Natives in the higher branches of knowledge. A further
ledge to be encouraged for extension of the elementary education which already existed, and an
Public Service. improvement of its quality, by the multiplication and diffusion of useful
books in the native languages, was all that was then aimed at. It was, indeed, proposed to establish at the Presi-
dency, a central school for the education of teachers ; but the teachers were to be instructed only in those elementary
acquirements, which they were afterwards to teach in the Tehsildary and Collectorate Schools. The improvements
in education, however, which most effectually contribute to elevate the moral and intellectual condition of a people,
are those which concern the education of the higher classes : of the persons possessing leisure and natural influence
over the minds of their countrymen. By raising the standard of instruction among these classes, you would even-
tually produce a much greater and more beneficial change in the ideas and feelings of the community than you can
hope to produce by acting directly on the more numerous class. Tou are, moreover, acquainted with our anxious
desire to have at our disposal a body of Natives, qualified, by their habits and acquirements, to take a larger share,
and occupy higher situations in the Civil Administration of their country, than has hitherto been the practice
under our Indian Governments. The measures for native education, which have as yet been adopted or planned
at your Presidency, have had no tendency to produce such persons.
" Measures have been adopted by the Supreme Government for -placing within the reach of the higher classes
English Education to be en- °f Natives, under the Presidency of Bengal, instruction in the English lan-
couraged on same Principles guage and in European literature and science. These measures have been
as in Bengal. attended with a degree of success, which, considering the short time during
which they have been in operation, is in the highest degree satisfactory, and justifies the most sanguiue hopes
with respect to the practicability of spreading useful knowledge among the natives of India, and diffusing among
them the ideas and sentiments prevalent in civilized Europe. We are desirous that similar measures should be
adopted at your Presidency.
" We have directed the Supreme Government to put you in possession of such part of their proceedings, and of
the information which they have collected, as is calculated to aid you in giving effect to our wishes ; and in order
to place you generally in possession of our views on the course which ought to be pursued, we enclose (as numbers
in the packet) two Despatches, which we have addressed to the Supreme Government, under date, the 5th September,
1827, and 29th September, No. 39, of 1830. We wish you to take into consideration the expediency of enlarging
the plan of the Central School for the education of teachers, and rendering it a seminary for the instruction of
the Natives generally, in the higher branches of knowledge. We wish that there should be an English teacher
at the Institution, who should not only give instruction in the English language to such students as may be
desirous of acquiring it, but who may, likewise, be capable of assisting them in the study of European science.""
* Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to the Affairs of India: General, Appendix I, PMic (1832), pp. 510, 511.
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
CHAPTER VIII.
EARLY MEASURES FOR EDUCATION IN THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY DURING 1815-23.— MINUTES
BY THE HON'BLE MOUNTSTUART ELPHINSTONE AND THE HON'BLE F. WARDEN, ON
EDUCATION, IN 1823 AND 1828.— SIR JOHN MALCOLM'S VIEWS AGAINST GENERAL EDUCA-
TION IN ENGLISH, IN HIS MINUTE OF 1828.— DESPATCH OF THE COURT OF DIRECTORS
TO THE BOMBAY GOVERNMENT, DATED 21sx SEPTEMBER 1829, FAVOURING STUDY OF
ENGLISH.— SIR JOHN MALCOLM'S MODIFIED VIEWS, IN HIS MINUTE, DATED 10m OCTO-
BER, 1829.— DESPATCH OF THE COURT OF DIRECTORS TO THE BOMBAY GOVERNMENT,
DATED 29TH SEPTEMBER, 1830, IN FAVOUR OF ENGLISH EDUCATION.— THE ELPHINSTONE
INSTITUTION FOR ENGLISH EDUCATION IN BOMBAY.
In the Presidency of Bombay also, as in Madras, the cause of education had a small and unorganized beginning.
The maintenance of Charity Schools for general education appears to have
been a part of the duty of the East India Company's Chaplains, for which
they occasionally received special allowances or gratuities. In March, 1752,
two additional Chaplains were appointed for Tellicherry and Anjengo, "that the rising generation might be instructed
in the Protestant religion." The Court of Directors, in 1756, also recommended to the Bombay Government " the
setting up and establishing Charity Schools, wherein the children of soldiers, mariners, topasses, and others, might
be educated, as well at the Subordinates, as at Bombay," and promised the Company's assistance in the execution of
any plan which might be found practicable. By a subsequent order, bastards, and the children of slaves, on one
side, were to be admitted to the schools, if the children would mix with them.*
Nothing of importance, however, appears to have occurred till the 29th January, 1815, when a voluntary assem-
Society for Promotion of bly of the inhabitants of Bombay took place in the Vestry-room, at which
Education in Bombay, founded a Society was formed, under the designation of " Society for Promoting the Edu-
cation of the Poor within the Government of Bombay." The plan of tuition
adopted by the Society was that which had been ascribed to Dr. Bell, and under its auspices a Central School
was established at Bombay, and in 1818 and 1819, four native schools were also established in that city ; whilst in
1817, it had established schools at Surat, Tannah, and Broach. Certain Regimental Schools were also placed under
the management of the Society, which received from the Bombay Government, grants of ground for the sites of its
several schools.f
By far the most important educational measure adopted at that time was the foundation of the Hindoo College,
at Poona, which was projected by Mr. Chaplin, the Commissioner in the Deccan,
and established by authority of the Bombay Government, on the 7th
October, 1821, at an annual charge to the East India Company of about
Rs. 15,250, which was confirmed by the Court of Directors. The College was designed to contain 100 students,
divided into 10 classes : three of divinity, one of medicine, one of metaphysics, one of mathematics and astronomy,
one of law, one of logic, one of belles let Ires and rhetoric, and one of grammar. At the instance of Mr. Warden, a
reference was made to this College in 1825, desiring to know whether they were willing to have a branch of
English education added to the institution, and holding out the prospect of being supplied with a library of the
most useful works, — elementary and practical, — in all departments of literature, arts, and sciences. The proposal
was acceded to with readiness. J
The Bombay Native School-book and School Society, was formed at Bombay, in the year 1823, for the purpose of
promoting: education among the Natives, by the establishment of schools, and
Bombay Native School-book , , . ,,
Society, founded in 1823. b^ Patron«i"g and encouraging the compilation of elementary books in t
native languages, as well as by purchasing and disseminating such as might
be judged worthy of the countenance of the Society. It was one of the fundamental principles of the Society to
• Printed Parliamentary Paper* relating to the Affairs of India : General, Appendix I ; Public (1832), p. 417.
fit., p. 418. Jit., p. 431.
BOMBAY EDUCATIONAL SOCIETY. 39
adhere to the principles and rules on which education is conducted by the Natives themselves. In October, 182ci,
the Society applied to the Governor in Council for pecuniary aid in furtherance of their plans, and obtained a grant
of Es. 12,720 per annum. The Bombay Government also supplied the Society, gratuitously, with a lithographic
press, and recommended the publication of several useful works, particularly elementary books in geometry and in
ethics, so written as to discountenance the marriage of infants, expensive feasts, and other erroneous practices of
the Hindoos.* In 1824-25 a liberal contribution was made by certain native gentlemen towards erecting buildings
for the use of the Society, and elementary works were printed and published, comprehending grammars, dictionaries,
and spelling books of the Mahrattee, Goojratee, and Hindoostanee languages, with some elementary books of Arith-
metic, Geometry and Geography and a few books of fables and tales.
The first measure of any importance, however, in behalf of education in the Bombay Presidency, appears to
Hon'ble Mr Elphinstone's ^ave originated in a Minute, dated the 13th December, 1823, recorded by the
Minute on Education, dated Honourable Mountstuart Elphinstone, then Governor of Bombay. The views
13th December, 1823. expressed by that eminent statesman may be quoted here, as throwing light
upon the then state of education in Bombay, and also as indicating the sketch of the plan which he proposed for its
improvement. He observes : —
" I have attended, as far as was in my power, since I have been in Bombay, to the means of promoting educa-
tion amon" the Natives, and from all that I have observed, and learned by correspondence, I am perfectly convinced
that, without great assistance from Government, no progress can be made in that important undertaking. A great
deal appears to have been performed by the Education Society in Bengal, and it may be expected that the same
effects should be produced by the same means at this Presidency. But the number of Europeans here is so small,
and our connection with the Natives so recent, that much greater exertions are requisite on this side of India than
on the other.
" The circumstance of our having lately succeeded to a Brahmin Government, likewise, by making it dangerous
to encourage the labours of the missionaries, deprives the cause of Education of the services of a body of men who
have more zeal and more time to devote to the object, than any other class of Europeans can be expected to
possess.
" If it be admitted that the assistance of Government is necessary, the next question is, how it can best be
The Bombay Education So- afforded, and there are two ways which present themselves for consideration.
ciety to be helped by Govern- The Government may take the education of the Natives entirely on itself, or
ment. it may increase the means and stimulate the exertions of the Society already
formed for that purpose. The best result will probably be produced by a combination of these two modes of
proceeding. Many of the measures necessary for the diffusion of education must depend on the spontaneous
zeal of individuals, and could not be effected by any resolutions of the Government. The promotion of those
measures, therefore, should be committed to the Society ; but there are others which require an organized system,
and a greater degree of regularity and permanence than can be expected from any plan, the success of which
is to depend upon personal character. This last branch, therefore, must be undertaken by the Government.
" It would, however, be requisite, when so much was entrusted by Government to the Society, that all the
material proceedings of that body should be made known to Government, and that it should be clearly understood
that neither religion nor any topic likely to excite discontent among the Natives should ever be touched on in
its schools or publications.
" The following are the principal measures required for the diffusion of knowledge among the Natives : First,
To improve the mode of teaching at the native schools, and to increase the
meaSUre8 SUg' number of schools. Second, To supply them with school-books. Third, To
hold out some encouragement to the lower orders of natives to avail themselves
of the means of instruction thus afforded them. Fourth, To establish schools for teaching the European sciences and
improvements in the higher branches of education. Fifth, To provide for the preparation and publication of
books of moral and physical science in native languages. Sixth, To establish schools for the purpose of teaching
English to those disposed to pursue it as a classical language, and as a means of acquiring a knowledge of the
European discoveries. Seventh, To hold forth encouragement to the Natives in the pursuit of those last branches of
knowledge." t
After discussing these various heads of enquiry, the Minute ends in the
State!TndrtsbeneflSty following declaration of educational policy, and religious neutrality in such
matters : —
* Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to the Affairs of India : General, Appendix I ; Public (1832), p. 419. t lb., pp. 511, 512.
(0 ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
•• T can conceive no objection that can be urged to these proposals, except the greatness of the expense, to
which 1 would oppose the magnitude of the object. It is difficult to imagine an undertaking in which our duty,
our interest, and our honour are more immediately concerned. It is now well understood, that in all countries the
happiness of the poor depends in a great measure on their education. It is by means of it alone that they can
acquire those habits of prudence and self-respect from which all other good qualities spring, and if ever there was
a country where such habits are required, it is this. We have all often heard of the ills of early marriages and
overflowing population ; of the savings of a life squandered on some one occasion of festivity ; of the helplessness
(if tlu> rvots. which renders them a prey to money-lenders ; of their indifference to good clothes or houses, which
has been urged on some occasions as an argument against lowering the public demands on them ; and, finally,
he vanity of all laws to protect them, when no individual can be found who has spirit enough to take advan-
tage of those enacted in their favour : there is but one remedy for all this, which is education.
" If there be a wish to contribute to the abolition of the horrors of self-immolation and of infanticide, and ulti-
mately to the destruction of superstition in India, it is scarcely necessary now to prove, that the only means of
success lie in the diffusion of knowledge.
" In the meantime the dangers to which we are exposed from the sensitive character of the religion of the
Natives, and the slippery foundation of our Government, owing to the total
Religious sensitiveness or separation between us and our subjects, require the adoption of some measures
the Natives. . . .
to counteract them; and the only one is, to remove their prejudices, and to
communicate our own principles and opinions by the diffusion of a rational education.
" It has been urged against our Indian Government, that we have subverted the States of the East and shut up
all the sources from which the magnificence of the country was derived, and
Neglect of Education, a re- that we have not ourgeives constructed a single work, either of utility or
proacb. to the British Rule.
splendor. It may be alleged, with more justice, that we have dried up the
fountain of native talent, and that, from the nature of our conquest, not only all encouragement to the advance-
ment of knowledge is withdrawn, but even the actual learning of the nation is likely to be lost, and the productions
of former genius to be forgotten. Something should surely be done to remove this reproach.
***#***#****#*
" To the mixture of religion, even in the slightest degree, with our plans of education, I must strongly object.
I cannot agree to clog with any additional difficulty a plan which has already
i yin au- so many obstructions to surmount. I am convinced that the conversion of the
cation.
Natives must infallibly result from the diffusion of knowledge anionir them
Evidently they are not aware of the connection, or all attacks on their ignorance would be as vigorously resisted as
it i hey ucre on their religion. The only effect of introducing Christianity into our schools would be to sound the
alarm, and to warn the Brahmins of the approaching danger; even that warning might perhaps be neglected as
long as no converts were made ; but it is a sufficient argument against the plan, that it can only be safe as long as
it is ineffectual ; and in this instance, the danger involves not only failure of our plans of education, but the disso-
lution of our Empire."*
Somewhat different views were entertained by Mr. Francis Warden, Member of the Governor's Council at Bom-
Dissentient Minute of bay> and on the 29th December, 3823, he recorded a dissentient Minute from
Hon'ble P. Warden, dated which the following passagesf may be quoted as throwing light upon the nature
tth December, 1823. of the contl,)V(,,,sv Mr Warden observed :-
•• I mean to rout end that India is not without the means of supplying agents, not only for the affairs of the
Government should not un- Government, but also for the advancement of individual interests. I question
dertake too great responsibi- whether the intellect of the mass of the population is in a more degraded
state in India than that of the United Kingdom. But it is the furthest from
my intention to contend that a, higher order of education, and in particular a better, a purer, and more perfect
-\stem of morality is not indispensably necessary. But the means by which that improvement is to be attained, is
a i\< 'lii-ate and difficult question. I must repeat my opinion that the Government should not be too forward in
taking the education of the Natives on itself, nor interfere too much in the institutions that exist in the country,
imperfect, as they may be.
Though aware of the impolicy of ,the former measure, the Governor's propositions yet appear to infringe
on both t hose positions in too great a degree. Prom an over anxiety to complete so good a work, we run the
* Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to the Affairs of India : General, Appendix I ; Public (1832), pp. 517-519.
t 16., pp. 520-522.
ENGLISH, THE BEST MEANS OF EDUCATION. 41
danger of attempting too much at once, and defeating our object. I would leave the native village schools
untouched and unnoticed, without attempting to institute examinations, or to distribute prizes, on the part of the
Government. I question whether this interference, even if practicable through so extensive a range of country,
would not be prejudicial. The schools to be established on a better model, in addition to these, should be few in
number, but efficient in the means of instruction, and of producing schoolmasters.
" I would not ostensibly, but indirectly, give every encouragement to the Missionaries ; for although I
Missionaries should be in- entirely concur with the Governor in the expediency of abstaining from all
directly encouraged and help- attempts at religious improvement, yet so long as the Natives do not corn-
ed by Government. plain of the interference of the Missionaries with their prejudices, and so
long as they prosecute their labours with the caution and judgment they have hitherto manifested, their exertions
cannot fail of being profitable ; even if they combine religious with moral instruction, no danger will arise out of
their agency. The beneficial result may not be immediately conspicuous, yet it must ultimately appear, even
if limited to the education of the lower classes of the Natives. If education should not produce a rapid change
in their opinions on the fallacy of their own religion, it will at least render them more honest and industrious
subjects.
#*#****#*#****
" If types are to be bought and distributed throughout the country, boys ought to be attached to the different
Presses at Bombay to learn the duty of compositors. Whatever may be my
Dangers of introducing . ,. ,. ,. T.-I.I_T.
own views on the subiect, a most important question, which has been
printing in India.
much discussed under the Presidency of Bengal, presents itself, what would
be the effects of the power and influence of the Press in the present state of the country, if the Natives are to be
taught the art of printing ? The dissemination of whatever they choose to publish, would, of course, immediately
follow. If we could control the Press, which a distribution of types would necessarily establish and multiply, by
publishing only what the local authorities might approve, it would be well ; but such a precaution would manifest
to the discrimination of the Natives, so great a dread of the effect of our own policy in facilitating the means of
diffusing knowledge, that we should excite a spirit of enquiry and of agitation under a controlled system, which
would not be very favourable to our character for consistency, or to any confidence in the stability of our supre-
macy. The distribution of types throughout the country demands the gravest consideration.
'' No doubt the progress of knowledge can be most effectually and economically promoted by a study of the
English language, wherein, in every branch of science, we have, ready corn-
English Language the best -led th mogt ugeful ^ which cannot be compressed in tracts and
means of Education.
translated in the native languages, without great expense and the labour of
years. A classical knowledge of English ought to constitute the chief object of the Bombay Seminary. As far as
I have conversed with the Natives, they are anxious that their children should be thoroughly grounded in the Eng-
lish language ; some of the wealthiest would be glad to send their children to England for education, were it not
for the clamorous objection of their mothers ; nothing can be1 more favourable for commencing, or for the establish-
ment of a good system of education, than such a disposition." *
The desire for English education appears to have rapidly increased in the Bombay Presidency among the
Natives of Bomba aid nd native population. " In November, 1827, when Mr. Elphinstone was about to
encourage study of English, by resign his office of President of the Bombay Council, the principal native
founding English Professor- princes, chieftains, and gentlemen connected with the West of India, assem-
ships in honour of Mr. Elphin- y^ amj resoiveti to subscribe a sum of money to be invested as an endowment
ae'~ for three Professors of the English language and European arts and sciences,
and to request that the Government would permit a part of the Town Hall to be appropriated for the several estab-
lishments for native education, and solicit the Court of Directors to allow properly qualified persons to proceed to
Bombay, there to reside in the capacity of teachers. The subscription and proposed Institution were declared to be
in honour of the Governor, then about to return to Europe, after whom they were to be designated, ' The Elphinstone
Professorships.' The Bombay Government acquiesced in the suggestion, and committed to the Native Education
Society the measures which might be considered proper for carrying the proposal into effect. That Society imme-
diately took charge of the subscription, which then amounted to Rs. 120,000, composed of sums of money of which
.the largest single subscription was Rs. 17,800 and the smallest Rs. 300, and which had been collected within the
space of three months. The Education Society also proposed that the persons to be selected should be truly
eminent men, selected from other candidates ' by public examination as to their fitness, and on no account to be
« Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to the Affairs of India : General, Appendix T ; Public (1832), pp. 520-522.
6
J.-J EXCMSH ETtl'CATION' IX INT>IA.
nominated by private .-li.)icp or patronage. The sphere of one Professor to be languages and general literature ; of
another, mathematics and natural philosophy, including astronomy, elementary and physical ; of the third, chemis-
try, including geology and botany; the knowledge of the two last Professors to be particularly imparted with rela-
ti.ni to the useful arts and the future profitable employment of it by the Natives in life.' "
These proposals led to a discussion by the Government of Bombay on the subject of native education generally,
Dissentient opinions in re- alul ended in a difference of opinion among the members of the Government,
gard to promotion of English Mr. Francis Warden, one of the Members of the Council, taking a view entirely
Education in Bombay. jn favour of English Education, whilst Sir John Malcolm, the Governor of
Bombay, and Mr. Goodwin, another member of Council taking a different view. They recorded separate Minutes on
tin- subject, and since they relate to some of the radical principles of educational policy at that time, some passages
may with advantage be quoted from them. Mr. Warden's Minute, dated the 24th March, 1828, has the following :—
Yielding to no individual in a conviction of the advantages of education to every country, I have yet differed
Mr Warden's Minute of 24th widely in respect to the best means of successfully prosecuting that object. I
March, 1828, in favour of en- am so far from abandoning the grounds of that opinion, that every year's ex-
couraging English. perience rather confirms me in its soundness. I have urged the policy of
directing our chief effort to one object, to a diffusion of a knowledge of the English language, as best calculated to
facilitate the intellectual and moral improvement of India. We have as yet made that only a secondary object.
" I must confess that I did not expect to receive so unqualified a corroboration of the popularity at least of that
opinion among the Natives, as is afforded by the letter from the leading members of the native community of Bom-
bay, bringing forward a proposition for establishing professorships to be denominated ' The Elpliinstone Profesaor-
.' for the purpose of teaching the Natives, the English language, and the arts, sciences and literature of
Knrope, to be held, in the first instance, by learned men to be invited from Great Britain, until natives of the country
shall be found perfectly competent to undertake the office.
•• Xor did I expect to find so decisive a proof of the facility with which the English language could be diffused,
as is evidenced by the report recently published in the papers, of an examination at Calcutta, of the Natives edu-
-d at that Presidency, which exhibits a display of proficiency in that tongue almost incredible. Under these
impressions, I subscribe entirely to the opinion expressed by the author of the ' Political History of India,' that it is
better and safer to commence by giving a good deal of knowledge to a few, than a little to many ; to be satisfied with
laying the foundation stone of a good edifice, and not desire to accomplish in a day what must be the work of a
century.
" But the object of giving a good deal of knowledge to a few can only be promoted by a better system of
education ; and the surest mode of diffusing a better system is by making the
y, primary OD- 8^.n(j_ Of ^e English language the primary, and not the merely secondary
jeet of Native Education. J
object of attention in the education of the Natives. The reviewer of the
work above alluded to remarks, in which I still more cordially concur, that a more familiar and extended acquaint-
ance with the English language would, to the Natives, be the surest source of intellectual improvement, and might
licrome the most durable tie between Britain and India. In any plan, therefore, for the public education of the
Natives, the complete knowledge of our language ought to form so prominent an object as to lay ground for its
gradually becoming at least the established vehicle of legal and official business. The English tongue would in
India, as in America, be the lasting monument of our dominion; and it is not too much to hope that it might also
!»• the medium through which the inhabitants of those vast regions might hereafter rival the rest of the civilized
world, in the expression of all that most exercises and distinguishes human intellect.
"If it be desirable to diffuse a better system of education, we ought at once to encourage the study of the
English tongue, as the leading object with the Native Education Society. I attended its last Annual Meeting,
and had only to regret that a sufficient progress had not been made by the Natives to enable them to benefit by the
higher instruction to he derived from the Professors on their arrival in India, instruction which must be given in
the Knglish language ; its study then should be strongly recommended to the Native Education Society. No one,
I imagine, contemplates the education of a hundred million or of seven million of Natives in the English language;
but I perceive nothing chimerical in laying the foundation-stone of a good edifice for teaching what the higher
classes of Natives are eager to acquire : a knowledge of English. The example will be followed, and its effects in
diffusing a better system than in sending forth, as at present, school-masters, and in/circulating translations which
not one in a hundred can read or understand, with a smattering of knowledge, will /very soon be seen and felt."f
* Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to the Affairs of India: General, Appendix I ; Public (1832), p. 469.
t /&., pp. 523, 524.
EMPLOYMENT OP NATIVES IN ADMINISTRATION. 4.'-!
On the other hand, Sir John Malcolm's opinion was opposed to any general introduction of English education
Sir John Malcolm's views among the people of India, and since his views are still shared by some
against general Education in thinkers on the problems of Indian Education, the following passages from
English. nis Minute, written in 1828, may be quoted here with advantage. The earlier
part of his Minute has the following : —
" I concur with Mr. Warden as to the desirable object of diffusing education, but differ as to the mode. I am
His Minute written in 1828 °f opinion the method adopted at this Presidency is of all others the best that
in favour of Vernacular Edu- can be pursued. The chief ground on which I anticipate advantages from
cation. ^jje establishment of the Elphiiistone Professorships, is, that a certain propor-
tion of the Natives will be instructed by them not only in the English language, but in every branch of useful
science. To Natives so educated, I look for aid, in the diffusion of knowledge among their countrymen, through
the medium of their Vernacular dialects ; and I certainly think it is only by knowledge being accessible through
the latter medium, that it ever can be propagated to any general or beneficial purpose.
" This question may be decided by reference to the History of England. Before the Reformation, our best books
on religion, morality, philosophy, and science were veiled in the classical Ian-
Example of English History. . ,, ,
guages of Greece and Rome ; and it is a remarkable fact, that since all those
works have been translated into the Vernacular language of our native country, though gentlemen, men of learned
professions, and those who are to instruct youth, still study the classical languages, as the fountains of our know-
ledge, these are unknown to the great bulk of our countrymen, to whom improved education has been so useful.
The reason is plain ; the latter have neither that time nor money to spare which is necessary for such studies.
There is a still greater necessity that the natives of India, whom it is our object to instruct, should have the path
of knowledge rendered as short and as smooth as possible ; all that we are now doing tends to that object, the
complete accomplishment of which will be effected by the establishment of the Elphinstone Professors, whose duty
it will be to teach the few who are to teach the many, and from whom, as a source, the Natives of this quarter of
India will be able to obtain that information and knowledge which is best suited to their wishes, their talents, and
their various occupations in life.
" I have on political grounds a consolation, derived from my conviction of the impossibility of our ever dis-
seminating that half-knowledge of our language, which is all, any considerable number of the Natives could attain.
It would decrease that positive necessity which now exists for the servants of Government making themselves
masters of the languages of the countries in which they are employed, and without which they never can become
in any respect competent to their public duties.
" One of the chief objects, I expect, from diffusing education among the natives of India, is our increased power
of associating them in every part of our administration. This I deem essen-
Further employment of Na- tial on gro^g Of economy, of improvement, and of security. I cannot look
for reduction of expense in the different branches of our Government from
any diminution of the salaries now enjoyed by European -public servants, but I do look to it from many of the
duties they now have to perform being executed by Natives on diminished salaries. I further look to the employ-
ment of the latter in such duties of trust and responsibility, as the only mode in which we can promote their im-
provement ; and I must deem the instruction we are giving them dangerous, instead of useful, unless the road is
opened wide to those who receive it, to every prospect of honest ambition and honourable distinction.
" To render men who are employed beyond the immediate limits of the Presidency fit for such duties, I con-
Knowledge of English not template, no knowledge of the English language is necessary. The acquisition
necessary for Natives beyond of that would occupy a period for other studies and pursuits, but it is quite
the Presidency. essential to aspiring Natives that they should have the advantage of transla-
tions from our language of the works which are best calculated to improve their minds, and increase their know-
ledge, not only of general science, but to enable them to understand the grounds which led us to introduce into
the system of the administration we have adopted for -India the more liberal views and sounder maxims of our
policy and legislation in England. It is to the labours of the Elphinstone Professors that we must look for that
instruction which is to form the native instruments that must become the medium of diffusing such knowledge ;
and as no duty can be more important than that of men who are placed at the very head of this course of instruc-
tion, and as the power of selecting those qualified for the important task will much depend upon the liberality of
the salaries assigned them, I trust, with Mr. Warden, that the Honourable Court will make a grant, to promote
this Institution, of a sum at least equal to that subscribed by the Natives of this Presidency."*
* Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to the Affairs of India : General, Appendix I ; Public (1832), p. 525.
it ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
The views of Sir John Malcolm were generally concurred in by Mr. Goodwin, his colleague in Council, but
when the matter went up to the Court of Directors, they, without laying
Despatch of the Court of ^^ definite decision between the conflicting views, as to the excep-
STo%°h?GoVerenmenteS tional claims of English Education advocated by Mr. Warden, and the kind
Bombay, favouring the study Of education proposed by Sir John Malcolm, recorded a Despatch, dated the
of English. 21st September 1829, to the Bombay Government, in which, referring to the
subject of Education they made the following significant observations :—
« The measures which you have as yet adopted for the furtherance of this important object, are inconsiderable,
compared with those which you have in contemplation. There is one of them, however, to which we are dis-
posed to attach very considerable importance, the establishment of an English School at the Presidency (under
the superintendence of the Committee of the Native School-Book Society), where English may be taught gram-
matically, and where instruction may be given in that language, on history, geography, and the popular branches
of science ; and we are happy to find that Mr. Warden bears testimony to the anxious desire of many among
the Natives to obtain the benefit of an English Education for their children." *
In the meantime, Sir John Malcolm appears to have modified his views in
Sir John Malcolm's views d to EmriiSn Education, as is shown from the following passage in a
modified in favour of English
Education, in his Minute, Minute recorded by him on the 1 )th October, 1829 :—
dated 10th October, 1829
" I have given my sentiments most fully upon the inexpediency, as well as impracticability, of conveying
general instruction to our native subjects in India, through the medium of
English Schools may be es- ^g English language, but I by no means desire to express an opinion that
schools for that purpose should not be extended. While records of offices, a
part of the judicial proceedings, and all correspondence and accounts, are written in English, there will be profitable
employment for all who learn to read and write this language, and a familiarity with it will open to those who pos-
sess it, new sources of knowledge, and qualify them to promote improvement. From English schools being estab-
lished at no place, but Bombay, the pay of writers and accountants is immoderately high ; and when these move
from the Presidency, they require still higher wages ; and when well qualified, they can, from their limited numbers,
command almost any pay they demand. This introduces a tone of extravagance of demand from this class of
persons in all our departments. Of some remedies for this evil I shall speak hereafter ; but the real mode to
decrease price is to multiply the article. English Schools should be established or encouraged at Surat and Poona,
and I look to the small colony of East Indians about to be established at Phoolsheher, with great hope of aid in
this as in other branches of improvement." t
In their Despatch, dated the 29th September, 1830, to the Government of Bombay, the Court of Directors
however, gave clear expression to their views in regard to English Education,
Despatch of the Court of
Directors to the Bombay Qov- as is shown by the following extract from that Despatch :— •
ernment, dated 29th Septem- " It is our anxious desire to afford to the higher classes of the natives
ber, 1830, in favour of English Of in,iia, the means of instruction in European science, and of access to the
literature of civilized Europe. The character which may be given to the
classes possessed of leisure and natural influence, ultimately determines that of the whole people. We are sensible,
moreover, that it is our duty to afford the best equivalent in our power to these classes, for the advantages of
which, the introduction of our Government has deprived them ; and for this and other reasons, of which you are
well aware, we are extremely desirous that their education should be such as to qualify them for higher situations
in the Civil Government of India, than any to which Natives have hitherto been eligible.
" That the time has arrived when efforts may be made for this purpose, with a reasonable probability of
success, is evidenced by various facts, one of the most striking of which is, the liberal subscription which has
recently been raised among the Natives under your Presidency for the foundation of an institution, at which
instruction is to be given in the English language and literature, and in European science, through the medium of
the English language. To this projected institution we have already, at your recommendation, expressed our will-
ingness to afford liberal support, but we delayed authorizing any specific subscription, in consequence of our not
having received, either from yourselves or from the native subscribers, any mature and well-digested plan.
•• We have since received from the Supreme Government a further report of the progress of the seminaries for
the education of the Natives, which have been established under the Presidency of Bengal. The success of
those institutions has heen in the highest degree satisfactory ; and the various experiments which have been made
• Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to the Affaire of India: General, Appendix I ; Public (1832), p 522. t Ib., p. 539.
ELPHINSTONE INSTITUTION IN BOMBAY. 45
in that part of India, have afforded so much valuable experience, that we now no longer feel that uncertainty
which we expressed in our Despatch last referred to, with respect to the choice of means, for an end we have so
deeply at heart.
" Among the Native Colleges which now exist and flourish in Bengal, none has had so great success as the
Anglo-Indian College, which originated, like the proposed Elphinstone
Example of successful Eng- Institution, in a subscription among the Natives, and is directed to the same
lish Education in Bengal. objects. This College is partly supported by Government, and is under the
inspection of the General Committee which has been appointed by the Supreme Government for the Superinten-
dence of Public Instruction.
" In forming a plan for the Elphinstone Institution, it is of course proper that the wishes of the subscribers
The Elphinstone Institution should be consulted. They, however, like the Natives who established the
may be helped, like the Anglo- Anglo-Indian College, would, we have little doubt, be willing that the institution
Indian College at Calcutta. should be under your general superintendence, and a Committee of their own
body might be associated in the management, with some officer, or officers, of Government, in such manner as you
might judge most advisable.
" If the subscribers are willing to acquiesce in such an arrangement, we authorize you to concert with them a
plan for the formation of the projected institution, taking the Anglo-Indian College at Calcutta, generally, for your
model ; and if the plan when completed should not differ very materially from that of the college last mentioned,
we authorize you to make such donation, or such annual subscription, to the Elphinstone Institution, as may appear
to you advisable, with reference to the importance of the object in view." *
In November 1830, the total amount of subscriptions for the Elphinstone Institution at Bombay
reached Rs. 2,15,000, and the Court of Directors were requested to subscribe a
Subscriptions for the Elphin- ... , ,, _
stone Institution. The Court simllar amount on the part of the Company, and to receive the total sum so
of Director's Despatch to the subscribed by the natives of Bombay and the Government, on interest at 6
Bombay Government, dated per cent., into the Public Treasury at Bombay — the interest of this Capital
12th December, 1832, regard- Fund to towards defraying the expenses of the Institution. Eelative to
ing Aid and Superintendence , , . , . , , ,. ,, , .
of the Institution. subject, the following extract from the Despatch of the Court of Directors
to the Government of Bombay, dated the 12th December, 1832, may be quoted,
as showing how far the policy of imparting English education to the natives of India had advanced in that Presi-
dency. The passage runs as follows : —
" We have already, in our letter of 19th September, 1830, empowered you to grant such sum as you may
deem advisable, in aid of the proposed Elphinstone Institution ; your suggestions as to the mode of constituting
that institution appear judicious. You think that the teachers to be furnished from this country should be, ' one
superior Professor of mathematics, astronomy, and all branches of natural philosophy, together with an under
Professor or teacher, who ought to possess a complete knowledge of the practical application of the sciences of
architecture, hydraulics, mechanics, &c., to the useful purposes of life.' To the latter person you propose allotting
Rs. 600 per mensem ; to the former, Rs. 800, with use of the house built for the astronomer, and the charge
of the Observatory and instruments. As the study of the English language and literature was one of the main
objects for which the institution was founded, it is, of course, intended that either the head Professor, or his assist-
ant should be competent to give instruction on those subjects as well as on science."!
* Printed Parliamentary Papers relatiug to the Affairs of India : General, Appendix I ; Public (1832), p. 542. f H>; P- 548.
46 ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
CHAPTER IX.
SUMMARY OF THE VARIOUS STAGES OF THE MEASURED FOR EDUCATION OF THE NATIVES
OF INDIA, AND EXPENDITURE INCURRED BY THE EAST INDIA COMPANY, UNDER THE
ACT OF PARLIAMENT, STATUTE 53, GEO. III., CHAPTER 155,— FROM 1813 TO 1830.
The narrative contained in the preceding chapters may be summarized as indicating certain marked stages
s f the Dolicy of Edu- °* tne Pr°gress an^ development of the policy of education in India. The
cation in India. The earliest earliest stage was the period when education of the natives of India was
stage — Inactivity. not regarded as a part of the administrative policy of the East India Com-
pany which, indeed, did not at that time possess any territorial dominion or recognized political authority. Such
authority had its legal beginning in the grant of the Diwani of Bengal, Behar and Orissa, by the Emperor Shah
Alam to the East India Company, in 1765, and the political circumstances of that period left no time or inclination
for the promotion of learning, or formulation of any educational policy.
The second stage was the foundation, by Warren Hastings, of the Calcutta Madrissa, in 1781, and the Benares
The 2nd Stage Encour- College in 1791, for the purpose of training Mahomedan and Hindu officers
agement of Oriental Studies, for ranks in the Judicial and other Administrative offices of the Company.
1781 to 1791.
The third stage was, whilst in various places, some individual efforts were made for promoting education, no
organized system existed, nor had the principles of a definite educational policy
The 3rd Stage— TTnorga-
dT d' 'd 1 Effo t been declared. 1ms stage, however, was an important one, as discussions.
as to the expediency and policy of educating the natives of India, engaged
attention, as shown by the elaborate treatise of Mr. Charles Grant, which was written during 1792, and submitted
to the Court of Directors in 1797, and also by Lord Minto's Minute on Education, written in 1817.
The fourth stage is represented by the Resolution passed by the House of Commons declaring it to be the
The 4th Stage — Legislative duty of England to promote the interests and happiness of the native inhabi-
recognition of Education, as tants of the British dominions in India, and to adopt such measures as may
tend to the introduction among them of useful knowledge and moral improve-
ment—a declaration to which effect was given in section 43 of the Act of Parliament, 53, Geo. III., Chapter 155,
which was passed in 1813.
The fifth stage is one of comparative apathy, on the part of the authorities in India, because, notwithstanding
The 5th Stage — Apathy of tne fact that the Court of Directors, in their Despatch of the 3rd June, 1814,
the Indian Government to- invited the special attention of the Governor- General to the provisions of the
new Act regarding Education, no measures of any significant kind were taken
for some years, to give effect to the benevolent intentions of the Act of Parliament.
The sixth stage is remarkable for the activity of the authorities in India, in adopting systematic measures for pro-
The 6th Stage — Appointment nioting education among the people. It was during this period that the Com-
of Committees of Public In- mittees of Public Instruction were appointed : One at Calcutta in 1823,
another in Madras in 1826, and the Education Society at Bombay, in 1823.
The operation of these Societies, and the policy of Government on the subject of education, have been de-
scribed in the preceding chapters, and it is apparent that up to the year 1830
The question of English
Education remains unsettled educational policy in regard to the conflicting claims of Oriental learning
on the one hand, and of English education on the other, had not been settled
either by the Governments of the three Presidencies in India, or by the Court of Directors in England. Nor does
it appear that the spread of education was regarded, during this period, as having higher aims than a desire to
procure a supply of trained native officials to fill subordinate ranks in the administration.
It will be the object of the following chapter to describe how a great and radical change came upon the Edu-
Expenditure on Education ca^'onal policy of Government, immediately after this period, decisively in
in India, under Section 43 of favour of English Education, as distinguished from Oriental studies in Arabic
Act of Parliament, 53, Geo. and Sanskrit. In the meantime, however, it will be interesting to see how
far the Government in India had carried out the intentions of Parliament
EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION, 1813-1830.
47
expressed in Section 43, of the Act, 53 Geo. III., chapter 155, which laid down that " a sum of not less than one
lac of rupees in each year shall be set apart and applied to the revival and improvement of literature, and the
encouragement of the learned natives of India, and for the introduction and promotion of a knowledge of the
sciences among the inhabitants of the British territories in India." It will be remembered that the Act was
passed in the year 1813, and the following table, taken from the printed Parliamentary Papers * of 1832, gives an
account of all sums that had been applied to the purpose of educating the natives of India, from the year 1813 to
the year 1830, both inclusive, covering a period of 18 years : —
YEARS.
BENGAL.
MADRAS.
BOMBAY.
TOTAL.
£
£
£
£
1813
4,207
480
442
5,129
1814
11,606
480
499
12,585
1815
4,405
480
537
5,422
1816
5,146
480
578
6,204
1817
5,177
480
795
6,452
1818
5,211
480
630
6,321
1819
7,191
480
1,270
8,941
1820
5,807
480
1,401
7,688
1821
6,882
480
594
7,956
1822
9,081
480
594
10,155
1823
6,134
480
594
7,208
1824
19,970
480
1,434
21,884
1825
57,122
480
8,961
66,563
1826
21,623
480
5,309
27,412
1827
30,077
2,140
13,096
45,313
1828
22,797
2,980
10,064
35,841
1829
24,663
3,614
9,799
38,076 '
1830
28,748
2,946
12,636
44,330
Grand Total, 1813 to 1830
2,75,847
18,400
69,233
3,63,480
This account yields an average expenditure of £20,193 a year, which, even according to the higher value of the
Actual Expenditure double rupee in those days, may be roundly stated to be more than two lacs of rupees,
the minimum amount required that is, more than double the amount required by the abovementioned Act of
by the Act of Parliament. Parliament to be spent on education in India. Whatever, therefore, may be
said as to the Educational Policy of the East India Company during this period, and apart from the question
whether the sum of one lac of rupees, named as the minimum annual expenditure on Education by the Act of
Parliament was sufficient, neither the Court of Directors nor the authorities in India can be accused either of
having endeavoured to evade the intentions of Parliament, or to have exercised undue parsimony in giving effect
to those intentions.
* Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to the Affairs of India : General. Appendix I ; Public (1832), p. 483.
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
CHAPTER X.
RENEWAL OF THE EAST INDIA COMPANY'S CHARTER IN 1833.— ARRIVAL OF LORD
MACAULAY IN INDIA AS A MEMBER OF THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL'S COUNCIL, IN 1834.-
CONTROVERSY AS TO THE COMPARATIVE MERITS OF ORIENTAL LEARNING
AND ENGLISH LITERATURE FOR EDUCATION.— LORD WILLIAM
BENTINCK'S EDUCATIONAL RESOLUTION OF 1835.- PROTEST OF
MAHOMEDANS AGAINST THE RESOLUTION.
This Chapter opens with perhaps the most important period in the annals of Education in India, under the
Most important period in British rule. The term of the Charter of the East India Company, which
the History of Education in had been renewed for twenty years by the Act of Parliament, 53, Geo. III.,
India- 1830 to 1835. Chapter 155, was to expire on the 10th of April, 1834, and grave discussions
arose in England as to whether it ought to be renewed at all, and if renewed, under what conditions. " As early as
1829, the leading towns of the United Kingdom had begun to agitate the subject, and to load the tables of both
Houses of Parliament with petitions against the renewal of the Charter ; and in February, 1830, Select Committees
were appointed, on the recommendation of ministers themselves,— Lord Ellenborough making the motion in the
Lords, and Sir Robert Peel in the Commons. Both movers carefully abstained from giving any indication of the views
entertained by the Cabinet, and the Committees were simply appointed 'to inquire into the present state of the affairs
of the East India Company, and into the trade between Great Britain and China, and to report their observations
thereupon to the House.' " * It is from the reports of the Parliamentary Committees so appointed, and the enormous
mass of oral and documentary evidence which they collected, printed in bulky Parliamentary Blue-books, in 1832,
that a considerable portion of the information and quotations given in the preceding chapters have been collected.
It falls beyond the scope of this work to discuss the various political and commercial affairs with which
Renewal of the East India Parliament was then concerned, but it is necessary to mention such matters
Company's Charter by Parlia- as have a bearing upon the subject of education in India. It is enough to say
ment, in 1833. y^ on the 13^ of june 1833; the subject of the renewal of the Company's
Charter was introduced to the House of Commons by Mr. Charles Grant f (afterwards Lord Glenelg) the President
of the Board of Control, who concluded a long explanatory speech, by moving three resolutions, of which the third,
having a bearing upon the subject of education in India, may be quoted here. The resolution ran as follows : —
" That it is expedient that the Government of the British Possessions in India be intrusted to the said Company,
under such conditions and regulations as Parliament shall enact, for the pur-
Parliamentary Resolution in pose of extending the commerce of this country, and of securing the good
favour of educating India. government, and promoting the religious and moral improvement of the peo-
ple of India."
The resolution is important, as showing, that among the objects for which the Company was to be intrusted
_ . with the Government of the British Possessions in India, was " promntina
Promotion of Education re-
cognized as duty of the Com- the religious and moral improvement of the people of India." Vague and
pany's Government. Absence general as these expressions were, they may furnish a pretext to those who
of interest in Indian affairs in cavil against the ion,i fide motives of the British rule in India, in regard to its
policy of English education ; for saying that its real object was to promote
conversion to Christianity. As tin-owing light upon the small amount of interest then taken by Parliament in
Indian affairs, the historian J calls attention to the fact that the Resolutions, though involving the future Government
of India, and the consequent condition of its myriads of inhabitants, were passed almost without discussion, and
awakened so little interest that a very large majority of the members of the House of Commons did not even deign
to be present. Adverting to the fact a few weeks afterwards, Lord Macaulay thus expressed himself : — " The House
• Beveridge's History of India, Vol. III., p. 230.
t Son of the Right Honourable Charles Grant, from whose treatise on the " Condition of the Natives of India," quotations have
been given in thr prpi-odini; chapters of this work.
J Beveridge's History of India, Vol. III., p. 231.
COMPARATIVE CT.AIMS OF ENGLISH AND ORIENTAL LEARNING. 49
has neither the time, nor the knowledge, nor the inclination to attend to an Indian Budget, or to the statement of
Indian extravagance, or to the discussion of Indian local grievances. A broken head in Coldbath Fields excites
greater interest in this House than three pitched battles in India ever would excite. This is not a figure of
speech, but a literal description of fact, and were I called upon for proof of it, I would refer to a circumstance
which must be still in the recollection of the house. When my right honourable friend, Mr. Charles Grant, brought
forward his important propositions for the future Government of India, there were not as many members present
as generally attend upon an ordinary turnpike bill."
The Bill which gave effect to the abovementioned Resolutions, was passed by Parliament and received the Royal
The Act of Parliament forthe assent on *^° 28th of August, 3833. It ranks in the Statute-book as 3 and 4
better Government of India Wm- IV., C. 85, and is entitled, " An Act for effecting an arrangement with the
3 and 4 Wm. IV., c. 85, received East India Company, and for the better Government of His Majesty's Indian
Royal assent on 28th August, Territories, till the 30th day of April, 1854." As bearing upon the prospects of
1833. Rights of Educated Na- ,, , T * . 0^1.0 i-
tives to State offices affirmed. educated natives of India, the 87th Section of the Act is important, which
enacts, " That no native of the said territories, nor any natural-born subject of
His Majesty, resident therein, shall, by reason only of his religion, place of birth, descent, colour, or any of them,
be disabled from holding any place, office, or employment under the said Company." The Act introduced con-
siderable changes in the administrative machinery of the Government of India, and under one of its provisions,
Lord Macaulay was appointed the first Law Member of the Council of the Governor-General, and arrived in India
on the 10th June, 1834, and soon joined Lord William Bentinck, then Governor-General of India.
Lord MaCaulay's arrival in India to hold such a high office in the administration of the country, was an impor-
Lord Macaulay's arrival in tan* event in the history of education in India, as it was principally due to his
India, in 1834, an important personality and opinions, which were adopted by the Governor-General, that
event in Educational Policy. the advancement'of English education found a decisive and emphatic declara-
tion of policy, and a firm basis, upon which the present system still rests. As to the state of things which then
prevailed in regard to education in India, I borrow the following observations from a contemporary witness, Sir
Charles Trevelyan. In his treatise on the " Education of the People of India," he says : —
" Meanwhile, the progress of events was leading to the necessity of adopting a more decided course. The taste
Taste for English Literature for English became more and more ' widely disseminated.' A loud call arose
widely disseminated, as con- f°r the means of instruction in it, and the subject was pressed on the Commit-
trasted with Oriental learn- tee from various quarters. English books only were in any demand: upwards
lnS- of thirty-one thousand English books were sold by the School-book Society
in the course of two years, while the Education Committee did not disppse of Arabic and Sanskrit volumes enough,
in three years to pay the expense of keeping them for two months, to say nothing of the printing expenses.
Among other signs of the times, a petition was presented to the Committee by a number of young men who had
been brought up at the Sanskrit College, pathetically representing that, notwithstanding the long and elaborate
course of study which they had gone through, they had little prospect of bettering their condition ; that the indiffer-
ence with which they were generally regarded by their countrymen left them no hope of assistance from them,
and that they, therefore, trusted that the Goverment, which had made them what they were, would not abandon
them to destitution and neglect. The English Classes which had been tacked on to this and other Oriental Colleges,
had entirely failed in their object. The boys had not time to go through an English, in addition to an Oriental
course, and the study which was secondary was naturally neglected. The translations into Arabic, also, appeared
to have made as little impression upon the few who knew that language, as upon the mass of the people who
were entirely unacquainted with it.
" Under these circumstances, a difference of opinion arose in the Committee. One section of it was for
following out the existing system, — for continuing the Arabic translations, —
Difference of opinion among 6 '•
Members of the Education the Pr°fuse patronage of Arabic and Sanskrit works, and the printing
Committee as to comparative operations ; by all which means fresh masses would have been added to an
claims of English and Oriental already unsaleable and useless hoard. An edition of Avicenna was also
projected, at an expense of 2,00(M ; and as it was found that, after hiring
students to attend the Arabic College, and having translations made for their use at an expense of thirty-two
shillings a page, neither students nor teachers could understand them, it was proposed to employ the translator
as the interpreter of his own writings, at a further expense of 300 rupees a month. The other section of the
Committee wished to dispense with this cumbrous and expensive machinery for teaching English science through
the medium of the Arabic language ; to give no bounties in the shape of stipends to students, for the encourage-
ment of any particular kind of learning; to purchase or print only such Arabic and Sanskrit books as might
7
KSIil.lSH EDUCATION IX INDIA.
actually be required for the use of the different colleges; and to employ that portion of their annual income, which
would by then means be set free, in the establishment of new seminaries for giving instruction in Enghsh and the
Vernacular language-, at the places where such institutions were most in demand.
" This fundamental ditYerence of opinion long obstructed the business of the Committee. Almost everytl
which came before them was more or less involved in it. The two parties
Obstruction caused in con- were so equaiiy balanced as to be unable to make a forward movement in
sequence. any Direction. A particular point might occasionally be decided by an acci-
dental majority of one or two, but as the decision was likely to be reversed the next time the subject came ulider
,,msHl,n,nnn, this only added inconsistency to inefficiency. This state of things lasted for about three years,
until both parties became convinced that the usefulness and respectability of their body would be utterly com-
promised by its longer continuance. The Committee had come to a dead stop, and the Government alone could
set it in motion again, by giving a preponderance to one or the other of the two opposite sections. The members,
therefore, took the only course which remained open to them, and laid before the Government a statement of their
existing position, and of the grounds of the conflicting opinions held by them.
" The question was now fairly brought to issue, and the Government was forced to make its election between two
Government called upon opposite principles. So much, perhaps, never depended upon the determina-
te decide the issue between tion of any Government. Happily, there was then at the head of affairs one
English and Oriental learning. Of the few who pursue the welfare of the public, independently of every per-
sonal consideration : happily, also, he was supported by one who, after having embellished the literature of Europe,
came to its aid when it was trembling in the scale with the literature of Asia."*
The first allusion in the preceding passage is to Lord William Bentinck, then Governor-General of India, and,
the second to Lord Macaulay, who had recently arrived from Entrland. as a
Lord Macaulay's celebrated
Minute in favour of English Member of the new Supreme Council in India. On his arrival, Macaulay
Education, dated 2nd Pebru- was appointed President of the Committee ; but he declined to take any
ary, 1835. active part in its proceedings until the Government had finally pronounced on
the question at issue. Later, in January 1835, the advocates of the two systems, than whom ten abler men could
not be found in the Service, laid their opinions before the Supreme Council ; and, on the 2nd of February, Macaulay,
as a Member of that Council, produced a Minute in which he adopted and defended the views of the English
section in the Committee." f The Minute contains some passages which are interesting and instructive, as throwing
light upon the spirit and nature of the new educational policy, and they may be quoted here : —
" How stands the case ? We have to educate a people who cannot at present be educated by means of their
V 1' h L'te ature ore emi- mother-tongue. We must teach them some foreign language. The claims of
nent and best suited for Edu- °ur own language it is hardly necessary to recapitulate. It stands pre-emi-
cation in India. nent even among the languages of the West. It abounds with works of imagi-
nation not inferior to the noblest which Greece has bequeathed to us ; with models of every species of eloquence ;
with historical compositions, which, considered merely as narratives, have seldom been surpassed, and which, con-
sidered as vehicles of ethical and political instruction, have never been equalled ; with just and lively representa-
tions of human life and human nature ; with the most profound speculations on metaphysics, morals, government,
jurisprudence, and trade ; with full and correct information respecting every experimental science which tends to
preserve the health, to increase the comfort, or to expand the intellect of man. Whoever knows that language has
ivudy access to all the vast intellectual wealth which all the wisest nations of the earth have created and hoarded
in the course of ninety generations. It may safely be said that the literature now extant in that language is of far
value than all the literature which three hundred years ago was extant in all the languages of the world
together. Nor is this all. In India, English is the language spoken by the ruling class. It is spoken by the
higher class of Natives at the seats of Government. It is likely to become the language of commerce throughout
the seas of the East. It is the language of two great European communities which are rising, the one in the
h of Africa, the other in Australasia; communities which are every year becoming more important, and more
< cted with oar Indian Empire. Whether we look at the intrinsic value of our literature or at the par-
ticular situation of this country, we shall see the strongest reason to think that, of all foreign tongues, the English
tongue is that which would be the most useful to our Native subjects.
" Tin: question now • " ~-Js simply whether, when it is in our power to teach this language, we shall teach
languages in which, b, ,,f jn, ua, Vol. Ulfjession, there are no books on any subject, which deserve to be compared to
Honourable Charles G
rs of this "•(!„_ On the Education of the people of India, pp. 9-13.
Jmtory of India, Vol. III., jan'B Life of Macaulay, Ed. 1881 ; p. 290
LORD MACAULAY'S MINUTE ON ENGLISH EDUCATION, 1835. £>1
our own ; whether, when we can teach European science, we shall teach systems which, by universal confession,
whenever they differ from those of Europe, differ for the worse ; and whether, when we can patronise sound philo-
sophy and true history, we shall countenance, at the public expense, medical doctrines, which would disgrace an
English farrier — astronomy, which would move laughter in the girls at an English boarding-school — history,
abounding with kings thirty feet high, and reigns thirty thousand years long — and geography made up of seas of
treacle and seas of butter.
" We are not without experience to guide us. History furnishes several analogous cases, and they all teach
the same lesson. There are in modern times, to go no further, two memor-
Analogous cases of education- ,.. . *.-•!• • ~. j
1 «• * nole instances ot a great impulse given to the mind of a whole society — ot
prejudice overthrown — of knowledge diffused — of taste purified — of arts and
sciences planted in countries which had recently been ignorant and barbarous.
"The first instance to which I refer is the great revival of letters among the Western nations at the close of
the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth century. At that time almost
Revival of letters in Europe evory thing that was worth reading was contained in the writings of the
at the close of the 15th and the
beginning of the 16th century ancient Greeks and Komans. Had our ancestors acted as the Committee ot
Public Instruction has hitherto acted ; had they neglected the language of
Cicero and Tacitus ; had they confined their attention to the old dialects of our own island ; had they printed
nothing, and taught nothing at the universities, bnt chronicles in Anglo-Saxon, and romances in Norman- French,
would England have been what she now is ? What the Greek and Latin were to the contemporaries of More and
Ascham, our tongue is to the people of India. The literature of England is now more valuable than that of
classical antiquity. I doubt whether the Sanscrit literature be as valuable as that of our Saxon and Norinan
progenitors. In some departments in history, for example, I am certain that it is much less so.
" Another instance may be said to be still before our eyes. Within the last hundred and twenty years, a nation
which had previously been in a state as barbarous as that in which our ances-
tors were before the Crusades, has gradually emerged from the ignorance in
gress in Russia.
which it was sunk, and has taken its place among civilised communities. I
speak of Russia. There is now in that country a large educated class, abounding with persons fit to serve the State
in the highest functions, and in no wise inferior to the most accomplished men who adorn the best circles of Paris
and London. There is reason to hope that this vast Empire, which in the time of our grandfathers was probably
behind the Punjab, may, in the time of our grandchildren, be pressing close on France and Britain in the career of
improvement. And how was this change effected ? Not by flattering national prejudices ; not by feeding the mind
of the young Muscovite with the old woman's stories which his rude fathers had believed ; not by filling his head
with lying legends about St. Nicholas ; not by encouraging him to study the great question, whether the world
was or was not created on the 13th of September ; not by calling him ' a learned native, ' when he has mastered all
these points of knowledge ; but by teaching him those foreign languages in which the greatest mass of information
had been laid up, and thus putting all that information within his reach. The languages of western Europe civilised
Russia. I cannot doubt that they will do for the Hindoo what they have done for the Tartar."*
Lord William Bentinck This Minute was concurred in by Lord William Bentinck and his Council,
adoptsLordMacaulay'sviews; and on the 7th March Ig35 the passed the foiiowing Resolution, which set
Government Resolution, dated
7th March r835 in favour of question at rest once and for ever, and which is one of the most memorable
English Education. records in the history of Education in India. It was thus worded : —
" The Governor-General of India in Council has attentively considered the two letters from the Secretary
to the Committee, dated the 21st and 22nd January last, and the papers referred to in them.
" 2nd. — His Lordship in Council is of opinion that the great object of the British Government ought to be
the promotion of European literature and science amongst the natives of India, and that all the funds appropri-
ated for the purposes of education would be best employed on English education alone.
" 3rd. — But it is not the intention of his Lordship in Council to abolish any college or school of native learn-
ing, while the native population shall appear to be inclined to avail themselves of the advantages which it affords ;
and his Lordship in Council directs that all the existing professors and students at all the institutions under the
superintendence of the Committee shall continue to receive their stipends. But his Lordship in Council decidedly
objects to the practice which has hitherto prevailed, of supporting the students during the period of their educa-
tion. He conceives that the only effect of such a system can be to give artificial encouragement to branches of
learning which, in the natural course of things, would be superseded by more useful studies ; and he directs that
* Trevelyan's Life of Macnulay, Ed. 1881 ; pp. 290-292.
52 ENGLISH EDfCATIOX IN INDIA.
no stipend shall be given to any student who may hereafter enter any of these institutions, and that when any
professor of Oriental learning shall vacate his situation, the Committee shall report to the Government the number
and state of the class, in order that the Government may be able to decide upon the expediency of appointing a
successor.
" -ith. — It has come to the knowledge of the Governor- General in Council that a large sum has been expended
by the Committee, in the printing of Oriental works. His Lordship in Council directs that no portion of the
funds shall hereafter be so employed.
" ">//(.. — His Lordship in Council directs, that all the funds which these reforms will leave at the disposal of
the Committee be henceforth employed in imparting to the native population a knowledge of English literature
and science, through the medium of the English language ; and His Lordship in Council requests the Committee
to submit to Government, with all expedition, a plan for the accomplishment of this purpose."*
While such was the nature of the future educational policy declared by Government, it is important to con-
Feelings of the Hindus en- aider the feelings with which it was regarded by the Native population. It
tirely in favour of English has already been shown that the Hindus in Bengal had already been foremost
Education. jn their desire to learn the English language, literature, and sciences, and had
' for this purpose founded the Vidyalaya or Anglo-Indian College, from their own voluntary contributions, so far back as
1816, and that Raja Earn Mohun Boy, the recognised leader of their advanced and enlightened party, had submit-
ted his able and eloquent Memorial, in 1823, protesting against the expenditure of money on Sanskrit learning, and
praying that all available funds and endeavours should be devoted to the promotion of education in the English
language, literature, and sciences, among the people of India. It has also been stated that, in 1827, the Hindus of
Bombay raised a vast subscription exceeding two lacs of rupees as an endowment for Professors of the English
language, and European arts and sciences, in honor of Mr. Elphinstone, the late Governor of the Presidency, and
that their efforts resulted in the foundation of the Elphinstone Institution, or College, in Bombay. There can,
therefore, be no doubt that the Governor-General's Resolution of the 7th March, 1835, was greeted with joy by the
Hindus, and contemporary evidence is not wanting to show that such was the case. Sir Charles Trevelyan, who
at that time held important office in the Indian Civil Service, bears his testimony to the then state of things, in the
following words : —
" This brings us to the second point which we had to consider, namely, whether, supposing English literature
Sir Charles Trevelyan' s tea- *° be best adapted for the improvement of the people of India, they are them-
timony as to the popularity of selves ready to profit by the advantages which it holds out. If it can be
Hindus Proved that tuition in European science has become one of the sensible wants
of the people, and that, so far from being satisfied with their own learning,
they display an eager avidity to avail themselves of every opportunity of acquiring the knowledge of the West,
t must be admitted that the case put by the Committee of 1824 has occurred, and that, according to their own
rule, the time has arrived when instruction in Western literature and science may be given on an extensive scale,
without any fear of producing a re-action.
" The proofs that such is the actual state of things have been already touched upon. As the principle of the
Excessive sale of English School'book SocietJ is> *° P«nt only such books as are in demand, and to dis-
School-books during 1834-35. P°S6 °f them only to those who Pa^ for tllem> its operations furnish, perhaps,
the best test of the existing condition of public feeling in regard to the
different systems of learning which are simultaneously cultivated in India. It appears, from their last printed
Report, that from January 1834 to December 1835, the following sales were effected by them :—
" Kn-lish books ... 01 KiQ
••* • • • . . . O -I }»J*xi7
^..-Asiatic, or books partly in English and partly in some Eastern language 4 525
l!l""-'alee ............... 5,754
4,171
Hindusthanee
. ••• ... ...
Persian ....
••• — ... ... ... 1,454
. ••• ••• ••• ... ...
Arabic
...... t)ft
r, . .. "• "• ••• ••• ... OD
Sanskrit
'Irdeed books in the learned native languages are such a complete drug in the market, that the School-
time past ceased to print them ; and that Society, as well as the Education Committee,
* Trevelyan— On the Education of the people of India, pp. 13-15.
SPREAD OF TASTE FOR ENGLISH LITERATURE. ~>'A
has a considerable part of its capital locked up in Sanskrit and Arabic lore, which was accumulated during the
period when the Oriental mania carried everything before it. Twenty-three thousand such volumes, most of them
folios and quartos, filled the library, or rather the lumber-room, of the Education Committee at the time when the
printing was put a stop to, and during the preceding three years, their sale had not yielded quite one thousand
rupees.
" At all the Oriental Colleges, besides being instructed gratuitously, the students had monthly stipends
allowed them, which were periodically augmented till they quitted the in-
Small sale of Oriental Books.
stitution. At the English seminaries, not only was this expedient tor obtain-
ing pupils quite superfluous, but the native youth were ready themselves to pay for the privilege of being admitted.
The average monthly collection on this account from the pupils of the Hindoo College, for February and March, 1836,
was, sicca rupees, 1,325. Can there be more conclusive evidence of the real state of the demand than this ? The
Hindoo College is held under the same roof as the new Sanskrit College, at which thirty pupils were hired at
8 rupees each, and seventy at five rupees, or 590 rupees a month in all.
" The Hindoo College was founded by the voluntary contributions of the Natives themselves, as early as 1816.
Hindu Scholars educated in ^n 1831, the Committee reported, that ' a taste for English had been widely
the Vidyalaya, propagate taste disseminated, and independent schools, conducted by young men reared in the
for English language and liter- Vidyalaya (the Hindoo College), are springing up in every direction.' This
spirit, gathering strength from time, and from many favourable circumstances,
had gained a great height in 1835 ; several rich Natives had established English schools at their own expense ; Asso-
ciations had been formed for the same purpose at different places in the interior, similar to the one to which the
Hindoo College owed its origin. The young men who had finished their education propagated a taste for our litera-
ture, and, partly as teachers of benevolent or proprietary schools, partly as tutors in private families, aided all
classes in its acquirement. The tide had set in strongly in favour of English education, and when the Committee
declared itself on the same side, the public support they received rather went beyond, than fell short of what was
required. More applications were received for the establishment of schools than could be complied with ; there were
more candidates for admission to many of those which were established than could be accommodated. On the
opening of the Hooghly College, in August, 1836, students of English flocked to it in such numbers as to render the
oi-ganization and classification of them a matter of difficulty. Twelve hundred names were entered on the books of
this department of the College within three days, and at the end of the year there were upwards of one thousand
in regular attendance. The Arabic and Persian classes of the institution at the same time mustered less than two
hundred. There appears to be no limit to the number of scholars, except that of the number of teachers whom the
Committee is able to provide. Notwithstanding the extraordinary concourse of English students at Hooghly, the
demand was so little exhausted, that when an auxiliary school was lately opened within two miles of the College,
the English department of it was instantly filled, and numerous applicants were sent away unsatisfied. In the
same way, when additional means of instruction were provided at Dacca, the number of pupils rose at once from
150 to upwards of 300, and more teachers were still called for. The same thing also took place at Agra. These
are not symptoms of a forced and premature effort, which, as the Committee of 1824 justly observed, would have
recoiled upon themselves, and have retarded our ultimate success."*
This state of things was, however, limited to the Hindus. Far different were the feelings of the Mahomedun^,
whose attitude towards English education was anything but friendly. Con-
Mahomedans oppose English .. ,.,,•• • r • i. j \. ^ -j t ,0,
Education and memorialize temporaneous evidence ot this circumstance is turnished by the evidence ot the
against the Government Re- celebrated Sanskrit scholar, Mr. H. H. Wilson, who at that period, and since
solution of 7th March, 1835. 1823, had been a member and Secretary of the Committee of Public Instruction
testimony of Mr. H. H. at Calcutta, and was otherwise deeply interested and concerned in the spread of
Education in India. He was examined upon the subject of the measures taken
by Government in 1835, as a witness before a Select Committee of the House of Commons, on the 18th July 1853.
The question put to him was : " Prom your intimate acquaintance with literary men, when you were in India, what
is your impression of the opinion that they formed of that neglect of the languages of India, which you say has been
manifested ? " His answer was that, " Upon the determination to abolish the stipends, and the proposal to appro-
priate all the funds to English education, there was a petition from the Mahomedans of Calcutta, signed by about
8,000 people, including all the most respectable Maulavis and native gentlemen of that city. After objecting to it
upon general principles, they said that the evident object of the Government was the conversion of the Natives ;
that they encouraged English exclusively, and discouraged Mahomedan and Hindu studies, because they wanted
* Trevelyan — On the Education of the people of India, pp. 78-83.
;. I ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
to induce the people to become Christians; they looked upon their exclusive encouragement of English as a step
towards conversion."*
Such feelings of aversion towards English education entertained by the Mahomedans, and evinced so early as
I >:'..">, stand in strong contrast to the attitude of the Hindu community, who, as has been shown, had zealously proved
their desire to acquire a knowledge of the English language, literature, and sciences, by founding the Anglo-Indian
College, so far back as 1816, and by the Memorial which had been presented on their behalf by Raja Ram Mohun
Hoy to Lord Amherst, then Governor- General of India. This difference between the sentiments of the two com-
munities towards English education, is the real key to the reasons of the vast disparity of progress in English
education which the two nationalities have respectively made. The effects of this disparity have been most baneful
to the interests of British India in general, and to the Mahomedan community in particular, and those effects have
not yet disappeared, as will be shown in a later part of this work.
CHAPTER XL
CONTENDING ARGUMENTS OF THE ADVOCATES OF ENGLISH EDUCATION, AND THE
SUPPORTERS OF ORIENTAL LEARNING IN ARABIC AND SANSKRIT.
In a historical review of the progress of education in India, it would scarcely be fair that the account of the
controversy which raged between the advocates of the Oriental classical
The Controversy-English education, and the advocates of education in the English language, literature,
Education versus Oriental
learning a sciences, should be limited to what has been stated in the preceding
chapter as to Lord Macaulay's Minute of 2nd February 1835, and the decision
of the controversy by the Government Resolution of 7th March 1835. Whatever the merits of the controversy
may be, it is one of so much importance that it can never lose its historical interest. The views and arguments
of the advocates of English education have been summed up by Sir Charles Trevelyan in the following words : —
" The Hindu system of learning contains so much truth, as to have raised the nation to its present point of
civilization, and to have kept it there for ages without retrogading, and so
Arguments of the Advocates
of English Education much error, as to have prevented it from making any sensible advance during
the same long period. Under this system, history is made up of fables, in which
the learned in vain endeavour to trace the thread of authentic narrative ; its medicine is quackery ; its geography
and astronomy are a monstrous absurdity ; its law is composed of loose contradictory maxims, and barbarous and
ridiculous penal provisions ; its religion is idolatry ; its morality is such as might be expected from the example
of the gods and the precepts of the religion. Suttee, Tliugyee, human sacrifices, Ghaut murder, religious suicides,
and other such excrescences of Hinduism, are either expressly enjoined by it, or are directly deduced from the
principles inculcated by it. This whole system of sacred and profane learning is knitted and bound together by
the sanction of religion ; every part of it is an article of faith, and its science is as unchangeable as its divinity.
ning is confined by it to the Brahmins, the high priests of the system, by whom and for whom it was devised.
All the other classes are condemned to perpetual ignorance and dependence; their appropriate occupations are
assigned by the laws of caste, and limits arc lixcd. beyond which no personal merit or personal good fortune can
raise them. The peculiar wonder of the Hindu system is, not that it contains so much or so little true
knowledge, but that it lias been so skilfully contrived for arresting the progres of the human mind, as to exhibit
it at the end of two thousand yeftn fixed at nearly the precise point at which it was first moulded. The Maho-
medan system of learning is many degrees better, and ' resembles that which existed among the nations of Europe
before the invention of printing;' so far does even this fall short of the knowledge with which Europe is
now blessed. These are the systems under the influence of which the people of India have become what they are.
They have been weighed in the balance, and have been found wanting. To perpetuate them, is to perpetuate
the degradation and misery of the people. Our duty is not to teach, but to nnteach them,— not to rivet the
shackles which have for ages bound down the minds of our subjects, but to allow them to drop off by the lapse
of time and the progress of events.
* Printed Parliamentary Papers (1853) : Sixth Report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons on I-idian Territories, p. 12.
ENGLISH .EDUCATION VBTSUS ORIENTAL LEARNING. 55
" If we turn from Sanskrit and Arabic learning, and the state of Society which has been formed by it, to
Western learning, and the improved and still rapidly improving condition of the Western nations, what a different
spectacle presents itself ! Through the medium of English, India has been brought into the most intimate connec-
tion with this favoured quarter of the globe, and the particular claims of- the English language as an instrument of
Indian improvement have thus become a point of paramount importance. f *
" As of all existing languages and literatures the English is the most replete with benefit to the human race,
so it is overspreading the earth with a rapidity far exceeding any other.
Importance of the English With a partial exception in Canada, English is the language of the Continent
of America, north of Mexico ; and at the existing rate of increase there will
be a hundred millions of people speaking English in the United States alone at the end of this century. In the
West India Islands we have given our language to a population collected from various parts of Africa, and by this
circumstance alone they have been brought many centuries nearer to civilization than their countrymen in Africa,
who may for ages grope about in the dark, destitute of any means of acquiring true religion and science. Their
dialect is an uncouth perversion of English, suited to the present crude state of their ideas, but their literature will
be the literature of England, and their language will gradually be conformed to the same standard. More recently
the English language has taken root in the Continent of Africa itself, and a nation is being formed by means of it
in the extensive territory belonging to the Cape, out of a most curious mixture of different races. But the scene of
its greatest triumphs will be in Asia. To the South a new Continent is being peopled with the English race ; to the
north, an ancient people, who have always taken the lead in the progress of religion and science in the East, have
adopted the English language as their language of education, by means of which they are becoming animated by a
new spirit, and are entering at once upon the improved knowledge of Europe, the fruit of the labour and inven-
tion of successive ages. The English language, not many generations hence, will be spoken by millions in all the
four quarters of the globe ; and our learning, our morals, our principles of constitutional liberty, and our religion,
embodied in the established literature, and diffused through the genius of the Vernacular languages, will spread
far and wide among the nations.
" The objection, therefore, to the early proceedings of the Education Committee is, that they were calculated to
Objections to the early pro- produce a revival, not of sound learning, but of antiquated and pernicious
ceedings of the Education errors. The pupils in the Oriental Seminaries were trained in a complete course
Committee. of Arabic and Sanskrit learning, including the theology of the Vedas and the
Koran, and were turned out accomplished Myulavies and Pundits, — the very class whom the same Committee des-
cribed as ' satisfied with their own learning ; little inquisitive as to anything beyond it, and not disposed to regard
the literature and science of the West as worth the labour of attainment.' And, having been thus educated, they
were sent to every part of the country to fill the most important situations which were open to the Natives, the few
who could not be provided for in this way, taking service as private tutors or family priests. Every literary at-
tempt connected with the old learning, at the same time, received the most liberal patronage, and the country was
deluged with Arabic and Sanskrit books. By acting thus, the Committee created the very evil which they pro-
fessed to fear. They established great corporations, with ramifications in every District, the feelings and interest
of whose members were deeply engaged on the side of the prevailing errors. All the murmuring which has been
heard has come from this quarter ; all the opposition which has been experienced has been headed by persons sup-
ported by our stipends, and trained in our Colleges. The money spent on the Arabic and Sanskrit Colleges was,
therefore, not merely a dead loss to the cause of truth ; it was bounty money paid to raise up champions of error,
and to call into being an Oriental interest which was bound by the condition of its existence to stand in the front of
the battle against the progress of European literature." J
Professor H. H. Wilson's The views entertained by the opposite section of the educationists may be
views in favour of Oriental explained in the words of Professor Wilson who, referring to the change of
f H+V, educational policy under the Resolution of Government, dated, the 7th March
Government resolution ol /tn
March 1835. 1835, makes the following observations : —
" The efforts made in the territories more favourably circumstanced, to promote the advance of useful know-
ledge, received from the Governor-General the most solicitous encouragement ; and considerable progress was made
under his auspices, in the multiplication of educational establishments, and the cultivation of the English language
and literature. English classes or seminaries were instituted at several of the principal stations in the Upper
Provinces, as well as in Bengal ; while at the same time the system of native study pursued at the Colleges, exclu-
sively appropriated to the education of Hindus and Mahomedans, was diligently superintended and improved,
t Trevelyan. — On the Education of the People of India, pp. 83-36. t H>., pp. 87-91.
;,i; rxni.isTT F.nrcATiox ix IXDIA.
and was in the course of being rendered co-operative in the dissemination of sound knowledge, by providing1
instructors qualified to enrich their own literature through the medium of translations from the English language.
Influenced, however, by the examples of extraordinary progress in English made, at Calcutta, under peculiarly
favourable circumstances, and misled by advisers, who had no knowledge of India or its people, beyond a limited
intercourse with the anglicised portion of the inhabitants of the metropolis, Lord W. Bentinck, shortly before his
departure, adopted the notion that English might be made the sole channel of instruction ; and resolved, that all the
funds appropriated to the purposes of education should be employed in imparting to the native population a knowledge
of English literature and science, through the medium of the English language alone. In order to carry this reso-
lution into effect, the endowments heretofore granted to the students of the native colleges were to be resumed, and
t he colleges themselves were to be abolished upon the diminution of the number of the students, which was effectually
provided for by depriving them of their principal, and often, only means of prosecuting their studies. In this exclu-
sive encouragement of the study of English, the circumstances of the great body of the people were wholly disregard-
ed. In Calcutta, where a considerable portion of the more respectable inhabitants were in constant and intimate
iation with Englishmen of every degree, and where numbers found employment in public or private ofliccs.
there were both an extensive want of the language, and abundant facilities, and ample leisure for its acquirement.
Heyond Calcutta, the accomplishment was of no practical usefulness, and no inducement existed to engage in a
MiM'csMirily long and arduous course of study. It was, therefore, evidently impossible that it should be cultivated
to any extent; and all attempts to introduce it universally, could be attended with but imperfect succ
The great truth was also overlooked, that a national literature can only co-exist with a national language ; and
that as long as knowledge is restricted to a foreign garb, it can be the property only of the few who can command
leisure and opportunity for its attainment. It was obvious that a language so difficult as English, and so utterly
discordant with every Indian dialect, could never become the universal medium of instruction ; and that, even if
it should be extensively studied, which, beyond certain narrow limits, was highly improbable, it would constitute
the literature of a class — never that of the people. The means of improving the spoken dialects, and fitting them
to become the vehicles of sound instruction, were at hand in the languages considered classical by Hindus and
Mahomedans, the Sanskrit and Arabic, and through them an easy passage might be found for the infusion of
European thought into Vernacular expression; but whether they were to be employed, as had previously been done
in accomplishing the object, or whether it might be more expedient to attempt the literary use of the spoken lan-
guages at once, it was undeniable that the exclusive encouragement of English was unjust to the native literary
-ses, and was of no benefit to the bulk of the population." *
This can scarcely be said to be a fair criticism of the proceedings of the Committee of Public Instruction,
The promotion of Vernacular a^er *ne Government Resolution of the 7th of March, 1835, and the matter
Education not excluded by the has been explained by Sir Charles Trevelyan : " In the long discussion which
Government Resolution of 7th preceded the change in the plan of the Committee, there was one point on
March, 11 which all parties were agreed : this was. that the vernacular languages con-
tained neither the literary nor scientific information necessary for a liberal education. It was admitted on all
sides that while the instruction of the mass of the people, through the medium of their own language was the
ultimate object to be kept in view, yet, meanwhile, teachers had to be trained, a literature had to be created,
and the co-operation of the upper and middle classes of Native Society had to be secured. The question which
divided the Committee was — What language was the best instrument for the accomplishment of these great
objects y Half the members contended that it was English, the other half that it was Sanskrit and Arabic. As
there was no dispute about the Vernacular language, no mention was made of it in the Resolution of the 7th March,
Is:',."), which contained the decision of the Government. This omission led many, who were not acquainted with
the course the <li>cu»ion hud taken, to fear that the point had been altogether overlooked ; and in order to obviate
this misapprehension, the Committee made the following remarks, in the first Annual Report submitted by them
tn the (ioverimieiit. after the promulgation of the resolution referred to : —
•• -\Ve are deeply sensible of the importance of encouraging the cultivation of the Vernacular languages. We
First Annual Report of the do not conceive that the order of the 7th of March precludes us from doing
Education Committee recog- this, and we have constantly acted on this construction. In the discussions
nizes importance of Vernacu- which preceded that order, the claims of the Vernacular languages were
broadly and prominently admitted by all parties, and the question submitted
for the decision of ("lo\ eminent, only concerned the relative advantage of teaching English on the one side, and the
learned Eastern languages on the other. We therefore conceive that the phrases ' European literature and sciences,"
* Wilson'8 JIutory <,f British India, Vol. III. (Ed. 1848), pp. 305-307.
RELIGIOUS NEUTRALITY IN EDUCATION. ">7
' English Education alone,' and ' imparting to the native population a knowledge of English literature and science,
through the medium of the English language,' are intended merely to secure the preference to European
learning, taught through the medium of the English language, over Oriental learning, taught through the
medium of the Sanskrit and Arabic languages, as regards the instruction of those Natives who receive a
learned education at our seminaries. These expressions have, as we understand them, no reference to the
question, through what ulterior medium such instruction, as the mass of the people is capable of receiving,
is to be conveyed. If English had been rejected, and the learned Eastern tongues adopted, the people must equally
have received their knowledge through the Vernacular dialects. It was therefore quite unnecessary for the Govern-
ment, in deciding the question between the rival languages, to take any notice of the Vernacular tongues,
:u id consequently we have thought that nothing could reasonably be inferred from its omission to take sucli
notice.
" We conceive the formation! of a Vernacular literature to be the ultimate object to which all oiir efforts must
be directed. At present, the extensive cultivation of some foreign language, which is always very improving to the
mind, is rendered indispensable by the almost total absence of a Vernacular literature, and the consequent impossi-
bility of obtaining a tolerable education from that source only. The study of English, to which many circum-
stances induce the Natives to give the preference, and with it the knowledge of the learning of the West, is there-
fore daily spreading. This, as it appears to us, is the first stage in the process by which India is to be enlightened.
The Natives must learn before they can teach. The best educated among them must be placed in possession of
our knowledge, before they can transfer it into their own language. We trust that the number of such transla-
tions will now multiply every year. As the superiority of European learning becomes more generally appreciated,
the demand for them will no doubt increase, and we shall be able to encourage any good books which may be
Ill-ought out in the native languages, by adopting them extensively in our seminaries.
" A teacher of the Vernacular language of the Province is already attached to several of our institutions, and
we look to this plan soon becoming general. We have also endeavoured to secure the means of judging for our-
selves of the degree of attention which is paid to this important branch of instruction, by requiring that the best
translations from English into the Vernacular language, and vice versa, should be sent to us after each Annual
Examination, and if they seem to deserve it, a pecuniary prize is awarded by us to the authors of them." *
CHAPTER XII.
RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION NO PART OF GOVERNMENT EDUCATIONAL POLICY. -MARQUIS OF
TWEEDDALE'S MINUTE OF 1846, IN FAVOUR OF RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION, DISAPPROVED
BY COURT OF DIRECTORS.— PETITION OF THE NATIVES OF MADRAS TO PARLIAMENT,
IN ]852, ON THE SUBJECT.— RESULT OF THE CONTROVERSY.
Somewhat akin to the controversy as to the comparative claims of the English language, literature, and
sciences on the one hand, and of the Oriental learning on the other, was
N ° E^ another discussion of almost equal importance. The question was whether
the education provided by the State should be entirely secular, or should also
include religious and moral instruction. It is important to deal with this subject at some length, not only because
the British rule in India has not unfrequently been accused of having adopted its educational policy with the real
object of propagating Christianity, but also because the subject in itself is one which even now, in some form or
other, becomes matter of consideration by educationists in India. Another reason why this matter is sufficiently
important to be historically investigated, is that, as a matter of fact, unfounded suspicions, on the part of the Maho-
medan community in particular, as to the motives of the Government, have in a large measure operated to keep-
them aloof from English education, with the lamentable result, as will hereafter be shown, that they have been
* Treveljran, On. the Edu -atinn of the people of India, pp. 20-24-. See also Printed Parliamentary Papers : Second Report of tliu
Select Committee of the House of Lords (1852-53), Appendix I, p. 481.
8
LT10S IS 1XWA.
left far behind llu-ir Hi-h, fellow-countrymen in ,1,,- knowledge of the E,,,,islMHn,un,,, nn,,, arc, u.U™, and
have consequently suffered ,-va, loss of prosperity in all the mrious baches of worldlj orations.
,„.„ that ,!,„,„ i. paring of .1- Gov,,n,n,,,t Besoluti f the 7th March, L835, b EavonroJ English educafc
,},,v were thr lirst to raix,. t he ,-rv that the change in 1 he educational policy inaugurated l,y that Resolution mi
due' to a clandestine motto of propagating n.nMmnity among the people of India, and they seem to have i
dhercd to this suspicion till very recent years.
The facts of history, however, show that such suspicions were entirely unfounded. \\ hatever the views
dividual philanthropists, like Mr. Charles ('.rant, who originally devoted their
Religious Neutrality in Edu- .,(,^,,,1,,,, to the intellectual, moral, and social welfare of the people of India,
cation adopted as State Policy. may havo be[!nj it is ^,,.(.,1,! that the State, in its relations with India, never
adopted a proselytizing policy. The language of section 43 of the Act of Parliament, ii3, Geo. III., (hap. 155,
whilst requirinir t'hat " A sum of not less than one lac of rupees in each year shall lie set apart and applied to the
revival and improvement of literature, and the encouragement of the learned Nat ives of India, and for the intro-
duction and promotion of the sciences among the inhabitants of the British territories in India," makes absolutely
no mention of any religious instruction, and the Despatch of the Court of Directors, dated the 3rd June, 1814,
explaining the effe'ct of that legislative provision, and containing directions to the Government of India, is equally
eareful in avoiding any reference to religious instruction. Indeed, the words of the Statute are so far from bearing
any interpretation of a proselytizing tendency that, when in 1835, the controversy raged as to the expediency of intro-
ducing English education, the party wh- advocated Oriental learning, seriously contended that, " It was not the
intention of Parliament, in making this assignment, to encourage the cultivation of sound learning and true prin-
ciples of science, but to bring about a revival of the antiquated and false learning of the shaslars, which had fallen
into neglect in consequence of the cessation of the patronage which had in ancient times been extended to it by the
Native Hindu Princes." Nor in the various Minutes recorded by eminent Anglo-Indian Statesmen and other State
papers, such as Despatches from the Court of Directors on the subject of education, which have been amply quoted
in the preceding chapters of this work, is there the least trace of any tendency to make the educational polic\ of
the British Rule a means of proselytizing the natives of India to Christianity. Indeed, in the various schools and
colleges which the Missionaries had founded at their own expense, the Bible was openly recognized as a class-book,
and instruction in the doctrines of Christianity formed part of the course of studies. But these institutions owed
their origin to private subscriptions of religious people in Great Britain or America, and had no connection with
the Government, which then, as now, has uniformly adhered to the wise principle of religious neutrality and toler-
ation in matters of public instruction.
That such was the case is borne out by the evidence of official documents. It appears that the Council of
Education in Madras, which had been formed on the lines of the Commit ice
Proposal in Madras to intro- of pub]ic Instruction of Bengai addressed a letter to the Governor of Madras.
duce the Bible as a class-book.
proposing the establishment of several provincial schools, and suggesting
that the Bible may be introduced as a subject of study in the classes receiving English education. The letter was
dated the 4th July, 1846, and the Marquis of Tweeddale, then Governor of the Presidency, recorded a .Minute,
dated the lilth August, 184G. from which the following passages may be quoted. a< bearing both upon the subject
of English Education, and the proposition to introduce the study of the Bible in the Government educational
institutions : —
"From the number of native languages spoken in this Presidency, it is clearly of importance, independent of
other considerations, that one universal language — English — should forma
Minute of the Marquis of promjnent object of study at the Government Schools. It will also be found
Tweoddale, dated 24th August ' . J .
10.- ... . the best, if not the sole, means of extending scientific knowledge and the
1846, in favour 01 tno proposal.
literature of Europe, as well as t'acilitat inir mercantile transactions between
the native community and captains of vessels trading to the ports of this Presidency. I fully approve, therefore,
of the prominence given to the study of English, as proposed.
'• ! think the standard tixed by the Council, under present circumstances, judicious ; but I would add a provision
for special cases, that whenever the Council are satisfied that the master of a provincial school is fully equal to
the task, and can form a class of students of superior intelligence, he should be required to instruct this class in
algebra, mathematics, and trigonometry, and in something more than the elements of geography and history .
•• 1 observe that there is a proposition of the Council to introduce the Bible into the English classes, as a class-
hook, and fi->ni the mixed character of that body, I conclude that the Council are full \ satisfied, from their knowledge
of Native Society at tins Presidency, that this measure will not interfere with the general usefulness of the schools
to 'he native community at large : and I understand that experience has shown this to be the ease.
STUDY OF THE BIBLE PROHIBITED IN GOVERNMENT SEMINARIES. ,r>!l
" I consider that a very important proviso has been added by the Council, viz., ' That attendance on the Bible-
class be left entirely optional.'
Attendance on the Bible- . . ...
1 t h t' al carrying out their proposition, it appears to me necessary that there
should be two classes for English reading, the one with, and the dthcr without,
the Bible as a class-book ; otherwise the rule might virtually negative the advantages to be derived from the English
Class generally.
" To avoid all difficulties on this head, I would propose that there should be invariably two classes for English
reading, the one with, and the other without the Bible, the latter class to precede the former in their hour of
instruction, and those inclined should have the advantage of attending both classes, and in a very short time I have
no doubt all would belong to the Bible-class.
" In considering the important question of imparting education to the inhabitants of a country, the great object
,., . _ with a Government must always be to improve the moral character of the
Moral Instruction necessary.
subjects over whom it rules ; whilst, at the same time, it affords facilities for
the cultivation of their minds ; and those who have been engaged in the spread of education on these principles,
must have witnessed the elevation of mind and character which attends such a combination of instruction.
" The value of a religious and practical education, to fit our own countrymen for the various duties of life, has
been established beyond all doubt ; and the increasing exertion which is now
Religious Instruction advi- , • ,. • . ,, e ...
. . making, to rescue those living in the dark recesses of our great cities at home,
from the state of degradation consequent on tiieir vicious and depraved habits,
the offspring of ignorance and sensual indulgence, is the most convincing evidence of the importance attached to
the moral character of all classes. I should infer, that the ignorance and degradation of a great bulk of the inha-
bitants of this country requires a remedy as active, to be applied by a process as simple, in order to elevate them
in the scale of human beings, as that needed by our unfortunate countrymen.
" Even amongst the more respectable classes employed in the service of Government, we have constant proofs
TJ f j »• f that, in this country, it requires a more solid foundation than is to be found in
More solid foundation of mo-
rality required for Public Ser- the Hindoo or Mahomedan faith, to bear the change which learning operates
vice, than that to be found in on the mind of those who emerge out of a state of ignorance, and attain those
the Hindu or Mahomedan rnental acquirements which enlarged education gives, or who are placed by
their superior ability in responsible situations in the employ of Government."*
These views having been communicated to the Court of Directors, they conveyed their orders in a Des-
patch, dated the 23rd March, 1847, to the Governor of Madras, approving
Despatch of the Court of Di- f th H f foundinR schpols, but prohibiting the introduction of the
rectors to the Government of
Madras dated 23rd March Bible as the subject of study in the Government educational institutions.
1847, prohibiting the introduc- The words of the Despatch on this subject are as follows : —
tion of the Bible in Govern- « The Council of Education propose that the Bible be included in the
ment Seminaries. studies of the English classes, attendance on the Bible-class being left optional.
You have suggested, in qualification of this proposal, that there shall be two separate English classes, from one of
which the Bible shall be excluded, and that it shall be left optional to the students to attend either class. You
have thought it right, however, before sanctioning either of them, to solicit our instructions as to the desirable-
ness of the measure, not only in regard to the provincial institutions, but as to its application to the University.
" The Provincial Schools at the Madras University are intended for the especial instruction of Hindoos and
Mahomedans in the English language and the sciences of Europe ; we cannot consider it either expedient or prudent to
introduce any branch of study which can in any way interfere with the religious feelings and opinions of the people.
All such tendency has been carefully avoided at both the other Presidencies, wheie native education has been suc-
cessfully prosecuted. We direct you, therefore, to refrain from any departure from the practice hitherto pursued. "f
Notwithstanding such clear directions, the authorities in Madras appear to
Petition to Parliament from
the natives of Madras, dated have given some cause of complaint to the native inhabitants ot that Presi-
10th December, 1852, protest- dency, who, in a petition to Parliament, dated the 10th December, 1852,
ing against religious interfer- represented their grievances on the subject of religious partiality in education,
ence in Education. M fo,lowg ._
" That with reference to the subject of National Education, your petitioners are anxious to bring to the notice
of your Honourable House certain proceedings which are now in train, in order to appropriate part of the
* Printed Parliamentary Papers (1853) : Sixth Report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons on Indian Territories;
pp. 189, 190. t /(-., P. 191.
ENT.USH EDITATIOX IN
Miou-d Grant towards the assistance of Missionary, or converging operations, as they exist at various stations
throughout this ['residency, under the name of a ' Graiit-in-aid System,' by which it is proposed to extend the
inii,,.v awirtMWeof Government ' to other institutions, which are now, or can be made, the instruments ot
imparting a Bound and liberal education, whether conducted by Missionary bodies or others ;' with which vie*
the Government has issued a Circular, in the Public Department, to the different Collectors, in which each is directed
to 'furnish the Government with the best and fullest information in your power regarding the educational
institutions within your district, whether conducted by private parties, or missionary or other public bodi.
and Ims further recorded,,, Minutes of Consultation, dated 1 st November. J852, 'The Governor in Council is not
inion that any Government Schools should be set up at stations in the provinces where private Missionary,
i,ei public semiiiarieB have already been established, and have been found adequate to the instruction of the
people. To that opinion he will now add, that he considers it very desirable to extend moderate pecuniary
to such schools, as a means of diffusing education, on sound and unexceptionable principles, and he
proposes that the Honourable Court be solicited to entrust the Government with a discretionary power on this
point
••That your petetioners would point out for the consideration of your Honourable House, that this propose.!
Protest against appropriation appropriation of the Education Funds to the support of Chris, inn Institutions
of Educational Funds to Chris- was rejected by the Court of Directors, in a Despatch to this Government, date. I
tian Institutions. 24th August, 1844, in reply to an official application in behalf of an institution
at the Presidency, called 'Bishop Corrie's Grammar School,' on the ground that it did not come 'within the object
of the funds set apart for the promotion of native education.' There is also on record a letter of the Court of Direc-
with reference to the introduction of the Bible as a class-book into the schools to be established from those
- ; which says, 'The provincial schools and the Madras University are intended for the especial instruction of
the Hindoos and Mahomed.ins in the English language and the sciences of Europe ; we cannot consider it either
expedient or prudent to introduce any branch of study which can in any way interfere with the religious feelings
ami opinions of the people. All such tendency has been carefully avoided at both the other Presidencies, where
e education has been successfully prosecuted. We direct you, therefore, to refrain from any departure from t lie
practice hitherto pursued.'
" That your petitioners hereupon represent to your Honourable House, if it be contrary to the intentions for
which the Educational Grant was bestowed, to devote any portion of it in aid
Educational Grant should of an institution where convertism is neither professed nor practised.
not be devoted to Proselytism. . . lv , ,. -r,., .
Bishop Oorries Grammar School, or to permit the establishment ot a Bible-
in any of the Government Schools, although the attendance at such class was to be left entirely optional with
the pupils, it would he a much wider divergence from the object, and a much greater ' interference with the religi-
. dings and opinions of the people,' to apply the funds especially at the discretion of the Madras Government,
at all times notorious for its proselyting propensities, in support of Missionary Institutions, wherein the study of the
Bible is not optional, but compulsory, and which are avowedly set on foot and maintained for the single object of
• •rtising the pupils, to whom on that account education is imparted free of charge ; and your petitioners con-
that the support of such institutions by the Government would be productive of the worst consequences, as it
would distinctly identify the ruling authorities with the one grand object of such schools, — the proselytism of the
res, the only difference lid ween which and the undisguised practice of convertism in the schools supported
t he State would amount to this : — Government would pay twice the price for a convert of its own direct
which it would ha\e to pav under the • G rant -in-aid,' to the seminaries of the Missionaries : at the same
B it would place itsell' at the head of all the M i.,>ionar\ Societies in the Presidency, doubling their pecuniary
rcsoi;rce>. enabling them tn increase tin' number of their agents, and to extend their convertising operations,
D proportion to t lie •discretionary power' with which this Government, in the Minutes above quoted,
lirMivs to IK; entrusted.
•• That your petitioners cannot avoid remarking, that the desire of the Madras Government, with regard to
Complaint against the Mar- rendering the educational funds committed to its trust subservient to the pur-
quis of Tweeddale's Minute of poses of prose! vt ism, is of some standing. The Marquis of Twecddale, while
24th August, 1846. entertaining the proposition of the Council of Education, to adopt the Bible
,i> a class-book, recorded his approbation of the measure, observing, in a Minute, dated the 24th August, 284(5,
• The value of a religions am! practical education to fit our countrymen for the various duties of life has been
established beyond. all doubt ;' and airain, ' The reports and complaints so constantly made to Government against
tlio integrity of the native servants, are sufficient evidence that something is wanting to ensure a faithful service
"i : ' and again. • It re ]"ire- • foundation ihan is to be found in the Hindu or Mahomedaii faiths
THE BIBLE NO PANACEA FOR IMMORALITY. (II
to bear the change which learning operates on the mind of those who are placed by their superior ability in respon-
sible situations in the employ of Government.' And the present Governor in Council, in his Minute, approving of
the ' Grant-in-aid ' to the Missionaries, has deemed it expedient to record, ' Although it is, perhaps, not immediately
relevant to the subject of these proceedings, yet as it is a momentous point in looking at the general question of
education to the Natives, the Governor in Council is compelled to state, both from observation and sedulous
inquiry, that he has arrived at the conclusion, that the people of this part of India, at least, have neither, Jby auv
means, had their minds expanded and enlarged to the degree that might have been anticipated through the instruc-
tion and care that has been bestowed upon them, nor has he seen any sufficient reason to indulge a belief that their
innate prejudices have been removed or even lessened, or their moral character and sense of veracity, integrity.
and proper principle, improved. He does not deny, but that there may be occasional bright exceptions ; but he is
of opinion that, whatever system of education may be enforced hereafter, its chief aim ought to be directed to moral
improvement, combined with extirpating the foul vices of untruthfulness and dishonesty, which are hardly now
held by the great masses to be a reflection, unless discovered.'
" That your petitioners do not consider this the proper place to remark upon the gratuitous insult offered to
_. their whole community by the Government, in recording such an opinion for the
Complaint against the Mar- * *
quis of Tweeddale's insulting so'e purpose of transmission to the Governors of the Madras University, one-
language towards the Native half of whom, to the number of seven, are Natives, under its Constitution ; but
Community. ^ey beg to observe that it ill becomes the Government to taunt the Natives
with ' the instruction and care that has been bestowed on them, ' whilst it has for so many years declined disbursing
one-half of the educational grant, and contented itself with keeping up a school of 160 pupils, established so far
from the town of Madras as to make it inconvenient for persons to send theii- children, besides charging a school fee
beyond the means of payment by the masses : and when, besides this ill-located and over-charging institution, there
is not a Government School over all the 140,000 square miles comprising the Madras territories.
" That the sweeping condemnation, if it be justly founded, which your petitioners are rather loth to believe,
seeing that Sir Henry Pottinger has never been known to mix with the
Study of the Bible, no pana- Natives exce t now and th when he may have presided at the Annual
cea for immorality.
University Examinations, and other such meetings, and with the servants of
his household, exhibit the fallacy of both the past and present Governments, in imagining the study of the Bible
to be a panacea for the ' vices of untruthfulness and dishonesty ;' for, as the whole of the instruction and care
bestowed on the Natives, beyond that bestowed upon the 160 pupils of the University, has been Missionary care
and instruction, devoted to the study of the Bible, and that in the proportion of thousands to tens, it must be
apparent that the ' sound and unexceptionable principles ' adverted ^o in the Minute, have done literally nothing
for the ' moral improvement ' of the pupils into whose minds they have been so sedulously instilled ; and therefore,
there can be no valid reason for extending a ' Grant-in-aid ' to institutions which have thus essentially failed ;
but there is a very strong reason against such aid being given, in order to assist in the conversion of the people,
with whose religious feelings and opinions the Court of Directors has so frequently pledged itself not to interfere ;
and with regard to which the present Charter Act, passed by the Imperial Parliament, enacts and requires, that
the Governor-General in Council shall, by laws and regulations, provide for the protection of the Natives within
the British territories from insult and outrage, in their persons, religions, or opinions."*
No cause for any such complaint appears to have arisen in any other part of British India, nor does the Govern-
Attempt to introduce the mL'nt ever appear to have departed from its wise and tolerant principle of re-
Bible in Government Semina- ligious neutrality in adopting measures to promote education among the
ries not made in any other part natives of India. It is indeed true that the Missionaries and other fervent
Christians among the English officers of the Government, from time to time,
expressed the view that the study of the Bible, together with elementary doctrines of Christianity, might be made
part of an optional course of study in Government Schools and Colleges, but such views were invariably rejected
by the Government, which has, therefore, been unduly slandered by those who have attributed to it a proselytizing
tendency in its educational policy. The sober opinions of the more prominent and important English officers of
Government are exemplified by the views expressed by Sir Frederick Halliday,f in his evidence before a Select
Committee of the House of Commons, on the 25th July, 1853. His opinion was asked as to the propriety of intro-
ducing the Bible as a class-book in the Government Schools, and his answer was as follows : —
* Printed Parliamentary Papers (1853) : Fir*t Report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons on Indian Territories ;
|i, > tG t. 105 : App.
f An eminent Her.gal Civilian, who was Scrreury to the Government of India, and afterwards became Lieutenant-Governor of
Bengal.
,;._» ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
" There are two ways of introducing the Bible into schools. One is as a class-book ; by which I nndei-stand a
horn- book for teaching the language merely ; that they sliould read out of that
Sir Frederick Halliday's evi- jn j,,.^,.^,^ to reading out of any other English I k. Another way is, that
CommomfTn 25th JulyTlSSS, the^ should read out of '*> intol%ontlv. so as to ""I""*, and be informed, of
against the introduction of the the full meaning of it, which involves, of course, the whole teaching of Chris-
Bible iu Government Semina- tianity. I cannot understand that there is any third way of introducing it.
ries. Either the Bible is to be read simply as a book for the teaching of English, or
it is to be read as a means of acquiring a knowledge of Christianity. If it be the first which is meant . so far as it
can be considered entirely distinct and capable of being separated from the actual teaching of Christianity, I
should object to it anywhere as a desecration. I do not think it is advisable that you should teach little boys to
thumb the Bible in that way ; they learn to look upon it, in all after life, as an abomination, for which they were
H,v.r,.,l and cuffed through their early years; and I think that that objection applies quite as much to Christian
OOnni ries as to heathen countries. But if it be intended to introduce the Bible as a class-book, which shall be read
with a view to instruction in its doctrines, and that, in fact, it shall be the means of giving a knowledge of Chris-
tianity, I object to it as being, in my judgment, a wrong means to a most desirable end ; I being most seriously and
entirely satisfied that it is by the careful and systematic keeping out of the Government Schools, and out of the
Government practice, all forcible and influential attempts at conversion, that we stand where we stand, and that the
Natives are willing to receive Missionary teaching and to hear Missionaries ; and that they do, in fact, evince that
verv tolerance, which is now brought forward by zealous persons on that side of the question, as a reason for alter-
ing the system hitherto pursued by the Government. I believe the persons who talk in that way, are utterly
unaware of the hand which has put them where they are, and holds them where they are ; I believe the very
tolerance, or as they sometimes call it, indifference of the Natives to Missionary teaching ; and the very reason
why the Missionaries go in perfect security and teach and preach all over the country, without stint or limit :
withont the slightest interference, or even exciting the anger of the Natives in any great degree, is that the
Natives are thoroughly persuaded, by a long course of observation of the conduct of the Govemment, that the
whole thing is a matter of private exhortation and private influence ; and that the force and influence of the
Government, whether in the schools or out of the schools, is never intended to be applied to that purpose. But
I have a very strong conviction, that if any other course were pursued ; if the Government, in the schools or out
of the schools, were, by reason of the present quiet and apparent tolerance of the Natives, to attempt to convert
either by influence or by force, it might produce a very serious convulsion, which would throw the Missionaries
back a great number of years." *
The Bible not to be intro- Again; being asked whether he thought it objectionable that the Government
duced even as an optional sub- should give permission to any class in the Government Schools, which wished it,
ject in Government Schools. to use the Bible, he said : —
" The meaning of that always is, for I have seen it attempted to be introduced in a private school, about which
there was a great deal of discussion, that if little boys from 6 to 12 years old, under the influence of the master,
can be got to say -they were willing to be taught Christianity, they ought to be taught it, withont reference to the
Will of their parents. I look upon that to be the grossest bad faith. If you are to teach Christianity, let it be
done, not only with the knowledge of the children, who are beside the question altogether, but also of their parents
and the people of the country ; but do not entice people into the school under the pretence of saying you will
only teach them Christianity if those little boys wish it, which is nothing but saying that it shall be taught at
the option and discretion of the master for the time being. If, however, it be added, ' and with the permission of
their parents,' which is never added on this speculation, then I answer that the permission of only one set of
parents, or even the majority of the parents belonging to one school, would not suffice. I do not think the
permission of even the whole set of parents of one school ought to suffice, in a political view of the question, to
induce the Government to alter its system. But if, which is a thing not to be looked forward to, the
parents all over India were of that opinion, then the whole aspect of the question would be changed." f
" The Bible is very extensively read by the Natives ; if anybody says, as I see has been said in a paper which
h AS been put into my hands by a gentleman in this room, that the Bible is 'systematically proscribed,' or
' authoritatively proscribed," I cannot understand the meaning of it ; persons who write in that way must
mean something which I am unable to fathom ; or they are not acquainted with the facts. It is not true that
the Bible is proscribed in the Government Schools ; it is put into the Government School libraries universally,
* Printed Parliamentary Papers (1853) : Sixth Report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons on Indian Territories,
\> 65. f n., pp. 55, 56.
MR. MAIiSIIMAN S TIlbTI.MO.NY AS TO RELIGIOUS NEUTRALITY.
and the students are allowed, to the top of their bent, to read it from beginning to end. I will not SHY
. that they are encouraged to do so ; but when 3^ou consider that they have to read and be examined in Milton.
in Johnson, in Addison, in Abercromby's Moral Philosophy, and in a variety of books of that class, and
looking also to the sort of examination which is required of them, and the full, complete, and comprehensive
knowledge of all the subjects of which those books treat, which is expected from those young men, it is perfectly
clear that they can do nothing without knowing that which appears sprouting upon the surface of every one
of those books at all times. It has been truly said by Sir Charles Trevelyan, in the Committee of the House of
Lords, that we are not conscious ourselves to the full extent of the amount of Christian teaching involved in a
thoroughly classical English education, independently of all direct efforts at conversion. It renders necessary
a knowledge of the Bible, and I may say a knowledge of the great doctrines of Christianity, which those young
men who have that peculiar desire to improve themselves, which is the characteristic of the Natives of Bengal,
are perfectly able to perceive, and perfectly desirous of following out ; the consequence is, that they do read and
study the Bible, no body objecting to, or standing in the way of their so doing. I believe there is more know-
ledge of the Bible in the Hindu College of Calcutta, than there is in any public school in England."*
To the evidence of Sir Frederick Halliday may be added the statement of another important witness, the
Testimony of Mr. John well-known Mr. John Clarke Marshman, whose unusually long residence
Clarke Marshman as to Jleli- in India was devoted principally to matters relating to education and enlighten-
gious Neutrality in Govern- ment among the people of India. He was examined by the Select Committee
ment Schools. of the House of Commons on the 8th of July, 1853, and being asked what
the rule was in the Government Schools respecting religious instruction, said : —
" The Government considers itself pledged to the principle of perfect neutrality on the subject of religion,
and religious instruction is therefore entirely excluded from the Government
His Deposition given before Schoolg . the education is completely confined to mere secular branches of
the House of Commons, on 8th
Julv 1853 instruction. I he Bible is altogether excluded, and great care is taken to
avoid any instruction which might be interpreted into a wish to use education
as a means of proselytism, or to tamper with the religious faith of the students. I have always thought that
the union of religious and secular instruction was absolutely indispensable to a good and complete education,
and that the exclusion of all reference to religious truth in the Government institutions was a matter of very great
regret. The Natives themselves also have always been accustomed to give a very high religious tone to secular
education. In fact, among the Natives themselves, religion is completely identified with education ; they go so
far as to represent even the very alphabet as having been communicated to men by the gods ; and all the
knowledge which the Natives possess, relative to history, geography, ,a8tronomy, or any other kind of secular
inst ruction, is given to them under a religious sanction. ***** The introduction of the Bible, or the
doctrines of Christianity, into those seminaries would create the greatest possible agitation in Native Society ;
in fact, such a degree of excitement as we have never seen before, far more intense than any thing which was
raised upon the question of Suttees, or even upon the recent occasion of the passing of t!;e Liberty of Conscience
An. The orthodox party would be joined by the liberal party, and they would immediately meet, and probably
form a kind of Committee of religious safety; they would, throughout the newspapers, both English and Native,
spread the report that the Government, after having for so long a period acted upon the principle of neutrality, had
now entered upon a crusade against their religion, and that it was endeavouring to make the education of the
Xa lives the means of proselytism. This powerful body in Calcutta would very probably determine, and the
determination would be supported by all the Hindoos in Calcutta, to exclude from the pale of Native Society
every individual who dared to send his children to those schools, till the obnoxious rule was repealed. The
introduction therefore of Christian instruction would be a source of very great embarrassment to the Government.
I think the immediate effect of it would be to close the schools, and that it would be found in some measure to
shake the coiidence of the community in the maintenance of that principle of religious neutrality, which is at
present so great a source of political security.
•• 1 think that another reason, which should not be overlooked, may be found, although it is a subject of great
delicacy to touch on, in the views of some of those who have superintended
English Professors indiffer- th(j b]i(j institutions connected with the State. I think there has been a
ent to Christianity. ,1^1 i • ,. /~n •
very strong impression upon the minds of many, that the exclusion of Chris-
tianity from the public institutions was with them a source of no regret; and that they have voluntarily placed in
* Printed Parliamentary Papers f]833) : Sixth Report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons on Indian Territories
p. 5(i.
• I ION IS IVIHA.
influential situations, in those institutions, men who were avowedly indifferent to Christianity; and some who
openly professed the principles of infidelity. 1 think that the character of the present Members of the Commit-
tee of Public I list run ion affords a sufficient guarantee against the recurrence of any such unpleasant and objec-
ble proceedings; '»K still there arc. doubtless, some among the Europeans employed as tutors in the Knglish
Colleges, who retard the truths of Christianity with perfed indifference, and who. if an appeal were made to then.
,,y ,,f thestm! ..rding the principles of Christianity, would very likely give such an answer as would
,ir the value of these truths in the minds of the Names. \Ve must also remember, that a very large propor-
tion of the teaehers in the ( ',o\ eminent Institutions are Natives, vers respectable and well- educated Natives, but
still Hindus, who do not consider Christianity to>bea Divine revelation j and I cannot imagine thai there would !><•
much advantage in the inculcation of Christian truth by tlu.se who did not appreciate its importance ; and thai it
would he better altogether to avoid any attempt to disseminate Christian truth in the institutions of the (iovern-
ment when there was any danger of its being accompanied wit h remarks ealeuhued to t lirow discredit upon the
doctrines of the Bible. I think those circumstances tend rather to mitigate the regret that every sincere Christian
would otherwise feel at the exclusion of religious instruction, that is, of instruction in the truths and doctrines of
Christiatiitv. from the public institutions of the Government,"*
The most suitable was to close this Chapter is to quote the following passages from an oHicial publicationf
M Arthur HowelPs views on the subject of education in liritish India prior to 18.") K by Mr. Arthur
on Religious Neutrality in Hosvell (Under-Secretary to the Government of India), whose views upon the
Education. subject deserve consideration : —
• iiefore leaving India, Lord William Bentinck had an opportunity of declaring, on two memorable occa,-
tbe strict policy of religions neutrality, which is still observed in the matter
Religious Neutrality declar- of e<jucation. Alarmed by the views of the Anglicists, and by the rumour of
the probable result of the controversy of the day, the Mussulman inhabitants
of Calcutta petitioned the Government to spare the Madrassa, and to abstain from measures ' systematically directed
towards the destruction of the literature and religious system of Islam,' or dictated by the desire to forward tin-
views of those 'who wish the conversion of all to their own faith.' The Governor-General replied,]: that 'such
motives never have influenced, never can influence, the Counsels of the Government,' and that he would feel
•uneasiness if he thought that the Government authorities had in any pai-t of their conduct afforded ground
or occasion of any kind for such an apprehension to be entertained by any class of the subjects of the
State.'
" In the same spirit, in reply to a parting address from the Missionaries, the Governor-General declared that
'the fundamental principle of British rule, the compact to which the (iovern-
Religious Neutrality re-af- ment stands solemnly pledged, is strict neutrality. To this important maxim.
policy as well as good faith have enjoined upon me the most scrupulous
observance. The same maxim is peculiarly applicable to n-eneral education. In all schools and colleges sup-
ported by Government this principle cannot be too strongly enforced, all interference and injudicious tampering
with the religious belief of the students, all mingling direct or indirect teaching of Christianity with the system
of instruction, ought to be positively forbidden.'
Despatch of the Court of Di- " It may not be out of place to record here how these sentiments of Lord
rectors, dated 13th April, 1858, William Bentinck's were confirmed twenty -three years afterwards, in one of
as to strict Religious Neutrality. tll(, liist i)os]mt(.hes§ issued from the Court of Directors.
•• • 'i . nt will adhere, with good faith, to its ancient policy of perfect neutrality in mi: Acting
the religion of the people of India, and we most earnestly caution all those in authority under it, not to afford, by
their conduct, the least color to the suspicion that that policy has undergone or will undergo any change.
'; ' It is perilous for men in authority to do as individuals that svhich they officially condemn. The intention of
the Government will be inferred from their acts, and they may unwillingly expose it to the greatest of all dangers.
— that of l.eiiiLT regarded with general distrust by the people.
•\Vercly upon the honorable feelings which have ever distinguished our Service for the furtherance of
the views which we express. When the Government of India makes a promise to the people, there must not be
afforded to them grounds for a doubt as to its fidelity to its word.'
* Printed Parliamentary Papers (1853) : Sixth Report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons on Indisui Territories,
pp. •-'.
t Elticatinn in Hriti*h India prior to 1854. By Arthur Uowell, Esq., 1872; pp. 33-35.
t Pated Pth March, 1835. 5 No. 52, dated 13th April, !858.
RELIGIOUS NEUTRALITY IN GOVERNMENT SEMINARIES. 65
" I have quoted this Despatch which, as is well known, was strongly re-affirmed on the transfer of the sove-
reignty to the Crown, in order to show how firm is the basis of that most
Beligious Neutrality consi- remarkable feature in Indian education, the Religious Neutrality of the Gov-
ernment. This feature is no doubt a relic of the extreme apprehension which
prevailed in 1793, and whether its original declaration was a wise one or not is far too deep and many-sided a ques-
tion to be discussed here. We must accept the fact as we find it. But it is, I believe, absolutely without precedent
or parallel elsewhere, besides being entirely opposed to the traditional idea of education current in the East. In
Europe, it is almost an axiom that the connection of any State system of education with religion is not the mere
result of tradition ;* 'it is an indissoluble union, the bonds of which are principles inseparable from the nature of
education.' This is admitted almost universally. Even the French system is religious, not in the sense in which
all European systems profess to be more or less so, in inculcating the precepts of a certain universal and indisput-
able morality ; but in inculcating morality in the only way in which the masses of mankind will ever admit it, in
its connection with the doctrines of religion. In Holland, primary instruction was decided in a much debated law
to be designed to train ' to the exercise of all Christian and social virtues,' while respecting the convictions of Dis-
senters. In Switzerland, religion stands on the same footing as reading, writing, grammar and arithmetic, as a
fundamental part of the scheme. In Germany, generally, religion still forms, as it has always done, the first and
staple subject of the elementary school, and the religion of the master must be in conformity with that of the
majority of his pupils. The American system, while repudiating all doctrinal or dogmatic teaching, provides
everywhere for the regular daily reading of the Bible and for prayer. And, lastly, the framers of the English
Education Act, 1870, have been able to assume as a matter of course that every elementary school would be con-
nected with a recognised religious denomination, and that Government aid might, therefore, be offered to all alike
for secular education only.f
" In India, not only is there no religious teaching of any kind in Government Schools, but even the aided schools
No religious teaching in under native managers, are generally adopting the same principle. I believe
Government Schools- this result was never anticipated, and I am sure it requires attention. Looking
to the rapid growth of our educational system, and to the enormous influence for good or evil that a single able and
well-educated man may exercise in this country ; and looking to the dense but inflammable ignorance of the
millions around us, it seems a tremendous experiment for the State to undertake, and in some Provinces almost
monopolise, the direct training of whole generations above their own creed, and above that sense of relation to
another world upon which they base all their moral obligations ; and the possible evil is obviously growing with
the system. It is true that things go smoothly and quietly, but this is attained by ignoring not only the inevitable
results of early training on the character, and the great needs of human nature, especially in the Kast, but by also
ignoring the responsibility which devolves on the Government that assumes the entire control of direct education
at all. If, therefore, while fanaticism is raging around, there is a calm in our schools and colleges, it is an
ominous and unnatural calm, of impossible continuance, the calm of the centre of the Cyclone.
" The subject is one of extreme difficulty, that grows wjith the consideration devoted to it. Of course, it is
out of the question to recede in any degree from the pledges of the past ;
Question of Religious Ins- , .. - ,-, ., . , ...
, .~ ,. and it is probable that the evil is less serious in primary schools where the
truction difficult. ...
instruction given does not necesssarily destroy religious belief, whereas our
higher instruction does. Therefore, although the State may establish and maintain Primary Schools, where no local
effort is forthcoming, it would still seem very desirable that it should retire as rapidly and as completely as
practicable from the entire control of all direct instruction, and especially higher instruction, and leave it to local
management, to be encouraged by the State, and aided in conformity with the English principle, which, without any
interference in the religious instruction imparted, practically ensures, by the constitution of the Local Boards, that
some religious instruction is regularly given." J
* Public Education. By Sir J. K. Shnttleworth, p. 290.
f Mr. Gladstone's speech. Hansard, Vol. ccii, p. 267.
J Education in British India prior to 1854. By Arthur Howell, Esq., 1872 ; pp. 33-35.
66
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
CHAPTER XIII.
FFFECTS OF PURELY SECULAR ENGLISH EDUCATION ON THE NATIVE MIND.-VIEWS OF
MR MARSHMAN AND SIR CHARLES TREVELYAN AS TO THE CHRISTIANIZING INFLUENCE
OF ENGLISH EDUCATION.— MR. HO WELL'S VIEWS AS TO THE FIRST EFFECTS OF
ENGLISH AND MISSIONARY TEACHING.— THE " BRAHMO SAMAJ " MOVEMENT.
The effect which a purely secular English instruction had upon the
th^effbctTof1 "purely Secular minds of the native students, was also the subject of a question in reply to
English Education. which Mr. Marshman said :—
" I think although Christianity is entirely excluded from the Government Institutions, yet the instruction
which is given in them has had the effect of raising the Natives infinitely above their own creed. There are
f -w of those who have received a complete education at the Government Institutions, wlio do not liold the doctrines
ind principles of Hindooism in the most thorough contempt. And this is easily accounted for ; for all those
-otrraphical and astronomical, and historical absurdities which are believed by the Hindoos, are derived entirely
th Vhastras The Native obtains his religious creed from the same source as his scientific knowledge, and
from the same books which, as Mr. Macaulay mentioned in his Minute on Education, teach him the existence
of seas of treacle and seas of clarified butter. Now, when the Native finds that the existence of those two seas,
and indeed, all the facts regarding geography and history given in the Shastras are entirely fabulous ; when
his faith is shaken in one portion of the system, it is scarcely possible that it should not also be shaken in others.
Such has been my experience, that the study of English literature, and the knowledge of European science
which is obtained by the Natives, although unaccompanied with religious instruction, or instruction in the truths
of Christianity, has produced the great effect of shaking the fabric of Hindooism to its very foundation ; and
that the indirect result which has thus followed the exertions of the Government in the cause of education
' V hlv satisfactory. At the same time, I ought to mention that those Natives who have received a superior
ducation and through that education have been raised above the absurdities of their creed, are still found to be,
>erhaps the most strenuous opponents of Christianity ; and the Missionaries have remarked that they do not
•ncounter more strenuous opposition from any class than that of educated native youths. And it is to this
circumstance, that is, to the Natives having been raised above their own superstitious creed, without embracing
fh ' tianitv that we are to attribute the great success which has attended the attempt to establish that sect
of Vedantists, originally founded by Ram Mohun Roy: This sect at the present time includes 300 or 400 of the
very best educated Natives in Calcutta, and no Christian can regard the popular idolatry of the country with
feelings of greater contempt than this body of Vedantists, who profess to derive the doctrine of ' One God ' from
the Vedas They have established a Chapel in Calcutta, where they hold weekly meetings, and where monotheistic
mns from the Vedas are chanted, and some eminent Brahmin connected with their Society stands up and
repents some moral sentence from the Vedas, and explains it to the assembled audience, and endeavours to
enforce its doctrine upon their consciences." '
Upon the subject of religious instruction in the Government Institutions, and the extent to which a knowledge
, of Christianity is acquired by the students of English literature, without the
instruction in Bible being regarded as a class-book, and also upon the merits of the policy
Government Seminaries for of Government in this matter, the facts and opinions stated by so eminent a
teaching English. statesman as Sir Charles Trevelyan, in his deposition before a Select Commit-
.,f the House of Lords, on the 28th June, 1853, deserve special attention, and may be quoted here as throwing
considerable light upon the subject, as it was then considered and discussed, lie said : —
" The liilile is not admitted as a class-book into the Government Seminaries. This rule has boon objected to,
as implvin" host ility to the progress of Christian truth ; but no opinion was ever more mistaken. When we formed
;Uli libraries in connexion with the different Government institutions, on the re-organization of the system of
instruction, after the Resolution of 1835, the Bible wns placed in all the libraries ; and, I understand that it is now
desired that Mant's, and other Commentaries on the Bible, should also be placed there, to which I see no objection ; nor
» Printed Parliamentary Papers (1853) : Sixth Report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons on Indian Territories,
p. 28.
SIE CHARLES TREVELYAx's VIEWS AS TO RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 67
is there any objection to the best religious books being placed there. As has been already stated, the books of English
literature which are ordinarily studied in the Government Seminaries, such as Milton, Bacon, Locke, Addison, and
Johnson, are replete with allusions to the Bible, and frequent reference to the Bible is indispensably necessary in
order to their being properly understood. The Bible is, accordingly, constantly referred to by the teachers and
students, in the course of their instruction, and it is often found at the examinations that the young men have in
this way, and by reading the Bible out of school, acquired a considerable amount of Christian knowledge. There is
no restriction whatever to prevent it. In reference to this part of the subject, I beg to read the following extract
from Mr. Kerr's ' History of Native Education in Bengal and Agra ' : 'In none of the rules recently published is there
any such prohibition ; and, in practice, the teacher is left at liberty to speak to his pupils on religion, on Christianity,
on the distinct evidences of Christianity, with nearly the same freedom as he might do in a theological seminary.
In institutions where Milton and Addison and Johnson are class-books, it is impossible to abstain from all reference
to religion. Bacon's works, too, which form one of our text-books ; the Essays, the Advancement of Learning, and
even the Nnvnm Organum, are full of Scriptural illustrations, for the proper understanding of which the student
must be referred to the Bible. It may be added, that our text-books on Moral Philosophy are wholly Christian
in their spirit and tendency. In Abercrombie's Intellectual Powers, which is carefully studied without curtail-
ment, there is a distinct chapter on the Evidences of Christianity. In the same author's work, on the moral
feelings, which is also studied without omitting any part of it, the existence and attributes of God, the relation
of man to God, the probability of a Divine Revelation, the nature and province of Faith — all viewed in a Chris-
tian light — are some of the subjects which come under review, and which our students are expected to master.
Even Adam Smith's work, which does not directly touch on religion, is full of noble, and what may truly be
called, Christian sentiments. I do not presume to say that religion forms as prominent a branch of study in the
Government Colleges as in the Missionary Institutions. But neither is it excluded with that jealous care that
is sometimes supposed. The primary design of the Government scheme of education is to advance the progress
of civilization in India by the diffusion of useful knowledge, as the phrase is generally understood The design
of the Missionary Institutions is to convert the Natives to Christanity. The two objects are distinct, but
they are by no means opposed to one another.' It is added as a note here, ' Addison closes the Essay
No. 7 of ' The Spectator,' in a strain of serious piety. ' I know but one way ' says he, ' of fortifying my
soul against these gloomy presages and terrors of mind, and that is by securing to myself the friendship and
protection of that Being who disposes of evente and governs futurity. When I lay me down to sleep, I recom-
mend myself to his care ; when I awake, I give myself up to his direction.' Can any one doubt that it must be
improving to Hindoo students, in a religious and moral point of view, to read such passages ? When the Essay
was read, not long ago, in one of tlie Colleges, the teacher told his students that, though Hindoos, they might well
imitate the example of Addison, ' when they lay themselves down to sleep, recommending themselves to God's
care ; and when they awake, giving themselves up to His direction.' To this, as they always do when the conver-
sation turns upon religious subjects, they listened with serious attention. It is sometimes said that the education
we give makes our students sceptical. It does make them sceptical — sceptical of all those degrading ideas with
which the notion of a Deity is associated in Hindoo minds.' * * ' In the first place, the efforts of the
educational authorities, and of those immediately engaged in the business of instruction, are systematically
directed towards the object of communicating truth in historical, philosophical, and scientific subjects. Are the
opponents of the Government system prepared to say that the communication of true knowledge on these subjects
has a tendency unfavourable to belief in true religion ? It would be unreasonable to suppose that it has any such
tendency. Secondly, it is stated, that we take from the Hindoos their own belief, and give them nothing in its
place. It is true, that the knowledge we communicate clears the Hindoo mind of much that is frivolous and false
in their own religious system. But it cannot be admitted that it shakes in the least their belief in those principles
which form the foundation of all religion, such as the existence of God, the greatness and goodness of God, the pro-
vidence of God, the probability of a future state of rewards and punishments. So far from these invaluable principles
being shaken by our system of education, they are brought into clearer light by it, and belief in them is confirmed.
If our system had, indeed, the effect of depriving the Hindoos of their belief in these principles, and of the hopes built
upon them, it might fairly be denounced as most pernicious. Thirdly, if we look at actual results, it will be found
that of the well-educated converts to Christianity, nearly as many have come from the Hindoo College and other
Government Institutions, as from the Missionary Seminaries. The fact is generally admitted ; and perhaps it is
not so strange as may at first appear. In the Missionary Seminaries religious instruction is commenced at an
early age, before the understanding is ripe for its reception. The youths are systematically drilled in Cate-
chisms and in the Evidences of Christianity. They acquire a habit of listening with apparent attention, of
admitting every thing that the teacher requires ; of answering questions on religion by rote, without any
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
exercise of tlio understanding. Tn some cases a habit of dissimulation is formpd, unknown to the Missionary,
wild, unconsciously, and from the best motives, has been cultivating one of the prominent vices of the native
character. It is surely needless to point out that the youth in whom this habit of dissimulation is formed.
iamosi unlikely ever id act with manliness, or to do anything that demands a sacrifice, such as conversion to
Christianity my often demands. From all these dangers the Government institutions are free. The principles
of a foreiirn religion are not pressed prematurely upon unripe minds. The pupils are expected on no occasion
prow what they do not believe. When they begin, of their own accord, to turn their attention to the
Christian reliirion. to cuter into conversation, and to read books upon the subject, it is with a keen relish, and with
minds untainted by habits unfavourable to a sincere reception of Truth. The consequence is, that some of tlie
most intelligent among them, voluntarily, and from the purest motives, embrace Christianity.' I conceive
that it would not be for the advantage of Christian truth that the Bible should be treated as a lesson-1 k
for learniiiff to read. The system of teaching the Bible as an ordinary class-book is now generally rejected
liv persons who take an interest in education. We would not teach it to our own children in that manner.
• i-der that the Bible may be successfully taught, teachers should be selected who have not only a satisfactory
knowledge of the doctrines of the Bible, but who have their heart in the object, and sincerely desire its success. In
other words, if the Bible were to be taught in the Government Seminaries, it would be necessary to organize them
for theological instruction, in the manner in which Dr. Duff's and other Mssionary schools are organized. If the
jjil)), mcht in a rantive, perfunctory and irreverent manner by a common master, as a common class-
book, it would have an injurious effect upon the young Natives, by producing a deadness and indifference of feeling :
and if, beyond that, the persons employed to teach the Bible were not themselves good Christians, and their
life and conduct were not conformable to what they taught, it would have a most pernicious effect upon the
voting man, for the Native children are extremely acute, and are very good judges of character. I therefore
think it would be far better that there should be a division of labour in this as well as in other subjects ; that
the Government should continue to go, as far as they safely can, in the instruction given by them ; that is, that
they should give the best possible practical general education, with a friendly feeling towards Christian truth.
in common with all other truth ; and that the Missionaries, and others, more immediately interested in the pro-
gress of Christianity, should take any means they think proper for instructing and influencing the young
men so brought up. They might, if they thought proper, establish a lecture-room opposite every one of the
•rnment Institutions, as Dr. Duff did, opposite the Hindu College. They might distribute Bibles and
religious books, and books on the Evidences of Christianity, to any extent they think proper ; and I am satisfied
that, in this manner, if Christianity has a 'fair field and no favour,' it must ultimately prevail. As long as the old
sv-tem, according to which it was held to be the duty of the magistrate to ' maintain truth,' as well as to • execute
justice,' prevailed, the matter was extremely simple, and the resources of the State were employed in teaching the
particular opinions held by those who happened to be in the possession of the Government. But since the prin-
ciple of toleration has been established, from the Reformation downwards, very considerable modifications ha ve
liecn made in this principle. The Scotch and Irish Colleges are one modification, and it is precisely on that model
that the Government Seminaries are established ; that is, that the young men attend them daily, living at their own
homes, or iu places provided by their relations or friends, and receive such religious instruction as their relations,
and others interested in their welfare, think proper. The Privy Council system, in its dealing with the Dissen
•miller modification of the original principle. That also I propose (o take as the model of an advanced measure
for assisting ami extending education in India. The extracts from the Bible in the schools in Ireland form another
1 do not think it will be proposed to extend that system to India. Now, if it has been necessary
.iild be a compromise of t his kind in Knuland, and in the United Kingdom, where the religious differ-
i only minor differences OH the non-essential poinls of Christianity, how much more necessary is it in
India, where the difference is between Christianity and its opposites, — Hindooism and Mahomedanism. A very
plausible /'c. './('' I'ni-ii' argument mi'_;ht he adduced of this kind. It might be said, suppose that in any particular
itish India, I >acea lei- instance, two-thirds of the Natives of the place were willing that the Bible
should be into bhe (lovernment College, what solid ob jectiou can there be in that case to its intro-
My answer is. that if the Dacca District comprehended the whole of British India, certainly the point
iniirl I) because it is clearly our duty to give the Natives the best instruction which, on a large and
their prevailing disposition, they are willing to receive. But the Dacca District is not the whole
, itish India. There are hundreds of other district;; which are in very unequal stages of advancement. In
the Natives are still, religiously considered, in a verv unreformed, unadvanced, and sensitive state ;
and if the British < lovernment should depart in any one instance from the irreat principle of religious neutrality,
D which it has constantly acted up to the present time, they would In >-iously alarmed. And if, besides
SIR CHARLES TREVELTAN's VIEWS AS TO CHRISTIANIZING INFLUENCE OP ENGLISH. 69
that, conversions took place in the Dacca District, in consequence of the system contended for being adopted, which
is the object aimed at by those who advocate the plan, the alarm would be still more increased. I mentioned
in my former evidence, that one very important feature of the present state of India is, that zealous, and vital reli-
gion has made great progress among the Europeans, at which I greatly rejoice. But if this element is not
properly dealt with, it may be productive of very dangerous and evil consequences. So long as the zealously religious
English people have no official footing in the Government Seminaries, no harm can ensue, and their efforts
find plenty of scope elsewhere. They may promote Missionary efforts in any part of the country. They may
instruct at other hours the young men who are brought up at the Government Seminaries ; but, if we once, by
allowing the Bible to be studied in the Government Seminaries as a class-book, give to zealous Christians an
official footing in those seminaries, it is impossible to say what the consequences might be. All barriers would
then be broken down, and the principle of neutrality, which has hitherto been our great security, and the great
cause of our success in enlightening the Natives, both in secular and divine knowledge, would be at an end. In
the Madras Presidency, a different course has been followed, and the consequence has been that while the Euro-
peans have been disputing whether religion should be taught by the Government, the Natives have, with certain
limited exceptions, remained without any instruction ; which is the more to be regretted, because there is no inter-
mediate language in the Madras Presidency like Persian, which so long baffled our efforts in Bengal; and English
is already in extensive use as a common medium of communication between persons speaking different languages.
Lastly, even supposing that every other objection to the employment of the Government Seminaries, for giving
instruction to the Natives in Christianity, were got over, the question would immediately arise. What form of Chris-
tianity ? — and then the unhappy and damaging fact of the existence of considerable differences of opinion among
Christians would be made apparent ; and the spirit of religious controversy, which is happily nearly dormant in
India, because Christians of every persuasion are on an equality, and they all pursue their respective objects on
the voluntary principle without interfering with each other, would be evoked."*
Sir Charles Trevelyan, from whose evidence the preceding extract has been taken, belonged to that class of
Anglo-Indian Statesmen of the first-half of the present centurv, who whilst
Sir Charles Trevelyan s opi- •'
nions and expectations as to upholding the principle of religious neutrality in Government Educational
the Christianizing influence of Institutions, on the ground of good policy, maintained the opinion that the
English Education. natural effect of the general advance of the English language, literature, and
science, will be the propagation of Christianity among the natives of India. The views of such an eminent
statesman upon such a delicate subject, are sufficiently important to be quoted in his own words. Before a Select
Committee of the House of Lords, on the 28th June, 1853, he said : —
" I conceive that we have reached an advanced stage in the progress of education in India, namely, that all
schools in which a good general education is given, may be assisted, whatever may be the religion taught ; and
I believe that that plan may now safely be adopted ; but far be it from me to say that the time may not come when
direct Christian instruction may be given even in the Government Seminaries. I conceive that our ruling principle
ought to be, to give the best education which, on a sound general view, our fellow-subjects are willing to receive.
There can be no doubt that all education is imperfect, which is not based on Christian instruction ; and it follows,
that when the greater part of India has been brought to a level with those parts which are most advanced, it will
be our duty to give Christian instruction. But I am of opinion that the time has not yet arrived to attempt this
very forward and advanced step, which at this stage of our progress would only lead to a violent reaction. We
ought never to lose sight of the possible effect upon our Native Army, of any measures that may be urged upon us
which would be likely to excite the religious feelings of the Mahomedans and Hindoos. The Rajpoots were to
our predecessors the Moguls, what the sepoys are to us ; and the alienation of the Rajpoots by religious intolerance,
was the first step to the downfall of the Empire ***** Before I left Calcutta, I had a list made of all
the converts to Christianity from the educated class, and I found that at that time the majority of this class of
converts, whose character and cultivation, and strength of mind, offer the best assistance to Christianity, were
from the Hindoo College. I think many persons mistake the way in which the conversion of India will be
brought about. I believe it will take place at last wholesale, just as our own ancestors were converted. The country
will have Christian instruction infused into it in every way by direct missionary instruction, and indirectly
through books of various kinds, through the public papers, through conversation with Europeans, and in all the
conceivable ways in which knowledge is communicated ; and then, at last, when Society is completely saturated with
Christian knowledge, and public opinion has taken a decided turn that way, they will come over by thousands. "f
* Printed Parliamentary Papers. Second Report of the Select Committee of the Honsn of Lords on Indian Territories (1852-53;,
pp. 108-196 t Ib-, 1>P- 203, 204.
70 I'll ri'IVATIllN IX IMH.V.
That such expectations of the wholesale conversion of the natives of India to Christianity through the agency
of English education, were entirely fallacious, is shown by the facts of the
Christianizing influence of p,,0g,.(,ss Of English education during the last fifty years. It igh education in
English education a fallacy. ^ Engligh language, literature, and sciences, has undoubtedly the effect of
sappini: the foundations of idolatry and superstition, and improving the perception of the well-recognized principles
of morality and independent thought, which the educated native of India is prone to share with the more advanced
social and political thinkers of Europe. But so far as religious tendencies of English education are concerned, the
Christian doctrine has far less prospects of acceptance than Free Thought, Scepticism, and Agnosticism. Doctrines
somewhat akin to what is known as the Philosophy of Positivism usually take the place of religion, in the case of
tin- Indian youth educated in the English literature and science, and the worldly concerns of this life seldom leave
time for consideration of any such prospects of a future life as Christianity may have to offer. How the matter
was regarded by the Missionaries is discussed in the following chapter. Meanwhile the following passages from an
official publication* on the subject of education may be quoted here, as representing the first effects of English
education and missionary teaching on the Native mind : —
'• In one of his striking orations at the convocation of the Calcutta University, a late Vice-Chancellor (Sir
Henry S. Maine, 1864-65) observed that if the founders of false systems of
First effects of English, and reiigiOn or philosophy had confined themselves to disclosing moral errors
only, or false propositions, about the unknown and unseen world, their empire,
would, in most societies, and certainly in Oriental societies, have been perpetual. But happily for the human race,
some fragment of physical speculation has been built into every false system. Here is its weak point, — here it is
that the study of physical science forms the inevitable breach that finally leads to the overthrow of the whole
fabric. The remark received a powerful illustration on the first introduction of European knowledge into India.
It is well known that religion is not among the Hindoos, or indeed the Mahomedans, as it is with us, a separate
study, but it pervades almost every science, and almost every social relation. The learned Native obtains his creed
and science from the same source, and it is impossible to give even a tolerable Sanskrit or Arabic education with-
out a great deal of direct instruction in religion. You cannot teach the European system of geography, astronomy, or
medicine without exploding the Hindoo system ; you cannot teach political economy, or social science, without comiug
into collision with the theory and practice of caste. In this respect the Koran, the Hidayah, and other Mahomedan
books, are of the same character as the Shashtras. The result, therefore, of introducing the wide range of
European literature and scisnce into the native community at Calcutta, was to open a new, strange world to
students. As Greek literature was in the Augustan age at Rome, or as Latin and Greek were at the mediaeval
revival of letters in the Western World, so English became to the young collegians. Every day opened to them,
for the first time, a succession of new and strange phenomena in the unsealed realm of history, science, and
philosophy ; they were suddenly thrown adrift from the moorings and anchorages of old creeds, and tossed upon
the wide sea of speculation and extravagance. It was no wonder that moral and social obligations began to
share the fate of religious beliefs, and that the whole community was in alarm at the spread of the new views.
This was precisely the state of things which Mr. Charles Marsh had eloquently anticipated during the discussion
of the Charter of 1813 : — ' It is one thing,' he said, ' to dispel the charm that binds mankind to established habits
and ancient obligations, and another to turn them over to the discipline of new institutions and the authority of
new doctrines. In that dreadful interval, — that dreary void where the mind is left to wander and grope its
way without the props that have hitherto supported it, or the lights that have guided it, — what are the chann •>
that they will discern the beauties or submit to the restraints of the religion you propose to give them.'
•• The ' dreadful interval ' and ' the dreary void ' had arrived, and it is impossible to say how far Native Society
not have been disorganised had not tlie Missionaries stepped in and sup-
The Brahmo Samaj move- ,. . . , . , .
plied a new direction to the awakening scepticism, and a fresh subject to attract
the newly-aroused spirit of speculation. It was not that the immediate result
was conversion to Christianity, except in the ease of a very few. The immediate result was the establishment of a
new creed, \\hirh united the pure Theism of the Vedas to the morality of the Gospel, with which if was essentially
kindred, and from which it drew all its best practical precepts. The new sect was subsequently called the Brahmo
Samaj ; and so far from it being the case, as was anticipated, that missionary teaching would form an additional
element to danger and alarm, it is certain that when popular Hinduism at Calcutta was crumbling into ruins In--
fore European science. Missionary teaching pointed to a foundation upon which a purer system might be built,
though the superstructure might differ from that which the Missionary had hoped for. From this time no account
of the state of education in India would be at all adequate unless it included the results of Missionary effort." t
» Education in British India prior to 1854. By Arthur Howell, Esq., pp. 10-12. t Ib., pp. 10-12.
VIEWS OP THE MISSIONARIES AS TO RELIGIOUS NEUTRALITY. 7J
CHAPTER XIV.
VIEWS OF THE MISSIONARIES OPPOSED TO RELIGIOUS NEUTRALITY IN EDUCATION.—
THE OBJECTS OF THE MISSIONARY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS.— REV. A. DUFF'S
STATEMENT BEFORE THE HOUSE OF LORDS, IN 1853, AS TO MISSIONARY ENDEAVOURS
FOR EDUCATION.— HIS VIEWS AS TO EFFECTS OF PURELY SECULAR EDUCATION.-
OPINIONS OF THE CELEBRATED PHILOSOPHIC THINKER, REV. SYDNEY SMITH, AS TO
THE EFFORTS OF THE MISSIONARIES IN INDIA.
There can be no doubt that whilst the Government scrupulously adhered to the pdlicy of religious neutrality
Religious neutrality in Edu- in matters of public instruction, the Missionaries regarded such neutrality
••cation disapproved by Mis- with disapproval. As a specimen of their views upon the subject, some pas-
sages may be quoted from the observations recorded by the well-known Rev.
Alexander Duff, D.D., on Lord William Bentinck's Resolution of the 7th March, 1835, regarding English education.
Dr. Duff was examined as a witness by a Select Committee of the House of Lords, on Indian Territories, on the 3rd
of June, 1853, and in answer to the question — 'What change in the system of education was effected by that Resolu-
tion,' he presented to the Committee some written remarks, from which the following extract may be quoted as
throwing light upon the attitude of the Missionaries and other enthusiastic Christians, on the subject of the absence
of religious instruction from the Government educational institutions : —
" Even since the passing of Lord W. Bentinck's Act, four new institutions have been organized in large towns
Rev. Alexander Duff's opi- along the Ganges, after the model of the Calcutta College ; and every year
nion adverse to Religious Neu- fresh additions will be made to the number. What, then, will be the ultimate
trality m education. effect of these yeariy augmenting educationary forces ? We say ultimate,
with emphasis, because we are no visionaries ; we do not expect miracles ; we do not anticipate sudden and
instantaneous changes ; but we do not look forward with confidence to a great ultimate revolution. We do regard
Lord W. Bentinck's Act as laying the foundation of a train of causes which may for a while operate so insensibly
as to pass unnoticed by careless or casual observers, but not the less surely as concerns the great and momentous
issue : like the laws which silently, but with resistless power, regulate the movements of the material universe,
these educationary operations, which are of the nature and force of moral laws, will proceed onwards till they
terminate in effecting a universal change in the national mind of India. The sluices of a superior and quickening
knowledge have already been thrown open, and who shall dare to shut them up ? The streams of enlivening
information have begun to flow in upon the dry and parched land, and who will venture to arrest their progcss r
As well might we ask with the poet : —
' Shall burning ./Etna, if a sago requires,
Forget her thunders, and recall her fires ?
When the loose mountain trembles from on high,
Shall gravitation cease, while you go by ?
" But highly as we approve of Lord W. Bentinck's enactment, so far as its goes, we must, ere we conclude, in
justice to our own views, and to the highest and noblest cause on earth, take the liberty of strongly expressing our
own honest conviction that it does not go far enough. Truth is better than error in any department of knowledge,
the humblest as well as the most exalted ; hence it is that we admire the moral intrepidity of the man who decreed
that, in the Government Institutions of India, true literature and true science should henceforth be substituted in
place of false literature, false science, and false religion. But while we rejoice that true literature and science is
to be substituted in place of what is demonstrably false, we cannot but lament that no provision whatever lias IXTII
made for substituting the only true religion— Christianity — in place of the false religion which our literature ami
science will inevitably demolish.
" We are aware that plausible views of political expediency, and certain admitted peculiarities in our position
Typical view's of the Mis- 'n India, seem to forbid the interference of Government in directly com muni -
' sionaries as to Religious Neu- eating a knowledge of Christianity to its native subjects. Into such views
trality in education. we coui<i never enter. Our firm belief has always been, that if there were the
will, means might be devised that would obviate all reasonable objections ; but be this as it may, we cannot help
7-2 ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
regarding the absence of all provision for the inculcation of Christian truth as a grand omission— a capital
deficiency. If man had been destined merely to ' strut his little hour ' on the stage of Time, and then drop into a
state of non-existence, it would be enough to provide for the interests of Time ; but the case is widely different,
when reason and revelation constrain us to view him as destined to be an inhabitant of Eternity— an inheritor of
r-endintr bliss or never-ending woe. Surely, in this view of man's destiny, it is, in the scale of divine magni-
tude, but a pitiable and anomalous philanthropy after all, that can expend all its energy in bedecking and garnish-
ing him to play lii^ part well on the stage of Time, and then cast him adrift, desolate and forlorn, without shelter
and without refuge, on the slum-less ocean of Eternity.
" But we are persuaded that even time can never be rightly provided for by any measure that shuts eternity
Christianity should not be wholly out of view. So inseparably and unchangeably connected, in the wise
sacrificed to worldly expe- ordination of Providence, are the best interests of Time and the best interests
diency. of Eternity, that one of the surest ways of providing aright for the former, is
to provide thoroughly and well for the latter. Our maxim, accordingly, has been, is now, and ever will be, this : —
\\ Ifi-i i-rr, whenever, and by whomsoever, Christianity is sacrificed on the altar of worldly expediency, there and then must
thi' supreme good of man li:- hln'ilincj at its base.
" But because a Christian Government has chosen to neglect its duty towards the religion which it is sacred ly
bound to uphold, is that any reason why the Churches of Britain should ne<*-
Neglect of Government to J
propagate the Gospel should lect thelr dutJ> to° ? Let ns be aroused, then, from our lethargy, and strive
encourage the Christian to accomplish our part. If we are wise in time, we may convert the Act of the
Churches to undertake the indian Government into an ally and a friend. The extensive erection of a
machinery for the destruction of ancient superstition we may regard as open-
ing up new facilities, in the good providence of God, for the spread of the everlasting Gospel ; as serving the part
of a humble pioneer in clearing away a huge mass of rubbish that would otherwise have tended to impede the free
dissemination of Divine Truth. Wherever a Government Seminary is founded, which shall have the effect of batter-
ing down idolatry and superstition, there let us be prepared to plant a Christian institution that shall, through the
blessing of Heaven, be the instrument of rearing the beauteous superstructure of Christianity on the ruins of both."*
Views such as these were held only by the Missionaries and some enthusiastic Christians among the European
Proselytizing views limited officers, who thought that English education might be safely and properly
to Missionaries and exception- rendered the vehicle of Christian knowledge, and a means of propagating
ally enthusiastic Europeans. Christianity among the natives of India. But such views were uniformly
repudiated by the Government in India and the higher authorities in England.
But whilst the Government firmly took up a position of religious neutrality in English education, the
Missionaries, whose great help and energetic efforts must always be recog-
nized as a prominent factor in the intellectual progress of India, adopted a
Missionaries.
policy which can best be described in the words of the Rev. Alexander
Duff, D.D., in his evidence before a Select Committee of the House of Lords, on 3rd June, 1853 : —
" Acting, not officially, nor authoritatively in any way, nor in connexion with the Government, but simply
upon our own responsibility as individuals, we very plainly and simply tell
Statement of Rev. A. Duff the Natives wilat we mean to teach. We avow to them what our general
before the House of Lords, on .
3rd June 1853 and special objects are. No Native need come to us but with his eyes open, and
of his own free accord ; but everybody who does come spontaneously, will
be tauirht such and such subjects, the doctrines of Christianity being an essential part of the instruction. With
regard to the Immediate objects of such an institution as that which I was sent out to establish, they maybe
thus brieHv stated : One great ul>ject was to convey, as largely as possible, a knowledge of our ordinary improved
literature and seienee to those young persons ; but another and a more vital object was, simultaneously with
that, as already indicated, to convey a thorough knowledge of Christianity, with its evidences and doctrines. Our
purpose, therefore, was t wof old, to combine as it were together, in close, inseparable and harmonious union,
what has been called a useful secular, with a decidedly religious education. The ample teaching of our improved
• p. -an literature, philosophy, and science, we knew would shelter the huge fabric of popular Hindooism, and
crumble it into fragments. But as it is certainly not good simply to destroy, and then leave men idly to gaze
over the ruins ; nor wise to continue building on the walls of a tottering edifice ; it has ever formed the grand
and distinguishing glory of our institution, through the introduction and zealous pursuit of Christian evidence
and doctrine, to strive to supply the noblest substitute in place of that which has been demolished, in the form
• Printed Parliamentary Papers (1852-53) : Second Report of the Select Committee of the House of Lords on Indian Territories,
pp. 414, 415. App. E.
MISSIONARY VIEWS AS TO SECULAR EDUCATION. 73
of sound general knowledge and pure evangelical truth. In this way we anticipated that, under the ordinary
blessing of Divine Providence on the use of appointed means, many of the young men would become Christian
in understanding, and a fair proportion of them Christian in heart. We then reckoned that if, of either or both
of these classes, one and another were added in continued succession, the collective mind would at length be freely
set lose from its ancient fixed and frozen state, and awakened into light, and life, and liberty. And as
life is self-propagating, and light communicative in its nature, we entertained the humble but confident hope that
we might ultimately and happily succeed in combining the three inestimable blessings — individual good, the
ever-renovating principle of self-preservation, and the power of indefinite extension : of these, our immediate and
ultimate objects, no concealment was ever made ; on the contrary, they were at all times, and in every imaginable
form, openly avowed and proclaimed. And lest any Native should lie under any delusive impression on the
subject, it was a standing rule in our institution, from its very commencement, that no young person should be
admitted unless his father, if he was alive, or his guardian, came along with him, and saw what was doing, and,
therefore, personally could judge for himself whether he would allow his son or ward to remain there or not.
" They all come to us at first as Hindoos in point of religious faith ; and as long as they are attending
Hindu Students in Mission- a Christian course of instruction, they are merely learners or scholars ; they
ary Schools become gradually are learning to know what the truth is ; they are mastering the subject of
christianized. Christianity as far as the human intellect, apart from Divine influence, can
master it, much in the same way as they may come there to master the true system of geography, or the true
svstem of astronomy ; or any other true system whatever : they begin with the first elements or principles, and
they are initiated into the rest, step by step, so that at last they peruse every part of the Bible, and are syste-
matically instructed in the evidences, doctrines, and precepts of Christianity. Christian books of every descrip-
tion are read by them, and they are examined upon these ; and if, in the end, any of them should have their
minds impressed with the truth of those things, and their hearts changed and turned to God, then they openly
embrace Christianity, as several have already done. Many others do become intellectually Christians, and are
brought therefore into a condition very much the same as that of the great bulk of intelligent professing Christians
in this country, who are Christians in head or intellect, but not in heart ; — in the case of all such there is intellec-
tual conviction, but not heart conversion : the former may come from man, the latter only from God."*
The views of the Rev. Alexander Duff, D.D., as to the political results of a purely secular English education,
Missionary views as to may al80 be quoted here with advantage, as they are typical, as representing
the effects of purely secular the opinions of the Missionaries and others seeking the propagation of Chris-
English Education. tianity in India. In reply to the question, what he contemplated would be the
ultimate result to the British Government, if it succeeded in effecting a great improvement in the education of the
Hindus, he said : —
" My own impression is, that if we go on giving them a thorough English secular education, without
any mollifying and counteracting influences of sufficient potency — disturbing them ont of all their old ways
and habits of thinking and feeling, and creating the very materials out of which spring restlessness and
discontent, envy and jealousy, selfish and exorbitant ambition for power and place, irrespective of the needful
moral and mental qualifications — there will not, there cannot be, generally speaking, that sentiment of devoted-
ness or loyalty to the British Government, which, for their own sakes and for the sake of their country, we
should desire them to possess. And the ultimate result of such unfriendly or disloyal sentiments becoming
widespread in the case of men of quickened intelligence, and having unlimited command of a Free Press,
with the English as a common medium of communication, it is not certainly difficult to foresee. I have a
distinct impression, on the other hand, and I speak in this respect from experience, that any education, however
highly advanced, which may be given to the natives of India, if accompanied by those mollifying and
counteracting influences which are connected with the sober yet zealous inculcation of the Christian faith, so far
from producing any feeling of hostility or disloyalty towards the British Government, will produce an effect
entirely the other way. I should say, without any hesitation, that, at this moment, there are not in all India more
devoted and loyal subjects of the British Crown than those Natives who have openly embraced Christianity ;
and, next to these, with the feeling of loyalty in varying degrees of strength, those Natives who have acquired
this higher English education, in immediate and inseparable connexion with Christian knowledge and Christian
influence. On this vitally important subject, alike as regards the honour and welfare of India and of Britain,
I could well expatiate, equally in the way of argument and fact ; and shall be ready at any time to do so, if
required. Meanwhile, I have in answer to the question, briefly given expression to the conviction which has been
* Printed Parliamentary Papers (1852-53) : Second Report of the Select Committee of the House of Lords on Indian Territories,
pp. 57. 68.
10
74
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA
growing in my own mind ever since I began to get practically acquainted with the real state and tendencies of things
in India £\ J< I" <•»" face of all plausible theories and apparent analogies, whether deduced from the con-
(|,1(.t :l,,.l ,.,,lic-y of ancient Rome or any other State-plainly involving conditions and relations wholly incompatible
with any that can exist between ours, as a Christian Government, and its non-Christian subjects in India— I have
never reased to pronounce the system of giving a high English education, without religion, as a blind, short-sighted,
suicidal policy. On the other hand, for weighty reasons, I have never ceased to declare that, if our object be,
not merely for our own airp-nndisement, but very specially for the welfare of the Natives, to retain our dominion
in India, no wiser or more effective plan can be conceived than thnt of bestowing this Higher English education
in close and inseparable alliance with the illumining, quickening, beautifying influences of the Christian faith ; indeed,
I have never scrupled to avow and proclaim my sincere conviction, that the extension of such higher education, so
combined, would only be the means of consolidating and perpetuating the British Empire in India for years, or
even ages' to come-vastly, yea, almost immeasurably, to the real and enduring benefit of both." «
Whilst such were the views entertained by the Missionaries as to the policy of English education, it may be
Opinions of the celebrated interesting to consider what opinions were entertained by independent philo-
philosophic thinker, Hev. Syd- sophic thinkers upon the subject. As a specimen of their views, the following
ney Smith, as to the efforts of passages fr0m the writings of the celebrated Rev. Sydney Smith may be
the Missionaries in India. quoted. Referring to the Missionaries, and their efforts in India, his writings
contain the following passages : —
" The plan, it seems, is this. We are to educate India in Christianity, as a parent does his child ; and,
when it is perfect in its catechism, then to pack up, quit it entirely, and leave it to its own management. This
is the evangelical project for separating a colony from the parent country. They see nothing of the bloodshed,
and massacres, and devastations, nor of the speeches in Parliament, squandered millions, fruitless expeditions, jobs,
and pensions, with which the loss of our Indian possessions would necessarily be accompanied ; nor will they
see that these consequences could arise from the attempt, and not from the completion, of their scheme of con-
version. We should be swept from the peninsula by Pagan zealots ; and should lose, among other things, all
chance of ever really converting them.
" It may be our duty to make the Hindoos Christians— that is another argument ; but, that we shall by
so doing strengthen our empire, we utterly deny. What signifies identity of religion to a question of this kind ?
Diversity of bodily colour and of language would soon overpower this consideration. Make the Hindoos enter-
prising, active, and reasonable as yourselves— destroy the eternal track in which they have moved for ages —
and, in a moment, they would sweep you off the face of the earth.
" When the tenacity of the Hindoos on the subject of their religion is adduced as a reason against the
success of the Missions, the friends of this undertaking are always fond of reminding us how patiently the
Hindoos submitted to the religious persecution and butchery of Tippo. The inference from such citations is
truly alarming. It is the imperious duty of Government to watch some of these men most narrowly. There
is nothing of which they are not capable. And what, after all, did Tippo effect in the way of conversion ? How
many Mahomedans did he make ? There was all the carnage of Medea's Kettle, and none of the transformation.
" Upon the whole, it appears to us hardly possible to push the business of proselytism in India to any length,
without incurring the utmost risk of losing our empire. The danger is more tremendous, because it may be so
sudden ; religious fears are a very probable cause of disaffection in the troops ; if the troops are generally
disaffected, our Indian Empire may be lost to us as suddenly as a frigate or a fort.
" No man (not an Anabaptist) will, we presume, contend that it is our duty to preach the Natives into an
insurrection, or to lay before them, so fully and emphatically, the scheme of the Gospel, as to make them rise
up in the dead of the night and shoot their instructors through the head. Even for Missionary purposes,
therefore, the utmost discretion is necessary ; and if we wish to teach the Natives a better religion, we must
take care to do it in a manner which will not inspire them with a passion for political change, or we shall inevitably
lose our disciples altogether. To us it appears quite clear, that neither Hindoos nor Mahomedans are at all
indifferent to the attacks made upon their religion ; the arrogance and irritability of the Mahometan are universally
acknowledged ; nor do the Brahmans show the smallest disposition to behold the encroachments upon their religion
with passiveness and unconcern.
" How is it in human nature that a Brahman should be indifferent to encroachments upon his religion 5*
His reputation, his dignity, and in great measure his wealth, depend upon the preservation of the present
superstitions ; and why is it to be supposed that motives which are so powerful with all other human beings, are
• Printed Parliamentary Papers (1852-63) : Second Report of the Select Committee of the Houge of Lords on Indian Territories,
pp. 88, 89.
REV. SYDNEY SMITH'S OPINIONS AS TO MISSIONARY EFFORTS. 75
inoperative with him alone ? If the Brahmans, however, are disposed to excite a rebellion in support of their own
influence, no man, who knows anything of India, can doubt that they have it in their power to effect it.
" Our object, therefore, is not only not to do anything violent and unjust upon subjects of religion, but not to
give any strong colour to jealous and disaffected Natives for misrepresenting your intentions.
" All these observations have tenfold force, when applied to an empire which rests so entirely upon opinion.
If physical force could be called in to stop the progress of error, we could afford to be misrepresented for a season ;
but 30,000 white men living in the mist of 70 millions of sable subjects, must be always in the right, or, at least,
never represented as grossly in the wrong. Attention to the prejudices of the subject is wise in all Governments,
but quite indispensable in a Government constituted as our Empire is India is constituted ; where an uninterrupted
series of dexterous conduct is not only necessary to our prosperity, but to our existence.
" You have 30,000 Europeans in India, and 60 millions of other subjects. If proselytism were to go on as rapidly
as the most visionary Anabaptists could dream or desire, in what manner are these people to be taught the
genuine truths and practices of Christianity ? Where are the clergy to come from ? Who is to defray the ex-
penses of the establishment? — and who can foresee the immense and perilous difficulties of bending the laws,
manners, and institutions of a country, to the dictates of a new religion ? If it were easy to persuade the Hindoos
that their own religion was folly, it would be infinitely difficult effectually to teach them any other. They would
tumble their own idols into the river, and you would build them no churches : you would destroy all their present
motives for doing right and avoiding wrong, without being able to fix upon their minds the more sublime motives
by which you profess to be actuated.
" If there were a fair prospect of carrying the Gospel into regions where it was before unknown, — if such a
project did not expose the best possessions of the country to extreme danger, and if it was in the hands of men
who were discreet as well as devout, we should consider it to be a scheme of true piety, benevolence, and wisdom :
but the baseness and malignity of fanaticism shall never prevent us from attacking its arrogance, its ignorance,
and its activity. For what vice can be more tremendous than that which, while it wears the outward appearance
of religion, destroys the happiness of man, and dishonours the name of God ? "
It will be observed, that throughout the discussion of the question, whether English education should be
Discussions as to English Pure1^ secular> and what effect {i was likely to have uPon the religious con-
Education take no special no- victions of the Natives of India, views have been expressed only in regard to
tice of Mahomedans, as they the Hindus, and no special reference has been made to the Mahomedans or
refrained from such education. their religioll) eitner by the witnesses examined by the Select Committees of
the Houses of Parliament, or by those who wrote upon the subject. The reason for this circumstance is not far
to seek. The opposition of the Mahomedans to English education, founded as it was upon a misapprehension of
the motives of the educational policy of the Government, as laid down in Lord William Bentinck's Resolution of
the 7th of March, 1835, was evinced by them so far back as that year, and continued almost unabated, with the
lamentable result that extremely few Mahomedan youths pursued the study of English, and consequently no
special attention appears to have been given to their special, social and political condition. Their backward
condition seems, indeed, to have remained almost unnoticed, till very recent years, as will be shown in another
part of this work.
* The Wit ana Wisdom of the Rev. Sydney Smith. Longmans, Green and Co., London (1886), pp. 68-74.
76 ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
CHAPTER XV.
I'KOGRESS OF ENGLISH EDUCATION UNDER THE POLICY OP LORD WILLIAM BENTINCK'S
EDUCATIONAL RESOLUTION OF ?TH MARCH, 1835.— LORD AUCKLAND'S EDUCATIONAL
MINUTE OF 1839.— LORD HARDINGE'S EDUCATIONAL RESOLUTION OF 1844.— POLICY <>K
MAKING ENGLISH THE LANGUAGE OF OFFICIAL BUSINESS.- PROGRESS OF ENGLISH
EDUCATION IN BENGAL.— VIEWS OF SIR FREDERICK HALLIDAY.
It is now necessary to pursue the history of the progress of English education under the policy inaugurated
by Lord William Bentinck's Educational Resolution of 7th March, 1835.
' ^l M' if 34th Kovem- -^fter ^e passing of that Resolution, the supporters of Oriental Educatiun
ber 1839, slightly modifying were naturally dissatisfied at the prospect of the ultimate abolition of their
the policy of exclusive English favourite Colleges, and they tried, again and again, to get that Resolution
Education. abrogated. A new controversy, in consequence, arose, reviving something of the
old acrimony, so that at last Lord Auckland, then Governor-General, came forward apparently as a mediator in the
matter, and recorded a Minute, dated November 24th, 1839, which was designed to effect something like a compro-
mise between the parties. One object of his Minute was to uphold to the utmost all that Lord William Bentinck
had done with the view of promoting English literature and science through the medium of the English language ;
but, on the other hand, his purpose was to abrogate so much of Lord William Bentinck's Resolution as went to the
ultimate abolition of the Sanskrit and Mahomedan Colleges.* Professor H. H. Wilson, in his History of Iniliii
(Vol. III., pp. 307-8), referring to the Minute, says that, " it gave the most liberal encouragement to the extension
of English study, rescued the Native Colleges from the misappropriation of the funds specially assigned to
them ; and by a liberal distribution of Scholarships to all the seminaries alike, remedied, in some degree, the
discontinuance of the Subsistence Allowances, on which most of the students, like the poor scholars of the middle
ages in Europe, had been accustomed, under all previous rule, Hindoo, Mahomedan, or Christian, to depend."
Lord Auckland's Educational Minute of the 24th November, 1839, cannot be regarded as any departure from
the principle of promoting English education, and the policy upon which Lord
Lord Hardinge's Educa-
tional Resolution of 10th Octo- William Bentinck's Educational Resolution of the 7th March. 1885, was based.
ber, 1844, in favour of the em- English education continued to be the order of the day. but " there was a.
ployment of successful Native considerable prejudice in the minds of some members of the Civil Service, and
of the officers of Government generally, against the employment in the Public
Service of those who had received this English education. The plausible excuse which they gave for that objection
was, that men who were crammed, as they said, with mathematics, and were able to repeat Shakespeare, and to
quote Johnson and Addison, were unfitted for the duties of the Public Service, which required a great deal of
official knowledge and experience ; but in proportion as the men who had adopted those prejudices left the Service,
the feeling gradually died out, and in the course of time a conviction arose in the minds of the most influential
members of the SIM vice, that those seminaries ought to be made the nursery of the Public Service, and that the
(lovei •iiiiient. \\hieli was ai an expense for the purposes of Education, ought to obtain some benefit from it,
Ijy being enabled to place the most advanced students in situations of public trust. It was this growing feeling
which gave rise to I lie eelelirateil Not ill. 'at ion of Lord 1 1 a nlintre, at the close of 1844. "f That Not ideation, known.
as" Lord llardinge's Kdiicat i»nal Resolution," of the 10th October, 1844, aimed at giving indirect encouragement
to English education, by holding out prospects of Government employment to successful and meritorious students
The Principal part of the Resolution runs as follows : —
" The Governor-General having taken into his consideration the existing state of education in Bengal, and
being of opinion that, it, is Iiiirhlv desirable to afford it every reasonable encouragement, by holding out to those
who have taken advantage of the opportunity of instruction afforded to them, a fail' prospect of employment in
the Public Service, and thereby not only to reward individual merit, but to enable the State to profit as Ian
• Dr. Alexander Dnff'H evi.lcnce— Printed Parliamentary Papers: Second Report of the Select Committee of the House of l,<
(ls".J-o:i) (in Indmii TriTitorirs. p .',1
t Mr. J. C. Mnrahman'B evidence— Printed Parliamentary Papers: Sixth Report of the Select Committee of the lluusc of Com-
mons (1S5U) on Indian Territories, p. 31.
ENGLISH AS THE LANGUAGE OF OFFICIAL BUSINESS. 77
and as early as possible, by the result of the measures adopted of late years for the instruction of the people, as
well bv the Government as by private individuals and Societies, has resolved that, in every possible case, a prefer-
.ence shall be given, in the selection of candidates for public employment, to those who have been educated in the
institutions thus established, and especially to those who have distinguished themselves therein by a more than
ordinary degree of merit and attainment."*
This Resolution, no doubt, gave considerable stimulus to English education, though some complaints were
Policv of making English made against its operation, and it had only a gradual and partial effect.
the language of official busi- The Resolution, however, is significant, as marking an important step of the
ness, was indicated so early as policy of employing in the Government service, persons who had satisfied
the tests of the Government English educational institutions — a policy which
had lain dormant for many years. " A very general opinion had prevailed for some years past, that Persian ought
to be discarded ; but there was not the same concurrence of sentiment as to what language ought to be substituted
for it. One party advocated the use of English, on the ground, that it was of more importance that the judges,
who had to decide a case, should thoroughly understand it, than the persons themselves who were interested in it :
that if the European officers used their own language in official proceedings, they would be much more independent
of the pernicious influence of their administrative officers ; and that the general encouragement which would
be given to the study of English, by its adoption as the official language, would give a powerful impulse to the
progress of native enlightenment. Some years ago this opinion was the prevailing one among those who were
favourable to the plan of giving the Natives a liberal European education, and it was even adopted by the Bengal
Government."f This appears from a letter from the Secretary to the Bengal Government (in the Persian Depart-
ment) to the Committee of Public Instruction, dated the 26th June, 1829, from which the following extract may
be quoted, as throwing light upon the policy of introducing the English language as the language of business
in public offices, even at that early period. The letter ran as follows :—
" One of the most important questions connected with the present discussion is, that of the nature and degree
, of encouragement to the study of w^e English language, which it is necessary
Letter of the Government of X^.
Bengal dated 26th June 1829 and desirable for the Government to n<^ld out, independently of providing
announcing the future adop- books, teachers, and the ordinary meaus^£tuition. Tour Committee has
tion of English in Public observed, that unless English be made the language of business, political
negotiation, and jurisprudence, it will not be universally or extensively
studied by our native subjects. — Mr. Mackenzie, in the Note annexed to your Report, dated the 3rd instant, urges
strongly the expediency of a declaration by Government, that the English will be eventually used as the language of
business ; otherwise, with the majority of our scholars, he thinks, tha,t all we ' do to encourage the acquisition
must be nugatory ; ' and recommends that it be immediately notified, that, after the expiration of three years,
a decided preference will be given to candidates for office, who may add a knowledge of English to other qualifica-
tions. The Delhi Committee have also advocated, with great force and earnestness, the expediency of rendering
the English the language of our public tribunals and Correspondence, and the necessity of making known that
such is our eventual purpose, if we wish the study to be successfully and extensively prosecuted.
" Impressed with a deep conviction of the importance of the subject, — and cordially disposed to promote the
great object of improving India, by spreading abroad tho lights of European knowledge, morals, and civilisation, —
his Lordship in Council, has no hesitation in stating to your Committee, and in authorising you to announce to
all concerned in the superintendence of your Native Seminaries, that it is the wish, and admitted policy of the
British Government to render its own language gradually and eventually the language of public business,
throughout the country; and that it will omit no opportunity of giving every reasonable and practicable degree <>!'
encouragement to the execution of this project. At the same time, his Lordship in Council, is not prepared to
come forward with any distinct and specific pledge as to the peripd and manner of effecting so great a change in
the system of our internal economy ; nor is such a pledge considered to be at all indispensable to the gradual and
cautious fulfilment of our views. It is conceived that, assuming the existence of that disposition to acquire a
knowledge of English, which is declared in the correspondence now before Government, and forms the ground-
work of our present proceedings, a general assurance to the above effect, combined with the arrangements in train
for providing the means of instruction, will ensure our obtaining, at no distant period, a certain, though limited,
number of respectable native English scholars ; and more effectual and decisive measures may be adopted lureafici ,
when a body of competent teachers shall have been provided in the Upper Provinces, and the superiority of an
English education is more generally recognised and appreciated.
* Mr. J. C. Jhu-shman'a evidence — Printed Parliamentary Papers: Sixth Report of tho Select Committee of the House of Cuui-
mous (1853; on Indian Territories, p. 415, App. F. t Trevelyau — On the Education of the People of India, p. 1 li.
l;\i,r.ISH EDUCATION TS IN'IHA.
!. however, by the Delhi Committee, the use of the English in our public correspondence with
SativeB of difltinction, more especially in tlmt which is of a complementary nature, would in itself be an important
denumsnuiiou in f:n nnr of the new course ,,f study, us serving to indicate pretty clearly the future intentions of
rod there appean to be no objection to the Siamedkte application of this incentive to a certain
,-xH-nt aii.1 under the requisite limitations. The expediency, indeed, of revising the Governor-General's corres-
nondenoe with the hi-her classes of Natives on the above principles, has before, more than once, undergone
(li>ll.llssi,m .U1,i LJ and the Governor- General in Council, deems the present a suitable occasion for
i,, address the Native Chiefs and nobility of India in the English language, (especially those residing
r own Provinces.) whenever there is reason to believe, either that they have themselves acquired a knowledge
of it. or have about them persons possessing that knowledge, and, generally, in all instances where the adoption of
the new medium of correspondence would be acceptable and agreeable."*
The policy of ultimately adopting English as the language of official business, though announced so far back
as IH'Ji), as is apparent from the preceding extract, could not be put into
asPthe°Iu^agde0ofonfaci^l1bu8i1- operation for many years to come, and, indeed, when that policy was more
ness announced so early as practically recognized by Lord Hardinge's Educational Resolution of the 10th
J82!>, and followed in Lord October, 1844, much difficulty arose in putting it into operation. Upon the
Hardinge's Resolution of 10th Resoiution being communicated to the Committee of Public Instruction, that
er' body framed certain rules for holding examinations for those who were to
ive certificates of qualification for Government service. The scheme of examination thus established gave
prominence to those subjects of study which were recognized in the Government Colleges, to the exclusion of
subjects of a religious character, which formed the distinguishing feature of the educational institutions established
bv the Missionaries. Referring to this matter, Mr. J. C. Marshman, in his evidence before a Select Committee of
the House of Commons, on the 21st July, 1853, said : —
•' A feeling of the greatest possible dissatisfaction was thus created among the Missionaries, as may well be
supposed, and it became a subject of remonstrance with the Council of
Dissatisfaction caused by .
the proceedings of the Educa- Education ; and this led to a long discussion, which was carried on with
tion Committee under that feelings not of mutual concession, and only ended in exasperating both
Resolution. parties. The education given in the Missionary Schools is not altogether,
but very considerably, of a religious character ; consequently the books which are used differ greatly from those
which are employed in the Government Institutions, and the discussion which arose had reference to the books
which should be made the subject of examination. The Missionaries had manifested an objection to the study
of Shakespeare and of the English dramatists. On the other hand, the Committee of Public Instruction had
an equally strong objection to examine the students of the Missionary Institutions in Paley's Evidences of Chris-
tianity, and other books of the same character. The consequence has been very deplorable, because it has sown
ord among those who have the same object in view, namely, the enlightenment of the Natives. It has also
produced a very unfavourable effect on the minds of the students of the Missionary Colleges ; whether right or
wrong, they have been led to suppose that there were two castes in education, the Brahmin and the Soodra caste,
and that those who were trained up in the regular Orthodox Colleges of the Government were of the Brahmin
easte, and those who had been educated in the Missionary Institutions belonged to a lower and an inferior class.
Now, as the object of this examination was not to test the acquirements of the students in any particular book,
but ruth ' 'tain their progress in general literature, it is very possible that a spirit of conciliation might
have removed every difference; but there was no spirit of conciliation, 1 am sorry to say, manifested on either
part ; and the consequence has been, that both parties are now exasperated against each other, and I do not see any
prospect whatever of having this discord healed under existing circumstances." f
Lord lliinlingc's Resolution of 1844, though intended to encourage English education by offering prospects of
Progress made by English Government patronage to those who had successfully learnt the English
Education, especially in Ben- language, could not be put into operation as much as might be expected, partly
8al- on account of political and administrative reasons upon which it is unneces-
sary to dwell here. It is more to the purpose to describe how far English education had made progress at that
period and for some years afterwards. Speaking of the state of English education, Mr. J. C. Marshman gave the
following description in his deposition before a Select Committee of the House of Commons, on the 18th July, 1853.
* Trevelyan — On the Education of the People of India, pp. 145-147, note.
t Evidence of Sir. J. C. Marshman — Printed Parliamentary Papers: Sixth Report of the Select Committee of the House of Com-
mons (1853j on Indian Territories, pp. 31, 32.
STATISTICS OP ENGLISH EDUCATION IN 1852.
79
" Within the Bengal Presidency, we have three descriptions of English schools and seminaries. The first
consists of those which are paid by the State, and are under the immediate direction of the Government. In
Bengal and Behar there are 31 such schools and colleges, embracing 4,241 scholars. The various Missionary
Societies in the same provinces, have also established various schools and colleges, for the education of the Natives
in the English language and in European science, and I find, according to the latest return, that the number of
schools and colleges connected with them amounted to 22, and that the number of students was about 6,000. As
the study of English is exceedingly popular among the Natives of Bengal, and they are anxious to give their
children as large a knowledge of it as possible, many of those Natives who have received an English education,
either in the Missionary or in the Government Schools, have established proprietary schools for English tuition,
where all those who are able to pay either a smaller or .a larger sum receive instruction. I have never been able to
obtain any return, either of the number of schools or of the number of scholars in those proprietary institutions ;
but I should think that, in and about Calcutta, the number of scholars does not fall much short of 1,500. The
number, however, may be considerably greater. I find, according to the last Report, in the Agra Presidency, that
the number of Government Schools and Colleges amounts to eight, and the number of scholars in them to 1,548.
In the same Presidency, the Missionaries have 22 English schools, in which 1,754 students are receiving education ;
but as English is not so popular in the North-Western Provinces as it is in Bengal, I am not aware that there are
any proprietary schools in any of the great cities in those Provinces. The education has been carried to a very
high pitch in the Government Institutions. The students receive the same kind of instruction which is comprised
in the compass of a liberal education in this country, and go through the whole circle of literature, of philosophy,
and of science. Many of the Missionary Schools also embrace the same large range of instruction, and the education
given in them is equally comprehensive. In some of the inferior Missionary Schools, and more particularly in the
lower class of proprietary schools, where they have not the same command of resources for obtaining superior
tutors, the education is of rather an inferior character, and more elementary than in the higher institutions. The
Natives exhibit great sharpness and great precocity of intellect. They have also very great powers of application.
In many of those institutions, the youths, who have reached the head of them, have obtained an amount of know-
ledge, which would not do discredit to some of the best institutions in this country."*
Similar progress, upon a more or less extended scale, was made by English education in the Presidencies of
Madras and Bombay, and the following Abstract Statementf respecting educa-
General statistics as to Bag- ti d h Presidenc in British India, dated East India House, 4th
lish Education in 1852. *
May, 1852, presented to the House of Lords, throws light upon the general
educational statistics of that period : —
NATURE OP INSTRUCTION.
No. of
Institutions.
i
Expense.
Teachers.
Pupils.
SCHOLARSHIPS.
Number.
Value
per
annum.
("English, and mixed ...
Bengal, L. P. ... j
(.Vernacular
37 .}
104 J
3,87,110
f 283
( 104
5,465
4,685
291
Rs.
49,524
("English, and mixed ...
Ditto, N.-W. P. .. )
(_ Vernacular
: i
1,33,521
f 112
( 48
1,582
232
22,932
f English, and mixed ...
Madras ... }
(.Vernacular
' i
43,558
\ "
(. Cannot b
180
j given.
...
...
^ English, and mixed . . .
Bombay ... <
^Vernacular
Total
u ,
233 )
1,50,408
( 62
( 233
2,066
11,394
84
5,880
Rs. 7,14,597
or £66,993
855
25,372
607
78,336
* Evidence of Mr. J. C. Marshman — Printed Parliamentary Papers: Sixth Report of the Select Committee of the House of
Commons (1853) on Indian Territories, pp. 25, 26.
t Returns and Papers presented to the Eouse of Lords, relative to the affairs of the East India Company ( 1852-53), p. 37.
80 EVCMSII EPUCATION IN IXPIA.
As a general view of the condition and progress of English education during the period to which this
Sir Frederick Halliday'a ge- chapter relates, the following statement of Sir Frederick Halliday before a
neral view as to the condition Select Committee of the House of Commons, on the 25th July, 1853, may
of English Education in 1853. be quoted :—
" I think the progress of education since 18:?:i has been satisfactory ; it has been continuous, and, on the
whole, in the riirht direction : the results, as far as we can judge of them by observing the conduct and character
.if those who have been educated at the institutions, and have gone forth into the world, of whom a great many
have been employed in Government situations, and a good many in private situations, are that they are improved
MTV much in morals, and in conduct, by the education which they have received : I think they are a superior
j, altogether to those who preceded them, who were either less educated according to our views, or not educated
at all. There is yet. however, a good deal to be done ; it is not the opinion of those who are interested in educa-
tion in India, that enough money is spent upon it. the reason being, of course, that there has not been hitherto,
eenerallv, monev to spend ; the desire is, that as fast as means can' be found, as fast as the Government is in
• .•ssion of means for that purpose, those means should be applied to the extension of education; it being a
matter, in the opinion of persons in authority in India, of the very last importance, superior perhaps to all others.
towards the improvement of our administration. There is an opinion, also, that education has not been extended
sufficiently in the way of Vernacular teaching, and in that respect I see room for improvement ; but on the whole,
;ts I began by saying, the results are satisfactory and promising." *
CHAPTER XVI.
PROPOSALS TO ESTABLISH UNIVERSITIES IN INDIA IN 1845.— PARLIAMENTARY ENQUIRY
INTO INDIAN AFFAIRS IN 1853.— PETITION TO PARLIAMENT BY MR. C. H. CAMERON,
FOR ESTABLISHING UNIVERSITIES IN INDIA.— VIEWS OF SIR CHARLES TREVELYAN.
Mlt MARSHMAN, PROFESSOR H. H. WILSON, AND SIR FREDERICK HALLIDAY, ON THE
SUBJECT.
From the account which has been given in the preceding chapters, it is apparent that the earliest and
greatest activity in the cause of Public Instruction was evinced in Bengal,
not onlv by the Government, but also by the people themselves : who indeed,
Calcutta, proposed in 1846.
had been foremost in seeking English education. It was, therefore, in that
Presidency, that the first proposal to found a University in India was made. So far back as the 25th of October,
l*t-">, the Council of Education at Calcutta, under the Presidency of Mr. Charles Hay Cameron, prepared a plan
for a University at Calcutta, from which the following extract may be quoted, as throwing light upon the earlv
history of University Education in India. The proposed plan began with the following : —
- The present advanced state of education in the Bengal Presidency, with the large and annually increasing
number of highly-educated pupils, both in public and private institutions, renders it not only expedient and
.-id\ isalile. but a matter of strict justice and Tneexity. to confer upon them some mnrk of distinction, by which
they may be rceoi.rni/.ed as |, liberal education and enlightened minds, capable, from the literary and
sfientitic training they have undergone, of entering at once upon the active duties of life; of commencing the
practical pursuit of the learned profusions, including in this description the business of instructing the rising
>IL ; of holding the higher oilices under Government open to natives, after due official qualification ; or
ikiii'.: the rank in society accorded in Kurope to all members and graduates of the Universities. — The
"nly mi" ••miplishin-,' this great objeet is by the establishment of a Central University, armed with
the power of 'granting degrees in Arts, Science, Law, Medicine and Civil Engineering, incorporated by a Special
>f the Legislative Council of India, and endowed with the privileges enjoyed by all Chartered Universities
in Great .Britain and Ireland. After carefully studying the laws and constitution of the Universities of Oxford
1'rinted Parliamentary I'., purs •. Sifth Report of tlie Select Committee of the Uonse of Common?, on huiian Territories (1853),
p. 53
PROPOSAL TO ESTABLISH A CNTVERSITY AT CALCUTTA. 81
and Cambridge, with those of the recently established University of London, the latter alone appears adapted
to the wants of the native community."*
The University was to consist of a Chancellor, a Vice-chancellor and Fellows, constituting a Senate divided
into the Faculties of Law, Science and Civil Engineering, Medicine and
Constitution of the proposed gnro. and a Faculty of Arts for general control and superintendence.
University at Calcutta.
An examination of candidates, for Degrees in all the Departments was to be
held at least once a year, and conducted either by Examiners appointed from among the Senate, or by any
other persons specially nominated by that body, and the benefits of those examinations were to be extended to all
institutions, whether Government or private, approved of by the Senate, provided the candidates from such
institutions conform to such Regulations as may be enacted respecting the course, extent and duration of study,
with the certificates that will be required, authority being granted for the issue of the same. After giving an
outline of the proposed Regulations, the scheme ended with the following observations : —
•• The above is a rough outline of a plan, the carrying out of which would form one of the most important
Benefits expected from the eras "* the nistoT of education in India. It would open the paths of honour
proposed University at Cal- and distinction alike to every class and every institution ; would encourage
cutta. a high standard of qualification throughout the Presidency, by bestowing
justly-earned rewards upon those who had spent years in the acquisition of knowledge, and rendering their
literary honours a source of emolument as well as of social distinction. It would remove most of the objections
urged against the existing system of examination of candidates for public employment, without lowering the
standard of information required ; and would in a very few years produce a body of native public servants,
superior in character, attainments, and efficiency, to any of their predecessors. It would encourage the cultivation
of the arts and sciences, and call into existence a class of native architects, engineers, surveyors and educated
landholders, whose influence wonld rapidly and certainly diffuse a taste for the more refined and intellectual
pleasures and pursuits of the West, to the gradual extinction of the enervating and degrading superstitions of the
East. Increased facilities of intercourse, by means of Railroads, with the interior of the country, the North-West
Provinces, and with Europe, wonld cause these influences to radiate from the centre of civilization, with a velocity
and effect heretofore unknown in India, and. in fact, would be attended with all the advantages that have been
recorded in history to have followed a judicious, enlightened, extended and sound system of education, encouraged
by suitable rewards and distinctions. The adoption of the plan wonld only be attended with a very trifling
expense to Government in the commencement ; for in the course of a few years the proceeds of the Fee Fund
would be more than sufficient to defray every expense attended upon the University. It wonld raise the character
and importance of the whole Education Department in public estimation, and ultimately place the educated
natives of this great empire upon a level with those of the western world. That the time for such a measure
has arrived, is fully proved by the standard of excellence attained in the senior scholarship examinations of the
Council of Education, and the creditable skill and proficiency exhibited by the graduates of the Medical College,
whose examinations, in extent and difficulty, are much greater than those of any of the Colleges of Surgeons in
Great Britain, and in a purely professional point of view, nearly on a par with those required from the Medical
graduates of most British Universities. "f
These proposals made so far back as 1845 for the establishment of a University at Calcutta were discoun-
i »_i • v. • tenanced by the authorities in England, and appear to have lain in abeyance
The proposal for establishing
a University at Calcutta re- ^or many years. It was not till Parliament took np the subject of the re-
mains in abeyance till Parlia- newal of the East India Company's Charter in 1852-53, that the proposals
mentary inquiry in 1853, pre- receiTed any tangible attention. Under the Act of Parliament 3 and 4. Wm.
ceding St. 3 and 4, Wm. IV., C. TT. 0 0. ., , ,, ^ , r> *. • T i-
IV., C. 80, the term of the Company s Government m India was to expire on
the 30th of April, 1854, and it was deemed necessary to hold a Parliamentary
enquiry into the Indian affairs as had been the custom before renewing the Charter. For this purpose Select Com-
mittees of the House of Lords, and of the House of Commons were appointed, and they collected a mass of evidence,
from which much information can be gathered as to the progress and policy of English education in India. The en-
quiry resulted in the Act of Parliament, 16 and 17 Vic., C. 95, which was passed on the 20th of An :!, and by
which, until Parliament should otherwise provide, all the territories then in the possession and under the Govern-
ment of the East India Company, were to continue under such Government, in trust for Her Majesty. The Act
was avowedly temporary, and remained in force only for a very short period, but as having a bearing upon English
* Printed Parliamentary Papers : Second Report of the Select Committee of the House of Lords on Indian Territories (1852-53;.
p. 618, App. O. + K., p. 620.
11
_.j i:\ni. ISH rmvATios IN ixnu.
education, it contained a provision by which the appointments to the Civil Service and the Medical Service in
India were withdrawn t'roin the Directors of the Company and tin-own open to public competition.
In tin- course of the Parliamentary enquiry aliovcincnt ioncd, many petitions were presented to Parliament,
and among others, there was one which deserves historical importance,
IW^Ph1 °H ^C^Lm-on for in connection with High English Education in India, and may be quoted
establishing Universities in here in extenso as it is full of important matter expressed in very brief
India, dated 30th. November, laiiLrnaire. It runs as follows : —
1852. " fjie ]ntmble Pet it inn of Charles Hay Oamsron, lafi' Ffwrth Mi-mlxT of
thl, Coiw 'it of the Indian Law Commission, and of the Council »/ Education for Bewjal.
" Hr.Miii.y Sur.w r.rn —
" That as President of the Council of Education for Bengal, your petitioner had opportunities of observing
the desire and the capacity of large numbers of the native youth of India, for the acquisition of European
literature and science, as well as the capacity of the most distinguished among them, for fitting themselves to
i the Civil and Medical Covenanted Services of the East India Company, and to practise in the learned
professions.
" That the said native youth are hindered from making all the progress they are capable of in the acquisition
of the said literature and science :
" First. Because there is not in British India any University, with power to grant Degrees, as is done by
I "ni versifies in Europe.
" Secondly. Because the European instructors of the said native youth do not belong to any of the Cove-
nanted Services of the East India Company, and do not, therefore, whatever may be their learning and talents,
occupy a position in Society which commands the respect of their pupils.
" Thirdly. Because no provision has been made for the education of any of the said native youth in England,
without prejudice to their caste or religious feelings.
" Tour petitioner, therefore, prays, —
" That one or more Universities may be established in British India.
"That a Covenanted Education Service may be created, analogous to the Covenanted Civil and Medical
Services.
" That one or more Establishments may be created, at which the native youth of India may receive, in England,
without prejudice to their caste or religious feelings, such a secular education as may qualify them for admission
into the Civil and Medical Services of the East India Company, — .
" And your petitioner will ever pray.
"30M AW»j.&erl852. " C. H. CAMERON."*
1 [ion the proposal contained in this petition, much evidence was taken by the Select Committees, and the
Views of eminent witnesses v'ews °f some ot the important witnesses, on the proposal to establish Univer-
before the House of Lords, as sities in India may be quoted here. Mr. C. H. Cameron, upon being asked
to establishing Universities in as to the proposal contained in his petition regarding the establishment of
Universities in India, explained his views before a Select Committee of the
House of Lords, on the 7th July, 1853, in the following words : —
" My suggestion would amount to this, that there should be in each of the great Capital Cities in India
a University ; that is to say, at Calcutta, at Madras, at Bombay, and at Agra;
Ofhis ^^osals'8 eXplanati°n those four cities heing the centres of lour distinct languages; Calcutta being
the focus <>! the Bengalee language. Ma Iras of the Tamul, Bombay of the
Uahrattee, and Agra of the Ilindeo. hi ' :• Universities would lie taught, according to my notions, the
h>h Language, and all the literature thai it contains; and science also in the uune language ; and at the same
time, the f'rmr languages that I h;i\ ,• nient ioned would also lie cult ivateil. Native students would be practised in
translations. from English into each of those laii-ruau'es and from each of those languages into Knglish. Kvery
liich the Government c;m iri\c. would lie uiven to the production of original works in those native
1'liat system already exists to a considerable extent; but there is no University; there is no body
which has the power ol grant in>_: degrees : ami that sort, of encouragement appears to be one which the Natives
are tally dee Fhey have arrived at a point at which they are quite ripe for it, and they themsel\i>
extremely desirous of it : that is to say, those who have already benefited by this system of English education
iiimcntary Papers : First Report of the Select Committee of the llonse of Commons on Indian Territories (1853),
"•11, Ajip. No. 7.
CONFLICTING VIEWS AS TO A UNIVERSITY AT CALCUTTA. 83
are extremely desirous of those distinctions, and are extremely desirous of having that sort of recognition of their
position as subjects of the Queen of Great Britain."*
Upon the same subject, Sir Charles Trevelyan's views were expressed in the following words : —
" I think an University should be established at each of the Presidencies, consisting of two departments :
one department should be for the purpose of an examination for all-comers,
Sir Charles Trevelyan's . . ,, ,,
. wherever educated, in all the superior and advanced branches of secular
knowledge, and for giving diplomas and degrees in them. One important
subject of examination will be English literature : the young men from the Government Colleges will bring
up their Shakespeare, their Milton, their Spectator, their Johnson, — while the young men from the Missionary
Schools will bring up their Paley, their Butler, their Burnet's History of the Reformation, their Daubigne's Life
of Luther, and so forth. In Sanscrit and Arabic literature, the young men educated at the Government Colleges
will vie with those who have received their instruction from private teachers, according to the original native
fashion. Another subject of examination will be medicine and surgery ; another will be law ; another will be
civil engineering, surveying, and architecture ; another will be natural philosophy, chemistry, metallurgy, &c.;
another will be the fine arts. And I consider that a distinct relation and channel of communication should be
established, for the purpose of transferring young men who pass the best examinations in law to the public
service." t
The views of another important witness, Mr. J. C. Marshman, may also be quoted : —
" The great object of desire in India, as a remedy for this state of things, is the establishment of Universities ;
one University at each of the four Presidencies, at Agra, Calcutta, Madras
Mr. Marshman's views. i r> i, TJ. • j x •
and Bombay. It is a matter 01 great importance to the progress of educa-
tion in India, that this University should be established upon the exact model of the London University here ;
that its functions should not be to teach any branch of knowledge, but to examine and to classify, and to
give degrees to those who had been taught in other institutions. The Government Colleges would then stand in
precisely the same relationship to the University as the Missionary Colleges, or any other institutions throughout
the country. ********* The Universities would, of course, grant degrees in law, and all those
who were anxious to obtain them, as a passport to celebrity, would make themselves as perfect masters of the
science as possible. The advantage to be derived from such Universities would be great ; they would create a
spirit of laudable emulation among the various educational institutions in the country, and give a very great
stimulus, generally, to the cause of education, and at the same time enable the Government to ascertain who were
the most qualified students for public employment, connected with all the institutions throughout the country." J
There were also other important witnesses who favoured the proposal to establish Universities in India ;
but among those who were opposed to the scheme, the name of Professor H.
Professor H. H. Wilson's H wil the distinguished Orientalist, cannot pass unnoticed. Eeferring
views opposed to the proposal.
to the proposal, he said : —
" I confess I cannot imagine that any good would arise from it ; but without knowing the exact plan of the
Universities, it would perhaps be difficult to form a conclusive opinion. I do not know what is meant by a Univer-
sity in India ; if it is to consist in wearing caps and gowns, and being called Bachelors of Arts, and Masters of Arts,
I do not see what advantage is likely to accrue from it. The Natives certainly could not appreciate the
value of such titles ; it would be of no advantage to a young man to be called a Bachelor of Arts amongst the Natives
of India, who could attach no positive idea to it ; it would be inconvenient if it gave him place and precedence
amongst Europeans ; in fact, I cannot consider that any advantages at all would be derived from such an institution.
Certificates and diplomas given to the young men who acquire scholarships, and those who have merit, are suffi-
cient proofs of their eligibility for office." §
Another class of opposition to the scheme of establishing Universities in India, is represented by the views
Sir Frederick Halliday's ap- expressed by Sir Frederick Halliday, in his evidence before a Select Com-
prehension as to failure of mittee of the House of Commons, on the 25th July, 1853, and which may be
proposed Universities. quoted here as completing the account of the various phases of opinion enter-
tained upon the subject at that time. He said : —
" I am not very sanguine about Universities in India ; certainly I would not have them established on the
footing proposed by Mr. Cameron in his evidence before the Committee of the House of Lords. He wishes that,
they should be established upon a great scale, with a Chancellor and Vice-Chancellor, and Faculties, and things of
* Printed Parliamentary Papers — Second Report of the Select Committee of the House of Lords on Indian Territories (1852-53),
p. 275. t !*>., P- 153. t It>; P- 124. § lit., p. 269.
\IION IN IM'IA.
that sort, winch appear to me to involve more than we require, and to be miming alioad of the necessities of the
times in India ; besides which, there are some difficulties, which Mr. Cameron has in some respects himself proved,
-ing out of that verv KeMilution of Lord Hardinge. Lord Hardinge's Resolution was to the effect, that all
distrngnialied stndenta in public or private seminaries should be preferred, other things being equal, for appoint-
ment* in the poblk ser\ ire : and he remitted this Resolution to the Council of Education, with directions to
frame the details of a system to carry it into effect. The Council of Education very naturally thought that
the only way to do this was to establish general examinations, to which all persons might come, and which
should test their acquirements ; and that then, at those examinations, certificates should be given, and those
certificates should carry in them the effect of Lord Hardinge's Resolution. Now, as far as that went, if it did
not form a University, it was the germ of a University ; at all events it was intended to be so. I believe Mr.
Cameron, who was the framer of the plan, had that in his head when he framed it. It was also entirely in
accordance with what must be done if a University were established, that the standard should be so fixed as to
correspond in its highest degree with the highest instruction given at any affiliated institution. I suppose
that under any conceivable University system that must be done, and that was done. What was the conse-
quence ? — A storm of reprobation which has assailed this plan ever since, and prevented its fair operation. It
was immediately said, ' this standard is an unattainable standard ; it is the standard of the highest and best
students of the Government Institutions ; it is one to which our students can never attain.' This was said by
persons having an interest in private seminaries. It was also said, ' this is a standard of literature and
mathematics, and a very high one ; whereas many of our students are kept from attaining any eminence in
tliose branches of knowledge by having their attention chiefly directed to the doctrines of Christianity. Unless.
therefore, yon put the whole thing into our hands, and enable us to say what is distinction as regards the students
in our institutions, we repudiate your plan, and will have nothing to do with it.' They acted in that way, and
have ever since done so ; and they have vilified the scheme, and the framers of it to the utmost of their power.
It appears to me, that if that were the consequence of establishing a system of examination, to give certificates
which should carry a man into the public service, it must be the consequence of establishing a University to give
degrees to pass a man into the public service. You must always have a highest standard, and that standard must
be always in accordance with the highest standard of instruction in any of the affiliated institutions. The same
results would follow, if a system of Universities were carried out. We have to deal at present with a number of
Government Institutions, some of them carrying education to a very high pitch ; and we have to deal with a
great number of missionary and some private institutions, which are, generally speaking, very far inferior to the
Government Colleges in point of literary and mathematical attainments. Here and there one or two of them
come near the Government Colleges ; but still they are below them. The Government Institutions stand forth
in the eyes of the Natives, and ought to stand forth in such a manner that distinctions in them must be more
coveted and sought for than distinctions in private institutions."*
CHAPTER XVII.
COMPREHENSIVE DESPATCH OF THE COURT OF DIRECTORS TO THE GOVERNMENT OF
I XI HA, DATED 19-TH JULY, 1854, ON THE SUBJECT OF EDUCATION, KNOWN AS SIR
CHARLES WOOD'S EDUCATIONAL DESPATCH OF 1854.— FORMATION OF THE EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT.
It has been stated in the preceding chapter, that by the Act of Parliament, 16 and 17 Vic., chapter 95, which
The Educational Despatch of was P11SSI;<1 on the 20th of August, 1853, the British Territories in India were
the Court of Directors, dated to continue under the Government of the East India Company until Parlia-
h Ju y, 1 ment should otherwise provide. The Parliamentary enquiry into Indian
affairs, which preceded that enactment, appears to have borne good fruit, so far as the subject of education in
« Printed Parliamentary Papers — Sixth Report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons on Indian Territories (1853),
p. 64.
COURT OP DIRECTORS' EDUCATIONAL DESPATCH OP 1854. n 85
India is concerned. In 1854, the education of the whole population of India was definitely accepted as a State
duty, and the Despatch from the Court of Directors of the East India Company, No. 49, of the 19th July, 1854,
laid down in clear, though general, terms the principles which should govern the educational policy of the Govern-
ment of India. It set forth " a scheme of education for all India, far wider and more comprehensive than the
Supreme, or any Local Government, could ever have ventured to suggest." Up to the time of its issue the efforts
of the Government in the cause of education had been marked neither by consistency of direction, nor by any
breadth of aim. The annual expenditure upon Public Instruction had been insignificant and uncertain ; and the
control of its operations had not been deemed worthy the attention of any special department of the State. The
educational system elaborated in the Despatch was indeed, both in its character and scope, far in advance of any-
thing existing at the time of its inception. It furnished, in fact, a masterly and comprehensive outline, the filling
up of which was necessarily to be the work of many years.*
The Educational Despatch of 1854 still forms the charter of education in India, and its purport was thus
Its purport. summarized in the Report of the Indian Education Commission of 1882 : —
" The Despatch of 1854 commends to the special attention of the Government of India, the improvement and
far wider extension of education, both English and Vernacular, and prescribes as the means for the attainment of
these objects : —
(1) The constitution of a separate department of the administration for education.
(2) The institution of Universities at the Presidency towns.
(3) The establishment of institutions for training teachers for all classes of schools.
(4) The maintenance of the existing Government Colleges and High Schools, and the increase of their
number when necessary.
(5) The establishment of new Middle Schools.
(6) Increased attention to Vernacular Schools, indigenous or other, for elementary education ; and
( 7 ) The introduction of a system of Grants-in-aid.
" The attention of Government is specially directed to the importance of placing the means of acquiring useful
and practical knowledge within reach of the great mass of the people. The
Directions as to educational -^ ,. , , . ,. ... ,. ,, , . ,
English language is to be the medium or instruction in the higher branches,
and the Vernacular in the lower ; English is to be taught wherever there is
a demand for it, but it is not to be substituted for the Vernacular languages of the country. The system of
Grants-in-aid is to be based on the principle of perfect religious neutrality. Aid is to be given (so far as the
requirements of each particular District as compared with other Districts, and the funds at the disposal of Govern-
ment may render it possible ) to all schools imparting a good secular education, provided they are under adequate
local management, and are subject to Government inspection, and provided that fees, however small, are charged in
them. Grants are to be for specific objects, and their amount and continuance are to depend on the periodical reports
of Government Inspectors. No Government Colleges or Schools are to be founded, where a sufficient number of
institutions exist, capable, with the aid of Government, of meeting the local demand for education ; but new Schools
and Colleges are to be established and temporarily maintained where there is little or no prospect of adequate
local effort being made to meet local requirements. The discontinuance of any general system of education entirety
provided by Government, is anticipated with the gradual advance of the system of grants-in-aid ; but the progress
of education is not to be checked in the slightest degree by the abandonment of a single school to probable decay.
A comprehensive system of scholarships is to be instituted, so as to connect Lower Schools with Higher, and Higher
Schools with Colleges. Female education is to receive the frank and cordial support of Government. The principal
officials in every District are required to aid in the extension of education ; and in making appointments to posts in
the service of Government, a person who has received a good education is to be preferred to one who has not. Even
in lower situations, a man who can read and write is, if equally eligible in other respects, to be preferred to one
who cannot." f
The main feature of the despatch, and the Policy of Education laid down by it, is contained in the follow-
ing extract from it, so far as English instruction is concerned : —
1*854 * " Tt is wel1 that eyery °PPOTtanity should have been given to those
(the higher) classes for the acquisition of a liberal European education, the
effects of which may be expected slowly to pervade the rest of their fellow-countrymen, and to raise, in the
* Resolution of the Government of India, appointing the Indian Education Commission, No. j\j, dated 3rd February, 1882, printed
as Appendix A to the Commission's Report, p. 623.
t Report of the Indian Education Commission (1882), pp. 22, 23.
86
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
^eJ^
end, the educational tone of the whole country. We are, therefore, far from under-rating the importance,
or the success, of the efforts which have been made in this direction; but the higher classes are both able
:nnl willing, in many cases, to bear a considerable part, at least, of the cost of their education ; and it is abundantly
evident that in some parts of India no artificial stimulus is any longer required in order to create a demand for
-ueli an education as is conveyed in the Government Anglo- Vernacular Colleges. We have, by the establishment
:iiul support of these Colleges, pointed out the manner in which a liberal education is to be obtained, and assisted
I hem to a very considerable extent from the public funds. In addition to this, we are now prepared to give, by
t-iinctioning the establishment of Universities, full development to the highest course of education to which the
natives of India, or of any other country, can aspire ; and besides, by the division of University degrees and
distinctions into different branches, the exertions of highly educated men will be directed to the studies which
are necessary to success in the various active professions of life. We shall, therefore, have done as much as a
(iovernment can do to place the benefits of education plainly and practically before the higher classes in India."*
The principles of the Despatch of 1854 were confirmed by the Secretary of State, in the Despatch of 7th
April, 1859, which laid further stress upon the necessity of promoting Ver-
nacular instruction, suggesting the expediency of imposing a special rate on
the land for the provision of elementary education. Meanwhile, in pursuance
of the Despatch of 1854, " steps were taken to form an Education Department in each of the great territorial
divisions of India as then constituted ; and before the end of 1856, the new system was fairly at work. The forma-
tion of the separate departments continued over a period of about 12 years, from 1854-55 in the larger Provinces,
to 1866-67 in the Haidarabad Assigned Districts. A Director of Public Instruction was appointed for each Pro-
vince, with a staff of Inspectors and Deputy, or Assistant Inspectors under him. This organization of control and
inspection remains substantially unchanged to the present day, with such modifications and additions as were
required by the creation of new territorial divisions, or by the amalgamation of old ones. The Education Depart-
ment in each Province acts directly under the orders of the Provincial Government, and has developed a system of
working more or less distinctively its own. Everywhere it took over the Government or the Board Institutions
which had grown up under the earlier efforts of the East India Company. "f
The Education Department was formed in various Provinces at different periods, and the following tabular
statement, which has been prepared from the tabular statements given in
the Report of the Indian Education Commission of 1882 (pages 33, 36, 40
and 43) will show, in one glance, the estimated extent of Collegiate Education
in the various Provinces at the time of the formation of the Education
Department : —
Estimated extent of Colle-
giate Education at formation
of the Education Department
in various Provinces.
Estimate of the extent of Collegiate Education in the First Departmental Tear,
in the various Provinces of British India.
PROVINCE.
First Departmental
Year.
Nature of the Maintaining
Agency.
ARTS COLLEGES,
ENGLISH AND ORIENTAL.
Number.
Pupils.
Madras
Bomlray
1855-56 ,..'J
L
c
1855-56 ...'J
1
Departmental
Aided and Inspected
Extra Departmental
Total
Departmental
Aided and Inspected
Extra Departmental
Total
1
302
1
302
2
103
2
103
* Report of the Indian Education Commission (1882), p. 24.
t Ib., p. 25.
ESTABLISHMENT OF INDIAN UNIVERSITIES.
87
PROVINCE.
First Departmental
Year.
Nature of the Maintaining
Agency.
ARTS COLLEGES,
ENGLISH AND ORIENTAL.
Number.
Pupils.
Bengal and Assam
N.-W. P. and Oudh
1854-55
1
1854-55 . <
1
Departmental
Aided and Inspected
Extra Departmental
Total
Departmental
Aided and Inspected
Extra Departmental
Total
8
6
921
?
14
92]
4
1,920
4
1,920
The figures given in the above Table in regard to Collegiate education in the North- West Provinces and Oudh
are much greater than they should be, as they include the College with its attached High Schools at Delhi, which
at that time was included in the North-Western Provinces. The College ceased to exist during the Mutiny of
1857, so that, at the commencement of the Education Department in the Punjab, in 1856-57, no institution for
Collegiate instruction existed in that Province. In the Central Provinces, the Education Department was formed
in 1862, and in the Hyderabad Assigned Districts of the Berars in 1866, but no institutions for Collegiate instruc-
tion were founded there, or in any Provinces not mentioned in the preceding Table, and, therefore, no further
reference to those Provinces is necessary, so far as the condition of Collegiate education is concerned at the period
of the commencement of the Education Department.
CHAPTER XVIII.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE INDIAN UNIVERSITIES, AND THE SCOPE AND CHARACTER OF THE
EDUCATION RECOGNIZED AND CONTROLLED BY THEM. — STATISTICS OF
UNIVERSITY COLLEGIATE EDUCATION, 1857 TO 1882.
Establishment of the Indian
Universities.
With the foundation of Universities in India begins the most important epoch in the history of English
education in India. In Chapter XVI of this work an account has been given
of how the subject was proposed by the Council of Education at Calcutta,
so far back as 1845, and how the matter was discussed by some eminent
witnesses in their evidence before the Select Committees of the Houses of Parliament during the inquiry into the
Indian affairs, in 1852-53. It has also been shown how, during the discussions which then took place, the concensus
of opinion was that the University of London, on account of the non-sectarian character of its system, should be
recommended as a model for Indian Universities, in preference to the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge,
where the system of residence within the University precincts, and religious instruction and discipline, formed an
essential part of the system of education.
It was, no doubt, in view of such recommendations that the Court of Directors, in their Educational
Guiding principles for In- Despatch of 1854, issued the following instructions as the guiding principles
dian Universities. upon which the Universities in India were to be founded : —
" Some years ago, we declined to accede to a proposal made by the Council of Education, and transmitted to
us, with the recommendation of your Government, for the institution of an University in Calcutta. The rapid
spread of a liberal education among the natives of India since that time ; the high attainments shown by the
88 ENGLISH EDUCATION IX
native candidates for Government scholarships, and by native students in private institutions ; the success of the
iiiiremeiits of un increasing European and Anglo-Indian population, have led us to the
conclusion that the time is now arrived for the establishment of Universities in India, which may encourage a
regular and liberal course of education, by conferring academical degrees, as evidences of attainments in the different
branches of art and science, and by adding marks of honour for those who may desire to compete for honorary
iliMniftion.
" The Council of Education, in the proposal to which we have alluded, took the London University as their
model ; and we agree with them that the form, government, and functions of
London University to be , ^ . ., , . , , , , . ,
take a model that University (copies or whose charters and regulations we enclose lor your
reference ) are the best adapted to the wants of India, and may be followed
with advantage, although some variation will be necessary in points of detail.
" The Universities in India, will, accordingly, consist of a Chancellor, Vice-Chancellor, and Fellows, who will
constitute a Senate. The Senates will have the management of the funds
Constitution of Indian Uni- t AT. TT • -i- j t j.- c i_- i_
of the Universities, and frame regulations for your approval, under which
periodical examinations may be held in the different branches of Art and
Science by examiners selected from their own body, or nominated by them.
" The function of the Universities will be to confer degrees upon such persons as, having been entered as
candidates according to the rules which may be fixed in this respect, and
Functions of Indian Univer- , . j , , , ,, „.,. , , . ... ,. , ,-,.,,,
having produced from any of the ' affiliated institutions which will be enu-
merated on the foundation of the Universities, or be from time to time added
to them by Government, certificates of conduct, and of having pursued a regular course of study for a given time,
shall have also passed at the Universities such an examination as may be required of them. It may be advisable
to dispense with the attendance required at the London University for the Matriculation Examination, and
to substitute some mode of Entrance Examination which may secure a certain amount of knowlege in the
candidates for degrees, without making their attendance at the Universities necessary, previous to the final
examination.
" The examinations for degrees will not include any subjects connected with religious belief ; and affiliated
Religious subjects to be ex- institutions will be under the management of persons of every variety of
eluded. religious persusions.
" The detailed regulations for the examination for degrees should be framed with a due regard for all classes
of the affiliated institutions ; and we will only observe upon this subject that
Regulations for the examina- ,, , j c ... . ' .,,
tion for degrees standard tor common degrees will require to be faxed with very great
judgment. There are many persons who well deserve the distinction of an
academical degree, as the recognition of a liberal education, who could not hope to obtain it if the examination was
as difficult as that for the senior Government Scholarships ; and the standard required should be such as to com-
mand respect without discouraging the efforts of deserving students, which would be a great obstacle to the success
of the Universities. In the competitions for honors, which, as in the London University, will follow the examin-
for degrees, care should be taken to maintain such a standard as will afford a guarantee for high ability and
valuable attainments, — the subjects for examination being so selected as to include the best portions of the dif-
t schemes of study pursued at the affiliated institutions.
•• 1 1 will be advisable to institute, in connection with the Universities, professorships for the purpose of the
Professorships in connection delivery of lectures in various branches of learning, for the acquisition of
with Universities, especially which, at any rate in an advanced degree, facilities do not now exist in other
institutions in India. Law is the most important of these subjects ; and it
will be for you to consider whether, as was proposed in the plan of the Council of Education to which we
have before referred, the attendance upon certain lectures, and the attainment of a degree in law, may not, for the
future. l,i- ma, le a .pialiiirat inn for Vakeels and Moonsiffs, instead of, or in addition to, the present system of
examination, which must, however. I,,, continued in places not within easy reach of an University.
Civil Engineering ifl another mbjeot of importance, the advantages of which, as a profession, are gradually
. ., _ beconunir known to the natives of India; and while we are inclined to believe
Civil Engineering may be
a subject for degrees instructions of a practical nature, such as is given at the Thomason College
of Civil Engineering Bit Roorkee, is far more useful than any lectures could
possibly Ix " 'ships of Civil Engineering might, perhaps, be attached to the Universities, and degrees in
Ci\il Kuu-ineering lie included in their general scheme.
" Other branches of useful learning may suggest theniM'hes to you in which it might be advisable that
COLLEGES SUBSIDIARY TO THE UNIVERSITY. 89
lectures should be read, and special degrees given ; and it -would greatly encourage the cultivation of the
Sanskrit, A ruble, and Persian Vernacular languages of India, that professorships should be founded for
may be included among the those languages, and perhaps, also, for Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian.
subjects consistently with A knowledge of the Sanskrit language, the root of the Vernaculars of the
religious neutrality. ,, T ,. . ,,
greater part of India, is more especially necessary to those who are engaged in
the work of composition in those languages ; while Arabic, through Persian, is one of the component parts of the
Urdu language, which extends over so large a part of Hindustan, and is, we are informed, capable of considerable
development. The grammar of these languages, and their application to the improvement of the spoken lan-
guages of the country, are the points to which the attention of these professors should be mainly directed ; and
there will be an ample field for their labors unconnected with any instruction in the tenets of the Hindoo or
Mahomedan religions. We should refuse to sanction any such teaching as is directly opposed to the principles
of religious neutrality to which we have always adhered.
" We desire that you take into your consideration the institution of Universities at Calcutta and Bombay
.. _ _ , ... . upon the general principles which we have now explained to you, and report
Calcutta and Bombay to to us uPon the best method of procedure, with a view to their incorporation
constitute the Senates of the by Acts of the Legislative Council of India. The oflices of Chancellor and
Universities, respectively. Vice-Chancellor will naturally be filled by persons of high station, who have
shown an interest in the cause of education ; and it is in connexion with the Universities that we propose to
avail ourselves of the services of the existing Council of Education at Calcutta, and Board of Education at Bombay.
We wish to place these gentlemen in a position which will not only mark our sense of the exertions which they
have made in furtherance of education, but will give it the benefit of their past experience of the subject. We
propose, therefore, that the Council of Education at Calcutta and the Board of Education at Bombay, with some
additional members to be named by the Government, shall constitute the Senate of the University at each of
those Presidencies.
" The additional members should be so selected as to give to all those who represent the different systems of
Additional Members of the education which will be carried on in the affiliated institutions — including
Senate, including Natives of natives of India of all religious persuasions, who possess the confidence of
India. the native communities — a fair voice in the Senates. We are led to make
these remarks, as we observe that the plan of the Council of Education, in 1845, for the constitution of the Senate
of the proposed Calcutta University, Was not sufficiently comprehensive.
" We shall be ready to sanction the creation of an university at Madras, or in any other part of India, where
University to be founded at a sufficient number of institutions, exist, from which properly qualified candi-
Madras also, if circumstances dates for degrees could be supplied ; it being in our opinion advisable that
permit. ^e gj.e^ centres of European Government and civilization in India, should
possess Universities similar in character to those which will now be founded, as soon as the extension of a liberal
education shows that their establishment would be of advantage to the native communities.
" Having provided for the general superintendence of education, and for the institution of Universities, not so
much to be in themselves places of instruction, as to test the value of the
Colleges and Schools subsi- , ,. , , . , , , ., ,. . ,, ,.„
diary to the Universities education obtained elsewhere, we proceed to consider, first, the different classes
of colleges, and schools, which should be maintained in simultaneous opera-
tion, in order to place within the reach of all classes of the natives of India the means of obtaining improved
knowledge suited to their several conditions of life ; and, secondly, the manner in which the most effectual aid may
be rendered by Government to each class of educational institutions."*
It was under these instructions that the Universities of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, were incorporated,
The Universities founded in on the model of the University of London, in 1857, notwithstanding the
1857. tumult and anarchy of the Indian Mutiny which then prevailed.
The University of Calcutta was incorporated by Act II of 1857, passed on the 24th January, 1857, and the
The Calcutta University in- preamble of the Act may be quoted here as throwing light upon the objects
corporated in January, 1857. of the institution : —
" Whereas, for the better encouragement of Her Majesty's subjects of all classes and denominations within
the Presidency of Fort William in Bengal and other parts of India in the pursuit of a regular and liberal course
of education, it has been determined to establish a University at Calcutta for the purpose of ascertaining, bv
means of examination, the persons who have acquired proficiency in different branches of Literature, Science,
* Education in British India prior to 1854. By Arthur Howell, Esq., pp. 198, 199.
12
iSH KIH'CATION IN
and Art, and of rewarding them by Academical Degrees as evidence of their respective attainments, and marks
of honour proportioned thereunto; and whereas, for effectuating the purposes aforesaid, it is expedient that such
University should be incorporated : It is enacted as follows."
With a similar preamble and similar objects, Act XII of 1857 was passed on the 18th July, 1857, incor-
porating the University of Bombay, and by Act XXVII of 1857, which was
passed on the 5th September, 1857, the University of Madras was incor-
the Madras University in Sep- porated.
tember, 1857. The constitutions of the three Universities are as similar as their objects.
They are merely examining bodies with the privilege of conferring degrees in Arts, Law, Medicine and Civil
Engineering. Their constitution is composed of a Chancellor, Vice-Chancellor
Constitution of the three an(j ^ genate) divided into Faculties of the various branches of learning
recognized by the Universities. The governing body or Syndicate consists
of the Vice-Chancellor and certain members of the Senate. The Universities control the whole course of higher
education by means of prescribing subjects and holding examinations. The Entrance Examination for matricula-
tion is open to all ; but when that is passed, candidates for higher stages must enrol themselves in one or other of
the affiliated Colleges.
The Punjab University has a peculiar history. The Delhi College which had been closed during the Mutiny
was revived by the Punjab Government in 1864, when a second College was
The Punjab University, its established at Lahore. For sometime there had been a de re among the
history and objects. community in the Punjab, both Native and European, for the establishment
of a local institution which should have for its object the development of learning, and that such institution should
take the form of a University. The history of the early movement in this behalf has been fully stated in the
Gazetteer of the Punjab (Provincial Volume, 1888-89) from which the following information may be incorporated
here with advantage : —
The Anjuman-i-Ptmjab Society was formed in January, 1865, with the
Movement for a University two_foia object of reviving the study of ancient Oriental learning, and of
diffusing useful knowledge through the medium of the Vernacular.
" While the advantages of an English education were fully recognized on all hands, it was felt that the system
of State education altogether ignored the historical, traditional, and religious aspects of the educational question in
India. It attempted to impose the European system without sufficient modification to bring it into harmony with
national feeling and the requirements of the country ; and it had been so rigidly enforced on a standard pattern
throughout the country that indigenous educational institutions had well nigh perished. English, as a language
and as a medium for education, had already acquired the support of a strong official organization, the Anjuman-i-
Panjab in no way objected to this, but pleaded the cause of those important features of the educational require-
ments of the country which had, it thought, been neglected or forgotten.
Sir Donald McLeod, at that time Lieutenant-Governor, extended his hearty sympathy to the movement
which had thus been originated, and the deliberations of the two hundred members who had by this time
joined the Society resulted in the conclusion that the best and surest remedy for the defects of the existing system
ami fur combining in one the efforts of the Government and of the people in educational matters, was the establish-
ment of an Oriental University. This institution was to support the existing educational work, but was to add to
it i hi> proper encouragement of the study of the Oriental classical languages, and the general diffusion of useful
knowledge in the ' Vulgar tongue.' The classical languages of India were the sources not only of the languages
>|iol;i-n at the present day, but also the traditions, religions and ancient history of the Indian nation. No
system which ignored Arabic or Sanskrit could hope to meet with respect, popularity, or support from the
people of India, while any errors in sc.ient ilie teaching, which the ancient literature might contain, could easily
lie eliminated or corrected by the light of modern European knowledge. The idea of an Oriental University
for Northern India, or for the Punjab, was enthusiastically received. A European Committee of support was
foi-meil. and a scheme drawn up in some detail.
The nature -of the demands of the promoters of the movement for an University may be gathered from the
outlines of the proposals published in 1865. In this the promoters asked for
Nature of the University de- ,,
manded by the promoters an Oriental University. The word Oriental was not used to represent that the
English language and Western science were not to be encouraged and sup-
ported : but that the University was to bear the impress of an Oriental nation : that the Oriental classics and Verna-
cular la 'i' the country were to be enconi :>-. d and developed ; that the masses of the people should have the
boou of thu civilizing influences of education extended to them in their own language; and that the institution
MOVEMENT FOE UNIVERSITIES IN THE PUNJAB AND N.-W. PROVINCES. 91
should not be a mere body for holding examinations in the European Curriculum only, but should also teach and
examine in the languages used by, and dear to the people. Sir Donald McLeod had himself advocated the revival
of ancient learning and the perfection of the Vernaculars of the country, not at the expense of an English education,
but side by side with it, and supplying the deficiencies of the latter. This line was excepted by the pro-
moters.
The proposals having been revised and matured by the Society and the European Committee, Messrs.
Brandreth and Aitchison were deputed to lay them before His Honour the
Sympathy of Sir Donald Lieutenant-Governor. This was done on the 13th October, 1865, and His
McLeod with the movement.
Honour promised his support to the movement, but intimated that the por-
tions of the scheme which related to Academic Degrees required the sanction of the Government of India. In
February, 1866, the leading gentlemen of Lahore and Amritsar presented an address to Sir Donald McLeod, whose
reply expressed great satisfaction at the development of a movement in which the people of the Province had
displayed so much interest ; the views of the Government were given at considerable length, and in conclusion,
His Honour assured those who had taken part in the address that, ' for the encouragement of educational efforts
so entirely in accordance with the Educational Despatch of 1854,' Government aid, to such extent as might be
deemed advisable, would not be refused.
The Society continued to advocate its views with wavering success, but unswerving persistency until 1867,
Desire for a University in w'len their action aroused the rivalry of the British Indian Association in the
the North-Western Provinces North- Western Provinces. In August of that year, the Association petitioned
in 1867. the Viceroy, pointing out objections to the educational system, and recom-
mending the establishment in the North-Western Provinces of a University in which the Eastern Classics and the
Vernaculars would be duly encouraged, side by side with English education. This rivalry was the fortunate cause
of again drawing public attention to the popular feeling on the subject of education, and established the fact that
the agitation which had arisen was a genuine one. In replying to the Association, the Government of India
expressed itself ready and willing to support the principles laid down in the Despatch of 1854, and to encourage
the study of Western science, through the medium of the Vernacular ; but while promising every assistance to
societies or individuals like those in the Punjab and North-West, it was unable to establish at once a University ;
money, assistance, careful consideration and official recognition were promised, but not the immediate incorporation
of a University.
His Honour the Lieutenant- Governor of the Punjab at this time expressed an opinion that owing to the
A University proposed for difficultJ of forming a proper governing body, in the Upper Provinces for a
Lahore in 1868, but incorpo- University, it would perhaps be Jbetter to induce the Calcutta University to
ration refused by Government modify or enlarge its existing rules. The Senate of the Calcutta University,
of India in 1868. however, declined to modify their schemes and recommended a separate
University for Upper India. On the 12th March, 1868, a general meeting of those interested in the promotion of
the University scheme was held under the presidency of Sir Donald McLeod, and resolutions were passed in favour
of a University, specially for the Punjab, to be situated at Lahore. The people of Delhi had in the meantime,
taken measures to advocate the claims of that time-honoured capital as the seat of the proposed University, but
when the agitation arose in the North- Western Provinces, they agreed to sink all differences rather than lose the
chance of a. University for the Punjab. The principles already set forth were reiterated, and the Punjab Govern-
ment accepted these proposals and caused a letter to be drafted to the Government of India in terms of these
resolutions. It contained a complete scheme for the constitution of the proposd University, and a request for a
sufficient grant-in-aid. The movement had received the support of the Chiefs, Nobles, and influential classes of
the Punjab, and already a sum of Bs. 1,00,000 had been raised from private sources while much more was expected.
But the reply received from the Government of India was unfavourable to the immediate incorporation of a
University.
This decision caused great disappointment in the Punjab, but was not received as a final settlement of the
question ; Sir Donald McLeod replied, thanking the Government of India for the concessions made, but he feared
that these concessions would not be of much practical value unless the scheme submitted were also sanctioned,
and that the withholding of this sanction was likely to discourage and bring to an end the educational movement
which had sprung up amongst the leading members of the aristocracy and gentry of the Punjab. In subsequent
correspondence the Punjab Government met all the objections which had been raised and expressed their own
willingness and that of the promoters of the movement for a University to accept, in the first instance, a status
lower than that of a full University, until the Government of India were satisfied that the complete powers of a
University might with credit and safety be entrusted to the governing body which should be created.
\
92 ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
On the 23rd of May, 1869, the Government of India wrote as follows : —
••The Governor-General in Council was fully sensible of the value of the spontaneous efforts which had
been made by the Community of the Punjab, both Native and European,
The Government of India for ^jle establishment of a local institution which should have for its object
give sanction to the Punjab ^ deveiopment of learning, especially in connection with the Vernacular
University .College.
languages.
" His Excellency was glad to find that the chief objections which had until then prevented him from giving
a cordial sanction to the measure had been removed. The principal of these had been that if Jhejpro|)osed.
institution were at once established as a University it would probably, at first, confer aloji^cT'assof degrees
than those given by other Universities in India, and this would tend to degrade thec>K?acter and lessen the value
of an Indian University degree.
" It was, however, understood that the Punjab Government was willingJlfTat the proposed institution should
not at once assume the full character of a University ; but that untiLOhe number of students and the power of
teaching in any branch of study or in any faculty, could be shown tokfe sufficient to warrant the conferring of a
University degree, it should not have the power of granting degrees/tut of certificates only.
" It was also understood that the study of English would no^nly form one of the most prominent features
of the teaching in all the Schools or Colleges connected witWne institution, but that both teaching and examina-
tion in subjects which cannot, with advantage, be carriedaffin the Vernacular would be conducted in English.
" It was accepted as a principle that the examinafflms should be entrusted to other persons than those who
were engaged in teaching the students ; and the/i!ieutenant-Governor had expressed his willingness to accept any
rules which should be laid down with a viewJ^ecure this object.
" Lastly it was understood that althouyn certain subjects should be taught in the Vernacular, the teaching
in mental and physical science would hi free from the patent errors which prevail in ancient and even in modern
Vernacular Htr il iiic
On tlicse conditions the establishment of the proposed institut ion was sanctioned. The governing body was
to have-^rftf'to teach, confer feli^vships and scholarships and certificates of proficiency. It was to be, with the
'cational officers of Governmei^ the consulting body in all matters of public instruction, including primary
education.
Meanwhile the papec^went to the Secretary of State for India who accepted the conclusions of the
Approved by the Secretary Government of India, remarking that—
of State. ' The institution will be competent to grant certificates but not degrees,
and may hereafter, if attended with due success, be expanded into a University.'
" The Government of India, in forwarding the final authority, required —
" That the institution should be called by some such title as University College which would mark the fact that
the present arrangement was only temporary, and was intended only as preliminary to the possible establishment,
at some future time, of a University in the Punjab." *
In pursuance of these views the Government of India by a Notification, No. 470, dated 8th December, 1869,
_ . (Educational Department), sanctioned the establishment of an institution at
Notification of Government
of India dated 8th December Lahore to be styled " Lahore University Lollege, the .Notification mentions
1869, establishing Lahore Uni- that the establishment of the institution was sanctioned " in accordance with
versity College. the recommendations of His Honor the Lieutenant-Governnor, and in part
fulfilment of the, wishes of a large number of the chiefs, nobles, and influential classes of the Punjab," and the
special objects of the College were specified to be —
(1) To promote the diffusion of European science, as far as possible, through the medium of the verna-
cular languages of the Punjab, and the improvement and extension of vernacular literature
generally ;
(2) To afford encouragement to the enlightened study of Eastern classical languages and literature ; and
(3) Tojj,ssociate the learned and influential classes of the province with the officers of Government in the
promotion and supervision of popular education.
WliilstT"tirese weve the special objects of the institution, it was at the same time declared that every encourage-
ment would be affor38d^to the study of the English language and literature ; and in all subjects which cannot be
completely taught in the Vernacular, the English lauguage would be regarded as the medium of instruction and
examination. A constitution of (the governing body somewhat upon the lines of the older Universities, was also
prescribed, but the institution wajs not to have the status of a University having the power of conferring Degrees.
* Gazetteer of the Punjab (Prov. Vol., 1888-89), pp. 166-170.
ORIENTAL LANGUAGES IN THE PUNJAB UNIVERSITY. 93
Under this incomplete constitution thn Punjab University College entered upon its existence. The arrange-
Working of the Punjab Uni- ment effected resulted in the Schools and Colleges having either to prepare
versity College from 1870 to candidates for two separate systems of examinations, viz., those of the
Calcutta University, and those of the new institution— the tests being altogether
different in their character though of equivalent standards— or else to disregard the Punjab University College tests
altogether. By liberal scholarships and considerable efforts, the latter catastrophe was avoided ; but the difficulty
of the dual system of studies caused considerable inconvenience to both pupils and teachers throughout the Pro-
vince. The candidates were anxious to obtain the proper academic distinctions which the Calcutta University could
alone confer, while the Punjab University College desired to assert its own position as the proper source of
academic distinction in this Province.
The history of this institution divides itself into two nearly equal periods, one extending from January,
1870, to December, 1876, and the other from the last-named date to the passing of the Act of Incorporation
of the Punjab University, on the 5th of October, 1882. The first six years were devoted to the growth and
developement of the Punjab University College, and the work done during this period was of so substantial a
character that at the time of the Imperial Assemblage the Viceroy and Governor-General, Lord Lytton, pledged
himself ' to introduce a Bill as soon as possible into the Legislative Council for the purpose of giving to this
institution the status of a University with the power of conferring degrees.' He promised that this pledge would
be fulfilled as soon as the necessary formalities could be completed. Up to this time the Government of India
had more than once refused to convert the University College into a full University, but in six years the institu-
tion had acquired strength and completeness and had been attended with such a 'measure of success ' that the
Government of India had promised to accede to the request at once.
Between 1870 and the end of 1876, the Endowment Fund rose from Rs. 1,05,660 to Rs. 3,55,300. The
annual income reached Rs. 45,000, the whole of which was expended. The Senate Hall building commenced in
1874, was completed and brought into use at a cost of Rs. 35,283, of which sum His Highness the Nawab of Bhawal-
pur munificiently contributed Rs. 27,331. The founders of the University were made its first governing body by
the name of the Senate ; the first meeting was held on the llth of January, 1870 ; the first six months were devoted
to organization and to the making of rules and regulations for the conduct of business and examinations • an Exe-
cutive Committee was appointed, and faculties were organized ; and regular work commenced about July.
The Calcutta University held the control of the Schools and Colleges which taught in English, and it was
not possible for a body with the defective constitution of the University College to replace it at once. Its first
and great object was therefore to encourage and develop those places of educational work which had hitherto been
neglected, namely : the revival of the study of Sanskrit and Arabic ; and the diffusion of knowledge through the
medium of the Vernacular. The first examinations were accordingly held in Arabic, Sanskrit and Persian in July,
1870 ; and sixty-seven candidates presented themselves, of whom forty-three passed successively as Moulvies,
Pandits, or Munshis, respectively.
In 1871, an Entrance and First Arts Examination were added to the examinations held. The Medical School
Examinations were taken over, and were conducted under the auspices of the University, diplomas as Licentiates
being conferred upon those who passed at the final examination. In 1873, the Arts schemes were revised by a Com-
mittee, which represented both the University College and the Department of Public Instruction, and in 1874 the
Entrance, Proficiency and High Proficiency Examinations were held in addition to the Oriental series in Sanskrit,
Arabic, Persian, general knowledge, and native medicine. Arrangements were made in this year for examinations in
the Faculties of Law and Engineering, which were held in 1874 and 1875, respectively, for the first time. Up to
1876, about 1,800 candidates appeared at the various examinations, of whom over 1,000 passed.
The first Calendar was brought out in 1874. In that year the University College had completed the work of
its own organization, rules and regulations having been framed in every department. The years 1S75 and 1876,
were therefore, the first years of full work. Between 1870 and 1876 great advances had been made in the work
of translation of books required in the curricula of the Schools and Colleges, and the Vernacular Department had
made great strides.
In order to teach the Oriental languages upon modern principles, and to impart a knowledge of modern
sciences through the -medium of the Vernacular, an Oriental School was
Study of Oriental Languages. .
opened in August, 1870. 1ms school had been originally founded in 1865 by
the Anjuman-i-Punjab and it had then been the object of large donations from native chiefs. When, for certain
reasons the Oriental School was closed, the subscriptions and donations ceased. After its re-opening, under improved
auspices, very liberal subscriptions and donations again poured in. And when some of the students matriculated and
passed higher examinations on the Oriental side, a College department was added, and the name Oriental College
ENfiLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
was given to this, the chief teaching institution of the University College. Its position in 1877 is thus described in
the reports : —
"To recapitulate briefly, the objects of the College are two- fold: (I) to give a high classical Oriental educa-
tion, together with instruction, in branches of general knowledge ; and (2) to give a practical direction to every
study. Men who intend to devote themselves entirely to literature or science have scholarships and fellowships
to look forward to with their incumbent duties of teaching and translating, or they may return to their homes as
_rlily trained JWn/i/nVx or 1'iiinlits who have also received a liberal education. Those who aspire to the dignity
and function of Qazis are trained in their own Law. Persons who wish to take up the practical work of teaching in
Army Schools or in the Educational Department, will, it has been promised, be admitted to a course in the
Normal School."
Tims it was the object of the Oriental College to embody as a teaching institution, those principles which
the Punjab University College in another capacity enunciated in its examinations. It emphasized the Oriental
as the Government College did the English side of the educational system.
The Law School was first established by the Anjuman-i-Panjab in 1868. Down to 1874 no University
Examinations in Law were held, but the students were sent up to the Pleaders'
Examinations held under the Legal Practitioners' Act, and the rules framed
thereunder by the Judges of the Chief Court. These examinations were, however, handed over to the University
College in that year, thus recognizing and assuring the position of the Law School in the most practical and
efficient manner possible.
A very brief record will suffice to give an account of this the last period of the existence of the Punjab Uni-
Working of the Punjab TTni- versity College. In December 1876, the Senate presented a last memorial
versity College, from 1877 to to the Viceroy, which resulted in the promise of a University which was
I882- made public at the Imperial Assembly in January, 1877. Each year had seen
the University College attain greater success and solidity, and a few statistics will best explain what had been
effected. The Endowment Fund did not increase with much rapidity owing, no doubt, to the ' hope deferred ' of
past years, and the delay in fulfilling the pledges given, Rs. 3,84,495, stood in Government Securities to the
credit of the new University in 1882. The Senate Hall building is now estimated at Rs. 40,000. The income rose
to Rs. 75,000, and the expenditure expanded accordingly as the following figures show : —
Studies in Law.
DETAILS.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.'
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Income
44,914
53,230
55,991
63,115
64,953
75,495
Expenditure
53,014
56,495
57,573
59,598
63,881
70,419
The Government grant still stood at Rs. 21,000. In the year 1879, the Punjab Government promised to re-
consider the grant when the University was established.
A large number of institutions were affiliated to the University College in the sense that they taught up to
its standards and upon its principles, and received in return grants-in-aid or
Large number of Institu- S(.ll(,i:lrships. The University Act emphasizes the liberal principles of the
tions affiliated. . «i- ±-
University by making no provision for affiliation in the sense in which that
term is used in other Universities. The Punjab University throws open its examinations to all institutions alike,
us \\ell as to private students. It demands a definite course of reading and standards based upon its own
principles, it also offers its aid and Scholarships upon the results attained and upon nothing else. In this sense all
competent institutions are affiliated to it. Its teaching institutions, the Oriental College and Law School, continued
to develop and flourish from 1876 to 1882. Much was achieved in the direction of supplying a Vernacular litera-
ture. The Fellowship holders have translated many important works, especially those required for the various
curricula of instruction in Medicine, Natural Science, Mathematics, History, and other branches of knowledge.
Indeed, in several branches, instruction and examination is now successfully carried on through the medium of the
•.'. -ul ar up to the Master of Arts standard. In Law and Engineering also much progress was made in the
translation of works of importance.
The examination work was from the first conducted by examiners appointed by the Senate, who have
ITXJAB rXJVKRSITY INCOKPOEATED, 1882. 95
been altogether unconnected with the teaching of the candidates in the various subjects. Indeed, most of the
examiners have been entirely unconnected with the University and the
Examiners.
Province, llus principle was prescribed by the original Statutes of 1869,
and has had the effect of silencing criticism and of giving confidence in the genuineness of the work done. The
lower examinations have been conducted at several centres, besides Lahore ; Delhi and Lucknow being the most
important. The number of candidates during this period was 3,600, the number who passed was 1,911.
Apart from the purely Oriental Examinations, the Vernacular candidates for the various Arts Examinations
of the Punjab University, from 1871 to 1882 (inclusive), numbered 652. The total number of candidates in the
various Oriental Examinations, from 1870 to 1882 (inclusive), was 2,351.
On the 13th November, 1880, the pledges given had not been fulfilled, but the Secretary of State had in the
meanwhile sanctioned the proposal of the Government of India, and the
a ni- necessary legislation alone remained for consideration. Accordingly a very
versity demanded. ° J
large and influential deputation of the Senate, headed by the Honourable Sir
Robert Egerton and His Highness the Maharaja of Kashmir, G.C.S.I., waited upon the Viceroy, on the occasion
of his visit to Lahore, and presented an address to the following effect, namely, they felt sure that the Marquis of
Bipon would support the pledges given by Lord Lytton, and would repeat the promise to complete at once their
great National Institution. They referred to Sir Robert Egerton's letters of the 7th July, 1877, and 12th July, 1879,
for the arguments in favor of a Punjab University written by His Honour soon after succeeding to the Govern-
ment of this Province. They, however, more specially brought to the notice of His Excellency that 729 students
had already passed the Entrance Examination of the College, and that as many as 60 undergraduates were now
prosecuting their studies for higher honours in English by the aid of scholarships from the University funds. They
also pointed out that out of 1,747 students who had presented themselves for the various examinations in Arts
1,217 had come up for the English examinations, and that the number of candidates for the Entrance Examin-
atio'n in English had increased from 26 in 1873 to 193 in the examination for 1880. They trusted that this would
be a sufficient reply to any objections that might be raised that the Punjab University College did not sufficiently
encourage the study of English.
Lord Ripon's reply was most favourable. A Bill was presently introduced into Council and eventually passed
Lord Ripon's Government as -^-ct X*X °* 1882, and on the 14th of October of that year a Notification
passes the Punjab University by the Punjab Government formally constituted the Punjab University. The
Act, XIX of 1882. inaugural convocation was held at Lahore on the 18th November, 1882, in the
presence of the Viceroy who is the patron of the University. The new constitution completely fulfilled the wishes
of the donors, subscribers and promoters of the institution. An Oriental University has been combined with an
English University, provision has been made for the due encouragement and development of the national Classical
and Vernacular languages, as the teaching, examining and literary functions of the Senate have been emphasized,
and, lastly, the governing body is largely representative in its character and possesses the right to represent its
views to the Government and the privilege of being consulted by it. It is thus a National University in the
truest sense. The Statutes of 1869, provided that the highest honors should only be conferred when proficiency
in Arabic or Sanskrit or some other Oriental language was combined with a thorough acquaintance with English.
The Act separates the two faculties and gives equal recognition and honor to each while the Regulations provide
for the acquisition, by graduates, of the combined honors of both as being naturally the highest distinction. Each
faculty possesses an equal series of degrees, while the Oriental Faculty possesses special powers for honoring pro-
ficiency in Oriental languages by the conferring of Oriental literary titles and marks of honor. This separation
which still permits of interchange, leaves both sides free to develop, side by side, without conflict and will afford a
healthy emulation between the two systems. Both English and Vernacular are recognised and honored to the
full extent, and both are open to the people of the country. The new Degrees naturally took the names of Bache-
lor, Master and Doctor, respectively, of Oriental Learning.
The next point for consideration is the constitution of the governing body. His Excellency the Governor-
Constitution of the govern- General was unable, for various reasons, to accept the office of Chancellor, and
ing body of the Punjab Uni- it was decided to constitute the Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab for the
versity. time being, Chancellor of the University, and thus the head of the University is
in a position himself to supervise its working, while the original proposal of the promoters has been carried out.
The Vice-Chancellor is appointed by the Chancellor. The Act makes a distinction between the original founders
and donors by providing that the Fellows named in Part II of the Schedule to the Act, do not cease to be such when
they quit India permanently, while those who may be appointed subsequently vacate office upon leaving India
without the intention of returning or by remaining absent from India for more than four years. It was not
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDTA.
denned necessary or proper to make any distinctions amongst the Fellows themselves-all being equal. A
pMtmnoMBion.*™ an Anglo-Indian stand point, was made by the Legislature in leaving the Senate 1
,"leet a number of Fellows equal to the number nominated, from time to time, by the Chancellor. This pro™
_,,N,, argumentative character to the Senate which cannot fail to be a source of good, the principle of Self
Government has thus been liberally conceded in this particular.
Tin- powers of the Senate over the affaire of the University are very complete and full, and the necessary
supervision has been effected in such a way as not to interfere with the Senate's exercising all the authority which
H required for the purposes for which it has been founded. The Senate possess the 'entire management of and
<u[)erinten<lenee ove, the affairs, concerns and property of the University.' The Local Government is empowered
tatutes Rules and Reulations where the Senate may fail to do so. The Statutes, Rules and
aoM* . he Act, Statutes, Rules and Regulations where the Senate may
Regulations which may be framed require the sanction of Government, and the Local Government can require
-Mich examination and audit of the accounts of the University as may appear necessary. Internal autonomy is
thus secured, unless and until inefficiency or worse is displayed. In carrying out these principles the Senate have
Imd to re-draft their Statutes, and this has been done with scrupulous regard to the wishes of the promoters, and
subject to the altered condition of things at the time."*
The Allahabad University was incorporated by Act XVIII of 1887, which was passed on the 23rd September,
1887. The constitution of the University closely resembles that of the Univer-
The Allahabad University
incorporated in September, sity of Calcutta, consisting of a Chancellor a Vice-Chancellor and Fellows
1887. forming a Senate, divided into Faculties of various branches of learning which
»re regulated by the Boards of studies. The Syndicate of the University is the executive governing body as in the
other Indian Universities, and the subjects of examination, with minor alterations, are the same as in the University
of Calcutta, though hitherto the working of the University has been confined to the Faculties of Arts and Law.
The general scope and character of education in the Colleges affiliated to the Indian Universities was
thus described by the Indian Education Commission of 1882 : —
Scope and character of Col- (i ^ ^ ^ character, collegiate instruction is now almost uniform
legiate Education. °
throughout India. Purely Oriental Colleges must, ot course, be excepted.
These however, are so few in number that they scarcely enter into a consideration of collegiate education in
it* modem development. With the exception, indeed, of the Oriental College at Lahore, and of the Oriental
department of the Canning College, Lucknow, they are but relics of that order of things which existed previous
the publication of Lord William Bentinck's famous Resolution. The college of to-day aims at giving an
education that shall fit its recipient to take an honourable share in the administration of the country, or to enter
with good hope of success the various liberal professions now expanding in vigorous growth. It follows, therefore,
that the advancement of learning in India is in a large measure through science, and altogether according
tilic method. The English and Oriental classics, of course, occupy an important place in the
college scheme ; but, apart from, the refinement of character and elevation of thought which are incidental
to their study, their chief function is to discipline the intellect. In history, philosophy, mathematics, and
physical science, English is the medium of instruction and the passport to academic honours. The dialectics
of Hindoo philosophy and the subtleties of Muhammadan law have naturally disappeared from a course of studies
intended to lie of so practical a character ; the profound scholarship and lifelong devotion to learning which India
once boasted, are sacrifices made to the appreciation of an active career. Few regrets are felt on this score, though
there are those who hold that tl; ' exclusive use of English is neither beneficial nor necessary. Through
the Vernaculars, to som.' extent already and largely in the near future, they believe that general knowledge of the
higher kind might be imparted, and that an education of wider national profit would be the certain result."f
Tlie duration of the College courses and the standards of examination in the Universities of Calcutta,
.Madras and Bombay, were thus described in the Report of the Indian
Duration of College courses Education Commission of 1882 : —
and standards of examination tl Jn jj,,,,,,.^ t]10 College course extends over five years from matricula-
in the Universities of Calcutta, ,
M dras nd Bombay tion to the M. A. degree. In Madras, there is a course ol four years up to
the B. A. degree, and those who appear for the M. A. examination commonly
-|>en>l at least two years more in study, though none of the Colleges have regular classes beyond the B. A. standard.
In Bombay, three years is the period ; but, on the other hand, the school course is one year longer, and the Entrance
examination of a somewhat more difficult character. The usual age at which an Indian student seeks admission
to the 1 is between sixteen and eighteen years. Having by that time completed the High School course,
ho is examined by means of printed papers (and, in the Bombay and Punjab Universities, orally) in English, a
• Gazetteer of the Punjab (Prov. Vol., 1888-89) pp. 170-175. f Report of the Indian Education Commission (1882), pp. 269, 270.
STATISTICS OP UNIVERSITY EDUCATION, 1857-82.
97
classical or vernacular language, history, geography, mathematics, and in Madras and Bombay, in elementary
physical science, the exact standard in each of these subjects need not be stated here. But, roughly speaking, the
knowledge required is about that which, at the age of sixteen, an English boy of average intelligence will be found
to possess. Success in this examination admits a student to any of the affiliated colleges. There, after attendance
for two years (for one year in Bombay), he is permitted to present himself for the First Examination in Arts, or
the Previous Examination, as it is styled in Bombay. At the Calcutta University the subjects of examination are
English, a classical language (Oriental or European), history, mathematics, logic, and either psychology or elemen-
tary chemistry. In Madras, human physiology holds the place of logic, psychology, or chemistry, in the Calcutta
course. In Bombay the scheme is identical with that in Calcutta, except that natural science takes the place of
the optional subjects. Two years later again (in Bombay there is an Intermediate examination) comes the examin-
ation for the B. A. degree." *
" The B.A. degree is followed by the M.A. degree. Here the examination is practically confined to one or
other of the following branches of knowledge : (1) Languages ; (2) History ; (3) Mental and Moral Philosophy ; (4)
Mathematics, pure and mixed ; (5) Natural and Physical Science. At Calcutta the candidate is allowed to take up
one or more of these branches either in the same or in different years ; in Madras and Bombay a classical language
(Oriental or European) is coupled with English, and Philosophy with History and Political Economy. With the
M.A. degree the College course comes to an end, though in the Calcutta University the Premchand Roychand
Studentship is the final goal of academic distinction." f
Such being the course of studies in the Universities of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay, which were founded in
1857, it is important to exhibit in a summary form some of the more important
results of Collegiate education under those Universities for a quarter of a cen-
tury from their establishment, the Punjab University and the Allahabad
University having no existence during that period. The following table
has been prepared from two tables given at page 269 of the Report of the In-
Statistics of some important
results of Collegiate education
under the Universities of Cal-
cutta, Madras and Bombay,
1857-82.
dian Education Commission of 1882.
COLLEGIATE EDUCATION, 1857 TO 1882.
PROVINCES.
IN 1857 — 1870-71.
IN 1871-72—1881-82.
Maximum number of
English Ai-ts Col-
leges.
NUMBER OP STUDENTS WHO
PASSED THE F.A., B.A. AND
M.A. EXAMINATIONS.
Maximum number of
English Arts Col-
leges.
NUMBER OP STUDENTS WHO
PASSED THE F.A., B.A. AND
M.A. EXAMINATIONS.
F.A.
'B.A.
M.A.
F.A.
B.A.
M.A.
Madras
12
784
152
6
25
2,032
890
22
Bombay
4
244
116
28
6
709
340
34
Bengal
17
1,495
548
112
22
2,666
1,037
284
N.-W. P. and Oudh
9
96
26
5
9
365
130
33
Punjab
4
47
8
...
2
107
37
11
Central Provinces
Total
...
...
...
1
90
46
2,666
850
151
65
5,969
2,434
385
The preceding table shows the progress which Collegiate English education had made under the auspices of
Examinations conducted by the older three Universities during the first quarter of a century of their
the Punjab University. existense. The distinctive features of the course of education in the Punjab
* Report of the Indian Education Commission (1882), p. 270.
13
t 16., p. 272.
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
L'nivoi-sity established in 1882, have already been described, and the following extract gives further information
upon the subject : —
•• There are two examinations leading to the degree in Arts — the Intermediate, corresponding to the First
Examination ; the High Proficiency Examination, corresponding to that for B.A. Those who pass the High
I'roHciency standard through the medium of English, receive the degree of B.A. ; while on those who pass it
through the medium of the Vernacular is conferred the degree of B.O.L., or Bachelor of Oriental Learning.
Graduates of either class are entitled to present themselves at a later date for examination by the Honours in Arts
standard, and those who pass receive the degrees of M!A. and M.O.L. respectively. Similarly 011 the Oriental
side, examinations are held in Arabic for the titles successively of Maulavi Alim and Maulavi Fazil, in Persian
the titles of Munshi Alim and Munshi Fazil, and for Visharad and Shastri in Sanskrit. Examinations are
:ilso held in Gurmukhi, or the literature of the Sikhs. The Senate of the University further acts as the consti-
tuted adviser of the Government on educational matters. Among many important subjects referred to that body
for discussion and opinion may be mentioned — vacations in schools and dates of public examinations ; systems
_: fants-in-aid ; the award of scholarships ; primary standards for boys' and girls' schools ; the inspection of
girls' schools ; proposals for a new Punjabi Dictionary ; the European Education Code ; rules for Training Colleges ;
:md tests for admission to the public service in various grades. The conduct of the Middle School Examination
was also transferred to the University. Thus it is evident that the Punjab University occupies towards the
Government of the Province a position which is not filled by any other University in India."*
CHAPTER XIX.
THE INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION OF 1882, AND SOME IMPORTANT FACTS AND STATISTICS
COLLECTED BY IT IN REGARD TO ENGLISH COLLEGIATE EDUCATION.
In 1882, the Government of India passed a Resolution, No. -jSj, dated the 3rd February, 1882, by which it
Indian Education Commis- appointed a Commission to report upon the subject of education, and the fol-
sion of 1882. lowing extracts from the Resolution will show its nature and objects : —
" In view of the facts that, since the measures set forth in the Despatch of 1854 came into active operation,
Resolution appointing the a ^ll^ quarter of a century has elapsed, and that it is now ten years since the
Commission, dated 3rd Fob- responsible direction of the educational system was entrusted to the Local
ruary, II Governments, it appears to His Excellency the Governor-General in Council
that the time has come for instituting a more careful examination into the results attained, and into the working
nt the present arrangements, than has hitherto been attempted. The experience of the past has shown that a
mere critical review or analysis of the returns and reports of the different provinces fails to impart a thoroughly
factory knowledge of the actual state of things in the districts, and that there are many points which only an
acquaintance with local circumstances can adequately estimate or explain. His Excellency in Council has therefore
decided to appoint a Commission on behalf of Government to enquire into the present position of education in
British India, and to nominate to this Commission a sufficient number of persons from the different provinces to
Hecnre the adequate and intelligent consideration of the facts that will be laid before it." f
The Commission thus appointed consisted of European and Native members representing the various sections
of the community interested in the subject of education. Sir W. W. Hunter
Duties assigned to the . , , „ ., . , ,. , J
was appointed President, and the general duties assigned to the Commission
Commission.
" ere thus prescribed : —
•• It will be the duty of the Commission to enquire particularly (subject only to certain limitations to be
not iccil below) into the manner in which effect has been given to the principles of the Despatch of 1854 ; and to
mefa measures as it may think desirable in order to the further carrying out of the policy therein laid
down. The Government of India is firmly convinced of the soundness of that policy, and has no wish to depart
* Review of Education in India in 1886 ; by Sir Alfred Croft, p. 30.
t licpnrt of the Indian Education Commission (1882), p. 624; App. A.
ENCOURAGEMENT OP THE GRANT-IN-AID SYSTEM. 99
from the principles upon -which it is based. It is intended only at the present time, to examine into the general
results of its operation, and to scrutinize the efficiency of the machinery that has been set on foot for bringing
about those ends which the Government from the outset had especially in view."* " It will not be necessary for
the Commission to enquire into the general working of the Indian Universities, which are controlled by corporations
comprising representatives of all classes interested in collegiate education. Of the results of their operation
a fair estimate can always be formed independently of a special enquiry such as is now proposed. Nor will it be
necessary for the Commission to take up the subject of special or technical education, whether medical, legal,
or engineering. To extend the enquiry to these subjects would expand unduly the task before the Commission.
Again the Government of India has itself very recently dealt with the question of European and Eurasian
education, and no further enquiry is necessary as regards that. But, with these exceptions, the Governor-General
in Council is of opinion that the Commission may usefully consider the working of all branches of the Indian
educational system. These branches are, it is believed, so closely connected one with another, that it is only by
examining the system as a whole that any sound conclusions are likely to be come to-"f
Another passage from the Resolution requires quotation here as it announces the policy of the Government to
Policy of encouraging the &ive furtner encouragement to the grant-in-aid system with the object of
grant-in-aid system to secure securing the gradual withdrawal of the State from high English education.
gradual withdrawal from, high After inviting the attention of the Commission to the great importance which
English education. tne Government attaches to the subject of primary education, the Resolution
(in paragraphs 9 and 10) goes on to say : —
" The resources at the disposal of Government, whether imperial, provincial or local, are, and must long remain,
extremely limited in amount, and the result is, not only that progress must necessarily be gradual, but that if
satisfactory progress is to be made at all, every available private agency must be called into action to relieve and
assist the public funds in connection with every branch of Public Instruction. It was in view of ' the impossibility
of Government alone doing all that must be done to provide adequate means for the education of the Natives of
India,' that the grant-in-aid system was elaborated and developed by the Despatch of 1854 ; and it is to the wider
extension of this system, especially in connection with high and middle education, that the Government looks to set
free funds which may then be made applicable to the promotion of the education of the masses. ' The resqurces of
the State ought,' as remarked by the Secretary of State in Despatch No. 13 of 25th April 1864, ' to be so applied
as to assist those who cannot be expected to help themselves, and the richer classes of the people should gradually
be induced to provide for their own education.'
" In pursuance of this policy it is the desire of Government to offer every encouragement to native gentlemen
to come forward and aid, even more extensively than heretofore, in the establishment of schools upon the grant-in-
aid system : and His Excellency in Council is the more anxious to see this brought about, because, apart altogether
from the consequent pecuniary relief to Government, it is chiefly in this way that the native community will be
able to secure that freedom and variety of education which is an essential condition in any sound and complete
educational system. It is not, in the opinion of the Governor-General in Council, a healthy symptom that all the
youth of the country should be cast, as it were, in the same Government educational mould. Rather is it desirable
that each section of the people should be in a position to secure that description of education which is most conso-
nant to its feelings and suited to its wants. The Government is ready, therefore, to do all that it can to foster such
a spirit of independence and self-help. It is willing to hand over any of its own colleges or schools, in suitable
cases, to bodies of native gentlemen who will undertake to manage them satisfactorily as aided institutions ; all
that the Government will insist upon, being that due provision is made for efficient management and extended useful-
ness. It will be for the Commission to consider in what mode effect can most fully be given to these views ; and
how the grant-in-aid system may best be shaped so to stimulate such independent effort, and make the largest
use of the available Government funds. "J
Although the subject of the general working of the Indian Universities was excluded from the enquiry to be
Information as to Collegiate ma(le by the Commission, yet much valuable information was collected by
Education collected by the it in connection with collegiate education, and some passages from the
Commission. Report may, therefore, be quoted here, as such instruction is carried on
in Colleges which are affiliated to the Universities and pursue the course of instruction prescribed by them : —
" The affiliated Colleges are of two grades ; those whose students go no further than the First Arts, or Previous
* Heport of the Indian Education Commission (1882), p. 024 ; App. A.
t 16., p. 625 ; Appendix A. J Ib., pp. 625, 626; Appendix A.
100
ENGLISH EDTCATIOX IX IXPIA.
Examina-tion, and those in which they proceed to the B.A. and M.A. degrees. The strength of the teaching staff
varies with the wealth of the institution, the numbers of the students, and the class of examinations for which candi-
,latl , „,,. Tims the Presidency College in Calcutta, has a Principal, eleven Professors, and two teachers of
Sanskrit and Arabic. This staff provides for lectures being given in all the various subjects of all the examina-
tions. A smal In- college will be content with a Principal, two Professors, a Pandit, and a Maulavi ; but with
no larger staff than this, restrictions are necessary as to the choice of subjects in the alternative courses, and but
little help can be afforded to students reading for the M.A. degree." *
In regard to academic discipline of the students prosecuting their studies in the Colleges affiliated to the
Views of the Commission as Indian Universities, the Indian Education Commission expressed their views
to Academic discipline. in the following words : —
" In their scheme of discipline, and in the academic life of their students, Indian Colleges have but little
analogy with those of the older of the English Universities, their resemblance being closer to those of Scotland
and Germany. Residence in college buildings is not only not generally compulsory, but the colleges are few
in which any systematic provision is made for control over the students' pursuits out of college hours. Boarding-
houses are, indeed, attached to certain institutions, and their number increases year by year. But, unless the
student's home be at a distance from the collegiate city, and he have no relatives to receive him, it is seldom that
he will incur the expense which residence involves. Two principal reasons account for this feature in our system.
First, the initial outlay upon buildings is one from which Government and independent bodies alike shrink. For
so poor is the Indian student that it would be impossible to demand of him any but the most moderate rent — a rent
perhaps barely sufficient to cover the cost of the annual repairs. The second obstacle lies in the religions and
social prejudices which fence class from class. Not only does the Hindu refuse to eat with the Musalman, but from
close contact with whole sections of his own co-religionists he is shut off by the imperious ordinances of caste.
Experience, however, has already proved that the barriers of custom are giving way. In the North- Western
Provinces and the Punjab, where the residential system has been widely tried, the success has been considerable ;
and nothing but want of funds stands in the way of a fuller development. In the more important Bombay Colleges,
also, a considerable number of the students are in residence ; in Bengal and Madras the system has been less fully
recognised. Yet it is the one thing which will give the departmental officer a hold upon the lives of those whose
intellects he trains with such sedulous elaboration. From any attempt to touch the religious side of the student's
character, the Government educational officer is debarred by the principle of religious neutrality. All the more
important therefore, is it that he should be able to exercise the moral influence of a close and watchful discipline." t
The following table J shows the statistics of attendance in English Arts Colleges, for the official year
Statistics of Collegiate in- 1881-82:—
struction, 1881-82.
STATISTICS OF ATTENDANCE IN ENGLISH ARTS COLLEGES, FOR 1881-82.
PROVINCES.
DEPARTMENTAL.
AIDED.
UNAIDED.
TOTAL.
00
V
bo
0>
j|
O
1
0>
nS
3
m
CO
I
to
B
"o
O
Students.
£
ID
_»
o
O
Students.
CO
1
8
"o
O
Students.
Mudras
10
742
11
803
3
124
24
1,669
Bombay
3
311
2
139
1
25
6
475
Bengal
12
1,305
5
895
4
538
21
2,738
N'.-W. Provinces and Oudh
3
172
2
157
1
20
6
349
Punjab
1
103
...
...
...
...
1
103
Central Provinces
TOTAL ...
1
65
...
...
...
...
1
65
30
2,698
20
1,994
9
707
59
5,399
* Report of the Indian Education Commission (1882), p. 272.
t /!>., pp. 272, 273. J IJ,., p. 274 (extract from Table No. I).
AVERAGE COST AND TUITION PEES OF COLLEGIATE EDUCATION, 1891-92.
101
Among the statistics collected by the Indian Education Commission of 1882 (vide page 279 of the Report),
Average cost of Collegiate ^ne following tabular statement is interesting, as showing the average annual
per student, cost (calculated on the average monthly number of the students enrolled) of
educating each student in English Arts Colleges, for the official year 1881-82 : —
Education
1881-82.
AVERAGE ANNUAL COST OF EDUCATING EACH STUDENT IN ENGLISH ARTS
COLLEGES, IN 1881-82.
PROVINCES.
DEPARTMENTAL COLLEGES.
AIDED COLLEGES.
UNAIDED
COLLEGES.
Total
average
annual cost.
Average
annual cost to
Provincial
Funds.
Total
average
annual cost.
Average
annual cost to
Provincial
Funds.
Total
average
annual cost.
Rs. A. p.
Rs. A. P.
Rs. A. p.
Rs. A. p.
Rs. A. p.
Madras
257 13 8
210 1 2
125 2 8
29 9 8
93 I 2
Bombay
446 12 8
274 13 0
271 10 9
35 14 7
331 10 <2
Bengal
320 9 5
217 5 8
185 5 6
28 0 7
48 7 8
N.-W. P.andOudh...
Punjab
Central Provinces ...
Average for British India, ex-
cluding Ajmir and Burma ...
758 4 2
498 15 8
186 3 1
534 8 6
477 1 10
165 8 5
312 9 8
111 14 0
125 14 0
354 9 1
253 9 9
178 7 7
35 14 3
97 8 2
The following table * gives an approximate idea of the tuition fees paid by students in Arts Colleges during the
official year 1881-82, and the proportion which the income from snch fees
C°UeSeS bears to total expenditure in the various classes of the CoUeges, excluding the
expenditure on buildings and scholarships : —
in 1881-82.
TUITION FEES IN ARTS COLLEGES IN THE OFFICIAL YEAR, 1881-82.
DEPARTMENTAL
COLLEGES.
AIDED
COLLEGES.
UNAIDED
COLLEGES.
PERCENTAGE OF INCOME
FROM FEES TO TOTAL EXPEN-
DITURE IN^—
"D f\ t/1T>0
Highest
Fee.
Lowest
Fee.
Highest
Fee.
Lowest
Fee.
Highest
Fee.
Lowest
Fee.
Depart-
mental
Colleges
Aided
Colleges
Unaided
Colleges.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Madras
5
3
4
2
3
...
17-78
23-76
31-02
Bombay
10
3
8
4
5
3
18-28
21-72
14-56
Bengal
12
3
6
5
3
...
27-51
29-16
41-19
N.-W. P. and Oudh
5
2
5
1
4
1
5-65
5-29
16-63
Punjab
5
2
...
...
...
...
4-38
...
...
Central Provinces
2
2
...
...
...
...
11-09
...
...
Average for India.
12
2
8
1
5
1
19-53
23-44
27-05
Prepared from Table No. VIII, at page 280 of the Report of the Indian Education Commission (1882).
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
In regard to the results of higher English education, the following tabular statement (vide Indian Education
Commission Report, 1882, page 281), showing an estimate of the number of
Approximate statistics of duates from conegiate institutions who, between 1871 and 1882, took up
-rious professions, gives an approximate idea of the after-career of our
Indian graduates : —
PROVINCES.
Number
of graduates
between
1871-82.
Having
entered the
sublic service,
British or
Native.
Legal
profession.
Medical
profession.
Civil
Engineering
profession.
Madras
808
296
126
18
Bombay
625
324
49
76
28
Bengal
1,696
534
471
131
19
N'.-W. P. and Ondh
130
61
33
—
6
Punjab
38
21
5
—
...
Central Provinces ...
14
8
•"
'"
...
Total
3,311
1,244
684
225
53
CHAPTER XX.
THE GRANT-IN-AID SYSTEM INAUGURATED BY THE EDUCATIONAL DESPATCH OF 1854, AND
CONSIDERED BY THE INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION OF 1882.
To use the language employed by the Indian Education Commission, " the Despatch of 1854 contains the first
Objects of the Despatch of declaration of the policy of the Government in a matter which lies at the root of
1854, as to the Grant-in-aid any national system of education, that is to say, the determination of the parts
system. which can be most effectively taken in it by the State and by the people.
The immediate aims of the Government of that time were the same as those to which the attention of every
European state was first directed when organising its system of public instruction. The existing schools of all
kinds were to be improved and their number increased, systematic inspection was to be established, and a supply of
competent teachers was to be provided. But in India the attitude of the State to national education was effected by
three conditions to which no European state could furnish a parallel. In the first place, the population was not
only as large as that of all the European states together that had adopted an educational system, but it presented,
in its different Provinces, at least, as many differences of creed, language, race and custom. Secondly, the ruling
power was bound to hold itself aloof from all questions of religion. Thirdly, the scheme of instruction to be intro-
duced was one which should culminate in the acquisition of a literature and science essentially foreign. While
therefore, on the one hand, the magnitude of the task before the Indian Government was such as to make it almost
impossible of achievement by any direct appropriation from the resources of the Empire, on the other, the popular
demand for education, so important a factor in the success of the European systems — had in general to be created.
The Government adopted the only course which circumstances permitted. It was admitted that 'to imbue a vast
:inil i<.niiii-.uit population with a general desire for knowledge, and to take advantage of that desire when excited to
improve the menus for diffusing education amongst them, must be a work of many years' ; and this admission was
followed by the announcement that ' as a Government, we can -do no more than direct the efforts of the people, and
aid them wherever they appear to require most assistance.' In pursuance of this resolution the earlier part of the
Despatch is occupied with a review of all the agencies for education which were already in existence in India,
whether maintained by Government or by private persons or bodies, native and foreign ; and it was declared that
the extension and increased supply of schools and colleges should for the future be mainly effected by the
SCOPE AND CHARACTER OF GRANT-IN-AID. 103
grant-in-aid system. Notice was taken of the increasing desire on the part of the natives of India for the means of
obtaining a better education, as shown by the liberal sums which had recently been contributed with that object ;
and attention was drawn to the zeal and munificence which Hindus and Muhammadans for ages had manifested in
the cause of education. Cordial recognition was also given to the efforts of Christian Associations in diffusing
knowledge among the natives of India, specially among uncivilized races. In such circumstances it was hoped that
the grant-in-aid system could be introduced into India, as it had been into England, with every prospect of success.
The introduction of that system was necessitated by a conviction of the impossibility of Government alone doing
all that must be done in order to provide adequate means for the education of the natives of India ; and it was
expected that the plan of thus drawing support from local sources, in addition to contributions from the State,
would result in a far more rapid progress of education than would follow a mere increase of expenditure by the
Government, while it possessed the additional advantage of fostering a spirit of reliance upon local exertions,
and combination for local purposes, which was, of itself, of no mean importance to the well-being of a nation." *
In regard to scope and character, " the system was to be based on an entire abstinence from interference with
the religious instruction conveyed in the schools assisted, and aid was to be
given within certain limits to all schools which imparted a good secular
Grant-m-aid system.
education, provided that they were under adequate local management, that is,
under persons responsible for the general superintendence of the school and for its permanence for a given time.
Such schools were to be open to Government inspection, and to be subjected to such other rules as Government
might, from time to time, impose. It was further required that some fee, however small, should be levied in all
aided schools ; and that grants should be made for specific objects, such as the augmentation of the salaries of the
head-teachers, the supply of junior teachers, the provision of scholarships, the supply of school-books, or the erec-
tion of buildings, and not for the general expenditure of the school. On these principles it was hoped that local
management, under Government inspection and aided by grants, would be encouraged wherever it was possible
to take advantage of it ; and it was ruled that when such management so aided was capable of adequately meeting
the local demand for education, Government institutions were not to be founded. The Despatch looked forward to
the time when any general system of education entirely provided by the Government might be discontinued with the
gradual advance of the system of grants-in-aid ; and when many of the existing Government institutions, especially
those of the higher order, might be safely closed or transferred to the management of local bodies, under the
control of, and aided by, the State. But it was expressly provided that the spread of education was not to be
checked in the slightest degree by the abandonment of a single school to probable decay ; and while the desired
object was to be kept steadily in view, the Government and the local authorities were enjoined to act with caution,
and to be guided by special reference to the particular circumstances of the locality concerned. The higher
classes would thus be gradually called upon to depend more upon themselves ; while, for the education of the
middle and lower classes, special attention was directed, both to the establishment of fitting schools for that purpose
and also to the careful encouragement of the native schools which had existed from time immemorial, and none of
which, perhaps, could not in some degree be made available to the end in view."t
" The relations of the State to private effort, as indicated in the Despatch of 1854, may therefore be summed
Relations of the State to pri- up as follows. The state undertook —
vate effort.
(1) to give pecuniary assistance on the grant-in-aid system to efficient Schools and Colleges ;
( 2 ) to direct their efforts and afford them counsel and advice ;
(3) to encourage and reward the desire for learning in various ways, but chiefly by the establishment of
Universities ;
(4) to take measures for providing a due supply of teachers, and for making the profession of teaching
honourable and respected.
" Of all these provisions the most important and far-reaching was the introduction of the grant-in-aid system.
It was found in the Despatch of 1859, that in the rules framed for the allotment of grants-in-aid careful attention
had been paid to the foregoing principles. It was also stated in that Despatch that, while the system had been
readily accepted by schools of higher education, it had been unsuccessful in its application to those of a lower class. "J
" The Despatch also pointed out, in reference to the small number of scholars in the Government Colleges and
Necessity of encouraging Schools of higher education, that there was ample scope for the employment
private effort. Limitations of of every form of agency that could be brought into the field of educational
the policy of withdrawal. labour ; and urged that every agency likely to engage in the work with
* Report of the Indian Education Commission (1882), pp. 351, 352 t J&- PP- 352, 353. J Ib. p. 355.
1Q4 ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
earnestness and efficiency should be made use of and fostered. It laid stress on the great advantage of promoting
in the- native community a spirit of self-reliance, in opposition to the habit of depending on Government for the
M,,Tly of local wants ; and it accordingly declared that if Government should accept the duty of placing elemen-
tary education within reach of the general population, those persons or classes who required more than this might,
as a general rule, be left to exert themselves to procure it, with or without the assistance of Government. But in
(summarising the objects of the Despatch of 1854, it made no further reference to the withdrawal of Government
from any of its own institutions, or to their transfer to the management of local bodies. On the contrary, it stated,
what had not before been stated so explicitly, that one of the objects of that Despatch was the increase, where
necessary, of the number of Government Colleges and Schools,— a declaration which was repeated and enforced in
the Despatch of the 23rd January, 1864. Moreover, while it has been often reiterated as a general principle that
Government should withdraw, wherever possible, from the direct maintenance and management of institutions of
the higher class, stress has always been laid upon the need of caution in the practical application of the principle.
Thus, in the Despatch No. 6, of the Secretary of State, dated 14th May 1862, it is expressly said that in any such
withdrawal ' attention must necessarily be given to local circumstances,' and that ' Her Majesty's Government are
unwilling that a Government School should be given up in any place where the inhabitants show a marked desire
that it should be maintained, or where there is a manifest disinclination, on the part of the people, to send their
children to the private schools of the neighbourhood.' And again in Despatch No. 6 of the Secretary of State,
dated the 26th May 1870, in reply to a proposal from the Government of India ' to reduce the Government expen-
diture on Colleges in Bengal to an equality with the sum total of the endowments and fees of the Colleges,' the
fear is expressed lest the proposal would tend ' entirely to paralyse the action of high education in Bengal,' and
that ' a large and sudden reduction in the Government grant will tend to the diminution, rather than the augmen-
tation, of private liberality.' Thus, while the time has always been looked forward to when, in the words of the
Despatch of 1854, ' many of the existing Government institutions, especially those .of the higher order, may be
safely closed or transferred to the management of local bodies under the control of, and aided by, the State,' more
recent Despatches have laid particular emphasis on the further statement, ' it is far from our wish to check the
spread of education in the slightest degree by the abandonment of a single school to probable decay.' *
" The necessity of requiring the wealthier classes to contribute to the cost of their education, and thus to
Limitation of State expend!- make Government schools more self-supporting than before, was strongly
ture on Higher Education. insisted on in 1861 (Despatch No. 14, dated 8th April, 1861), in reference to
the levy of fees in high schools, when it was declared to be impossible, even if desirable, that the State should
bear the whole expense of education in so densely populated a country as India. A similar view was expressed
in 1864 (Despatch No. 13, dated 25th April, 1864), when it was laid down that, in determining the distribution
of expenditure between different classes of education, the resources of the State should, as far as possible, be so
applied as to asist those who could not be expected to help themselves, and that the richer classes of the people
should gradually be induced to provide for their own education, — for example, by the payment of substantial fees
in higher schools. At the same time the interests of the upper classes and the importance of higher schools were
in no way ignored or neglected ; and in 1863 (Despatch No. 12, dated 24th December, 1863), when it was declared
to have been one great object of the Despatch of 1854 to provide for the extension to the general population of
those means of education which had theretofore been too exclusively confined to the upper classes, it was expressly
added that while Her Majesty's Government desired that the means of obtaining an education calculated to fit
them for their higher position and responsibilities should be afforded to the upper classes of society in India, they
deemed it equally incumbent on them to take suitable measures for extending the benefits of education to those
classes who were incapable of obtaining any education worthy of the name, by their own unaided efforts.
" The grant-in-aid system was, therefore, designed to be an auxiliary to the Government system, for the
Ultimate objects of the Grant- further extension of higher education by the creation of aided schools ; and
in-aid System. it was anticipated, not only that an exclusively Government system of educa-
tion would by this means be discontinued with the development of a concurrent system of grants-in-aid, but that
in course of time many of the existing Government institutions, especially of the higher order, might themselves
he closed or transferred to local management. In short, the grant-in-aid system was intended to supplement, and
in time partly to supersede, the Government system of higher education. It was, however, found to be unsuited,
in its existing form, to the supply of education for the masses. At the same time the education of the masses
was declared to be the primary object towards which the efforts of Government were to be directed, and to the
promotion and encouragement of which State aid in some form or other was to be liberally devoted.^ Such a
* Eeport of the Indian Education Commission (1882), pp. 355, 356.
PRIVATE EFFORT FOR EDUCATION.
105
declaration does not, of course, involve the State in the responsibility of providing all the funds required for mass
education, under any method of aid that may be adopted."*
The Indian Education Commission after giving an account of the growth of private enterprise in education
General financial result of in various provinces, recorded the following observations on the general
private effort. financial result : —
" Perhaps nothing that has come to our notice in this historical review is more instructive than the varying
extent to which the expenditure on education in the different provinces is supplied from public funds and from
private sources, respectively. In public funds we include not only provincial grants derived from the whole tax-
paying community, but also those local contributions which are paid from local rates or municipal revenues. In
proportion as these local contributions are taken under the operation of law from local resources, they tend, as has
been shown above, to diminish the means available for spontaneous effort. But as the application of local
funds is mainly, and of municipal funds is partially, determined by departmental influence, we have throughout
this Report treated both these funds as public. The comparison which we wish to institute will be evident from
the following statement : — "f
PROVINCE.
Expenditure on edu-
cation from public
funds in 1881-82.
Expenditure on
education from all
sources in 1881-82.
Percentage of
column 2 to
column 3.
1
2
3
4
Rs.
Rs.
Madras
13,97,448
29,94,707
46-66
Bombay
17,71,860
23,69,916
7476'
Bengal
22,97,917
55,59,295
41-33
North- Western Provinces and Oudh
15,06,882
18,55,572
81-20
Punjab
10,95,321
14,42,556
75-92
Central Provinces
5,16,517
6,35,824
81-23
Assam
1,94,203'
3,01,548
64-40
Coorg
20,293
22,737
89-25
Hyderabad Assigned Districts
3,23,441
3,51,296
92-07
The conclusions of the Indian Education Commission on the subject of the growth of private enterprise in
Summary of the views of education are thus summarized : —
the Education Commission as " Our review appears to be sufficient to show that with free scope and
to private efforts. cordial encouragement, private effort in education may everywhere produce
beneficial and satisfactory results. In almost every Province it has done enough, in point of both quantity and
quality, to prove its vitality and its capacity for constantly increasing usefulness. Even where least successful,
the plan of aiding private effort to establish institutions for secondary and even higher instruction has by no
means proved a failure. Still private effort has hitherto had important disadvantages almost everywhere to
contend against. The departmental system was, in most cases, first in the field ; and even where private enterprise
has been most freely encouraged, departmental institutions, which were often originally established at head-
quarter stations or other large and populous centres, have continued to occupy the most favourable ground
and have left to private enterprise the task of cultivating a poorer soil. We do not overlook the obliga-
tion imposed on the Department by the Despatch of 1834, of opening schools and colleges of its own,
whether as models or as the only means available, at first, of providing many localities with the facilities
they required for advanced instruction ; and we are sensible of the great advantages which the people of India
have derived from such departmental institutions. Still it is plain that private effort has not yet been elicited
* Report of the Indian Education Commission (1882), pp. 356, 357.
14
t Ib. pp. 378, 379.
106 ENGLISH EDUCATION FN tNBIA.
i snch a scale a* to take the position in the general scheme of education which was contemplated in the Despatch
of 1854 Nor in the circumstances is this surprising. Departmental institutions have absorbed a large part
of admittedly inefficient funds, so that means have not been available for developing private enterprise
,h, full Such enterprise has probably been checked in many cases by the mainfest impossibility of ite competmg
KOOeMfnllT with institutions backed by the resources of the State; and in some Province* the steady development c
the department,,! svstem has undoubtedly fostered in the native community a disposition to rely more
on Governmant te t be whole provision of the means of advanced instruction. In short, experience has shown that
,te effort cannot attain the development or produce the results anticipated in the Despatch of ]
action of Government is such as to lead the community at large to feel that most departmental mst,tutions are
chiefly intended to supply a temporary want, and that the people must themselves more largely pi-ovule the
means of advanced instruction. This is no argument for the hasty or premature reduction of the departmental
m, but only for cautious yet steadily progressive action in the direction of its withdrawal,— a subject,
however, which is so important and yet so delicate that we propose to devote a section of the present chapter to
its further consideration."*
CHAPTER XXL
VIEWS OF THE INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION IN REGARD TO THE WITHDRAWAL OF
THE STATE FROM HIGHER ENGLISH EDUCATION.
.The Indian Education Commission dealt with this important subject in a separate section of their report, and
some passages from it may be quoted here: They observe—
•Withdrawal of the State from „ perh none of the many subjects here discussed is encompassed with
higher education. ., . . ,.,
greater difficulty or has elicited more various shades ot opinion, alike among
the witnesses we have examined and within the Commission itself, than that of the withdrawal of Government
from the direct support and management of educational institutions, especially those of the higher order. The
difficulty of the subject arises from the great number of opposing considerations, each of which must have
proper weight allowed it and be duly balanced against others. Complete agreement is not to be expected in a
matter where so many weighty arguments on opposite sides have to be taken into account.
" The points to which we invited the attention of witnesses were mainly these : We asked them to explain
the admitted fact that the policy of withdrawal indicated in the Despatch of
the Commlsrio'n"1 "^ ^^ 1854> had as ret been hardly iaitiated- We asked them also their view as to
the propriety of further and more decisive action in this direction. For the
fact in question many reasons were assigned, the chief of which were the success and popularity of the Government
institutions, which naturally made the Department anxious to retain them, and the difficulty of finding suitable
agencies able and willing to accept the transfer, without detriment to education in the locality concerned. With
regard to future action two strongly opposed lines of argument are followed. On the one hand, it was urged that
the very success of the advanced institutions supported directly by the State is a reason for maintaining them ;
that the people regard the maintenance of such institutions as an important part of the duty of the State as
represent iny tin- ciinimimity, which cannot justifiably In- neglected or shifted to other shoulders ; that the example
of many civilised communities is in favour of the management of advanced education by the State ; that this duty
is nnw carried .ml in ln,[i:, at a cost which bears an insignificant proportion to the whole expenditure upon education
and still more insignificant when compared with the whole resources of the State; that as a rule there are no
whom such institutions can be safely transferred ; that the order of withdrawal must be from below
Upward, and that, even admitting that the time is come <»• is approaching when Government may withdraw from
•Hilary schools, the time for its withdrawal from colleges is still distant, or may never arrive ; that no resources
but those of the State are adequate to procure a stead\ supply of men fit to teach in the highest institutions ; and
that any withdrawal of the State from higher education would necessarily throw it into the hands of Missionary
'""'" B' ;l'" rl'"'1 advocates of a change which would cause distrust and apprehension in the great mass of the native
community. On the other hand, it was urged that if ever education is to be adequate, it must be national in a wider
* Report of the Indian Education Commission (1882), pp 279, 280.
WITHDRAWAL OP THE STATE PROM HIGH EDUCATION. 107
sense than is implied in mere State management, and must be managed in a great measure by the people themselves ;
that the very success of Government institutions is itself a bar and a discouragement to that local combination and
self-reliance which it is the primary object of the grant-in-aid system to encourage ; that as a matter of course the
people will not exert themselves to supply their educational wants so long as it is understood that Government is
ready to undertake the task, that, therefore, the greatest stimulus which Government can give to private effort is
to put an end to arrangements which make it needless ; that there is some analogy between the action of Government
in the matter of education and in the matter of trade, because though Government can do more than any one
trader it cannot do so much as all, and yet it discourages all, for none can compete with Government ; that
Government action thus represses free competition and creates a monopoly injurious to the public interest ;
that the absence of bodies willing to manage higher institutions is rather the effect than the cause of the
unwillingness of the Department to withdraw from the direct provision of the means of education ; that closing
or transferring Government institutions of the higher order would not result in any diminution of the means of
higher education, but would provide fresh funds for its extension in backward Districts, so that education would
soon be far more widely diffused than at present ; and lastly, that if the policy of withdrawal be accepted, it can
be readily guarded by provisions that will bar its application to any Missionary agency, and that this policy will,
on the contrary, so devolope native effort as to make it in the long run vastly superior to all Missionary agencies
combined.
" The question how far the withdrawal of the State from the direct provision of means for higher education
would throw such education into the hands of Missionary bodies, held the
Bearing of the policy of with- foremost place in all the evidence bearing on the topic of withdrawal.
drawal on Missionary Educa- prominent officers of the Department and many native gentlemen argued
tion.
strongly against any withdrawal, on the ground that it must practically
hand over higher education to Missionaries. As a rule the missionary witnesses themselves, while generally
advocating the policy of withdrawal, expressed quite the contrary opinion, stating that they neither expected
uor desired that any power over education given up by the Department should pass into their hands. In a
country with such varied needs as India, we should deprecate any measure which would throw excessive
influence over higher education into the hands of any single agency, and particularly into the hands of an
agency which, however benevolent and earnest, cannot on all points be in sympathy with the mass of the
community. But the fear which some departmental officers and some native gentlemen in all provinces
have expressed so strongly, appears to most of us to attach too little weight to the following considerations. No
doubt if all Government Colleges and high schools were to be suddenly closed, few, except missionary bodies, and
in all probability extremely few of them, would be strongly enough to step at once into the gap. But any such
revolutionary measure would be wholly opposed to the cautious policy prescribed in all the Despatches. There is
no reason why a wise and cautious pplicy of withdrawal on behalf of local managers should favour missionary
more than other forms of private effort. It might, on the contrary, have the effect of encouraging and stimulat-
ing native effort in its competition with missionary agency." *
" At the same time we think it well to put on record our' unanimous opinion that withdrawal of direct depart-
mental agency should not take place in favour of missionary bodies, and that
Withdrawal in favour of departmentai institutions of the higher order should not be transferred to
missionary management. In expressing this view, we are merely re-echoing
what is implied in the Resolution appointing, the Commission; since it is 'to bodies of native gentlemen
who will undertake to manage them satisfactorily as aided institutions,' that Government in that Resolution
expresses its willingness ' to hand over any of its own colleges or schools in suitable cases.' It is not impossible
that the restriction thus imposed upon the policy of transfer or withdrawal, may be represented as opposed to
strict neutrality, which should altogether set aside the question whether a school or a body of managers inculcates
any religious tenets or not. But it is so manifestly desirable to keep the whole of the future developments of
private effort in education free from difficulties connected with religion, that the course which we advise seems
to us to be agreeable to the spirit, if not to the letter, of the strictest doctrine of neutrality.
" In the point of view in which we are at present considering the question, missionary institutions hold an
intermediate position between those managed by the department and those
Position of Missionary en- managed by the people for themselves. On the one hand, they are the
terpnse in e< outcome of private effort, but on the other they are not strictly local ; nor
will encouragement to them directly foster those habits of self-reliance and combination for purposes of public
utility which it is one of the objects of the grant-in-aid system to develope. Missionary institutions may serve
* Keport of the Indian Education Commission (1882), pp. 451-453.
[. g IN INMA.
the great purpose of showing what private effort can accomplish, and thus of inducing other agencies to come
torwanl. Tlioy t-hould lie allowed to follow their own independent course under the general supervision of the
State; ami UO long as there are room ami need for every variety of agency in the field of education, they should
receive all the encouragement ami aid that private effort can legitimately claim. But it must not be forgotten
that the private effort which it is mainly intended to evoke is that of the people themselves. Natives of India must
•itute the most important of all agencies if educational means are ever to be co-extensive with educational
want*. Other aireneies muv hold a prominent place for a time, and may always find some place in a system in
which great variety is on every ground desirable. But the higher education of the country will not be on a
basis that can be regarded as permanent or safe, nor will it receive the wide extension that is needed, until the
lur-rer part of it at all events is provided and managed by the people of the country for themselves.
• With such wide differences — differences amounting to a complete conflict of opinion — among witnesses, it
could not be expected that entire agreement could be easily arrived at in a body
Limits of opposing views gQ jar_e an(j Of Bnch varied composition as the Commission. It is important,
within the Commission. . .. . ., . , . , , ,.„,
however, to indicate the limits within which the differences 111 our own views
were all along confined. They are in effect the limits indicated in the Despatch of 1854. That Despatch, as we
have already pointed out, looks forward to the time when ' many of the existing Government institutions, specially
f hose of the higher order, may be safely closed or transferred to the management of local bodies under the control
of, and aided by, the State.' This clearly implies that, though individual institutions might long require to be
itained directly by the State, the hope was entertained that a time would come when any general system of
education entirely provided by Government should be no longer necessary — a result towards which some progress
],.,.; | [e in many Provinces. On the other hand, the same Despatch lays down as clearly that the progress
of education is not to be checked by the withdrawal which it directs to be kept in view, and that not a single school
. be abandoned to probable decay. Subsequent Despatches, as we have shown in Section 1 of the present
Chapter, have, specially emphasised and in some respects extended this limitation of the policy of withdrawal:
•usance, in paragraphs 45 and 46 of the Despatch of 1S59. while it is remarked that the existing Government
eollcL'es are on the whole in a satisfactory state, and where defects exist are to be placed 011 a better footing, stre.-s
is laid on the substitution of private for Government agency in the management of secondary schools only — a
: itution which it was hoped would eventually be universal. To all such limitations we felt bound to give
i weight, not less because they have been laid down by the highest authority than because we regarded them
ourselves as wise and right. The reasons in favour of action tending towards the withdrawal of the State from
direct management appeared to us conclusive ; while the need of the greatest caution if withdrawal is not to be
altogether premature, and therefore widely injurious, appeared equally indisputable. Our difficulty lay in co-
nrdinating the two classes of opposing considerations so as to determine the proper path for present, action. It may
lie well to point out what are the opposing considerations to which most importance should be attached in arriving
at a decision on this matter." *
The Report of the Education Commission then proceeds to discuss the main considerations for and against
Considerations for and *^-e P°licy of the withdrawal of the State from higher education. The
against the policy of with- main heads of the considerations in favour of withdrawal are stated to be,
drawal. (1) Saving to public funds; (2) Possibility of improvement in the results
df private effort : (3) Need of varieU in the type of education, and (4) Encouragement to religions instruc-
tion. The main considerations opposed to the withdrawal were enumerated to be, (]) The danger of a false
impression being made on the public mind to the effect- that Government no longer feels any interest in the
nl of liberal education: ( '2 } Ditliculty of maintaining Colleges of the highest lype by native effort ; (3)
l,,il, itionB in keeping up the standard of education : ami (4) The state of popular feel-
he withdrawal of the Slate from higher cducat ion. 1 laving discussed these various considerations, the
- at which the Commission arrived lire thus expressed : —
"Our discussions brought out clearly the fact that, while anxious to encourage any natural and unforced
transfer <if institutions from departmental to private management, we are not
General conclusion as to the Im,pim,(1 M ., ))0(lv to adopt any form of expression that may be wxnsfcraed
policy of withdrawal. ... .,, , ,
into a demand for the immediate or general withdrawal of the btate from the
provi-ion of the means of h ation. \Ve a re eon\ inced that while transfer of management under the limi-
tation^ stated is eminently de-inilile. it i> only by slow and cautious steps that it can ever be really attained. We
are convinced that the wisest policy is to consider each case on its own merits, and whenever a body of native
* Report of the Indian Education Commission (18S2), pp. 453-455.
PRINCIPLES OP WITHDRAWAL FROM HIGH EDUCATION. 109
gentlemen are willing to undertake the management of a College or secondary school, to hold out to them every
inducement and encouragement, provided there is a reasonable prospect that the cause of education will not suffer
from the transfer of management. The Department should cordially welcome every offer of the kind, and should
accept it if it can be accepted without real loss to the community ; but while encouraging all such offers, its attitude
should be not that of withdrawing from a charge found to be burdensome, and of transferring the burden to other
shoulders, but of conferring a boon on those worthy of confidence and of inviting voluntary associations to co-
operate with Government in the work and responsibilities of national education. We have certainly no desire to
recommend any measures that will have the effect of checking the spread of continuous improvement of higher
education. On the contrary, it is only in the confidence that the withdrawal of the Department from direct
management may, in many instances, be found to serve the best interests of education, by connecting local bodies
more closely with those institutions, and by inducing and enabling them, in course of time, to raise and expend
more money from private sources for their maintenance and to establish other institutions of the same kind, that
the following Recommendations are made. We therefore recommend, in the first place, that in order to evoke and
x/iinnlate local co-operation in the transfer to private management of Government institutions for collegiate or secondary
in.*/ ruction, aid at specially liberal rates be offered for a term of years, whenever necessary, to any local body willing to
undertake the management of any such institution under adequate guarantees of permanence and efficiency.
'' This Recommendation, which is of course subject to certain exceptions to be hereafter stated, secured our
unanimous approval and may be understood to show the extent to which we
Rocommendation as to with- , • n
are agreed in desiring to see steps taken towards the substitution of private
ctra^val explained.
for departmental management. It implies that we regard the form of manage-
ment of any institution which the common good requires to be kept up, as a matter subordinate to the efficiency
of such management. But it implies also that when permanence and efficiency are adequately secured, we regard
an institution that is provided by the people for themselves as greatly preferable to one that is provided by official
agency. We think it well that this preference should bo marked by special encouragement being held out to those
who are willing to take over the management of institutions now in the hands of the Department. In some cases
perhaps, when once it is understood that the Department and the State are cordially favourable to the transfer
being made, the ordinary rules for grants-in-aid may supply all the encouragement that is needed. In other cases
the ordinary rate of aid may come to be sufficient in course of time, as local resources become greater. But it is
more difficult to maintain in full efficiency an institution that has long had State resources to support it than one
which has been gradually developed in the hands of managers, on whom their circumstances have always enforced
economy. This difficulty should not be allowed to be a hindrance to the transfer. Even if the efficient main-
tenance of the institution should require the bestowal for a term of years of a grant as large as the present net
outlay of the State and even if there be thus for a considerable period no actual saving to public funds, the transfer
should still be made on other grounds.
" We hope that the result of thus encouraging rather than forcing the change desired by Government will
be that in due time and without the smallest permanent iniury to liio-h.
Expected result of withdrawal. , ,. , , , .,.,,.• .„
education, departmental institutions will be mainly transferred to private
management; that the function of the State will be largely confined to aid, supervision, and control ; and that high
education will become more widely extended, more varied in character, and more economical than it is at present
This end should be kept steadily in view, and the extent to which the Department is able to work towards it
should be regarded as an important element in judging of its success. But the attempt to reach this end prema-
turely, that is, before at least the more thoughtful members of the native community are prepared cordially to
approve it, would certainly do more to retard than to hasten its accomplishment." *
As giving effect to these views, the Commission made certain recommendations as to the general principles
General principles as to which should regulate the transfer of colleges from the State to local private
transfer of State Colleges to management. The recommendations are thus worded : —
private management. „ That in dealing with the question Of the withdrawal of Government
from the management of existing colleges, these colleges be regarded as divided into three classes, viz :
(1) Those from which it is premature for Government to consider the propriety of withdrawal on the
ground that they are, and will long continue to be, the institutions on which the higher education of
the country mainly depends.
(2) T-hose that might be transferred with advantage, as a measure promising useful political results to
bodies of native gentlemen, provided the new managers give satisfactory guarantees that the college
* Keport of the Indian Education Commission (1882), pp. 464-46C.
JJQ ENGLISH EDUCATION IK INDIA.
will be maintained: (i) permanently, (ii) in full efficiency, (iii) in such a way as to make It adequate
for all the wants of tlie locality.
(3) Those which have been shown to be unsuccessful or of which the cost is out of proportion to the
utility, and from which Government might advantageously withdraw even with less stringent
guarantees for permanent efficiency. Such colleges should be closed if, after due notice, no local
IK»IV be formed to carry them on with such a grant-in-aid as the rules provide."'
While making i Uesc recommendations, the Education Commission took care to make the following important
observations: —
View s of the Commission us .
to its recommend-itions re- " The maintenance of the chief Government colleges appeared to a large
garding transfer of Colleges to majority of us to be still indispensable. We do not think that a body of native
private management managers is likely to arise for a considerable time, to whom such colleges can
be entrusted without danger to their efficiency, and danger accordingly of lasting injury to tlie higher education of
tin- whole Province. Private management, like all other agencies, must be trained by long and fairly success t'ul
discharge of lower duties, before it can be wisely entrusted with duties that are higher and more difficult. It is true
that we have recommended that liberal aid be offered to any local body willing to undertake the management of
any Government College, under adequate guarantees of permanence and efficiency ; but in the case of the leading
Government Colleges of the different Provinces, it is open to question whether any body of native gentlemen can
furnish at present such guarantees as should be held sufficient. There is, however, another class of departmental
colleges in some Provinces, which it is by no means improbable that local effort may adequately provide for, and which
it is highly desirable to transfer to local management whenever this can be done without injury to education. In
Ruch cases our general Recommendation will at once apply, and any reasonable amount of aid should be offered that
may be found necessary to induce native gentlemen to undertake the maintenance of such colleges as we are now
considering. There is still a third class of colleges in the Provinces of Madras and Bengal. In some cases that
come under this third class, the Department, when it established its college, seems to have lost sight of the princi-
ple that Government Institutions are not to be set up in places where aided local effort can supply all real educa-
tional wants. In other cases, circumstances have so changed since the college was established, that its continuance
has ceased to have any other than a purely local importance. If private bodies are ready to undertake the
management of any college included in this third class, aid should be offered at the rate that may be fixed for
colleges generally in the grant-in-aid rules, after they have undergone the revision that has already been recom-
mended. If such aid does not induce any local body to maintain any college belonging to this class, it may be
held as sufficient proof that the college may be safely closed. "f
With these principles in view, the Commission proceeded to make certain specific recommendations in
Expectations of the Commis- regard to some colleges in Madras, Bombay, and Bengal, and concluded
sion as to transfer of Colleges their observations on the general subject of withdrawal of the State from
to bodies of native gentlemen, higher education in the following words : —
" We venture to hope that the line of action we have marked out in the above Recommendations will result,
not all at once yet with no longer interval than is always required for changes fruitful of large results, in public
sentiment, taking a direction which will lead to the gradual, and by and by to the rapid, transfer to bodies of native
gentlemen of the institutions now maintained by Government. On condition that the transfer be thus effected
with the approval and active co-operation of those who have the welfare of their country most at heart, we are con-
vinced that the withdrawal, in large measure, of departmental management, though not of departmental supervision.
will result in a wide extension of collegiate and secondary education, in placing it on a firm and satisfactory basis,
and in making it more varied in character, and therefore more adapted to all the wants of the community."J
These recommendations of the Commission were considered by the Government of India in a Resolution,
Recommendations of the ^°- •?«&» dated 23rd October, 1884, in which the proposals of the Commission,
Commission as to high educa- so far as they concern advanced education, were summarized (in paragraph 30)
tion summarized. in the following W()1.ds ._
" That for all kinds of such education private effort should in future be increasingly and mainly relied on,
and that i in of private effort should be systematically encouraged in such ways as these : —
(a) By clearly showing that, whilst existing State institutions of the higher order should be maintained in
complete efficiency, wherever they are necessary, the improvement and extension of institutions
under private managers will be the principal care of the Department.
• Report of the Indian Education Commission (1882,), p. 468 also p. 478.
t Ji>., pp. 468, 409. I Ib., p. 470.
MORAL TRAINING IN COLLEGE. ] i I
(6) By leaving private managers free to develop their institutions in any way consistent with efficiency,
and the protection of neighbouring institutions from unfair competition.
(c) By insisting on all institutions, maintained from public funds and under official management, refraining
from undue competition with corresponding aided schools, by such means as charging lower
fees.
(fZ) By liberal rates of aid, so long as aid is needed.
(e) By co-operation in the gradual raising of fees, so that less and less aid may be required ; and
(/) By favouring the transfer to bodies of native gentlemen of all advanced institutions maintained
from public funds, which can be so transferred without injury to education generally."
Such being the summary of the recommendations of the Commission, the Government of India, in the
Decision of Government as abovementioned Resolution, recorded the following passage, which is important
to policy of withdrawal from, as indicating the final decision of Government in regard to the policy of the
high education. withdrawal of the State from advanced education : —
" The Government of India accepts the cautious and well-considered proposals of the Commission on the
subject of the gradual withdrawal of Government from the charge of institutions of a high order, and especially
from colleges. These recommendations are quite in accordance with the policy of Government, as explained in
paragraph 10 of the Resolution appointing the Commission. ****** It is left to the Local Govern-
ments to give effect to the recommendations on this subject, gradually, and as local circumstances permit. It is,
as has been repeatedly declared, in no degree the wish of the Government of India to discourage high education
in any way whatever. On the contrary it believes it to be one of its most important duties to spread and foster
it. What it specially, however, desires, is to secure assistance to the limited funds of the State by calling forth
every available private agency in connection with every branch of public instruction. It is in connection with
high education, and in view of the direct pecuniary advantages which it holds out to those who follow it, that
the Government thinks it can most properly insist on the fullest development of the principle of self-help."
CHAPTER XXII.
MORAL TRAINING AND RELIGIOUS TEACHING IN COLLEGES. — VIEWS OP THE INDIAN
EDUCATION COMMISSION.— MR. KASHINATH TRIMBUK TELANG'S DISSENTIENT
MINUTE.— VIEWS OP THE LOCAL GOVERNMENTS AND THE DECISION OP
THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA UPON THE SUBJECT.
Besides dealing with statistics and numerous details connected with Collegiate Education, the Education
Views of the Commission as Commission also considered some important matters of principle relating to
to moral and religious instruc- the nature of the education itself. Among these subjects their views as to
fcwHk moral training and religious teaching in colleges deserve special attention, as
relating to points of permanent interest to the well-wishers of High English Education in India. The views of the
Commission may be quoted in their own words : —
" The subject of moral training in colleges is replete with difficulties — -difficulties, however, that are mainly
practical. For there is no difference of opinion as to moral training being a*
Moral traming in Colleges. . V
necessary as intellectual or physical training, and no dissent from the principle
that a system in which moral training was wholly neglected would be unworthy of the name of education. Nor,
again, is there any difference of opinion as to the moral value of the love of law and order, of the respect for superiors,
of the obedience, regularity, and attention to duty which every well-conducted college is calculated to promote.
All these have, by the nearly universal consent of the witnesses, done a great deal to elevate the moral tone Mini
improve the daily practice of the great bulk of those who have been trained in the colleges of India. The
degree in which different colleges have exerted a moral influence of this kind is probably as various as the degree
of success that has attended the intellectual training given in them, and has doubtless been different in all
colleges at different times, depending as it does so largely on the character and personal influence of the Principal
and Professors, who may form the staff at any given period. So far, all the witnesses, and probably all intelligent
men, are substantially agreed. Difficulties being when the question is raised whether good can be done by distinct
1 J.) ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
J twhinir. over and above the moral supervision which all admit to be good and useful, and which all desire
t,, see made more thorough tlmn it is at present. In colleges supported by Missionary Societies, in the Anglo-
Muliammadan College, Aligarh, and in at least one other college under native management, the attempt has been
made to -rive such moral teaching on the basis of religion. In Government Colleges there has been no attempt at
> ,n. , ml teaching. In them entire reliance has, as a rule, been placed on such moral supervision as can be exert-
ed during college hours, and on such opportunities for indirect moral lessons as are afforded by the study of the
ordinary L-M -Looks and by the occurrences of ordinary academic life. Religious education, and the possibility of
connectm-: it with Government Colleges, wo shall consider separately. The present point is the possibility or
wisdom of introducing distinct moral teaching in places where there is no religious instruction. The question that
put to bring out the views of our witnesses on the point stood thus : — ' Does definite instruction in duty and
tin- principles of moral conduct occupy any place in the Course of Government Colleges and Schools ? — Have you
any suggestions to make on this subject ?— None of the witnesses raised any objection in principle to such instruc-
tion being given. A considerable number held that there is no need for such instruction, and two of these, the
Principals of Government Colleges in Bombay and Madras, held that no good result can flow from devoting a distinct
portion of time to the teaching of duty and the principles of moral conduct. Some also held that the practical
ditlieulties in the way of introducing moral instruction into Government Colleges, are so great, that it is expedient
.•ave matters as they are. The great majority, however, of the witnesses that dealt with the question at all,
expressed a strong desire that definite moral instruction should form part of the College Course. If we may judge
hv the utterances of the witnesses, there is in the North- Western Provinces and the Punjab a deep-seated and
widespread feeling that discipline and moral supervision require to be supplemented by definite instruction in the
principles of morality. The feeling seems not to be so strong in the provinces where Western education has been
longer and more firmly established, but some of the witnesses in every Province, and some of every class, Native
and European equally, have asserted that there is urgent need that the principles of morality should be definitely
expounded. A review of the evidence seems to show that moral instruction may be introduced into the Course
of Government Colleges, without objection anywhere, and in some Provinces with strong popular approval. Those
who wish definite moral instruction to be introduced, generally advocate the teaching of some moral text-book. No
one however, has pointed to any text-book that he is prepared to recommend for immediate introduction. One
witness has indicated a difficulty that requires consideration, viz., that if morality be introduced as a definite sub-
ject of study, a demand will certainly arise for testing proficiency in it by means of examinations, and that while,
on the one hand, acquaintance with theories of morality implies no moral improvement, on the other, examinations
can never test actual growth in practical morality. The difficulty thus suggested is that students will not pay
serious attention to the moral instruction given them unless it is made to tell in their favour at University or
other public examinations. It is certainly undesirable to attempt to gauge morality by means of the University,
but it seems too unfavourable an estimate of Indian students to hold that they care for nothing beyond passing or
standing well at examinations ; or even if such a state of feeling be too prevalent at present, it seems premature to
argue that no better state of feeling can be induced.
" Government having deliberately adopted the policy of religious neutrality, there is no religious teaching in
Religious Teaching in col- the colleges managed by the Department of Education. The Grant-in-aid
leges. System is based upon the same policy, and it might, therefore, seem that the
subject of religious teaching in aided colleges lias no place in the Report of this Commission. Nor would it if the
question had not been raised by some of the witnesses, whether another policy than the present be not equally con-
i;t with the religious neutrality of Government Colleges, the policy, namely, not of excluding all religions, but
of giving i'[|iial facility for instruction in them all. This has been advocated by several native witnesses, especially
in the Punjab. Tin1 argument adduced in favour of .such a policy seems generally to be, that the minds of students
iire so filled with their secular studies, that religion drops out of view and ceases to influence them, and that home
influence has lieeii found in practice too weak to counteract the anti-religious or rather non-religious, influence
which exclusive attention to the subjects studied at college is exerting : This is expressed, as follows, by one who
pleads strongly for a change in this respect. ' Children are sent to school as soon as they are able to talk and
move about freely, and they spend a number of years in school, until, in fact, they are passed out as full-blown
1! A. V, or some, such thing Their whole time and attention being devoted to school-books, they fall
very little under what is called the home influence The unfavourable impressions which the children
receive in the. school, for a .series of years, at the early part of their age, sit deep in their hearts and exert a very
demoralising influence upon them in after-life, to the prejudice of themselves and of those who come in their
way. Will Government tolerate such a state of things ? Will it still persist in a policy which excludes religion
from the State education, but encourages something which is anti-religious, though in the most indirect manner ? '
RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES. 113
The remedy proposed is that Government should employ teachers of all prevalent forms of religion to give
instruction in its colleges, or should, at least, give such teachers admission to its colleges if their services are
provided by outside bodies. We are unable to recommend the adoption of any plan of this kind. However
praiseworthy the feelings that underlie such a proposal, we are satisfied that no such scheme can be reduced to
practice in the present state of Indian Society. The system of grants-in-aid was in part designed to meet the
difficulty complained of, and those who regret the absence of religious teaching from Government Colleges are at
liberty to set up colleges, giving full recognition to the religious principles they prefer. In doing this, they should
be most liberally helped, and it may be worth while to point out that the successful establishment of a college
in which any form of religion is inculcated, would not lose its effect even though the Government College in which
religion is not taught should continue to be maintained beside it. Students cannot be kept apart, and cannot but
affect one another. Any influence, whether good or bad, that is felt among the students in one college spreads
rapidly to those of another that is near it. Thus, those who regard any particular form of religious teaching as a
good thing, may be sure that by establishing a college in which such teaching is imparted, they are influencing
not only the students their own college may attract, but the students in Government Colleges as well."*
In another part of their Report the Education Commission have made the following observations in regard
to the possibilities of giving encouragement to religious instruction : —
Beligious Instruction in „ . . , . , . . ...
Aided Institutions Again, there is the important question of securing a religious element
in Higher Education, or at all events of there being no practical hindrance
to the presence of such an element when the people of the country wish for it. The evidence we have
taken shows that in some Provinces there is a deeply-seated and widely-spread desire that culture and religion
should not be divorced, and that this desire is shared by some representatives of native thought in every
Province. In Government Institutions this desire cannot be gratified. The declared neutrality of the State
forbids its connecting the institutions directly maintained by it with any one form of faith; and the other
alternative of giving equal facilities in such institutions for the inculcation of all forms of faith involves
practical difficulties which we believe to be insuperable. In Chapter VI. we have shown that we are not insensible
to the high value of the moral discipline and example which Government Institutions are able to afford ; but we
have also shown that we regard something beyond this as desirable for the formation of character and the
awakening of thought. To encourage the establishment of institutions of widely different types, in which may
be inculcated such forms of faith as various sections of the community may accept, whether side by side with,
or in succession to, Government Institutions, is one mode in which this difficulty can be practically solved, though
it is a mode not free from objections and even dangers of its own. It is clear that whatever other efforts in
this direction may be made, such encouragement would be afforded in a high degree by the withdrawal of
Government Institutions, when the people professed their desire and manifested their ability to establish an
institution in which special religious instruction could be given. It is true that a Government or other secular
institution meets, however incompletely, the educational wants of all religious sects in any locality, and thus
renders it easier for them to combine for educational purposes ; while a denominational college runs some risk of
confining its benefits to a particular section of the community', and thus, of deepening the lines of difference already
existing. Still this is a solution of the difficulty suggested by the Despatch of 1854, which expresses the h&pe
that ' Institutions conducted by all denominations of Christians, Hindus, Mahomedans, Parsis, Sikhs, Buddhists,
Jains, or any other religious persuasions, may be affiliated to the Universities, if they are found to afford the requisite
course of study, and can be depended upon for the certificates of conduct which will be required.' Apart from
the strictly moral or religious aspect of this question, we may point out that the existence of institutions of the
various classes thus referred to, will contribute to the intellectual development of the Indian Community, by arousing
enquiry on the highest themes of human thought, and thus helping to meet what is probably the greatest
danger of all higher education in India at present — the too exclusive attention to the mere passing of examin-
ations and to the personal advantages to be derived therefrom, "f
Holding such views as to religious instruction, the Commission, in paragraph 338 made, inter alia, the
following recommendations upon the subject of moral teaching: —
Recommendation as to a ,,(g) That an attempt le made to prepare a moral text-book, based upon the
Text-Book for moral instruc- , , . „,
tion. fundamental principles of natural religion, such as may be taught in all Govern-
ment and non-Government Colleges.
" (9). That the Principal or one of the Professors, in each Government and Aided College, deliver to each of the
College Classes, in every Session, a series of lectures on the duties of a man and a citizen." J
* Report of the Indian Education Commission (1882) ; pp. 294-296. t H>-. PP 4!>9, 460. J Il>., p. 312.
15
1| j I A.ii.lSH KIiUCATION IN JXI'IA,
Those recommendations evoked a strong and able dissent from one of the most distinguished native members
„. of the Commission, the late Mr. Kashimith Trimbuk Telang, C.I.E., whose
ni?o agtinsfVe^prepTration untimely death hus recently deprived the Bombay High Court of one of the
of a Moral Text-Book and ablest Native Judges. His views represent the opinions of the more advanced
lectures. t\ pe of Indian educationists, and in view of the importance of the subject to
which they relate and the ability with which they are expounded they may be quoted in extenso : —
•• \ next proceed to consider two Recommendations which deal with a point, certainly one of the most important
in connection with education. I allude to the Recommendation regarding moral education in colleges. In stating
the opinions which I have formed on this point, I know I run a certain risk of misinterpretation. But I am bound
to say that, after the best consideration which I have been able to give to the Recommendations made by the Com-
ink-ion. and the arguments adduced in support of them, I am still strongly of opinion that the proposed measures
will lie impotent for good and may result in mischief. I will first take up the latter of the two Recommendations
rod to. That prescribes that a series of lectures on the duties of a man and a citizen should be delivered in
each college in each Session. Now, first, what is the object of this new departure— for it is a new departure — in
11 of academical instruction ? Many of those who recommend this new departure, admit that there is nothing
in t he character of the students of our State Colleges, taken as a class, which can be used in support of this recom-
mendat ion. Others, however, of the same mode of thinking, have distinctly said that the effects of education in our
State Colleges on the morals * of the students has certainly been mischievous, not to say disastrous. One gentleman,
who has been particularly active in what I cannot help charactersing as the misguided and mischievous
agitation which preceded the appointment of the Commission, has held up to the gaze of the British public
a picture of the effects of State education in India (See Mr. Johnstone's ' Our Educational Policy in India,'
pages XV, 8, 10, 26), which, if it is a faithful one, would certainly justify some new departure in the direction
indicated. But is it a faithful picture ? On that we have a statement submitted to the Commission by five
gentlemen of the same party as the author of the pamphlet above alluded to. These gentlemen undertake to say
that ' the result of Government so-called neutrality, has been, by common consent, decidedly injurious from a moral
and religious point of view.' What these gentlemen mean by ' common consent ' it is not very easy to understand.
The evidence before the Commission (which is summarised in the Report, Chapter VI), is absolutely overwhelm-
ing in favour of the reverse of that which these gentlemen describe as admitted by ' common consent.' And I owe
it to the system under which I, myself, and many of my friends have been nurtured, to put it solemnly on record
that, in my judgment, the charges made against that system are wholly and absolutely unsustainable ; and are the
K -nits of imperfect or prejudiced observation, and hasty generalisation put into words by random, and often reck-
le.". rhetoric. I do not deny that there may be individuals among men of the class to which I have the honour to
belong, who have strayed away, more or less widely, from the path of honour and virtue. But if that fact affords
sufficient ground for a condemnation of our system, what system, I would ask, is there under the sun which will
not have to be similarly condemned ? A considerable portion of the sensational talk that is going about on this
subject is, I feel persuaded, due to a misapplication of that unhappy phrase — ' Educated Native.' That misappli-
cation is referred to upon another point in the Report (see Chapter VIII), but it is necessary to enter a caveat with
rd to it in this connection also. On the one hand, it is confined, and of course quite erroneously, to those who
have acquired some knowledge of the English language ; and 011 the other, it is extended, equally erroneously, to
those who. like Maeaiilay's Frenchman, have just learnt enough English to read Addison with a dictionary. The
latter error is the one which must be specially guarded against in discussions like the present.
I !nt it may be said that the new departure, if not justified by the injurious effects of the system hitherto in
Lectures on the duties of a vogue, may still bo justified in the ground that it is calculated to strengthen
man inefficacious for Moral the beneficial effects of that system. And here I am prepared to join issue with
Training. those who maintian that it will have any such operation. I cordially accept the
dictum of Mi-. Matthew Arnold, that 'conduct is three-fourths of life, and a man who works for conduct works for
more than a man who works for intelligence.' And, therefore, I should be quite willing to join, as indeed I have
joined, in any Recommendation encouraging such ' work for conduct' (seethe Bombay Provincial Report, page 148).
Hut I cannot perceive that ' Lectures on the duties of a Man and a Citizen ' at a College, constitute such ' work ' at
all. In a primary school, lessons on the duties of a man would probably be useful ; in a secondary school they
would probably be innocuous; but in a collegiate institution they would probably be neither useful nor
innocuous. At the earliest stage of a student's life, ignorance of what is right is probably an important force,
and then to correct that ignorance, moral lessons are a perfectly appropriate agency ; although, even here, I
* Bishop Menrin's statement (page 3) pronounces an unfavourable judgment on our system. II is language is curiously like that
used againat the University of Paris in days gone by. Cf. Schools and Universities on the Continent. By Mr. M. Arnold ; p. 23.
MR. TELANG'S DISSENTIENT MINUTE AGAINST MORAL TEXT-BOOK. 115
should be inclined to rely more upon ' lessons ' like Miss Edgeworth's, * for instance, than on those like the extracts
from ' The whole Duty of Man,' by D. A. Eisdale, which were published in Bombay at the American Mission
Press, in 1841. When the student has advanced to a secondary school, much of the ignorance above referred
to has presumably given place to knowledge. But still, the habit of analysis and criticism is in a very rudi-
mentary condition, and such lessons will, in all probability, do little harm. But if collegiate education is to
subserve one of its most important purposes, and is to cultivate the intelligence so as to enable it to weigh
arguments and form independent judgments, then these moral lessons present an entirely different aspect. At
that stage, it is almost entirely unnecessary to instruct the intelligence, while it is of great use to discipline the
will and to cultivate the feelings. The proposed lectures will, I fear, have little or no effect in this latter direc-
tion ; while, in some individual cases, their effect in the former direction, being meant to operate not on the intellect
but on conduct, may be the reverse of that which is desired, something like that on the Cambridge scholar, about
whom I read many years ago, whose first doubts about the divine character of Christianity were said to have been
roused by a study of ' Paley's Evidences.' That sense of moral responsibility in man which impressed Kant with
the same awe as the starry heavens, can receive no strengthening from lectures on the duties of a man, any more
than the awe which the starry heavens inspire can be produced by lectures on the rings of Saturn or the phases of
the moon. Such strengthening must come from the emotions and the will being worked upon by the histories
of great movements, the lives of great men, and the songs of great poets. It must come from the training of the
will and the emotions by the actual details of academic life, by the elevating contact f with good professors and
fellow-students, by the constant engagement of the attention on the ennobling pursuits of literature, science,
and philosophy ; by the necessity, so often felt, ' to scorn delights and live laborious days ; ' and, even in our very
modern State Colleges of this country, though on a very humble scale, by ' that mass of continuous traditions,
always powerful and generally noble,' of which Mr. Gladstone + spoke so eloquently in his inaugural address to
the University of Edinburgh.
" That is the only course of moral education in which I have any faith. That is the course which alone, in
my opinion, can be efficacious. Lectures on the duties of a man can at the best, only lead to the ' cold decrees of
the brain.' They have little or no efficacy in cooling down the 'hot temper, which leaps over ' those decrees.
These views might be easily supported by a mass of authority, but I will only refer here to that of one who is at '
once a writer on Moral Philosophy, a University Professor of the same subject, and a Chairman of a School
Board in Scotland. I allude to Professor Calderwood, who has said in his recent work on Teaching : its Ends and
Means that ' moral training is gained, not so much by formal inculcation of duty, as by practice in well-doing
throughout the common engagements of life ' (page 73 ; and see also pages 25, 83, 123, &c.).
" So far I have dealt only with the first part of the Recommendation. The second part, dealing with the
duties of a citizen, appears to me to stand on a somewhat different footing.
Lectures on the duties of a T, , . , . , ,, , ,, j ,.,. ,
... . . ... It seems to be intended to point rather to what may be called political, as
distinguished from social, morality. Lectures on this subject may be of use,
as the subject is one on which there is some real ignorance, which may be dispelled by lectures addressed to the
intellect. But I must own that I am afraid of the practical operation of this part of the Recommendation. In
ordinary times, it may not be very material one way or the other, though even in ordinary times, one can conceive
the inconvenient results which may flow from it. But in times of excitement, such as those through which we have
scarcely yet emerged, I much fear that the result will be to drag the serene dignity of the academy into the heat
and dust of platform warfare. If the Professor's lectures tend to teach the pupils the duty of submission to the
views of Government, without a murmur of dissatisfaction, there is sure to come up a set of Liberal Irreconcileables,
who will complain that Government is endeavouring to enslave the intellect of the nation. If the Professor's
lectures are supposed to lead in the opposite direction, there will be some Tory Irreconcileables ready to spring
up and say, even more loudly and quite as erroneously as they are saying it now, that the colleges supported
from State revenues are hot-beds of sedition. § This is almost certain to occur in times of excitement. It may not
unlikely occur in quiet times also. And with this risk, I confess, it seems to me that the advantages of such
lectures will have been dearly purchased. If it is argued that the Professors in our colleges are not now prevented
from doing that which may afford a target for similar denunciation, my reply is that the Professors may well
* Notwithstanding Dr. Whately'a protest, in a note in his edition of Bacon's Essays.
t Of. Matthew Arnold in Nineteenth Century (November ; 1882), p. 714.
I See Gleanings of Past Teart, Vol. VII, p. 18.
§ Cf. Gladstone's Gleanings, Vol. VII, p. 13 j and the evidence of Sir William Wedderburn and Mr. Wordsworth, and the Honour-
able Amir Ali. Mr. Johnstono, in tho pamphlet above referred to, attacks us on this ground also, but his frame of mind may be judged
of by his unhappy reference to the necessity of the Vernacular Press Act — a point on which one need not now waste a single syllable.
116 ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
do what they deem proper in their private capacity as citizens. But it becomes a very different thing when they
deliver lectures at college, in their capacity as Professors appointed by the State for the express purpose. The
position on that point is exactly analogous to the position on the point of religious instruction, under the Despatch
of 1859, Sections 59-61.
" I now come to the other Recommendation. The whole theory of moral education here adopted is one which
I consider erroneous in principle, and likely to be bad in practical operation,
as tending to withdraw attention from the necessity of making, not one or two
hours of academic life, but the whole of it, a period of moral education. Holding
that view, it follows, of course, that I cannot accept the suggestion about the Moral Text-book. But further objections
to that suggestion are stated in the Bombay Provincial Report, to which I still adhere. I will only add that the view
there enunciated receives support from the history of a similar experiment tried many years ago in Ireland. No less
a person than Archbishop Whately endeavoured to do for the elements of Christianity what Bishop Memin proposes,
and the Commission recommends, should be done for the elements of morality based on Natural Religion. With what
result ? The text-book was written, approved, sanctioned for use, and used, in the Irish schools, both Protestant and
Roman Catholic. Then the tide turned, and the book had to be abandoned, and Archbishop Whately himself, the Lord
Justice Christian, and Mi1. Baron Greene resigned their seats on the School Board, upon the ground that what was done
was a breach of faith with the people.* It is not necessary to enquire which, if either, of the parties to the contest
was in the wrong. The lesson to be derived from the occurrence is equally clear and equally entitled to ' give
us pause ' in the course on which we are recommended to enter, whether the fault in that particular matter lay
with the Protestants or the Roman Catholics ; with Archbishop Whately or with Archbishop Murray, or his
successor.
" I will only add one word here, with respect to the question of religious instruction which was raised before
the Commission. I deeply sympathise with the demand of some witnesses.
Religious instruction im-
practicable, whose evidence has come before us, that provision should be made in our
educational system for that religious instruction, without which, as Lord
Ripon declared before the University of Calcutta, all education is imperfect. I sympathise with this demand,
but do not see my way to suggest any feasible means of satisfying it. There are only two possible modes, which
can be adopted in justice and fairness, of practically imparting religious instruction. Either you must teach the
principles common to all religions, under the name of Natural Religion, or you must teach the principles of each
religious creed to the students whose parents adopt that creed. The difficulties of these alternatives have been
indicated by no less an authority than Mr. Cobden (see his speeches, page 588, et seq.) Those difficulties are
certainly not less great in this country than in England. They appear to me to be so great that we must
be content to ' take refuge,' as it has been expressed, ' in the remote haven of refuge for the educationists — the
secular system.' But I would also point out to all those who ask for this religious education, that the cultivation
of those feelings of human nature to which religion appeals is not even now entirely neglected, and that the further
direction to be given to those feelings, according to the principles of each religious creed, ought to be undertaken,
as it is best carried out, not by a Government like the British Indian Government, t but by the Professors of the
several creeds. ' Under the legislation of 1806,' says Mr. Matthew Arnold J ' it was not permitted to public
schools to be denominational. The law required that the instruction in them should be such as to train its reci-
pients for the exercise of all social and Christian virtues, but no dogmatic religious instruction was to be given by
the teacher, or was to be given in the school. Measures were to be taken, however, said the law, that the scholar
should not go without the dogmatic teaching of the communion to which he belonged. Accordingly, the Minister of
the Home Department exhorted by circular the Ministers of the different communions to co-operate with the
Government in carrying the new law into execution, by taking upon themselves the religious instruction of the
school children belonging to their persuasion. The religious authorities replied favourably to this appeal, and
nowhere, perhaps, has the instruction of the people been more eminently religious than in Holland, while the public
schools have, by law, remained unsectarian.'§ That seems to me to indicate, though only in a general way, the
true procedure to be followed in this matter by those who are dissatisfied with the religious results of our educa-
tional system. Some agencies of this sort, more or less organised, more or less powerful, are at present working.
Whether a more complete organisation will bring out results more satisfactory to those who are now asking for a
• Lift of Dr. Whately. By Miss Whately, Vol. II, p. 264.
t Cf. Gladstone's Gleanings, Vol. VII, p. 109.
J Report of the Education Commission (1861), Vol. IV, page 139 ; and see page 161. Still the schools were called ' Godless '
(tee page 144) in Holland.
§ Cf. the quotation from Sir B. Peel, in the evidence of Mr. Wordsworth.
ORDERS OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE AS TO A MORAL TEXT-BOOK. 117
change, is a matter upon which I own I am somewhat sceptical. And some of the grounds of my scepticism have
been already indicated in what I have said above, on the kindred question of moral education. But at all events, on
this I am quite clear, that our institutions for secular instruction should not be embarrassed by any meddling with
religious instruction ; for such meddling, among other mischiefs, will yield results which, on the religious side will
satisfy nobody, and on the secular side will be distinctly retrograde. *"f
The proposals of the Indian Education Commission, in regard to the introduction of a Moral Text-book in
Views of the Local Govern- Colleges, met with very scanty support from the Local Governments. In
nients as to introduction of a Madras, " no belief is reposed in the virtues of a suitable Moral Text-book,
Moral Text-book. based upon the fundamental principles of Natural Religion, even were its pre-
paration possible. Nor is any credit given to the efficacy of lectures on the duties of a man and a citizen. The
proposal, would necessitate a scrutiny of the Professor's social and political views, to which this Government is in
the strongest manner opposed." His Excellency the Governor of Bombay was not prepared to say that the pro-
posal was impracticable, but thought it no easy matter to arrange a text-book which would be generally acceptable,
or which could be pressed on both Government and non- Government Colleges. The Lieutenant- Governor of the
North- Western Provinces was unable to support the project. He thought it no part of the functions of a Govern-
ment in India to draw up a code of morality, and issue it officially for the instruction of students, since these could
hardly be charged with ignorance of the commonly accepted code of civilised communities, or with an acceptance
of principles contrary to that code. Nor could Sir Alfred Lyall approve of a course of lectures on the duty
of a man and a citizen. Possibly, no two Professors would agree as to what this duty consisted in ; and it was
clearly undesirable to introduce into schools and colleges discussions on subjects that opened out such a very
wide field of debate. The Chief Commissioner of the Central Provinces did not like the proposals. Without a
religious basis, a moral text-book could be little better than a collection of copy-book maxims. The course of
a student's reading and the influence of his Professors were far more potent factors in his moral education, and had
produced results in the matters of honesty, truthfulness, and general good-conduct, such as no text-book of
morality could achieve. J
Upon this subject the Government of India, in its Resolution No. 3*5%, dated the 23rd October 1884, reviewing
Decision of the Government tlle ReP°rt of tne Education Commission, made the following observations .—
of India as to the proposed " I* is doubtful whether such a moral text-book as is proposed could be
Moral Text-book. introduced without raising a variety of burning questions ; and, strongly as
it may be urged that a purely secular education is imperfect, it does not appear probable that a text-book of
morality, sufficiently vague and colourless, to be accepted by Christians, Mahomedans and Hindus, would do much,
especially in the stage of collegiate instruction, to remedy the defects or supply the shortcomings of such an
education. The same objection appears to apply to the proposal that a series of lectures should be delivered in
each College on the duties of a man ; and as to the proposed lectures on the duties of a citizen, Mr. Tellang's objec-
tions at page 612, of the Report, appear to be unanswerable. The Secretary of State intimates his concurrence in
the views of the Government of India on this matter, but adds that, possibly, hereafter some book in the nature
of a Text-book of Moral Rules may be written of such merit as to render its use desirable. In that event the
question can be reconsidered."
The matter, however, did not rest there, as Lord Cross, who succeeded Lord Kimberley as Secretary of State
_ , for India, took a somewhat different view, and " in a Despatch dated the
Orders of the Secretary of
State (Lord Cross) as to pre- ^9tli September, 1887, requested the Government of India to take steps for
paration of a Moral Text-book, the preparation of a book suitable for use in schools in India. Before passing
Summary of the views on the final orders on the subject, the Government of India requested the Local
Governments and Administrations to state their views as to the best way of
giving effect to the wishes of the Secretary of State, whether by the adoption of new text-books, or the revision
of the existing books, in order to introduce into them extracts from the various great writers who have dealt with
the question of personal conduct in its various aspects. The replies received show that the majority of the edu-
cational authorities in India are of opinion that a text-book containing moral precepts or rules of personal conduct
would be either useless or injurious, at least in schools, though there is an equally strong consensus of opinion that
good may be done by the indirect teaching of morality by means of illustrative stories in the readers used in
schools. A few, however, think that even this is unnecessary, and that a good teacher will find means of giving
moral instruction to his pupils without requiring any specially designed text-book or reader, while such helps will
* See Morley's Struggle for National Education, passim.
t Report of the Indian Education Commission (1882) ; pp. 610-614.
J Sir Alfred Croft'a Jteview of Education in India, in 1886 ; p. 331, 332.
H8 ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
be of no use in the hands of a bad teacher. The arguments against the introduction of a special text-book are so
Tarious that it is impossible to attempt a detailed analysis of them, but two or three extracts may be given. ' The
only lessons in morality which are likely to have a practical effect on a boy's conduct in after-life are,' in the judg-
ment of the Lieutenant-Governor of the North-Western Provinces, ' those which are taught him at home during
his childhood, and which are received by him from observation of his daily surroundings, and the tone of
the society in which he grows up. His Honour sees no sufficient ground for believing that their salutary
influence will be strengthened by instruction in the principles of Natural Religion or natural morality, as laid
bare in the fleshless skeletons of moral text-books, proficiency in which may enable boys to trace the articula-
tions, but never to construct for themselves a living semblance of a higher moral existence. The difficulties of
composing suitable moral text-books for the use of children of Eastern origin would be far greater than in the
case of the children of English race, whose minds, dispositions, and sympathies are cast in a kindred mould
to that of their teachers, and whose daily life is passed among scenes and societies where the value attached to the
observance of morality, in its several forms, is brought home to them more impressively than in India. It is
probable that the greater part of the Mahomedan community would still agree with the dictum attributed to the
Caliph Omar, and would hold that moral text-books are ' either in conformity with the Word of God, or they are
not. If they are, that Word is sufficient without them ; if they are not, they ought to be destroyed.' Sir Alfred
Croft says : ' Moral science is now taught in our Universities as a branch of psychology, or mental science, in
general, and being taught and studied as a merely intellectual exercise, it does no harm. But bring down such
discussions, in however elementary a form, to the school-room (and I hold that, if any didactic compendium of
moral precepts be enjoined, such discussions cannot be altogether avoidable), and the moral atmosphere which,
the boys breathe is vitally changed. There is no longer that healthy, instinctive, spontaneous doing of the right,
which marks the frank and honest school-boy : spontaneity is replaced by a baneful self-conciousness, and to use
a homely phrase, the boy becomes a prig, or worse. At least, I believe, there is danger of this. It is not to direct
moral instruction, but much more to the influence of teachers and the discipline of school-life, that I am
inclined to look for aid in strengthening and developing the better impulses of school-boys.' The Lord Bishop of
Bombay says : ' About the usefulness of lessons, and lesson-books on personal conduct, I am very sceptical.
Their value, if they have any, will depend entirely on the tone of the teacher. In the hands of a man of the
right stamp they may be of some use, as formulating for the memory what is enforced by discipline and example.
But, as a rule, I should say that they would be useless in the hands of a bad master and superfluous in those of a
good one.' In some cases the objection to lessons on morals is based upon the difficulty of expressing such lessons
in language sufficiently simple to be understood by boys in Indian schools. Even in books specially compiled for
use in Indian schools, teachers find these lessons too difficult for the scholars. Thus the Assam Director says:
' In High and Middle English schools, the moral class-books, Chambers ' Educational Course and Lethbridge's
Moral Reader are in general use ; both these books contain good and useful lessons on moral subjects, especially
the latter, where the lessons are supplemented by stories culled from eminent writers, illustrating the moral lessons.
During my winter inspection, I made it a point at each inspection to call attention to this subject, but, strange
to say, I almost invariably found that the moral lessons had been omitted, and the stories read On
enquiring why the moral lessons had been left out, the invariable answer was that the language was more
difficult than in the stories, and passages were harder to explain.' A Madras writer goes further, and states that
some of the extracts from eminent writers, given in the Middle School course are too difficult even for the teachers
to understand.
" The views of the majority were accepted by the Government of India, and the final orders on the subject
Besolution of the Govern- are contained in the following extract from the Resolution : — ' Having given
ment of India on the subject, this important question its fullest consideration, the Government of India, is
dated 17th August, 1889. satisfied that the end in view would not be attained by prescribing for use
in colleges and schools a treatise on ethics, or a book of didactic instruction in the rules and principles of conduct,
It believes that the careful selection and training of teachers provide the most effectual method of establishing a
good moral tone in a school ; but it also considers that the influence of the teacher may be greatly strengthened,
and the interests of morality promoted, by the use in schools of text-books having a direct bearing on conduct
either by means of precept or example.' After referring to the adoption of a book of this kind as a text-book
for the Entrance Examination of the Calcutta University, the Resolution goes on to say : ' All that remains now
to be done, in Bengal at all events, is to supplement this action of the University by providing for the lower
grades of schools, and for each class in those grades, suitable text-books compiled on similar lines. Similar action
in other Provinces is equally called for, and accordingly the Governor-General in Council desires that each Local
Government and Administration should take this matter at once in hand, and either by the appointment of a
SIE ALFRED -CROFT'S REVIEW OP EDUCATION IN 1886. 119
Committee, or by employing selected individuals, who need not necessarily be officials ; or by the offer of suitable
prizes, ^effect a revision of the existing readers, in the direction indicated above ; or, where necessary, procure for
use in schools an entirely new set of books compiled on these principles. His Excellency in Council will be glad
to learn from time to time the progress made in each Province in this undertaking.'
" Regarding the action taken by the various Local Governments, complete information is not available." *
CHAPTER XXIII.
SIR ALFRED CROFT'S REVIEW OF EDUCATION IN INDIA IN 1886, AND ITS STATISTICS.
In the Resolution No. 3^, dated 23rd October, 1884, recorded in the Home Department, the Governor-General
T?. 1 t' n of the Govern- in Council reviewed the Report of the Education Commission,, and laid down
ment of India reviewing the for the future guidance of Local Governments and Administrations the broad
Education Commission's Re- Knes of the Educational Policy which the Government of India desired to
Port- pursue. That Resolution met with the general concurrence of Her Majesty's
Secretary of State, who, in expressing his approval, communicated the .folio wing instructions .to the Government of
India. " In order to stimulate the efforts of the various authorities in the promotion of education on the lines
now laid down, it would, I think, be well if Your Excellency in Council would direct the preparation of a General
Annual Report, embracing the important features of the several Provincial Reports (including Madras and Bombay),
and transmit copies of the same to the Secretary of State, with a Resolution by the Government of India review-
ing such General Report." f
In pursuance of these directions, the task of preparing the first General Report was entrusted by the Govern-
ment of India to Sir Alfred Croft, K.C J.E., Director of Public Instruction
Sir Alfred Croft's review of . Benf?ai and nis Rep0rt, in the form of " A Review of Education in India in
Education in 1886.
1886," contains much valuable information and statistics, which, in a manner,
supplement the information collected by the Indian Education Commission of 1882, and some important passages
and statistics from it may therefore be conveniently quoted in this chapter, so far as they relate to Higher English
Education of the collegiate type recognized by the Indian Universities.
In regard to the exact meaning of collegiate education, the following observations in the Report have to be
borne in mind : —
" The application of the term ' College ' should strictly be confined to those
institutions in which the students have passed the Matriculation Examination, and are reading one or other of the
courses prescribed by the University for its higher examinations. This is in accordance with the definition accepted
by the Government of India in the Resolution of the 29th October, 1883, in which colleges — that is, colleges affiliated
to an Indian University — are divided into, (i) Arts Colleges, English, whose students have passed the matriculation
examination, and are reading a course prescribed by the University for degrees in Arts ; (ii) Oriental Colleges, whose
students have passed an examination declared by the Local Government to be equal in difficulty to the Matriculation
Examination, and are reading a course of Oriental subjects prescribed by the University ; (iii) Professional Colleges,
whose students have passed the Matriculation Examination, and are reading for degrees in law, medicine, or
engineering. There is no uncertainty as to the first and third of these classes. With regard to Oriental Colleges,
there is some diversity of practice, as the term is also applied to institutions like the Benares Sanskrit College, in
which the students have passed no Matriculation Examination, and in which the subsequent examinations and titles
for which they read are conducted and conferred by their own Professors." J With Oriental Education this work
is not concerned.
* Progress of Education in India, 1887-88 to 1891-92. By A. M Nash, Esquire, M. A., (1893) ; pp. 361-363.
t Vide Resolution of the Government of India in the Homo Department (Education), No. 191), dated 18th June, 1888.
I Review of Education.in India in 1886. By Sir Alfred Croft ; p. 136
I -JO
IHOLISH EPrCATIOH IN INPU.
Bearing in mind this definition, the following table * compares the number of institutions of different classes,
Comparative Statistics of and of students, during 1881-82, with those in 1884-85 :—
Collegiate Education, 1881 to
1885.
ARTS COLLEGES, ENGLISH, 1881-82 TO 1884-85.
PROVINCES.
1881-82.
1884-85.
I'vnEB
i MAN-
AGEMENT.
AIDED.
UNAIDED.
TOTAL.
UNDER
PUBLIC MAN-
AGEMENT.
AIDED.
UNAIDED.
TOTAL.
8
&
JB
"o
o
Students.
i
s
"o
0
Students.
op
o
So
_o
'o
O
Students.
00
<D
60
3
"o
a
Students.
Colleges.
Students.
i
BC
'
"o
O
Students.
tn
p
tso
Js
"o
0
Students.
Colleges.
Students.
Madras
10
742
12
828
3
124
25
1,694
10
895
18
1,488
2
132
30
2,515
Bombay
3
311
2
139
1
25
6
475
3
522
.2
233
1
47
6
802
Bengal
12
1,305
5
895
5
545
22
2,745
13
946
5
877
7
956
25
2,779
N.-\V. Provinces
Punjab
Central Provinces
Burma
Total
3
1
1
1
172
103
65
9
2
157
1
20
6
1
2
1
349
103
67
9
3
1
1
1
165
186
31
18
5
1
1
194
39
24
3
1
26
1
11
2
3
1
385
93i
56
18
...
...
1
2
31
2,707
21
2,019.
11
716
63
5,442
32
2,763
32
2,855
14
1,162
78
6,780
The following Tabular Statement compares the expenditure on English Arts Colleges in the year 1881-82
Comparative expenditure on wi*h *na* in 1884-85. The Statement has been prepared from two Tables
English Arts Colleges, 1881 given in paragraph 38, at page 33, of Sir Alfred Croft's Review of Education
in India in 1886 :—
to 1886'
EXPENDITURE ON ARTS COLLEGES, ENGLISH, 1881-82 TO 1884-85.
1881-82.
1884-85.
EXPENDITURE FROM—
EXPENDITURE FROM —
CLASS or
CS
~
w aT
<8
rfrf
INMITTTI
A
O 3
o<
.S 3
REMARKS.
oi
C v
•-•
H. S
£§
s-H
.- 3
o •
>z
'" -
o_f
> S
•FH ^
"r2
o >
z '-
i
•A. -
- = c
•3
0 's
; s
m
^ = C
3
fc
5_
i
O3
H
(^w
S°
CO
1
'
Rs.
Re.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
•timent ...
*83,61fl
3,000
1,68,321
73,967
8,68,804
6,75,610
6,114
1,91,129
48,827
9,21,680
* Includes Rs.
5,964 from
the Revenues
Aided
86,64]
...
73,657
1,81,002
3,20,300
1,05,412
7,869
1,10,725
2,41,429
4,65,435
of Native
Sfnt AQ
I'litiided
...
6,679
•19,004
*25,683
...
...
9,970
f46,845
t56,815
t Includes Rs.
5,727 from
Total
6,89,157
3,000
2,48,657
2,73,973
12,14,787
7,81,022
13,983
3,11,824
3,37,101
14,43,930
the Revenues
of Native
States.
• of Education in India in 1886 By Sir Alfred Croft ; p. 31.
SUCCESS OP NON-DEPARTMENTAL COLLEGES, 1881-85.
121
The Average Fee paid by each pupil in the various kinds of Arts Colleges during the year 1881-82, as
Average Fee of each pupil— compared with the year 1884-85 is shown in the following Table * : —
1881 to 1885.
AVERAGE PEE PAID BY EACH PUPIL IN THE ARTS COLLEGES.
Province.
1881-82.
1884-85.
Departmental
Colleges.
Aided
Colleges.
Unaided
Colleges.
Departmental
Colleges.
Aided
Colleges.
Unaided
Colleges.
Madras ...
Rs.
45-5
Rs.
307
Rs.
28-9
Rs.
62-2
•Rs.
477
Rs.
45-3
Bombay ...
817
59-0
48-2
83-6
58-0
61-2
Bengal
88-2
54-1
...
80-9
45-2
...
N.-W. Provinces
42-9
16'5
20-9
45-3
27-4
25-3
Punjab
21-9
...
...
21-4
24-2
...
Central Provinces
207
...
...
24-5
227
...
Burma
Average for India
427
...
44-9
...
69-2
42-1
30-9
69-1
45-5
45-8
It will be interesting to compare the figures of this Table with those of one of the preceding Tabular State-
ments^ which shows the average annual cost of educating each student in English Arts Colleges, in 1881-82. The
comparison will show that in India, as elsewhere, High Education is far from being self-supporting, and cannot
entirely rely upon tuition fees for its maintenance.
With reference to the question of the proposed gradual withdrawal of the State from Higher English
Increasing success of Non- Education, the following table J shows the increasing success of Non-Depart-
Departmental Colleges in 1881 mental Colleges by introducing a comparison between the Statistics of the year
to 1885- 1881-82 with those of the year 1884-85 so far as the First Arts, the B.A.
and the M.A. examinations are concerned : —
CLASS OP INSTITUTIONS.
1881-82.
1884-85.
II
•88
pQ -*J 03
£ §=3
3 T3 a
£
PASSED AT —
Number of stu-
dents on the
rolls.
PASSED AT — :
F.A.
B.A.
M.A.
F.A.
B.A.
M.A.
Departmental
Non-Departmental ...
2,707
2,735
421
466
166
121
29
12
2,763
4,017
589
473
288
285
50
37
The figures show that while there was an increase of 40 per cent., 73 per cent., and 72 per cent., respectively,
in the number of successful candidates from departmental institutions at the First Arts, B.A. and M.A. examina-
tions, the corresponding proportions of increase among candidates from institutions under private management
were 2 per cent., 169 per cent., and 208 per cent., respectively.
The Statistics of English Collegiate Education for the year 1885-86 are of special importance as by that time
Statistics of Collegiate Edu- the revised systems of classification consequent upon the Report of the Indian
cation in 1885-86. Education Commission, were in general uso. and the technical terms of
education were employed uniformly in the same sense.
Review of Education in India in 1880. Ry Sir Alfred Croft ; p. 34.
t H , [>• 37.
f Vide page 101 ante.
122
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INPIA.
The number of English Arts Colleges of different classes in each province in 1885-86, and the number of
English Arts Colleges, 1886-86. students roa.liu- in them are shown in the following table * :—
ARTS COLLEGES, ENGLISH, 1885-86.
PROVINCE.
UNDER PUBLIC
MANAGEMENT.
UNDER PRIVATE MAN-
AGEMENT, AIDED.
UNDER PRIVATE MAN-
AGEMENT, UNAIDED.
TOTAL.
Colleges.
Students.
Colleges.
Students.
Colleges.
Students.
Colleges.
Students.
Madras
9
938
17
1,483
4
267
30
2,688
Bombay
5
608
3
433
...
...
8
1,041
Bengal
13
949
6
875
7
1,174
26
2,998
N.-W. Provinces ...
3
186
4
228
6
34
13
448
Punjab
1
248
1
59
...
...
2
307
Central Provinces...
1
39
2
39
1
1
4
79
Burma
Total
Total for 1884-85...
1
20
...
...
...
...
1
20
33
2,988
33
3,117
18
1,476
84
7,581
33
2,810
32
2,855
13
1,115
78
6,780
Expenditure in Arts Col- The Statistics of the expenditure on Arts Colleges in 1885-86 is shown in
leges, 1885-86. the following tablef: —
EXPENDITURE ON ARTS COLLEGES, 1885-86.
PROVINCE.
FROM PROVINCIAL REVENUES.
From
District and
Municipal
Funds.
From fees.
From
other
sources.
Total.
In
Colleges
under pub-
lic man-
agement.
In Aided
Colleges.
Total.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Madras
1,36,564
42,216
1,78,780
M. 1,027
1,20,148
1,03,131
4,03,086
Bombay
88,514
9,400
97,914
M. 3,000
58,413
72,873
2,32,200
Bengal
2,90,493
24,217
3,14,710
1,25,296
1,07,216
5,47,222
N.-W. Provinces
68,343
29,186
97,529
(D£- | 7,586
14,423
65,999
1,85,537
Punjuli
45,797
5,400
51,197
.M. 1,200
8,110
6,927
67,434
Central Provinces
9,199
2,376
11,575
M. 3,711
1,660
11,365
28,311
Burma
Total
Total for 1884--:.
22,274
...
22,271
•
1,012
23,286
6,61,184
1,12,795
7,73,979
1,6524
3,29,062
3,67,511
14,87,076
6,77,410
1,03,612
7,81,022
13,983
3,11,824
3,37,101
14,4 3,930
» Review of Education in India, in 1886. By Sir Alfred Croft; p. 138.
t Ib., p. 140.
EXPENDITURE ON COLLEGIATE EDUCATION, 1885-86. 123
The following tabular statement, extracted from the table given in paragraph 98 at page 110 of Sir
Proportionate expenditure Alfred Croft's Review of Education in India in 1886, shows the different
from public and from private proportions in which public and private funds, respectively, contributed to
funds on Collegiate Educa- the support of Collegiate Education in the various Provinces where such
tion, 1885-86. education prevails :—
PROPORTIONATE EXPENDITURE ON COLLEGIATE EDUCATION, FROM PUBLIC
AND FROM PRIVATE FUNDS, IN 1885-86.
PROVINCE.
EXPENDITURE.
From Public Funds.
From Private Funds.
Rs.
Rs.
Madras
45'2
54-8
Bombay
477
52-3
Bengal
65-7
34-3
North- Western Provinces and Oudh
74-
26-
Punjab
777
22-3
Central Provinces ... ... ... ...
54-
46-
Burma ... ... ... ... ...
95-7
4-3
Average for India
60'
39-9
**** "*
The importance of requiring that students of colleges should pay fees proportionate . in some degree to the
cost of their education, was insisted on by the Education Commission. The
followillg Table * shows th-e ave'rage yearly rate of fee paid by students-
the yearly fee in each case being calculated on the average monthly roll-
number : —
AVERAGE YEARLY RATE OF FEE PAID BY STUDENTS IN COLLEGES, IN 1885-86.
PROVINCE.
Departmental
Colleges.
Aided Colleges.
Unaided Colleges.
Es.
Rs.
Rs.
Madras ... ... ... ...
57-9
48-0
43-9
Bombay
86-4
65-2
39-3
Bengal ... ... ...
71-5
49-2 '
...
North- Western Provinces ... ... ...
39-7
27-9
28-6
Punjab
27-4
37-2
...
Central Provinces
29-3
14-5
27-0
Burma
48-2
...
...
Average for India ...
65-4
47-6
41-3
* Review of Education in India in 1886. By.Sir Alfred Croft j p. 141.
124
EXfiLISH EDUCATION IN IXMA.
The proportion of Foe-receipts to total expenditure, in different classes of Colleges, in 1885-86, is shown in
Proportion of Fee-receipts to the following Statement* of Percentages.
total cost in Colleges— 1885-86.
PERCENTAGE OP FEE-RECEIPTS TO TOTAL COST IN COLLEGES, IN 1885-86.
PROVINCE.
Government Colleges.
Aided Colleges.
Madras
Rs.
26-3
Rs.
32-5
Bombay
Bengal
26-1
20-2
37-9
29-3
North-Western Provinces
9-5
6-9
Punjab
12-0
122
Central Provinces
8-8
37
Burma
4-8
...
Average for India
•20-6
25-5
Average cost of the educa- The following is a convenient Tablet for reference and comparison, as
tion of each pupil in Colleges, showing the cost of educating each pupil in colleges : —
1885-86.
AVERAGE COST OF EDUCATING EACH PUPIL IN COLLEGES, IN 1885-86.
CLASS OP INSTITUTIONS.
COST Of EACH PUPIL TO —
Provincial Revenues.
Local and Municipal
Funds.
Private Sources.
TOTAL.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
( Arts
.Colleges. <
( Professional
104-4
178-1
2-2
92-4
49-4
199-0
227-5
The statement of cost in this Table is an average derived from Institutions under every form of management —
departmental, local or municipal, and private, whether aided or unaided.
As showing the progress of higher English collegiate education, the number of successful candidates at the
Result of University Exam- different University Examinations of students in Arts Colleges, for the year
inatioas in Arts, 1885-86. 1885-86, is shown in the following table J : —
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS IN ARTS, IN 1885-86.
PROVINCE.
M.A.
B.A.
B. Sc.
First Arts,
or equivalent
Examinations.
Ma'lnus
8
163
. . .
456
Bombay
3
69
3
238
• <1
31
410
. . .
636
North- \Yc-MiTii Provinces
2
51
• « i
91
Punjab
2
15
58
(Vutiitl Provinces
• • .
• • *
• ••
21
Burma
Total
Total for 1884-85
...
...
3
46
708
3
1,503
23
569
4
1,087
* Review o/ Education in India, in 1886. By Sir Alfred Croft ; p. 113.
t ft., p. 111.
J Jb., p. 144.
MR. NASH's REVIEW OF EDUCATION, 1887-92.
125
In reference to the growing share which Colleges under private management are taking in the higher educa-
Comparative success of Gov- tion in the country? Jt is necessary to enquire how far these Colleges are
ernment and other Colleges successful, so far as success can be estimated by the ability of their students
in University Examinations, to pass the examinations of the University. The figures necessary for form-
ing a judgment on this point are given in the following Tabular Statement* : —
1885-86.
COMPARATIVE SUCCESS OF GOVERNMENT AND OTHER COLLEGES IN UNIVERSITY
EXAMINATIONS, 1885-86.
M.A.
B.A.
FIRST ARTS (OR EQUIVALENT).
+3
a
B
OJ
o t- X
•la
a
03
"3'C a
a
i'C s
PROVINCE.
a
a .
$
o ft~H
o
o
s
60
o ft s
"gl
<o
a
a?
OQj rH
*^" —
2|
o
O
•g^l
« §
^ 60
0
O
13 3.3
a $
*H fib
o
O
^ o> o
&
r2
111
s
o
= 0
3
o
°U
13
'* *>'*
3
|
O
*4
P H
cS
<1
P
O
<l
t3
H
Madras ...
8
8
87
71
5
163
211
182
63
456
Bombay ...
2
1
3
62
10
72
135
84
19
238
Bengal ...
21
5
5
31
149
135
126
410
244
139
253
636
North-Western Provinces
1
1
...
2
23
23
5
51
33
44
14
91
Punjab ...
2
...
2
12
1
2
15
41
9
8
58
Central Provinces
14
6
1
21
Burma ...
3
3
Total
26
7
13
46
333
240
138
711
681
464
358
1,503
CHAPTER XXIV.
MR. NASH'S QUINQUENNIAL REVIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF EDUCATION IN INDIA, J887-88
TO 1891-92, AND ITS STATISTICS. — FINANCIAL POSITION OF THE INDIAN UNIVERSITIES.—
RESOLUTION OF THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ON THE SAME, DATED 7 in SEPTEMBER
1894.— SOME IMPORTANT MATTERS DEALT WITH IN THE RESOLUTION.
The preparation of the second Quinquennial Review of the progress of Education in India, during the years
Mr. Wash's Beview of Edu- 1887-88 to 1891-92, was entrusted by the Government of India to Mr. A.
cation in India — 18&7 to M. Nash, a Professor of the Presidency College, Calcutta. The orders were
18^2- that the Report should be a compendium, in continuation of Sir Alfred
Croft's Report of 1886, of the information supplied by the different Local Governments, as regards the condition
of education in each Province, the methods and organization by which it is imparted, and the extent to which
effect is being given to the recommendations of the Education Commission. In accordance with these instructions,
Mr. Nash has extracted from the Departmental Reports of each Province the most important facts connected
Review of Education in India in 1886. By Sir Alfred Croft ; p. 148— Prepared from the three Tables on that page.
[26
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
with tlic history of education, :md statistics to show the nature and extent of the progress made during the
•(lint: live yrars. Tlie report is thus merely a continuation of Sir Alfred Croft's report which was written in
l--ii. ;md it is theivt'iire necessary to borrow the Statistics, which will throw light upon the progress and condition
of English Colk'iriatt- Kiliicntion down to the year 1892 — these statistics being the latest available.
The following Table* shows the enormous increase in the number of students, reading in the Arts Colleges
Increase of attendance in in the various provinces, during the five years, 1887 to 1892 : —
Arts Colleges, 1887 to 1892.
ATTENDANCE IN ARTS COLLEGES, 1887 to 3892.
NUMBER OF ROYS OP
PROVINCE.
NUMBER OP STUDENTS IN ARTS COLLEGES
ON THE 31si MARCH.
Increase per cent.
SCHOOL-GOING
AMONG WHOM ONE WAS
READING IN AN ARTS
COLLEGE is —
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1887.
1892.
Lower Burma
14
30
27
23
25
44
214
21,332
8,794
North-Western Provinces
478
637
699
931
1,194
1,311
174-3
7,205
2,781
Central Provinces
100
134
153
152
212
232
132
8,741
4,207
Bengal
3,215
4,494
5,168
4,882
5,232
5,225
62-5
1,584
1,050
Punjab
319
305
322
358
389
462
44-8
4,801
3,654
Bombay
955
1,020
1,179
1,229
1,289
1,332
39-5
1,877
1,574
Madras
Total
2,979
3,036
3,069
3,043
3,205
3,818
28-2
769
693
8,060
9,656
10,617
10,618
11,546
12,424
54-14
1,975
1,432
The above Table shows that the increase in the number of students is very unequally distributed, and that in
some Provinc. <- of increase varies very much from year to year. The last three columns are important, as
indicating a comparison between the progress made during the five years and the previous extent of Collegiate
Education in the different Provinces. As might be expected, the rate of increase is greatest in those Provinces
in which University Education had made least progress before 1887, and the order of the figures indicating the
of increase differs from the order of the figures in the succeeding column only with respect to the North-
\\.-ieni Provinces and Bengal, in both of which Provinces the increase is relatively greater than might have
been expected. In the North-Western Provinces this is due to the establishment of the University of Allahabad,
the high rate of increase in Bengal can be accounted for by the fact that the standard of the Entrance
Examination was lowered in the year 1887, resulting in an unusual increase of Collegiate Students.
The following tablet shows for each Province the number of Colleges of each class, and the number
Number of English Arts of students in them on the 31st March, 1887, and the corresponding period in
Colleges in 1887 and 1892. 1392 ._
"royreu of Education in India, 1887-88 (o 1891-92. By A. M. Nash, Esq., M.A. (1893) ; p. 61.
t Ib., p 59.
ARTS COLLEGES IN 1887 TO 1892.
127
ARTS COLLEGES, ENGLISH, 1886-87 TO 1891-92.
PROVINCE.
1886-87.
1891-92.
UNDER
PUBLIC
MANAGE-
MENT.
UNDER
PRIVATE
MANAGE-
MENT,
AIDED.
UNDER
PRIVATE
MANAGE-
MENT,
UNAIDED.
TOTAL.
UNDER
PUBLIC
MANAGE-
MENT.
UNDER
PRIVATE
MANAGE-
MENT,
AIDED.
UNDER
PRIVATE
MANAGE-
MENT,
UNAIDED.
TOTAL.
B
O
Sb
o
o
O
CD •
49
1
2
02
a
o
So
-2
"o
O
Students.
eg
p
a
0>
"o
O
Students.
DD
P
60
O
'o
O
Students.
m
1
1
O
Students.
BO
9
M
a
"o
O
Students.
03
0>
5)
0>
"o
O
Students.
Colleges.
Students.
Madras
8
955
19
1,753
4
271
31
2,979
7
1,029
24
2,569
4
220
35
3,818
Bombay
5
509
4
446
...
9
955
4
476
4
613
1
243
9
1,332
Bengal
13
1,085
7
795
7
1,335
27
3,215
12
1,668
7
1,097
15
2,460
34
5,225
N.-W. P. and Oudh
3
212
4
237
5
29
12
478
3
498
4
659
5
154
12
1,311
Punjab
1
248
1
55
1
16
3
319
2
162
3
211
1
89
6
462
Central Provinces
Lower Burma ...
Total
1
1
47
14
2
53
3
1
100
14
1
1
88
44
2
144
3
1
232
44
32
3,070
37
3,339
17
1,651
86
8,060
30
3,965
44
5,293
26
3,166
100
12,424
It will be observed that the total number of Colleges increased by 14, or 16'3 per cent. During the pre-
ceding five years the increase was 23 colleges, or 36'5 per cent. This diminution in the rate of increase was more
than compensated by the increased size of the Colleges ; for, while in 1887, the average number of students in each
college was 94, in 1892 the number was 124. The total .increase in the number of students during the last five
years was 4,364, or 54' 14 per cent., against an increase of 2,648, or 48'93 per cent., during the previous five years.
The increase in the number of students is common to all the Provinces of India, but the number of colleges has
increased in only three Provinces. In Bengal 7 Colleges have been added to the list, in Madras 4, and in the
Punjab 3.
The classification of Arts Colleges, according to management and grade, is shown in the following Table.*
Classification of Arts Col- Colleges affiliated to a University up to the B.A. standard being classed as
leges, 1887 to 1892. first grade, and those affiliated to a lower standard, as second-grade colleges : —
1886-87.
1891-92.
MANAGEMENT.
First Grade.
Second Grade.
First Grade.
Second Grade.
Government
20
9
19
4
Native States
1
1
1
1
Municipal
1
5
Aided
19
18
25
19
Unaided ...
5
12
13
33
Total
45
41
58
42
* Progress of Education in India, 1887-88 to 1891-92. By A. M. Nash, Esq., M. A. (1893) ; p. 63.
128
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
The following is a list* of some of the most important colleges in India with the number of students on
Most important Colleges in the rolls on the 31st March 1892 : —
India.
Government Colleges —
Presidency College, Calcutta
Presidency College, Madras
Muir Central College, Allahabad ...
Elphinstone College, Bombay
Missionary Colleges —
Christian College, Madras
St. Joseph's College, Trichinopoly ...
General Assembly's Institution, Calcutta
Free Church Institution, Calcutta
Native Colleges —
Metropolitan Institution, Calcutta
City College, Calcutta
Ripon College, Calcutta
Fergusson College, Poona
428
371
282
265
767
389
381
319
508
45 1
447
243
The following Table t shows the total expenditure from different sources on Arts Colleges in each Province,
Expenditure on Arts Col- in 1886-87 and in 1891-92: —
leges, in 1887 to 1892.
EXPENDITURE IN AKTS COLLEGES, ENGLISH, 1886-87 TO 1891-92.
1886-87.
1891-92.
FKOM PEOTIXCIII.
•i
FBOM PBOVIWCIAL
•i
REVENUES
1
REVENUES.
1
S
a
.
P»OTIHC».
ki
•Sg1
i
"2
s
S
fe £,
i
•3
|
§1
a
I
§1
2
-s .
S
IK
o
•J.3
f"
•
£S
5
II
S
s
$24
1
.2 =
°£
,.
J
o
1.S
1
i|
1
1
0*3 §
5
•a
1
•p
111
3
=-
B
g
•a
a£ fl
e
o
£ o.
s
o
= *£
jj
o
el
2
£
S
^
P
&•
u.
G
H
E-
|S
u.
fc<
H
Rs.
Rs
K,
Rs.
Rs
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Hs.
Rs.
Bl.
Rs.
Mulra*
1,57,481
64,640
2,12,12)
-1,286
1,46,978
1,11,713
4,72,526
1,01,-,C,2
79,647
2,41,109
1,90,527
1,22,618
.-,,:, >.-j.-,t
Bombay
98,895
22,000
1,20,895
MM
67,698
66,247
2,49,334
91,221 43,132
1,37,353
13,521 87,281
76,142
3,14,300
Benffil
W8.1U
26,855
3,119,971
1,33,896
1,01,104
5,4-1,971
2,67) S-t5 2 j-,8 il
2,92,686
78 2|73»006
1,38,836
7,«7, 105
N.-W. Provinces tndOvulh
71,121
l,0-.,688
10,570
15,877
70,439
1,98,594
54,976
38,126
93,102
'.1.712 46,000
86,286
2,35,130
Punjab
38,187
5,4011
43,887
1,200
12,011
12,581
69,412
38,349
9,000
47,319
5,751)
25,052
25,126
1,03,986
Central Provinow
9,948
4,820
1 1,71; -
6,300
•-',021
15,143
38,232
11,072
3,293
i7.'.>r,r,
1,500
4,638
20,650
44,753
1. .WIT Burma...
33,193
...
33,193
460
33,053
40,291
10,291
2,490
42,7 SI
Total
«•<*-
1,43,979
21,278
3.68.9741
3,80,247
16,06,722
6,71,916
1,97,939
8.69,855
30,603
<Vil,493
4,70,358
20,02,309
It will !»• obsiTVdl iii (liis Tub],.. tll;,t i,, 1886-87 the total expenditure in Arts Colleges, from all sources, was
li- 1<;.0(;,722, and that during the five years ending in 1891-92, it rose to Rs. 20,02,309, thus showing an increase
of Us. :i.!i.V)S7, or'Jl-ii percent.
Tli,' following Tubular Sfufument, J extracted from the Table given in paragraph 17, at page 30, of Mr. Nash's
Proportionate expenditure V "''"'/"' •»»/»/ l!>-r!ewof Edum/itm in [,,</i'.i in 1887-88 to 1891-92, compares the
on Arts Colleges from public different proportions in which public and private funds, respectively, contri-
and private funds, 1887 to ]mted to the support of collegiate education during those years, in the various
Provinces where such education prevails.
* Progress of Education „ 1887-88 to 1891-92. By A. M. XUH!,, Ksc,., M. A. ; p. 63. f Ib., p. 04. . J 16., p. 30.
AVERAGE ANNUAL FEES IN ARTS COLLEGES, 1887 AND 1892.
129
PROPORTIONATE EXPENDITURE ON COLLEGIATE EDUCATION FROM PUBLIC AND
FROM PRIVATE FUNDS IN 1886-87 AND 1891-92.
PROVINCR.
1886-87.
1891-92.
From Public
Funds.
From Private
Funds.
From Public
Funds.
From Private
Funds;
Madras
44-9
551
48-7
51-3
Bombay
51-4
48-6
51-4
48-6
Bengal
67-2
32-8
54-9
45-1
North -Western Provinces and Oudh
73-0
27-0
62-4
37-6
Punjab
68-7
31-3
66-4
33-6
Central Provinces
55-1
44-9
44-4
55-6
Burma (Lower)
Total
98-6
1-4
94-2
5-8
60-7
39-3
54-9
45-1
Referring to the table of expenditure in Arts Colleges, given above, for the years 1886-87 and 1891-92, it will
Average .Annual Pees per appear that, whilst in the former year the expenditure from fees amounted to
pupil in Arts Colleges, in 1887 Rs. 3,68,974, in the latter year it had risen to Rs. 6,31,493, thus showing an
and 1892. increase of Rs. 2,62,519, or 7M per cent. In 1886-87 the fees amounted to
rather less than 23 per cent, of the entire expenditure, but in five years the proportion rose to 31| per cent. The
increase is in a great measure due to the rise in the number of pupils, and the following Table * gives the average
fee paid per annum by each pupil in the different Classes of Colleges : —
AVERAGE YEARLY FEES PAID BY STUDENTS IN ARTS COLLEGES IN 1886-87 AND 1891-92.
PROVINCE.
1886-87.
1891-92.
Colleges un-
der Public
M anage-
ment.
Aided Col-
leges.
Unaided Col-
leges.
Colleges un-
der Public
Manage-
ment.
Aided Col-
leges.
Unaided Col-
leges.
Madras
R.
60-2
R.
54-1
R.
76-6
R.
63-2
R.
58-9
R.
50-
Bombay
85-1
45-2
28-3
97-9
71-1
347
Bengal
777
51-0
J7-3
82-4
48-
26-1
N.-W. P. and Oudh
39-2
27-1
24-1
43-0
30-4
30-7
Punjab
36-3
44-5
15-1
76-7
54\5
23-9
Central Provinces
24-8
17-9
...
29-8
14-8
...
Burma
Average for India
27-1
...
55-3
...
66-lf
49-2
30-4
72-6
52-6
28-2
» Progress of Education in India in 1887-88 to 1891-92 : By A. M. Nash, Esquire, M. A., p. 67.
t This figure is omitted, probably by a misprint, in the Official Report, and as the total amount of Fees paid by students in
colleges under public management is not shown in any other Table, the same for each Province has been calculated by multiplying
the average amount of fees with the number of Pupils for that Province, as shown in another Table in this Chapter — the total amount
of fees for India thus calculated being Rs. 2,02,969, audthe total number of pupils in such colleges being 3,070 in 1886-87.
17
130
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
The following Table* shows what percentage of the total expenditure in different Classes of Colleges
Percentage of Expenditure was met from the Fee-income in J886-87 and 1891-92.
in Arts Colleges from fees, in
1887 and 1892.
PERCENTAGE OF FEE-RECEIPTS TO TOTAL EXPENDITURE IN COLLEGES
IN 1886-87 AND 1891-92.
PROVINCE.
1886-87.
1891-92.
Government
Colleges.
Aided
Colleges.
Unaided
Colleges, in-
cluding
Native-States
Government
Colleges.
Aided
Colleges.
Unaided
Colleges, in-
cluding
Native- States
Colleges.
Colleges.
Madras
24-4
34-9
45-0
22-6
41-3
31-0
Bombay
22-3
33-1
6-9
23-8
32-0
28-2
Bengal
22-5
28-0
41-5
34-9
36-0
57-7
N.-W. P. and Oudh
10-4
6-7
3-5
26-8
162
13-6
Punjab
19-5
14-9
5-1
21-5
243
55-9
Central Provinces
7-5
3-9
...
127
8-2
...
Burma
Average in India
1-3
...
...
5-8
...
...
207
26-4
23-3
27-6
32-8
42-6
The following Table t gives a Summary regarding the cost of educating a pupil in institutions of different
Averege cost per pupil in classes : —
Arts Colleges.
AVERAGE COST OF THE COLLEGIATE EDUCATION OF EACH PUPIL IN 1886-87 AND 1891-92.
CLASS or INSTITUTION.
1886-87.
1891-92.
Provincial
Revenues.
"a
££
1 .£"
Private Sources.
Total.
Provincial
Revenues.
i
*2
ii
Private Sources.
Total.
(Arts
Colleges 3
(Professional ...
102-8
185-4
2-5
93-3
41-4
198-6
226-8
71-2
196-8
2-5
2-2
88-3
56-3
162-0
255-3
The large decrease in the cost of educating a student in Arts Colleges is due to the large increase in the
average number of students in each College ; though the fees have increased more rapidly than the number of
students, the subscriptions, etc., have not risen in proportion, and hence there is a small decrease in the average
amount paid from private sources.
• Progrm of Education in India, 1887-88 to 1891-92. By A. M. Nash, Esquire, M.A. (1893). p 69.
t Ib , p. 34.
RESULTS OF UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS, 1891-92.
131
In regard to the subject of expenditure, the following detailed informatoin * is interesting. The annual cost
Average annual cost to Go- to Government of educating a student in the principal College of each
vernmeot per pupil in Govern- Provincej in 189i.92 is shown bei0w : -
ment Colleges.
Rs.
Madras
Presidency College
276
Bombay
Elphinstone College
243
Bengal
Presidency College
223
North- Western Provinces
Muir Central College
99
Punjab
Lahore Government College
295
Central Provinces
Jubbulpore College
165
Burma ...
Rangoon College ...
895
The average cost to Government for each pupil in Aided Colleges varies considerably in different Provinces ;
Average annual cost to Go- tne figures for 1886-87 and 1891-92, are given below' the nearest rupee
vernment in Aided Colleges. being taken : —
1886-87.
1891-92.
Madras
36
37
Bombay
50
74
Bengal
35
21
North- Western Provinces
101
56
Punjab
95
75
Central Provinces
93
25
Average for India
47
42
In consequence of great variations in the standard of the examinations, which unfortunately are very common
in the Indian Universities, the progress made during the last five years can-
Results of University Exa- not be accurately estimated by comparing the number of candidates, who
minations in 1891-92. . . . I0m nf) ., ,
passed the examinations in lb91-92, with the corresponding figures for 1886-87.
With reference, however, to the Tabular Statement of the results of University Examinations in Arts, in the year
1885-86, given towards the end of the preceding Chapter, it will be interesting to give here a similar Tabular State-
ment for the year 1891-92, as showing the latest information as to the extent of Collegiate Education in Arts. The
following Table has been extracted from three Tabular Statements given in paragraph 60, at pages 70 and 71 of
Mr. Nash's Quinquennial Review of Education in India : —
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS IN ARTS, 1891-92.
First Arts, or
PROVINCE.
M.A.
B.A.
B.Sc.
Equivalent
Examinations.
Madras
6
316
970
Bombay
Bengal
6
46
129
273
3
314
1,011
North-Westeni Provinces
15
112
...
161
Punjab
2
45
...
164
Central Provinces
4
19
..*
59
Burma
4
...
11
Total
79
898
3
2,690
Total t for 1885-86
46
708
3
1,503
* Progress of Education in India, 1887-88 to 1891-92. By A. M. Nash, Esquire, M. A., p. 66.
t The figures for 1885-86 have been taken from Sir Alfred Croft's Review of Education in India in 1886, p. 148.
132
ISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
The figures in the above Table indicate a general advance in higher English education in Arts during the live
ve-irs preceding the year 1893 ; the increase in the number of successful
General advance in Higher J ...... , i n ,1
English Education during candidates in the M.A. Examination being most noticeable, and the progress
1887-92. in the B.A. Examination, also, since 1885-86 being satisfactory — the number
of siu-.rssf.il candidates having risen from 708 in 1886, to 898 in 1892, showing an increase of no less than 190.
In regard to the spread of higher English education, however, Mr. Nash, speaking of the proportion of graduates
to matriculated students, observes that, " in the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, it is probable that at least
60 per cent, of the students, who matriculate, ultimately obtain the degree of B.A. ; taking all the Indian Univer-
sities together, the proportion is probably below 20 per cent. It would be interesting to ascertain the proportion
stopping short at each stage of the University course, but unfortunately, neither the departmental Returns nor the
I'ni versify Becords furnish sufficient data for a complete investigation of the question. * * * * When the
number of ' Passes ' at the Matriculation increases or decreases very much, the number of students entering a Col-
lege increases or decreases in a much smaller proportion, which appears to indicate that the boys who do not go
any further than the Matriculation Examination belong chiefly to the class of weak students, who could not
derive much profit from study in a College." *
With reference to the policy of the withdrawal of Government from the direct management of Colleges, it is
„ _ interesting to observe how far Colleges, other than Government Institutions,
vernment and other Colleges are successful in passing the higher examinations of the Universities in Arts.
in University Examinations, The following Table, which has been prepared from two Tabular Statements
in 1887 and 1892. given in paragraph 68, at page 74 of Mr. Nash's Report, gives a classification
of the candidates who passed the M.A. and the B.A. (including the B.Sc.) Examinations in the years 1886-87 and
1891-92, according to the management of the Colleges : —
COMPARATIVE SUCCESS 0? GOVERNMENT AND OTHER COLLEGES IN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS IN ARTS, 1830-87 AND 1801-92.
Pioracis.
1886-87.
188HB.
Institutions
under public
management.
Aided
Institutions.
Unaided
Institutions.
Private.
Total.
Institutions
under public
management.
Aided
Institutions.
Unaided
Institutions.
Private.
Total.
M.A.
B.A.
M.A.
B.A.
M.A.
B.A.
M.A.
B.A.
M.A.
B.A.
M.A.
B.A
M.A.
BA.
M.A.
B.A.
M.A.
B-A.
M.A.
B.A.
M: <>;:-
82
68
118
29
14
8
'"2
13
1
74
13
114
31
6
7
1
3
1
3
8
63
6
158
81
369
66
24
13
1
'"5
M
6
2
1
66
85
123
41
22
3
4
1
3
3
'"3
105
47
67
66
16
14
13
6
133
6
15
46
15
2
4
Slfi
132
273
11:!
45
19
4
Bombay
lit II-':. 1
6
40
6
6
108
5
4
29
"*
4
73
2
15
6
10
3
7
2
N.-W. p. and Ouclh
Central Provinces
Burmah, Lower
1
3
"l
1
Total
51
514
16
248
7
115
7
35
81
712
38
344
10
315
4
87
27
155
79
901
The Statistics given in this Chapter may be closed with the following Table, which gives a summary of the
Summary of exuenditure on general statistics of expenditure on high English education from various
high English Education in sources. The Table has been extracted from the Table given in paragraph 15,
1887 and 1892.
at
3> of Mr
Report:_
EXPENDITURE ON HIGH ENGLISH EDUCATION, 1886-87 AND 1891-92.
SOCRCES OF EXPENDITURE.
1886-87.
1891-92.
Colleges.
Universities.
Total.
Colleges.
Universities.
Total.
Provincial Revenues
Local Funds
Municipal Funds
Fees
Other Sources
Total
Rs.
13,43,190
6,759
14,519
4,73,268
4,10,807
Rs.
44,860
"4,618
3,19,965
— 468
Rs.
13,88,050
.6,759
19,137
7,93,233
4,10,339
Rs.
15,37,677
10,834
28,263
7,96,572
4,99,487
Rs.
32,662
1,512
3,98,959
40,009
Rs.
15,70.339
12,346
28,263
11,95,531
5,39,496
22,48,543
3,68,975
26,17,518
28,72,833
4,73,142
33,45,975
• Progress of Education in India, 1887-88 to 1891-92. By A. M. Nash, Esquire, M.A.., p. 72.
RESOLUTION OF THE GOVERNMENT OF IN'UIA, 1894. 133
The most satisfactory feature in this Table is the rise of Fees in Colleges, from Rs. 4,73,268 in 1886-87, to
Rs. 7,96,572 in 1891-92, showing a large increase, amounting to Rs. 3,23,304,
Rise of Fees in Colleges .
satisfactory or Per cen*'-' ln *ne expenditure irom fees in Colleges ; whilst the rate of
increase during the same period of the number of scholars has been much
less. This goes to show that the people are gradually learning to appreciate the value of high English education,
and to rely more upon their own recourses, and less on the State and the generosity of others.
In connection with the question, how far high English Education is gradually becoming self-supporting, it is
interesting to consider the latest information in regard to the financial posi-
Financial position of the . f the Indian universities, and with this object the following passage is
Indian Universities.
quoted here from the latest Official Report : —
" The University of Madras is a Self-supporting Institution. In the year 1891-92 the income amounted to
Rs. 1,92,722, including Rs. 1,78,534 from Examination Tees,, and the expen-
Madras University self-sup- d;ture was Rg 1,64,846 ; out of the general funds of the University, a sum of
Rs. 1,85,000 has been invested as a Reserve Fund. The Fees for the Matricu-
lation, First Arts, and B.A. Examinations, are 20 per cent, higher than in the other Indian Universities. The total
amount of private benefactions, for the endowment of scholarships and prizes, is much smaller than in Bombay
and Calcutta, amounting to only Rs. 64,300.
" The Bombay University is partly dependent upon Government, and receives an annual grant of Rs. 15,000.
The total expenditure in 1891-92 was Rs. 1,17,572, and the income from Fees
'L Rs. 85,217. The question of raisiner the Examination Fees, in order to render
dependent on Government.
the University self-supporting, is now before the Senate. The University
is very richly endowed with scholarships, prizes, &c., the total amount of the investments for this purpose being
about 5j lakhs. A nearly equal amount has also been given by private individuals towards the cost of the
University building and library ; one gentleman, Mr. Premchand Roychand, contributing 4 lakhs of rupees for this
purpose.
"The University of Calcutta receives no aid from Government; the income in 1891-92 amounted to
Calcutta University inde- ^s- 1,79,302, and the Examination Fees alone, to Rs. 1,54, 795 ; the annual
pendent of Government Grant- accounts show an expenditure of Rs. 1,05,710 during the year, but the
in-aid. expenditure for the year was nearly Rs. 1,50,000. The annual accounts are
very misleading, as the fees for the Arts Examinations are received in December and January, while only a portion
of the cost of the examinations, and this a variable one, is paid before the end of the official year. In order to
render the accounts a better test of the financial position of the University, it has recently been decided to count
the financial year from the 1st July. On the 31st March, 1892, the Reserve Fund amounted to Rs. 1,25,000. On
the same date, the total amount of the endowments for scholarships, &c., was rather more than 6j laklis, including
3 lakhs for the Tagore Law Professorship, and Rs. 2,38,000 for the Premchand Roychand Studentships, established
by the gentlemen whose donation to the Bombay University has just been mentioned.
" The total expenditure of the Punjab University, exclusive of the cost of the Oriental College and the other
teaching institutions connected with the University, was Rs. 65,375 ; this
Expenditure on the Punjab . . . _ ,_ . . _ . . - _ .
Yj • .. amount included Rs. 17,662 from Provincial Revenues, Rs. 1,512 from Local
Funds, and Rs. 37,735 from fees. The endowments include Rs. 1,89,600 for the
general purposes of the University and Rs. 2,23,900 in special Trusts.
" For the Allahabad University the Director's Report shows an expenditure of Rs. 30,132, all of which
Finances of the Allahabad was met from fees. As yet, the endowments are small, amounting to less
University. than Rs. 15,000." *
Mr. Fash's Quinquennial Review of Education in India, from the official year 1887-88 to 1891-92, was
Resolution of the Govern- considered by the Government of India, in a Resolution, No.
ment of India, dated 7th Sep-
tember, 1894, reviewing Mr. dated the 7th September, 1894, and the following extracts may be quoted from
Nash's Quinquennial Report it, as it deals with the subject of High English Education in India, and gives
on Education, 1887-92. , . ,. ,. ,. , . ~
the latest mtormation as to the views or the Government on the subject.
" The highest division of the Indian System of Public Instruction comprises those students who are reading,
University Collegiate Educa- *n a College affiliated to the University, one or other of the courses prescribed
tion, and its progress,— 1882 to by the University for its higher examinations. The following figures
1893. indicate the progress of Collegiate Education : —
* Progress of Education in India, 1887-88 to 1891-92. By A. M. Nash, llsquire, II. A., pp. 57-58.
134
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
ARTS.
LAW.
MEDICAL.
ENGINEERING.
TOTAL.
00 ft
01 03
OFFICIAL YEAR.
bC ^, -jj
oo'
oi
J
00
CQ
00
-2
tn
2
— ~
~ %-C
8
g
a
T3
0)
bo
e
§
•n
XI
be
ID
a
3)
T3
be
o
s
°WO
O
0
02
6
p
4a
02
o
d
M
O
O
5
0!
_o
O
1
1881-82
67
6,037
12
739
8
476
3
330
85
7,582
1886-87
89
8,764
16
1,602
4
654
4
474
113
11,494
1891-92
104
12,985
27
1,925
4
778
4
484
139
16,172
1892-93
108
13,387
28
1,915
4
811
4
519
144
16,632
" The figures given for 1881-82 and 1886-87, are those shown in the Resolution of the Government of India, of
Statistics of Collegiate Edu- June> 1888 ' tne number of Law Colleges in 1886-87 is given in the present
cation in 1898, as compared Report as 17. There were in 1892-93 two colleges also for students of pro-
with previous years. fessional teaching, containing 57 students. In 1886-87, the only institution of
this nature was in the Madras Presidency, and was attended by 7 students. An Agriculture College, containing 45
students, completes the list of Colleges in general, Table III of Mr. Nash's Report. English Arts Colleges under
iiu-Mic management have decreased from 32 to 30. Aided Colleges of this description have risen in number from
37 to 46 and Unaided ones from 17 to 27. Colleges of these latter descriptions are, generally speaking, taking
the place of Government Institutions. Fifty-eight of the Colleges were affiliated up to the B. A. Standard in
1891-92, against 45 in 1886-87. It is the policy of the Government to maintain at the head-quarters of each Local
Government, a College, teaching up to the highest standard ; and, consequently the most important Government
Colleges are thCfse at Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, and Allahabad. It is satisfactory to observe that, under the heads
of expenditure on English Arts Colleges, the largest increase is in that met from fees (Rs. 3,68,974, to Rs. 6,31,493).
The average numerical strength of the Colleges has increased, and the cost of educating a student has fallen from
Rs. 211 to Rs. 166 per annum. The co<st 'to Government of educating a student in the Rangoon College, where
there are but a small number of pupils, is extraordinarily high (Rs. 895 per annum). In Aided (English Arts)
Colleges, the average cost to Government per pupil, annually, is Rs. 42. The number of M.A. Degrees taken
annually has remained almost stationary during tshe five years (81, in 1886-87, and 79, in 1891-92) ; that of B.A.
Degrees rose from 710 to 898 ; while at examinations, intermediate between these examinations and the Matricula-
tion, 2,690 students passed in 1891-92, against 2,105 i> 1886-87. The figures do not, on the whole, show a rapid
increase in the number of persons passing the University Examinations. Of the Masters of Arts who took their
degrees during the quinquennium, 70 per cent, belonged to Lower Bengal. Mr. Nash comments on the low per-
centage of success among candidates at the B.A. Examination in Bengal, which he is disposed to attribute, in
part, to the lowering of the Entrance Standard. The scientific course for the B.A. Degree has been chosen by a
fair proportion of the successful candidates during the five yhars. In Madras nearly one-half, in Bombay one-third,
at the Calcutta University 22 per cent., and about the same: proportion at the Punjab University, selected this
course. At Allahabad the propotion was smaller. Pursuant to recommendations of the Education Commission,
a College, affiliated to the Bombay University, up to the B.A. and B.Sc. Examinations, has been established, under
the name of "The Dayu Ham .letlimal Sind College," at Karachi, by means of subscriptions, supplemented by a
Grant from Government. In 1892, there were 66 students oiji the rolls of this Institution. Indian graduates now
form tin- majority of the Professors at most Colleges, and at fe-.ome, they compose the whole teaching staff, with the
exception of t lie Principal. Colleges of inferior standing have in many cases been transferred to private manage-
ment, as was recommended l>\ the Education Commission1; and, where superfluous, they have been closed. In
1888, the Oriental College, at Lahore, was re-formed, the abusies of the system of stipends to pupils being remedied,
and the method of teaching Oriental languages being chamged. The number of students, however, has greatly
diminished. At the Benares Sanskrit College, which has been
rendered a separate institution from the Arts College,
tin- number of students has somewhat fallen, but the number} of candidates appearing for the examinations has
largely increased. No fees arc paid by the students at this Institution.
•• An Act of tlic Legislature was passed in 1887 for the establishment of a University at Allahabad, and the
University was inaugurated in November of that year. Two thousand nine hundred and nine candidates have
MORAL TRAINING IN COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS. ]35
since passed 'the Entrance Examination of the University, and a number of Colleges have been affiliated.
Establishment of the Alia- AH *he Indian Universities grant the degrees of Bachelor, and Master of Arts :
habad University in 1887. tlle Bombay University grants the degree of Bachelor of Science : in the Punjab
Degrees granted by Indian University the degrees of Bachelor, Master, and Doctor of Oriental Learning- are
Universities, and their condi- also bestowed In the Universities of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras a system
has been introduced, under which the privilege of electing, subject to the
approval of the Chancellor, a proportion of the Fellows has been conferred on the Masters of Arts and holders of
equivalent degrees. Generally speaking, the proportion of graduates who take the degree of M.A. is very small.
By far the largest number of such degrees are taken at the Calcutta University, where, in the five years under
review, the number reached 299. The Punjab University is a teaching as well as an examining body. The greater
part of the expenditure in the Universities is met from fees, together with income from endowments ; only the
Bombay and Punjab Universities receiving aid from public funds. " *
There are also some other important matters of general application to educational topics, in the Resolution of
Some important educational the Govemm<mt Of India (Home Department), dated the 7th September, 1894,
topics in the Government of which may, with advantage, be quoted here, as expressive of the present
India's Resolution, datjd 7th policy of Government on those subjects. The necessary abstracts are the
September, 1894. following : — *
" In reviewing the recommendations of the Education Commission, the Government of India laid down the
Policy of withdrawal, as proposition that, in proportion as the Department withdraws from pushing its
affecting the Educational Ser- own institutions, its machinery for inspection would require strengthening,
vice, as a Grant-in-aid System postulates a thorough inspection of all institutions
brought under it. In Bengal the number of State-aided Schools, and the staff employed on inspection duties are
far stronger than in any other Province. Besides the Inspectors and Assistant and Deputy Inspectors, there are
upwards of 900 Inspecting School-masters, pandits and gurus. The numbers of the Inspecting Staff do not, in general,
show an increase, but most Local Governments and Administrations have revised the inspection circles, and satis-
fied themselves of the adequacy of the staff. Female Inspectors have also been appointed in several Provinces.
The reports do not appear to the Governor-General in Council to be sufficiently precise in showing whether the
work of inspection is thoroughly carried out, and His Excellency in Council trusts that this important subject
may be commented on more fully in future. The question of the re-organization of the Education Department
has recently been under the consideration of the Government of India, in connection with the Report of the Public
Service Commission. The views of the Secretary of State were communicated to the Government of India in
His Lordship's Despatch, No. 9 (Public), dated 28th January, 1892. In this Despatch, Viscount Cross held that,
though it was ultimately desirable, the proposed abolition of the graded superior service could not be carried out
forthwith, and approved the principle of a five year's probationary term for officers appointed from England. As
regards Professors, the suggestion was commended to the Government of India, that all Professors might be allow-
ed to rise in ten year's service, to a salary of Rs. 1,000 per mensem. Of Inspectors, one-half (it was said) might be
recruited in India. These proposals as to the superior service were referred to Local Governments and Administra-
tions. Several of the Governments consulted, in replying, sent up schemes for the re-organization of the whole
Education Department in their respective Provinces : and it has been necessary to call for further reports and
opinions prior to the preparation of a matured scheme for submission to the Home Government. These are now
under the consideration of the Government of India. It is contemplated that the Educational Service shall, in
future, be divided into, (1) the European Educational Service, for which recruitment will be made in England ; (2)
the Provincial Educational Service ; and (3) the Subordinate Educational Service.
" The views which the Government of India provisionally endorsed, in the matter of discipline and Moral
Moral Training in Colleges Training in Schools and Colleges, were summarized in paragraph 26 of the
and Schools. Home Department Resolution, No. 199, dated 18th June, 1888. The Govern-
ment of India then added that, while they would gladly see an increase in the number of Aided Colleges and
Schools in which religious instruction was given, they at the same time, did not admit that it had been shown to be
impossible to impart moral instruction in State Colleges, although the tenets of any particular religious belief
could not be taught in them. Attention was again invited to the proposal of the Education Commission that a
Moral Text-book should be prepared for genez-al use, based upon the fundamental principles of Natural Religion.
Orders were issued on these subjects by a Resolution from the Home Department, No. - 6, . , dated 17th August,
1889. The action that has been taken in ensuing years is noticed in Chapter XIV of Mr. Nash's Review. The
* Supplement to the Gazette of India, 8th September, 1894; pp. 1269, 1270.
136 ENiiMSH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
Resolution had noticed, with approval, the promotion of physical education in the various Provinces; and advised
that a system of marks and prizes for proficiency in gymnastics and athletic sports should be everywhere introduc-
ed. The suitable forms of punishment were enumerated, and it was said that the Provincial Authorities should
pi-escribe rules for the guidance of masters in employing them. The use of good-conduct registers was recom-
mi'iided, and (lie extension of the system of boarding-houses attached to the higher schools and colleges was
approved. The (lovernment of India observed that time would show whether the monitorial system — notwithstand-
ing the fact that Indian schools are mostly day-schools — was suited for Indian boys, but expressed the belief that
'•ably the adoption of such rules as were in force at the Elphinstone High School on this subject, would be
productive of advantage. In the matter of inter-school rules — designed to prevent a boy from obtaining advance-
ment in class, or avoiding the consequences of misconduct by changing his school — the rules in force in Bengal, and
the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, were recommended for general adoption in other Provinces: it was added
that the Universities should be invited to co-operate in securing their adoption in Unaided Institutions. With
reference to the proposed preparation of a Moral Text-book, the Governor-General in Council expressed the con-
elusion that it would not be advantageous to prescribe for use in schools a treatise, or didactic discourse, on the
subject, but that books of extracts selected from standard authors, and bearing on individual conduct, should be
prepared, such as Mr. Tawney, the Principal of the Presidency College at Calcutta, had already been desired to
prepare, by the Syndicate of the Calcutta University. Local Governments were requested to take measures for
the purpose described, either by the appointment of Committees or the employment of individuals, to revise the
exist iiiL' readers, or to compile new ones.
" The Government of India are pleased to observe that the question of physical education has received atten-
tion throughout India. In Madras, in all schools and colleges under public
management, gymnastic apparatus is provided. Gymnastic and drill instruc-
tors are entertained, trained for the most part by the Madras Physical Train-
ing and Field Games Association, where examinations are held and certificates granted. In Bombay, simple
i,'viimastic apparatus is said to be possessed even by many Primary Schools. Apparatus and instructors have been
provided for most of the Zilla Schools in Bengal, but it appears from the Review that nothing has been done yet
in Middle and Primary Schools. In the Punjab distinct physical courses are prescribed for Primary, Middle, and
High Schools : physical training has been made compulsory in schools under public management, and provision has
been made for the supply of competent teachers ; these rules are in course of being carried out. In the Central
Provinces all the Secondary Schools and most of the Primary Schools have been provided with gymnasia. In
Assam (as appears from the Provincial Report for 1892-93) the masters in the High Schools at Shillong, Cachar,
and Dibrugarh are instructed in physical exercise, and the pupils are regularly practised therein : the adoption
of similar arrangements in the other Government High Schools is under consideration. Rules have been laid down
regarding punishments in schools under public management, in the Codes of Madras, the Punjab, and Burma.
Fines are not mentioned in these Codes. In the Central Provinces corporal punishment for boys under 15 years of
age has been regulated. The offences punishable with corporal punishment in schools are dealt with by fines in Col-
leu'i-s. In Assam instructions have been issued in a Circular to all headmasters of schools. The Review does not
show whether any other Governments have issued instructions on the subject of punishments in the manner
requested. The competition of rival High Schools and Colleges in Bengal is described as a fruitful source of mis-
conduct, and as offering impunity for it. Conduct Registers have been generally introduced, though their use is
only partial in the Punjab and in Berar, while the Bombay and Burma Reports do not show what has been done.
Financial difficulties have restricted the extension of boarding-houses. They are, it would seem from the Review,
not attached to Government Schools for Natives in Madras. In Bombay there are no hostels attached to Govern-
ment High Schools. They arc attached to nearly all Government Colleges and Zilla Schools in Bengal. In the
North-Western Provinces nearly all Zilla Schools have hoarding-houses. About 12 per. cent, of the students reside
in them, and they arc described as very successful. In the Punjab, it is a standing regulation that, as far as pos-
sible, a boarding-house should be attached to every Secondary School : the cost, it is stated, falls almost exclusively
on Municipalities. In Burma the system has been partially introduced. Mr. Nash has suggested that columns
should be added in general Tables III and IV, to show the attendance and expenditure in boarding-establishments
ami this suggestion will be referred to Local Governments. The information available as to the introduction of the
Monitorial System and its results is very imperfect. Apparently, in the Punjab and the Central Provinces it has
been tried with success in boarding-houses. The Inter-school Rules have been revised in most Provinces. In
Madras they are in force in all colleges and schools recognized by the University. In Bombay, a Leaving Certificate
is substituted, but admission to another school is not restricted by definite rules. The rules in Lower Bengal are
stated to have been made, by the University's action, practically compulsory in Unaided Schools, though they have
EDUCATIONAL CONFERENCES AND COMMITTEES FOR SCHOOL-BOOKS. 137
not yet been formally accepted by the University. In the North- Western Provinces inter-college rules have been
accepted by the University, and similar rules have been made for Anglo- Vernacular Schools. The Punjab Rules
debar from re-admission for six months only. The Bengal Rules have been adopted for most grades of schools in
Assam. The rules are said to have proved very salutary in Bengal, though some supervision of the masters, in
the matter of the refusal of transfer certificates, is now required. In Bengal certain readers or books of selections
have been chosen by the Central Text-Book Committee, as being of the ethical tendency desired by the Government
of India. These are specially recommended to the notice of managers in the approved list of books ; but text-
books are not prescribed by the Department for any class of schools. English readers have been revised in the
North-Western Provinces ; but information is not given as to Vernacular readers. The English and Vernacular
books have been adopted in Assam, from the North-Western Provinces and Bengal, respectively. In the Punjab
a special moral text-book is used in Anglo- Vernacular High Schools ; and in all schools the class readers are framed
so as to convey moral instruction. In Burma a new set of Burmese readers is being prepared. In Berar the text-
books in use in Primary and Middle- Schools are stated to have been, since some years past, prepared or selected
with the view of conveying moral lessons. In colleges in India, insubordination and grave breaches of college
discipline are rare ; but instances occur of personation at examinations, the use of forged certificates, and similar
offences. The suggestions of the Government of India on the subject of college discipline have been generally
accepted by Local Governments.
" The fifteenth and sixteenth chapters of the Review deal with recommendations of the Education Commis-
sion relating to Educational Conferences, and the preparation of text-books.
Educational Conferences.
The recommendations on the first subject, pointed to assemblages of Educa-
tional Officers, together with managers of Aided and Unaided Schools, and to local meetings of schoolmasters
under the superintendence of Deputy Inspectors. Jn Madras, Conferences have been held on three occasions, a
moiety (i. e., generally about six) of those attending being representatives of institutions under private manage-
ment, and such important matters as the alternative final examination for High Schools and the tests for admission to
the public service have been discussed by them. In the Punjab the Senate of the University advises the Govern-
ment on all grades of education. A Departmental and a General Conference are held annually at Lahore, and the
latter has discussed nearly all the important matters in which action has been taken of late years. In Lower
Burma the Educational Syndicate is a permanent consultative board. A conference in 1889, which revised the
grant-in-aid rules, was composed to the extent of three-fourths of representatives of schools under private manage-
ment. In Bombay and Assam no conferences appear to have been held of late years ; and only local assemblages
have been held in Bengal. There is little information available as to other Provinces ; but conferences have been
held in the North- Western Provinces, and apparently Annual District Assemblies are held in the Central Provin-
ces. In Berar an Annual Conference and circle gatherings take place.
" After obtaining reports from Local Governments on the subject of the school-books in use, the Government
of India, in the year 1877, convened a small General Committee, comprising
Committees for selection of ,. ,, ,, j.™, , ^ ,. j ±- t
representatives of the different Provinces, to formulate recommendations tor
Scnool-books.
action. The Committee deprecated the attempt to issue an Imperial Series of
text-books, but advised that a Standing Committee should be constituted in each Province to report yearly, and
approve all books to be used in Government or Aided Institutions, and that a corresponding English Text-Book
Committee should also be appointed. In a Resolution, dated 10th January 1881, the Government of India accept-
ed the view that an Imperial Series of text-books should not be prepared, and decided that Local Governments
should supervise the preparation of text-books, assisted, if necessary, by Standing Committtees containing a fair
number of independent members, and should communicate with the Standing Committees of other Provinces.
The subject was to be noticed in a separate section of the annual Provincial Educational Reports. The Govern-
ment of India declined to restrict Aided Schools to the use of the Government school-books. The Education
Commission, in 1883, recommended that the Provincial Text-book Committees should continue their operations,
and that the function of Government depots should be confined to the supply and distribution of Vernacular text-
books. Passing to the period now under review, it appears that in Madras there was no permanent Text-book
Committee until 1892. The Committee then appointed consists mostly of specialists in the various lines, and 8
out of 26 members are non-officials. In 1889, the Madras Government withdrew from the publication of school-
books, and private presses are now allowed to produce works of which Government has the copyright, after
approval of the proofs. In Bombay, English text-books are not apparently submitted to a Committee, but several
Committees exist, dealing with Vernacular Text-books. In Bengal, the duty of selecting suitable books has, since
1875, been performed by the Central Text-book Committee, the members of which are divided into six Sub-Com-
mittees, according to the subject-matter of the text-books submitted to them.
18
138 ENGLISH EDUCATION IH INDIA.
" The Director annually revises the list of books according to the Committee's recommendations. The Com-
mittee, which is composed of the best scholars available, undertook in 1891-92, at the request of the Director, to
prepare lists of authorized text-books for High and Primary Schools also. There are branch Committees for
Behar and Orissa. The Calcutta School Book Society, which has numerous Agencies, is the chief medium for
the distribution of school-books. In the North- Western Provinces and Oudh, there are four Committees for
selecting Zila School Text-books, and four for selecting books for Vernacular Schools in different quarters of
the Provinces. The lists are subject to the Director's revision. The request of the Government of India that
a separate section of the Annual Report should deal with text-books, is no longer complied with in the North -
Western Provinces and Oudh, and this omission should be rectified in future. The Punjab Text-book Committee,
which was established in 1877, undertakes the preparation as well as the examination of books : there are eight
Sub-Committees. Text-book Committees have been appointed also in the Central Provinces and in Burma. In
Burma there is an officer, called the Editor of Vernacular School Text-books, who examines Vernacular works, in
the first instance, and also makes translations and selections.
" The more prominent results brought out from the history of education in India during the five years covered
by Mr. Nash's Report may be briefly enumerated. The number of institutions
Prominent educational re- ... ... . . , . , _,
suits during 1887 to 1892 public and private, coming within the purview of the Education Department
has risen from 127,116 to 141,793, or by 11'5 per cent., and the number of pupils
from 3,343,544 to 3,856,821, or by 15'3 per cent. The increase in pupils is to the extent of 63,340 accounted for
by the inclusion, for the first time, of returns from Upper Burma. Though the advance has occurred in a slightly
higher ratio in Colleges and Secondary Schools than in Primary Schools, the difference has not been sufficiently
marked to cause any substantial change in the proportions of students in these three stages of education. A satis-
factory indication of the change of attitude of the Mahomedan Community towards the educational system adopted
by the Government, is to be found in the increase in the number of Mahomedan students by nearly 18 per
cent. The number of Hindus attending School or College has also increased by 12'8 per cent. Female education
has made a substantial advance, the number of girls at school at the end of 1891-92 having been 27'3 per cent.,
in excess of the number at the end of 1886-87. Something has been done to cultivate a taste for technical educa-
tion, by the general introduction of drawing into the School Course. In many Provinces even this is still in the
experimental stage, and the further development of technical education has not yet been generally systematized.
A defect in the educational system which demands serious attention is the inadequacy of the course of training
given in many of the Training Schools for teachers.
" As Government recedes from directly managing its own schools, and confines itself more and more to aiding
schools not maintained by the Educational Department, the duty of securing
an efficient inspection of schools receiving grants-in-aid becomes greater. This
institutions necessary.
question merits the close and continued attention of Local Governments and
Administrations. One of the most satisfactory features in connection with the progress of education during the
five years under review is to be found in the .increase of expenditure by over 20 per cent., and in the change in the
sources from which that expenditure has been met. The expenditure from Municipal and Local funds has ma-
terially increased, while the share of the total expenditure borne by public funds (in which are included Local
and Municipal, as well as State revenues) has slightly declined. It is most encouraging to find that the payments
of the public have, during five years, increased from 117| to 149 lakhs, and particularly, that the receipts from fees
have increased by over 35 per cent." *
CHAPTER XXV.
ENGLISH PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION IN COLLEGES, IN 1881-82 TO
1885-86, AND IN 1886-87 TO 1891-92.
The subject of professional and technical education was not included within the scope of the enquiry made
by the Indian Education Commission of 1882 ; but the various Indian Uni-
Professional subjects in the -i- • .1 • • i e i j- J.T. i.-
I dir n Universit'e versities recognize in their curriculum of studies the subjects of Law, Medi-
cine, and Engineering, and Sir Alfred Croft, in his Review of Education in India
in 1886, has collected valuable statistical and other information, which may be borrowed here.
* Supplement to the Gaiette of India ; 8th September 1894 ; pp. 1278-1282.
ENGLISH PROFESSIONAL COLLEGES, 1882-92. 139
Law Departments are in all cases attached to Arts Colleges, since the Universities require that candidates for
Law Departments in Col- the degrees of Bachelor of Law should have taken the B.A. Degree, or passed
leges. some other examination in Arts, which the University concerned may consider
sufficient as the preliminary to the study of law. In Madras, a course of two years, and in Bombay a course
of three years is required, subsequent to graduation. In the Calcutta University, the course is for three years,
of which two must be subsequent to the degree, and the two courses are sometimes read, in part at any rate,
simultaneously. Similar courses, with minor modifications required by local circumstances, are prescribed by the
Punjab University and the Allahabad University — the former requiring that the candidate for the degree of
Bachelor of Laws should either have passed an intermediate law examination, or should have graduated in Arts,
and the latter prescribing that " any Undergraduate ol the University may be admitted to the Examination, pro-
vided he has prosecuted a regular course of study in a school of Law affiliated to the University, for not less than
two academical years, after having fully passed the Intermediate Examination in Arts." The subjects of legal
studies, with some local modifications, are similar in all the Universities.
The institutions which exist in India for the training of students for the License in Medicine and Surgery, or
Med'cal C lie s ^°r *^e (^eSree °^ Bachelor of Medicine, as well as for the higher degree of
Doctor of Medicine, are the Medical Colleges of Madras and Calcutta, the
Grant Medical College of Bombay, and the Lahore Medical School. " The qualification for the License in Medicine
and Surgery differs from that required for the Bachelor of Medicine Degree, both in the preliminary educational
test and in the final standard of examination. In Madras, the initial qualification for the license is the University
Entrance Examination ; and the course extends over four years, divided into two parts, by the first and second
Licentiate Examination. For the degree, candidates must have passed the First Arts Examination, and have subse-
quently studied medicine for five years ; during the course, of which they have to pass one preliminary scientific
and two professional examinations. To those students who have graduated in Arts, taking physical science, before
entering on their medical course, the preliminary scientific examination and one year of study are remitted. In
Bombay the only examination below that for the Doctor's degree is that for the license. A candidate must have
passed the Matriculation Examination and have studied medicine for four years, during which he has to undergo
three examinations. In Calcutta, candidates, whether for the degree or for the license, must have passed the First
Arts Examination ; and in either case the course, extends over five years. The only difference is the requirement
of comparative anatomy and physiology for the degree ; a similar distinction being made in Madras. The Lahore
Medical School exists for the benefit of students from the North- Western Provinces, as well of those from the
Punjab, and both alike are eligible for the Government Scholarships tenable in the institution."*
There are four Engineering Colleges in India maintained by Government : at Madras, Poona in the Bombay
Presidency, Seebpore in Bengal, and Boorkee in the North- Western Pro-
Engineering Colleges.
vinces.
" The requirements of the Madras University for the degree of Bachelor of Civil Engineering, are that a
candidate shall have passd the First Examination in Arts, and shall have subse-
The Madras Engineering quently read for two years in an Engineering College. All candidates for the
degree are examined in mathematics, natural philosophy, mensuration, and
the framing of estimates ; those for the Civil branch are also examined in surveying and levelling, constructive
engineering, and architectural and topographical drawing ; those for the Mechanical branch, in mechanical engineer-
ing and machine drawing. " f The Madras College of Engineering has been recently re-organized, and is the
recognized institution for imparting instruction in that subject in that Presidency.
" In Bombay, the University requires of candidates for the License in Civil Engineering, (1) the matricula-
tion certificate, (2) a course of three years' study, which may be reduced in
Engineering College at the cage of candidateS; with higher initial qualifications to two years, or to one
and a-half. The examination comprises, (1) mathematics and natural philoso-
phy, (2) experimental and natural science; (3) civil engineering, (4) one out of the following list : — (a) analytical
geometry, and the differential and integral calculus, (6) optics and astronomy, (c) mining and metallurgy, (d)
architecture, (e) mechanical engineering, (/) chemical analysis, (g) botany, and meteorology. Candidates must also
pass a practical test in experimental science and mechanica engineering. Instruction in the University Course,
both theoretical and practical, is given in the Poona College of Science with its attached workshops." J
" For the License in Engineering of the Calcutta University, a candidate must have passed the Entrance
Examination, and have subsequently studied for four years in an affiliated
Civil Engineering College at institution. If he hag ed the pirst Arts Examination, he will be entitled
Seebpore near Calcutta.
to the degree of B. E. The course comprises the following subjects : mathe-
* Sir Alfred Croft's Review of Education in India in 1886 ; p. 251. t *&•, P' 252. J Ii>., pp. 252, 253.
140
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
matics, engineering, construction, geodesy, drawing, and either natural science or machinery, according as the
camlidut.- the Civil or the Mechanical branch of the course. The course in mathematics is exceptionally
high, and includes, besides other subjects, analytical geometry, the differential and integral calculus, and hydro-
statics. Proposals are under consideration for reducing the extent of this compulsory course. The Government
Civil KiiLri 'leering College at Seebpore, near Calcutta, is the institution in which candidates are prepared for the
University Dt'irm's during a course of five years. ";
" The Thomason Civil Engineering College at Roorkee is maintained by the Public Works Department of
Government for the requirements of the public service ; and it has no con-
nexion with any University. It is, however, noticed in this place, since it
College at Roorkee.
discharges the same functions as those that are so connected. The College
contains three departments. Candidates for the Engineering Class have to pass an Examination in English and
Hindustani (and also in a third language, if their Vernacular is English) ; in elementary science, in drawing, and
in mathematics to a somewhat high standard. The course of study extends over two years, at the end of which
time an examination is held in mathematics, applied mechanics, experimental science, civil engineering, drawing,
and surveying. Students of this class are educated for the engineer branch of the Public Works Department, in
which four or five appointments, in alternate years, are guaranteed to the best of those who pass. (For comparison,
it may here be repeated, that the number of guaranteed appointments for the students of the Poona College is two
a year ; of the Seebpore College, two and one in alternate years ; of the 'Madras College, one a year). The upper
subordinate class at Roorkee is intended to provide men for overseerships, and the lower subordinate for sub-over-
seerships, in the Public Works Department. The course for the former extends over three years, of which the
last is devoted to practical training on works in progress. The course for lower subordinates is limited to a year
and a-half. The final examination for upper and for lower subordinates, includes mathematics, engineering,
drawing, and surveying, to different standards for the two classes. "f
The following Tabular Statement J gives the comparative statistics of Professional Colleges during the year
Professional Colleges, 1881- 1881-82 to 1884-85.
82 to 1884-85.
PROFESSIONAL COLLEGES, 1881-82 TO 1884-85.
1881-82.
1884-85.
LAW.
MEDICINE.
ENGINEERING.
LAW.
MEDICINE.
ENGINEERING.
PROVINCE.
a
3
i
CO
i
•
B
oj
1
•
a
_o
a
J
-2
0
'-3
-2
_o
V»
-2
_o
2p
00
-M
_o
4]
•
4!
3
\
i
a
CO
a
a
<o
£
g
pi
4>
§
3
g
<i
<n
-O
13
T3
T3
a
00
d
2
•
pi
B
3
pi
-S
&
£
•S
a
-fi
m
02
i— t
GO
HH
02
h- 1
CO
M
O2
Madras Government
1
112
1
76
1
9
1
127
1
116
1
19
Bombay ditto
1
136
1
283
1
151
1
180
]
370
1
184
Bengal ditto
7
270
1
117
1
170
6
125
1
132
1
149
Ditto, Unaided ...
1
190
2
524
N.-W. P., Government ...
1
155
Ditto, Aided
2
31
2
94
Ditto, Unaided
1
17
Punjab, Government ...
1
188
^Government ...
9
...
518
3
476
3
330
8
432
4
806
4
507
Total ...-{ Aided
LUnaided
2
1
31
190
2
3
94
541
GRAND TOTAL
12
739
3
476
3
330
13
1,067
4
806
4
507
• Sir Alfred Croft's Review of Education in India in 18o6 ; p. 253.
t 76., p. 254.
/*., p. 41.
COST OF PROFESSIONAL COLLEGES, 1881-85.
141
The total cost of professional education connected with the University in 1881-82, as compared with
Cost of Professional Colleges 1884-85, is shown in the following Table * : —
in 1884-1885.
COST OF PROFESSIONAL COLLEGES.
HEAD OF CHARGE.
1881-82.
1884-85.
Provincial
Revenues.
Fees.
Other
sources.
Total.
Provincial
Revenues.
Fees.
Other
sources.
Total.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Law
527
39,496
7,433
47,456
406
32,186
4,886
36,666
Medicine
1,78,157
35,607
...
2,13,764
2,13,889
53,366
2,411
2,69,666
Engineering
Total
1,03,886
9,921
...
1,13,807
2,70,560
13,256
5,749
2,89,565
2,82,570
85,024
7,433
3,75,027
4,84,043
98,808
13,046
5,95,897
It will be observed in this table that the Law classes practically pay for themselves, whilst considerable
expense is incurred by Government on education in Medicine and Enerineeriner.
Law classes almost self-sup- r J . .
porting Results of the TTni- Tlie results °* *™ University examinations in these various branches in
versity Examinations in pro- 1881-82 and 1884-85 is shown in the following table f which includes only
fessional subjects, in 1881- those who passed the final examination in each case, whether for the
IfittJC
License or the Degree : —
RESULTS OF UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS (PROFESSIONAL), 1881-82 AND 1884-85.
LAW.
MEDICINE.
ENGINEERING.
PROVINCE.
1881-82.
1884-85.
1881-82.
1884-85.
1881-82.
1884-85.
Madras ...
12
25
4
10
1
7
Bombay ...
5
13
14
24
16
7
Bengal
67
77
20
14
6
• •*
N.-W. Provinces ...
2
...
• ••
...
...
3
Punjab ... ...
...
...
...
11
...
...
Total
86
115
38
59
23
17
Sir Alfred Croft's Review of Education in India, 1886 ; p. 42.
f Ib., p. 43.
U2
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
The subjoined Table * shows the number of Colleges, or departments of Colleges, in Law, Medicine, and Engi-
Professional Colleges, 1885- neering, and the number of students reading in them on the 31st March 1886 : —
86
PROFESSIONAL COLLEGES, 1885-86.
LAW.
MEDICINE.
ENGINEERING.
PROVINCE.
Institutions.
Students.
Institutions.
Students.
Institutions.
Students.
Madras, Government
1
141
1
136
1
18
Bombay, do.
2
221
1
296
1
116
Bengal, do.
6
110
1
152
1
156
Ditto., Unaided
4
772
...
...
...
N.-W. P., Government
1
61
...
...
1
154
Ditto., Aided
1
. 48
...
...
...
...
Ditto., Unaided
1
18
...
...
...
...
Punjab, Government
...
...
1
183
...
('Government
10
533
4
767
4
444
Total -{ Aided
1
48
...
...
...
...
^Unaided
5
790
...
...
...
Grand Total
16
1,371
4
767
4
444
Total in 1884-85.
13
1,067
4
806
4
507
The following Tablet shows the cost of professional Collegiate Education in 1885-86 : —
Cost of Professional Colleges,
1885-86.
COST OF PROFESSIONAL COLLEGES, 1885-86.
PROFESSION.
Provincial
Revenues.
Fees.
Other sources.
Total.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Law
1,082
42,415
5,339
48,836
Medicine
2,11,672
54,678
3,863
2,70,213
Kniri neering
2,60,032
15,548
189
2,75,769
Total
4,72,786
1,12,641
9,391
5,94,818
Total for 1884-85
4,84,043
98,808
13,046
5,95,897
* Sir Alfred Croft' B Review of Education in India in 1886 ; p. 250.
t 16., p. 255.
UNIVERSITY PROFESSIONAL EXAMINATIONS, 1885-86.
143
The flourishing and almost self-supporting condition of the Law classes is noticeable in the above Table in
contrast to the figures relating to the subjects of Medicine and Engineering in both of which the income from fees
falls enormously short of the expenditure.
The following statement * shows the number of those who graduated in the Universities in the various pro-
Results of University Profes- fessional branches in 1885-86 : or passed the final examination of the Roorkee
sional Examinations, 1885-86. Engineering College in the North-Western Provinces : —
RESULTS OF UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS (PROFESSIONAL) 1885-86.
PROVINCE.
Law.
Medicine.
Engineering.
Madras ... ... ...
38
26
3
Bombay ... ... ... •••
17
39
13
Bengal ... ... ... •••
120
32
3
North-Western Provinces ...
• ••
...
4
Punjab ... ... ...
• ••
7
• ••
Total
175
104
23
Total for 1884-85
115
59
17
Information in regard to English Professional Education in Colleges during the five years succeeding the year
1886 is given in Mr. Nash's Quinquennial Review of the Progress of Educa-
Present condition of English ^ ^ Ind- and gince such information is the lategt avaiiable certain Statis-
Professioual Education.
tics may be borrowed from it here as showing the present condition of
Professional Education in Indian Colleges.
The following Tablet shows the number of Law Colleges and Schools in 1887 and 1892, and the number of
LawColleges, 1887 and 1892. students in them : —
ATTENDANCE IN LAW COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS.
1886-87.
1891-92.
_
Colleges.
Pupils.
Schools.
Pupils.
Colleges.
Pupils.
Schools.
Pupils.
Madras ...
1
182
...
...
1
360
...
...
Bombay ...
2
249
...
...
4
230
...
...
Bengal ...
10
1,078
...
...
12
563
• ••
...
North- Western Provinces
3
117
...
...
7
612
...
...
Punjab ...
1
71
...
...
1
85
...
• M
Central Provinces
...
...
...
...
2
82
...
...
Assam ...
...
...
1
19
...
...
2
39
Total
17
1,697
1
19
27
1,932
2
39
» 8ir Alfred Croft's Review of Education in India, 1886, p. 254.
t Progress of Education in India, 1887-88 to 1891-92, by A. M. Nash, Esquire, M.A. (1893) ; p. 220.
1 V I ENGLISH EDUCATION IN n?DIA.
In tins Talde lint increase in the number of Law Colleges from 17 to 27 in five years is very noticeable, taken
in conjunction with the fact that the increase in the number of students has
Colh OS 1D been in much less proportion. " The Calcutta University has reduced the
course of study from three years to two, and withdrawn the. privilege of
nding lectures before passing the B.A. Examination, the changes being exactly the opposite of those made by
tin- Madras University. A similar change was also made by the High Court in the rules for the Pleadership
Examination, for which many of the students of the Law Colleges are preparing, and these changes have caused
the reduction of the number of students from 1,078 to 563 in spite of an increase of two in the number of Colleges.
•• In the North-Western Provinces the number of Law Classes and of students has increased very rapidly since
the establishment of the local University, but it is doubtful to what extent this is the cause of the increase, for
the Principal of one of the Government Colleges says : ' The very great majority of our Law Students have no
intention or desire of appearing at the University Examination or at the High Court Examinations, and it is not
clear to me with what precise object they pay the fees and attend the law lectures for two years. ' Allahabad is
i lie only University in India that confers degrees in Law upon persons who have not graduated in Arts ; candi-
dates are required to attend lectures for two years after passing the Intermediate Examination, but in order to
prevent the wholesale immigration from other Provinces of candidates who have failed at the B.A. Examination,
no examination of any other University lower tha,n the B.A..is recognized as qualifying for admission to a Law
College."*
Legal studies seein to continue to be almost' Self-supportin'g. "The aggregate cost of all the Law Classes
during the year 1891-92 amounted to Bs. 99,596 of which the students them-
86lf" selves Paid Rs- 93'543 in the 8haPe of fees- Local funds contributed only
Rs. 34, and Municipal funds Bs. 659, while the expenditure from Provincial
Bevenues was more than balanced by the receipts from fees in Government Institutions, the net profit to Govern-
ment amounting to Bs. 3,303. "t
A< showing the advance of legal studies during the period of five years ending in 1892, the total number of
Advance of legal studies in persons who obtained the degree of Bachelor of Law, or the License in Law
1887_to 1892. of the Punjab University, during that period is shown, below : — £
Madras ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 210
Bombay ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 139
Bengal ... ... ... .... ... ... ... 855
North- Western Provinces ... ... ... ... ... 50
Punjab ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 28
Central Provinces ... ... ... ... ... ... 11
Total ... 1,293
" In Madras one candidate obtained the degree of Master of Laws ; in Bombay there is no degree beyond the
LL.B., but merely an examination for- Honours, which no candidate has attempted ; in the Calcutta University
tin; degree of D.L. is given, but none of the candidates were successful ; in the Punjab University the degrees of
LL.U. and LL.D., were not instituted till 1891-92, and no examinations have been held. The number of
1 nates in Law appears to be increasing in every Province, except perhaps in Bengal ; in this Province there
: decrease during the last two years, but this is mainly due to the fact that during this period the
dute of the examination was elian^ed. and new rules were introduced. "§
The progress of Medical studies during the five years 1886-87 to 1891-92 appears from the following
Progress of Medical studies, Table : —
in 1887 to 1892.
* Progrett of Education in Indin, 1887-88 -to 1891-92, by A. M. Nash, Esquire, M.A. (1893) ; .p. 221.
t lb., p. 222. J /{,., p. 223. § Ib., p. 223.
EXPENDITURE ON MEDICAL COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS, 1887-92.
145
MEDICAL COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS, 1886-87 AND 1891-92.
1886-87.
1891-92.
PROVINCE.
COLLEGES.
SCHOOLS.
COLLEGES.
SCHOOLS.
Institu-
tions.
Pupils.
Institu-
tions.
Pupils.
Institu-
tions.
Pupils.
Institu-
tions.
Pupils.
Madras
1
138
4
204
1
157
3
347
Bombay
1
276
9
123
1
222
4
216
Bengal
1
172
9
793
1
255
9
1,035
North- Western Provinces andOudh ...
...
...
1
125
...
...
2
212
Punjab
1
68
1
143
1
144
1
178
Central Provinces
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Upper Burma
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Lower Burma
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Assam
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Coorg
...
*••
...
...
...
...
...
...
Hyderabad Assigned Districts
...
...
...
• *•
...
...
...
...
TOTAL
4
654
18
1,388
4
778
19
1,988
The following Table * gives the total expenditure from different sources in each province on institutions for
Expenditure on Medical Medical Education, comparing the figures for 1886-87 with those for
Education in 1887 and 1892. 1891-92 : —
EXPENDITURE IN MEDICAL COLLEGES AND SCHOjQLS, 1886-87 AND 1891-92.
PROVINCE.
1886-87.
1891-92.
Provincial
Revenues.
Local and
Municipal
Funds.
Fees.
Total.
Provincial
Revenues.
Lo.cal and
Municipal
Funds.
Fees.
Total.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Es.
Rs.
Madras
31,000
35,550
18,244
94,011
1,11,254
10,184
22,175
1,49,060
Bombay
31,774
...
22,742
56,545
33,886
1,497
21,911
59,483
Bengal
2,30,826
...
27,996
2,59,439
2,69,468
...
33,006
3,04,903
N.-W. P. and Oudh
14,822
...
14,822
21,162
• • *
24,126
Punjab
TOTAL Rs.
67,097
...
67,097
64,762
6,552
'2,512
74,084
3,75,519
35,550
68,982
4,91,914
5,00,532
18,233
79,604
6,11,656
* Progress of Education in India, 1887-88 to 1891-92. By A. 11. Nash, Esquire, M.A. (1893), p. 228.
i a
146
ENGLISH HmTCATION IN INDIA.
The number of candidates who have obtained University Degrees or Licences in Medicine, during the period
Medical Degrees and Li- of five years ending in 1892, is shown in the following Table * : —
cences, in 1887 to 1892.
TOTAL PASSES IN FINAL MEDICAL EXAMINATIONS FROM 1887-88 TO 1891-02.
M. D.
M. B.
L. M. S.
UNIVERSITIES.
Men.
Women.
Men.
Women.
Men.
Women.
Madras
8
1
61
2
Bombay
Bengal
2
3
...
"33
'"2
130
69
3
1
Punjab
...
...
3
...
38
2
TOTAL
5
...
44
3
298
8
" The total number of medical graduates in Bengal is less than the sum of the numbers in the different
columns, for many candidates appear at both the L. M. S. and M. B. Examinations. Taking the figures for 1886-87
and 1891-92, there is a decrease in the number of medical graduates in every province, the decrease is most
marked in Bombay, where there were only 44 in 1891-92, against 60 in 1886-87. The degree of M. B. is not con-
ferred by the Bombay University ; and in the Punjab the first examination for this degree was held 1891."*
The following Table has been extracted from the Table given in paragraph 194 at page 275 of Mr. Nash's
Statistics of Engineering Report, and gives the usual Statistics of attendance in Engineering Colleges
Colleges in 1887 and 1892. and Schools for the years 1886-87 and 1891-92.
ENGINEERING COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS, 1886-87 and 1891-92.
1886-87.
1891-92.
PROVINCE.
ENGINEERING
COLLEGES.
ENGINEERING AND
SURVEYING
SCHOOLS.
ENGINEERING
COLLEGES.
ENGINEERING AND
SURVEYING
SCHOOLS.
Institu-
tions.
Pupils.
Institu-
tions.
Pupils.
Institu-
tions.
Pupils.
Institu-
tions.
Pupils.
Madras
1
17
1
164
1
JO
1
185
Bombay
1
153
1
11
1
50
1
14
Bengal
1
146
3
210
1
244
3
417
N.-W. P. and Oudh
1
158
...
1
180
. • .
Punjab
...
...
...
. . .
• • .
i * .
Central Provinces
...
...
...
..*
1
11
Upper Burma
...
...
...
5
116
Lower Burma
...
9
231
...
. . .
12
295
Assam
...
...
. . t
1
4
Coorg
...
...
Hyderabad Assigned Districts
...
...
...
. . .
TOTAL
4
474
14
616
4
484
24
1,042
• Progrei, of Education in India, 1887-88 to 1891-92. By A. M. Nash, Esquire, M.A. (1893), p. 229.
APATHY OF MUHAMMADANS TO ENGLISH EDUCATION, 1792 TO 1832. 147
The figures in this Table show that during the five years concerned, there has not been any marked increase
in the number of pupils in the Engineering Colleges, whilst the increase in the Schools has been considerable,
having risen from 616 in 1887 to 1,042 in 1892.
CHAPTER XXVI.
BACKWARDNESS OF MUHAMMADANS IN ENGLISH EDUCATION.— MEASURES ADOPTED BY
GOVERNMENT TO ENCOURAGE EDUCATION AMONG MUHAMMADANS IN 1871-73.— REFORMS
IN THE CALCUTTA MADRASSA IN 1873.— IMPROVED APPLICATION OF THE MOHSIN
ENDOWMENT AT HOOGHLY TO MUHAMMADAN EDUCATION IN BENGAL.—
The attitude of opposition to English education at its very outset taken up by the Muhammadan Community
has already been shown* to have been evinced as early as 1835, when the
Early opposition of Muham- ^ ., ,, -,, ,. , n , „ , . ,. . „ ,. ,
Council ot Education at Calcutta first inaugurated the policy or .Lnghsh
madans to English Education. J
education under the auspices of Lord William Bentinck, who under the advice
of Lord Macaulay passed the celebrated Educational Resolution of the Government of India, dated the 7th March
1835, in favour of English education. The Indian Education Commission of 1882, dealt with the question of
Muhammadan education in a separate section of their Report which begins with the following summary of the
early efforts in the cause of Muhammadan education : —
"When in 1782 the Calcutta Madrassa was founded by Warren Hastings, it was designed ' to qualify the
Persistent apathy of the Mu- Muhammadans of Bengal for the public service and to enable them to
hammadans towards English compete, on more equal terms, with the Hindus for employment under Gov-
Education — 1792 to 1832. eminent.' Some fifty years later, after the introduction of English into the
course of studies, the Council of Education had to confess that ' the endeavour to impart a high order of English
education ' to the Muhammadan Community had completely failed. Forty years later again, ' the condition of .
the Muhammadan population of India, as regards education, had of late been frequently pressed upon the attention
of the Government of India.' The Muhammadans were not even then competing on equal terms with the Hindus
for employment under Government, nor had the endeavour to impart to them a high order of education been
attended by any adequate success. Matters were, no doubt, in a more promising condition than in 1832, and, as
regards the general spread of education, in a much more promising condition than in J792. A considerable
proportion of Muhammadans were learning English, a large proportion were in schools of one kind or another.
But the higher English education was not cultivated, in any appreciable degree, more extensively than it had been
in 1832.
" What the causes were which deterred the Muhammadans from such cultivation was debated even among them-
Allesed causes of the back so^ves- While some held that the absence of instruction in the tenets of their
wardness of Muhammadans in faith, and still more the injurious effects of English education in creating a
English Education summariz- disbelief in religion, were the main obstacles, others, though a small minority,
ed by the Education Commis- were Of opinion that religion had little to do with the question. Some con-
tended that the system of education prevailing in Government Schools and
Colleges corrupted the morals and manners of the pupils, and that for this reason the better classes would not
subject their sons to dangerous contact. The small proportion of Muhammadan teachers in Government institu-
tions ; the unwillingness of Government educational officers to accept the counsel and co-operation of Muham-
madans ; numerous minor faults in the Departmental system, the comparatively small progress in real learning
made by the pupils in Government Schools ; the practice among the well-to-do Muhammadans of educating their
children at home ; the indolence and improvidence too common among them ; their hereditary love of the profes-
sion of arms ; the absence of friendly intercourse between Muhammadans and Englishmen ; the unwillingness
felt by the better born to associate with those lower in the social scale ; the poverty nearly general among
Muhammadans; the coldness of Government towards the race; the use in Government Schools of books whose
tone was hostile or scornful towards the Muhammadan religion ; — these and a variety of other causes have been
« Vide ante, p 53.
148
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
put forward at different times by members of the Muhammadan community to account for the scant appreciation
which an English education has received at their hands. All such causes may have combined towards a general
result, but a candid Mnhummadan would probably admit that the most powerful factors are to be found in pride
of race, a memory of by-gone superiority, religious fears, and a not unnatural attachment to the learning of Islam.
But whatever the causes, the fact remained ; though the enquiries made in 1871-73 went to prove that, except in
the matter of the higher education, there had been a tendency to exaggerate the backwardness of the Muham-
madans.
" The following Table shows the percentage of Muhammadans to the total population in the six more important
Provinces of India and the percentage of Muhammadans under instruction in
General Statistics of Muham- g^^g Of which the Department had cognizance to the total number of all
madan Education in 1871-72. ^^ ^ ^h gchools In the former case the percentage is 22'8, in the latter
147. It must also be borne in mind that in 1870-71 there were among the 16,77,11,037 inhabitants of the six
Provinces about four millions who belonged to the aboriginal tribes, or semi-Hinduised aborigines, and to other
non- Aryans hardly touched by our education. Deducting these, and excluding Native States, the Musalmans
form about 25 per cent, of the total population : —
STATISTICS OF EDUCATION AMONG MUHAMMADANS IN 1871-72.
PROVINCES.
Total Popu-
lation.
Muhammadans.
Percentage.
AT SCHOOL.
Total.
Muhammadans.
Percentage.
Madras
31,281,177
1,872,214
6
123,689
5,531
4-4
Bombay
16,349,206
2,528,344
15-4
190,153
15,684
8-8
Bengal and Assam
60,467,724
19,553,420
32-3
196,086
28,411
14-4
N.-W. Provinces
30,781,204
4,188,751
13-5
162,619
28,990
17-8
Oudh
11,220,232
1,111,290
9-9
48,926
12,417
25-3
Punjab
Total
17,611,498
9,102,488
51-6
68,144
23,783
34-9
167,711,041
38,356,507
22-8
789,617
114,816
14-5
" It will be observed that in the North-Western Provinces, and to a much larger extent in Oudh, the propor-
tion of Muhammadan school boys to the total number is greater than the proportion of Muhammadans in the
population. In the other Provinces it is much less ; the population percentage of the Muhammadans in these
Provinces taken together, being over 26 and the school percentage under 10." *
The backward condition of education among Muhammadans attracted the attention of the Government of
Eesolution of the Govern- India under the Earl of Mayo, and its Resolution No. 300, dated Simla the
ment of India, No. 300, dated 7th August, 1871, invited the attention of the various Local Governments and
7th August, 1871, on Muham- Administrations to the subject. The Resolution is an important document
madan Education. being the first of a series of measures adopted by the Government for the
encouragement of education among the Muhammadans, and may be quoted here in extenso : —
" The condition of the Muhammadan population of India as regards education has of late been frequently
Backwardness of education presscd uPon the attention of the Government of India. From statistics
among Muhammadans deplor- recently submitted to the Governor-General in Council, it is evident that in
able. Muhammadan literature no part of the country, except perhaps the North- Western Provinces and the
may be encouraged. Punjab, do the Muhammadans adequately, or in proportion to the rest of the
community, avail themselves of the educational advantages that the Government offers. It is much to be regretted
that so large and important a class, possessing a classical literature replete with works of profound learning and
it value, and counting among its members a section especially devoted to the acquisition and diffusion of
knowledge, should stand aloof from active co-operation with our educational system and should lose the advantages
both material and social, which others enjoy. His Excellency in Council believes that secondary and higher education
* Report of the Indian Education Commission (1882) ; pp 483, 484.
SUGGESTIONS BY GOVERNMENT AS TO MUHAMMADAN EDUCATION, 1871. 149
conveyed in the vernaculars and rendered more accessible than now, coupled with a more systematic encourage-
ment and recognition of Arabic and Persian literature, would be not only acceptable to the Muhammadan commu-
nity but would enlist the sympathies of the more earnest and enlightened of its members on the side of education.
" 2. The Governor-General in Council is desirous that further encouragement should be given to the classical
Muhammadan teachers of ancl vernacular languages of the Muhammadans in all Government Schools and
English to be appointed and Colleges. This need not involve any alterations in the subjects, but only in
Muhammadans encouraged by the media of instruction. In avowedly English Schools established in Muham-
madan Districts' the Appointment of qualified Muhammadan English teachers
might, with advantage, be encouraged. As in Vernacular Schools, so in this
class also, assistance might justly be given to Muhammadans by grants-in-aid to create schools of their own. Greater
encouragement should also be given to the creation of a vernacular literature for the Muhammadans— a measure the
importance of which was specially urged upon the Government of India by Her Majesty's Secretary of State on
more than one occasion.
" 3. His Excellency in Council desires to call the attention of Local Governments and Administrations to this
Indian Universities to en- subject, and directs that this Resolution be communicated to them and to
courage Arabic and Persian the three Universities in India, with a view of eliciting their opinions whether,
re' without infringing the fundamental principles of our educational system,
some general measures in regard to Muhammadan education might not be adopted, and whether more encouragement
might not be given in the University course to Arabic and Persian literature. The authorities of the Lahore
University College, who are believed to have paid much attention to the subject, should also be invited to offer
their views on the important questions above referred to. This may be done through the Punjab Government." *
This Resolution was duly communicated to the Secretary of State, who concurred generally in the policy
The Resolution approved by therein indicated, on the understanding, however, that as regards the encour-
the Secretary of State in his agement of the languages of Muhammadans in the schools of the country, the
Despatch, No. 12, dated 14th Government of India did not contemplate any change in the subjects taught,
December, 1871. but only m the mode of instruction_
The suggestions made by the Government of India to the Local Governments in the above Resolution have
Suggestions by the Govern- been summarized by tne Education Commission f of 1882, as follows :—
ment of India as to Muhamma- (1) That further encouragement should be given to the classical and
dan Education in 1871, sum- vernacular languages of the Muhammadans in all Govern-
ment Schools and Colleges ;
(2) That in avowedly English schools established in Muhammadan districts, the appointment of qualified
Muhammadan English teachers might, with advantage, be encouraged ;
(3) That as in vernacular schools, so in avowedly English schools, assistance might justly be given to
Muhammadans by grants-in-aid to create schools of their own ;
(4) That greater encouragement should also be given to the creation of a vernacular literature for the
Muhammadans.
The reports received from the Local Governments and Administrations, in reply to this Resolution were
Resolution of th & reviewed by the Government of India (under the Earl of Northbrook), in a
ment of India, dated 13th Resolution, dated 13th June, 1873, and as it is one of the most important
June, 1873, on the condition documents connected with the progress of English education among Muhainma-
of education among Muham- dans, it may be quoted here in extenso for facility of reference especially as it
madans.
is not easily accessible to the general reader : —
" On the 7th August, 1871, the Government of India issued a Resolution upon the condition of the Muham-
Recital of the Government ma<^an population of India as regards education, in which, after regretting
of India's Resolution of 7th that so large and important a class should stand aloof from co-operation with
August, 1871, on Muhamma- our educational system, His Excellency the Earl of Mayo in Council desired
that more systematic encouragement should be given to the classical and ver-
nacular languages of the Muhammadans in all schools and colleges. The Resolution was circulated to all Local
Governments and Administrations for their opinion as to what measures should be adopted toward promoting this
object, by modifying the methods and means through which teaching should be given, so as to make the higher
branches of it more accessible to Muhammadans without altering the essential principles of our public instruction,
Whether the creation of a vernacular literature might not be added by the State, and whether more ample
* Selections from the Records of the Government of India (Home Department), No. CCV. (1886); p. 152.
t Vide Report, p. 484.
l.M EXGLISH EDUCATION IX INDIA.
-iiitioii sliould not be given in the University Courses to Arabic and Persian, were matters on which advice
and propositions were particularly invited.
• L'. The reports now collected from all the Provinces of British India present a fair survey of the actual
state of Muhammadan education throughout the Empire ; and they discuss
State of Muhammadan Edu- la ly how far and in what direction, should the further steps be taken
cation reported upon. .,, ,, , . ,, . , ,, , ,. . ,,
which are most consistent with the needs of the people and the duties ot the
Government. It may be useful to describe in broad outline, the place now allotted to Muhammadan instruction in
the educational scheme of each Government, and then to touch briefly on the measures proposed for improvement
:ind advance.
" 3. In the Resolution of 1871, there is no direct mention of primary education. Its importance was not
overlooked, but the needs and defects to be remedied appeared to press more
Primary Education in the ^ ently in the higher than in the lower gradations of State instruction.
"VcrYi fi.ciil.9ii* 1 9. n EH Ti ET c s iflToc t s
growth of Secondary and From the rePorts. however, which are now under review, there appears some
Higher Education among Mu- ground for doubting whether many of the disadvantages under which Muham-
hammadans who are accustom- madans have been placed as to higher education may not be traced down to
ed to Hindustani or Urdu h . sources in the earlier stages of our system. As a matter of fact, it may
characters.
be inferred generally that, wherever the ordinary vernacular of the country
cad and written in the Hindustani or Urdu character, there the Muhammadans have occupied their proper
position in the Primary and Secondary Schools founded or added by the State. In the North-Western
Provinces, in Oudh, and in the Punjab, the attendance of Muhammadans in the lower and middle schools is, on the
whole, rather above than below the proportion which all Muhammadans bear to the total population ; in Oudh the
Muhammadans furnish a much larger comparative contingent than the Hindus to the schools, though in the Punjab,
out of a Muhammadan element of 53 per cent, on the total population, not more than 35 per cent, of the scholars are
Muhammadans. Then in all these provinces the indigenous Muhammadan schools are very numerous, and thrive up to
;i certain point ; they are encouraged and assisted by the Government Officers ; the grants-in-aid are offered on condi-
rions which suit Muhammadan schooling as well as any other, and the whole course of primary education is so shaped
MS to favour the Muhammadan at least equally with the Hindu. On the other hand, in Provinces where the
Muhammadans are scatttered, and are not numerous, where they mostly talk a different language from that of the
majority, or where their teaching, at any rate, is in a different tongue and according to entirely separate traditions,
there the special arrangements which these circumstances require for them have been not always organized, and
their claims to it have been often inevitably disregarded. Where the Muhammadan uses a form of the country dialect,
;is in Eastern Bengal and in parts of Bombay, he goes with others to the Primary Government schools for the rudi-
ments of education ; but where his mother-tongue is different, in speech and in written character, he cannot attend
them. And the peculiar obstacles which keep him apart from our school system grow stronger as he emerges beyond
• elements which are common to all teaching. In Bengal the Bengali-speaking Eastern Muhammadans frequent
the lower schools in good number, but they found themselves more or less excluded from following out their education
into the upper classes by the absence, up to 1871, of any adequate provision for that distinctive course of instruction
which the customs of their society require. All over Western India, in part of the Central Provinces, in Berar,
ami very generally in Madras, the same difficulty had arisen, and had not been satisfactorily surmounted. The
( loveniment expenditure on education is necessarily limited, and could not suffice for the support of two separate
B8 ' if schools ; the money available was naturally bestowed entirely upon those classes of the people which
MIIS Idi' educational purposes, are by far the more numerous, the richer, and the more eager to make
of the grant.
••I. It is, however, in the higher Schools, in the Colleges, and in the Universities, that the absence or back-
wardness of Muhammadans has been shown to exist remarkably. The reports
Backwardness of Muhamma- „ .
dans in higher Collegiate and agree that our system has not attracted them to the higher ranges of our
University Education most educational course, or to persevere up to the point at which studies impress
remarkable. Unsuitability of real culture, and fit young men for success in the services and open professions.
the courses of instruction a H()W far thig stat(J of tu can be attributed to the want of a connected
possible cause ; if so, it must
be remedied. scheme of courses of instruction suitable for Muhammadans, leading up through
the lower to the higher standards, and how far to the general disinclination
.if Miihanimadans to exchange their earlier modes of studyfor others more consonant with modern habits of thought,
question which need not here be closelv examined. It may be conjectured that, at the present epoch, Muhum-
ilie ancient paths are unprofitable to stand upon, while their traditions and natural
predilections still hold them back from setting out energetically upon newly opened roads. For, while it is
MEASUEES TO REMEDY MUHAMMADAN EDUCATION, 1873. 151
confessed that Muhammadans nowhere appear in satisfactory strength upon the lists of our higher Schools, Colleges,
or Universities, on the other hand those institutions which have purposely preserved the ancient exclusively Muham-
madan type, and which have been restricted to instruction in the languages and sciences which belong peculiarly
to Muhammadanism, have also been found to be falling gradually but steadily into neglect. We may perhaps assume,
therefore, that the Muhammadans are not so much averse to the subjects which the English Government has decided
to teach, as to the modes or machinery through which teaching is offered. And if it thus appear that to the
traditions and reasonable hesitation which keep aloof our Muhammadan fellow-subjects are added certain obstacles
which our system itself interposes, — either by using a language that is unfamiliar, or machinery that is uncon-
genial, — it is plain that many of the drawbacks to the universality of our educational system are susceptible of
removal.
" 5. His Excellency in Council, therefore, perceives with gratification from the reports now before him, that
Endeavours to remedy Mu- judicious endeavours are being made to diminish, so far as they can be re-
hammadan educational back- medied, these inequalities in the distribution of State aid, and to place the
wardness gratifying. Muhammadans, wherever this may be possible, upon a more even footing with
the general community throughout the whole course of our public instruction.
" 6. In Madras the Government has now directed the Department of Public Instruction to take steps without
Steps taken in Madras and delay f°r establishing elementary Muhammadan schools, and corresponding
Bombay for Muhammadan classes in other schools, at the principal centres of the Muhammadan1 popu-
Schools and encouragement of lation, where instruction may be given in the Urdu language by qualified
Persian and Arabic. teachers through appropriate text-books. In the Madras University special
recognition is already given to Arabic and Persian, and the question of awarding special prizes for proved ex-
cellence in those languages is under deliberation. As the Syndicate observe, this is a project in which leading
Muhammadan gentlemen might be invited themselves to co-operate. From Bombay, the Director of Public Instruc-
tion reported in 1871, that he was engaged in settling a course of Persian instruction for the Upper Standards in
Vernacular Schools, for English Schools, and for High Schools, which will be arranged so as to prepare for the
study of Persian at the University, where Arabic and Persian are already .admitted as classical languages for
graduates in the Arts. In 1870, a Professor of Persian and Arabic was appointed to the Elphinstone College ;
and the Government, and the University now join in recommending to the Government of India the endowment
of a University Professorship of Arabic and Persian, founding their proposition upon the great importance to
Muhammadans in that Presidency of familiarity with the tongues of Western Asia. His Excellency in Council
agrees that it may be advisable to establish such professorships, and any scheme for doing so, would be favourably
entertained, especially if there were any prospect of aid from private sources to the endowment.
" 7. In Bengal, the Lieutenant- Governor now desires to restore Muhammadan education by a well-connected
Measures being adopted in and substantial reforming of existing material. Orders were issued in 1871
Bengal to restore Muhamma- to establish special classes for teaching Arabic and Persian to Muhammadans
dan education by aid of the in the ordinary schools, wherever the demand should justify the supply, and
Mohsin Endowments. wherever the Muhammadans should agree to conform, in addition, to the regular
course of study in the upper school classes, so that both kinds of instruction must be taken. The collegiate
instruction in the Calcutta Machassa will be remodelled and reinforced, while the Mohsin Endowments, which
now support the Hooghly College, will be employed, wherever in Bengal their employment seems most ad-
vantageous, for encouraging and extending education among Muhammadans. Moreover, the University of Calcutta
has decided to examine in Persian as well as in Arabic for the degrees.
" 8. In the North- Western Provinces, in the Punjab, and in Oudh, the existing system of State Instruction
is already at least as favourable to Muhammadans as to Hindus. At Lahore
System of State Instruction there is a University College, and the Muhamadans themselves share the
N,'W' ^r0I1DCeS^ and animous opinion that no special educational privileges to their community
Oudh and in the Punjab, as ,, .
favourable to Muhammadans are needed. From the North- Western Provinces it was reported that nothing
as to Hindus. Attention to Mu- more was needed to consummate the entire course of Muhammadan classics
hammadan education in the tliajl tne admission of Persian as a subject for the higher University Ex-
Central Provinces, Mysore, aminationSi which has boen done for all examinations up to the degree. And
Ooorg fmd iicnir. . , ,
an important committee of Muhammadans at Benares are contemplating the
establishment of an Anglo-Oriental College for the better diffusion of learning among their co-religionists. In
Ondh, the Canning College embraces an'ample Muhammadan curriculum. In the Central Provinces, in Mysore, in
Coorg, and in Berar, the administration has directed that wherever the number of Muhammadans is sufficient to form
a class, or fill a school, there a class or a school shall be established. His Excellency in Council assumes that in
!.-,._> EXOLISH EDUCATION IN INPIA.
these as in all other provinces where Muhammadans are few, and often exposed to all the disadvantages which affect
a religious minority without wealth or superior influence, it will be the special care of Government to satisfy them-
selves that these endeavours to encourage the education of Muhammadans are persistently maintained. It is the
paramount duty of an imperial department thus to fill up gaps in the ranks of elementary education, and to
range the various divisions of this vast population in one advancing line of even progress.
" 9 As to the principles upon which the education of Muhammadans should be encourged by the State, His
Principles on which Muham- Excellency in Council need say little here, for they appear to be understood
madan Education should be en- by all Administrations, and with general consent accepted by the people — by
couraged by the State. none more openly than by the leading Muhamiidans of India. The State has
only to apply its educational apparatus and aid so as they may best adjust themselves to existing languages
and habits of thought among all classes of the people ; without diverging from its set mark and final purpose —
the better diffusion and advancement of real knowledge in India. His Excellency in Council is anxious that the
atainment of this object shall in no class of the population be hindered by differences of language or of custom ;
and with this view the Government of India is very willing that the entire body of Muhammadan [as of Hindu]
classic literature shall be admitted and take rank among the higher subjects of secular study, and that the lan-
guages shall form an important part of the examinations for University degrees. In short, His Excellency is pre-
pared to listen favourably to any well-considered proposal for modifying or extending in these directions the
existing educational system. One measure to which the Resolution of 1871 particularly adverted was the develop-
ment of a Vernacular literature for Muhammadans — His Excellency in Council would be slow to believe that such
a literature still needed creation. To this suggestion Local Governments attach differing degrees of importance
or practicability and, on the whole, His Excellency in Council sees reason to believe that we must be cautions in
attempting to proceed in this direction much beyond the point we have reached already. It is most desirable to
frame a series of high class text-books to encourage the printing and publication of valuable Muhammadan works
and to offer prizes either for good translations of foreign works or for original studies. But in regard to the
patronage of what may be properly called literature, the exercise of it must necessarily be restricted by the
pressing demands of general education upon our finance, and by the difficulty of making a fair selection, or of
distributing any money available with due discrimination and indubitable advantage.
" 10 His Excellency in Council has now reviewed rapidly the general measures which have been taken or
Local Governments to encour- are being taken> for the encouragement of education among Muhammadans.
age Muhammadan Education ac- The papers before him, received from all parts of British India, show that
cordiug to local circumstances- the Earl of Mayo's Resolution has succeeded in its main purpose of drawing
the attention of all Administrations to needs and obligations which before had, perhaps, not everywhere been ade-
quately realized. These needs and obligations may now be entrusted with confidence to the care of local Govern-
ments. The Supreme Government has satisfied itself that the principles upon which Muhammadan education should
be supported or subsidised are clearly understood ; while the conditions and rate of progress in this as in all
branches of public instruction, the range of its operations, and all other practical details, depend chiefly in each
Province upon local circumstances, adminstrative skill, and financial resources." *
This Resolution together with the earlier Resolution of the Government of India, No. 300, dated the 7th
August, 1871, which has already been quotedf form the most important declaration of the policy of the Govern-
ment towards the education of the Muhammadans.
Tin; purport of the above Resolution which was issued by His Excellency the Earl of Northbrook in Council,
Summary purport of the Gov- may be stated to be, " that generally wherever the ordinary vernacular of the
ernmeut of India's Resolution country was read and written in the Hindustani or Urdu character, there the
on Muhammadan Education, Muhammadans occupied their proper position in the primary and secondary
schools founded or aided by the State. In all provinces where this was the
case, the indigenous Mnhammadan schools were numerous, and up to a certain point in a thriving condition.
They were encouraged and assisted by the Government officers ; the grants-iii-aid wore offered on condition on
the whole fairly .suitable for Muhammadan requirements ; and the course of primary education was so shaped as to
in the Muhammadan at least equally with the Hindu. On the other hand in provinces where the Muhammadans
were scattered and not numerous, where they mostly spoke a different language from that of the majority
of the population, or where their teaching was in a different tongue and according to entirely separate
traditions, there the special arrangements requisite to meet these circumstances had not always been organised, and
the claims of the Mussalman community had been often almost inevitably 'disregarded. Where the Muhammadan
* Si-loclions from the Records of the Government of India (Homo Department), No. CCV. (1S81)) ; pp. 226, 229.
t tide p. ante.
REFORMS IN THE CALCUTTA MADKASSA, IN 1871-73. 153
used a form of the country dialect, he attended with others the primary Government schools for the rudiments of
education ; but where his mother-tongue was different in speech and in written character, he was naturally preclud-
ed from availing himself of this teaching. The peculiar obstacles which kept him apart from the ordinary school
system naturally grew stronger as he emerged beyond those elements which are common to all teaching. The diffi-
culties which had arisen from these causes had nowhere been satisfactorily surmounted. The Government expen-
diture on education being necessarily limited, and insufficient for the support of two separate classes of schools, the
money available was naturally bestowed too exclusively upon those classes that not only formed the more numerous
section of the people, but were both homogeneous for educational purposes and more eager to make use of the grant.
It was however in the colleges, higher schools, and universities that the absence or backwardness of Muhammadans
was most conspicuous. The reports all agreed that the existing system had not attracted them to the higher
ranges of the educational course, or induced them to persevere up to the point at which studies impress real culture
and fit young men for success in the services and open professions. The Eesolution then proceeded
to notice in general terms the measures adopted in the several Provinces to give effect to the views of the Supreme
Government. * * * * The Governor-General in Council assumed that in all Provinces where Muhammadans
were few, and often exposed to all the disadvantages which affect a religious minority without wealth or superior
influence, it would be the special care of Government to satisfy themselves that these endeavours to encourage the
education of Muhammadans would be persistently maintained. It was recognised as the paramount duty of an Im-
perial Department thus to fill up the gaps in the ranks of elementary education, and to range the various divisions
of the vast population in one advancing line of even progress." *
About this time a separate correspondence was being carried on with the Government of Bengal on the subject
Reforms in the Calcutta of the management of the Calcutta Madrassa, established by Warren Hastings
Madrassa, in 1871-73. in 1780, and with reference to the status and conditions of the Madrassa
and College at Hooghly supported out of an endowment bequeathed in 1806 by Mahommed Mohsin in trust for
" pious uses." In connection with these Mohsin funds, not only had large accumulations to the credit of the trust
been permitted to accrue, but the funds had been in part appropriated to the benefit of a wholly different class
from that for which the endowment was destined. The Government of India, accordingly desired that the whole
subject of the application of the funds in promotion of Muhammadan education should be fully reconsidered and
plans matured for their disbursement more in consonance with the intentions of Mahommed Mohsin. The Govern-
ment of Bengal, in its letter dated the 17th August, 1872, in submitting to the Government of India the views of
the Lieutenant- Governor in regard to the general measures to be taken for the promotion of Muhammad'in
education in Bengal, put forward certain suggestions as to the utilisation of these funds. It proposed to reform
the Calcutta and the Hooghly Madrassa, and to take upon itself the cost pf the non-Musalman side of the Hooghly
College, hitherto entirely supported from the Mohsin funds, but at the same time to accept from the funds a fair
contribution for the Madrassa attached to the College and for special benefits to Muhammadan students studying
in the College. As, in the opinion of the Lieutenant- Governor (Sir George Campbell), it would be difficult to
justify the devotion of pi'ovincial funds to special Muhammadan education in the province generally, while the
Mohsin endowment supplied a legitimate means of effecting the purpose in view, the Government of Bengal
further expressed its intention to devote the money thus saved from the Hooghly College to aid and extend
Muhammadan education elsewhere. Proposals for the establishment of new Madrassas at Dacca and other local
centres in Eastern and Northern Bengal were then explained in detail ; but as the Mohsin funds would not be
adequate to enable the Government to equip efficiently these new Madrassas, the Lieutenant- Governor trusted that
the Government of India would contribute to make up the difference. The main questions left for the decision of
the Government of India were (1) whether the Government of India approved of the proposed distribution of the
Mohsin funds and of the establishment of Madrassas; and (2) whether the Government of India would give
some special aid towards the establishment of Madrassas in Eastern and Northern Bengal.
In reply the Government of India, on 13th June, 1873, wrote to the Government of Bengal as follows : —
"The general principles upon which the Lieu tenant- Governor desires to see these institutions f administered
Views of the Government of an(^ <li«jcted for the better promotion of high Muhammadan education appear
India upon the subject— 13th to the Government of India to be sound, and the obstacles to working upon
June, 1873. them are not practically insurmountable. * * * It is agreed, by common
consent, that the intention of the British Government in supporting these institutions is to give to Muhammadans
their full share of high-class intellectual training and of sound knowledge useful to them in life, combined but not
» Resolution of the Government of India in the Home Department (Education), No. — — ., dated 15th July. 1885.
21 j-2o
t Calcutta and Hooghly Madrassas.
20
154 ENGLISH EDUCATION IX INDIA.
clashing with that Oriental erudition which belongs to their race and country. And it is also agreed that, in
shaping our methods towards these ends, we are bound to avoid, so far as may be possible, any unwelcome abandon-
ment of the old ways of Muhammadan study, or any slight upon the classic learning of Muhammadan Asia. .On
the contrary, tin- importance to Muhammadans of such studies is admitted, and their intrinsic value as instruments
of literary training in this country is not under-rated.
" But the point of difficulty is also recognised by all to whom the subject is familiar. It lies in the problem
of framing for -Muhammadans a course of secular education, which is the only kind that can be given in Govern-
ment iii-tii in inns, upon the study of a literature which on so many sides of it is intimately connected with their
religion and doctrinal tenets.
" His Excellency in Council, nevertheless, believes that the problem thus presented is capable of solution ;
that a course of study can be laid down which shall maintain and encourage the cultivation of Arabic and Persian,
of the history, literature, and philosophy which these languages convey, of their logical system, and of such parts
of Muhammadan law as deal with purely temporal interests, without compromising the Government to the support
of any peculiar school of religious teaching.
" His Excellency in Council is willing to sanction the preliminaries of any plan for re-constituting the two
Madrassas. which may fall within the limits of these principles. "*
After referring with approval to the details of the proposals regarding the re-organisation of the J/(/'//./.w-,
, . . the Government of India continued with reference to the Hooghly institu-
Application of the Mohsin
Funds towards Muhammadau *lon :~
Education in general in Ben- " The Lieutenant-Governor's proposition is to withdraw the greater part of
8*1- the Mohsin Funds from the Hooghly College, which has no particular local
claim, and to use the money for encouraging Muhammadan education elsewhere, apportioning it according to need.
So much of the present cost of the Hooghly College as would be left unprovided for by this subtraction of the
endowment funds might, His Honour suggests, be then defrayed by the State.
" His Excellency in Council approves the outlines of this proposal, and considers that some such arrangement
would be consistent with the purposes of the Mohsin endowment, and generally advantageous to Muhammadan
education. But, with regard to the employment of the Mohsin funds thus to be set free, His Excellency remarks that
there are such valid objections to any separate system of denominational schools or colleges that the Government
of India prefers not to move further in that direction, although there is no intention of disturbing what may already
; . His Excellency in Council thinks that the memorandum of Mr. Bernard, and the Lieutenant-Governor's
rvations upon it, suggest the alternative of strengthening certain selected Government institutions on their
Muhammadan side, instead of setting up new ones. For instance, the high schools or colleges at Chittagong and
Dacca, in the midst of a great Muhammadan population, might be thus re-iiiforced both in the way of teaching
Arabic and Persian more thoroughly, and of generally cheapening education to Muhammadans by scholarships and the
like. Or a portion of the Mohsin Funds might go toward increasing the public grants-in-aid of Muhammadan
schools and colleges." f
The details of any scheme which might be worked out upon this design were left in the hands of the Bengal
Government. As to the request for Imperial aid, the Government of India consented, chiefly in view of Sir George
Campbell's scheme for encouraging Muhammadan education, to increase the regular provincial assignment by an
annual additional irrant. of lis. .">0,000.
On the 2'Jth July 1873. the <!'>vernment of Bengal forwarded for the information of the Government of India,
Sir George Campbell's Be- a c°Py of a Resolution recorded by the Lieutenant-Governor explaining the
solution regarding measures measures which Sir George Campbell had adopted consequent on the instruc-
adopted for Muhammadan tions of the Government of India set forth above and the additional assign-
)thJuly, 1873. ,,1(.utof Rg. 50,000. The measures proposed included a liberal scheme of
scholarships for Muhammadan youths attending colleges and zilla schools, especially for those lads who should
elect to pursue tin- ordinary Kmjlish eourse of study and to read physical science.
These proceedings were reported to the Secretary of State in the 'despatches marginally noted, J and His
Approval by the Secretary Lordship on 13th November 1873, replied as follows : —
of State of the abovementioned " I fully concur in the views stated in the elaborate Resolutions recorded by
measures, 13th November, Your Excellency in Council, under date of June the 30th, and observe with
1 873
much gratification that throughout India efforts are being made with great
« S.-lortiona from the Records of the Government of India (Home Department), No. CCV. (1886) ; pp. 229, 230. f 76., p. 230.
I Despatch from Home Dep:u tm, ,,t. No. 5, dated tho 30th June, 1873.
laid, from Financial Department, No. 295, dated the 21et July, 1873.
l>'s|..itcli from Home Department, No. 6, dated the 1st September, 1873.
MEASURES FOR MUHAMMADAN EDUCATION IN MADRAS. 155
judgment and earnestness to induce the Muhammadans to partake of the many benefits of our educational
system.
" I approve of the proceedings of Tour Excellency in Council in relation to Muhammadan education in
Bengal.
" Your Lordship in Council is fully aware of the many and peculiar difficulties which surround the subject,
and has issued some very judicious and discriminating instructions to the Government of Bengal. I approve of
the additional assignment of Rs. 50,000 which you have granted to that Government.
" With your Despatch of the 1st of September, you have transmitted to me a letter from the Lieutenant-
Governor of Bengal explanatory 'of the measures which he has adopted consequent on your instructions and
the additional assignment. The arrangements of the Lieutenant-Governor indicate a very careful disposition
of the means placed at his disposal, and an intelligent appreciation of the great importance of the whole
subject.
" I cannot conclude without an expression of my cordial satisfaction with the careful and complete manner in
which Your Excellency has dealt with a question surrounded with so many difficulties, and so intimately connected
with the best interests of a very large and influential portion of Her Majesty's subjects in India."*
CHAPTER XXVII.
MEASURES ADOPTED BY THE VARIOUS LOCAL GOVERNMENTS AS TO MUHAMMADAN EDU-
CATION UNDER THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA'S RESOLUTION OF 1871, AS STATED IN
THE REPORT OF THE EDUCATION COMMISSION OF 1882.
The measures adopted by the various Local Governments in consequence of the abovementioned Resolution of
the Earl of Mayo's Government in 1871, are very fully discussed in the Report of the Education Commission
with reference to the statistics of the year 1881-82. The facts of each of the principal provinces have been
separately stated and their results have also been indicated ; but since they are contained in a very bulky folio
volume not accessible to the general reader, the following paragraphs may be extracted from it, one of the main
objects of this work being to supply and preserve accurate and full information regarding the progress of
English education among the Muhammadans, not only for the present but also for the purposes of facilitating
reference in discussing measures for the future advancement of English education among that community.
" Upon the receipt of the Resolution of the Government of India, the Government of Madras invited the
Syndicate of the University to consider whether any steps could be taken bv
Measures taken in Madras J J
for Muhammadan Education ^ which would be likely to attract a larger number of Muhammadan under-
under the Government of graduates. In its reply the Syndicate expressed an opinion that ' the
India's Resolution No. 300, regulation of the University should not be modified with the view of encour-
aging a particular section of the population, but that the Musalmans should
be treated in precisely the same manner as all other inhabitants of the Madras Presidency," and while
deploring the undoubted fact of the Muhammadans being behind the Hindus as regards educational progress,
they did not see that any steps could be taken by the University to modify this state of things. The
view taken by the Director of Public Instruction was not more encouraging. He considered that the Department
had done all that it could for Muhammadan education, and pointed out that a special concession had been made to
Musalman students by exempting them from the new regulations regarding fees. The Government of Madras
was, however, convinced that the existing scheme of instruction was framed with too exclusive reference to the
requirements of Hindu students, and that Muhammadans were placed at so great a disadvantage that the wonder
was, not that the Muhammadan element in the schools was so small, but that it existed at all. The Governor in
Council, therefore, issued orders that the Director should, without delay, ' take steps with a view to the establish-
ment of elementary schools at Arcot and Ellore, and corresponding classes in the existing schools at the principal
centres of the Muhammadan population, such as Trichinopoly, Cuddapah, Kurnool, and perhaps Mangalore, in
* Selections from the Keoords of the Government of India (Home Department), No. CCV. (1886); pp. 235, 236.
156
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
which instruction will be given in the Hindustani language, and Muhammadan boys may thus acquire such a
knowledge of the English language and of the elementary branches of instruction as will qualify them for admis-
sion into the higher classes of the Zillah and Provincial schools and other similar institutions.' Arrange-
ments were also, without loss of time, to be made for the training of Muhammadan teachers ; and instruction
in Persian was to be provided in any high school in which there was a sufficient number of Muhammadan
students.
" Coming to the year 1880-81, we find that the measures taken during the interval and the results obtained
Results of measures for Mu- were as follows: The special schools maintained by Government were 11 in
hammadan Education taken in number, 7 of them being Anglo- vernacular middle schools, and 4 Anglo-
Madras, vernacular primary schools. Nine schools, Anglo-vernacular or vernacular,
were maintained by Municipalities, and of aided schools with a special provision for Musalman pupils, there were
4 Anglo-vernacular, and 210 vernacular. Other inducements had also been held out to Musalman students. They
were admitted in all schools upon payment of half the usual fees, seven scholarships were specially reserved for
Musalman candidates at the University examinations ; a special Deputy Inspector of Musalman schools had been
appointed ; an elementary Normal school had been established at Madras ; and the University of Madras still
continued to allot to the Arabic and Persian languages at its examinations a maximum of marks considerably
larger than that carried by vernacular languages. The combined results of these measures were eminently satis-
factory. In place of the 5,531 Musalmans at school in 1870-71 ; the returns for 1880-81 give 22,075, or 67 per
cent, of the total number under instruction, while the percentage of Musalmans to the total population of the
Presidency is only 6 per cent. The proportion of boys at school to those of a school-going age is for Muham-
madans 15'1, for Hindus 13'7. But it is not in numbers only that progress has been made. Taking the results of
the middle school examinations we find that the percentage of passed candidates to those examined Was, for
Brahmans 44, for Hindus not Brahmans, 35, for Muhammadans 41. In the lower University examinations, taking
only the percentage of successful candidates to those examined, the results for 1880-81 are equally satisfactory,
as the following Table will show : —
RACE.
ENTRANCE.
FIRST ARTS.
Examined.
Passed.
Percentage
of passed to
examined.
Examined.
Passed.
Percentage
of passed to
examined.
Brahmans
2,150
670
31-2
486
295
60-7
Hindus not Brahmans
1,066
290
27-2
173
86
49-7
Musalmans
71
19
26'8
10
6
60-0
In the Entrance examination, the percentage for Hindus other than Brahmans and for Musalmans is thus
practically the same. It must be remembered, however, that the proportion of students to population is about
three times as great for Hindus (including Brahmans) as for Mnsalmans. In the latter case, the percentage of
passed candidates is even more favourable to the Musalmans ; but the proportion of candidates to population is
five times as great for Hindus (including Brahmans) as for Musalmans. Of college education, beyond the first
examination in Arts, Muhammadans, speaking generally, do not avail themselves at all, though there is no reason
to suppose that the general system of education beyond that standard is not as well suited to the Mnhammadans
as that below it. The attendance of Musalmans in the various institutions, Government aided, and unaided,
as compared with the total attendance, was in 1881-82 as follows : —
MEASURES FOR MUHAMMADAN EDUCATION IN BOMBAY.
157
CLASS OF INSTITUTIONS.
Total number
of Students.
Musalmans.
Percentage.
Colleges,
English
1,669
30
1-7
»
Oriental
38
...
• ••
High Schools, English
4,836
117
2-4
Middle
,, ,,
18,553
723
3-8
)>
„ Vernacular ...
5J1
2
•4
Primary
English
63,295
4,973
7-8
n
„ Vernacular ...
276,983
19,232
6-9
High
„ English, Girls'
2
...
...
Middle
,, ,, ,,
190
...
»»
„ Vernacular, Girls'
197
1
•5
Primary
„ English „
1,897
...
...
j»
„ Vernacular „
18,468
427
2-3
Normal Schools for Masters
799
42
5-2
3»
„ Mistresses
157
...
TOTAL
387,595
25,547
6-5
Measures for Muhammadan
Education taken in Bombay.
" Though the Musalmans in the Bombay Presidency are reckoned in the census of 1872 at 2,528,344, or 15'4
per cent, of a total population of 16,349,206, no less than 1,354,781 belong to
Sind alone. Excluding that Division the percentage falls to 7'1. Of the
total number at school, 15,684, or 8'2 per cent., were Musalmans. As in
Madras, therefore, the circumstances which called forth the Resolution of the Government of India existed only
on a small scale. Sind, no doubt, was in a very backward state, and the feelings of the Musalman community
there were strongly against the study of English. Out of a population of 1,354,781, only 10,115 were in schools
known to the Department, and of that number, only 3,225, or 31'8 per cent, of the total number at school, were
Musalmans, though their proportion to the rest of the inhabitants was as four to one. Looking at the Presidency
as a whole, the indifference of the Musalmans was not so much to education generally as to education in its higher
branches. This fact had already engaged the attention of the Department ; and enquiries which were set on foot
some two years before the issue of the Resolution of the Government of India showed that in the Government
colleges and English schools of a total of 16,224, the Musalmans numbered 1,499 only. The distribution was as
follows : —
In colleges ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 14
„ high schools ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 59
„ middle schools ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1,426
TOTAL
1,499
' Here,' the Director of Public Instruction remarks, ' is the weak point. The Muhammadans avail themselves of our
lower schools, but do not rise to the higher schools and colleges. In the list of University graduates there are one
Musalman M.A., and two B.A.'s. I think that the reason is to be found not in the poverty of the Muhammadan
community (for beggar Brahmans abound in the high school), but in their poverty and depressed social status
combined. In this matter the Brahman and Musalman are at opposite poles. Thus we have in Gujarat 10
Brahmans in the colleges and 20 in the high schools for every Musalman, but only 3 Brahmans for every Musal-
man in the middle class, and r.ot 2 for every Musalman in the lower class schools.' In the Government institutions
158
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
generally the disproportion of Musalmans to the total number at school was much less than in those aided and
inspected. Thus out of 161,283 students in the former, 14,629, or 9'1 per cent., were Musalmans, while the latter
had but 968, or 5'2 per rent., of a total of 16,443. The measures taken by the Director, Mr. Peile, to remedy the
Mull' (if tilings which his enquiries revealed had reference alike to the higher and the lower grades of education.
The University having placed Persian on the list of languages in which examination is held for its degrees, sanc-
tion was obtained to the appointment of a Professor of Persian and Arabic in the Elphinstone College, where up
to that time it had been impossible, I'm- \vautofacompetent teacher, that those languages should be studied
in a scholarly manner. Persian teachers were also appointed in the Elphinstone and Surat High Schools. By the
provision of stipends and teachers for Musalmans in the vernacular training college, the foundation was laid of a
supply of qualified teachers in vernacular and Musalman schools. In regard to lower education, Mi'. Peile pressed
upon the Government the necessity of imposing town school-rates for class wants, since the rates then administered
liy the Education Department belonged almost exclusively to the villages, and the share of the public grant for
vernacular education which belonged to the towns was too small to admit of adequate provision for such wants.
His representations, though the imposition of these rates was' not conceded, at all events secured to Mnsalman
schools a fair share of the vernacular grant. Mr. Peile also drew up a course of Persian instruction for the upper
standards in vernacular schools, and for English and High schools. This course was graduated from the begin-
ning up to the matriculation standard, and so arranged as to prepare for the study of Persian as a classic in the
Arts Colleges. Later on the number of special Musalman schools was considerably increased, and Musalman
Deputy Inspectors were appointed to inspect them. ' But the most promising feature in connection with the pro-
gress of Musalman education during the past decade ' [1871 to 1881] 'has been the formation and recognition of
a Society known as the Anjuman-i-Islam, which it is hoped will in time establish a net-work of secular schools in
Bombay. This Society is so important that it was felt advisable to make special rules for its assistance. At
present it receives a fixed subsidy of Us. 500 a month from Government. By the end of the year 1880-81 the
Society's first school was fairly started. Its Hindustani and Anglo-Hindustani Departments, together with a large
class of children reading the Kuran, contained in all 102 pupils. Since then the operations of the Society have
been extended.' *
" In 1871-72 the number of Musalmans at school, according to Mr. Peile's estimate, was 15,577, or about 87
Results of measures for Per cent, of the total number at school ; in 1881-82 the number had risen to
Muhammadan Education in 41,548, or 11-7 per cent, of the total number at school. There were also
in the latter year 22,284 Muhammadan children in indigenous schools, which
would raise the percentage to 14'7. The distribution was as follows :—
CLASS OF INSTITUTION.
Total number
of
Students.
Musalmans.
Percentage.
Colleges, English ...
475
7
1-4
High Schools, English
5,731
118
2-0
Middle »
14,257
781
5-4
Primary „ Vernacular ...
312,771
39,231
12-5
Middle „ English Girls'
555
2
•3
Primary „ Vernacular „
19,917
1,366
6-8
N'nnnal Schools for Masters
480
42
87
" i> Mistresses
73
1
13
Unaided Indigenous Schools
78,755
22,2S4
28-2 '
TOTAL
433,014
63,832
14-7
* Bombay Provincial Report, page 55.
APPLICATION OF THE MOHSIN ENDOWMENT TO ENGLISH EDUCATION. 159
" The following Table shows the proportion of Musalmans to Hindus and others in those colleges and schools
Measures for Muhammadan of Bengal and Assam which in 1871 furnished returns to the Department :—
Education taken in Bengal.
Hindus.
Musalmans.
Others.
Total
Schools
149,717
28,096
15,489
193,302
Arts Colleges
1,199
52
36
1,287
TOTAL
150,916
28,148
15,525
194,589
" Thus, while the Musalmans of Bengal were 32'3 per cent, of the total population, their proportion to the
total number in schools known to the Department was only 14'4 per cent. ' This result, ' remarks the Director in
his Report for 1871-72, ' shows that the education of Musalmans demands much careful attention. They have
fallen behind the time, and require still the inducements held out forty years ago to the whole community, But of
which the Hindus only availed themselves. Such, however, has been the progress of education and the influence
of the grant-in-aid system in promoting self-help, that the encouragement which was then considered just and
right would now be called downright bribery ; still unless the strong inducements in general use forty years ago
are held out to Musalmans now, I have little hope of seeing them drawn to our schools. ' But if the number of
Musalmans in the schools generally was greatly out of proportion to the total number in the Presidency, still more
conspicuous was the disproportion in the colleges, where out of 1,287 students only 52, or 4'04 per cent., belonged
to that race. In regard to University distinctions, the Director remarks : — 'During the last five years, out of
3,499 candidates who passed the Entrance Examination from these Provinces, 132, or 3'8 per cent, only, were Musal-
mans. They ought to have been ten-fold more numerous. Out of 900 passed for the First Arts in the same period,
Musalmans gained only 11, or 1'2 per cent., and out of 429 passes for the B. A., they gained only 5, or I'l per
cent. Hence, not only the number of Musalmans who pass the Entrance is less than one-tenth what it ought to
be, but this painful inferiority steadily increases in the Higher Examinations. Taking the candidates generally, out
of every 100 who pass the Entrance, 26 go on and pass the First Arts, and 12 pass the B.A. ; but of every 100
Musalmans who pass the Entrance, only 8 pass the First Arts and 3 the B.A.' Various causes, some general and
some particular, were assigned by the officers consulted as the obstacles which had barred the progress of
education, both higher and lower. Among the general causes assigned by them were the apathy of the Musalman
race, their pride, their religious exclusiveness, the love of their own literature among those of them who
cared for any education at all, the idea so persistently held that education ought to be a free gift. Among the
particular causes, a want of sympathy between Hindu teachers and Musalman pupils, a want of consideration in
the arrangements of the Education Department, and, perhaps above all, the depressed condition of the bulk of
Beugali-Musalmans, Musalmans in the first instance by conversion only and not by descent. In different
degrees of efficiency and with varying influence according to locality, these causes combined to account for the
backwardness of the race. Many of them were of course beyond any immediate removal. Others were a matter
of administration, and with these the Government of Bengal promptly endeavoured to deal.
" On the question of establishing special schools for Musalmans, the almost unanimous opinion of those con-
The Mohsin Endowment at sulted was that, with the schools already in existence, there was no sufficient
Hooghly applied to English justification for expending State funds in this direction. The vernacular of
Education among Muhamma- the mass of Musalmans in Bengal was known to be Bengali, and the ordinary
pathsalas of the country were held to supply the proper means of elementary
education. Schools of all classes might be made more attractive by increasing the number of Musalmans through-
out the various grades of the Department in Musalman districts ; and especially by encouraging Musalmans to
qualify themselves for the profession of teaching by a course of training in the Normal schools. In all Zilla schools
it was decided that Urdu and Arabic or Persian should be taught up to the standard of the Entrance Examination ;
and, as a special concession, wherever there was a sufficient demand to justify the supply, there was to be a special
class to teach Arabic and Persian after the Musalman fashion. The Persian language had recently been included
by the University among the subjects for the F.A. and B.A. Examinations, and this it was expected would have a
powerful effect in increasing the number of college students. A new Code of grant-in-aid rules was about to be
drawn up, and advantage would be taken of this to offer specially liberal terms to schools managed by Musalmans.
,gQ BNOLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
These measures for tho most part had reference only to lower education. In respect to the higher, the Musalmans
of Benc^al had a special grievance in the appropriation to English education of a certain endowment originally
assigned to the promotion of oriental (Arabic and Persian) learning. Of that endowment, known as tho Mahomed
Mohsin Trust, some account has already been given in Chapter VI. * To remove all cause for complaint, the
lieutenant-Governor at the instance of the Supreme Government, which added a sum of Rs. 50,000 for that pur-
pose to the Provincial assignment for education, declared that the maintenance of the English side of that College
should be a charge upon the Provincial funds. It was also decided to devote a portion of the endowment to the
oriental side or Madras**, and the remainder to the foundation of three new Madrassas, to the establishment of
scholarships, 'and towards the payment of the fee of Musalman students in English colleges and schools,
three Madrauat were established at Dacca, Rajshahye, and Chittagong ; and each was placed under an Arabic
scholar of repute, assisted by a competent staff of Maulavis. It was intended that in each of them the full course
of the Calcutta Madnasa should in time he taught ; English was to be added to the'course wherever the pupils
showed a desire to learn that language, and at Dacca a teacher of English was at once appointed. To the payment
of scholarships tenable by Musalmans ia Madrassas or in English colleges and schools, there was allotted the sum of
Rs 9,000, while Rs. 18,000 went to the payment of two-thirds of the fees of Muhammadan pupils in Government
colleges and schools outside Calcutta, and also to the payment of Maulavis in these schools. At the same time the
Calcutta Madmssa was thoroughly re-organised, arrangements were made for the more thorough teaching of the
Arabic and Persian languages with a reasonable amount of Muhammadan law ; aod the salary of the European
Principal was raised to Rs. 1,000 a month. A description of the character and status of this Madmssu, has been
given elsewhere, and it is therefore unnecessary to enter into particulars here. A few years later, a proposal waa
made to connect the maktabs throughout Bengal with the institutions for higher Muhammadan Education in Cal-
cutta and the Mofussil. The attempt, however, was not successful, and it was abandoned in favour of an opposite
policy, which was expressed in the hope that the maktabs might be ' gradually moulded into true primary
school's.' Accepting the indigenous schools of the country in the form in which, under the special conditions of
locality, they were most popular, the Bengal system endeavoured by the promise of Government support to in-
troduce' into the traditional course of study certain subjects of instruction which should bring the schools so aided
into some relation, more or less close, with the general system of education in the Province. The object being to
encourage natural and spontaneous movement, it followed that if in any locality the existing system had a religious
basis, the religious character of the school should be no bar to its receiving aid, provided that it introduced a certain
amount of secular instruction into the course. Many hundreds of maktabs have in this way been admitted into
the primary system of Bengal.
* The following is a fuller account : — " In the year 1806, a Mnhammadan gentleman of the Shia sect died, leaving an estate
yielding Ks. 45,000 per annum and called Saidpur, in the Hngli district, in trust for ' pious uses.' The deed of trust appointed two
trustees, to each of whom a share of the proceeds, amounting to one-ninth, was assigned. Three shares of the same proportion
were assigned to certain specific objects, viz., the performance of certain religions rites and ceremonies, the repair of an Imanibarah
or place of worship, &o., and the remaining four-ninths were dedicated to the maintenance of certain establishments and payment of
pensions. Up to 1810 the estate remained in the hands of the trustees appointed under the deed ; but in that year they were accused
of malversation, and, after protracted litigation, were dismissed in 1816. The Government then constituted itself a trustee, and
assumed the management of the estate and the superintendence of the disbursements in conjunction with another trustee appointed
by itself . In 1817, the estate was farmed out in putnee, that is, settled in perpetuity at fixed rates with the tenants. The amounts
received from these tenants as consideration for the puttiee settlement, with the arrears which had accumulated during litigation and
the one-ninth share drawn by Government as a trustee, were in 1835 devoted to the building and endowment of an institution at
Hngli, comprising an English Department, costing Rs. 1,780 per mensem, and an Oriental Department costing Hs. 1,295 per mensem.
This appropriation of the trust funds was at the time justified on the ground that the maintenance of an educational institution was
a ' pious use,' and so within the testator's intentions.
" The college was opened on the 1st August, 1836, and within three days counted 1,200 pupils in the English, and 300 in the
Oriental Department ; the proportion of Mnhammadans to Hindus being 31 to 948 in the former, and 133 to 81 in the latter. The
reports for 1836, and the few following years, contain a full account of the progress of this institution, but nowhere does it appear to
have been sufficiently borne in mind, that the interpretation placed on the declared intentions of the founder was only applicable to
Muhammadan education. And in this spirit the College has been maintained as it was founded, the last report showing that of 664
students on the rolls only 167 are Muhammadans ; the numbers in the Law Department, the Collegiate School, and the Branch School
being 5 Mnhammadans to a class of G5, 87 to 393, and no Mnhammadans to a cl»an of 240, respectively. This result, like that of the
Delhi College, has long been a grievance to the Musalman community, and during the current year special enquiry has been made
to remedy it. But it is only fair to remember that the Oriental Department, as constituted in 1836, was quite adequate for the number
of students who came forward to avail themselves of it, and that the Committee of Public Instruction would certainly have enlarged
this Department, had the demand for the kind of education it offered increased." (Education, in British India prior to 1854, by
Arthur Howell, Esq., 1872; p. 41.)
MEASURES FOE MUHAMMADAN EDUCATION IN BENGAL.
161
" The results of the measures taken at this time are shown, to some extent, by the very considerable increase
Results of measures for Mu- in the number of Musalmans under instruction in 1881-82. Including the
hammadan Education in Bengal. Madrassas, in which there were about 1,000 students, the number then stood
as follows : —
CLASS OP INSTITUTIONS.
Total number.
Number of
Musalmans.
Percentage.
English
Colleges,
Oriental
2,738
1,089
106
1,088
3'8
99-90
High Schools, „
43,747
3,831
8-7
Middle „
37,959
5,032
13-2
Ditto „ Vernacular
56,441
7,735
137
Primary „ „ Boys'
880,937
217,216
24-6
High Schools, Girls', English
184
...
...
Middle „ „ ...
340
4
1-1
Ditto „ Vernacular
527
6
1-1
Primary „ ditto ...
17,452
1,570
8-9
Normal Schools for Masters ...
1,007
55
5-5
„ „ Mistresses
41
Private Uninspected Schools
TOTAL
57,305
25,244
44-0
1,099,767
261,887
23-8
" The last column is important as showing how rapidly the proportion of Musalman students falls in schools
of the higher classes. The proportion in colleges is, indeed, even smaller now than it was in 1871 when, as pre-
viously stated, 4'04 per cent, were Musalmans. Still, owing to the ready way in which Musalmans have accepted
the primary system of instruction there is a very satisfactory increase in the total number of pupils of that race,
which has risen from 28,148 in 1871 to 262,108 (including students in technical schools and colleges) in 1882 ; the
proportion of Musalmans being now 23'8 per cent, against 14'4 in 1871. In each of the Madrassas of Hugli,
Dacca, Rajshahye and Chittagong the full Arabic course of the Calcutta Madrassa is taught, and in each also
instruction in English is given to all pupils who wish it. In the Dacca Madrassa the course in English is carried up
to the Entrance standard. Of 1,089 pupils in the six Madrassas, as many as 322 learn English. The privilege of
reading at one-third of the ordinary fees has also, by recent orders of the Government of Bengal, been extended to
Muhammadan students of any college in Calcutta, whether Government or other. In the case of non-Government
colleges, aided and unaided, the amount of the remissions is paid from the Provincial Revenues.
"According to the Director's Report for 1871-72, the proportion of Musalmans to the total number in schools
Measures for Muhammadan recognised by the Department was 17'8 per cent., and as the proportion of
Education taken in the North- Musalmans to the total population of the Provinces was only 13'5 per cent.,
it could not be asserted that in regard to education generally they were in a
backward state. In the colleges and in the upper classes of the high schools, their numbers were not in the same
high proportion, though in the Entrance examination of 1870, 21 out of 175, or 12 per cent., were Musalmans. In
the reply made by the Government of the North- Western Provinces to the Resolution of the Government of India,
it was maintained that the authorities were doing all that could be reasonably expected for Muhammadan litera-
ture and education; and since Persian was in 1871 included among the subjects of the higher University examina-
tions, the Musalmans can hardly complain if they have not taken full advantage of the facilities offered them in
respect to the higher as well as the lower education. On the four points of the Resolution, viz., the encouragement
of the classical and vernacular languages of the Musalmans in all Government schools and colleges, the appoint-
21
162
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
ment of Musalman teachers, the assistance of Musalman schools by grnnts-in-aid, and the encouragement to be
given to the creation of a vernacular literature, Mr. Griffith, then officiating as Director, submitted a full and
intercstinir Report, lu tliis he showed that Persian and Arabic held a due place in the colleges and zilla schools,
that the fonntT \v;is taught in the tahsili and in some of the luilkalmndi schools, that of 30 Deputy Inspectors. 15
•were Musalmans, that of the tnltsiU teachers in the Meerut Circle, where there was the largest proportion of
Miivalman pupils. 7i> wore Musnlmans against 65 Hindus, that prizes to the value of Rs. 5,000 were annually
<_riven to encounter'' the formation of a vernacular literature, that the better class of Musalman schools already
received liberal grants-in-aid, and that the lower or indigenous schools failed to obtain the same assistance only
because they resented the visits of Government officials and rejected advice when offered. The unpopularity of
( lovernment education with the Musalmans was accounted for on various grounds. Tims ' the JIusalmans of India
object to the study' [ of geography ] ' and think that their children are merely wasting time in acquiring information
about countries which they will never see. They think, too, that Urdu, as a language, neither requires nor
rves study by a Musalman, and that Persian and Arabic are the only tongues which are worthy of their
cultivation. Ilalkdliandi and tahsili schools are now looked upon with more favour as Persian, and, in some cases,
Arabic, has been admitted into the scheme of studies ; but they will not be thoroughly popular with the people of
Islam unless great preponderance is given to classical studies, and geography, and some other subjects are altoge-
ther excluded. So violent a change in the system of instruction is, of course, out of the question. It would be
unfair to the great majority of the students, and would not advance the true interests of the minority.'
" The following Table shows the proportion of Mnsalmans in 1881-82 to the total number of students in the
Results of measures for various institutions of the Province : —
Muhammadan Education in
the North-Western Provinces.
CLASS OF INSTITUTIONS.
Total number
of Students.
Musalmans.
Percentage.
Colleges,
English
...
223
29
13-0
,»
Oriental
••• ••• •••
444
17
3-8
High and Middle Schools, English ...
f for Boys ... ...
( „ Girls ...
4,273
62
697
16-3
n
,, „ Vernacular
( for Boys ...
(. „ Girls ...
3,267
6
662
20-2
Primary
Schools, English
• •• «•• ••*
9,852
2,022
20-5
»»
„ Vernacular
••• •*• •••
144,373
19,339
13-3
»»
„ English, for girls
...
664
.
»»
„ Vernacular, „
...
5,990
1,616
26-9
Normal Schools for Masters
239
44
18'1
»
„ „ Mistresses
TOTAL
83
...
...
169,476
24,426
14-41
" It appears, then, that neither in the proportion of Musalmans at school in 1871-72, nor in the endeavours
Independent efforts made 8*nce made to encourage a further advance, was there any great cause for
by the Muhammadans of the reproach. On the other hand, there was jsrreat cause for hopeful anticipation
North-Western Provinces for in the movement set on foot, about this time, by certain of the Musalman
gentry of the Provinces. If dissatisfied with' the scanty progress made by
their race in the higher education, their dissatisfaction was as much with themselves as with the education they
neglected. But it was not of that kind which contents itself with querulous fault-finidiug. Recognising the evil,
MtTHAMMADAN ANGLO-ORIENTAL COLLEGE, ALIGAEH. !(]?>
these Mnsalman gentlemen were determined to discover the remedy ; and, led by Maulavi Sayyid Ahmad Khan,*
whose life has been one long devotion to the cause of liberal education, they formed themselves into a society
with the primary purpose of ascertaining the specific objections felt by the Mnsalman community towards the
education offered by G-overnmept, and of ascertaining the kind of education which would be welcomed in its place.
It was plain to them that a return to the old methods of Oriental instruction was impossible. Much as they might
venerate the traditions of their forefathers and prize the treasures of a copious and elegant literature, the Society
held that the only education which could bring their race into harmony with the civilisation around them, and so
restore it to a position of influence, was an education frankly acknowledging the advance of science, catholic in
its sympathies with all that was admirable in the literature, history, and philosophy of other countries, broad in
its outlines and exact in its studies. At the first, as might be expected, this very liberality was the danger which
threatened the undertaking. To appeal to the Musalman community at large upon principles so much at
variance, not with the Muhammadan religion in its essential doctrines, but with the Muhammadan religion
as interpreted by the majority of those who held it, was to stir np active antagonism. Well aware of this,
the Society yet hoped for ultimate triumph. For some time the support they obtained was grudging. Slowly,
however, the opposition slackened in the face of the persistent courage of the yet small band of reformers. Men
of eminence, like the late Sir Salar Jung, came forward with support valuable not only in its material shape, bat
in its influence with those to whom a great name was a great security. The personal character of the leaders of
the movement vouched for its disinterested aims. Unreasonable fears gave way before a closer view of the dreaded
innovation. Some of the fiercest opponents of early days were converted into warm partisans. Princes and Nobles,
Musalman and Hindu alike, enrolled themselves as patrons of the project, and offered munificent endowments to
the contemplated college. Nor was liberality altogether wanting on the part of Englishmen. The handsome dona-
tion of Es. 10,000 made by the Earl of Northbrook founded a system of scholarships called after his name ; and
among other benefactors were Lord Stanley of Alderley, the Earl of Lytton, Sir William Muir and Sir John
Strachey. Thirteen years have now passed since the Society met to shape its scheme ; and it may well be doubted
whether the most sanguine of those who then devoted themselves to their task looked forward to the rapid success
which they have lived to witness. The noble college now fast rising at Aligarh bids fair to be the rival
of the Government colleges in their best characteristics ; while in some of the most important principles of education
its superiority is manifest. Of the progress already made we have given some account in Chapter VI. f But there
* Now, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Bahadur, K. C. S. I., Hon. LL.D. (Edin.).
t " The circumstances that gave rise to the foundation of the Mnhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh are thus
described in a letter from the Honourable Sayyid Ahmed Khan, Bahadur, Honorary Secretary, Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental
College Fund Committee, to the Director of Public Instruction, North- Western Provinces, dated June, 1881 : ' It will be sufficient to
say that a body of influential Muhammadan gentlemen, who interested themselves in education, being mournfully aware of the
backwardness of the llnhammadau population in the matter of English Education, regarded the circumstances as a great evil, not
only to the immediate moral, social, and political welfare of their own co-religionists, but to the country at large. Their enquiries
roused the most serious apprehensions in regard to the future of their co-religionists under the British rule, and they formed
themselves into a Committee to raise funds for establishing the present College. Tho original object of some of the supporters
of the Committee was to confine the College to the Muhammadans for whose special benefit educational facilities were to be provided.
But so mucli good-will, sympathy, and generosity were displayed by tho Hindoo nobility and gentry, that the Committee in
establishing the College declared it open to Hindoo students also, especially as the curriculum (beyond religions instruction) pursued
in the College suited Hindus and Mnhummadaus alike, and the former showed a readiness to join the College. In the matter of
scholarships, prizes, and other college rewards, the rules of the college show no partiality to either Hindus or Mnhammadans, whilst
the committee has provided separate boarding-houses for Hindu students. The college is conducted upon the most advanced principles
of toleration, and whilst the immediate control of it is vested in a European Principal and a European Headmaster, the staff of
Professors and Teachers consists of Hindus and Muhammadans. The committee can congratulate themselves upon the circumstance
that they have never observed the smallest indication of any feeling other than friendly spirit between the Hindu and Muhammadan
students, and they are sincerely convinced that the college (though naturally a place of exceptional attraction to Mnhammadan
students) may, as an educational agency, be regarded as suited alike to Hindoos and Mnhammadans.' The committee formed for
the collection of funds began its work in 1872, and up to the present time the amount realised is something over three lakhs of
rupees, exclusive of the contributions to the building fund. The annual income of the college is Rs. 34,000, while the expenditure
for the last year exceeded the income by Rs. 2,538. Fully to carry out the scheme of the college, it is calculated that the income
must be raised to Rs. 60,000 per annum ; but it may reasonably bo expected that the Government will before long find it possible to
increase the amount of its grant-in-aid (now only Rs. 6,000 out of Rs. 34,000), and a considerable addition will accrue from the fees
ae soon as a larger number of quarters is completed for the residence of boarders. For the college buildings, including 164 rooms
for boarders, a sum of Rs. 5,31,000 will ultimately bo required, and of this Es. 1,62,963 has already been subscribed. At present the
buildings completed consist of eleven class rooms, and one central hall ; twenty-five rooms for first class boarders, and forty-nine for
those of the second class ; a house for the headmaster ; a small dispensary and some temporary boarding-houses. Besides
these, the foundations of the entire college have been sunk, a park has been laid out, and the wall on ouo side of the
],; (. EKCit.lsn EDUCATION IN INDIA.
are (Vattnvs in the constitution of the Aligarh College which deserve further notice. Among the reasons which are
said to have deterred tin- Miis;tlmuns I'mm Accepting the Government system, we have mentioned the absence of all
ivliirious instruction and the scant attention paid to morality and manners. It is here that the Aligarh College
[iecial excellence. Religious instruction is a part of the daily exercise, and places of worship are to be
aiiioiii,' tin- college buildings. The pious Musalman, therefore, has no fear that his son will grow up careless of his
ancestral faith or iirnorant of religious truth. His mind is at rest, also, on the question of morality and good
manners. For residence in college is compulsory upon all students coming from a distance, and a healthy discipline
varied by healthy amusement preserves much of the influence of home life, while fostering a manliness of character
which home life would fail to give. The importance of the college, however, is not confined to the special nature
of the education it affords. Politically its influence is great and will be greater ; for it is the first expression of
independent Musalman effort which the country has witnessed since it came under British rule. The Aligarh
Society has indeed set an example which, if followed to any large extent, will solve the problem of national
education ; and it is difficult to speak in words of too high praise of those whose labours have been so strenuous, or
to overrate the value of the ally which the State has gained in the cause of education and advancement.
" On the receipt of the Resolution of the Government of India, enquiries were made as to the extent to which
Measures for Muhammadan the Musalmans of the Province had availed themselves of the education
Education taken in the Pun jab. offered them. These enquiries showed that 34'9 per cent, of the total number
of pupils under instruction were Musalmans. Taking each class of School separately, the percentage in Govern-
ment village schools was 38, in higher vernacular schools 30, in middle English schools from 24 to 29, in higher
English schools 20, and in Colleges 5. In the Districts east of the river Jhelam the number of Musalman students
was almost iu exact proportion to the total Musalman population, while in many of the Districts of the Delhi,
Hissar, Ambala and Amritsar Divisions the percentage in schools of all classes was considerably above the ratio
which the Musalmans bore to the total population. On the other hand, in the Derajat and Peshawar Divisions,
where the Musalmans formed more than 90 per cent, of the whole population, their proportion to the total number
at schools was only 55 per cent. ; and so completely in many parts had education been disregarded by them, that
college grounds has been finished. Beginning with about 20 students in June 1875, the school and college now contain
nearly 300, of whom 29 are in the latter department. Since 1877, fifty-five candidates have gone up for the Entrance Exami-
nation, of whom 36 have passed ; 10 out of 17 have succeeded in the F. A. during the three years the college has been affiliated
up to that standard ; and there are now 8 students reading for the B. A. degree. As originally constituted, the college had two
departments, the English and the Oriental. In the former, all subjects were taught in English ; Arabic, Persian or Sanskrit, being
taken up as a ' second language ; ' in the latter, either Arabic or Persian was studied for its literature ; while history, geography,
mathematics, &c., were taught in Urdu, and English became the ' second language.' But this Department, which has never attracted
many students, and now numbers 15 only, will probably be abolished before long. At the head of the college is a European Principal,
with seven Native Professors, three of whom are Masters of Arts in the Calcutta University ; the school has a European Headmaster,
seven Native English Teachers, and six Arabic, Persian, and Hindi Teachers. In scholarships the college awarded Rs. 3,764 during
the past year. Of these, some were from permanent endowments for special purposes, such as the Patiala and the Northbrook
Scholarships, some from yearly donations by private gentlemen, and some from the college income. Religious instruction is given to
Bunnia by a Swnni Teacher, to Shiae by one of their own sect, in either Arabic or Persian, according as the one language or the other
has been chosen by the student for his college course ; and the managing committee is willing that similar instruction should be given
to Hindu students in their own sacred books. The business of the college is managed by two committees; one, composed of Native
and European gentlemen, dealing with matters of instruction only ; the other, composed entirely of Native gentlemen, which regulates
the general concerns of the institution. Much of the popularity of the college is due to the provision for the residence of students
belonging to families of the upper classes. The rooms of the first class boarders are scarcely less comfortable than those of an
nnder-graduate at Oxford or Cambridge, and the Mnsalmans take their meals together in a dining hall. To a first class boarder the
coat of living at the college is about Rs. 300 a year, which includes rent, board, medical attendance, and tuition fees : a second class
boarder pays about RB. 190. Of the two classes there were, in 1881-82, 171 in residence, of whom 16 wore Hindus. At the outset,
the undertaking met with very great opposition from many Mnsalmans of the old school. All sorts of rumours were spread abroad
as to the character of the institution and the heterodoxy of the supporters. Fortunately, however, the originator of the scheme,
the Hon'ble Sayyid Ahmed Khan, was not to be daunted by opposition, or deterred by want of sympathy. In the esteem of the
more liberal minded of his co-religionists he held the highest place ; and his perseverance was before long rewarded by the hearty
co-operation of powerful friends. Chief among those who came forward to his support was Sir Salar Jang, Prime Minister to the
Nizam. Uis lead was followed by many influential Mnsalmans in all parts of the country ; and though the college funds are at
present insufficient for the complete working of the scheme, the number of students is now limited chiefly by the want of accommoda-
tion. If, then, the Musalmans are to be reproached for not having availed themselves at an earlier stage of the benefits of the edu-
cation offered them by Government, they have certainly set an example to the generality of the population by founding and
maintaining, almost without State aid, a college in some respects superior to any educational institution in India, and one which bids
fair to be of the greatest importance from a political aa well as from an educational point of view." — (Report of the Education
Commission, 1882 ; pp. 2G6-268).
MEASURES FOR MUHAMMADAN EDUCATION IN PUNJAB AND OUDH.
165
it would be a considerable time before the schools, whether Government or aided, could expect to attract any large
number of pupils. Simultaneously with these enquiries, the Government of the Punjab consulted a large number
of gentlemen as to the necessity of any special measures, other than those which had already been taken, for the
furtherance of education among the Musalmans. Among those consulted were the Members of the Senate of the
Punjab University College, and English and Native officers, both Musalman and Hindu. The replies received
almost unanimously deprecated any such measures. The Musalman members of the Senate recommended, indeed,
a system, of special scholarships, and would be glad to see moral and religious instruction given in the Government
schools ; but they were unanimous in declaring that no religious prejudices existed among the more enlightened
classes against the education afforded either in the Government or in the Mission schools, that no change was
needed in the course of study, and especially that there should be no restriction upon the study of English. In
regard to the establishment of aided schools, the Government of the Punjab pointed out that the matter was very
much in the hands of the people themselves ; but that if any exertion were made in that direction, it would meet
with liberal encouragement from Government, and that in such schools it would be for the managers to provide
whatever religious instruction they thought fit. So far as the Musalmans had shown an indifference, to the
education offered them, that was ascribed by the Government to the disproportionate attention given by them to
religious studies, to a preference, as more practical, for the course of study in indigenous schools, and to the im-
poverishment which was said to have affected most Muhammadan families of note. That, as a class, the Musalmans
had been subject to any special disabilities, was emphatically denied ; and the conclusion drawn from the general
body of evidence went to show that the suggestions made by the Government of India had already been adopted
in the Punjab. No special measures, therefore, have since been taken, but the percentage of Musalmans at school
has risen since 1871-72 from 34'9 to 38'2, and the increase has been in the higher rather than in the lower class of
schools. The following Table gives the statistics for 1881-82 : —
CLASS OP INSTITUTIONS.
Total number
of Students.
Musalmans.
Percentage.
Colleges, English
103
13
12-6
„ Oriental
122
71
58-1
High Schools, English
453
91
20-0
„ Vernacular
132
64
48'4
Middle Schools, English
2,671
703
26-3
„ Vernacular ...
2,704
935
34-5
Primary Schools, English
23,019
7,176
31-1
„ Vernacular
70,641
.28,378
40-1
Middle Schools, Girls,' English
8
...
...
Primary „ „
141
2
1-4
„ „ Vernacular
9,066
4,235
46-7
Normal Schools for Masters
220
101
45-9
„ „ Mistresses
138
59
42-7
Central Training College
58
16
27-5
TOTAL
109,476
41,844
38-2
" The following Table shows the proportion of Musalmans to the total number at school in 1871-72 : —
Measures for Muhammadan
Education taken in Oudh.
CLASS OF INSTITUTIONS.
Total number
of Students.
Musalmans.
Percentage.
("Higher Schools, English
2,340
630
27-0
| Middle ditto ditto and Vernacular
7,390
2,732
36-9
GOVERNMENT
...•< Lower ditto Vernacular
31,525
6,235
19-7
1 Female ditto ...
1,908
1,072
56-1
'^Normal ditto ...
187
71
38-0
f College ...
720
195
27-0
Higher Schools, English
200
37
18-5
AIDED
...-{ Middle Class, English and Vernacular
3,983
993
24-9
1 Lower Schools, Vernacular
1,222
200
16-3
(_Female Schools ... ...
451
252
55-8
TOTAL
49,926
12,417
24-8
166
EDUCATION IN INDIA.
" This Table is, in itself, enough to show that the education of Musalmans in Oudh had not been neglected,
and that the Musalinans were far from indifferent to the advantages held out to them. The course of studies,
indeed. was Urdu-Persian rather than Hindi-Sanskrit. If any section of the community had cause for complaint,
it was the Hindus. But. in reality, they had no grievance; for, Urdu being the language of the Courts, and
Government service being to the vast majority alike of Hindus and Musalmans the great incentive to education,
the requirements of all were best met by the adoption of Urdu as a medium of instruction. Persian was also
taiiLrht in the schools, and was a study popular with the better class of Musalmans. For Arabic there seemed to be
little or no demand. To know the Koran by heart was, indeed, as in other parts of India, the beginning of wisdom.
In most cases it was also the end. Facilities for the study of Arabic as a language were abundantly offered in the
Canning College, Lucknow, at which, however, though 'situated in a city containing 111,397 Muhammadans. m
about 9,000 Muhammadan boys of a school-going age, there are but 144 Musalman students.' That number, the
Director had no doubt, might be increased by hundreds, perhaps by thousands, by the offer of stipends, or even
of daily rations of food. Such students, however, he confessed, would not be attracted by the love of Oriental
literature, nor would they continue their studies if more advantageous occupation offered itself. Towards ' the.
creation of a vernacular literature,' or, as the Director more accurately puts it, ' the provision of a suitable litera-
ture' for Musalmans and Hindus, something might be done. But 'it seems to me,' wrote the Director, 'that
ial machinery for the production of school-books, and for the reward of native authors, is required. At
present no such machinery exists. The Government of India, I believe, are afraid lest the works produced by
translators should not be popular and remain unsold. So at present authors can only be encouraged by the pur-
chase of their books, for prizes or special rewards. But there is no machinery even to estimate the value of the
books submitted ; the books are forwarded to the Director of Public Instruction, and he must, in addition to his
other multifarious duties, go over each book presented, and accurately guage its merits, or he may call upon some
of his subordinates as hard-worked as himself, to assist in the criticism of books submitted for publication. More-
over, many, nay most, of those who write and adapt books for school use are either not acquainted at all with
Western science and art, or at best have but a superficial acquaintance with these subjects. Thus, the books that
are printed follow a stereotyped Eastern groove, or are unidiomatic and bald versions of some trifling English work.
If a special office for the examination and publication of works in Hindi, Urdu, Persian and Bengalee were estab-
lished, and this office were connected with the Educational Departments of Bengal, the North-Westem Provinces,
and the Punjab, and were under the control of some one of these Departments, I cannot but think that a better
class of literature would be produced than under the present system.'
" The following is the compaYative Table for Oudh in 1881-82 :—
CLASS OF INSTITUTIONS.
Total number
of Students.
Musalmans.
Percentage.
Colleges, English
126
7
5-5
„ Oriental
113
51
45-1
lliL'li and Middle Schools, English
1,081
195
18-0
„ „ „ Vernacular ...
536
134
25-0
Primary Schools, English
4,388
1,317
30-0
„ ,, Vernacular
45,899
9,449
20-5
„ „ Girls,' English
350
156
44-5
„ „ „ Vernacular
1,722
1,080
62-7
Normal Schools for Masters
67
11
16-4
,, „ for Mistresses
6
...
...
TOTAL
54,288
12,400
22-8
CONCLUSIONS OP EDUCATION COMMISSION ON MDHAMMADAN EDUCATION. 167
" In the Central Provinces the Musalmans formed only 2'5 per cent, of the total population, but they were as
Measures for Muhammadan fully alive to the imPortance of education as the rest of the community. In
Education taken in the Central the higher schools, especially, their attendance was good, and orders had
Provinces, Mysore, Coorg, and already been given that classes should be opened for the study of Arabic and
the Berars. Persian in all zilla schools in which there should be a sufficient demand. The
Chief Commissioner did not think that any further measures were necessary. In Mysore the general state of
Muhammadan education was very backward and unsatisfactory. The Chief Commissioner was of opinion that
Hindustani schools should be established wherever a reasonably sufficient number of Muhammadan pupils were
forthcoming to attend them ; that Hindustani masters should be added to the existing schools of all descriptions
wherever a class of pupils in that language could be formed ; and that the subject of the provision of suitable
school-books should be duly considered. The question of Muhammadan education had already engaged the
anxious attention of the Chief Commissioner, who had repeatedly urged upon that community the necessity of
taking further advantage of the facilities offered them, if they wished to keep pace with the progress made by
other classes. The Muhammadans of Coorg were generally in very poor circumstances, and quite indifferent to
the education of their children. The only measure which the Chief Commissioner thought practicable was to
establish an efficient Hindustani class at Merkara, in connection with, or independent of, the central school, and the
Director of Public Instruction had been instructed to make enquiries as to how this might best be done. The
Musalmans of the Assigned Districts of Haiderabad were, it was stated, but few in number and depressed in social
and intellectual condition relatively to the other classes of the people. It had always been one of the objects of
the Local Administration to introduce into the ranks of the Commission a certain number of Musalmans.
Measures had also been recently adopted for promoting the spread of education, among that portion of the commu-
nity, but it was too early to judge of their results." *
CHAPTER XXVIII.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OP THE EDUCATION COMMISSION OF 1882, ON THE
SUBJECT OF MUHAMMADAN EDUCATION.— REPORTS OF THE LOCAL GOVERNMENTS
THEREON.— VIEWS OF THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA UPON THE SUBJECT.
The account of the various measures adopted by the Local Governments, in consequence of the Resolutions of
the Government of India on the subject of Muhammadan education, issued in
Condition of English Edu- g7 and ? Report of the Education Commis-
cation among Muhammadans
in Colleges and Schools, as s^on °f 1882, from which information has been incorporated in the preceding
indicated by the statistics of Chapter, was the basis of the conclusions arrived at by the Commission on that
1881-82, in the Report of the subject. And it was in view of those conclusions that the Commission pro-
Education Commission of , . , ,, ., , ,. , ,. » -,
ceeded to make certain definite recommendations tor promotion of education
1 O O a*
among Muhammadans. Those conclusions and recommendations will be pre-
sently quoted ; but in the meantime it is important to realize exactly the results of the progress of English educa-
tion among Muhammadans as indicated by the various Statistical Tables, for the years 1881-82, which have been
quoted in the preceding Chapter from the Report of the Commission. For the sake of clearness, and as bearing
upon the main subject of this work, the following Tabular Statement has been prepared, by taking the figures given
in the abovementioned tables and making calculations from them, so far as the attendance of Muhammadans, in
Colleges and Schools teaching the English language, is concerned : —
* Report of the Education Commission of 1882, paras. 559-70, pp. 4^4-96.
](\£ ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
Table allowing the Attendance of Musalmans in the various Educational Institutions, Government, Aided, and Unaided
as compared with the total attendance in 1881-82.
PROVINCES.
Class of Institution.
Total number
of Students.
Musalmans.
Percentage.
r
MAHUAS ... ..-•{
\
I
Colleges, English
High Schools, „
Middle „ „
Total
1,669
4,836
18,553
30
117
723
1-7
2-4
3-8
25,058
870
3-4
r
BOMBAY ... ...-{
1
Colleges, English
High Schools, „
Middle „
Total
475
5,731
14,257
7
118
781
1-4
2-0
5-4
20,463
906
4-4
i
BENGAL ... ...-{
I
Colleges, English
High Schools, „
Middle „
Total
2,738
43,747
37,959
106
3,831
5,032
3-8
8-7
13-2
84,444
8,969
10-6
r
N.-W. PROVINCES ...-{
Colleges, English
High Schools, „
Middle „
Total
223
4,273
29
697
13-0
16-3
4,496
726
16-3
r
O'JDH ... ...-!
Colleges, English
High Schools, „
Middle „ „
Total
126
1,081
7
195
5-5
18-0
1,207
202
167
I'l NJAB ... ...J.
Colleges, English
High Schools, „
Middle „
Total
103
453
2,671
13
91
703
12-6
20-0
26-3
3,227
807
25-0
ALL THE ABOVE PROVINCES... }
Colleges, English
High and Middle Schools, English . . .
Grand Total
5,334
1,33,561
192
12,288 .
3-6
9-2
1,38,895
12,480
8-9
LOW PERCENTAGE OF MUHAMMADANS IN ENGLISH COLLEGES. 169
It will be observed in this Table that with the exception of the North- Western Provinces, the percentage of
Muhammadans receiving English education is far below the percentage of Mu-
Noticeable points in regard , . ,. ,. . ,, . _ . '
to th 1 roentace of Mu hammadans in the total population in the various .Provinces as will appear by
hammadan students in English comparing the percentages of the attendance of Muhammadan students with
Colleges and Schools as com- the percentages of Muhammadan population in the various Provinces given in
pared with the percentage of the Table ted from the Education Commission's Report at the outset of the
Mukammadans in the popula- ,./•„_ A ^ • L ±- •> • ^
.. preceding Chapter. Another important point to be noticed 111 the above Table
is that the percentage of Muhammadans among the total number of students
receiving English education diminishes as the class of education becomes of a higher standard ; so much so that in
Madras where the percentage of Muhammadan population is 6, the Muhammadans attending English Colleges form
only 1'7 per cent, of the total number of students attending such Colleges ; in Bombay where the percentage of the
Muhammadan population is 15'4, the percentage of students in English Colleges is only 1'4 ; in Bengal where the
percentage of the Muhammadans in the population is 32'3 the percentage of Muhammadan students in English Col-
leges is only 3'8, and, in the Punjab, while the percentage of the Muhammadans in the population is no less than
51'6, the percentage of Muhammadan students in the English Colleges is only 12'6. In making this comparison I
have kept in view the Statistics of the percentages of the Muhammadans in the population as represented by the
Report of the Education Commission ; but the subject will be more fully discussed in the next Chapter of this
work. Meanwhile it will be as well to point out that whilst in the Statistics of population given in the Table quo-
ted at the outset of the preceding Chapter from the Education Commission's Report the percentage of Muham-
madaus in the population of the Provinces concerned is shown to be 22'8 per cent., the percentage of Muhammadan
students in English Colleges as shown in the above table is only 3'6 per cent., and even if High and Middle
schools teaching a lowsr standard of English the percentage of Muhammadan students is only 8'9 or nearly, 9 per
cent, of tlie total number of students attending those institutions.
Upon the state of things as described in the preceding Chapter the Education Commission of J882 summa-
rized its conclusions and recommendations in the following terms: —
"In the foregoing pages, we have preferred to reproduce the statements made with regard to the condition of
Conclusions of the Educa- *^e Muhammadans in the several Provinces, rather than to attempt generali-
tion Commission as to the sations of our own. The wide differences in the circumstances of the Musal-
condition of education among mans in the three Presidencies render such an attempt hazardous. But apart
Muhammadans in 1882. from t]ie gocial and historical conditions of the Muhammadan Community in
India, there are causes of a strictly educational character which heavily weight it in the race of life. The teach-
ing of the mosque must precede the lessons of the school. The one object of a young Hindu is to obtain an edu-
cation which will fit him for an official or a professional career. But before the young Muhammadan is allowed to
turn his thoughts to secular instruction, he must commonly pass some years in going through a course of sacred
learning. The Muhammadan boy, therefore, enters school later than the Hindu. In the second place, he very often
leaves school at an earlier age. The Muhammadan parent belonging to the better classes is usually poorer than the
Hindu parent in a corresponding social position. He cannot afford to give his son so complete an education. In
the third place, irrespectively of his worldly means, the Muhammadan parent often chooses for his son while at
school an education which will secure for him an honoured place among the learned of his own community rather
than one which will command a success in the modern professions or in official life. The years which the young
Hindu gives to English and Mathematics in a public school, the young Muhammadan devotes in a Madrassa to
Arabic and the law and Theology of Islam. When such an education is completed, it is to the vocation of a man
of learning, rather than to the more profitable professions that the thoughts of a promising Muhammadan youth
naturally turn. The above are the three principal causes of an educational character which retard the prosperity
of the Musalmans. It would be beyond the province of a strictly Educational Report to attempt generalisations
based upon the social or historical conditions which affect the Muhammadan Community in India.
" The recommendations we proceed to make have been framed, we believe, not merely with a regard to
Becommendations of the justice, but with a leaning towards generosity. They are based not more
Education Commission for upon the suggestions contained in the Provincial Reports than upon the
promoting education among evidence of witnesses and the representations of public bodies. They deal,
we think, with every form of complaint that is grounded in fact, and
they contemplate the various circumstances of various localities. Few of them, indeed, are of general
application ; many of them, we • trust, will before long be rendered obsolete. Special encouragement to any
class is in itself an evil ; and it will be a sore reproach to the Musalmans if the pride they have shown in
other matters does not stir them up to a course of honourable activity ; to a determination that whatever their
22
J7Q BKOLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
backwardness in the past, they will not suffer themselves to be outstripped in the future ; to a conviction that
self-help and self-sacrifice are at once nobler principles of conduct and surer paths to worldly success than sectarian
reserve or the hope of exceptional indulgence.
" We have spoken of the causes ; we here accept the fact that, at all events in many parts of the country,
„ the Musalmans have fallen behind the rest of the population ; we therefore
mulated, with reasons in recommend —
brief. (1) That tlie special encouragement of Muhammadan Education be regarded
at a legitimate charge on Local, on Municipal, and on Provincial Funds.
" The Muhammadan indigenous schools which are found in all parts of the country are established on a
purely religious basis, and in most cases impart an education of the most elementary character. In order to
encourage a wider utility, we recommend —
(2) That indigenout Muhammadan Schools be liberally encouraged to add purely secular subjects to their course
of instruction.
" As the instruction given in Muhammadan Primary Schools differs considerably from that in the ordinary
primary schools, we recommend —
( 3) That special standards for Muhammadan Primary Schools be prescribed.
" In regard to the medium of instruction in Primary and Middle Schools, it appears that even in places where
Hindustani is not the vernacular of the people, Muhammadans earnestly desire that their children should be
educated in that language, and we therefore recommend —
(4) That Hindustani be the principal medium for imparting instruction to Muhammadans in Primary and Middle
Schools, except in localities where the Muhammadan Community desire that some other language be adopted.
" In order that Muhammadans may be enabled to qualify for the lower grades of the public service, we
recommend —
(5) That the official vernacular, in places where it is not Hindustani, be added as a voluntary subject to the
curriculum of Primary and Middle Schools for Muhammadans, maintained from public funds ; and that arithmetic and
accounts be taught through the -medium of that vernacular.
" To meet the complaint made in some parts of the country that due encouragement is not given to the lan-
guage and literature of the Muhammadans, and that this circumstance has operated as one of the causes which
have kept that community aloof from the Government system of education, we recommend —
(8) That in localities where Muhammadans form a fair proportion of the population, provision be made in Middle and
High Schools, maintained from public funds for imparting instruction in the Hindustani and Persian Languages.
" It has been found that whilst Muhammadans in many places form a fair proportion of the students learning
English, their number decreases as the standard of instruction rises ; we therefore recommend —
(7 ) That Higher English Education for Muhammadans, being the kind of education in which that community needs
special help, be liberally encouraged.
"It has been submitted, with much force, that the poverty of the Muhammadans is also one of the main reasons
why education has not made satisfactory progress in that community ; we therefore recommend —
(8) That where necessary a graduated system of special scholarships for Muhammadans be established; to be awarded
(a) in Primary schools, and tenable in Middle Schools;
(b) in Middle Schools, and tenable in High Schooh ;
(c) on the results of the Matriculation and First Arts examinations, and tenable in colleges : also
(9) That in all classes of schools maintained from public funds, a certain proportion of free studentships be expressly
reserved for Muhammadan students.
" Complaints having been made that Muhammadan educational endowments have not always been applied
to their proper uses, we recommend —
(10) That in places where educational endowments for the benefit of Muhammadans exist, and are under the
management of Government, the funds arising from such endowments be devoted to the advancement of education among
Muhammadans exclusively.
" And, further, in order that Muhammadan educational endowments may be utilised to the utmost, we recom-
mend—
(11) That where Muhammadan endowments exist, and are under the management of private individuals or bodies,
inducements by liberal Grants-in-aid be offered to them to establish English-teaching schools or colleges on the Grants-in-
aid System.
RECOMMENDATIONS OP THE EDUCATION COMMISSION FOE MUHAMMADANS. 171
" The employment of Muhammadans as teachers and inspecting officers among Muhammadans will, in our
opinion, largely tend to popularise education among that community, and enable the Department to understand the
special needs and wishes of the Muhammadans ; we therefore recommend —
( 1 2) That where necessary, Normal Sclwols or classes for the training of Mnhammadan teachers be established ;
(13) That wherever instruction is given in Muhammadan schools, through tlie medium of Hindustani, endeavour* In
made to secure, as far as possible, Muhammailnn teachers to qive such instruction ; and — •
(14) That Muhammadan inspecting officers be employed more largely than hitherto for the inspection of Prirnanj
Schools for Muhammndan-s.
" Another useful means of spreading knowledge among the Muhammadans will be the recognition and encour-
agement by the State of such associations as the Anjuman-i-Islam in Bombay, and the Anjuman-i-Islarniya in
Lahore ; we therefore recommend —
(15) That Associations for the promotion of Muhammadan education be recognised and encouraged.
" In order to secure the continuous attention of the Education Department to the subject of Muhammadan
education, and to prevent the claims of the Muhammadans for special treatment from being overlooked, we recom-
mend—
( 16 ) That in the Annual Reports on Public Instruction a special section be devoted to Muhammadan education.
" In certain Provinces the backwardness of the Muhammadans in education has prevented them from obtain-
ing any considerable share of appointments in the public service. But it has also been made a subject of com-
plaint that, even in places where qualified Muhammadans are available, their services are not duly utilised by
Government officers : we therefore recommend —
(17) That the attention of Local Governments be invited to the question of the proportion in which patronage is
distributed among educated Muhammadans and others. " *
Upon the Report of the Education Commission being submitted to the Government of India, that Government
reviewed the Report, in its Resolution No. •*£>, in the Home Department
Government of India's Re-
solution dated 23rd October (Education), dated the 23rd October, 1884, but in regard to the above recom-
1884, reserved subject of Mu- mendations, only observed: "The Governor-General in Council has the
hammadan education tor sepa- subject of Muhammadan education at present under separate consideration ;
and will merely say here that, in view of the backward condition into which
in some Provinces the members of that Community have fallen, he thinks it desirable to give them in some respects
exceptional assistance."
The " separate consideration " of the subject of Muhammadan education arose in the following manner. In
, February, 1882, a Memorial was addressed to His Excellency the Marquis of
Memorial of the National
M h madan Association of I^P011! ^y the National Muhammadan Association of Calcutta, calling atten-
Calcutta on Muhammadan tion to the decayed position of Muhammadans in India, to the causes which
education &c , in 1882. had in the opinion of the Memorialists led to this decadence, and to the circunir
_. stances which, in their belief, tended to perpetuate that condition. The
Resolution of the Govern-
ment of India dated 1 5th July, Memorial was fully reported upon by the Local Governments, and was also
1885, reviewing Muhamma- discussed by the Education Commission of 1882. His Excellency was unable
dan education and declaring t() (]eai ^ifa tjie question before his departure from India, but left on record
P° an expression of his hope that it would receive full consideration at the hands
of his successor, the Earl of Dufferin. Accordingly His Excellency in Council carefully considered the Memorial,
together with the correspondence, reports and numerous pamphlets and papers on the subject, and on the 15th
7
July, 1885, recorded a Resolution (No. oTS~05' *n the Home Department — Education) reviewing the history of the
measures which had been adopted by Government since 1871, in the cause of Muhammadan education, and
giving expression to the views of the Government on the subject, with special reference to the recommendations
of the Education Commission. The Resolution possesses the greatest importance in the history of Muham-
madan education in India, as it contains the latest declaration of the policy of the Government on the
subject, and describes the main features of the points to which the attention of Government was directed in for-
mulating that policy. The Resolution, after mentioning that the recommendations of the Education Commission
had been considered by the Local Governments, gives a summary of their views, which may be incorporated here
together with such observations as the Government of India made thereon in that Resolution.
The views of the Government of Madras were thus expressed in their letter No. 506, dated 22nd August, 1884.
* Report of the Education Commission, (1882), },p. 505-7.
]-.-, ENGUSH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
" Special encouragement is already held out to Muhammadan education, and a further advance is contemplated
f in this direction, though not exactly on the lines suggested by the Commis-
MTdr7s8o°n Muh^mTad'aTedu- sion. It is not thought desirable to dissociate this class so distinctly from the
cation, in 1884. ordinary scheme of teaching, as, except, in a few localities, Muhammadans
avail themselves freely of the advantages of the existing system. Thus neither special schools nor special Normal
classes seem necessary ; while the recommendations as to the Persian and Hindustani languages are hardly appli-
cable to the peculiar linguistic conditions of the South, and ignore the extent to which the Muhammadans use its
vernacular languages. At the same time the object of the recommendations meets with cordial approval."
Upon these opinions the Government of India recorded the following observations on the abovementioned
Observations of the Govern- Resolution :—
ment of India thereon. " It has heen shown... that the condition of the Muhammadans in Southern
India is, from an educational point of view, by no means unsatisfactory. All funds, provincial, local, and muni-
cipal, are hound by the Grant-in-aid Code to give special encouragement to Muhammadan education. The experi-
ment of separate schools has not been successful, and is not, the Director of Public Instruction thinks, necessary,
except to some extent in Madras and one or two large Muhammadan centres, and for the Moplahs on the West Coast.
Some increase of the subordinate inspecting agency for Muhammadan schools is, however, admittedly desirable.
\VliilethebroadresultsforthewholeProvince leave perhaps little to desire, the Governor-General in Council
tli inks it would be well were the officers of the Educational Department directed to examine more particularly, in
communication with district officers and the leading members of the Muhammadan community, the educational
provision for the members of that community in each district, with a view to seeing whether, in special localities,
more effect should not be given to some of the recommendations of the Commission. The backward state of the
Moplahs seems especially to call for attention. The Governor- General in Council is disposed to agree with the
Madras Government, that it is undesirable to accentuate the difference between Muhammadans and Hindus, by
making Hindustani, in lieu of the current Vernacular, the medium of instruction, where the Muhammadans show
themselves ready to attend the ordinary schools of the country. Where this is the case, the local Vernacular should
be the ordinary medium, the special wants of Muhammadan youths being met by the formation of Hindustani
classes and teaching them the Arabic character. There may, however, be tracts where Muhammadan feeling would
prefer the establishment of special schools, and in such places the recommendations of the Commission should
receive attention. In Secondary Schools of all kinds facilities for the study of Arabic or Persian should be
offered wherever there is a real demand for this." *
The Government of Bombay, in their letter, No. 983, dated 6th June, 1884, after stating that " the special wants
Views of the Government °^ Muhammadans have had attention," referred to the monthly grant of
of Bombay on Muhammadan Rs. 500 towards the Anjuman-i-Islam School, since 1830, and added that " the
education, in 1884. Governor in Council is prepared to aid further in the extension of Muham-
madan education should opportunity offer." Upon this brief statement of the matter the Government of India in
the above Resolution observed : —
" Although here, as in Madras, the educational conditions of Muhammadan population, taken as a whole, is not
Observations of the Govern- altogether unsatisfactory, there can be no doubt that in certain localities, as in
ment of India thereon. Sind, there is an urgent call for special measures ; and the Governor-General
in Council would wish to see the same further examination of local wants initiated that has been suggested for
Madras. Some steps should certainly be taken to encourage Muhammadans to read up to the higher standards.
At present here, as in other Provinces, they specially fail to pursue their studies beyond the lower stages." f
The Government of Bengal expressed their views in the following words, in their letter No. 2,285, dated 25th
Views of the Government of September, 1884: —
Bengal on Muhammadan edu- "The proposals for the support of special Muhammadan Schools, and for
the special encouragement of Muhammadan education in ordinary schools, are
worthy of liberal consideration. Many of them are already in force in this province ; the chief innovation
being that for ibe creation of a special class of scholarships for Muhammadan students. To this, no doubt,
objection may be raised, just as objection has been, not without force, raised to the principle of this special
|in.pos:il in Mr. Barbour's dissent. The Lieutenant-Qovernor, however, thinks that if it can be shown that
in any locality the number of Muhammadans who gain scholarships is not in due proportion to their numbers and
position, a fair case will have been made out for exceptional, though he will also add, temporary treatment. The
other recommendations under this head are conceived in a liberal spirit, and may be accepted, except in so far as
* ileeolution of the Government of India, in the Home Department (Education), No. — , dated 15th July. 1835.
+ lb., para. 13.
VIEWS OP LOCAL GOVERNMENTS ON MUHAMMADAN EDUCATION. 173
they recognise the substitution of Hindustani for the Hindi Vernacular. If by Hindustani be meant that language
which, written in the Hindi or Nagri character, is the common speech alike of Muhammadan and Hindu in Behar,
the Lieutenant-Governor has no objection to offer. But if the recommendation means that the policy which has
prevailed for some years, of conveying primary instruction to Muhammadans in Behar through Hindustani expressed
in the Hindi character, is to be reversed, then the Lieutenant-Governor must very strongly dissent from the recom-
mendation as being opposed to the true interests of the Muhammadans of Behar. Finally, the Lieutenant-Governor
is not disposed to support the establishment of Normal Schools or classes for Muhammadan teachers exclusively.
Little is gained by such separatism."*
These views were approved by the Government of India in the following terms : —
" The Governor-General in Council trusts that the Bengal Government will give effect to its views. There
is no intention to reverse the decision of the Local Government in the matter
Approval thereof by the ,-,,., TT- j- ^ n ± T t -o i. j-
Government of India adoption of Hindi as the Court Language of Behar, and as the ordinary
medium of instruction in the Primary Schools of that Province. Where the
Muhammadan population is strong and likely to attach special importance to Oriental teaching of a Muhammadan
type, care should be taken to meet this want, with a view to making the schools popular, and inducing the better
classes to allow their children to push their studies eventually to a higher standard, especially in English. But
equal care is necessary to prevent the absolute separation of the Muhammadan community from the rest of this po-
pulation. It must also be borne in mind that it is only by an acquaintance with the current Vernacular that Mu-
hammadans can hope to secure employment. It has already been shown in this Resolution that very much has been
done by the Local Government to meet the requirements of the Muhammadans in Bengal, and it may fairly be said
that they have now every opportunity offered them of securing a good education. If it is found that anything
further is required in any part of the Province, or at any particular stage of the educational course, to advance
the progress of the Muhammadan community, the Governor-General in Council feels sure that His Honour the
Lieutenant-Governor will not stint the necessary outlay, "f
In the North- Western Provinces and Oudh, the Lieutenant-Governor, in a letter, dated 9th July, 1884, consi-
V fthef t f dered that no special measures on behalf of Muhammadans were required, as
the N.-W. P. and Oudh on Mu- Mussalman education in those Provinces was by no means in a backward
hammadan education, in 1884, state, and it was said that the interests of the class would be duly attended
and remarks of the Govern- t0j an(j aid and encouragement on the part of State would not be wanting,
ment of India thereon. TT ,,. „ ,, , T ,.
Upon this state of the case the Government of India expressed the opinion
that " it would seem to be sufficient if enquiry is made as to the necessity of special measures in any locality where
the number of Muhammadans is unduly low in any grade of the educational course."*
The Government of the Punjab, in a letter, No. 916 of the 9th April, 1883, to the Government of India, in the
Views of the Puniab Go- Home Department, and, again in a letter to the Director of Public Instruc-
vernment on Muhammadan tion, No. 97, dated 20th March, 1884, expressed the opinion that no special
education, in 1884. measures were called for regarding the education of the Muhammadans as a
class, and that they were not backward in taking advantage of the existing educational facilities.
In the Central Provinces, the Chief Commissioner in a letter, dated 30th June, 1884, was opposed to the adop-
Views of the Ch' f C ' ^on °^ sPe°ial measures in aid of the Muhammadans, and it was found that
sioner of the Central Provinces nothing was really required in those Provinces. The educational authori-
on Muhammadan education, ties were, however, directed to keep a watchful eye on any localities where
in 1884. ^e Muhammadan population was large and backward.
In Assam it has been found that the Muhammadans are chiefly the agriculturists of Sylhet, who are not an
Views of the Administrations impoverished class, and whose vernacular is Bengali, that sufficient provision
of Assam, Coorg, Berar, and is already made for Persian instruction in Secondary Schools where there
British Burma, on Muhamma- was a demand for it. Similarly in Coorg it was found that sufficient provision
dan education, in 1884. wag already made for the education of the few Muhammadans who live in
that Province. Likewise in Berar, it was found that special provision had already been made for Muhammadans
and the percentage of Mussalmans in the schools was larger, in proportion, than that of the Hindus. In British
Burma, where there is hardly any indigenous Muhammadan population, where the resident Muhammadan
population is but 4| per cent, of the whole, and where the great bulk of the people are Buddhists, the Chief
Commissioner reported that the Mussalmans were on a fair equality with the other sections of the population.
7
* Resolution of the Government of India, in the Home Department (Education), No. „ -9;, dated loth July 1885, para 13.
t Ib., para. 13. | t Ib., para, 13.
]74 KNiit.isn KurcATiox IK INDIA.
Upon the state of things, i" the various provinces. :is above described, the Government of India made the
following observations : —
Views and suggestion s of the „ „ . ... . „ , , ,
Government of India as to On the wllole' the Governor- General in Council is satisfied
encouragement of Muhamma- attention which has once more been drawn to the subject of Miihammndan
dan education in the various education will have the best results. His Excellency in Council attaches
provinces in general. special importance to recommendation (16) of the Commission's Report, • tliiit
in the Annual Reports of public instruction a special section be devoted to Mnhammadan education.' These Reports
should be precise and detailed, and discuss the position and advancement of the Muhammadnn Community, not
merely as a whole, but with reference to local variations, in order that the Government of India may be kept fully
informed as to the state and progress of this important section of the community. For the attraction of Muhamma-
dans to higher education, a liberal provision of scholarships is essential, and their wants must not be overlooked in
the framing of any general scheme of scholarships for any Province, in pursuance of the orders of the Government
of India on the Report of the Education Commission. Probably the appointment of special Mnhammadan
Inspecting Officers, to inspect not merely Primary Muhammadan Schools, but to enquire into Muhammadan
education generally, would have a good effect in Bengal and other places where the Muhammadans are very
backward. Such officers would bring the peculiar wants of their co-religionists more thoroughly to notice than
can perhaps be expected from subordinate officers of a different faith. The action taken in those and other
directions should be fully explained in the Annual Reports."*
There are some other passages in the Resolution of the Government of Indin, from which the preceding
quotations have been made, which deserve to be permanently preserved and
Memorable passages in the remembered bv the Muhammadan community. Firstly, as giving them a sound
Resolution of the Government
of India dated 16th Julv 1885 a statesraanly warning, and secondly, as conveying the sympathy which
the Government of India has deigned to express towards the Muhammadnns
of India, respecting their future educational and other prospects and welfare. In regard to the recommendations
of the Ivlucation Commission, for special encouragement of Muhammadan education, the Government of India
made the following general observations, which must be taken to indicate the principles of its policy in respect
of the matter : —
" It is only by frankly placing themselves in line with the Hindus, and taking full advantage of the < !ovrrn-
Muhammaduns cannot ad- ment system of high and especially of English education, that the Mulmm-
vance without placing them- madans can hope fairly to hold their own in respect of the better description <.t
selves in line with the Hindus State appointments. This is clearly seen by the Memorialists themselves, and
in English education. the Reports Of Locai Governments show, that in most Provinces a real advance
has been made in this respect. The recommendations of the Commission are, as they themselves point out, not of
universal application, and none of them need be taken to imply a leaning towards tin; maintenance of a distinctly
Oriental training throughout the curriculum for Muhammadan pupils. The object of the Commission is to attract
Mnhammadan scholars by giving adequate prominence to those subjects to which their parents attach importance
and to hold out special inducements to a backward class ; but in applying the recommendations, due regard is every-
where to be paid to local circumstances, and care must be taken to avoid unnecessary widening of the line between
Muhaminadan and other classes of the community, "f
" The Governor-General in Council does not consider it desirable or for the advantage of the Muhammadans
Muhammadans cannot b themselves, that they should be exempted from those tests which are establish-
empted from qualifying tests ed to secure the admission of duly qualified candidates into the public service.
for public service. Their in- Nor can special favour be shown them in open competitive examinations of anv
terests in this respect should description. It is only by raising their own educational qualifications to the
be duly watched.
level already attained by other races, that the Muhammadans can hope to win
appointments that are awarded as the result of examination. But there are a large number of appointments the
gift of which lies in the hands of the Local Governments, the High Courts, or Local Officers. The Governor-General
in Council desires that in those Provinces where Muhammadans do not receive their full share of State emplovment,
i he Local Governments and High Courts will endeavour to redress this inequality as opportunity offers, and will
impress upon subordinate officers the importance of attending to this in their selection of candidates for appoint-
ments of the class last referred to. The subject of the extent to which Muhammadans are employed in offices
under Government might usefully be noticed in the Annual Reports of Provincial Administrations." J
• liesolulion of the Government of India, in the Home Department (Education), Nu. ,- . .hitcd 15th July 1883, para. 14.
2io— 2o
t Ib. para. 12. | + If,. para. 22.
VIEWS OP GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ON MUHAMMADAN EDUCATION, 1885. 175
Again, with reference to certain statements made in the Memorial of the National Muhammadan Association
of Calcutta, the Resolution of the Government of India ends with the follow-
The Government is not neg- .
lectful of the efforts for edu- lng paragraph :-
cational improvement among " The Governor-General in Council has felt it to be his duty in the preced-
Muhammadans. jng paragraphs to controvert various misconceptions which find place in the
representations that have been laid before Government ; but he will, as already stated, always take a lively interest
in the advancement and well-being of the Muhammadan community ; and he concurs in the remarks which not
unfrequently occur in the local reports, that the very fact that a Memorial like that under notice has been presented,
with the concurrence and approval of so many leading gentlemen in Bengal and elsewhere, indicates that the
Muhammadans have themselves come to appreciate fully the necessity of moving with the times. They have
now among them not a few highly educated and public spirited men who are keenly interested in the improvement
and advancement of their co-religionists. The Local Governments are everywhere anxious to do all that they
equitably can do to assist in this movement ; and His Excellency in Council has little doubt that, within the
next ten years, much greater progress will be made than has hitherto been recorded. It is the earnest desire of
the Supreme Government to treat all classes of Her Majesty's subjects in India with absolute impartiality,
and see all alike benefiting by the protection, the patronage, and the assistance of the State." *
The views of the Government of India, as indicated in the passages above quoted from its Resolution of the
15th July 1885, on Mahomedan education, may be summarized in the following
Views of the Government of
India, in its Resolution of 1 5th claul
July 1885, on Muhammadan (1.) The Muhammadans cannot hope fairly to hold their own in respect of
education, summarized. the better description of State appointments, but by frankly placing themselves
in line with the Hindus, and taking full advantage of the Government system of high and especially of English
education.
(2) A special section should be devoted to Muhammadan education in the Annual Reports of Public Instruc-
tion, giving precise and detailed information, and discussing " the position and advancement of the Muhammadan
community, not.merely as a whole, but with reference to local variations, in order that the Government of India may
be kept fully informed as to the state and progress of this important section of the community."
(3) For the attraction of Muhammadans to higher education, a liberal provision of Scholarships is essential
and their wants must not be overlooked in the framing of any general scheme of scholarships for any Province.
(4) Special Muhammadan Inspecting Officers, to inspect and enquire into Muhammadan education generally,
may be appointed in places where the Muhammadaus are very backward.
(5) It is not desirable, or for the advantage of the Muhammadans (themselves, that they should be exempted
from those tests which are established to secure the admission of duly qualified candidates into the public
service.
(6) Nor can special favour be shown them in open competitive examination of any description.
(7) It is the earnest desire of the Supreme Government to treat all classes of Her Majesty's subjects in
India with absolute impartiality, and see all alike benefiting by the protection, patronage, and the assistance of the
State.
CHAPTER XXIX.
PROGRESS OF ENGLISH EDUCATION AMONG MUHAMMADANS, 1881-82 TO 1892-92.— RESOLU-
TIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ON THE SUBJECT, IN 1888 AND 1894. — DEFICI-
ENCY OF HIGH ENGLISH EDUCATION AMONG MUHAMMADANS, 1882-92.
In the Table showing the attendance in Arts Colleges for the year 1881-82, given in Chapter XIX. of this
Statistics of Muhammadans work (vide page 100 ante) the total number of students receiving University
receiving English Collegiate education in the various affiliated Colleges is shown to have amounted to 5,399.
education in 1881-82. Qf this number only 375 belonged to the minor miscellaneous sections of the
7
* .Resolution of the GoTernment of India, in the Home Department (Education), No. , dated 15th July, 1885, para 25.
176
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
community* leaving 5,024 for the main bulk of the population, namely Hindus and Muhammadans. Their dis-
tribution in that yrai- aniont,' the various classes of colleges, teaching English and affiliated to the Universities,
appears from the follow inir Table, which lias been prepared from Table No. II at page 275 of the Report of the
Indian Education Commission of J882 : —
CLASSIFICATION OF COLLEGE STUDENTS— HINDU AND MUHAMMADAN— FOR THE
OFFICIAL TEAR 1881-82.
PROVINCES.
DEPARTMENT-
AIDED
UNAIDED
AL COLL i <
COLLEGES.
COLLEGES.
GO
g
OB
§
QQ
§
o
C3
J
n
'S
T3
i
1
S
Q
g
s
1
e
H
01
3
i
a
§
DO
0
i
s
a
Q
•
_^
a
cd
rC
~
X
a
•3
a
pi
C
^
a
•^
33
n
^
W
B
g
9
a
O
( Number of pupils
704
12
688
18
110
1,502
30
1,532
M ALBAS
I Percentage of pupils to the
(. total number on the Rolls.
94-88
1-62
8568
2-24
88-71
89-99
1-80
C Number of pupils
249
6
75
1
25
349
7
356
BOMBAT
< Percentage of pupils to the
(_ total number on the Rolls.
80-06
1-93
5395
•72
100
73-48
1'47
( Number of pupils
1,214
75
807
30
509
i
2,530
106
2,636
BENGAL
< Percentage of pupils to the
( total number on the Rolls .
93-03
575
9017
3'36
94-61
19
92-41 ,
3-87
N.-W. P. AND(£Umbeirof P»Pil8 .
()rDH ntage of pupils to the
155
14
133
21
15
1
303
36
339
,. total number on the Rolls.
90-12
814
84-71
13-38
75'
5'
86-82
10-32
f Number of pupils
'"' NJAB ... ^ Percentage of pupils to the
84
13
84
13
97
,. total number on the Rolls.
81-55
12'63
81'55
12'63
CENTRAL PEOVIN-
Number of pupils
Percentage of pupils to the
59
5
59
5
64
total number on the Rolls.
90-77
7'69
90'77
7-69
"
2,465
125
1,708
70
659
2
4,827
197
5;024
TOTAL i KH-J Percentage of pupils to the
KXCLUD- I total number on the Rolls.
AJMIB AND Proportion of each race or
91-38
4-63
85-41
3-51
93-21
•28
89-41 3-65
... t, creed to total population...
7321
2236
73-21
22-36
7321
2236
73-21
22-36
In the preceding Table it is to be noticed that in the total population of British India (excluding Ajmir and
Backwardness of Muhamma- Uurma) the percentage of Hindus to the total population is taken to be
lans in English Collegiate 73'21, and of the Muhammadans 22'36, whilst the percentage of Hindu
education in 1882.
students iv<vmiitr University education in Colleges is shown to be 89'41,
IfahamnMdana only 3-6.1. The- enormous disparity between the percentage of the Muhaminadan
the percentage of Muhammadan students receiving University education in Colleges is a
o which attention will be more fully invited in a later portion of this work. Meanwhile it
• far as higher English education is concerned, the Muhammadans were so seriously backward
»2, their proportion in the Colleges was less than one-sixth of what it should have been, considering
tr percentage in the total population.
Inre ( B cominnnity here mentioned are Sickhs, ParsiB, Native Christians, Europeans, Eurasians and others.
se races figures are given in separate columns, in Table No. II. of the Education Commission's Report of 1882,
at pago .,o, and those figures, being added up vield a total of 375> as menti(med in the text.
DEFICIENCY OP MUUAMMADXNS IN ENGLISH EDUCATION, 1882-92.
177
A general view of the progress of English education among the Muhammadans, during the ten years
Statistics of English eduo- following the Report of the Indian Education Commission of 1882, may be
ation among Muhammadans had from the following Table, which has been extracted from the Table given
during 1882-92. in paragraph 233,. at page 322, of Mr. Nash's report, the column representing
the percentage of Muhammadans to total population being taken from another table * in his Report, as representing
the census of 1891.
CLASSIFICATION OF MUHAMMADAN PUPILS IN COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS, 1886-87 AND 1891-92.
PROVINCE.
Percentage of Muhammadans
to total population (Census of
1891).
1886-87.
1891-92.
IN AHTS
COLLEGES
(ENGLISH).
IN PROFES-
SIONAL
COLLEGES.
IN SECOND-
ABY
SCHOOLS.
IN ARTS
COLLEGES
(ENGLISH).
IN PROFES-
SIONAL
COLLEGES.
IN SECOND-
ARY
SCHOOLS.
o5
|
|
"5
s
«4H *
°§
|]
s 2
5 a
OrC
Jl
03
a
1
1
S
~S
eg
8-1
ll
ll
M
M
s
T3
a
8
S
3
<3g
a
»!
+3 rj
<- H
8 C3
OfJ3
II
oi
a
c3
TJ
a
a
2
1
*i
ll
* a
gl
si
&*
en
1
1
3
i
a
ew •
°1
al
4§
a 5
§J
t. S
S a
02
i
1
•
a
1
§
•s|
c3
"I
lca
«1
o cc
si
(Sa
Madras ...
Bombay ...
Bengal ...
N.-W. P. and Oudh
Punjab ...
Central Provinces ...
B™ {STr ::: :::
Assam ...
Coorg
Hyderabad Assigned Districts
(Berar)
TOTAL
6-3
16-3
32-9
13-5
55-8
2-4
1-4
4-5
27-1
7-3
7-2
50
25
138
63
55
7
1-6
2-6
4-3
13-2
17-2
7
4
10
63
34
28
1-1
1-4
4-5
13-5
20-1
3,450
1,657
22,271
14,367
14,048
471
5-2
4-4
12-1
21-6
31-4
11-2
56
35
299
249
84
13
1-5
2-6
5-7
19-0
18-2
5'6
11
9
37
140
45
• 4
17
1-8
3-5
177
19-6
4-9
3,814
2,117
27,461
11,782
16,753
2,217
26
543
1,550
5
384
5-3
4-9
13-5
21-9
33-1
9-3
3-6
5-3
15-0
1-0
8-3
422
1,640
9
309
4-9
15-5
2-0
6-6
21-8
338
4-2
139
5-1
58,644
13-7
736
5-9
246
7-5
66,652
14-0
It will be observed that the percentage of Muhammadan pupils to the total number on the rolls in Arts
Deficiency in the progress of Colleges was 3'65 in 1881-82, as shown in the Table given at the outset of
English Collegiate education this Chapter, whilst as shown in 'the preceding Table, the percentage rose
among Muhammadans during to 4'2 in 1886-87, and to 5 '9 in 1891-92, which may be taken as the latest
available information upon the subject. Satisfactory as this progress may
seem, it must not be forgotten that the percentage of Muhammadans to the total population is shown in the same
Table as 21'8, so that it may be significantly said that, so far as English Collegiate education in Arts is concerned,
the deficiency in the number of Muhammadan students in English Arts Colleges is nearly 16 per cent, with
reference to the proportion of Muhammadans to the total population. In other words, the number of Muhammadan
pupils in English Collegiate education is about one-fourth of what it should have been. It is, however, satisfactory
to observe, with reference to the statistics given in the above Table, that between 1887 and 1892, in Arts Colleges,
the number of Muhammadan students has increased from 338 to 736, and the percentage from 4'2 to 5'9 ; whilst
in Professional Colleges their number has risen from 139 to 246, and the percentage also from 5'1 to 7'5. " The
numerical increase is greatest in Law Colleges, from 99 to 172, but the students in Medical Colleges have
increased in a greater ratio, from 16 to 39. In Engineering Colleges the increase is from 24 to 35, the latter
number includes one student in the Madras Agricultural College, which in 1887 was classed as a School." f
The following Table J shows the number of Muhammadans who passed the various University Examinations
Success of Muhammadans in *n 1886-87 and in 1891-92. The Bachelor of Science Degree of Bombay and
University Examinations in the Bachelor of Oriental Learning of the Punjab University have both been
1887 and 1892. included under the B.A. Examination, and all examinations intermediate
between Matriculation and those degrees, have. been included under the First Arts Examination.
* This Table is given at page 320 of llr. Nash's Report, and the percentage of Muhammadans to total population in the varions
Provinces, according to the census of 1891, has been taken from the first column of that Table. The Table itself is omitted here as
its figures deal indiscriminately with all classes of education, including Primary, Vernacular, and schools teaching the Koran, and it is
impossible to extract separate information from it regarding the number of Muhammadans receiving English education.
t Progress of Education in India, 1837-88 to 1891-92. By A. M. Nash, Esquire, M. A. (1893), p. 323. J Ib., p. 325.
23
178
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
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VIEWS OP GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ON MUHAMMADAN EDUCATION, 1888.
179
Perhaps the most convenient way, to show the general effect of this Table, as giving the latest available
information regarding the progress of English education among Muham-
Deflciency in the success of
Muhammadans in Univer- ma(lans, is to take the figures for 1891-92, given in that Table, as totals of
sities, compared with their successful candidates, with reference to the percentage of Muhammadan
percentage in the populaton, successful candidates in such totals, comparing such percentage with the
in 189192 • . .
percentage of Muhammadans in the total population of India. This compari-
son is shown in the following Table, in regard to the whole of British India : —
EXAMINATION.
•
Total
number
passed.
Total
Muhamma-
dans
passed.
Percentage
of
Muhamma-
dans
passed.
Percentage
of
Muhamma-
dans to
total
population.
Deficiency
in the
percentage of
Muhamma-
dans
passed.
Entrance
6,545
419
6-3
21-8
15-5
F.A. and Corresponding Examinations
2,695
120
4-4
j»
17-4
B.A., including B.Sc. and B.O.L.
905
51
5'7
)5
16'1
M.A., including M.O.L.
80
2
2-5
»
19.3
B.L. ...
147
7
4-7
il
17-1
All Medical Examinations
264
8
3-4
5»
13-4
All Engineering Examinations
47
...
0
»J
21-8
The percentage of Muhammadans to the total population of India, adopted by Mr. Nash in his Report, is 21-8,
and it is with reference to this percentage that the calculations in the last column of this Table have been made.
It shows how, notwithstanding recent efforts, the Muhammadans are still backward in English education, specially
in the higher classes — the deficiency in all the University Examinations being very prominent when the percentage
of Muhammadans in the total population is borne in mind. Enormous efforts to promote English education among
Muhammadans are still required to raise the percentage of their successful candidates in the University Examina-
tions to the level of their percentage in the total population of India. , Hitherto what has been achieved falls far
short of what is required.
In regard to the condition of Muhammadan education in 1886-87, the following observations, to be found in
Views of the Government of t^le Resoluti°n of the Government of India, in the Home Department (Edu-
India on Muhammadan edu- cation) No. 199, dated the 18th June, 1888, on Sir Alfred Croft's Beview of
cation, in the Resolution dated Education in India in 1886, must be borne in mind, and may be quoted
18th June 1888. here . _
" Special recommendations for the education of Muhammadans were made by the Education Commission ;
and the Governor-General in Council, in Home Department Resolution, No. 7 — 215-25, of July 15th, 1885, reviewed
the suggestions which had been made for the special treatment of this class. The Commission proposed a differ-
ential treatment of the' Muhammadan community in respect to education, which the Government of India found
itself unable to approve. In its Resolution just referred to, the Government of India pointed out that, if the
Muhammadans desired to succeed in the competition of life with their Hindu fellow-subjects, the way lay in
taking advantage, in the same manner as other classes do, of the high education provided by the Government.
The Governor- General in Council is glad to think that the Muhammadans have themselves adopted this view of
the subject. In 1881-82, there were 4,47,703 Muhammadan pupils ; in J885-86 they numbered 7,48,663, and in
1886-87, 7,52,441. The great increase in the first-mentioned period must not, however, be taken as showing that
children not previously at school were brought under instruction. The increase is chiefly due to the extension of
the State System of education, so as to include schools which were previously outside it. The percentage of
Muhammadans to total pupils, which in 1881-82, was only 17'8, stood in 1886-87 at 22'5 — practically a ratio
identical with the proportion which the Muhammadan population (45 millions) bears to the total population (199
millions) of British India, according to the census of 1881. But if this steady and marked advance of the
Muhammadan community in regard to education be a gratifying feature of the educational statistics for the past
five years, a closer examination of the figures shews much room for improvement. Although the total number
[Si I ENfiMSH EPCCATION IN INDIA.
of Muliammadans under instruction compares favourably with the total number of Hindus, the number of the
former receiving education of an advanced type is very small relatively to the number of Hindus under similar
instruction. Out of a total of 23,03,812 Hindus attending all classes of schools, private and public, in 1886-87,
3,16,493 were in the secondary stage, while 9,634 were attending College. On the other hand, out of a total of
7. .".2.441 Muliammadans under instruction during the same year, only 58,222 were attending Secondary Schools, and
only 587 attending College. Thus, while one out of every seven Hindu students was receiving the higher education,
only one out of thirteen Muhammadan students had passed beyond the primary stage. To this condition of things,
especially iVL':mling collegiate education, His Excellency in Council would earnestly invite the attention of the
Muhammadan community, and would impress on them the necessity of their taking advantage more largely of the
educational facilities within their reach. The fact that the attendance of the Muhammadan students at Secondary
Schools has since 1881-82 risen from 20,000 to over 58,000, shews, indeed, that progress is being made; but the
progress might be more rapid."
KM n later information in regard to the views of the Government of India on the subject of Muhammadan edu-
cation in general, is contained in the Resolution * of the Government of
Views of the Government of
India on Muhammadan edu- Iildia in the Home Department (Education), dated the 7th September :
cation, in the Resolution dated of which paragraph 19 relates to the subject, and may be quoted here for
7th September 1894. convenient reference :—
'• The subject of the education of Muhammadans has usually received separate comment. The total number of
Muhammadan students enumerated in the returns, was 4,47,703 in 1881-82, and in 1886-87 it was 7,52,441 f ; but
this increase was partly the result of the extension of the State System, and covered schools previously excluded.
It was remarked, in dealing with the figures of 1886-87, that a far larger proportion of Hindu than of Muhamma-
dan students were receiving advanced instruction. Out of the 7,52,441 Mnhammadan boys above mentioned, 58,222
only were attending Secondary Schools, and 587, only, were attending Colleges. In 1891-92 the total number of
Muhammadan pupils at both public and private institutions was 8,87,236; and the percentage of Muhammadan
pupils to total pupils was 23, the percentage of Muhammadans to total population in the area under consideration
1 "-ing, according to the census of 1891, 21'8. The number of pupils in 1892-93 was 8,94,241, or almost identical
with the number attending school in 1891-92. Muhammadan children are, however, only 19'2 per cent, of the
pupils in public institutions, and the great majority of the private schools attended by them are Koran Schools.
Still there is an advance of nearly a hundred thousand in the number of Muhammadans attending public institu-
tions, and the percentage of increase has been greater than in the case of Hindus. The number of Muhammadans
attending Secondary Schools in 1891-92 was 66,652 : 246 were in Professional Colleges and 736 in English Arts Col-
leges. The advance of this section of the population in respect of higher education has, therefore, not been rapid.
It is noticed, however, that at all the University Examinations in Arts, except the M.A. Examination, the number
of Muhammadan successful candidates has increased, both absolutely and relatively, to those of other religions : at
the Matriculation Examination the increase is from 281 to 419. The employment in Madras and Bombay of a
special Muhammadan Inspecting Staff has been followed by a large increase in the number of Primary Schools
attended by Muhammadans. Muhammadan Assistant Inspectors have been appointed also for Eastern Bengal and
Behar. In this and other Provinces there appears to be liberal pecuniary provision for Muhammadan education.
Mr. Nash cites in paragraph 241 of his Review, a Resolution of the third Muhammadan Educational Congress held
at Lahore in December 1888, and gives figures showing that, in the most recent years, the Muhammadans have
made greater progress in the Punjab, than either Sikhs or Hindus, but they have still much ground to regain. In
the Central Provinces the percentage of children at school is three times as high among Muhammadans as among
Hindus, both for boys and for girls." J
These remarks are no doubt satisfactory, on the whole, so far as Muhammadan education in general is concerned,
and are a fit subject for congratulation to the Muhammadan community, but
oticeable points in the t] mugt no(. f t (to uge the wordg of the Government of India in the above
above Resolution.
quoted passage), that " the number of Muhammadans attending Secondary
Schools in 1891-92 was 66,652: 246 were in Professional Colleges and 736 in English Arts Colleges. The advance
of this section of the population in respect of higher education, has, therefore, not been rapid ; " and again, " that
in the most recent years the Muhammadans have made greater progress in the Punjab than either Sikhs or Hindus,
but they have still much ground to regain."
• Reviewing Mr. Hash's Report on the Progress of Education in India, 1887-88 to 1891-92.
t The figures quoted in the Home Department Resolution, No. 199. dated 18th June 1888, are cited.
t Supplement to the Gaiette of India, dated 8th September, 1894, page 1276.
BACKWARDNESS OP URBAN MUHAMMADANS IN ENGLISH COLLEGES, 1892.
181
But these are not the only points which deserve notice, in considering the question of the progress of
Stat' tics of higher English English education among the Muhammadans, as represented by the latest
education among Muhamma- statistics in Mr. Nash's Report. Much confusion upon this subject is liable to
dans considered, apart from arise in the minds of Muhammadan educationists, by confounding the figures
other education in general. and statistics of all kinds and classes of education taken as a whole, in one
lump. And since this work is concerned only with English education, especially of the higher or Collegiate
type, imparted in institutions situate in large towns or cities, it is necessary to separate the statistics of higher
English education from other kinds of education, and to give an approximate idea of the exact condition of that
class of education among Muhammadans at the present time. The best way to make this matter clear is to
take the figures given in Mr. Nash's Report as to the percentage of Muhammadans in the Urban population
(at p. 321) and their percentage in English Arts and Professional Colleges, and Secondary Schools (at p. 322)
during the official year 1891-92, and to indicate the results in the following Table : —
PROPORTION OF MUHAMMADANS IN THE URBAN POPULATION, AND IN ENGLISH
COLLEGES AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS, IN 1891-92.
PERCENTAGE OP MUHAMMADANS IN —
PROVINCE.
Arts Colleges.
Professional
Colleges.
Secondary
Schools.
Urban
Population.
Madras
1-5
17
5-3
14-2
Bombay
2-6
1-8
4-9
17'8
Bengal
5-7
3-5
13-5
27-5 '
N.-W. Provinces and Oudh
19-0
177
21-9
33-9
Punjab
18-2 •
' 19-6
33-1
50-8
Central Provinces
5-6
4-9
9-3
16-0
Upper Burma
Lower Burma
...
...
36
5-3
| 10-3
Assam
...
...
I5-0
28-8
Coorg
...
...
1-0
23-3
Berar
...
...
8-3
20-7
In the above Table the percentages given in the columns of Arts Colleges and Urban population are most
Noticeable backwardness of noticeable> nor are tue percentages given in the column of Professional
Muhammadan Urban popula- Colleges less important for comparison with the percentages shown in the
tion in English Collegiate column of the Urban population. Such a comparison will show that whilst
education. jn ^e matter of collegiate education the percentages of Muhammadans in
the Colleges as compared with the percentages of the Muhammadans in the Urban population shows a disastrous
state of backwardness, even in the matter of English education in Secondary Schools their backwardness is most
lamentable. This state of things must be realized by every well-wisher of the progress of education among
Muhammadans, and also by all who think calmly upon the broad general questions of the day, which require
a careful consideration of the comparative progress of high English education among the various sections of the
Indian population, for solution of vast problems of social, economical, and political import.
ENGLISH ED & CATION IN INDIA.
CHAPTER XXX.
GENERAL SURVEY OF THE STATISTICS OF HIGH ENGLISH EDUCATION AMONG MUHAM-
MAD ANS AS COMPARED WITH HINDUS, FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE INDIAN
UNIVERSITIES TO THE PRESENT PERIOD— 36 YEARS— 1858 TO 1893.
It is proposed in this chapter to take a general survey of the comparative progress of High English education
Comparative statistics of &mong Hindus and Muhammadans, respectively, with reference to the statistics
Hindu and Muhammadan grad- of success in the various examinations for degrees of the Indian Universities.
uates of Indian Universities, The chapter concerns itself only with graduates ; that is, with those who have
157-93 proposed. succeeded in obtaining University Degrees, as distinguished from under-grad-
uates who have either failed in obtaining degrees or have not pursued their studies up to that standard. A his-
tprical account of the establishment of the various Indian Universities, and the scope and character of the educa-
tion recognised and controlled by them, has been given in Chapter XVIII of this work, and in this Chapter it is
intended to describe with reference to statistics, the amount of success which they have achieved during thirty-six
years, that is from the foundation of the Universities up to the present period (1893). It must be borne in mind
that the Universities of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, were established in 1857, the Punjab University in 1882,
and the Allahabad University in 1887, and the statistics of these various Universities must therefore be considered
with reference to these various dates.
The population of India consists of a vast conglomeration of races and creeds, and it is not an easy matter
to offer any classification which would meet the approval of all ethnologists
Multifariousness of the po- and politicians. A general view however of the population of India has been
pulation of India. t]lus expre8sed by Sir William Hunter, in his work The Indian Empire (2nd
ed. p. 52) : —
" According to the census of 1881, the comparatively pure descendants of the Aryan race (the Brahmins and
Rajputs) still numbered 16 millions in British India ; the mixed population, including lower caste Hindus, Abori-
ginal Tribes, and Christians, 138 millions ; and the Muhammadans, 45 millions. These make up the 199 millions
in British India in 1881. In the Feudatory States there appear to have been 5y millions of Brahmans and Raj-
puts ; 46j millions of lower caste Hindus and Aboriginal Tribes ; and 5 millions of Mnhammadans, — making up
the 56| millions in Feudatory India, in 1881. The Aboriginal element of the population was chiefly returned as
low-caste Hindus. Only 4j millions were separately registered as non- Aryans, or Aborigines in British India ; and
If millions in the Feudatory States ; making 6J millions for all India in 1881."
To be more specific in regard to figures, the following Table has been compiled from the Tabular Statement
Population of British India Appendix X. given at page 703, of Sir William Hunter's work abovemen-
in 1881. tioned :—
POPULATION OF BRITISH INDIA IN 1881.
Hindus ... ... ... ... ... ... 14,48,75,315
Muhammadans ... ... ... ... ... 4,51,27,033
Christians ... ... ... ... ... ... 11,68,589
Aboriginal Tribes ... ... ... ... ... 46,77,688
Miscellaneous ... .„ ... 60,40,272
TOTAL ... 20,18,88,897
HINDU AND MUHAMMADAN POPULATION IN 1881.
183
Consideration of compara-
tive statistics limited to Hindu
and Muhammadan graduates,
with reference to census of
1881, and University statistics,
1857-93.
It will be seen from this Table that Hindus and Muhammadans, aggregating 19,00,02,348, form the main bulk
of the population of India, leaving 1,18,86,549, of which no less than 46,77,688 belong to Aboriginal tribes in a very
low state of civilisation, untouched by the Educational System. Under the heading " Miscellaneous " are included
Buddhists (almost entirely in Burma), Jains, Parsis, Jews, etc., who in point of numbers, are too small to be separate-
ly dealt with in any statistical consideration of the general subject of the progress of University Education in India.
Again, the social, political, and economical conditions of the European, Eurasian, and Native Christian population of
India are so peculiar and different from the ordinary natives of India, that no conclusions of much significance can
be arrived at by taking them into account for purposes of estimating the progress of high English education
among the people of India in general.
This chapter is, therefore, limited to the consideration of the question how far High English education, as re-
presented by the Indian University Degrees, has advanced among Hindus and
Muhammadans, respectively, and since these two communities, not only numeri-
cally but also from social, political, and economical points of view, form the
most important portion of the population, interesting and valuable conclusions
may be drawn by forming an accurate estimate of the comparative progress
which High English education has made among them. The figures of the
census of 1881 have been adopted as the basis of calculations in this Chapter, because ordinarily a course of ten or
twelve years' duration is necessary for a young native student to obtain a degree of the Indian Universities, and
since the statistics of graduates in this chapter have been brought down to the year 1893, the census of the popu-
lation in 1881 is a better basis of calculating progress of High English education, during the last ten or twelve
years, than the latest census taken in 1891. Moreover, the two censuses have not altered the percentages of Hindus
and Muhammadans in the total population, and therefore for purposes of comparison there can be no harm in pre-
ferring the census of 1881 to that of 1891, whilst it is obvious, that, since primary and secondary stages of educa-
tion are not included within the scope of this chapter, which deals only with graduates of the Universities, the
increase of population between 1881 and 1891 can have no great bearing upon the present condition of High Eng-
lish education in India.
Dealing therefore only with Hindus and Muhammadans, whose aggregate population in 1881 amounted to
Distribution of Hindu and 19,00,02,348, the following table * shows their distribution into castes, sects,
Muhammadan population into and nationalities : —
castes, sects, &c., in 1881.
HINDU AND MUHAMMADAN POPULATION OF BRITISH INDIA CLASSIFIED ACCORDING
TO CASTE, SECT, AND NATIONALITY, IN 1881.
•
HINDUS.
MUHAMMADANS.
PROVINCES
Brahmans.
Rajputs.
Other Castes
Sunnis.
Shiahs.
Wahabis,
Faraizis.
Unspecified.
Madras
11,22,070
2,07,465
2,71,68,143
17,58,375
44,378
1,102
1,29,706
Bombay
6,64,411
1,96,906
1,14,47,265
29,40,764
78,531
178
1,658
Bengal
27,54,100
14,09,354
4,12,89,352
2,09,64,657
2,62,293
2,144
4,75,630
Punjab
8,09,081
6,52,181
56,69,266
1,03,20,022
95,655
2,414
1,07,059
N.-W. P. and Oudh
46,55,204
30,27,400
3,03,70,790
57,52,056
1,70,547
' 28
255
Central Provinces
3,32,207
2,21,849
67,63,774
2,59,608
6,772
186
9,207
Assam
1,19,075
10,541
29,32,532
13,08,712
6,377
1,340
583
Berar
65,754
46,148
23,13,752
1,85,686
1,360
39
470
Ajmere
22,388
15,876
3,37,765
57,262
547
Coorg
2,445
480
1,59,564
12,54£>
1
British Burma ...
88,177
1,50,821
11,287
1,249
5,524
Total for British India ...
1,05,46,735
57,88,200
12,85,40,380
4,37,10,503
6,77,743
' 8,680
7,30,102
* Extracted from Appendix X., Hunter's Indian Empire ; 2nd Ed., p. 703.
L84
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
Taking the figures of this Table the following abstract Tabular Statement has been prepared, showing the totals
of the various sub-divisions of Hindus and Muhammadans, respectively, and
Distribution and percent- .
ages of the Hindu and Muham- the percentage of each creed in the total Hindu and Muhammadan popula-
madan population in the vari- tion, in the various Provinces of India, in 1881 : —
ous Provinces, in 1881.
HINDU AND MUHAMMADAN POPULATIONS OF BRITISH INDIA, AS DISTRIBUTED
AMONG THE VARIOUS PROVINCES, IN 1881.
PERCENTAGE.
PROVINCES.
Hindus.
Muhamma-
dans.
Total.
Hindus.
^Muliiimmadans.
Bengal ...
4,54,52,806
2,17,04,724
6,71,57,530
677
32-3
Axiim ...
30,62,148
13,17,022
43,79,170
69-3
307
British Burma
88,177
1,68,881
2,57,058
34-3
65'7
Madras
2,84,97,678
19,33,561
3,04,31,239
93-7
6-3
Coorg ...
1,62,489
12,541
1,75,030
92-3
7-7
Bombay
2,23,08,582
30,21,131
1,53,29,713
80-3
197
Berar ...
24,25,654
1,87,555
26,13,209
92-8
7-2
Punjab
71,30,528
1,05,25,150
1,76,55,678
40-4
59-6
TS'.-W. P. and Oudh
3,80,53.891
59,22,886
4,39,76,280
86-6
13-4
Central Provinces
73,17,830
2,75,773
75,93,603
96-4
3-6
Ajmere
3,76,029
57,809
4,33,838
867
13-3
Total for British India
14,48,75,315
4,51,27,033
19,00,02,348
76-25
2375
Upon the basis of the figures given in this Table an interesting calculation has been made, by classifying
Hindu and Muhammadan po- tlie varions Provinces within the jurisdiction of each of the Indian Univer-
pulation, classified according sities, and showing tlie totals of the Hindu and Muhammadan population
to jurisdiction of Indian Uni- under the jurisdiction of each University, and the distribution of the population
into Hindus and Muhammadans, with the percentage of each community in
the total Hindu and Muhammadan population. The results of the calculation are shown in the following
Table: —
HINDU AND MUHAMMADAN POPULATION OF BRITISH INDIA UNDER THE JURISDICTION OF
THE INDIAN UNIVERSITIES, ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1881.
I'MVEESITIES.
Provinces within the
jurisdiction of the
University.
Total Hindu
and Muham-
madan popu-
lation.
DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION
INTO
PERCENTAGE.
Hindus.
Muhamma-
Hindus.
Muliamma-
dans.
dans.
( Bengal ~\
Calcutta
•""I > ...
7,17,93,758
4,86,03,131
2,31,90,627
67-7
32-3
(. Burma )
Madras
( M minis |
(Coorg t •••
3,06,06,269
2,86,60,167
19,46,102
93-6
6-4
Bomi
f Bombaj )
(Berar j "•
1,79,42,922
1,47,34,236
32,08,686
82-1
17-9
Punjab
Punjab
1,76,55,678
71,30,528
1,05,25,150
40-4
59-6
( N.-W. P. & Oudh )
Allahabad
• Central Provinces >
5,20,03,721
4,57,47,253
62,56,468
88-0
12-0
(.Ajmere )
Total
19,00,02,348
14,48,75,315
4,51,27,033
76-25
23-75
STATISTICS OP HINDU AND MUHAMMADAN GRADUATES, 1858-93.
185
It must be borne in mind that the percentages given in this Table have not been calculated with reference
Percentages calculated with *° ^e total population of all sects and nationalities inhabiting India, but
reference to the total Hindu
and Muhamuiadan population
only.
with reference only to the total Hindu and Muhammadan population, as it is
with them only that this Chapter is concerned. The percentages are therefore
naturally different from those usually given in the Government Census
Reports, since the percentages of Hindus and Muhammadans are there calculated with reference to the entire popu-
lation, including all creeds and nationalities. The scope of this Chapter is limited to a comparison of the progress
of high English education among the Hindus on the one hand, and the Muhammadans on the other, and taking their
aggregate population in British India, the calculations in the above Table show that whilst the percentage of Hindus
is 76'25, the percentage of Muhammadans is 2375. In other words the proportion of Mnhammadans to Hindus in
23'75 3
British India is j or '31, or — , that is, the Muhammadan population is more than one-fourth and less than one-
third of the number of the Hindu population.
Such being the proportion of Muhammadans to the Hindu population of British India, Statistics have been
Comparative Statistics of carefully prepared from the Calendars of the various Indian Universities, up
to the year 1893, for describing the comparative progress which high English
education has made among the two communities respectively. The following
Table shows the successful results achieved by Hindus and Muhammadans,
respectively, in the examinations for Degrees in the various Faculties of the
Indian Universities during the 36 years, from 1858 to 1893, divided into periods of 6 years each : —
Hindu and Muhammadan
graduates, prepared from Ca-
lendars of Indian Universities,
1858-93, divided into periods
of 6 years each.
HINDU AND MUHAMMADAN GRADUATES IN THE VARIOUS FACULTIES OF THE INDIAN UNIVER-
SITIES DURING 36 TEARS, 1858 TO 1893, DIVIDED INTO PERIODS OF 6 YEARS EACH.
ARTS.
LAW.
MEDICINE AND
SURGERY.
ENGINEERING.
TOTAL.
Number of
S
Number of
§
Number of
8
Number of S
Number of
g
graduates.
-1 g
graduates.
_C on
•7J QJ
graduates.
nC co
S O
graduates. js g
graduates.
r— '
3 fl)
PERIOD.
Ml
% |
J3
•s|
c ^
'c's
'o'g
1
0 gL
S
c ^
be to
1
I MM
H CS
f
§
ffl i.
SOM
Hindus
Muham
dans.
O ~
0) S
PH
Hindus
Muham
dans.
Percent
madan
Hindus
Muham
dans.
Percent
madan
Hindus.
-5 c
|a • g|
»! ! "1
£ T3 o P
i^l ' P_^
Hindus.
Muhami
dans.
Percent
madan
1858-63
88
1
1-13
36
45
1
2-2
18
187
2
1-1
1864-69
472
9
1-9
238
4
1-6
113
3
2-6
25
848
16
1-8
1870-75
846
10
1-2
589
9
1-5
160
7
4-2
57
1,652
26
1-6
1876-81
1,252
23
2-03
385
5
1-3
321
3
•93
128
2,086
31
1-5
1882-87
2,978
110
3-6
827
37
4-3
292
6
2
130
2
1-5
4,227
155
3-6
1888-93 ... 4,079
246 5-7
1,462
55
3-6
308
14
4-3
232
1
•4
6,081
316
5-0
TOTAL 1858-93 ... 9,715
399 3-9
3,537
110
3-02
1,239
34
2-7
590
3
•5
15,081
546
3-5
Average per year
269-9
11-1
98-2
3
34-4
•99
16-4
•1
418-9
15-1
It will be observed from this Table that during the first period of six years, only two Muhammadans succeeded
Extreme paucity of Muham- in obtaining University Degrees, as against 187 Hindus ; that in the second
madan graduates during the period their number WHS 16 as against 848 Hindus ; that in the third period
first four periods, 1858 to 1881. tiiei.e were 26 Muhammadans as against 1,652 Hjndus, and even in the fourth
period their number was only 31, as against no less than 2,086 Hindu graduates. In other words, during the first
24 years, following the establishment of the Indian Universities the total number of Muhammadan graduates was
only 75 ,• whilst even in the very first period of six years the number of Hindu graduates was as much as 187, and
KViLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
Signs of progress among Mu-
hammad in graduates, during
the 5th and 6th periods, 1882-
93.
during the 24 years no less than 4,773, as against only 75 Muhammadans. During these 24 years the proportion of
Muhammadau graduates in no period exceeded 1'8 or 1± percent, of the total Hindu and Muhammadan graduates ; a
state of things so unsatisfactory as to justify the observation that during a quarter of a century succeeding the
establishment of the Indian Universities, the Muhammadans remained almost totally dormant and oblivions of their
interests, so far as high English education was concerned.
The fifth period of six years (from 1882 to 1887), however, indicate some signs of progress, showing the num-
ber of Muhammadan graduates to have risen during that period to 155, as
against 4,227 Hindus, yielding a proportion of 3'6 per cent. Similarly during
the sixth period of six years (from 1888 to 1893) the number of Muhammadan
graduates increased to 316, as against 6,081 Hindus, yielding a proportion of
5 per cent, during that period.
These Statistics when viewed in respect of the whole period of 36 years show even more lamentable results,
Statistics of graduates view- so far as the Muhammadans are concerned. The Table shows that during the
ed in respect of the whole whole period, 1858 to 1893, only 546 Muhammadans succeeded in obtaining
period, 1858-93. University Degrees in the various branches of learning, as against no less than
15,081 Hindus, yielding a proportion of only 3'5, or 3| per cent, in the total number of Hindu and Muhammadan
graduates, and an yearly average of 15-1, as against 418'9 Hindus or a proportion of only *-a of the average num-
ber of Hindu graduates per year. In the Tables given in this Chapter relating to the Hindu and Muhammadan po-
pulation in British India it has been shown that whilst the percentage of Hindus is 76'25 that of the Muhammadans
is 23-75, which should also have been the percentage of the Muhammadans in the total number of Hindu and
Muhammadan graduates, if the Muhammadans had made as much progress in high English education as the
Hindus. As the figures stand, the percentage of Muhammadan graduates being only 3'5 instead of 23'75, their defi-
ciency is no less than 2O25 per cent.
The great disparity between the progress of high English education among Hindus and Muhammadans may
also be considered with reference to the various degrees of progress made in
the various Provinces within the jurisdiction of the different Universities,
during the 36 years from the establishment of the various Universities to the
year 1893. For this purpose the following Table gives the necessary statis-
tical information : —
Statistics of great disparity
between Hindus and Muharu-
madnna in high English edu-
cation, 1858-93.
HINDU AND MUHAMMADAN GRADUATES IN THE VARIOUS FACULTIES OF THE INDIAN UNIVERSI-
TIES DURING 36 YEARS, 1858 TO 1893, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE VARIOUS UNIVERSITIES.
AHTS.
LAW.
MEDICINE AND
SURGERY.
ENGINEERING.
TOTAL.
Number of
e
Number of
|
Number of
i
Number of
2
Number of
1
graduates.
*z J
graduates.
"B -^
graduates.
" a-'
~ 2
graduates.
•= 2
a S
graduates.
S 2
a 1
'3 n!
UNIVERSITY.
•Al ^
**" ••§
O CS
Q C3
O ci
~~
a
6060
|
t,
i
c
jj
Si ">
cb
o i^
tJD ££
Hindus.
Im
Percenta
madan
Hindus.
§ 50
J§ g
Percentaj
madan
Hindus.
Muhamm
dans.
Percenta]
madan
Hindus.
Muhamn
dans.
Percenta
madan
Hindus.
Muhamn-
dans.
•5 a
0 «
fc. o
<c a
PH
Calcutta
4,981
203
3-9
2,588
76
2-8
694
10
1-4
177
1
•6
8,440
290
3-4
Madras
2,634
22
•9
465
5
1-1
59
2
3-3
78
3,236
29
•9
Bombay
1,424
26
1-8
345
3
•9
423
9
2-1
335
2
•6
2,527
30
1-2
Punjab
246
69
21-9
87
20
19-
63
13
17-1
...
...
396
102
25-8
Allahabad
430
79
15-5
52
6
10-4
482
85
17-6
TOTAL ...
9.715
399
3-9
3,537
110
3-02
1239
34
2-7
590
3
•5
15,081
546
3-5
Average per year
269-9
11-1
98-2
3
...
34-4
•99
16-4
•1
418-9
15-1
PROPORTION OF HINDU AND MUIIAMMADAN GRADUATES, 1858-93. 1*7
It appears from this Table that the Muhammadans are most backward in the Madras Presidency, and that
their condition is scarcely better in the Presidency of Bombay. It seems
Backwardness of high Eng- » J J
lish education among Muham- tnat' so *ar as high English education is concerned, the Muhammadans of
madans in the various Pro- Madras have remained almost entirely dormant during the last 36 years since
vinces, as shown by University the foundation of the University in that Presidency. The figures show that
Statistics, l: during that period, whilst no less than 3,236 Hindus obtained degrees in the
various branches of learning, only 29 Muhammadans succeeded in obtaining degrees, not affording even a proportion
of one to each 100 of Hindu graduates. Nearly as lamentable seems the condition of Muhammadans in the
Presidency of Bombay, where only 30 Muhammadans obtained degrees, as against 2,527 Hindus, or a proportion of
one to every 100 Hindu graduates. The Statistics of the University of Calcutta, no doubt, show better results.
There 290 Muhammadans obtained degrees, as against 8,440 Hindus ; but even this number does not afford a large
proportion of Muhammadans as it yields only about 3 Muhammadan graduates to every 100 Hindus, whilst the pro-
portion of the Muhammadan to the Hindu population is 32'3 to 67'7 in the Provinces within the jurisdiction of
the University of Calcutta. In the Punjab University, since its establishment, 102 Muhammadans have taken
Degrees as against 396 Hindus, yielding a proportion of about 25 Muhammadans to every 100 Hindu graduates.
But although this result may at first seem satisfactoiy in favour of the Muhammadans, in reality, quite the reverse
is the case, since in that Province the proportion of the Muhammadan to the Hindu population is as 59'6 to 40'4 —
the Muhammadans being nearly 60 per cent, of the total Hindu and Muhammadan population. The only part of
India where high English education may be said to have made satisfactory progress among the Muhammadans, are
the Provinces within the jurisdiction of the Allahabad University. In that University, since its foundation in 1887
to the year 1893, no less than 85 Muhammadans obtained Degrees, as against 482 Hindus, yielding a proportion of 17
to every 100 Hindu graduates ; whilst the proportion of the Muhammadan to the Hindu population is as 12 to 88 in
those Provinces. This satisfactory result is due entirely to the exceptional efforts which have been made in the
North- Western 'Provinces to popularise and promote high English education for the Muhammadans, resulting in the
foundation of the Muhammadan Anglo- Oriental College at Aligarh, which during the period concerned passed 25
out of the total 85 Muhammadan graduates of the Allahabad University abovementioned. Had such not been the
case, the percentage of Muhammadan graduates in the Allahabad University also would have fallen below the
percentage of the Muhammadans in the total Hindu and Muhammadan population of the North- Western Provinces
and Oudh.
The Statistics of the relative progress of high English education among Hindus and Muhammadans respec-
Number of graduates per tively may be considered also from other points of view, to facilitate comparison.
1,OO,000 of the Hindu and The following Table has been prepared to show the number of graduates per
Muhammadan population, res- 100,000 of each population, and,' conversely, the number of each population
^' among whom one is a graduate. As in the preceding Tables in this Chapter,
the number of population has been calculated according to the census of 1881, and the number of graduates- has
been obtained from the Calendars of the various Indian Universities, from their establishment up to the year 1893.
The results are shown in the Table on the next page.
OF EACH POPULATION 7
IVERS1T1ES
TOTAL.
Nnmber of each
population among
whom one is a
graduate.
EXGUSH EDUCATTO
^ IN HIDIi.
t» O CO **• ^
to o w oo o
oi" i> cc co co
1
•supuijj
p^ CO CO rH
»0 00 00 ^~
§
CO
as"
jijij
^P^^UH
W iO CO CO
2
•Bnpmg
10
CO C4 (-H tO O
o
)N, AND THE NUMBER
[E VARIOUS INDIAN UNI
d
Z
a
Number of oach
population among
whom one is a
graduate.
— »
IN
so co_
o" . -f
os_ : 0.
co ^
rf
o"
o
•snputjj
t- 00 <N
CO CO 00
IO -^ O
•*" i>r co"
t» to •*
eif co"
IO
10"
IH o" a "S
ItFt
-*— «,
8 .: S .: 5
(C
S
•snpuijj
M
f
TAHLK SHOWING THE NUMBER OF GRADUATES PER 100,000 OP EACH POPULATIC
AMONG NVHOM ONE IS A GRADUATE, PROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF Th
TO THE YEAR 1893.
MEDICINE AND SUBGEBY.
o c >
rt c o rt
fc "5 *>.S 1
•& 0. O ® T3
§\a IM <N
O W CC
M *
CO
1
^,
fi*» O <M *fc
t» CO CO W
— t» • oo ^
o" «T V co"
r- oq^ co O^
Oi
04
5
CO"
® "* o" ° '"5
D hL *" C °
-^— c.«
9 ^ ? ^ : | S
•snpuig
•* (N 00 01
IE'
Number of each
population among
whom one ia a
graduate.
—
Ci O w r* ^j»
to »o ^»
»O OS Cl ^O Ci
q^ oo^ 5b_ 01 ^
o"
1-*^
•*
.^.,H
t>^ O^ l> Ol **^
oo" ei* c'T i-^ oT
S CO ^ 00 S
«r
1
1
Q) O O
C 'O 2 ® P
™pram™
So
"M O
«
•snpuig
CO CO CO N rH
S
!
II
'BUUptJUIUlIJtlTlTr
(N ^ ^t IO_ CO
^ 00 CO W O
i-^ 00 ff^ *O_ CO
^H -^ ^
co"
'Snpuio
i> oo c m oo
lO CO ~^ 00 00
t^ OO CO d 00^
Oi O O 00 CD
*"" ~ ™ Tl
3.
l-<
ijg j-J
,a^ramBqnR
1-1 tO
CO CQ CO CO CO
*
•eupujH
•^
O C1 OS 93
I-H
CO
fc
1
-fl
1 I 1 i 1
* a 1
o s « <£
DEFICIENCY OP MUHAMMADAN GRADUATES, 1858-93. 189
In. many respects this Table gives a clearer indication of the backwardness of the Muhammadans than any
of the preceding Tables in this Chapter. The figures relating to the various
Progress of high English \
education among Hindus ten Universities, and m the different branches of learning, are separately shown
times as great as among in the Table, and it is necessary only to invite attention to the columns of
Muhammadans, calculated per the totals. It will be observed that even in the Faculty of Arts, whilst
1,00,000 of the population of the number of Hindu graduates is 67 per lakh of the Hindu population, the
each community, 1858-93.
number of Muhammadan graduates is only '88, that is less than even 1 per
lakh of the Muhammadan population. To represent the same results in another way, as shown in the table,
whilst there is one graduate among every 14,912 of the Hindu population, among Muhammadans there is one
graduate among every 1,13,100 of the population of that creed. Deplorable as these results may seem, so far as
Muhammadans are concerned, the Statistics of the Faculties of Law, Medicine and Engineering, show even worse
results in a descending scale — a circumstance all the more lamentable as these subjects, being professional, lead
to obtaining means of lucrative employment. The general results of the calculations in the Table are shown in
the last main column, under the heading "total." It shows that whilst there are J0'4 graduates among every
lakh of the Hindu population, the figure of Muhammadan graduates is only 1-2 in every lakh of the population
of that creed. Leaving the decimals out of account, it may be said that whilst there are 10 graduates among
every lakh of Hindus, there is only 1 Muhammadan in every lakh of that population. In other words, high
English education has made nearly ten-fold progress among Hindus, as compared with the progress among
the Muhammadans. Putting the matter in a different form, as shown in the Table, whilst there is one graduate
among every 9,606 Hindus, there is one graduate in every 82,650 of the Muhammadan population.
These results are so obvious, as showing the backwardness of the Muhammadans in high English education, in
, comparison to the Hindus, that it is scarcely necessary to deal with the
Deficiency in the number of . . . J . .
Muhammadan graduates, ac- %ures m otter forms- But at ls "^portant from all points of view, for
cording to the ratio of the the future prosperity of India, that the disparity which exists between Hindus
Muhammadan to the Hindu an(j Muhammadans in the matter of high English education should be fully
' realised, and accordingly, the following Table has been prepared with reference
to the census of 1881, and the number of graduates obtained from the Calendars of the various Indian Universities
from their beginning down to the year 1893 : —
L90
KM.I.ISII KIitVATION IN* r
c
K
-
n
<
-
-
5^
= I
2
--:
w
i; '-
l^
o '^ .-
§ 9 £
^— ' *$ H
. O M
~ •-• "
_ - ••
r- L. x.
— _ — ,
H § trf
•= -
O H
^ _
^.7.
li
II
*
o
w
co
s
i-H
•(g-[ iiuin[oo) oq (il ji(i>no n n
-IQTITI oi(i 111 s.)H!iipi:.iJ5 iii:piiiuimM(iii\- jo (,;|
Is- co ' ~ i >. do
rH rH Cl
CO
o
i
rH
J
8
uBpBUUUBqnj^; jo aaqmnu aq? in .OuoiagaQ
*
"I O> OS r- OS
'M 00 t-H 00 rH
I>» r-~ iO ^T
co" • 1
1'
1
Ob
I-H
rnpuiS ui!pBiuuii:qupj[ jo aaquinu pm?oy
O OS O CM "3
OS CM CO 00
s
00
ill 01 S'uip.io.JOi! M(| oj jqrino
li si! s.umipiuTi uiipBiuunjqnj^ jo aaqum^
CM oo to
Tf"
o"
iH
•(gj uunqo.i) oq o? ?q8uo ?i SB aaq
-Ultllt OI[J III S,IJi:ilpl!.i;> UI!pl!lllll[l!qilfJ JO frl
uuiu[Oo) aaquinu [BII?OB aq? jo a8B?uaoao,j
rH ^
00
(8
to
i
CO
I-H
trapBuiimiqn[\[ jo aaqumu aq? in iouaiogaQ
CO «C O ;
5
rH
3
•^•
iH
npiuS UBpBUiarBqnj^ jo aaquinu pan?oy
rH O CM ;
CO
rH
aq? jo oi?Ba aq? o? jj'uip.iojoi! 'aq o? ?q8no
ji su sojiuipu.iri in:pi!iuiin!i(n[^ jo aaqiunsj
oo i^ : :
i-H
H
a
CO
rH
•(01 umnjoo)) oq o? ?qSno ?t SB aaq
-uinuaq? ui sa?BnpBaS unpnniiiii!qii[^ jo (n
uuiujoo) aaquinu ]Bn?OB aq? jo a8B?uaoaa(j
O O 00 rH
CO O Ca •*
»0 rH
7'
'
a
71
rH
uBpBUiuiBqnj\[ jo aaquinu aq? ut ^ouaiogaQ
CM CO r;
1
-
1— t
rH
upiuS uBpBrauiBqnj^ jo aaqranu |Bn?oy
0 CM OS CO
—
CO
§
*
•uoijiqndod nputjj aq? o? UBpBmuiBqnj^
aq? jo oijiu oq? o? 8u;paooaB 'aq o? ?qSno
?t sti soji!iipt!.iii UBpBuiiuBqupj jo aaquin^j
rH tf« CM 7J
co os ~. :
i ~
.
•(9 utunjoa) aq o? ?qSno ?t SB
a. ujiunu aq? ut sojimptuii iii:pi!iiiuiBqn[\[ jo
(^ acnnjoo) aaquinu jBn?3B aq? jo aSB?uaoaac[
CM rH O 5O t^
rH -i 00
i'-»
,
00
UBpBraniBqirfl[ jo aaquinu aq? ui ^ouaiagaQ
00 CO CM 00 rH
CM K
1
rH
13
-
•so?BnpBa9 UBpuuiuiBqnpf jo aaquinu [rBn?oy
CO tO CO O to
t^ CM
O
rH
rH
to
•uoi?B|ndod npujjj aq? o? uBpGuiunjqnj^
aq? jo oi?na aqi <n rnup.iooDB 'oq o? ?q8no
-f rH »O 00 r-
CO CO I ^ CM
CM^ rH
r-T
-t
.
•(~. uiuii[(>.)) ,iq o? ?qSno ?t SB
aaquinu aqj ui s,)ji:npn.i;-( ui:pi!iiiiiii!qiij\[ jo
(j; UWIH03) joqumu |un?OG aq? jo a8B?ua3aa,j
to co -* o os
do CM do 6s co
rH rH CO
rH
rH
CM
rH
H
.
•S9?BnpBoS
iu!pi:tuuiBqnj^ jo aaquinu aq? ut jfanopgaQ
co to ~t -* o
rH CM CM 1
00
co
""
CO
,a?8np,a3n^uiulBqnKJoa,qranulBn?3y
CM CM • CO S
CO
1-H
•uoi?B[iidod npuijj oq? o? uep'imiuinqiifif
oq? jo oi?Ba aq? o? 8uipaoooB S«( o? ?q3no
?i SB sa?«npBa8 UBpBiuuiBqnj^ jo aaquin^j
CO 00 O CO OS
t^» r^» I-H CO to
CO rH CO CO
CM"
co"
«
i
i
^ "i
i i 1 1 i
"3 33
O 3 M PH <l
-J O
< EH
M
NUMBER OF MUHAMMADAN GRADUATES, AS IT SHOULD HAVE BEEN, 1858-93. 19]
In order to understand the calculations in this Table clearly, and if necessary to verify them, the figures of
, the Hindu and Muhammadan population, and the ratio of the one to the other
Explanation of the preced-
ing Table as showing the ex- as shown in the preceding Tables* in this Chapter, must be borne in mind,
tent of the deficiency of the and also the figures in the Tables f relating to the number and proportion of
Muhammadans in high English Hindu and Muhammadan graduates, respectively. With reference to these
^n' ^is ^R-^B^ Statistics, the hypothesis is that the progress which high English education
has made among the Hindus, may be taken to represent a satisfactory standard
of intellectual progress, and the object of the comparison is to show how far the Muhammadans have fallen short
of that standard, when the ratio of their population to the Hindu population is borne in mind — these proportions
having been shown, with reference to the various ProvincesJ an(l Universities § in the previous Tables in this
Chapter. For example, taking the whole Hindu and Muhammadan population of British India, it has been shown
in one of the previous Tables, that whilst the percentage of Hindus is 76'25, the percentage of Muhammadans is
23' 75, and this represents the ratio of the one population to the other. Again, it has been shown in another Table,
that whilst the total number of Hindu graduates in all the Universities, down to the year 1893, is 15,081, the number
of Muhammadan graduates is only 546, yielding a percentage of only 3'5 in the total number of Hindu and
Muhammadan graduates in British India. Bearing this in mind, each of the headings in the above Table has been
sub-divided into four columns — the calculation in the first column of each heading having been made with reference
to the ratio of the Muhammadan to the Hindu population. Thus when there are 15,081 Hindu graduates, the
number of Muhammadan graduates should have been 5,441, instead of which, as a matter of fact, the actual number
is only 546, leaving a deficiency of 4,895 graduates showing, as the last column under the heading "total" shows,
that the success which the Muhammadans have actually achieved, ever since the foundation of the Indian Universi-
ties, is only 10'03 per cent., or ^th of what it should have been. In other words, the backwardness of Muhammadans
is nine times as great as their success, they having fallen 90 per cent, short of the standard which they should
have achieved if progress of high English education among them had been proportionately as great as among the
Hindus. To put the idea in a more concrete form, the condition of high English education among Muhammadans
may be compared to a bank, of which the assets are 546 and the debts 4,895. To put the matter shortly, the
Muhammadans of India may be said to be suffering from all the evils of bankruptcy in the matter of high English
education.
That this conclusion is justified, is shown by dealing with the Statistics from another point of view. Taking
the figures of the total Hindu and Muhammadan graduates, the percentage of
Proportionate number of
Muhammadan graduates, as it each race m such total number has beeu calculated, and taking the percentage
should have been, according °f the Hindu graduates as a standard of satisfactory success, it is shown what
to the ratio of the Muham- the proportion of Muhammadans should have been if they had achieved as
madan to the Hindu popula- satisfactory progress as the Hindus in high English education. The following
Table shows the results of such calculations, with reference to the various
Faculties of Learning in the various Universities of India : —
* Vide pages 183, 184, ante. \ t Vide page 185, ante. \ J Vide pago 18J, ante. \ § Vide page 184, ante.
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
(
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o? uBpumraKqnn 9qi jo oiqua oi|q 01 SuipioooB
'(g umnioo ui) sa^BnpB.iS npuifi jo aaqinnuoi)()
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m p< M I^H
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do
c.
MADRAS.
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o^ u«pniuuiBi|nK 9qj jo OCJBJ gqa 05 Suip.ioDOB
'(g uiunio.1 in) saiiiiipujS npuijj jo jaquinu aq^
qjiAv pajvduioa SB 'uaaq 8A«q p|noi(s 51 SB 'sain
-npBja uBpBiuaiuqnj^ jo aaqtutm e^«uo;5aodoj,j
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CS O> O5 OS CS O
5
CALCITTA
•uonBindod npuiff aq()
") unpBUiaiBqnn 9q} jo OI^BJ ei^ o? SuipjoooB
'(% timntos in) sd^BiipiMa npuijj jojaqninu aq?
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jo 001 Jad 'BOiuupBjS jo joiimn^
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( Opposit&topaqe- 193.)
DIAGRAM
Diagram slwwuig the* oonif)aj'ajtiv& progress nfltighEiiglielvEcULcaJjiom
irL^4rt6, /ijrui7i^Hittdujsarijd/MftJwn-i^jdaJte, da^srfi&tLitu<jdLej--t!w vas-ioiLS
Unwer-sitizs cflndiaj, eluj*i»g-the' period 0-P36 years, fronvl868tc18Q3uifJjuswe/
;
.9(7
20
10
Scale/ of
Progress
CaLctJtitbou
McLdrcts
Bombay
Puryah.
dV.ahaixu
\TotaJU
M. A.
B. A.
M. A.
B. A.
M. A.
B. A.
M.A.
B. A.
M.A.
fl. /I.
M. A.
B. A.
H.
M.
H.
M.
H.
M.
H
M.
H.
M.
H.
M.
H.\M.
H
M.
H.
M.
M
/vr.
H.
M.
H.
/w.
100
—
X
V
I
—
o>c .
tVj
SO ~
" \
x
/ \
/ \
s /
85
A
X
§
X
V
X
V
—
80
75
/ \
X
—
/\
X
\ /
70 —
$
A
X
66 ~
x
V
x
V
60 ~
X
X
56 . ~
A
X
A
X
SO —
x
V
x
Y
4*;
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x
X
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I
X
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x
X
35 — .
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X
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x
y
x
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11
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110
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too
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN ARTS AMONG HINDUS AND MUHAMMADANS.
193
The calculations contained in the last column of each of the subdivisions of this Table, namely, columns
4, 7, 10, 13, 16 and 19, require some explanation. The calculation has been
Calculations in the preced- -, , , , . ,, ,. TT. ,
ing Table explained. m 7 takm? tlle number of Hindu graduates, per 100 of the total Hindu
and Muhammadaii graduates (shown in columns 2, 5, 8, 11, 14 and 17),
as the standard of satisfactory success, and upon that assumption, calculating, by the rule of three, what the
proportionate number of Muhammadan graduates should have been, according to the ratio of the Muhammadan
to the Hindu population, if the Muhammadans had achieved as much success in high English education as the
Hindus — the success of the Hindus being in excess of what it should have been, in proportion to their number
in the aggregate Hindu and Muhammadan population.
To illustrate the effect of the calculations contained in the preceding Table, so far as the Faculty of Arts is
concerned, the accompanying diagram I. has been prepared on a uniform scale
of 100 degrees, in columns placed in juxtaposition. The columns showing
the progress of the Hindus are coloured pink, and those relating to the
Muhammadans green, and the degrees up to which the columns have been
coloured represent the actual progress of each, comparatively. The cross
lines in the columns relating to the Muhammadans indicate the degrees of progress which the Muhammadans
should have attained, if, with reference to the proportion of their population to the Hindu population, they had
achieved as great a rate of success as the Hindus. In other words, the pink colours represent the calculations
as to the M.A. and B.A. Degrees, in columns 2, 5, 8, 11, 14 and 17 of the above Table ; the green colours represent
the calculations contained in columns 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18, and the cross lines in the columns relating to the
Muhammadans represent the calculations contained in columns 4, 7, 10, 13, 16 and 19, in the above Table.
These explanations, when borne in mind, with reference to the calculations represented by the figures in the
Figures necessary to under- Prece(ling Table, render the accompanying diagram easily intelligible, but for
stand the calculations in the the sake of facilitating reference, the requisite figures for understanding the
Diagram I. diagram are given in the following Table : —
Diagram I, showing the com-
parative progress of high Eng-
lish education in Arts among
Hindus and Muhammadans,
1858-93.
NUMBER PER 100 OF THE TOTAL HINDU AND
MUHAMMADAN—
Proportionate num-
ber of Muhammadan
graduates, as it should
have been, as compar-
UNIVERSITIES.
POPULATION.
GRADUATES.
ed with the number of
Hindu graduates, ac-
I
the Muhammadan to
Hindus.
Muham-
madans.
M.A.
B.A.
the Hindu population.
Hindus.
Muham-
mad.ans.
Hindus.
Muham-
madans.
M.A.
B.A.
Calcutta
677
32-3
96-94
3-06
95-71
4-29
46-1
45-6
Madras
93-6
6'4
98-
2-
99-2
•8
6-7
6-8
Bombay
82-1
17-9
99-1
•9
9"8-l
1-9
21-74
21-5
Punjab
40-4
59-6
81-25
18-75
77-7
22-3
120-6
115-
Allahabad
88-
12-
96-7
3-3
82-8
17-2
13-2
11-3
Total for India . . .
76-25
2375
96-7
3-3
95-85
4-15
30-1
29-8
The accompanying Diagram (No. I.), showing the comparative progress of high English education in Arts
among Hindus and Muhammadans, classified under the various Universities of India, during the period of 36 years,
from 1858 to 1893, inclusive, is inserted here, and should be perused in the light of the statistics given in the preced-
ing Table.
25
194
ENGLISH EPFC1TION IS INDIA.
To explain the foregoing diagram further — take the column relating to the M.A. Examination of the Calcutta
The foregoing Diagram ex- University. The total number of M.A.'s during the 36 years, from 1858 to
plained. J893 (both inclusive), was 817, of which 792 were Hindus, or 96'94 per cent.
thus indicated in pink colour, np to nearly 97 degrees of the diagram, and the number of Muhammadans being
only 25, or 3'06 per cent., the green colour accordingly covers a little more than 3 degrees of the diagram. But
with reference to the population within the jurisdiction of the Calcutta University, the proportion of Hindus to
Muhammadans is as 67' 7 to 32'3, and if the Muhammadans had achieved the same rate of progress as the Hindus,
the ratio of Muhammadan graduates would have been as 46" 1 to 96'94* of the Hindus. The cross lines, therefore, in
the column of the Muhammadan M.A.'s reach 46' 1 degrees in the diagram, to denote the above calculation.
Attain, in the columns of the diagram relating to the Punjab University the pink and green colours show the
actual comparative progress of the Hindu and Muhammadan graduates, respectively, and the cross lines exceed the
100 degrees of the scale, reaching J20 degrees for the M.A.'s and 115 degrees for the B.A.'s, as represented on
the margin of the diagram, which must be considered as a part of the diagram, under the heading of the Punjab
University. The excessive deficiency thns indicated by the cross lines, in regard to the Punjab University is due to
the fact that in that Province the proportion of the Hindu to the Muhammadan population is as 40'4 to 59'6, and
the rate of progress achieved by the Hindu M.A.'s being 81'25 per cent., the proportionate number of Muhamma-
dan M.A.'s, according to the ratio of the Muhammadan to the Hindu population, should have reached 120'6 decrees
of the diagram, and the number of Hindu B.A.'s being 77'7 per cent, the number of Muhammadan graduates, with
reference to the proportion of the Muhammadan to the Hindu population, should have reached 115 degrees, as
represented on the margin of the diagram.
On the other hand, in the case of the B.A. degree of the Allahabad University, the green colour which
represents the actual success of 77 Muhammadans, as against 371 Hindus (denoted by the pink colour), exceeds the
proportion of the Muhammadan to the Hindu population, which is as 12 to 88 in the Provinces within the jurisdic-
tion of that University. The excess is represented by 5'9 degrees coloured green on the margin of the diagram.
This circumstance, as has once before been explained in this work, is due to the exceptionally strenuous efforts
in behalf of English education which the Muhammadans, under the leadership of Sir Syed Ahmed, Khan Bahadur,
K. C.S.I., have made by founding the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh, a brief history of which
institution has been given in an earlier part of this work. ( Vide pp. 163, 164 ante).
To further elucidate the comparison between the progress made by Hindus and that made by Muhammadans,
Abstract Tabular Statement, respectively, the following Table has been prepared showing an abstract
of the comparative statistics of the various branches of learning recognized
by the degrees of the various Indian Universities, from the time of their
establishment np to the present, covering a period of 36 years, from J858 to
1893, both inclusive : —
showing comparative progress
of Hindus and Muhammadans
in various branches of Univer-
sity Education, 1858-93.
COMPARATIVE STATISTICS OF HIGH ENGLISH EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA AMONG
HINDUS AND MUHAMMADANS, RESPECTIVELY, FOR THE 36 TEARS, FROM 1858 TO 1893.
ABTS.
LAW.
MEDICINE
A.ND SURGERY.
ENGINEERING.
TOTAL.
SUBJECTS.
cS
,
a
i
=e
A
1
c
EH
Hindus
&
Hindus
Muham
dans.
Hindus
Muham
dans.
Hindus
Muham
dans.
X
rq
m
li
Ij
Q
•s,
a
M
CS
Number of graduates
9,715
399
3,537
110
1,239
34
590
3
15,081
546
15,627
Percentage of graduates . .
96-1
3-9
96-98
3-02
97-13
2-87
99-5
•5
96-5
3-5
nnber of gradu-
|>or year
269-9
11-1
98-2
3
34-4
•99
16-4
•1
418-9
151
434-08
Hindu and Muham n
population of British
Indiii, according to the
-us of 1881
14,48,75,315
4,51,27,033
19,00,02,348
BACKWARDNESS OF MUHAMMADAXS IX UNIVERSITY DEGREES, 1858-93.
195
ARTS.
LAW.
MEDICINE
AND SUBGERY.
ENGINEEKING.
TOTAL.
SUBJECTS.
a
a
1
A
1
d
s
a
B
a
o
H
Hindus
Muham
dans.
Hindus
Muham
dans.
Hindus
Muham
dans.
CO
p
•t-1
1
Muham
dans.
•
3
T3
W
h
-c 3
If
Q
i
•«
«
03
Percentage in the total
Hindu and Muhammadan
population of British
India in 1881
76-25
23-75
Ratio of graduates, as it
ought to be, according to
the ratio of the Muham-
madan to the Hindu po-
pulation ...
961
29-9
96-98
30-2
97-13
30-3
99-5
31-0
96-5
30*
Number of Muhammadan
fraduates, as it ought to
e, according to the ratio
of the Muhammadan to
••••••
5,441
the Hindu population ...
...
3,286
...
1,475
...
519
...
161
Actual number of Hindu
and Muhammadan gra-
duates
9,715
399
3,537
110
1,239
34
590
3
15,081
546
15,627
Deficiency in the number
of Muhammadan gradu-
•2,887
1,365
...
485
...
158
4,895
The figures in this Table, when carefully considered are eloquent in themselves, as showing how enormously
Statistics of the backward- backward the Muhammadans are as compared with the Hindus. In all
ness of Muhammadans in all departments of learning recognised and controlled by the Indian Universities,
Departments of University Arts, Law, Medicine and Engineering, the Muhammadans have fallen far
ion, , short of the standard of success which they should have achieved if the
progress of high English education among them had been proportionate to their number in the population, as
compared with the Hindus. Thus, in the Faculty of Arts, instead of 3,286 Muhammadan graduates, there are only
399, leaving a deficiency of no less than 2,887. Similarly, in the Faculty of Law, instead of 1,475 Muhammadau
graduates, only 110 have succeeded, leaving a deficiency of no less than 1,365. In the Faculty of Medicine, instead
of 519 there are only 34 Muhammadan graduates, showing a deficiency of 485 ; and in the Faculty of Engineering
the number of Muhammadan graduates is only 3 instead of 161, leaving a deficiency of 158. The statistics, so far
as the Muhammadans are concerned, appear more cogently lamentable when the figures in the columns of totals are
considered. In the aggregate Hindu and Muhammadan population of British India the percentages are 76'25
Hindus and 23'75 Muhammadans ; whilst the percentages in the aggregate number of Hindu and Muhammadan
graduates are 96'5 Hindus and only 3'5 Muhammadans : the deficiency in the percentage being thus, 20*25.
These statistics are equally lamentable for the Muhammadans, when considered in another manner. Ever
since the establishment of the Indian Universities during a period of thirty-
six years, from the year 1858 to 1893, the statistics calculated from the Calen-
dars of the- various Indian Universities, show (as in the above table) that
15,627 persons have taken degrees in the various branches of learning recog-
nised and controlled by those Universities. Out of this 15,627 graduates no
less than 15,081 were Hindus, whilst the Muhammadans were only 546. According to the ratio of the Muhamma-
dans to the Hindus, in the aggregate Hindu and Muhammadan population, the number of Muhammadan graduates
should have been no less than 5,441, instead of the actual figure 546, thus showing a deficiency of no less than
4,895. In other words, the Muhammadans have achieved only one-tenth of the success which they should have
achieved, and their failure is nine times as much as their success ; whilst as matters now stand, the number of
Hindu graduates is more than 27 times as much ab that of the Mnhammadans instead of heing a little over 3 times,
Success of Muhammadans in
University degrees only one-
tenth of what it should have
been in proportion to their po-
pulation.
196
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN1 INDIA.
Diagram II, showing the
comparative progress of Hin-
dus and Muhammadans in the
Degrees of the Indian Universi-
ties, in various branches of
learning, during 1868-93.
according to the proportion existing between the Hindu and the Mnhammadan populations. No rational well-
wisher of India can grudge the satisfactory advance which the Hindus have made, but at the same time, he — whe-
ther as a politician or as a philanthropist — cannot help lamenting the fact that the Muhammadans have not made
a commensurate progress in high English education in proportion to their number in the population.
To render more easily intelligible the great disparity between Hindus and Muhammadans in high English
education in the various branches of learning recognised by the degrees of
the various Indian Universities, as shown in the preceding Table, the following
diagram has been prepared on the same principles as the preceding diagram,
and the figures given at the foot of the diagram, taken from the preceding
Tables, will explain the degrees up to which the diagram has been coloured
pink, as denoting the actual progress of the Hindus ; and green, the actual pro-
gress of the Muhammadans, and the cross lines showing the point of progress which the Muhammadans should
have achieved, if they had achieved the same rate of progress as the Hindus, with reference to the proportion of the
Mnhammadan to the Hindu population. The accompanying diagram showing the comparative progress of High
English Education in various branches of knowledge among Hindus and Muhamamdans in the Universities of
India during 36 years from 1858 to 1893, is inserted for perusal in the light of the preceding explanation.
The accompanying Diagram No. II is in itself eloquent in showing the deplorable backwardness of Muham-
madans in all branches of high English education recognised by the Universities of India — a state of things which
can never be lost sight of, in considering the various problems of moral, social, economical and political import.
which need consideration during the present period of the history of the British rule in India. The Diagram
might well suggest for its motto the following elegiac Bubdi ( jyb) ), or Quartrain, of the celebrated living Muham-
madan poet Maulvi Altaf Husain, Hali: —
IJ, — V}\ ii
The statistics of high English education stated in this Chapter, have been, so far, considered with reference
Kate of progress of Muham- to the a^re^ate results of the working of the Indian Universities from their
madan graduates in various foundation up to the end of 1893 — a period of 36 years. It is now impor-
Paculties of the Indian Uni- tant to consider the rate at which the Muhammadans have made progress in
versities, during 1858-93. high English education during this long period. For this purpose, and for
the sake of convenient reference, the following Table has been prepared as an extract from the Tabular Statement
already given (Vide page 185, ante), showing the comparative statistics of Hindu and Muhammadan graduates in
the various Faculties of the Indian Universities during 36 years, from 1858 to 1893, divided into periods of 6 years
each :—
PERCENTAGE OF MUHAMMADANS IN THE TOTAL HINDU AND MUHAMMADAN GRA-
PERIOD.
DUATES IN THE VARIOUS FACULTIES OF THE INDIAN UNIVERSITIES,
DURING 6 SEXENNIAL PERIODS, FROM 1858 TO 1893.
Arts.
Law.
Medicine
and
Surgery.
Engineer-
ing.
Total.
Percentage of
Muhammadinis
in the total
Hindu and
Mnhammadan
population.
1 tefiuiency in
the percentage
of Muhamma-
dan graduates
according to
percentage of
population.
1858-63
1 13
...
2-2
...
1-1
23-75
22-74
1864-69
1-9
1-6
2-6
...
1-8
»t
21-95
1870-75
1-2
1-5
4-2
...
1-6
1J
22-15
1876-81
2-03
1-3
0-93
...
1-5
»t
22-25
1882-87
3-6
4-3
2-0
1-5
3-6
ii
2015
1888-93
Total, 1858 to 1893 ...
5-7
3-6
4-3
0-4
5-0
»»
18-75
39
302
27
•5
35
2375
20-25
f Opposite* to poyej 196.J
DIAGRAM II.
Diagram showing the comparative progress of high English education in vnrvou* branches of Knowledge tuning
Hindus and Mahcinedans ottAe Universities of India, during 3ff years frcm 1858 to 1893.
Scale' of Progress.
Arts.
Lew:
flfeditiiieSj Surgery
Engineering.
Hi]lj()jU£
Ufahdns
Hindus
MnJuJjte
Uijijius
IkfOLhillW
Jfa?djt£
MaJtdnf
100 —
'•
Qf
0/7
Of:
0/7
«/<
YO —
65 •
60 ~~
65 — ~
50 ^
4$ —
40 r-
35 — '
•
f
30 ~~
25 • — '
X
X
X
X
9.0 —
X
X
X
X
r-s —~.
.
X
X
X
X
•JO
X
X
X
X
+\ . _
2
V
V
X
•
29-9
±±
3C2
/ \
x;
—
Rate' efffraahurtft; ajirt ought-fa tesazcor-darq-to
tike ratio of^MakomedojttaiJi&JtijidUspcpida/ic'i
96-1
96 98
9V- f 3
30 3
99 5
31-O
N'liiii'.rofMaJiMiijfefan^r^idtaj^afKcfou^MifbfOUfot
vvg-Urfhe. ratio tftfieMaJwrnedcut-tctfwffuulMpopiiloclititij
•ei-
3286
t4Y5
519
161
dctuaLnwttber f/f'Hw^Lu, and.MaJi£t/iejiai!.cfradiuckKi
9,Y/6
39S
3,63V
110
1,233
34-
590
3
Drficuaisv >J> 'Jit. ma7ib£rfff-MaJtmrt£daji,gr<idiAettee.
2,881
1,365
4-85
158
RATE OF MUHAMMADAN PROGRESS IN UNIVERSITY DEGREES. 197
It is evident from this Table that the progress of Muha*nmadans in high English education, as represented
Progress of Muhammadans by the percentages of the various sexennial periods, has been very slow in alj
in Indian Universities, up to the various Faculties in which Degrees are granted in the Universities of
1875, inconsiderable. India, and the last column of the Table shows the deficiency in the percentages
during these various periods, with reference to the proportion of Muhammadans in the total Hindu and Muham-
madan population. During the first three of these sexennial periods, namely, up to the end of the year 1875,
the percentage of Muhammadans who succeeded in obtaining University Degrees was so inconsiderable that
it can scarcely afford any estimate of the rate of progress made by the Muhammadans in this respect. The last
three periods, however, deserve special consideration, and it is necessary to discuss the advance made by Muham-
madans during those periods in the various branches of learning, and then to consider the statistics in respect
of all the Faculties of the Indian Universities taken as a whole.
In the Faculty of Arts the percentage of Muhammadans, in the total number of Hindu and Muhammadan
graduates, was 2'03 during the sexennial period ending in the year 188], and
Bate of progress of Muham- it increase(j to 3'6 during the next sexennial period ending in 1887, thus
madan graduates in the Facul- . ,_„ A-I-J.IT -i
t f A t 1881 93 showing an advance of only To? per cent. Again, during the last sexennial
period, ending in 1893, the percentage of Muhammadans increased to 5'7,
indicating an advance of 2'1, which is so far satisfactory ; but the required percentage of Muhammadan graduates
should have been 23'75, which is the percentage of Muhammadans in the total Hindu and Muhammadan popula-
tion, and thus, the deficiency in the percentage still remaining is no less than 18'05, which, at the rate of progress
indicated by 2'1, during the last sexennial period, would take more than 51 years to bring the percentage of Muham-
madan graduates in the Faculty of Arts up to the percentage of the Muhammadaus in the total Hindu and
Muhammadan population.
In the Faculty of Law the percentage of Muhammadans in the total number of Hindu and Muhammadan
graduates was 1'3 during the sexennial period ending in the year 1881. It
Rate of progress of Muham- incl.eased to 4'3 during the next sexennial period ending in the year 1887,
madan graduates in the Fa- ,. . c „ n , . , . .,
cultv of Law 1881-93 s s'lowmg an advance of 3'0 per cent., which is, no doubt, considerable, and
would have been satisfactory if it had not fallen during the last sexennial
period, ending in 1893, when it fell to 3'6, thus showing a retrogression of '7, leaving a deficiency of no less than
2O15, which is required to complete the percentage at 23'75, which is the percentage of the Muhammadans in the
total Hindu and Muhammadan population. On account of this retrogression during the last sexennial period it is
impossible to calculate at what period the Muhammadans may be expected to fill up the vacancy or deficiency in
the number of graduates in the Faculty of Law ; but some approximate calculation of the period required for this
purpose may be made, perhaps, by comparing the percentage of the sexennial period ending in 1881 with the percen-
tage of the sexennial period ending in 1887, when the highest rate of progress was achieved in an interval of
6 years. The percentage of Muhammadans in the total number of Hindu and Muhammadan graduates in the
Faculty of Law during the sexennial period ending in 1881 was 1'3, and after the lapse of 6 years, namely, during
the sexennial period ending in 1887, it rose to 4'3, thus showing an increase of 3'0 per cent. The defi. 'pncy in the
percentage in 1893 was 20'15, which at the abovementioned rate of increase would require more than 40 years
to bring the percentage of Muhammadan graduates in Law up to the percentage of the Muhammadans, viz., 2375,
in the total Hindu and Muhammadan population.
In the Faculty of Medicine and Surgery the percentage of Muhammadans in the total number of Hindu and
Rate of progress of Muham- Muhammadan graduates was only 0'93 per cent, during the sexennial period
madan graduates in the Fa- ending in 1881, and during the succeeding sexennial period ending in 1887, it
culty of Medicine and Surgery, rose to 2-Q per cent., thus showing an advance of T07 per cent. Again, during
the next sexennial period ending in 1893, it rose from 2'0 to 4'3 per cent.,
showing an advance of 2'3 per cent., which may be said to be satisfactory. But the percentage of Muhammadans
in the total Hindu and Muhammadan population being 23'75 per cent., the balance of percentage still requiring to
be filled up is 19'45, which, at the last mentioned rate of increase during 6 years, would require more than 50 years.
In the Faculty of Engineering no Muhammadan succeeded in obtaining a Degree during the sexennial period
ending in 1881, but in the next sexennial period ending in 1887, the per-
Rate of progress of Muham- centase of Muhammadans in the total number of Hindu and Muhammadan
madan graduates in the Fa- ,. ,. ...
cultv of Engineering 1881-93 graduates was 1'5, which would have been satistactory, had it not fallen to
0'4 during the succeeding sexennial period ending in 1893; thus showing a
retrogression of I'l per cent. Under these circumstances it is obvious that no prospective calculation can be
made as to the period when the Muhammadans may be expected to fill up the deficiency of 23'35 still remaining to
198
ENGLISH IDUCATION IN ISDfA.
bring np the percentage to 2375, which is the percentage of the Muhammadans in tbe total Hindu and Muham-
madan population. However, if the highest rate of progress in the Faculty of Engineering, namely, 1'5 per cent.,
which was achieved by the MuhammailaiiK during the sexennial period ending in 1887, be taken as an approximate
measure of their future advance, even then, the deficiency in the percentage being no less than 23'35, it -would take
more than 93 years to bring up the percentage to 2375, which is the percentage of the Muhammadans in the total
Hindu and Muhammadan population.
It is now important to consider the rate of progress of Muhammadan graduates in all the Faculties of the
Indian Universities, taken as a whole. The statistics in the preceding Table
Kate of progress of Muham- . .
madan graduates in all the bemg thus ™wed, show that during the sexennial period ending m 1881, the
Faculties of the Indian. TJni- percentage of Muhammadan graduates, in the total number of Hindu and
versities, from 1881 to 1893. Muhammadan graduates, in all the Faculties of the Indian Universities, was
1-5, and during the next sexennial period ending in 1887, it rose to 3'6, thus showing an advance of 2'1 per cent.
in, during the succeeding sexennial period ending in 1893, it rose to 5'0, showing an advance of l-4- per cent.
which may be taken as the latest, and, therefore, the approximate measure of future advance. But the percentage
of Jluhammadans in the total Hindu and Muhammadan population being 2375, the balance of 1875 per cent.
would, at the abovementioned rate of advance (namely, 1'4 per cent, in 6 yeara), require more than 80 years to
fill up the deficiency, and bring the percentage of Muhammadan graduates in all the University Faculties, taken
as a whole, up to the percentage of the Mnhammadans in the total Hindu and Muhammadan population, namely,
iM75 per cent. But even if the largest rate of advance made by Muhammadans, namely the advance made by
them in the sexennial period ending in 1887, when their percentage rose from 1'5 to 3'6, namely, an advance of 2' I
in 6 years, be taken as the measure of approximate success in the future, the^deficiency in the percentage being
1875, would require more than 53 years to reach 2375 per cent., which is the percentage of the Muhammadans
in the total Hindu and Muhammadan population.
For the sake of conveniently comprehending the preceding calculations, as to the prospects of Muhammadan
Future prospects of the Mu- advance in the various Faculties of the Indian Universities in the future,
hammadans in regard to Uni- the following Table has been prepared to show the results of the above calcu-
versity Degrees. lations : —
-.= 60 •
•" C 3 S
•£ B gtgi
*° d "» ^
Approximate number
s °
oS C j
0 fi KH q
^ Is
of years required to
FACULTIES.
bcJ* ^
j, w CS
"a SSB "1
s
o S » 'rt
10 =s-^^
raise the percentage
of Muhammadan gra-
duates to their per-
o §=? a
o ,c *" ^ "3
'o -a § 3
"i* £?.<H 3
centage in total Hin-
'" .2 00 £
^ 3 O 13 Pn
fli ^ A fi ®
* u 0 2 JO
•g,^ ^ "o a
du and Mnhamma-
«^rt to
™ i*t •*= a O<
PH
Q
a p«<s o
dan population.
Arts
57
2375
18-5
2-1
51
Law ... ... ...
3'6
„
20-15
3-0
40
Medicine and Surgery
4-3
»
19-45
2-3
50
Engineering
0-4
9*
23-35
1-5.
93
Tntal of all Faculties ... 5'0
23-75
18-75
2-1
53
This Table, which must be perused in the light of the calculations explained in the preceding paragraphs,
leaves no doubt that, in respect of high English education, as represented by the University degrees, the Muham-
madans are more than half a century behind their Hindu fellow-subjects, and that even the latest and the highest
r;itc of progress yet made by the Muhammadans, falls far short of what is required to raise the percentage of
Mnhammadan graduates np to the level of the proportion of Muhammadans in the population of India.
To illustrate the effect of the preceding calculations, the accompanying Diagram III, has been prepared,
Diagram III, showing the showing the Hate of progress of high English education, in various branches
Rate, of progress of Muham- of knowledge, among Muhammadans, in the Indian Universities, during 6
madans in Indian Universities, sexennial periods, from the year 1858 to 1893. The Diagram has been pre-
from 1868 to 1893, explained. . . , -,- ^.- .,, ,, . ,.~.
pared on the same principles as the preceding Diagrams, with this difference,
that, whilst in the preceding Diagrams all the 100 degrees of the scale were depicted, in the present Diagram only
DIAGRAM
(Opposite,
198)
Dtayrajib showing fJ-jf^MLe (//"progress ofT^hEngliel'vealtLcahjorv m Vai"U>us lraiicI'i£S offuwwledge
(jui/rnqMal'ioinedan/i vi/ thAlndiaav Uralversttt&s durmy 6 sexeniUjoL periods from 1858 to 1893finjdu£iw?.j
1
Arts
Lcuw
aiui
Surqery
******
Total of alL
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
I
10
9
8
W
6
6
4
-
'
3
•
7
Pfrcfru
-atfe.
^
^
^
?
'•0
GQ
^
-
'!
5
^
*
'o
Oi
^0
ev
n?
S5
2
»
-
^»
»
>0
^.
N
*
^0
>0
s
a
cv
r<
*
CV
*•
^
*•
>>.
*•
•3
cb
>^
1
i
i
nj
I
i
1
g
i
5
•g
i
i
o>
i
f
I
-J-
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
i
I
I
1
*
1
1
s
POSITION OF MUHAMMABANS IN INDIAN POPULATION. 199
25 degrees, out of a scale of 100 degrees, are shown, since the percentage of Muhammadans in the total Hindu and
Muhammadan population is only 23'75. The Diagram is, therefore, painted pink, up to 23'75 degrees, and the
green colour represents the extent of the percentage of the Muhammadan graduates in the total number of Hindu
and Muhammadan graduates during the various sexennial periods indicated at the foot of the Diagram. It will
be observed that, although the progress made by the Muhammadans during the last two sexennial periods is
noticeable, yet, as has been explained in the preceding observations, the rate of progress is far from being suffi-
cient to enable them to attain their proper percentage within an approximate period. The pink colour in the
Diagram, when compared with the green colour, shows the vast extent of the deficiency of the Muhammadans
taking their percentage in the total Hindu and Muhammadan population as the reasonable standard of success
at which they should aim. But it is not an uncommon opinion, entertained by some statesmen and political
thinkers, that, although the past condition of Muhammadans, with respect to high English education was deplor-
able, the present condition of their progress is satisfactory, and leaves no room for further complaint or anxiety.
It is, therefore, important to consider how far this opinion is justifiable, and the following Chapter will be devoted
to the consideration of this subject.
CHAPTER XXXI.
POSITION OF MUHAMMADANS IN THE GENERAL POPULATION OP INDIA.— THE PRESENT
BATE OF THE PROGRESS OF ENGLISH EDUCATION AMONG MUHAMMADANS
IN COLLEGES AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS, AND ITS FUTURE PROSPECTS.
The preceding Chapter has been devoted to statistical calculations showing the backwardness of the
Muharnmadans in English education, with reference to their proportion in the
Total Hindu and Muhammadan population of India, according to the Census
madans in the general popula-
tion of India. °^ 1^81, for reasons which have been already stated.* It seems advisable
before closing this subject to give a general view of the position occupied b y
them in the general population of India, in various parts of the country. For this purpose the most trust-
worthy information available is contained in the General Report on the Census of India in 1891. After stating
that the total Hindu or Brahmanic population of India in 1891 f amounted to 207,731,727, and that "the mean
proportion of the Brahmanic to the total population is 72| per cent." and that the Muhammadans amounted to
57,321,164, constituting 19'96 of the total Indian population, the Report describes the territorial distribution of
the Brahmanists or Hindus, and then in regard to the Musalmans has the following observations : —
" The next religion to come under review is that of Islam, which is taken here on account of its numerical
importance. The Musalman population of the world has been roughly
Territorial distribution of the estimated at various amounts from 70 to 90 millions, so that whatever th-
Muhammadans in India.
real figure may be between those limits, the Indian Empire contains a
majority of the followers of the Prophet. No Province or large State, and probably few districts or other subdivi-
sions in the plain country west of Burma, is without a certain number of Musalman inhabitants. We find them
relatively most numerous, of course, in the North- West, where Sindh and Kashmir head the list with 77 and 70
per cent, respectively. In the former there is a considerable foreign element, consisting of Balooeh and Brahui
from across the frontier, but the bulk of the population has been converted from a lax form of Brahmanism.
For a short period in its history the province was under a Brahman regime, centered about Haiderabad. where it
was disturbed and afterwards confirmed by Alexander the Great, but was overthrown not long afterwards b\
of the numerous waves of Scythian origin that broke upon the west and north frontier of India before and shortly
after the beginning of the Christian Era. According to the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang, Sindh was in the
seventh century both barbarous and superstitious, and orthodoxy of any sort sat lightly upon its unscrupulous
population, J as it is said to do even now. In Kashmir, the present population, whether Skythic or Arya has been
* Vide page 183, ante.
t Census of India, 1891— General Beport, by J. A. Baines, Esq., !\ S. S., of the Indian Civil Service (1893), pp. 174, 175.
J The Cattle-breeders are of an unfeeling and hasty temper, given only to bloodshed. They have no mnsters, but shave their
heads and adopt the mendicant's robes.
ESGUSH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
within historic times to serpent worship, Buddhism and Brahmanism, by turns, before its conversion to
. was undertaken by the Moghals during their summer visits to the valley. The Sikh rule succeeded but
Urfthrth Musalman peasant an,! Brahman professional alike untouched, except that the privilege, of the latter
were confirmed In the North-West the tribes were probably converted from the side of Afghanistan, not from
[ndia and their example was followed by the Mongoloid Thibetan races to the North along part of the Up
Indus On the Kast however, in l.adakh, the sparse population is still Buddhist, and along the South range i
ven.u.'betwe,,, ,l,e TtK*) and the Panjab, there is a considerable Brahmanic element of comparatively pure
A,, , uY.ccnt but, on the 'whole, 70.'. per cent, of the population of the State is Musalman. In the Panjab we have
on the largest scale of both foreign immigration and local conversion. In the British portion of
province 55J of the population professes Islam, the proportion rapidly rising towards the west and gradually
filli.," as the Jumna is approached. On the States, the largest of which, with one exception, are under Sikh rule,
has made, of course, less impression, and it is returned by only 30 per cent. As has been said above, the
outw.rd observances of the faith are more or less strictly regarded where the religion is that of a large majority
of th. hut left in abeyance where the conversion was effected by force or worldly pressure and without
.( foreign zealots to sustain devotion. The more martial races are converted to the extent of at least
ball, and the lowest class of the Brahmanic community favours alternatively Islam and Sikhism. Passing
rards, we liml the proportion of Musalmans high in the submontane tracts of the North- West Provinces, but
. the average in the province as a whole. In Bengal, as we had occasion to note in connection with the density
and migration of the population, there is a strong Musalman element, exceeding one-half the population, nearly all
over the whole of the eastern division, and the same remark applies to the Surma Valley, now included in the Assam
Pn.vince. It is in this part of the Country that the results of conversion are more marked in the circumstances of
the population than anywhere else in India. We have seen that the growth of the population here has been more
,,,,,1,1 tn;,, -I,, revision of the province, and the Provincial Census Superintendent attributes this in a great
ee partly to conversion and partly to other ecclesiastical factors as they are understood in India. In the first
place, there is the rise in status, then the range of diet is greater than amongst the Brahmanic classes. Thirdly, not
only 'is marriage deferred till the bride is grown up, but there is no prohibition of widow-marriage, both of which are
tendintr towards a longer life on the part of the women and a healthier offspring. In connection with this part
of the country, we may mention the Musalman population of Lower Burma, which is largely indebted to Chittagong
its neighbourhood for its recruits, chiefly sea-faring people, supplemented by a certain influx of the trading
tfatalmanflof Bombay and Madras, and the followers of the last Dehli princes, who were assigned a residence at
-oon. The high proportion of Musalmans in the Bombay States and in Baroda, is, in its turn, partly due
to the number of traders in Kachh and other Gujarath States, partly to that of the cultivators mentioned already—
both foreign converts — who abound in that division of the Presidency. It must be remembered, too, that Gujarath
was the seat of a considerable Musalman power in the days of Moghal rule in Upper India, and Cnmbay, Junagarh,
Palarpur, Hadhanpur, and Balasinur, testify to the extent and durability of its authority, as Sachin and Janjira do
to the influence of the same religion amongst the foreign employes of the Maratha Chiefs. We can now turn to
the parts of India where the proportion is the lowest. The Nadir of Islam, numerically speaking, is found
in the Hill States under the Central Provinces, and, with the exception of Upper Burma, where there are now
fewer immitrrants of the Panthe class, in those provinces themselves. Next to these comes Mysore, in spite of
its former period of Mnsalman rule. In fact, it nowhere appears that rulers of that faith, when detached from its
centre in I'pper India, surrounded themselves with large numbers of their co-religionists. Witness the case
tA Haiilerabad, where, though the whole administration is in the hands of Musalmans, less than 10 per cent, of
the population is of that faith, or only 2 per cent, more than in the neighbouring province of Bombay. The pro-
portion in .Madras would be very low, as it is in other parts of Southern India, were it not for the trading commu-
nity of the Labbe on the East Coast, and the semi-trading, semi-agricultural Mappila of Malabar and its two adja-
cent States ; for tlu: local convert, in spite of the zeal of Tippoo, is not a considerable feature in the ireneral
population, though he is in siillicient force in the larger towns, as shown some years back at Salem, to present a
IM_T front to infringement on what he considers his privileges by Brahmanical neighbours. The Musalman
icnt in Central India is singularly low, seeing that it was the refuge for many years of wandering bands of
marauders of considerable strength. But the strong hand of the two great Maratha powers and the exclusiveness
of the Brahmanic Chiefs of comparatively pure race in the South-East of the Agency, tend to confine the foreign
religion to the Musalman States, of which only one, Bhopal, is of considerable size. As regards the progress of the
faith of Islam, little need be added to what has been already written above. It has been undoubtedly rapid in
•_ral and has been perceptible, though on somewhat an uncertain basis, in the Panjab. Elsewhere, the
incr -is to be mostly that due to normal growth. But so far as regards the large and heterogeuous class of
DIAGRAM IV.
fc
S\
pcuff^u-i
Diagram showing -(Jze Rota of progress oftJu percentage' ofMaJicrn£dajt:ptif>il£mEiigliAfaj4i't& CJUa^
a± 3 quinquennial ptrvods, 188ZoL>vtL 188V <iivi 1892 wvtJv refereivce, to Cei-usus cf 1891 . j
yes
Jl
Jb*~
s^*y.
Soyal
W.W.P. 8f Oudk
Pwyab.
f<riMl
60
l\
5S
1
58
/ M
S7
I /
56
3 5
)
54
^
63
I
5S>
.
I
51
50
^-^-j
7
4-9
f
S j
4S
,'
J
4f
1
46
45
44
43
]
4*
40
39
38
Sf
S6
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.
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1
32
.
31
x'
.iC
/
"i
\
f
£8
{
"
.
r
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\
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•
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23
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.
/
/
j
21
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I
f9
-3P
IS
-
.
16
j
—
ff
74-
13
-f
__»__
1Z
11
-
10
•
9
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8
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.
-
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4
3
-
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fpafau-U
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I
KATE OF Ml.'HAMMADAN PROGRESS IN ENGLISH SECONDARY SCHOOLS, 1882-92.
203
For the sake of convenient reference the following Table has been prepared indicating the results of the
Prospects of English educa- above calculations : —
tion among Muhammadans in
Arts Colleges.
a r§ si
£3*°
t^a
g o
•w 0 , 0 , „
O rx 3 -^ — "
CS -7-" ry-\
CS O M
ft, r* <rf
7i '^ QQ
^ Cw P5 v- «^i O
"3 c""1
,J3 -^ 3
3 03
0) g _ ^j
3 OD C3
,0 ^ w_i "fl ^ ""
— £^ jj
I ( QJ r-
^ 03 QJ
d o o oj Q
r^ ^ o
^ S ^*
PROVINCES.
«H 2
0 a So
'-t Q
03 •— i
o
•~ — oo
• S ^ ^'"Z
^fe«
03 JH S
t* ft"H
S "3 ^5 So'"
-+j "^ d C^ "tn 2 ^
cd ^ ™ 3 S P s
* s§
-M fi (— '
jfs'-s
t>% ° 03
fl br d SD
fi 'S
•g « >
™ f-ri "JJ TO flj TO Q
a ^ g "B g 'i -J
•5; ^ S S £ 5 js
0 «S a
a; n3 -t>
0 CB fn
fe S«1
I'fftS
S S 0 00
OJ P. Pnr-«
QJ cS " o
QJ ri M O
g S CD
|l|
« S ti
PH
PH
Q
n
5_____*
Madras
1-5
6-3
4-8
. . .
...
Bombay
2-6
16-3
137
1-2
57
Beiiiral
5-7
32-9
27-2
1-4
61
N.-W. Provinces and Oudh
19-0
13-5
—5-5
Punjab
18-2
55-8
37-6
4-6
40
Total
5-9
21-8
15-9
1-7
45
It may therefore be said that on the whole the progress of English collegiate education among Muhammad-
ans, even according to the latest statistics, has been far from being adequate to make up the deficiency, and that
even al the highest rate of progress yet achieved during any quinquennial period, that community is nearly half
a century behind their other compatriots.
To make this calculation more easily comprehensible the accompanying Diagram IV., showing the Rate- of
progress in the percentage of Muhammadan pupils in English Arts CoHeires
at three quinquennial periods ending in the year 1882, and in 1887 and in
1892, respectively, has been prepared with reference to the census of 1891. The Diagram has been prepared on
the same principles as the preceding Diagrams, taking only 60 degrees out of a scale of 100, as the percentage of
Muhammadans does not exceed 55'8 in any Province. The pink colour represents the percentage of Muhammadan-;
in the population of the various Provinces, and the green colour shows the percentage of the degrees of progress
which they have achieved in point of attendance in English Arts Colleges at the various periods. \
It is now necessary t~> consider the statistics of Muhammadan students studying in English Secondary Schools
Rate of progress of English and to ascertaiu tb-e rate of progress at which they have advanced during
•education among Muhammad- *ne lagt decade of which statistics are available, namely the years 1882 to
ans in Secondary Schools, 1892. The following Table has been prepared with reference to the statistics
of the years 1882 and 1887 and 1892, given in the Tabular Statements to be
found in an earlier part of this work * : —
N
PERCENTAGE OP MUHAMMADANS IN THE
TOTAL NUMBER OP STUDENTS ATTEND-
1 ' — l CC
§•§ 1
,1* 1
!HK(
ING HIGH AND SECONDABT
C.S~~
,ijslll
PROVINCES.
SCHOOLS (ENGLISH) IN
O
.5^ ~z 33^-3
& .2^
t>i O rCi ^* ti &,
Jj X -3 —<
O 0) 3 3 O
-g " 4f S
S bo -5; _o p EL,
o ^ ft,1""1
'" ~ti bc"^ ""
1882.
1887.
1892.
M 3 Q «H
CD fl PH O
| § S.5S3
PH
Q
Madras
2-4
5-2
5-3
63
1-0
Bombay
2-0
4-4
4-9
16-3
11-4
Bengal
8-7
121
13-5
32-9
19-4
N.-W. Provinces and Oudh
16-3
21-6
21-9
13-5
-8-4
Punjab
20-0
314
331
. 55-8
227
Total
9-2
13-7
14-0
21-8
7-8
EXGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
The figures of this Table when compared with the statistics of the Table already given (ride p. 201 ante) in
regard to the percentaLre of Muhaniniudan students in English Arts ( 'ollegcs. shows that the percentage of Muham-
madans in English Schools is higher than ill Colleges, and this circumstance has led some persons to suppose
that Kiiirlish education, however backward it may have been in the past, is now making a sufficiently rapid pro-
9 to enable them tn attain their proper standard of progress in hii/h English education within an approximate
period. It is therefore necessary to discuss the statistics contained ill the above Table with reference to each Province
irately.
In Minims the attendance of students in High and Secondary Schools is not so backward as in Colleges.
Huff of progress of Muham- ^n 1882, the number of students in such Schools was 2'4 which rose to 5'2
madans in English Secondary in 1887, showing an advance of 2'8. But during the next quinquennial
Schools in Madras, 1882-92. period ending m 1392, the percentage increased from 5'2 to 5'3 showing
an advance of only O'l and leaving a deficiency of TO to be made up to bring the percentage up to the level of the
pcrcentago of Muhammadans in the population of the Madras Presidency, viz., 6'3. Therefore, if the rate of pro-
gress achieved during the latest quinquennial period ending in 1892, viz., O'l per cent., during(five years be taken
as the standard of future progress, it would take another 50 years to make up the deficiency. On the other hand,
if the rate of progress achieved during the quinquennial period ending in 1887, viz., 2'8 per cent., be taken as the
measure of advance, then the Muhammadans ought by this time to have attained their percentage in English
Secondary Education equal to, if not superior to, their percentage in the population of the Madras Presidency in less
than 2 years. But chances are that the abnormal rate of progress achieved by the Muhammadans in the quin-
quennial period ending in 1887, will not be repeated.
In considering the figures of High and Secondary Schools in the Bombay Presidency, the percentage of Muham-
madans in such Schools was 2'0 in 1882, and it made an abnormal advance of
Rate of progress of Muham- • • . • j v • TOOT v_i j
2'4 in the next quinquennial period ending in 1887, but during the succeeding
madans in English Secondary
Schools in Bombay 1882-92 quinquennial period ending in 1892, it rose from 4-4 to 4'9 showing an advance
of only 0'5 per cent., still leaving a deficiency of 11'4 which would take more
. to fill up at the latest rate of progress. But even if the abnormal rate of progress achieved in the
.u 1887, viz., 2'4 per cent, be taken as the measure of future progress, the deficiency still
1 to be filled up in less than 23 years.
in Bengal, the percentage of Muhammdans in English High and Secondary Schools was 8'7
li.itr of progress oi Muham- *n 1^82, and it made an abnormal progress in the next quinquennial period
madans iu English Secondary ending in 1887, when it reached 12'1 showing an advance of 3'4 per cent.,
but this rate of progress fell during the next quinquennial period ending in
1892, when the percentage rose from 12'1 to 13'5, showing an advance of only 1'4 per cent., in the five years,
still leaving a deficiency of no less than 19'4 per cent., with reference to the percentage of Muhammadans in the
population of Bengal, viz., 32'9. At the rate of progress, viz., 1'4 achieved during the latest quinquennial period
ending in J892, the deficiency could not be made up in less than 65 years. But even if the exceptional rate o'f
progress, riz., 3'4 per cent., achieved in the quinquennial period ending in 1887, be taken as the measure of future
progress, it would take more than 28 years to make up the deficiency.
In the North- Western Provinces and Oiidh, the progress of the percentage of students in English High and
Hate of progress of Muham- Secondary Schools has been very satisfactory since 1882, and during the
madans in English Secondary quinquennial period ending in 1892, it had reached 21 -9 per cent., being 8'4
Schools in the North-Western pcr cent, in advance of the percentage of Muhammadans in the population
Provinces and Oudh, 1882-92. t AV T> * .LI • ±- c
of those Provinces. The reason for this satisfactory circumstance will be
explained later on in this Chapter.*
The figures in the Punjab relating to the percentage of Muhammndan students in English High and Second-
Kntr of progress of Muham- arv Schools are no doubt satisfactory, but not so much as they at first sight
madans in English Secondary seem to be. In 1832, the percentage of Muhammadans in such schools was
Schools in the Punjab, 20'0 and during the quinquennial period ending in 1887, it rose to 31'4 show-
ing a very abnormal advance of 1 1 '4 in the percentage. But this rate of
advance, sudden as it was, fell equally suddenly during the next quinquennial period ending in 1892, when the per-
centage rose from 31'4 to 331 showing an advance of only 1'7, still leaving a deficiency, pf 22'7 with reference to
the percentage of the Muhammadans in the population of the Punjab, riz., 55'8. If the latest rate of advance, viz.,
J'7 per cent, achieved during the quinquennial period ending in 1892, be taken as the measure of future progress,
it would take no less than 65 years to fill up the deficiency. On the other hand even if the abnormal rate of
* Vide page 206 poet.
DIAGRAM V.
( Opposite, to pcu)& 205.J
Dicujran
ScJiaolsa
z. slwwvigtlw R/tfe> of pro
1 3 qtofiqLLeTuuaJjpei'wds, \
yrees of-tiupej"ce.n£ag& (rfMaJvomAdouipvLfyile ijtErigh^h/
882 cuid f8$r arid, 1832 wvtfvrefkrejnc&-tc Cej-usws of 18 91. _
ft
«o"
Madras
HcniiC'Y
SeitgaL
N.W.P.Sf Otufft
Putycub
TotobL
60
59
58
sv
56
SS
64
S3
5Z
51
SO
49
*8
*y
4-6
16
44-
4-3
4-Z
41
4-0
39
38
SS
35
34-
83
3Z
31
30
29
ZB
ev
•
26
Z6
24-
t .
23
22
21
20
_/?
te
1Y
16
IS
14-
13
tz
11
10
9
g
V
6
s
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03
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ei
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>-
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03
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e\
<%
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5
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CO
X
PROSPECTS OF MUIIAMMADANS IN ENGLISH SECONDARY SCHOOLS.
205
advance achieved during the quinquennial period ending in 1887, viz., 11 '4 be taken [as the measivre of future pro-
gress, about 10 years more are necessary to bring up the percentage of Muhammadan students in such schools to
the level of the percentage of Muhammadans in the population of the Punjab. But there is no reasonable pros-
pect of such a high rate of progress being repeated.
In considering the total percentages of all the abovementioned Provinces taken together, it will be observed
„ that the percentage of Muhammadan students in High and Secondary Schools
Total Kate of progress of J
Muhammadans in English was ^'2 in 1882, and it made an abnormal advance during the next quinquen-
Secondary Schools in India, nial period ending in 1887, when it rose to 13'7, showing an advance of 4'5
1882-92. £n j.jjg percentage. But this rate of progress fell suddenly during the next
quinquennial period ending in 1892, when the percentage rose from 137 to 14-0 showing an advance of only 0'3 in
the percentage, still leaving a deficiency of 7'8 with reference to the percentage of the Muhammadans In the total
population of those Provinces, viz., 21' 8. If the latest rate of progress, viz., 0'3 achieved during the last quinquen-
nial period ending in 1892, be taken as the measure of future progress, it would require more than a century to fill
up the deficiency. But even if the exceptional rate of progress achieved during the quinquennial period ending
in 1887, riz., 4'5 per cent., be taken as the standard of progress in the future, it would require nearly 10 years
to bring up the percentage of Muhammadan students in English High and Secondary Schools to the level of the
percentage of the Muhammadans in the population of all the above Provinces taken as a whole. But there is no
expectation of the repetition of any such high rate of progress as was achieved in the quinquennial period ending
in the year 1887, in the approximate future, unless indeed most exceptional measures are adopted in this behalf.
Asa summary of the preceding calculations and for the sake of convenient reference, the following Table
Prospects of English Educa- has been prepared showing the results : —
tion among Muhammadans in
Secondary Schools.
Approximate num-
PROVINCES.
Percentage of
Muhammadans
in High and
Secondary
Schools in
1892.
Percentage of
1U uhammadans
in the total po-
pulation ( Cen-
sus of 1891).
Deficiency in
the percentage
of Muhammad-
ans in High
and Secondary
Schools in 1S92.
Highest rate
of Muham-
madan pro-
gress yet
achieved in
5 years.
ber of years required
to raise the percent-
age of Muhamvnad-
an students to the
percentage of Jhi-
hammadans in total
•
population.
Madras
5-3
6-3
1-0
2-8
2
Bombay
4'9
16-3
11-4
2-4
23
Bengal
13'5
32-9
19-4
3-4
28
N.-W. Provinces and Oudh ...
21'9
13-5
—8-4
...
...
Punjab
33-1
55-8
22-7
11-4
10
Total
14-0
21-8
7-8
4-5
10
It will thus be observed that even according to the most favourable calculations based upon the highest
rate of advance ever achieved during a quinquennial period, the number of Muhammadans in English High and
Secondary Schools is below their percentage in the population, and that most strenuous efforts are still required
to promote English education among them, the more so, as the rate of progress during the last quinquennial period
ending in 1892, is far less in nearly all the Provinces than it was in the quinquennial period ending in 1887 when,
principally owing to the recommendations of the Education Commission of 1882, exceptional measures were adopted
to promote English Education among Muhammadans.
For the sake of easily comprehending the preceding observations and calculations, the accompanying
Diagram V., showing the Bate of progress in the percentage of Muham-
madan pupils in English High and Secondary Schools at three quinquennial
periods ending in the year 1882, and in 1887 and 1892,. respectively, has been prepared with reference to the
Census of 1891, on the same principles as the preceding Diagram — the pink colour representing the percentage
of Muhammadans in the population of various Provinces, and the green colour representing the percentage of
Muhammadans in such schools at various periods.
Diagram V. explained.
IN' ' '• IN
Such hcin.' flic condition of the percentage of Muhamnmdan students, it will be observed from the preceding
T-il.les* as well as the Diagrams IV. and V. that, in all Provinces except
li8tP|ZlinCamonegMuhaDm. '&» Norti-Wertm, Provinces and Ondh, the percent,,, of M ,,h,,,,,n,u,lan
madans in the N.-W. Provin- students in Knglish Colleges and Schools falls short of the percentage o
ces and Oudh explained. Muhainmadans in the total population of the various Provinces. There are
two reasons for tl,is circumstance. The principal caasOD is 1 he independent efforts made by the Muhannumlans
(lf fchia ^ llf t!: v, under the leadership of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan Bahadur, K.C.S.I., to advance
K,,,,lish BduflatiOT amon- their co-religionists -a movement t of which the effects have been perceptible also
jn tll „,,.;„,, Province of the Punjab where the founder of the movement has a large number of followers
„,„! fellow-workers. Annt her reason, to use the words of Mr. A. M. Nash in his Quinquennial Kevie, at fa
m in India, 1887-92 (at page 323), is that, " in the North- Western Provinces the percentage of
Muiiammadans among the urban pOpfUtion is higher than in any other Province except the Punjab; this pro-
hablv is sulliei -""it for the fact that Muhanmiadans form a larger proportion of the pupils in secondary
than in primary schools, the former being usually opened only in towns, and the latter chiefly in rural disti-i.
lint the large percentage in Colleges of all kinds seems to indicate a greater appreciation of the value of higher
education than is met with among members of this community in other provinces. This is a natural conse-
,1,,'ii -superior social status, being to a great extent the decendants of a former ruling race, while in
Bengal, for example, a large proportion of the Muhammaclans are the descendants of converts from the aboriginal
-. and the lower classes of Hindus .......... In the Punjab there has been a considerable increase in all classes
of institutions, and the percentages are much higher than elsewhere; but it must be remembered that Muham-
madans form the majority of the population, so that all the percentages are lower than they should be." J
The fact is that by far the greatest portion of the population of India consists of agriculturists and other
rural communities which are not touched by the system of English education.
Urban population of India,
considered for educational In the census of India taken in 1891, " we find, then, out of the i\ /,:,!•!>
questions. places returned at the census, only 2,035 classed as towns, and the rest under
••••ii\ of villages. Tho urban population is in the proportion of 9'48 per cent, to 9O52 of rural. In
ion falls to 9'22, and in Feudatory States it rises to 10'38 per cent.§ Again, " the
-•egat^i at which a community ceases to be rural, and passes into the category of urban, can
1. In no two countries is the line drawn on the same principle, so that comparison of
i;is to be confined to the places the population of which is assumed to be universally a gua-
'•fllracter, and the respective proportions of urban and rural, as a whole, have been voted
if international statistics. As regards the smaller aggregates, the population standard is
liable to '.osive as the constitutional test, for their size depends very much on the density of the country
and the physical resources which determine the bent of the occupation of its inhabitants. The title of town
again, is conventional in most countries, and applied in consideration of varying constitutional distinctions, such as
those of city and borough, in England. In India the difficulty of classifying these small places is peculiarly felt
in the present day, when the rapid extension of railways and other means of communication brings with it a very
considerable amount of shifting of the trading and mechanical communities from place to place. It becomes
necessary, therefore, to adopt three general tests with reference to the smaller units of population. First, that of
r if 111 ion. that is, has the place been established as a municipality, or brought under some similar regulation for
police and sanitary purposes? Secondly, if neither of these methods of local government has been applied, is the
proportion of the trading and industrial population to the total equal to, or greater than, that of the agricultural ?
In the latter case the general numerical standard of 5,000 inhabitants was prescribed, as experience shows that
taking the whole country together, this represents about the limit of urban preponderance." ||
The proportion of the Muhammadans in the urban population is the best test of their progress in English
education, as English Colleges and Schools are all situate in towns of larger
Proportion of Muhamma-
dans in Urban population s'ze tnan even *ne definition of urban population as above stated would corn-
best test of progress of Eng- prebend, and that definition excludes agriculturists and other rural popnla-
lish education among them. tjon to whom English education does not apply. It is, therefore, important to
consider the progress of English education among urban Muhammadans, and for
« Vide pp. 201 and 203 ante.
f An account of this movement for English education among Muhammadans has already been given at pp 162-G4 ante.
J Progrem of Education t» India, 1887-92. By A. M. Nash, Esq., M.A. (1893), p. 323.
§ General Report on Census of India, 1891. By J. A. Bainos, Esq. (1893), p. 42.
11 Ib. p. 42.
DIAGRAM VI.
(Opposite to page
Dicujrcum showing proportion, of McChoLmMLaivs in the Urban popuLautAoni and in E rUjfcsJt/ CoHeyes
and Secondary Schools in 1S9J — .9&.
Jl
Madras
JBornbay
Jlengol
MW.P. VfOuM,
furyab
Central Provs
Jirts
Colleges
Prof
Second-
-iris
frof
Col&fK
StJlfv
Jrt's
CoUega
Prof:
Colleges
Second
Jirts
frof
CoUtye
Sscond
ory
Schools
Arts
tettyt.
Prof
•TV
SctoflAl
Arts
CoUtf
frof
Sftxnd
SiXaols
SI
60
49
48
47
46
44
43
42
41
35
38
37
36
3S
8*
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
Zff
25
2-f
23
22
21
20
,
^5
18
17
16
IS
13
11
10
9
8
r
s
4
3
1
li
1-S
1-7
5-3
Z-6
J-a
4-9
5-7
3.$
*«
19 -O
17-7
Zl-9
»*
/S-ff
83-1
56
4-9
9-S
ii
la
«.2
14-2
14.2,
17-8
11-6
ir-a
Z7-S
zr-s
Z7-5
S3 -9
3-9
33-9
50-8
SO-8
50-8
16 -C
6-0
1G-0
DIAGRAM VII
Dujugrouiv sJiowtny cLefide.ncy of T^aJt/Jmedane im University Eocajrujia±ums with reference/ to
iJteu'- perceni&g&i ui^ tlia pcpul&Uorv in 1891 - 9£ .
•Scale/
100
ErU,ra.izce^
3SacajT>*s.
First^rte
'Eocoutie.
S. A . outd
B.S&. aatai
S.O.I,.
M.A. cuiai
M. 0. L.
3.L.
Exams.
Medical*
EOCOJIZS.
Engineer-ing
Eacams.
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
78
17
16
15
14-
13
12
11
10
9
8
V
6
5
4
3
2
1
Percent erf
'££.624 S-fut/
rdft-flTn_&eians
6-3
4 4
5- y
a- s
4- y
3 4
0
T) efiettnt. y
'rt:pei-reiit of
JaJwrn&imi.
15-5
1V • 4-
16-1
19-3
/y- /
18-4
21- 8
MUHAMMADANS IN URBAN POPULATION, N.-W. P. AND OUDH. 207
this purpose it is necessary to refer back to the statistics contained in the Table already given (at page 181 ante)
showing the proportion of Muhammadans in the urban population and in English Colleges and Secondary Schools
in various Provinces in 1891-92. From the figures contained in that Table, the following Diagram VI. has been
prepared on the same principles as the preceding Diagram, the pink colour representing the percentage of the
urban population, and the green colour the percentage of Mnhammadan students in such institutions. In other
words the pink colour represents the extent of the deficiency in the percentage of Muhammadan students with
reference to the percentage of the Muhammadans in the urban population. It will thus be seen that according to
this test even in the North- Western Provinces and Oudh, there is a vast deficiency in the percentage of Muham-
madan students in every class of English education, and strenuous efforts are still necessary to bring up the per-
centage of Muhammadan students in English Colleges and Schools to the level of the percentage of Muhammadans
in the urban population of the North- Western Provinces and Oudh.
In regard to the progress of English education among Muhammadans in the North- Western Provinces and
T> t f M hamedans Oudh, and the extent of employment in the Public Service to which such edn-
in the Urban population of cation entitles them, much misapprehension is liable to arise by taking the
the N.-"W. Provinces and percentage of Muhammadans in the general population of this part of the
Oudh. country, viz., 13'5, and ignoring their percentage in the urban population which
is no less than 33'9 or nearly 34 per cent. Upon this subject the views expressed by an eminent statesman. »Sii
Auckland Colvin, formerly Financial Member of the Supreme Council of the Viceroy of India and more recently
Lieutenant-Governor of the North- Western Provinces and Oudh, deserve to be remembered. In the course of a
reply to an Address presented to him by the Trustees of the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligrah, on
the 23rd October 1892, he said: —
'; And now, before concluding, I have a word to add of a somewhat more personal nature. Among other criti-
cisms to which the administration of the last five years has been subjected,
Sir Auckland Colvin's views .
as to the proportionate claims has' l have observed. been tte criticism that it has given an undue preference
of Muhammadans in education to Muhammadans. That I have a very strong feeling of regard towards the
and public service in the Muhammadan community, and many friends I hope amongst them, I gladly
" a' admit. Were it otherwise, I should be indifferent to claims of which the
force may not be apparent to some who lead the reproach I refer to, but which I should be very sorry for a moment
to ignore — the claims of gratitude. I have on a comparatively recent occasion expressed the obligation under which
I find myself to all those Muhammadans among whom I worked in Egypt, from the head of the State to the
humble functionary ; from those who were opposed to me no less than from those with whose sentiment I was in
accord. From very many Muhammadans in this country, too, I have throughout my life received, and am indebted
for the greatest aid and the most useful advice ; though so far as this country is concerned, I may say the same of
my friends ameng the Hindu community. Nor should I have taken this occasion to say anything on the subject,
had the criticism been a purely personal one. But it implies an abuse of public patronage, and a misuse of the
means of preferment which are placed in my hands by higher authority, because there is possibly no better test of
preference shown to one or the other section of the community than the exercise of the power of patronage vested
in the head of the administration. A few figures will throw some light on the question, so far as this particular
criticism is concerned It may be said th.at as the Hindus in these Provinces are more numerous than
the Muhammadans, preferment or distinction should be granted in numerical proportion. But if we leave out of
sight the vast masses of the agricultural population, and take into consideration only the classes to whom, in such
matters, consideration is limited, the disproportion almost wholly disappears. I have referred to this criticism
because, as I have said, it is concerned with the discharge of my public duties."*
To give a general view of the present condition of English education in British India, it is necessary to revert
to the statistics contained in the Table (at page 179 ante) already given
Diagram VII. explained. . , ., . . ,, , ,, ,
showing the deficiency in the success ot Muhammadans in all the various
University Examinations in British India in 1891-92, as compared with the percentage of Muhammadans in the
general population, viz., 21'8. With this object the accompanying Diagram VII. has been prepared upon the same
principles as the preceding Diagrams, and with reference to the statistics of the abovementioned Table — the
pink colour up to 2T8 representing the percentage of the Muhammadans in the total population, and the green
colour the extent of percentage which the Muhammadans achieved by their success in the various University
Examinations in 1891-92. In other words the pink colour shows the vast extent of the deficiency of Muhammadans
in all the various University Examinations in British India in 1891-92 ; and it will be observed that in the
Engineering Examinations not even one Muhammadan was successful.
* The Aiifjarh Institute Gatette of 8th November, 1892. pp. 1174 and 1175.
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
CHAPTER XXXII.
GENERAL SPREAD OF ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA, ACCORDING TO THE
CENSUS OF 1891.
The object of this Chapter is to furnish the best available Statistical information regarding the general spread
Statistics of the general °* English education among the various sections of the population of India
spread of English Education at the present time, to enable those who are interested in the religious, moral,
in 1891. social, and political regeneration of India, to form an approximate estimate of
the effect which their plans and schemes are likely to have, so far as they depend upon a knowledge of the English
language for their success or failure. " Where the task of public instruction is undertaken by the State, to the
extent that it is in India, the function of a census of Literacy is to supplement the current record of progress in
regard to this important matter." And accordingly the General Report of the Census of India in 1891, contains
various Statistical Tabular Statements, which supply the requisite information, and from them the following
Table* has been prepared : —
TABLE SHOWING LITERACY AND KNOWLEDGE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AMONG
THE VARIOUS CLASSES OF THE POPULATION OF INDIA, ACCORDING TO THE
CENSUS OF 1891.
PERCENTAGE OF THE
POPULATION BETUKNING LITERACY.
EMGLISH-KUOWING
IN EACH GKOUP ON —
£°S
•g-r-
CLASS.
1
CASTS GROUP.
o
•* §
•/. 3
$s
Total.
Literates.
Knowing
English.
lit
PI
0 S
^ ™
a
1.9TI
"S-^o
EH
EH""
i*j r
I. — Military — Agricultural
24,815,250
978,2-^6
15,163
282
1'55
« < ^ 1
II. — Agricultural
45,860,061
1,314,452
31,364
5-83
2-39
^ l£^
III. — Cattle Breeders and Graziers .
11,006,956
131,015
3,468
• 0-65
2-65
.1 §
IV. — Field Labourers...
8,162,851
151,502
2,346
0-44
1-55
** dfc L
V.— Forest Tribes ...
13,217,795
53,400
1,071
0-20
2-01
Total
103,062,913
2,628,595
53,412
9'94
2'OS
j r
VI.— Priests
12,860,386
2,029,870
109,105
20-29
5-37
3
VII. — Ascetics and Devotees
2,231,334
120.809
1,671
0-31
1-38
0
VIII. — Temple Servants
285,940
29,500
;:,< i.
0-07
130
B
LX. — Genealogists
419,306
23,942
240
0-04
1-00
&• «!
X.— Writers ... ....
2,450.824
572,708
49,133
9-13
8-58
§
XI. — Astrologers, &c. ...
264,748
46,532
5,247
0-97
11-28
1
XII. — Ballad Reciters and Musicians
521,64]
7,113
38
o-oi
0-53
QQ
XIII. — Singers and Dancers
124,845
8,263
98
0-02
1-19
L
XIV. — Mimes
27,428
1,061
2
0-19
Total
19,186,452
2,839,798
165,918
30'84
5'84
a J ['
-- ^ \
XV.— Traders
10,785,525
1,658,905
35,484
6-60
2-14
^* 1
XVI.— Pedlers
1,703
11
0-65
1 5 /
0 * V.
XVII. — Carriers by Pack Animals ...
897^208
7,265
61
o:oi
0-84
Total
11,802,465
1,667,873
35,556
6'61
213
The first column of the Table showing the classification, has been taken from page 188, and the last two columns showing the
percentages of the English-knowing, from page 220 of the Report, and the figures from pa.ge 54-56 of the General Tablet. Vol. II.
CENSUS OF ENGLISH EDUCATION IN 1881.
209
POPULATION RETURNING LITERACY.
PERCENTAGE OF THE
ENGLISH-KNOWING
CLASS.
CASTE GROUP.
IN EACH GROUP ON —
Total.
Literates.
Knowing
English.
Total English-know-
ing Literates (of
all Groups).
Total Literates of
the (particular)
Group.
r
XVIII.— Goldsmiths, &c....
1,497,218
145,228
1,402
0-26
0-97
XIX.— Barbers
3,366,345
84,539
1,809
0-33
2-14
XX. — Blacksmiths
2,416,747
61,180
1,147
0-21
1-87
XXI. — Carpenters and Masons
2,951,000
117,378
1,295
0-24
1-10
XXII. — Brass and Copper Smelters...
287,701
24,253
452
0-08
1-86
XXIII.— Tailors
612,572
28,430
776
0'14
2-73
XXIV. — Grain Parchers, &c.
1,394,944
45,845
905
0-17
1-97
XXV.— Betel-leaf, &c., Sellers
236,854
16,102
664
0-12
4-12
XXVI. — Weavers and Dyers
8,290,809
251,021
4,841
0-90
1-93
BD
3
XXVII.— Washermen
2,669,231
28,836
664
0-12
2-30
z
H
8
XX VIII.— Cotton Cleaners ...
789,527
5,038
39
o-oi
0-77
H
O
XXIX.— Shepherds and Blanket Wea-
vers
4,679,388
47,831
1,090
0-20
2-28
— ARTIZANS AND Vi
XXX.— Oil Pressers
XXXI. — Potters and Brickmakers
XXXII. — Glass and Lac Workers
XXXIII.— Salt and Lime Workers
4,367,089
2,999,262
141,091
1,407,879
140,469
' 41,239
3,618
18,211
3,043
1,395
217
139
0-57
0-26
0-04
0-03
2-17
3-38
5-10
0-76
Q
XXXIV.— Goldsmiths' Refuse Cleaners .
5,278
100
...
...
...
XXXV.— Iron Smelters and Gold
Washers
24,893
175
1
...
0-57
XXXVI.— Fishermen, &c. ...
8,311,672
93,657
1,921
0-36
2-05
XXXVII. — Rice Pounders and Servants. .
178,360
2,550
29
o-oi
1-14
XXXVI1L— Distillers and Toddy Drawers
4,826,294
294,670
3,906
0-74
1-33
XXXIX.— Butchers
519,688
3,292
54
o-oi
1-64
XL. — Leather Workers
12,032,920
64,126
722
0-13
1-13
XLI. — Village Watchmen and Menials
12,279,544
76,260
2,354
0-44
3-09
I
XL1I. — Scavengers
Total
3,450,913
20,438
665
0-12
3-25
79,737,174
1,614,486
29,530
5-49
1-83
27
'210
ENIiLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
PERCENTAGE OK THE
POPULATION RETURNING LITERACY.
ENGLISH-KNOWING
IN EACH GROUP ON —
CLAtS.
CASTS GROUP.
, <D
olT
OJ "~g
£ Z
Total.
Literates.
Knowing
English.
lit
Tt-S s
|aj
II
"^ £•
XLIII. — Itinerant Grindstone Makers .
XLIV.— Ditto Earth Workers and
16,427
84
...
...
...
s
55
Stone Dressers
1,090,836
3,558
64
o-oi
1-80
XLV. — Itinerant Knife and Sword
1 -
Grinders
12,486
152
3
...
1-97
r*
XLVI. — Itinerant Mat and Cane Makers
584,127
3,551
28
o-oi
0-79
1
XLVII. — Hunters and Fowlers
730,662
5,752
90
0-02
1-56
W
XL VIII. — Miscellaneous Vagrants
326,973
3,881
51
o-oi
1-31
XLIX. — Acrobats, Jugglers, and Snake
Charmers
255,681
3,310
143
0-03
4-32
Total
3,017,192
20,288
379
0-08
1-87
r
L. — Musalmans bearing Foreign
Titles*
32,834,755
1,141,912
33,282
6-19
2-91
•
LI. — Thibetan and Nipali Races ...
214,021
12,077
373
0-07
3O9
B
H
LII. — Burmese, Chinese, and Malay
a
E
Races
7,316,377
1,512,800
3.100
0-58
0-20
LIII. — Western Asiatic Races
106,610
48,510
16,049
2-98
33-08
Q W
1 > I V. — Mixed Asiatic Races
19.8-21
1.583
26
1-64
/ H
LV. — Indefinite Indian Titles
2,845,461
169,037
6,677
i-24
3-95
5
LVI. — Europeans, Americans, &c. ...
161,414
118,222
113,247
21-06
95-79
4
LVII. — Eurasians
80,900
42,217
38,532
7-16
91-27
|
LVIII. — Indian Christians
1,896,698
248,486
40,449
7-38
16-28
Iki
LIX. — Goanese and Portuguese
28,366
4,783
1,252
0-37
26-18
LX. — Africans
18,292
582
29
o-oi
4-98
Total
45,522,715
3,300,209
253,016
47'04
7'67
Grand Total
262,328,956 t
12,071,249
637,811
The diffusion of instruction through the community is appreciated more accurately when we have before us
Concentration of Literacy *'ie rela*ive extent to which it pervades each of the groups of castes or races
especially English, in certain under which the population has been classified in the above Table, according
classes of the population. to the General Impart of the Census of 1891 (vide page 188) ; but for the sake
of convenient reference it will be advisable to quote here the remarks contained in that Report (pages 222 and 223),
so far as the percentage of the English-knowing section of the population is concerned : —
• This claw is explained at page 207 of the General Report of the Census of 1891 to include persons denominating themselves
Shaikh, Pathan, Moghal, Saiad, Balooch, Turk, and Arab, and it is stated that they form nearly 12 per cent, of the population. Other
Muharamadans not falling under the above titles are not therefore included in the figure given in the Table.
t This figure is given u the Grand Total in the Report of the Census of India, 1891, General Tables, Volume II, page 56. The
totals for «»ch class have been calculated for this work, and their Grand Total, according to calculation, yields 262,328,911, making
a difference of only 46, which is inconsiderable.
PROPORTION OF ENGLISH-KNOWING LITERATES, 1891.
CASTE GROCP, OE RACE.
PERCENTAGE ON TOTALS OF —
CS .
0>
-*j
ctJ
, SPS
111
11
1
!§••§
£s
3
4-5
1.
Priests
4-90
16-81
20-29
2.
Temple Servants
O'll
0-25
007
3.
Writers
0-94
4-74
9-13
4.
Herbalists, Ac.
o-io
0-39
0-97
5
Traders
4-11
13-74
6-60
fi.
Burmese
279
ia-68
0-58
7.
Pavsis. &c. ...
0-04
0-42
2-98
8.
Europeans ...
o-oo
0-9S
21-06
9.
Eurasiiins
0-03
0-35
7-16
10.
Native Christians ...
0-72
2-05
7-38
11.
Goanese Christians
o-oi
0-05
0-37
Total
13-81
52-31
76-59
" Amongst the literates are 5'83 per cent, of the total body of English-knowers, and those, in turn, form 2'39
per cent, of the literates in the group, so that in every 10,000, six know that
Proportion of the English- j { j 66? with Qi expianation, the figures may be left to
knowing Literates. ' .
speak for themselves, so far as the details are concerned, and it is worth-
while to bring to notice here only the more prominent features in this curious return. For instance, if both sexes
be taken together, as in the first section of the Table, it
will be seen that in 11 groups only, are the literate as high
as 10 per cent, on the included population. The marginal
extract reproduces the information regarding these Jl.
They comprise just under 14 per cent, of the population,
just over half the literate population, and more than
three-fourths of those who can read and write English.
If the collection be re-grouped into more minute sections,
it will be seen that the Brahmans, Writers, Traders'
Native Christians, Temple Servants and Herbalists, &c.,
• who constitute the strictly native portion of the whole,
contain 1 1 per cent, of the population, 38 of the literate,
and 45 of the English-knowers. The Burmese and Parsis,
with the few Armenians and Jews, come next, with '2'8
per cent, of the population, nearly 13 of the literate, and
just above 3J per cent, of those who know English.
Finally, we have the European and Eurasian element)
which accounts for just under one in a thousand of the population, 13 in the same number of the literate, and 283
of the Pmglish-knowing part of the community. Outside this circle is found about 23 per cent, of the latter
population, or about the same proportion as is contributed by the Europeans and Parsis, &c., taken together.
It will also be noticed that the Brahmans, Writers, and Europeans monopolise more than half of this class of the
literate, and the Traders, Eurasians, and Native Christians, a fifth more. As regards the introduction of the
Herbalist and Astrologer, it should be explained that the former is apparently one of the.best-instructed classes in
Eastern Bengal, to which part of the country he is, as a separate caste, confined. The Temple Servant group,
, owes its position to the Satani of Madras and Mysore, where this class is most prevalent.
" We may now turn from the general section of the Table to that which treats of males only. Here we find that
no less than 20 of the 60 groups returns 10 per cent., and over, of literates in
its community. The additions to the former list are the Devotees, Genea-
logists, Goldsmiths, Brass-smiths, Betel-leaf Sellers, Distillers, Nepali and
Thibetan tribes, and the mixed races of Burma, with the
group that had to be set apart for indefinite entries, con-
taining a good number of the writing castes serving at
a distance from their native province, and thus entered
under some misconstructed title. These additions enlarge
the scope of the collection considerably. Instead of 14
per cent, of the population we get over 18 of the males,
with 58| per cent, of the literate of that sex, and 79| per
cent, of those who know English. The groups in which
female instruction is more prevalent take, of course, a
lower place in this Statement than the last. This remark
applies to the Writers, Temple Servants, Herbalists, &c.,
Parsis, etc., Burmese, Europeans, Eurasians, Native
Christians and Goanese, to all of the former sections in
fact, except to Traders and Brahmans. In the case of
the former, there is no doubt that some of the difference
is attributable to the number of literate men who uorae
from Rajputana, &c., to the centres of commerce in
British Territory without their families, but more to
the general cause, namely, apathy, as in the case of
Literacy, especially English,
among the males.
CASTE GROUP, &o.
PERCENTAGE ON TOTALS OF —
be ©
33
»d .5 -§
CD
ol
M •: C 5
~* O 0) ~-t
bi. 2 ,-g «
13
a
~a
1.
Priests
4-96
16-98
20-29
2.
Devotees
0-87
101
031
3.
Ti inple. Servants
0-11
0-23
0-07
4.
GenealogiatB
0-16
0-20
0-04
5.
Writers
0-92
466
9-13
6.
IfeHialists, &c.
0-10
0-34
0-97
7.
!'S ... ... '..
415
14-09
6-60
8.
Goldsmiths ...
0-57
1-24
0-26
9.
lir.-iss-siiiitlis
0-11
021
0-08
10.
Betel-leaf Sellers
0-09
0-14
0-12
11.
Distillers, &c.
1-80
2-47
0-74
12.
Thibetans
o-ou
0-10
0-07
13.
Burmese ... ... ,.,
2-72
12-46
0-58
14.
Burmese, Mixed
0-01
001
15.
Parsis, &c. ...
0-04
0-26
2-98
16
Indefinite Indians ...
I'll
1-37
1-21
17.
Europeans
0-09
0-81
21-06
1H.
Eurasians
0-03
0-19
7-16
19.
.Viilm- Christians ...
0-72
1-67
7-38
20.
Goaneso Christians
001
0-04
0-37
Total
1H-B6
58-48
79 45
Brahmans." *
* General Re^ni of the Oens:H of India. ls<i], by J. A. Baines, Esq., pa;><>- -'-^ .nn.1 223.
21-'
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
As an abstract of the preceding Table, showing Literacy and knowledge of the English language among the
Abstract of Statistics of Eng- various classes of the population of India, the following Table has been pre-
lish Literates. pared for convenient "reference : —
PERCENTAGE OF THE
POPULATION RETURNING LITERACY.
ENGLISH-KNOWING
IN EACH GROUP ON —
o '"*'
Sf
CLASS or GROUPS.
Is
I]
Total.
Literates.
Knowing
English.
Hi
•55 §•
It
-^ J £
hj £^
™ o
g
H'" *
H *"
A. — Agricultural and Pastoral
103,062,913
2,628,595
53,412
9-94
2-03
H. — Professional
19,186,452
2,839,798
165,918
30-84
5-84
0. — Commercial
11,802,465
1,667,873
35,556
6-61
2-13
P. — Artizans and Village Menials
79,737,174
1,614,486
29,530
5-49
1-83
E. — Vagrants
3,017,192
20,288
379
0-08
1-87
I
F. — Races and Indefinite Titles
45,522,715
3,300,209
253,016
47-04
7-67
Total
262,328,911
12,071,249
537,811
In rei^u-d to the figures relating to English-knowing Literates, as shown in the preceding Tables, the following
Remarks on the Statistics of observations occur in the General Report of the Census of India of 1891, by
English-knowing Literates. Mr. J. A. Baines, of the Indian Civil Service, at page 224: —
" The return of those who know English shows a ratio of 4'4 per cent, on the total literates. We must sub-
tract, however, the Europeans and Eurasians from the account, which then amounts to 3'2 only, or T4 in every
thousand of the community. From the detailed Table it will be seen that, excluding the Europeans, Eurasians,
Nipalis, Africans, and Parsis, the latter proportion to the literates of the group is achieved only in the case of the
Brahmans, Writers, and Herbalists, with the group of the indefinite castes. There are, it is true, four or five other
groups that show a percentage slightly in excess of this, but they are all chiefly recruited from Bengal, where this
part of the enumeration seems to have been unsatisfactory, since nowhere else do we find the Scavenger, Potter, and
Acrobat in such exalted company. The entire number returned, as knowing English, including Europeans and
K 11 nisians, was 537,811, or 386,032, if the foreign element be excluded. This, too, includes a certain proportion of
those who are not yet emancipated from their studies, as has been already remarked in the beginning of the Chap-
ter. Some of the Superintendents, on the other hand, seem to think that the return includes, from excess of
caution, only those who habitually use English in their daily life, and not the numerous class that learn a certain
amount of that language at school, but carry the use of it no further than the last examination before their escape
from that st:igi;. and cease to be able to read and write it after the lapse of a few years. The census return seems
to compare but poorly with the Departmental Record in this respect, for the latter gives an average number of
pupils studying English of 290,741 per annum during the last decade, beginning with 187,420, and ending with
:;."•:'>.. "i 1 ">. The average period of study is not accurately known, but one would have expected to find at least 700,000
~!K),OOOof the above number amongst the English-knowing literates. But apparently the study of English
ends in a very rudimentary stage ; for with an average annual attendance of nearly 337,000, studying in that lan-
guage for the last five years, only 15,200 presented themselves for the Matriculation Examination at the Univer-
sities, or 76,000 during the whole period. As English is the language of instruction at the colleges affiliated to the
hitter institutions, it is presumably an important subject at the Matriculation test, if not the most important. But
we find from the same returns from which the above quotations are made, that the ratio of the successful for the
live years in question was 4774 IE Calcutta, 26'87 in Madras, and 25'41 in Bombay. The other Universities need
EXTENT OP LITERACY AND LITEKATES.
213
General extent of Literacy.
Condition of Literature.
not be counted, as they are, comparatively speaking, in their infancy. But at any rate the out-turn of 25,680 in
five years of youths up to Matriculation standard, even with the possible successes under the sixth standard else-
where, are scarcely results that need make the census returns blush on comparison."*
This Chapter may be appropriately closed with the following extracts from the General Report of the Census
of India of ]891 : —
" The final computation made above brings us to the fact that in India, as
a whole, the very moderate average of 46 literate persons in a thousand, is not attained by 81'35 per cent, of the
population, but is the result of greater prevalance of instruction amongst the remaining 18'65. In the case of
the males alone, the standard rises to 87 per 3,000, but it is not reached by more than 18'89 per cent, of the sex,
leaving 8 I'll below it."f
" In the Chapter on occupation, it was shown how small a fraction lived by literature, and though the annual
returns show an imposing array of publications, the review of the literary
activity of the year, by the Official Reporter, is rather discouraging reading.
According to this authority, a few works on Sanskrit texts, with an occasional drama on a historical occurrence
or a subject of the day, are all that are likely to survive
the year of their birth. A good deal of this infant mor-
tality, so to speak, seems to be attributable to the very
high proportion of the publications which deal with the
text-books prescribed for University or school examina-
tions, or other ephemeral works designed for the same
market. The most striking characteristic of the out-
turn seems to be the absence of originality in scientific or
imaginative works. The list does not want variety, as
will be seen from the marginal statement of subjects,
with, of course, the qualification that rather over a third
are translations or re-publications. The language in which
the works are issued, also, is a matter not devoid of interest, and it appears that in English 660 were published,
with 955 in polyglot, 2,157 in a Vernacular tongue, and
424 in the three Oriental classical languages. But a
more favourite out-let for budding talent is found in
journalism, of which we find 490 exponents in the list.
The largest circulation is stated to be 20,000, in the case
of one paper in Bengal ; about 6,000 is the maximum in
Bombay, and 5,000 in Madras. Elsewhere, it seems to
rarely reach a thousand. This does not represent, of
course, nearly the number of readers, for the economical
practice of private circulation, or of perusal at cheap
libraries, is far more extended in India than in many
other countries. But lithography and disregard for typo-
graphical appearance enables an enterprising publicist to
start a local broadsheet at a very small cost, and what
with the restrictions of career imposed upon themselves
by a solely literary caste or two, no country, probably,
Books
PROVINCE.
published in
1890-91.
Madras
1,022
Bombay
2,0-14
Bengal
1,225
N.-W. Provinces
..
1,107
Burma
149
Assam
22
Berar
13
Central Provinces
••
••
13
Total
5,595
SUBJECT.
No. of
Publications.
Art
80
Biography
58
Drama
185
Fiction
M
262
History and Geography
128
Languages
..
612
Law
tt
71
Mathematics ...
tt
158
Medicine
127
Philosophy
..
149
Poetry
..
672
Politics
M
13
Religion
..
770
Science
119
Travels
tt
5
Unclassed
2,116
Total
5,595
has more representatives than India of the hero of the Romaic ballad : —
(L/JLO.I
KovK Kov
Xict
'yo>
StV
*H v
ypd<t>u>.
" This digression from the results of the Census has been unduly lengthened, but when so much is heard, as
at present, of the literate classes of India, it is just as well to define the limitations of that term. It may thus
be judged how far the 4>u»s a.<txyyr)s of the handful of people, to whom, under the most liberal interpretation, the
term can be said to apply, is to be held capable of illuminating the thoughts and conditions of the vast mass from
whom the very education, apart from the traditions, of that close corporation, inclines them to stand aloof." J
» General Report of the Census of India in 1891, by J. A Baines, Esquire, p. 224.
t it, | J Ib., p. 226.
EX(iI,l.-iH EDL'CATKIX IX INDIA.
CHAPTER XXXIII
EXPECTATIONS AND VIEWS OF EMINENT STATESMEN tez?GARDING THE POLITICAL,
SOCIAL, MORAL, AND RELIGIOUS EFFECTS OF ENGLISH EDUCATION AMONG
THE PEOPLE OF INDIA.— OPINIONS OF THE EDUCATION COMMISSION
OF 1882 ON THE SUBJECT.
The preceding chapters of this work have been devoted to delineation of the facts t»n(j figures connected with
r h ' asnects of *'10 Pr°gress °f English education in India from its t>arliest commencement
the effects of English Educa- down to the present period. What the effects of such, education have been,
tion in India. in their various aspects, remains to be considered. '< In every difficulty
that meets us in the consideration or treatment of measures designed to further the cause of commercial progress
or of political security in India, we involuntarily recur to the one solution of every problem — education. Is it the
icle in the way of an extended circulation of a paper currency that puzzles the financier? The remedy is
Are we hampered by a necessary restriction of expenditure in the matter of public wc,rks of general
utility, by reason of the enormous drain upon the resources of the country for a military establish ment without.
which it is vain to hope that disaffection can be suppressed and political excitement subdued ? The remedy is
education. Are we dismayed at the slow pace with which liberal ideas make good their advance against the
obstruction of ignorance, bigotry, and superstition ? The remedy is education. Are we puzzled at Vjne strange
anomaly presented by a whole race, or races, preferring the arbitrary and capricious despotism Of native
governments to the organized administration of British rule? We know that it is to the schoolmaster chiefly
i ast look to aid in removing from the mental vision of the people the veil that shuts out the light. Do we
ask how we shall raise the agricultural population of India to the status of a free community ? The answer is
itlon. • Do we ask how to secure permanent and lasting peace, apart, of course, from the distant danger of
foreign invasion ? The answer is education. Do we ask how we shall break the fetters of caste that bind n-,ulli0ns
of our fellow-subjects in social bondage ? The answer is education. Do we wonder how it is that, after a ctmtury
and a half of intercourse, the people of India are still as far separated from us as if there were scarce the bond
of a common nature to unite us to each other ? The answer is to be found in the slender efforts and the slow-
progress of education." *
Such being the comprehensive character of the subject of English education in India its effects upon the people
Effects of English Education must necessarily be multifarious. Their various aspects may be classified
classified. under the following heads : — I
(1) Effect on Religious belief: (a) among Hindus, (6) among Muhammadaiis. ,
(2) Effect on Moral opinions and conduct.
(3) Effect on Social and customs.
(4) Effect on Krniinmical condition.
(.">) Effect on Poiilii'nl I, '/might and action. ,
Wlii1 various aspects of English education in India are extremely interesting and of supreme impoy.
tancc to the present and future welfare of the people of India under tl.,e
Discussion of effects of BriUsh rul it t b denied that a proper discussion of them is fraught
English Education liable to
controversy; but views of with vast and numerous difficulties. In the absence of statistical information
eminent Statesmen impor- upon these various heads of enquiry any treatment of the subjects can searctj-
tant. ly escape becoming controversial, and sentiments and tendencies of tht*.
contrnvt : ' re liable to take the place of unvarnished facts and accurate figures. In truth, accurate infor-
mation iijHin these various aspects of English education in India is not available for purposes of a historical nar-
rative such as the present work is intended to be, and the best course seems to be to leave these subjects to
essayists to discuss whether the religious, social, moral, economical and political effects of English education in
India have been baneful or beneficial. For the purposes of this work, however, it seems suiiicicnt to collect here
the various opinions of eminent Statesmen, expressed at different times, upon the gein effects ot
Knglish education on the people of India. Such opinions are not only valuable for their intrinsic merits. bu,t
* The Administration of India. By Iltudus Thomas Prichard, Vol. II, pp. 75 and 76.
MR. GRANT'S POLITICAL FORECAST AS TO ENGLISH EDUCATION, 1792-97. 215
much historical worth and importance is to be attached to them as representing the views of distinguished
Statesmen who have actually taken important part in the administration of India during various periods of its
history. And, in order to secure their views from the risk of being unconsciously misrepresented or inadequately
expressed, the best course seems to be to quote them in their own words. Some of those opinions were written
at a period when the policy of spreading English education among the people of India had not yet been affirmed,
some were expressed at the very outset of the adoption of the policy of English education, whilst others were
expressed at various stages and periods of the last half century as the effects of English education became notice-
able among the people. The chronological order is therefore most suitable for presenting those opinions for the
perusal of the reader, in preference to the order in which the various aspects of the effects of English education
kave been classified in the preceding paragraph.
First and foremost, therefore, are the anticipatory views of the Right Hon'ble Mr. Charles Grant, an
Anticipations of the Rt emilient Director of the East India Company, and a distinguished Member
Hon'ble Charles Grant as to of Parliament who flourished during the latter part of the last and the
political effects of English beginning of the present century and of whom an account has already been
Education: a forecast, 1792-97- given in this work * ag the ^^^ Of a philanthropic treatise on the moral and
intellectual condition of the Natives of India, and the means of improving it. He wrote the treatise between the
years 1792 and 1797, and in dealing with various objections which had been urged against his scheme of spread-
ing English education in India, he went on to deal with the forecast of its political aspects in the following
words : — f
" Another objection still remains to be stated, one of an opposite nature to some of those which have been
Political objection to the discussed, and in appearance more formidable than any of them. Its consti-
spread of English Education tuent idea is the danger which might result from the adoption of the proposed
formulated. plan. Put in its strongest and amplest terms, it may be thus expressed :
' If the English language, if English opinions, and improvements, are introduced in our Asiatic possessions, into Bengal
for instance ; if Christianity, specially, is established in that quarter ; and if, together with these changes, many English-
men colonize there, will not the people learn to desire English liberty and the English form of Government, a share in the
legislation of their own country, and commissions in the army maintained in that country ? Will not the army thence
become, in time, wholly provincial, officered by natives of India, without attachment to the sovereign state ? Will not the
people at length come to think it a hardship to be subject, and to pay tribute, to a foreign country : and finally, will they
not cast off that subjection, and assert their independence ? '
" Before we proceed to offer a reply to this objection, it is fair to remark, that whoever seriously entertains it,
cannot also entertain those which may be advanced against the practicability of the plan, or the possibility of its
succeeding. And in like manner, he who thinks success hopeless, can feel no real alarm for the danger which an-
other might conceive success to be capable of producing. Hence, though every man is unquestionably entitled to
follow the best decision of his own judgment, yet in this case, an opposition, increased in numbers by contradictory
principles, would therefore be diminished in argumentative strength, since objections incompatible with each other
could not both be valid.
" It will be proper likewise, previously to separate and exclude from this complex objection some parts of it,
Colonization of Europeans which can, with no justice, be reckoned among the imaginable consequences of
in India is a separate question any estimated improvement in the state of our Indian subjects. Such are
from Education. the free colonization of Europeans in that country, and the gradual transfer
of Military appointments and Military power into the hands of provincials. These are things which do not depend
on the admission of any particular religion into our territories, or its exclusion ; nor upon the will of the people
inhabiting them ; but upon the Government of this country. They are wholly unnecessary ; they would, in our
humble apprehension, be most unwise ; and that light which we now possess regarding our Eastern affairs, that
sound policy in the management of them, of which late years have furnished so many proofs, forbid the admission
of suppositions so superfluous and extravagant.
" With respect to colonization, the nature of our connection with that country, renders the residence there of
;i certain number of Europeans, for the various lines of public service, neces-
Presence of a certain num- The admission of a furthel. number as merchants, navigators, artists,
ber of Europeans for Public .
Service and Commerce, &c., an" professional men, is useful and important ; beyond such a iair pro-
necessary in India, but unli- portion as may be requisite for these different lines of employment, and the
censed adventurers should be prosecution of useful improvements and enterprizes, in which the energy and
excluded. skill of Europeans are essential, their ingress into that country ought not to
* Vide page 3, ante. f Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to the Affairs of India ; General, Appeudix I (1832), pp. 72-81.
•J1H KN'fiLI.Sn EDUCATION IN INDIA.
be permitted, for otherwise a new race might spring up, with larger pretensions, and more untractable than the
Hindus. Those also admitted should be laid under particular restrictions ; the more considerable settlements
should be confined to the sea coasts ; and the laws against the entrance of unlicensed adventurers be strictly
enforced ; for these adventurers may be of nations hostile to our interests, they will be less known, less to be
depended on by us, more liable to fail of success in their own views, and from necessity be more likely to colonize.
But in all the decent and liberal classes of Europeans, there is ever an ardent desire to return at length to their
native country ; and hardly an instance can be found of any person, capable from his circumstances of following
this course, who has deliberately chosen to make India his ultimate home. The state of native society there, may,
no doubt, contribute to form this disposition ; but the Indian climate is not congenial to the European constitution,
and the strong endearing attachments of early days, with the rational judgment of maturer years, powerfully
impel the natives of this happy island to their original seat.*
'• The other idea, which makes our Indian power to depend at length on provincial officers and soldiers,
E 1 ment of Natives to Pr°ceeds upon the supposition of previous unrestrained colonization, which
Military Command unnecea- has just been shown to be needless and inadmissible, and upon other imagined
sary. changes, into the probability of which we need not now examine. For
upon any hypothesis compatible with our retention of the country, it is not conceivable how we should ever
be exposed to the danger here alleged. Is it not among the first prerogatives of government to select its military
servants ? What inducement could possibly arise to transfer the delicate and important trust of Military com-
mand from the natives of this country to those less connected with it ? Do we act thus with our American
Colonies, peopled by subjects of the British race ? As we now ultimately depend not only on British officers, but
* The following remarks, added as a postscript to the first copy of this tract, and intended to apply to the subject of the
Company's Charter, then about to be renewed, it may still not be improper to insert here.
" Lest the scope of these observations should be misunderstood, the writer begs leave to declare, that he is no advocate for any
system of intercourse between this country and our Eastern territories, which shall give Europeans an unlimited freedom of entrance
there; but would most earnestly deprecate all schemes, of which such unlimited freedom should be the professed basis, or the actual,
though unavowed consequence. There is a question concerned here, of far greater importance than the merely commercial one of an
open or a restricted trade to India; it is a question that involves in it the welfare, both of Great Britain and of our Asiatic
possessions.
"If the subjects of this country are permitted, at their pleasure, to visit those possessions as they may our American colonies though
professedly but for the purposes of traffic, great numbers of them will settle ; for mercantile transactions must entail residence,
because it will be impossible for a Government to say, that all such transactions shall be closed, and the parties be gone within a
certain time, or to take cognizance in this manner of the conduct of every individual ; and if such a measure were at first attempted,
it would not continue any time. All the lines of trade and manufactures would soon be overstocked, and then men would seek to
fasten themselves on the soil. Colonization would therefore very soon commence in India, especially in Bengal ; those whom
uncontrolled enterprizes in commerce would carry thither, would see a rich soil apprehend great scope for exertions and regard the
natives as a subjected people, feeble, timid and contemptible ; all things would tempt them, and many, both agents and seamen, would
remain. But the increase of Europeans there would not be regulated by the gradual progress of colonial industry. Multitudes of the
needy and the idle allured by the fame of that country, and eager to seize novel privileges, would flock thither at once. Britain
would, in a short space, be thinned of inhabitants, and those Eastern provinces filled with a new race of adventurers, many of them
low and licentious. Being there, they must subsist ; they would spread themselves throughout J,he ..country, would run into the
Inland trade, fix themselves wherever they could on the lands, domineer over the natives, bUrass, extrude, exasperate them, and at
length provoke them to plots and insurrections ; they would be bold and assuming towards our own Government there ; its present
form calculated chiefly for the natives would not be sufficiently coercive in such a new state of things, and hardly any Government
which we could maintain in that quarter, would control swarms of Europeans, thus let loose> and animated by the spirit of adventure
mill acquisition. Nor would the emigrations be confined to our countrymen only. If we tolerate the practice of free colonization in
India, people from all the nations in Europe would resort thither, mix with other subjects, and aggravate the mischiefs of such an
invading system. In a certain degree, we should have that lawless destructive scene acted over again which the Spaniards exhibited
when they first poured into America. It was thus that the Portuguese power in the E;iat declined. The intolerable license of the
rovinsr adventurers of that nation rendered them odious to the natives and armed the coasts and islands of India against them, so that
weakened before, they fell an easy prey to the Dutch. And thus too, we should ourselVes be exposed, perhaps at no distant period,
to the danger of general convulsion and revolt in those possessions which, prudently guarded and cultivated, may, under the favour
of Providence, to conciliate which should be our first care, be preserved for ages, to our great advantage, and the happiness of their
native inhabitants.
"The question now, therefore, with respect to these possessions, is not whether all British subjects shall have a right to trade
thither in their own persons, but whether the natives shall be protected from being overrun, and oppressed by foreigners. A different
cause recommends that the intercourse with these provinces be still carried on by one national organ, like the India Company. At
first, such a collective body was preferred, as a better defence against the arbitrary and rapacious temper of the native governments.
Now that the countries are our own, such a limited channel is also preferable, to save this$ nation, and our Asiatic subjects, from the
evils which might accrue from too great a transfusion of the people of Europe among the Hindus."
MR. GRANT'S REPLY TO POLITICAL OBJECTIONS. 217
on British troops, so, in the opinion of most competent judges, an opinion which appears to be indisputably solid
and important, ought we to do in all time to come*
Among the articles unreasonably crowded into the objection now to be examined, are those which state the
people as becoming, in consequence of some future supposed events and
Disaffection to foreign do- , . ,.
minion and taxation. combinations, dissatisfied at the payment of a foreign tribute, and with
subjection to a foreign country. Is it to be thought, that such ideas are
then only to have existence, or that the people have in any past time been contented under the dominion
of strangers ? Surely not. The only point for consideration here is, their comparative acquiescence in this condi-
tion under their present circumstances, and under those which it is assumed may hereafter arise.
" We shall now enter upon the consideration of the objection itself ; and the first things which attract our
attention here, are the foundation on which the whole of this objection
Political objection to English rests> and the ^nctpfe upon which it proceeds. The foundation is pure
Education is a purely hypothe- , ,, . . ,, .
tical conjecture opposed to %>0*7ims' or conjecture ; and hypothesis supported by no real experience
Christian principles. °f anv case siniilar to the one assumed to happen, nor by any just analogy.
Some general apprehension, prepossession, or unexamined suspicion, suggests
the possibility of certain events : and to this suggestion, without any satisfaction concerning the premises on
which it is advanced, or the conclusion deduced from it, without regard to all the other relations of the
subject in question, we are required to give our assent. The principle of the objection, at least equally
remarkable, is plainly no other than this, that to prevent the remotest chance of such consequences as the proposed
improvements might produce, our Asiatic subjects must be for ever held in the same state of ignorance and error
in which they now are. ' Give them not,' says the unstrained sense of this objection, 'the light of true religion,
teach them not a better system of morals, provide no stated means for their public or private instruction, impart
not to them our knowledge of Nature, be not liberal to them, even in communicating the principles of our arts ;
afford them, in a word, no benefit whatever of light and improvement, lest our interest should in some future
period suffer ; keep them blind and wretched for all generations, lest our authority should be shaken, or our
supremacy over them incur the slightest possible risk." Surely those who may have inconsiderately lent them-
selves to this objection will not, upon a clear deliberate view of its principles seek to justify or to contend for it.
A Christian nation cannot possibly maintain or countenance such a principle. To do so would be virtually to
trample upon every sentiment which we profess in religion or in morals. It would be to make ourselves parties
in all the impositions of the Brahminical system, and in effect to hold with its priests, the doctrine of Deme-
trius,f ' by this craft, we have our wealth.' To enlarge upon so very obvious an argument must be unnecessary.
" Besides the series of effects which the objection professedly supposes, certain other positions are tacitly
Tendency of Christian teach- comprehended in it, which next claim our notice. It implies, that the estab-
ing favours submission and lishment of Christianity in a country may, on the whole, prove unfavourable,
good order among the people. or jess favourable, than some other religious institution, to good Government ;
that its efficacy, may, on the whole, be inferior in securing the "subordination, obedience, and attachment of
the people, and the authority of the sovereign. Since, reason, experience, and general consent, have fully decided
against this position, it would be superfluous and unbecoming to enter into any refutation of it. It is certainly
one of the grossest misconceptions of the nature and tendency of the religion of the Gospel, which is known to
afford precepts, motives, and encouragements to lawful submission and good order, infinitely more powerful and
efficacious than those of any other system. Its real genius is so contrary to licentiousness and anarchy that
as we have seen in a late memorable instance, their triumph can be raised only upon its extinction. If we would
read the judgment of enlightened Europe upon this subject in a single sentence, the celebrated author already
quoted, who spent a long life in profound and certainly unbigotted investigations into the nature of different
systems of religion and law, may supply it. ' True Christians,' says he ' must be citizens thoroughly enlightened
respecting their duties, with the greatest zeal for fulfilling them ; the more they feel the obligations of religion,
the more must they be sensible of what they owe to their country. The principles of Christianity well engraven
on the heart, must be infinitely stronger than the false honour of Monarchies, the human virtues of republics,
and the servile fear of despotic states. 'J
* If, upon premises very opposite to those on which the objections wo are now answering are grounded, a doubt should be started
of the propriety of keeping any people perpetually under foreign rule, this would be to agitate a question involving the right of conquest,
and the nature of government ; but it might perhaps be sufficient to reply, that we can foresee no period in which we may not govern
our Asiatic subjects, more happily for them than they can be governed by themselves or any other power; and doing this we should
not expose them to needless danger from without and from within, by giving the military power into their hands.
t Acts Chap. 19— Page 64. J L'Esprit dea Loii, Liv. XXIV. Chapter 6.
28
•JlS ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
" The objection implies also, that rather than expose ourselves to the possibility of suffering future evils,
Advantages of Christianity which it is assumed Christianity might ultimately introduce, we should
do not forbode any possible forego great advantages which are confessedly within our reach. The pro-
political evils. bability of effecting considerable improvements is not denied ; it is, on the
contrary, supposed ; and this supposition constitutes the very ground of resistance. ' Though the field be spacious
and much might be done, attempt not to benefit either your subjects or yourselves, lest success should, at some very
distant day, be abused. Let us not do moral good, that political evil may not come.' Such is the language of the
objection; an acquiescence in the propriety of which, since the duty of aiming at those salutary meliorations has
been sufficiently established, would imply this further notion, ' that the way of duty is not, on the whole, the way
of prosperity.' It is enough to have pointed out these exceptionable positions.
" But another still remains to be mentioned, which goes to the essence of the present subject. The objection
silently assumes, ' that in a system opposite to the one proposed in this essay, must consist our future safety and
stability in India.' The high importance of this proposition, not surely one of such intuitive evidence as to com-
mand instant assent, entitles it to particular consideration ; but that consideration will be more conveniently
bestowed, after we have viewed the direct matter of the objection, to which we now proceed.
il It alleges then, the probability of the utmost possible success from the adoption of a system of improve-
ment, and the greatest possible abuse of that success. We have no design
Possible political danger from .
diffusion of English literature to exaggerate the effects or events which are necessary to justify these large
science and religion too remote conjectures; but we apprehend, that upon any reasonable estimate of them,
for practical consideration. ^ey wjjj jje found to form a long series of stages, not only in the advancing,
but also in the descending scale of human society ; for no partial change in the people, either with respect to
opinions or to numbers, seems adequate to the production of them. Let us endeavour therefore, to trace the career
which is thus imagined, and to expand to the view, the various gradations of that ample progression by which
we are to be conducted through greatness to decline. First, tlie diffusion of a foreign language, of foreign opinions
and arts, of a spirit and religion the most dissimilar to those of the natives, who are a people exceedingly numer-
ous, and from remote antiquity peculiarly attached to their own customs and notions ; next a large increase of
Agriculture, Manufactures, Commerce ; with new wants, tastes, and luxuries ; a great demand for English productions
and fashions; and a gradual separation from neighbouring nations, in whom these changes, probably misrepresented
to them, would beget disgust and aversion to the converted Hindus. The objection must imply moreover, not only
the rise of just notions of civil liberty, but that they have become deeply rooted in a country where despotism
seems to have been in all ages and to be still, the natural and only idea of Government ; * it must imply vigour
and unanimity to assert this liberty ; then (before it can be abused) the possession and enjoyment of it ; after this,
a progress to licentiousness ; and lastly, the violent dissolution of their connection with their sole protector, in the
midst of nations become hostile to them, without a rational prospect of improving their situation, if they threw
themselves upon the support of other European or Native powers, or of maintaining independence if they stood
alone.
" To what distant age, may we not now ask, does this immense process lead us ? If we even contract it to any
space which an objector could urge as at all commensurate to the assumed consequences, should we still, in reason-
ing upon such conjectural delineations, stand upon any solid foundation ? Would we act in serious and great
concerns, even of private individual import, upon such precarious remote contingencies ? Do they not set us
i upon the ocean of possibilities, where the prospect, extended so far as to become wholly indistinct, confounds
sea and sky, and in interspersed clouds of many shapes gives fancy easily to discover formidable promontories and
rocks ?
" But if we look to known realities to some of the many and great obstacles which will stand in the way of
• j- any such political revolution as is imagined, we shall be at a loss to give anv
Abolition of caste prejudices
and improvement of religious SODer satisfactory account of the manner in which they are to be removed.
and social feelings will be so We insist not on the difficulty of disseminating, only by just and rational
gradual that no violent revolu- meanS) a new religion opposed by inveterate habits and prejudices. The
friends of that scheme, indeed, dare not speak of success, with the confidence
which the language of the objection seems to favour ; yet they are not without hope ; and they are animated by a
conviction, that even a partial diffusion of Christianity, would improve the whole mass of society. But if we
inquire, for instance, into the probable period of the general abolition of Castes, which allowing it ever to happen,
* The government of the Seikhs, though it have more of an aristocratic or republican form, seems no real exception to thii
observation, still less the aristocratic connection of the Mahratta chiefs.
MR. GRANT'S VIEWS AS TO EFFECTS OP CHRISTIANITY. 219
must be conceived, in the natural order of things to precede some other supposed changes, what place shall we
assign to it ? Some point we may venture to say, not within our ken ; and beyond which, it seems vain to stretch
our political solicitude in so changeable a world as this, wherein political prediction is so often baffled ; perhaps
indeed, because it is so seldom connected with present duty. Supposing however, the tendency of events to be
towards such an abolition, we may conclude, that the progress to it will be gradual. With the institution of
Castes are blended not only religious doctrines and legal privileges, but the whole system of Hindu manners.
Deep rooted prejudices, combined with strong interests and immemorial habits, cannot reasonably be expected to
give way to sudden impressions. The entire manners and usages of a people do not change at once. The
institution therefore, will not bo deprived of its power by any violent rupture or convulsion. And even after the
doctrine of Castes shall have lost its religious authority, and its tyrannical influence in Society, (still arguing on
the supposition that these things may happen), the manners which it contributed to form, will, in a considerable
degree, and for a certain time, remain. Among the Malabar converts to Christianity, distinctions of caste have
not lost all their force ; the habit of separation, the repulsive feelings, the secluding reserves, which spring from
that source, though abated, still exist in some degree perhaps analagous to the ceremonial prejudices of the first
Christian Jews. As long as a principle of this nature remains in Society, preventive as it will be of an inter-
communion in marriages and professions, no formidable political association is likely to arise. Hence as the
decline of the institution of Castes will be slow and imperceptible, so the moment of its expiration will be
unperceived ; subsequent observation only will discover that it is past : therefore neither can this change be a
signal for new events.
" The grand danger with which the objection alarms us, is that the communication of the Gospel and of Euro-
Spread of the Gospel and pean light' m^ probably be introductive of a popular form of government
European civilization not con- and the assertion of independence. Upon what grounds is it inferred, that
ducive to desiring a popular these effects must follow in any case, especially in the most unlikely case
form of Government or asser- of the Hindus ? The establishment of Christianity in a country, does not
tion of independence. ., . . .....
necessarily bring after it a free political Constitution. The early Christians
made no attempts to change forms of government ; the spirit of the Gospel does not encourage even any disposi-
tion which might lead to such attempts. Christianity has been long the religion of many parts of Europe, and
of various protestant states, where the form of government is not popular. It is its peculiar excellence, and an
argument of its intended universality, that it may subsist under different forms of government, and in all render
men happy, and even societies flourishing ; whereas the Muhammadan and Hindu Systems are built upon the
foundation of political despotism, and adapted, in various instances, only to the climates that gave them birth.
Christianity seeks moral good, and general happiness. It does not, in £he pursuit of these objects, erect a peculiar
political system ; it views politics through the safe medium of morals, and subjects them to the laws of universal
rectitude.
" Nor are we to expect, that Christianity is entirely to supersede the effects of physical causes. The debili-
Cbristianity cannot super- t&tivg nature of the climate of our Eastern territories, and its unfavourable
sede the debilitating effects of influence upon the human constitution, have been already mentioned,* and
Eastern climate. by others represented in strong colours : ' Notwithstanding ' says the cele-
brated historian of the British Transactions in Hindustan, ' the general effeminacy of character which is visible
in all the Indians throughout the empire, the natives of Bengal are still of weaker frame, and more enervated
disposition than those of any other province ; bodily strength, courage, and fortitude, are unknown ; even the
labour of the common people is totally void of energy; and they are of a stupidity, which neither wishes, nor
seems to be capable of extending its operations into any variety of mechanical dexterity. All those of the better
castes, who are not fixed to the loom are bred to the details of traffic and money, in which their patience and
perseverance are as great as their detestation of danger, and aversion to bodily fatigue. 'f From this striking
description ought to be excepted the Military tribes, to whom it will not properly apply, and the general features,
we must take the liberty to say, are overcharged : but having made due allowances on these accounts, the picture
will certainly possess no faint resemblance of the original.
" Indolence, pusillanimity, insensibility, as they proceed not wholly from physical sources, would be at least
partially corrected by moral improvement ; but the influences of a tropical sun would still be oppressive. The
* Chap. Ill, pp. 39, &c.
t Part II, Page 5th of the History of Military Transactions, &o., by Mr. Orme. an author well entitled to the high rank he holds
in public estimation, by his generally just and comprehensive views of the subjects which he treats, the clearness, accuracy, vigour
and dignity of his narration ; but not appealed to in the former part of this Tract in the account there given of the state of Society
among the Hindus, from an idea that he had not any large opportunities of intimately observing the conduct and manners of the
middling and lower classes who live remote from European intercourse.
nraun Bmxinov nr snu.
Uirkt «4iatUie of tke kaaaa bodr. with it* orfinarr ui»tu»ilaati, Kill iaraaax tke taate to a regetaUe difct-
Hirxlua will chart ardent jife. wkkk jnodif j. in no inconsiderable degree, the Hiada *1— •**J". tktu
_.r . - .. MapMMMBM would be BO material innovation- Tlevstateaf tW ecwBtrjadd* to tfce cCectt
iJ i hi iVimntt It is nfawNnable far Io^ javnejs; aad the Hndvs. in gcncnl » maateij nkad people, fare*
«TOBZ m««iaB to tie «» ; erea tit air of it i» offaeire to them. Tber are tins deprired of all tie adrairtaees
wfcuci tke "•"••"—••"• of BarigaboD and an acqaaiatance with ike world at large, would yiocait! to lluai Sor is
f. Oat tier will ertr beeovae mazitime : mad «• litUe Kkelj are tfcey to beto^c i» other
iledbted for pMare smSenmg ikmm for ardanM atevptc, tfcey little love
1 wisk ratio- to be protected, tfeaa to bar* tietrooUeof
i nrr -nil rrrr tirrnmr tartialraf fn !*•>!'• h
at India win not liberty* A spirit of Ene&k liberty k not to be eaozbt fro& a written
i of it, by dieteat and feeble Asiatic* especially. It i
i of age* from tke active I n 1 1'mmu of tie kaiaaa powers ; and perkap* caa be rtliiktd only by a
is more likely to inspire a tojte for it tkaa report : bo* tke •atioa* of
i tkat Ebeny aaJ it* great effect*, without being led to tke raritorina of it ; for tke Freaek rewirtJBBi piuueeJa
i; it w am ermptaa* of
•Tie Fng.rak JahibJIiBj, on- iilllimiali in India, bare no cbare ia tie Bntkk G«
(Of
Wky tie* cbotdd we grvc to tke Satires, eve* if tkey aapired to it, a*
it»«JiiBeiy«fat«key wffl «k»« aijiiit, wkai we preperily refase to
Tke Piiliek ~^*1^*— *- woedd be atae«eb- avcne to
Oxr Go«cmwa«. M h is
"-"...""~:
. i --.
MR. GRANT'S DISTINCTION BETWEEN ERITISH COLONIES. AND INDIA. --'
solid foundation. There is, and there ever mnst be, an essential dissimilarity between the two cases. The
Americans were, in fact, Englishmen, (with some infusion of foreign Europeans whicli may have contributed to
alienate the colonies from this country), they 1 all the energy of the European character, all the liarhts of
Europe : they were born in a temperate climate, nursed in the largest principles of freedom : nay the seeds of
We have advanced to a high degree of improvement in sciences and arts, in all the conveniences and enjoyments of civil life,
commerce has brought vast wealth ; and wealth has been followed by its too inseparable attendant, corruption of manners.
Our old solid principles, which were the foundation of our greatness have been gradually falling into disregard and neglect. They
might have been well enough in our humbler beginnings, or in a less liberal age; but increased liglr- elevation,
fulness of ail means of gratification, have seemed to many to plead first for relaxation, and then for the admission of other prim
allowing n suitable enlargement in i; without fear. This spirit has spread through the whole mass of society. Wr:
and representations have helped the diffusion of it. Its effects have been visible on morals, and on the happiness of privat
Reverence for religion and for government has decayed. Both have been insidiously troni time u> time ; and at
the more mature produce of this spirit, some disdaining the measured advances hitherto made in unprincipling men, and eneonr
by the fatal consummation of alike career in I country, have openly and furiously attempted the subversion of all
legitimate authority, human and divine. The incendiary torch and the secret mine, have been industriously employed to destroy the
mble fabrics of our religion and our constitution. Seditious and atheistical writings, superlative in the impudence of their
falsehood, have been particularly adapted to the vulgar taste ; and obviously, because the ignorance of the rnlgar exposes them to
t imposition, as the too general example which they hail long soon around them, pre-disposed them to progressive boldn,
licet; Then it is. that some men seeing the foundations of our political existence thus attacked, begin to argue from the
abus, - use. and to think it would be better for the community, that the lower people should not be instructed
even to read, as by such privation they would, it is conceived, be inaccessible to infection from the press. But in fact, the evils of
which we complain, originate in no small degree from the ignorance that has naturally followed the direliction of right prim- :
The symptoms indica' lot cure contrary to that which is proposed. The habit is diseased; the di- deep to bo
reached externally, requires that the application be directed to its source. A return to ignoranee may hasten the destruction of a
y become corrupt through refinement, but can hardly contribute to restore it to soundness. At our advanced stage of improve,
ment. it must be vain to imagine, that any retrograde movement we could effect in knowledge, would avail to secnre the common mind
from agitations and commotions. If any scheme of that kind even succeeded so far as to confine knowledge again among a smaller number.
it could not reach to such characters as are now zealous to loosen and root out all received opinions in religion and Government ; bu*
they would, on the contrary, be able to do more mischief that; now. because the more profound were the ignorance of the multi-
would there bo. as in the dark acres, for the arts and activity of wicked men to work upon their credulity. (If
this France has furnished a recent instance, too memorable to be ever forgotten.
The want of knowledge and principle among the lower classes, left them a prey to Jacobinical impostures and delusions, by which
they were hurried at once into the atrocities of anarchy and atheism
It is not then by exposing our common people, unarmed and defenceless, to the daring blasphemies and sophistries of the preach-
ers of impiety and sedition, that we can hope to keep them quiet. Our security lies, and lies only, in diffusing good and
right principles among them. In this too, the French revolutionists have afforded a lesson, which may suggest something useful to ns.
They endeavour that the minds of the people may not remain in that unfurnished state, of which they made advantage ; bnt that the
young especially, may be imbued with the tenets and prejudices favourable to their cause.
It is per' .ke to suppose, that the common IB, who have been most prime to tumult and disorder, ar:
as can read and write, or that tl. n which havo appeared, are to be ascribed to any
or in a village would be sufficient to disseminate what was level to the
•iding and acceptable to vulgar ; : .-id that the lower ranks are more affected by wh:i :han
by what they r iselves in large tow • ith manufacturers, or
instructed part •mmunity. The man:;. work when yet children, often re.- .:icatiou. When
ire. not unfrequently ies without :-iim : they •
other in vice: and i' time of relaxation, in which thr;
to be allo-.\ ;• indnlgon, - character. I hen-
pared for the desk' ^indle discontet, .rbance. But the writ.
OOt tang ago, to M« a OOntl :>tion. in a populous cmntry parish. In that distr:.- - -re very few -.
n ho could not read. The regular in their attendance on public worship ; and in
the >• instance of the . of a enpit.il crime :\i:; :rred Tin-
dne found little to work upon in such a community; the Bible wa- d there, an.. vithin his own
place.
But we are not left in this ease to smaller instances of individual . .. An experiment has been txin a large
scale for a long series of years, in the sight of the whole nation, in the two countries of Ire - .-i The common classes
of the former country have unhappily been too generally kept in ignorance to the present day : and are
obvious and mo- How lamentably are the lower people then- distinguished 1\<. rhulont. and lawless proceedings - In
wha; division of the British dominions has there appc :it a propr- -race democrat i.- ing principles:- And
it is observable, that these principles, and the barbarities of which we hear so much. ha\ i chiefly in remoter, less enlightened
parts of the kingdom, whilst i lie vie-,' ,ind other considerable places more civilised by ID have been more
rly and qui. .-,d, on the contrary, has been remarkable for attention to the instruction of the lower classes of its ini
.).).• ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
republicanism were sown in the first formation of the leading colonies. They had already a popular government,
Thi'v were inured to arms, to hardships, and toils. The spirit of improvement animated them in a thousand
different lines. Thev were expert seamen ; their country abounded in excellent harbours; and in their geographical
situation, they were ( with the exception of one or two of our detached, more recently settled colonies) the sole
eivili/.ed people in a Lrreat tract of continent, which seemed to offer to them the tempting prospect of becoming
there the only political power. With all this, they were near enough to our insidious enemies to be constantly
!nMi;.'ated to resistance by their arts, and effectually aided by their amis and resources. To what one of these
manv particulars, shall we discover a parallel among our Hindu subjects? To none, as they now are ; and in
various important points, no resemblance is ever to be expected. The origin, the physical character and condition,
the intellectual, moral, and political state of the Hindus, have already appeared, in the course of this essay, to be
totally different. On their local circumstances only, it remains to say, in addition to what was before intimated,
a few words. If they were ever ' to exalt the spear of enmity ' against their ancient masters, they would do so
almost environed by Hindus, whose faith they had renounced, and to whom their apostacy would have rendered
them odious. Could they trust such neighbours as allies, or resist them as enemies ? What their interest would
obviously require them to avoid, surely we have no right to assume that they would be so unwise as to commit.
And if they called in the assistance of an European power, would they thus obtain independence, or only change
one master for another ? On all the coast of Hindustan there are but three or four good ports, and these at great
distances from each other ; though the shore is in many places accessible to an invading force, and there are some
tolerable harbours in the islands of the Bay of Bengal of which an enemy could take great advantage. Now, if the
Hindus could be renovated in every other particular, no assignable period can be imagined for their acquiring
and practising the art of navigation ; and therefore, those of them now subject to Great Britain must, in their
supposed new circumstances, not only continue to need the supply of many wants from that country, but always
In- exposed to the hostile approaches of the navies of Europe. By a people so circumstanced, it does not appear
In >w independence is attainable. They must, in effect, be at the mercy of the strongest maritime power. Whilst
therefore, we continue to be that power, it is rather to be expected that their own interest, and the preference
which their imitation of our manners will have given us over other European nations, will jointly induce them to
remain safe under our protection ; as these motives, on their part, will strengthen us in India against European
tauts. and they have, in general been distinguished for near two centuries past by a spirit of sobriety and order. In the more remote
inaccessible parts of that country, whither, obstructed by particular causes, light penetrated more slowly, regularity and good order
were also of later establishment; bat the natives of those divisions misguided into excess on some occasions now long past, have since
been as eminent for a quiet and peaceable demeanour at home, as for standing numerously in the foremost ranks of those who have bled
for the interests and the honour of this country in every quarter of the globe ; and at the present critical juncture have come con-
spicuously forward, in many bands for the support of our constitution and our religion, against all enemies, foreign and domestic.
Indeed, if we were even to set aside the consideration of religion, and the good principles it inculcates, and to regard knowledge
merely as power, or as an mitrumanl of civilization, we might safely rest the present question npon this ground.
The diffusion of knowledge would, in the end render, a nation more disposed to check the admission of disorganizing principles.
Doctrines it is admitted, while new, might make, as they often do, an irregular impression ; but at length these irregularities would be
corrected by good sense and reflection ; and surely literature, even in its lowest stages, must be allowed to be more favourable to the
production of good sense and reflection than ignorance.
But when we take into the question the influence of religion and all its salutary principles, certainly no one who considers their
force and tendency can hesitate how to decide. Christianity was given to be " a light to the world ;" ignorance is declared in the inspired
writings to be one of the leading causes of the ruin of the Jewish nation, and of the vices of the lle:ii liens. The ancient Pharisees
i by the Author uf our religion for taking away the key of knowledge, that is, the use of the Scriptures from the people;
which also has Ix-cn eminently the sin of the Romish Church. It is, on the contrary, a stated prayer of the Church of Hnglnnd, that the
people may so read the Word of God as duly to profit by it ; and as that word " thoroughly furnishes " those who submit to it "for all
so where else shall we find such pointed authoritative precepts for the duo regulation, order, and peace of society?
the people in mind to be subject to principalities and powers, and to obey Magistrates, not only for fear of human punishment, bur for
.=«/.•<• : In tvlimit tu rrrry ordinance of man for the Lord's sake, whether it be to the King as supreme, or to Governors as tent by
.M> i« the u'ill of God. Prayers, are to be made for Kinys and all in authority, that we may lead a quiet and peaceable life, in all
ness and honesty. Christians are commanded " to study to be quiet and to mind tlieir own business, to fear God and the King, and not
ith thufc who are given to change."
Those therefore, we would, by withholding the knowledge of letters from the vulgar, abridge the use of the Scriptures, would
in fact aid the views of such as wish to overthrow our Christian faith and our civil establishment. If there be any who misuse the
rines of the Gospel, by teaching a wild and shallow religion, which may indeed too easily connect with political error and disorder,
ih" remedy must assuredly lie, in this or in any similar case, not to leave the field entirely to mistaken guides, but more strenuously
>>pose error by truth ; and if the same zeal, the same personal interest, with which the emissaries of sedition have laboured, were
universally employed on the other side, rationally and solidly to inculcate right principles and wholesome instructions, we might com-
irtably hope, that the attempt* of domestic and foreign enemies to excite internal troubles among us would end in their disappointment
and disgrace.
ME. GRANT'S VIEWS AS TO SPREAD OF ENGLISH CIVILIZATION. 223
invaders, and so contribute to maintain our naval superiority at home ; which superiority, in the present state of
our Hindu subjects, is still more necessary for the preservation of our Eastern possessions, than it would be
on the supposed approximation of that people to the British character.
" It may now be fair to inquire into the propriety with which that species of doubt or apprehension, which has
Difference between the -lus* ")een considered, insinuates, as it does, some moral relation between the
American Revolution and American Revolution, and such principles as are proposed to be introduced
possibilities in India. among our Indian subjects. Is it to be supposed, that if the Americans,
being in their physical character, their local and political circumstances, the same, had professed Muhammadanism,
or any pagan religion, they would not have been at least, equally prone to a revolution ? If we had maintained in
America, the same kind of despotic government which has prevailed in the East, where the sovereign, when despatch-
ing a viceroy to a distant province, could seldom know that he should not soon have to send an army to reduce
him to obedience, will it be asserted that our authority would have been better or equally secured ? But after all
that is said of the separation of the American colonies from Great Britain, it is now a fact well known, that it
did not spring from the general disposition, or the previous design of the people : in the possession of all the
advantages which have been enumerated, they had not become impatient for independence ; and among the reasons
to be assigned for the attachment which then still remained among them for this country, may certainly be
reckoned their possession of the same language and religion.
" If it be urged, that a comparison between the American Colonists, and the natives of our Eastern territories,
Comparison between the can be justly instituted only in considering the latter, not as they are at present,
American Colonists and but as they would be after all the proposed improvements were diffused
Natives of India. among them, it may be answered, that our previous statement of the effects
of these improvements, affords matter for this comparison, so far as things contingent and unknown, can be com-
pared with things established and known ; and that, it is fair, for a double reason, to state the present disparity
between the two races of people, first to show the immense career which the Hindus have yet to run, even in the
prosecution of such improvments as are attainable, and secondly to demonstrate, that in the character, situation and
circumstances of the Americans, at the asra of their revolution, there were radical important distinctions, which no
improvement, on the part of the Hindus, could annihilate ; or in other words, that they could never be expected to
arrive at the point at which the Americans then stood.
" Indeed, those who know the country of Hindustan will probably think that political liberty is the last thing
Political liberty cannot flour- likely to flourish there. Though that country has been, from causes of a
ish among the timid submis- different nature which will be hereafter noticed, always subject to revolutions
sive people of India and convulsions ; a revolution, the idea and act of the popular mind, upon
the principles, or rather from an abuse of the principles of civil liberty, would be as great a political phenomenon
as the world has exhibited, and one of which Asia has given no example. To bring a timid submissive people,
whom the Tartars called ' worshippers of power' up to the manliness of the European character, to elevate the feeblest
of them, the Bengalese, to so high a point of energy, that like, the American descendants of the British themselves,
they should plan the daring project of an independent empire, seems to be something beyond what has yet been
seen, or is reasonably to be expected from the effects of institutions, civil or religious, upon nations.
" Having thus considered the adverse consequences held forth by the objection, it may now be proper to notice
more particularly, the favourable suppositions which it contains. The dangers
Spread of English civiliza-
tion will promote prosperity " iears! are the dangers ot prosperity. It then, this prosperity were realized,
reciprocal commerce, and and the produce, the manufactures, and the riches of the country were
wealth in India. greatly increased, as according to the objection, English manners, tastes and
wants, must also have become common, would not exports thither, and the reciprocal commerce arising from the
change (not to reckon the imposts which merchandise, now hardly taxed at all, would then easily bear) be
proportionably augmented ? For what series of years, and with what multiplying powers, may we then conceive
this augmentation to be progressive ? Large as the assertion may seem, perhaps the shortest term we could assign
to it would produce an accumulation of commercial profits and advantages, more than tantamount to a very high
valuation of the fee-simple of our provinces, if we could suppose a sale of them to be now made. And it is fair
also to admit, that if the country were finally lost, our commerce might still be necessary to it, and possibly even
continue to increase. Such then, would be the conclusion afforded by this formidable objection, if for the sake of
argument we were to allow the process described in it to go on without resistance to its exceptionable parts. But
we trust, we have already shewn, that it is not entitled to this concession, and that whilst it holds forth evils, only
as distant and hypothetical, it is obliged, as the sole ground of its apprehension, to admit advantages to be certain
and proximate.
• >.>! KNOUSH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
" It remains now to examine one important position, already mentioned to be tacitly contained in the objection,
' that in a system, opposite to the one here proposed, must consist our future
Importance of the question:
"What are the best means of safetv and stablht7 m lndla- Unwilling as the writer is, to enter on so
perpetuating the British Em- delicate a subject, and, indeed, inadequate to the due treatment of it, he feels
pire in India?" himself called by his argument, to make some circumspect observations upon
it Certainly in a political view the great question which this country has to determine respecting India is,
' What are the best means of perpetuating our empire there ? '* Not what set of measures or line of policy may
suit with the aspects of the day, or keep up the motion of the machine of Government ; but upon what general
principles may we best hope to make our connection with that country permanent, and, as far as we can, indissoluble ?
Towards the determination of this question, perhaps, it will be well to revert to the past history of our Indian
Provinces (or let us say to those of Bengal in particular, the chief seat of our dominion) and to the character of the
Natives of them. The English, it is true, were at first guided in their Eastern Administration, rather by nascent
nts, than by abstract principles or recorded experience; but, however natural this may be, in the progress to
• nlishmcnt, a more extended survey of the course of past affairs in the acquired country, with their causes and
consequences, may well befit the new possessors, when firmly settled in their power. It is not perhaps enough to
exempt them from this review, that they follow a system of Government widely different from the system of their
predecessors, and are themselves a very different people. Among their Asiatic subjects, certain general properties
which belong to human nature, and certain peculiar qualities resulting from a peculiar composition of society,
nxay be expected to have a steady operation, where not controlled by stronger influences. If we look back then
to the history of Bengal for five centuries, we shall find, that except in the period when the Moghal Empire was
in its vigour, and the component parts of it thereby kept in peace with each other, that country has been the scene
of frequent revolutions ; and we cannot fail to discover that as the despotism of Eastern Government may be
reckoned the first and remote principle of such changes, so they have immediately proceeded from two causes, the
lawless spirit of ambitious adventure common among all the military tribes of Hindustan, and the nature of the
general mass of the people inhabiting that region.
" The Persians and Tartars, who have poured into it from early ages, have generally been soldiers of fortune,
Muhammadan conquest of wno broDght little with them but their swords. With these they have not
India made by soldiers of for- unfrequently carved their way to dignity and empire. Power has been, and
tune. is their darling object ; nothing was scrnpled by them to obtain it ; the history
of Muhammadan rule in Hindustan is full of treasons, assassinations, fratricides, even parricide is not unknown
to it. These Northern adventurers by their spirit and pursuits, became in fact an accession, of more active and
stronger qualities indeed, to the military division of the people of Hindustan. The Hindus, though held to be
prone to the shedding of blood, have not however, carried their nicety far, when the prize of sovereignty or
authority has been in question ; but among them, sanguinary ambition has been usually confined to the Brahmins
anil the military caste ; to the latter more.
" The military class of the Hindus, which in its institution has some of the features of a militia, forms in
reality a great standing army of mercenaries, ready to be hired on all occasions
Military Hindus and Mu- ,. . ., •.«__»* • ±
hammadans form a great tbouSh usually not obliged to enter into actual service. Thus the sovereign
standing army of mercenaries, °f a country cannot always command their assistance, whilst the existence of
ready to be hired for any such a body may often render a domestic competitor, or a foreign enemy
species of warfare, with an eye formi,iable to him. From this copious source, any man of enterprise, what-
ever were his views or pretensions, could always find partisans, if he had
funds to entertain them ; the treasure of the prince has been often used by his servants, to hire men to despoil
him also of his throne. No character has been so bad, no cause so unjust, as not to find an army to support it if
there were money to pay them. The members of the military caste, conceiving themselves destined by their
creation to fight, often take up arms with the same indifference and indiscrimination as a labourer takes up a
spade ; insomuch that it has not been unusual to see a defeated army join the standard of the victor , upon the
same principle which carries the labourer from one employer, with whom business runs low, to another whose
service and means he deems more sure. The military Muhammadans (for many of the descendants of the Tartars
who settled in Hiudostan fell into the lines of civil life) are equally ready as the military Hindus to eno-age
themselves in commotions, quarrels, and any species of warfare, both having always in times of confusion an
eye to plunder.
* Some will be ready to answer : " By securing to the people their religion and laws ; " and in the jnat sense of the words, namely
that no violent change in either, contrary to the sense of the people, is to be enforced. We agree to the proposition ; but what if the
religion should bo less favourable to our dominion than another system, and the people were induced voluntarily to make that othe
their religion ; would not the change be for our interest '{
POSSIBLE POLITICAL DANGERS TO BRITISH KDLE. 225-
" From this institution of a military class, the wisdom of which is surely impeached by the general effects
Military dominancy in India, '* KaS Produced' the militar7 sPiri* came at length to reside almost wholly
both Hindu and Muhammadan in one Porti°n of the people. And hence may, in part at least, have followed
has generated slavish dis- the abjectness of the inferior tribes, composing the main body of the nation,
P°PUlati°n in and theil' want of public spirit. However much they may, on different
accounts, have preferred a Hindu to a Muhammadan Government, no instance
is recollected of their rising to support any Native Prince, or keep out any invader. The whole history of the
Muhammadan Empires in Hindustan, as well as the traces we have of the anterior government of the Hindus, and
what we see in modern days, all concur to prove the slavish disposition of that people, and their want of attach-
ment to their rulers.
" From these several causes, the despotic genius of Eastern Government, the exclusive hereditary allotment
of the military profession to one class, and the abiect character of the people
Frequent conquests of India
by foreigners. Possible dan- ve Proceede<1 tne great encouragement of individuals to the violent assump-
gers to British Rule from simi- tion of power, and the frequency of insurrections, convulsions, and revolutions
lar swarms of barbarous as- in that country. And the same causes though their operation may, by vari-
ous circumstances, be occasionally suspended, will as long as they exist, have
a tendency to produce the same effects. Hindustan has alternately been united under one great head, or parti-
tioned into many states. New conquerors have, in different ages, appeared on that Continent, who" increasing
as they went on, have at length, by the vast number of their followers, overwhelmed every thing that opposed
them. We now, indeed, see the empire of the Moghals prostrate, and may be apt to think, that, arranged as the
politics aiid powers of Hindustan are, the same order of things is not likely to return ; but it was upon the subver-
sion of the Patan Empire that the Moghals rose, and may not a new adventurer, and a new horde from Tartary,
establish yet another dynasty ? It was perfectly in the option of Nadirshah, when he entered Delhi as a conqueror,,
in 1739, to have done this.* And if one of those scourges of mankind who have so frequently desolated India,
should again arise, sending his fame, and the idea of his ' happy destiny ' before him, might not the multitudes col-
lected in his progress, poured out at length into the remote quarter of Bengal, endanger our existence there ? Whether
we suppose him to advance in the first flush of conquest, or after he had given a central consolidation to his power,
he would be backed by the resources of a vast inland region, by large armies of horse, and myriads of infantry. If
we now figure to ourselves the progress of his operations, it will not bring them nearer; it will be in order that we
may be better guarded against them. The Tartars, unaccustomed to cope with our steady military gallantry and skill,
might be repeatedly repulsed. Still fresh swarms of assailants might be brought forward, and season after season,
invasion be renewed. We could bring few cavalry into the field ; the numerous squadrons of the enemy might
waste and exhaust the country ; the landholders, from whom the revenues are derived, would, as is usual in Hindu-
stan, upon the appearance of commotion, withhold the payment of their rents ; the produce of the districts which
the enemy might occupy, they would immediately appropriate ; and the credit of our Government, as indeed we
even now experience in times of exigency, would not procure us any adequate supplies. We should thus be
straitened and embarrassed in our resources ; suspicions of our stability might arise in the minds of our subjects,
and among them would be a great number of the military caste, unemployed by us, and ready to make their
own use of any promising occasion. Many of those subjects, won by the splendour of new power, .and the proud
display of an imperial standard, or desirous of securing an early interest, perhaps indulging new hopes from a
revolution, would fall away from us : others would wish for a cessation of predatory vexations, at the oxpense of
our expulsion.
" The Sepoys, whose attachment to us has appeared surprising, though the causes of it seem neither inex-
Loyalty of the Sepoys plica°le nor immutable, supplied tardily and perhaps only partially with the
though surprising, neither in- pay, of which the regular advance had before so conciliated them to our
explicable nor immutable, service ; and instead of being animated by the career of victory, cooped
maybe endangered by a daz- . dubious defensive warfare, might also be tempted to listen to the
zhng leader. Loyalty of the
people important and aohiev- large offers of a dazzling leader, in whom their ready notions of fatalism
able by spreading English en- might easily present to them a new king of the world. In such an arduous
lightenment. crisis, we trust that everything to be expected from bravery, fortitude and
military science, would be performed on our part ; but must not our lasting dependence be chiefly on British
troops, on our maritime power, and on supplies by sea ? With all these, it is very easy to see how oppressive,
how threatening, a long struggle, maintained under such circumstances, possibly by aids derived from the mother-
* If he had, we might probably have still been mere merchants in India.
29
.).),; ENCiUSH EIM'CATION IN INDIA.
Country, must be to us ; how much also it must shake our interests and our stability in the rest of India. Now in
any such state of tilings, in any case of the same nature, less extreme, what would be of more Importance to us,
what could so effectually fortify our cause, as to have the people of our territories sincerely attached to our govern-
ment • to have established in their minds such an affectionate participation in our lot, such an union with our
interests, as should counteract the defection, defalcations, and treachery, to be otherwise apprehended from the
ordinary bent and practice of the Asiatic character ? We should thus have the service of all the resources which
our rich Provinces contained ; we should have the steady adherence and cooperation of the people, and in this way,
might certainly confound and baffle even the powerful preparations of an imperial despot, to whose affairs long
Mini spirited resistance might prove highly detrimental, by encouraging distant Provinces which he had before
overrun to throw off the yoke. And how are our .subjects to be formed to a disposition thus favourable to us,
to be changed thus in their character, but by new principles, sentiments, and tastes, leading to new views, con-
duct, and manners; all which would, by one and the same effect, identify their cause with ours, and proportionally
separate them from opposite interests ? It is not, we may venture to affirm, from such a change, but in continuing
us we are, that we stand most exposed to the dangers of political revolution.
" The objection which conceives remote evils to result from a plan of improvement, does not advert to others
which may, in the meantime, arise from causes of a different kind. We join
Assimilation and a common "
bond of union between the with it m the desire of securing in permanence, the fair possession (
English and the Natives country has obtained (more, it may be concluded, by the over-ruling dis-
necessary for permanence of pensatioii of Providence, than by any scheme of man), but differ as to the
British dominion in India. mu.ms. To us it appears, that nothing promises so fair for the end proposed,
-us engaging the attachment and regard of the people, and removing those causes which have hitherto made them
vo acquiescent in every change. It was this passive temper, joined to the expectations which many might entertain
from the deposition of the reigning Nabob, that contributed to our easy acquisition of the country ; but the same
temper would render our hold of it less sure in any arduous contest. At present, we arc every way different from
the people whom we hold in subjection ; different in country, in language, in manners, in customs, in sentiments,
and in religion ; their interest also, for the reasons mentioned in the early part of this memoir, they must conceive
to be different from ours. What then can be a healing principle with regard to all these points, but a principle of
•iif imitation, a common bond, which shall give to both parties the reality and the conviction of mutual benefit from
the connexion ? Without an uniting principle, a conjoining tie of this nature, we can suppose the country to be,
in fact, retained only by mere power ; but in the same degree that an identity of sentiments and principles would
be established, we should exhibit a sight new in the region of Hindustan, a people actively attached, cordially
•affected to their (iovernment, and thus augmenting its strength. In this laudable way we should become more for-
midable to the other powers of that Continent, we should be best secured against foreign enemies, insurrections
and the dangers of an hereditary military body ; we should have more support from the mass of the people, and in
u word, be most effectually guarded against a revolution.
" It is remarkable, that the radical principle of the conclusion thus made, a conclusion to which an acquaintance
with the Indian character, and the experience that progressive time has
oSafL alin^laTinf Asiatic ^rded of the effects of knowledge, particularly the divine knowledge of
subjects to the Grecian system, Christianity, may now easily lead an ordinary mind, directed, according to the
and winning their loyalty, judicious historian of The Ancient European Intercourse with India, the policy
llowed by the of the Qrecian conqueror of that country, in securing his Eastern acquisitions.
However different, in other respects, the circumstances of that celebrated
personage may be from ours, in this we agree with him, that we have an Asiatic Empire to maintain. And Dr.
Robertson, who in acknowledging the eccentricities of that extraordinary man, gives him also the credit of profound
political views, observes, ' He early perceived, that to render his authority secure and jn'rimitn-nt, it miiat be established
in tin- nffn-linn ,,/' //,,< untinns //.• had stilidiu'd, and maintained by their arms; and that in order to acquire this
advantage, all distinctions between the victors and the vanquished must be abolished, and his European and Asiatic
subjects !»• incorporated, and become one people, by obeying the same laws, and by adopting the Mine manners,
institution*, mid dixi-ijitiiir.' It is the leading idea only of this policy, that is meant to be applied here ; and that
leading idea is plainly the principle of aissiinihition. It would neither suit us, nor our subjects, to act upon it
universally, as Alexander proposed. We ought not to wish, that the distinctions between the two races should
be lost, or to aim at introducing into Asia laws framed for this country ; but to attach our subjects by affection,
Ly interest, by winning them to our religion and our sentiments, — this would be at once to add to their happiness,
and to arrive at the same object which the great conqueror had in view, that of rendering our authority ' permanent
and secure.'
CONCILIATION OF NATIVES BY ENGLISH ENLIGHTENMENT. 227
" This policy is recommended by some other considerations, which shall be briefly noticed. It is sufficiently
, understood, that since our first appearance on the theatre of Indian war and
New principles of attach-
ment activity and industry politics, the Native powers have improved in military discipline, and that we
among the people of India will now find it necessary to bring into the field, armies proportionably larger
be conducive to their loyalty tharl those tjiat served to achieve our early victories. Having so interesting
an evidence of the capability of the Natives to improve, there appears no good
reason to conclude, that their advancement in military skill may not be further progressive. It is extemely
probable, that the beneficial effects of our civil policy will also in time force themselves upon their attention, and
from the cogent motive of self-interest, produce at least some imitations. All the advances they make in the arts
of war or of peace, will serve to lessen that superiority in both, by which, under the disadvantages attaching to
us as foreigners, and with forces comparatively small, we have acquired an ascendency among the powers of
Hindustan. The nearer we approach to an equality, the more these disadvantages will be felt. Our business
seems to be, therefore, by new resources in policy still to preserve the relative rank in which we have hitherto stood ;
and what can more directly conduce to this end, than to infuse new principles of attachment, of activity, and
industry, among the people we govern, thus strengthening their character, and drawing additional support from
them.
"The European nations have an undisputed possession of the Indian seas, and are now so much connected
Revolutions in Europe, such with the Continent of India, that every material change which takes place in
as the French, affect Indian them, may be expected, in some shape or other, to extend its influence
politics. thither. It cannot be irrational, therefore, to suppose, that the astonishing
events which have lately convulsed Europe, and are likely to produce consequences durable and momentous, may
have their bearings upon our Asiatic interests. That exorbitant ambitious power which seeks our destruction,
may aim, by different channels and instruments, to excite troubles and disorders in our possessions, or to embroil
us with our Indian neighbours. The Cape of Good Hope, the head of a vast country, in a fine climate, and singular
in the felicity of its position for a great emporium, whether it remain with us or fall under French influence, will
probably, by a change already begun in its internal policy, swarm, at no distant period, with a numerous race,
of European character and descent, planted at the entrance into the Indian seas and within two months' sail of the
Indian coasts. Another great colony of the same race, in a climate equally favourable to the human constitution, is
springing up on the Eastern side of the Indian Ocean. The appearance of many adventurers of these descriptions on the
shores of Hindustan, as one day they may be expected to appear (a day perhaps nearer than it is possible to bring
other apprehended improvements), can hardly fail to have some effect upon the political affairs of that country,
those of the native princes, as well as our own. In all these, or any other supposable cases then, the more closely
we bind the people under our rule to ourselves, the more firmly shall we be prepared, in that quarter, against
adverse events and combinations.
" It may be urged by some, in opposition to the systematical improvement here proposed, that the influence
Knowledge of English cha- °f tne British Government and character, especially where the intermixture
racter and manners will con- of Europeans is large, will of itself gradually produce a change in the senti-
ciliate the Natives. ments of our Eastern subjects. Let this position be, to a certain degree,
admitted ; it is one interesting enough to merit some attention. The English, in their obscure commercial state,
were little known or regarded by the people whom they now govern. Their elevation to power, brought into public
display all the particulars of their character, with their manners and customs. These, in various instances, at first
shocked the prejudices of the Hindus, who thought, with a kind of horror, of the new masters to whom they
bowed. But by degrees they perceived, that usages the most repugnant to their ideas, were free of that turpitude
which they had associated with them. They found these foreigners superior to them in general powers and
knowledge, in personal honour and humanity ; and at length saw the British Government assume a character of
equity and patriotism, unknown in their preceding administrations. These qualities, it shall be granted, have a
tendency to conciliate in some measure, the natives who are near enough to observe them. Among those who live in
our settlements or are much connected with Europeans, long habits of intercourse have softened down repug-
nancies, or blunted the sensations which our manners at first inspired ; and there is in such, an apparent, perhaps
a real abatement of jealousy and solicitude respecting their own notions and punctilios.
" But in all these varying aspects of the European character, something essential to those disposed to fall into
Indifference of Englishmen an imitati°n of it has been absent. Men that meet together in this country
to religion will render Natives for the purposes of business, seldom enter into communication respecting the
indifferent to every system of foundations of their faith and practice ; any serious discussion of this nature
religion. occurs still more rarely there. The indifference for religion which Mr. Hume
028 KNCMSH KIHTATIOX ]\ INDIA.
ascribes to tho English in general of the present age (he calls it profound indifference,) niny there pass for liberal
toleration, or complaisant forbearance towards inferiors of another faith. Discovering in their intercourse with
us little of the nature of the religion we profess, they will not, of course, be apt to refer the good qualities of which
the English appear possessed, to that source ; nor will they know that the national standard of morals formed
from it, has an influence, even upon the conduct of those who pay no particular regard to a religious system. If
then any of the Hindus should, in time, feel some tendency to imitate that freedom in manners, sentiments, and
intercourse, that latitude as to religious opinions and observances, which they see in their European masters, what
would be the consequence but evidently this, that they would be loosened from their mvn religious prejudices, not by
the previous reception of another system in their stead, but by becoming indifferent to every system. For a transition
from one error to another is, it must be acknowledged, more readily made, than a transition from error to truth.
"Error is more easily imbibed, more hardly eradicated; truth more slowly received, more easily resigned.
Anarchical principles liable And *n tn*s wal "* is> tnat ^ we conceive tne anarclial principles which have
to take the place of supersti- burst forth in Europe ever to spread to India, they will be most likely to
tious religion. have their entrance. Indeed, so wonderfully contagious do they appear to
he, so congenial to the worst qualities of human nature, that it may be difficult to point out a place where they
«an find nothing to fasten upon. Societies in which much corruption and much superstition prevail, seem in
general more liable to them, than those in which true religion and morals are still strongly rooted. Th« French,
it will readily be allowed, fell into them more readily than they would have embraced any scheme of personal
reformation, or a more pure and strictly practical religious system. The abuses of civil and religious institutions
lead to them, and furnish the most plausible pretences for them. False principles, and the fooleries of a false
religion, even when used to support things good in themselves, as government and subordination, would ill stand
before such arts and abilities as have lately assailed the truth. Truth only is invincible. To teach it therefore,
is to take the surest means of excluding the infection of licentious disorganizing sophistries. A change from
false religion to the true, is a movement from an exposed place to a strong fortress ; and every advance made in
the system of moral and religious instruction here recommended, so far from opening the way to those loose latitu-
dinarian notions which tend to a rejection of all authority, would establish rights, human and divine, upon
their proper basis, and bind the conscience to the observance of them.
" To these considerations, which on the whole may certainly be deemed not unworthy of attention, two other
reflections may serve to give additional -weight. First, it is to be feared that
Increase of low class Euro- ^& number of the lower Europeans will go on to increase in our territories ;
peans in India liable to con- , . . h fa Nti d by them the worst part of our nianners
tammate the Natives, and *
increasing prosperity of land- will be exhibited. Secondly, — By the security which we have with great
lords tends to strengthen pride wisdom given to the land tenures of Bengal, the value of property there, and
and disorderly propensities ^jle consideration arising from the possession of it, will naturally be enhanced,
for which English religion and ,. , ,.,, , ,.,,, ,.
mo als orovide a remedy so m Process of tlme> t"6 owners of large estates, hitherto little productive
to them, may become of consequence by their wealth and possessions. We know
also, that increasing prosperity tends to strengthen pride and disorderly propensities. Here again, therefore, we
find motives for the introduction of our principles ; for if some at least, both of the higher and lower orders, may be
led, by European manners, to adopt new ideas of relaxation, at the same time that new powers are put into the
hands of the former, we ought, in good policy and reason, to communicate to them a system which, divested of all
burthensome unnecessary ceremonies, and all superstitious folly, is yet calculated to produce a purer and higher
influence than their own, upon the general moral conduct, and all the relative duties of life. As then we have
already been gradually led, by good sense and expediency, to introduce regulations derived from our national
ideas and principles into the Government and management of our possessions, their advantage and our safety may
dispose us also to wish that our religion and moral principles might obtain a fair establishment there ; for if we
can suppose that through the increasing relations between Europe and India, the common lights and manners of
Europeans adventuring thither, should ever make a strong impression, unaccompanied by the knowledge of those
principles, which do not propagate themselves spontaneously, and are not to be implanted without culture and
care, that change might not be favourable to our interests ; since the present circumstances of Europe seem
emphatically to point out, that nothing but such principles can be depended upon, for keeping subjects in obedience
and subordination." *
To these observations, the Right Honourable Mr. Charles Grant, author of the Treatise from which the
Mr. Charles Grant's Note to preceding quotation has been given, added a Note which contains interesting
his Treatise. information and may be quoted here : —
* Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to tbo Affairs of India; General, Appendix I; Public (1832), pp. 72-84.
RESOLUTIONS OF PARLIAMENT FOR EDUCATION IN INDIA, 1793. 229
" These several objections and the answers to them, excepting the sixth and seventh, were, as to their substance
j -U »v av>d scope, committed to writing in the latter end of the ve:ir 1792, though
Resolutions passed by the
House of Commons on the not then in any shape brought into notice. In April 1793, a discussion took
subject of educating India in place in a General Court of Proprietors of East India Stock, in which almost
1793- all the same objections were advanced, by persons with whom the writer never
had any communication on such subjects. This was an occasion of two resolutions which the House of Commons,
very honourably for itself, had voted in the view of introducing the purport of them into the Act of Parliament
then about to be passed, for renewing the Charter of the East India Company. The Resolutions were these —
" ' RESOLVED, That it is the opinion of this House, that it is the peculiar and bounden duty of the legislature,
•to promote, by all just aiid prudent means the interests and happiness of the inhabitants of the British dominions
in India ; and that for these ends, such measures ought to be adopted as may gradually tend to their advancement
in iisi'ful knowledge, and to their religious and moral 'improvement.
" ' RESOLVED, That sufficient means of religious worship and instruction be provided for all persons of the
Protestant communion in the service, or under the protection of the East India Company in Asia, proper ministers
being from time to time sent out from Great Britain for those purposes ; and that a chaplain be maintained on
board every ship of 500 tons burthen, and upwards, in the East India Company's employ ; and that morever, no such
ministers or chaplains shall be sent out, or appointed until they first shall have been approved of, by the Archbishop
of Canterbury, or the Bishop of London, for the time being.'
" Several Proprietors of East India Stock made a violent attack upon these resolutions, and the following is an
Discussion of the subject in abstract of all the arguments or objections urged against them, as they are
the Court of Proprietors of reported by Mr. Woodfall. It is with reluctance that any reference is made
East India Stock in 1793. here to the opinions there given because they stand connected with particular
.names, and it is far from being the wish of the writer to introduce any thing that may seem to have even a remote
tendency to personality ; but as opinions delivered in a public assembly, and afterwards made more public by the
press, are fairly open to animadversion, so justice to the present subject, renders some notice of those now in
question, indispensable.
"OBJECTIONS STATED GENERALLY. 'That sending Missionaries into our Eastern territories, is the most wild,
Objections urged in the dis- extravagant, expensive, unjustifiable project, that ever was suggested by
cussion. the most visionary speculator. That the principle is obnoxious, impolitic,
unnecessary, full of mischief, dangerous, useless, unlimited.'
" SPECIFIC ARGUMENTS, First Class. ' The plan would be dangerous and impolitic; it would affect the peace and
Arguments employed in the ultimate security of our possessions. It tends to endanger and injure our
controversy. affairs there most fatally, it would either produce disturbances, or bring the
Christian religion into contempt. Holding one faith or religion, is the most strong common cause with mankind,
.and the moment that took place in India there would be an end of British supremacy.
' That the principle of proselyting was impolitic, and was, or ought to be exploded, in so enlightened a period
as the eighteenth century.'
' That it would be a most serious and fatal disaster, if natives of character,* even a hundred thousand of
them, were converted to Christianity.'
' That the establishment of seminaries and colleges in America, was one of the most efficient causes of the
loss of that country. That suffering young clergymen (who are usually of pleasurable habits), to overrun the
interior of India would be dangerous, and prove ultimately destructive to the Company's interest.'
* It will be remembered, that these are chiefly Idolaters, something of whose character and worship we have already seen. With
whatever indifference idolatry may be viewed, and however venial it may be accounted in these times, even by persons born in Christian
countries, it is a crime against whicli the displeasure of the holy and true God, the sovereign and unerring judge of the qualities of
actions, is expressed with peculiar indignation, contempt, and abhorrence throughout that revelation which he hath vouchsafed to us ;
and it is therein shewn to have often brought on, by its nature and effects, the misery and ruin of individuals and of nations.
Even the wiser men of ancient Pagan Europe, between the superstition of which, and the idolatry of the Hindus an identity has
been proved (by Sir William Jones, in the Asiatic Transactions, Vol . I), saw and complained of the evils of their popular system of
religion. Cicero brings in an Epicurean philosopher arraigning that system in severe terms. " The most absurd things," observes he
" are said by the poets, things which are noxious even by the agreeable style in which they are conveyed ; for they have introduced Gods
mad with anger, inflamed with lust and have presented to our view their wars, battles, fightings, wounds ; their hatred, differences, striv-
,ings; their births, deaths, complaints, lamentations, their lusts, exceeding in every kind of intemperance ; their adulteries, fetters their
lying with mankind, and mortals begotten of immortal gods." (Do Nat. Deor. Lib. I. § 16). And again, in the person of a Stoic he
thus reprobates the same system. " The introduction of feigned gods, has begotten false opinions, and turbulent errors and supersti-
tions, no better than old wives' fables for the figures of the gods, their ages, dress and ornaments are set forth, their alliances, marriages,
280 ENGLISH EDUCATION IX INDIA.
" Second Class. ' The scheme would be unsuccessful. It is extravagant to hope for the conversion of the natives.
They are invincibly attached to their own castes ; their prejudices, manners and habits are all against a change.'
' It is vain to attempt to overcome prejudices fixed by the practice of ages far exceeding the time in which
Britons had any idea of religion at all. The attempt is, in these views, idle, absurd and impracticable.'
' Only the dregs of the people can be converted ; they will pretend conversion, and disgrace Christianity.'
' The higher and more respectable natives are people of the purest morality, and strictest virtue ' (this was said
only by one speaker who knew little of India).
' The services of religion are devoutly performed in the Company's settlements and ships, either by clergymen
or laymen, and their ecclesiastical establishments are sufficient.'
l; Third Class. ' The scheme would be expensive. The expense would be enormous, intolerable ; one, two, or
three hundred thousand pounds.'
" Fourth Class. ' The scheme would be unlimited in respect of the numbers and qualifications of the missionaries.'
"All these objections will be found already answered in the text. A few brief remarks upon them may
The objections and argu- however be proper, and will be sufficient here.
ments answered.
« lsf The objections urged in general terms are merely declamatory. They are accompanied by no reasonings
or elucidations. But the principle which they censure as the most wild, extravagant, unjustifiable, mischievous,
dangerous, useless, impolitic that ever was suggested by the most visionary speculator, is the principle of the
Gotpel itself.
" The Gospel was propagated by missionaries ; missionaries planted it in the different countries of Europe,
almost all those countries have, in imitation of the same practice, sent missionaries into infidel parts, and how is it
possible for men to communicate it otherwise ? In this kingdom, two Societies are established by royal charter
for propagating the Gospel in Heathen lands, and there is a third Society of long standing, employed in the same
object which enrolls among its members, many of the most eminent persons of the nation. So much for the
antiquity, authority, and general acknowledgment of this principle which is treated as if nothing like it had ever
been heard of before.
" 2nd. — It is obvious, that the first and second classes of specific objections, militate against each other. Since
the scheme proposes only a pacific exposition of Christian truths, it cannot be • both dangerous and unsuccessful.
The danger is avowedly founded mainly, if not wholly, on the supposition of success. If success therefore is not to
be hoped for, where is the danger ? And again if the scheme really threatens so much danger what becomes of
the argument against success ?
" These contradictory objections cannot both be just. The same speaker, however, who is reported to have
' thanked God ' that the conversion of the natives would be a matter of impracticability, strenuously opposed the
scheme on this ground, that the moment they and we came to hold one faith there would be an end of our supre-
macy in the East ; but if he thought it impracticable to convert them to our faith, with what reason could he urge
the danger which would follow from such conversion as a serious and alarming objection ? When the cause does
not exist, neither can that which can only flow from it as its effect.
" 3rd — The principle of not communicating to the Hindus the Christian religion, lest this slwuld in the end destroy
our Government over them, is however here fairly acknowledged and argued upon. The establishment of seminaries
and colleges in our American Colonies, is in the same spirit adverted to in a way of warning, as if Christianity had
produced the revolution there, when in fact they were men of infidel opinions who planned both the American and
French Eevolutions.
" The reason assigned in justification of this precautionary principle also deserves attention, ' because holding
one religion is the most strong common cause with mankind." If the proposal had been that the English should
become converts to Hinduism, this argument might have been well placed ; but applied to the present scheme, it can
only operate in favour of it.
"4th. — It is curious to find it alleged, among the arguments against the proposed clauses, that some of the
Hindus were too good, and others too bad to be converted.
affinities and all are reduced to the similitude of human imbecility. They are brought in as men disturbed by passion j we hear of
their lusts, sickness, anger; yea as fables tell us the gods have not wanted wars and battles These things are said and believed
most sottishly and are full of extreme vanity and futility." (Ibid. Lib. II. § 28).
To these base gods, however, temples were erected, and divine honours paid. They had their costly trains of priests, services,
sacrifices, festivals and games. Some of their rites were atrociously cruel, others infamous for debauchery, prostitution and the most
unbridled excesses. Hence corruption was diffused among the people, the moral system, even of the philosophers, was very defective
and their allowed practices, in some respects abominable.
sin I-HAKI.K.S TKKVEI.YAN'S VIEWS ox EDUCATION IN INDIA, 1838. 231
" This was advanced by only one gentleman, little acquainted with India, whose speech happening by a corn-
Mr. Swartz's Vindication of mon newspaper to reach the Rev. Mr. Swartz, already noticed as long a Mis-
Missionary effort. sionary of distinguished reputation in the Tanjore and Trichinopoly districts,
produced from him a vindication of the conduct and effects of the Mission in which he is concerned. A vindica-
tion framed indeed in modest and simple terms, suitable to the character of the writer, but highly honourable to
the cause of Missions, and though he intended it not to his own. This piece, too good to be concealed, has been
printed in the Transactions of the English Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and a copy of it is given in
the Appendix.
" The assertion of the same speaker, that the higher natives of India are people of the purest morality and
strictest virtue, is altogether new, and in palpable opposition to testimony and
Novelty of the assertion that exj)ei.ieiice. v the Go d scheme no mau is t d too bad f th
the higher Natives have pure
morality and strict virtue- benefits it proposes ; and there is a very large class between the best and the
worst, of whom the speaker took no notice. His other assertion, that the cere-
monies of religion, or the service of the Common-prayer Book, were with great decency and devotion regularly
performed by laymen on board the Company's ships, and on land, in places where there happened to be no clergy-
man, is a topic for ridicule, if the subject were not of so serious a kind ; the reverse of this assertion being so
notorious. And is there no use for a minister of religion, but to perform a ceremony, or to read a form of prayer
once a week V
"5th. — The objections urged on the ground of the unlimited expense of the scheme, the nnliini/rd numbers
Objection as to expensive- °t the clergy that would be sent, their improper character, and their roviny
ness of the scheme of Educa- thnmyh th-e country, all go upon assumptions not only unwarranted but contra-
tion unwarranted. dieted by the tenor of the clauses themselves, and in opposition to the dictates
v>f common sense. The Directors of the Company were themselves to be entrusted with the execution of the
scheme; they were to judge of the number of Missionaries sufficient ; they were to regulate the expense. Was it
conceivable that they would have gone in either article to a length burthensome or dangerous to the Company ? Was
it conceivable that they would have suffered Missionaries to ramble, at their pleasure, through the country, if the
Missionaries sent should have been men so disposed V But can it be imagined, that the friends of the scheme and the
respectable authorities whose testimonials were to render the Missionaries receivable by the Company (not to
force them into their employ), would have had so little regard to the success of their own object, as to select per-
sons the least likely to promote it, ? Fn fact, the danger was of another kind ; so much was left in the discretion of
the Directors that if they should have had the disposition, they might also have possessed the power very materially
to thwart the prosecution of the scheme. And as to the real number and expense of Missionaries at first, the
former, if proper persons should have been found, would perhaps have been thirty, and the annual charge of their
establishment, including dwellings, probably about fourteen thousand pounds.
" 6tk. — Upon the whole of this discussion it appears to have been undertaken with a vehement determination
Opposition to Christianizing against the principle of introducing Christianity among our Asiatic subjects ;
India unjustifiable. but without much previous consideration or a large acquaintance with its
bearings and relations, still less with a dispassionate temper of mind for arguments subversive of each other
assertions palpably erroneous, assumptions clearly unwarrantable, were pressed into the opposition ; the question
was argued chiefly upon a partial view of supposed political expediency and the supreme importance, authority,
and command, of Christianity, were left out of sight.
" It ought to be remarked, upon the second of the two resolutions passed in the House of Commons, that the
maintenance of a Chaplain on board every ship of considerable size, employed in the long navigation to and from
India, was the early spontaneous practice of the Company, and enjoined to them in the Charters of King William
and Queen Anne, the clauses of which, respecting this point, the said resolution did no more than revive."*
Such then was the state of public opinion in England upon the subject of introducing English Education in
Sir Charles Trevelyan's India towards the end of the last century. Next in point of time and ini-
views on the education of the portance are the views expressed by Sir Charles Trevelyanf in a Treatise
people of India, 1838. w]lich ]l(. wrote t, <)u t/ii, /,;,,,,,.u,,-,w Oj tlit. "People of I, alia," in 1838, and from
it the following extracts may be quoted :
* Printed Parliamentary Papers relating to the Affairs of India; General, Appendix I, Public (1832), pp. 84-86, Kate.
t A distinguished Member of the Indian Civil Service who after having served as Assistant Resident at Delhi, held an important,
office in the Secretariat of the Government of India. :ind married a sister of Lord Macaulay. He subsequently held an important office in
England ami afterwards became :i .MomW of the Supreme Council in India, and finally was for some time Governor of the Presidency
of Madras. Hi: lived to a good old age in retiivmmt. ami died not many yearsago, leaving a son. Sir George Trevelyan, a distinguished
Member of Parliament.
KXGI.ISII KDlVATlliN IN IM'IA.
" Many circumstances indicate that the time has arrived for taking up the question of Indian National
Opportuneness of introducing instruction in a way in which it has never yet been taken up. Obstacles,
English Education in India which formerly prevented the Government from taking decisive steps, have
1838. disappeared : unexpected facilities have come to light. The mind of India
has taken a new spring. Substitutes are required to fill up the void created by the passing away of antiquated
systems. The people want instruction : the Government wants well-educated servants to fill the responsible
situations which have been opened to the natives. Every thing concurs to prove that this important subject
onght no longer to be regarded only as an amusement for the leisure hours of benevolent persons. Tt must now
be taken up as a great public question, with that seriousness and resolution to make the necessary sacrifices whicli
the interests at stake require."*
Then after stating various reasons, tending to show the necessity for spreading English Education in India,
Natives ready to co-operate he g°es on to say: — "Thef most decisive proof that the time has arrived
with Government in English for taking up the subject of national education is. that all classes of the
Education. community are now ready to co-operate with the Government. A few years
ago the education of the natives was regarded by the Europeans either with aversion or contempt, as they
happened to consider it as a dangerous interference with native prejudice, or as a chimerical undertaking
unworthy of a man of sense. Now there are few stations at which there are not one or more European officers,
who would be glad of an opportunity of aiding the Committee in the prosecution of its plans. The discussions
which took place between the advocates of the rival systems, by strongly drawing attention to the question, and,
in a manner, forcing people to an examination of it, greatly contributed to this result. All are now more or less
interested and well informed on the subject ; and what is of still more importance, all are of one mind about it,
and have a settled and well understood plan to pursue. Whatever differences of opinion may linger among
retired Indians in England, there are none now in India ; or, at least, the adherents of the old system form such
an exceedingly small minority, that it is unnecessary to mention them when speaking of the general sense of the
European community.
" The missionaries, taking advantage of the prevailing feeling, have established numerous excellent semi-
Efforts of the Missionaries naries, at which many thousand native youth are receiving a sound, and in
to spread English Education. some cases, a liberal English Education. English, Scotch, Americans, and
Germans, concur in availing themselves of the English language as a powerful instrument of native improvement.
English priests, lately sent from Rome to take charge of the Roman Catholic Christians of Portuguese and
native descent, have had recourse to the same means for enlightening their numerous and degraded flocks. The
Portuguese language (another instance of the confusion of tongues which has so long distracted and dissipated
the mind of India) has been discarded from the churches and schools : and the English Liturgy has been introduced,
MTU! lanro Knglish seminaries have been established. There are also institutions at which the youth of English
and of mixed English and native descent receive as good a scientific and literary education as is consistent with
the early period at which they enter into active life. Most of our school-masters have been drawn from this class ;
and. as they possess the trustworthiness and a great degree of the energy of the Emwpean character, combined
with an intimate acquaintance with the native habits and language, they are no muan auxiliaries in the causo <>l
native education.*
" This harmony of effort, however, would be of little avail if it were not founded on a real desire on the part
Real desire of Natives to of the natives themselves to obtain the benefit of European instruction.
obtain English Education. . The curiosity of the people is thoroughly roused, and the passion for English
knowledge has penetrated the most obscure, and extended to the most remote parts of India. The steam boats,
passing up and down the Ganges, are boarded by native boys, begging not for money, but for books. § The
* Trcvclynn, On the Eiluratimi if tlie Peopir tf I mil,, (1838) ; pp. 143, lit.
t lt>; pp. 164-69.
J The institutions which have rendered most service in this way are, the Verulam Academy, the Parental Academic Institution,
the High School, and tho Military Orphan Asylum. Similar assistance may now be expected from tlu> noble foundation of Genoml
Martin, and a large Proprietory School which has lately been established in the Himalaya Mountains.
§ Some genili-ini'M I'oming to Calcutta were astonished at the eagerness with which they were pressed for books by a troop of
boys, who boarded tho steamer from an obscure place, called Comercally. A Plato was lying on tho table, and one of the party
asked a boy whether that would serve his purpose. ' Oh ! yes,' he exclaimed, ' give me any book ; all I want is a book.' The gentleman
at last hit npon tho expedient of cutting up an old Quarterly Review, and distributing the articles among them. In the evening,
when some of the party went ashore, the boys of tho town flocked round them, expressing their regret that there was no English
School in the place, and saying that they hoped that the Governor-General, to whom they had made an application on the subject,
when he passed on his way np the country, would establish one.
CRITICISM OF HINDU AND MUHAMMADAN SYSTEMS. 233
chiefs of the Punjab, a country which has never been subdued by the British arms, made so many applications
to the Political Agent on the frontier to procure an English Education for their children, that the Government has
found it necessary to attach a schoolmaster to his establishment. The tide of literature is even rolling back
from India to Persia, and the Supreme Government lately sent a large supply of English books for the use of the
King of Persia's military seminary, the students of which were reported to be actuated by a strong zeal for
European learning. The extent to which the Pasha of Egypt is engaged in enlightening his subjects, through the
medium of English and tlie other European languages, is too well known to need any detail. The time has certainly
arrived when the ancient debt of civilization which Europe owes to Asia* is about to be repaid ; and the sciences,
cradled in the East and brought to maturity in the West, are now by a final effort about to overspread the world."f
Havino- thus described the opportuneness of extending English education in India, Sir Charles Trevelyan
proceeded to consider the political tendencies of the different systems of
Political tendency of Eng- education in use in India at that time (1838 J, and expressed his views in the
lish Education in India.
following words : —
" There can be no dispute as to what our duty as the rulers of India requires us to do. But it has been said,
Undoubted duty of England and may be said again, that whatever our duty may be, it is not our policy
to educate India. to enlighten the natives of India ; that the sooner they grow to man's estates,
the sooner they will be able to do without us ; and that by giving them knowledge, we are giving them power, of
which they will make the first use against ourselves.
" If our interest and our duty were really opposed to each other, every good man, every honest Englishman,
Feeling of honest English- would know which to prefer. Our national experience has given us too deep
men to administer India for a sense of the true ends of Government, to allow us to think of carrying on
the benefit of its people. the administration of India except for the benefit of the people of India. A
nation which made so great a sacrifice to redeem a few hundred thousand negroes from slavery, would shudder at
the idea of keeping a hundred millions of Indians in the bondage of ignorance, with all its frightful consequences,
by means of a political system supported by the revenue taken from the Indians themselves. Whether we govern
India ten or a thousand years, we will do our duty by it : we will look, not to the probable duration of our trust,
but to the satisfactory discharge of it, so long as it shall please God to continue it to us. Happily, however, we
are not on this occasion called upon to make any effort of disinterested magnanimity. Interest and duty are never
really separated in the affairs of nations, any more than they are in those of individuals ; and in this case they
are indissolubly united, as a very slight examination will suffice to show.
" The Arabian or Muhammadan system is based on the exercise of power and the indulgence of passion.
The Muhammadan and Hin- Pride, ambition, the love of rule, and of sensual enjoyment, are called in to
du systems of Government the aid of religion. The earth is the inheritance of the faithful : all besides
are infidel usurpers, with whom no measures are to be kept, except what
The early civilization of Greece by settlers from Phoenicia and Egypt, the philosophical systems of Pythagoras and Plato ;
the knowledge of chemistry, medicine, and mathematics, which emanated in a later age from the Arabian Schools of Cordova and
Salerno, attest the obligations we are under to the Eastern world. The greatest boon of all, our admirable system of arithmetical
notation, which has facilitated in an incalculable degree the improvement of the sciences and the transaction of every kind of
business for which the use of numbers is requisite, is distinctly traceable through the Arabs to the Hindus : we call it the Arabian,
the Arabs call it the Hindu system, and the Hindus attribute the invention of it to their gods. It has been practised in India from
a period which precedes all written and traditionary memorials.
It may be as well to mention some of the probable causes of the existing stage of native feeling on this subject. The First is
the same which gave rise to the revival of learning, and the cultivation of the Vernacular languages in Europe, or the increase in
the number and importance of the middle class of society. External peace, internal security of property, arising from a regular
administration of justice, increased facilities to trade, the permanent settlement of the land revenue of the Lower, and a long settle-
ment of that of the Upper Provinces, have all contributed to raise up a class between the Nawab and the ryot, which derives its
consequence from the exercise of industry and enterprise, which is possessed of the leisure necessary for literary pursuits, and which,
being a creation of our own, is naturally inclined to imitate us, and to adopt our views. Secondly, — The people feeling themselves
safe in their persons and property, and being relieved from the harassing anxieties which daily attend those who live under a
barbarous arbitrary government, enjoy that peace of mind, without which it is impossible that Letters can be successfully cultivated.
Thirdly, The natives cannot fail to be struck by oar moral and intellectual superiority ; and they are led, by the combined influence
of curiosity and emulation, to search for the causes of it in our literature. This motive has led the Russians and Turks, and other
entirely independent nations, to cultivate foreign literature ; and it cannot, therefore, excite wonder that the Hindus, who stand in
such a close relation to us, should have been influenced by it. Fourthly,— A. liberal English Education is the surest road to promotion.
s by far the best education the natives can get; and the Government must always select the best instructed persons, that are to
be had, for the public service. Lastly, — The Hindus have always been a literary people ; but as the body of the nation were shut
out by tho Brahmins from all participation in their own learning, they eagerly avail themselves of what is now offered by us to their
acceptance, recommended as it is by so many attractions.
an
034 ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
policy may require. Universal dominion belongs to the Muhammadans by divine right. Their religion obliges
' to establish their predominance by the sword ; and those who refuse to conform are to be kept in a state of
slavish subjection. The Hindu system, although less fierce and aggressive than the Muhammadan, is still more
exclusive : all who are not Hindus are impure outcasts, fit only for the most degraded employments; and, of course,
utterly disqualified for the duties of Government, which are reserved for the Military, under the guidance of the
priestly casto. Such is the political tendency of the Arabic and Sanskrit systems of learning. Happily for us,
principles exist in their full force only in books written in difficult languages, and in the minds of a few
learned men ; and they are very faintly reflected in the feelings and opinions of the body of the people. But
what will be thought of that plan of national education which would revive them and make them popular; would
be perpetually reminding the Muhammadans that we are infidel usurpers of some of the fairest realms of the
Faithful ; and the Hindus, that we are unclean beasts, with whom it is a sin and a shame to have any friendly
intercourse. Ouv bitterest enemies could not desire more than that we should propagate systems of learning which
excite the strongest feelings of human nature against ourselves.
" The spirit of English literature, on the other hand, cannot but be favorable to the English connection.
Effect of English literature Familiarly acquainted with us by means of our literature, the Indian youth
favourable to maintenance of almost cease to regard us as foreigners. They speak of our great men with
British rule. the same enthusiasm as we do. Educated in the same way, interested in the
same objects, engaged in the same pursuits with ourselves, they become more English than Hindus, just as the
Roman provincials became more Romans than Gauls or Italians. What is it that makes us what we are, except
living and conversing with English people, and imbibing English thoughts and habits of mind ? They do so too:
they daily converse with the best and wisest Englishmen through the medium of their works ; and form, perhaps,
a higher idea of our nation than if their intercourse with it were of a more personal kind. Admitted behind the
scenes, they become acquainted with the principles which guide our proceedings ; they see how sincerely we study
the benefit of India in the measures of our administration ; and from violent opponents, or sullen conformists, they
are converted into zealous and intelligent co-operators with us. They learn to make a proper use of the freedom
of discussion which exists under our Government, by observing how we use it ourselves ; and they cease to think
of violent remedies, because they are convinced that there is no indisposition on our part to satisfy every real want
of the country. Dishonest and bad rulers alone derive any advantage from the ignorance of their subjects. As
long as we study the benefit of India in our measures, the confidence and affection of the people will increase in
proportion to their knowledge of us.
" But this is not all. There is a principle in human nature which impels all mankind to aim at improving
Infusion of European ideas their condition : every individual has his plan of happiness : every community
will render Natives dependent has its ideas of securing the national honour and prosperity. This powerful
on English protection. ancl universal principle, in some shape or other, is in a state of constant
activity ; and if it be not enlisted on our side, it must be arrayed against us. As long as the natives are left to
brood over their former independence, their sole specific for improving their condition is, the immediate and total
expulsion of the English. A native patriot of the old school has no notion of anything beyond this : his attention
has never been called to any other mode of restoring the dignity and prosperity of his country. It is only by the
infusion of European ideas, that a new direction can be given to the national views. The young men brought up
at our seminaries, turn with contempt from the barbarous despotisms under which their ancestors groaned, to the
prospect of improving their national institutions on the English model. Instead of regarding us with dislike, they
court our society, and look upon us as their natural protectors and benefactors : the summit of their ambition is,
to resemble us ; and, under our auspices, they hope to elevate the character of their countrymen, and to prepare
them by gradual steps for the enjoyment of a •well-regulated and therefore a secure and a happy independence.
So far from having the idea of driving the English into the sea uppermost in their minds, they have no notion of
any improvement, but such as rivets their connection with the English, and makes them dependent on English
protection and instruction. In the re-establishment of the old native governments, they see only the destruction
of their most cherished hopes, and a state of great personal insecurity for themselves.
" The existing connection between two such distant countries as England and India, cannot, in the nature of
Connection of England with things, be permanent : no effort of policy can prevent the natives from ulti-
India cannot be permanent. mately regaining their independence. But there are two ways of arriving
at this point. One of these is, through the medium of revolution ; the other, through that of reform. In one, the
forward movement is sudden and violent ; in the other, it is gradual and peaceable. One must end in a complete
alienation of mind and separation of interests between ourselves and the natives ; the other in a permanent
alliance, founded on mutual benefit and good-will.
GRADUAL INDEPENDENCE OF INDIA. 235
" The only means at our disposal for preventing the one and securing the other class of results is, to set the
Natives educated in English natives on a process of European improvement, to which they are already
will mould their prospects sufficiently inclined. They will then cease to desire and aim at independence
under British protection. on the old Indian footing. A sudden change will then be impossible ; and a
long continuance of our present connection with India will even be assured to us. A Mahratta or Muhammadan
despotism might be re-established in a month ; but a century would scarcely suffice to prepare the people for self-
government on the European model. The political education of a nation must be a work of time, and while it is
in progress, we shall be as safe as it will be possible for us to be. The natives will not rise against us, because we
shall stoop to raise them : there will be no reaction, because there will be no pressure: the national activity will
be fully and harmlessly employed in acquiring and diffusing European knowledge, and in naturalising European
institutions. The educated classes, knowing that the elevation of their country on these principles can only be
worked out under our protection, will naturally cling to us. They even now do so. There is no class of our sub-
jects to whom we are so thoroughly necessary as those whose opinions have been cast in the English mould : they
are spoiled for a purely native regime ; they have everything to fear from the premature establishment of a native
Government ; their education would mark them out for persecution ; the feelings of independence, the literary
and scientific pursuits, the plans of improvement in which they indulged under our Government, must be
exchanged for the servility and prostration of mind which characterise an Asiatic Court. This class is at present a
small minority, but it is continually receiving accessions from the youth who are brought up at the different
English seminaries. It will in time become the majority ; and it will then be necessary to modify the political
institutions to suit the increased intelligence of the people, and their capacity for self-government.
" The change will thus be peaceably and gradually effected : there will be no struggle, no mutual exaspera-
Gradual independence of ^on ' *ne natives wiH have independence, after first learning how to make a
India will be friendly to Bri- good use of it : we shall exchange profitable subjects for still more profitable
tish commercial intercourse. allies. The present administrative connection benefits families, but a strict
commercial union between the first manufacturing and the first producing country in the world, would be a solid
foundation of strength and prosperity to our whole nation. If this course be adopted, there will, properly speak-
ing, be no sepai-ation. A precarious and temporary relation will almost imperceptibly pass into another far more
durable and beneficial. Trained by us to happiness and independence, and endowed with our learning and our
political institutions, India will remain the proudest monument of British benevolence ; and we shall long continue
to reap, in the affectionate attachment of the people, and in a great commercial intercourse with their splendid
country,* the fruit of that liberal and enlightened policy which suggested to us this line of conduct.
" In following this course we should be trying no new experiment. The Romans at once civilised the nations
The example of Romans in of Eur°Pe' and attached them to their rule by Romanising them ; or, in other
civilizing Europe and creating words, by educating them in the Roman Literature and Arts, and teaching
independent friendly nation- them to emulate their conquerors instead of opposing them. Acquisitions
alities must be followed. made by superiority in war, were consolidated by superiority in the arts of
peace ; and the remembrance of the original violence was lost in that of the benefits which resulted from it. The
provincials of Italy, Spain, Africa, and Gaul, having no ambition except to imitate .the Romans, and to share their
privileges with them, remained to the last faithful subjects of the empire ; and the union was at last dissolved,
not by internal revolt, but by the shock of external violence, which involved conquerors and conquered in one
common overthrow. The Indians will, I hope, soon stand in the same position towards us in which we once stood
towards the Romans. Tacitus informs us, that it was the policy of Julius Agricola to instruct the sons of the
leading men among the Britons in the literature and science of Rome, and to give them a taste for the refinements
of Roman civilization.f We all know how well this plan answered. From being obstinate enemies, the Britons
soon became attached and confiding friends ; and they made more strenuous efforts to retain the Romans, than
their ancestors had done to resist their invasion. It will be a shame to us if, with our greatly superior advantages,
* The present trade with India can give no idea of what it is capable of becoming : the productive powers of the country are
immense: the population of British India alone, without including the Native States, is more than three times that of all the rest of
the British Empire. By governing well, and promoting to the utmost of our power the growth of wealth, intelligence, and enterprise
in its vast population, wo shall be able to make India a source of wealth and strength to our nation in time to come, with which
nothing in our past history furnishes any parallel.
f The words of Tacitus are : " Jam vero principum filios liberalibus artibns erndire, et ingenia Britannorum studiis Gallorum
anteferre, ut qui modo linguam Romanam abnuebant, eloquentiam concupiscerent. Inde etiam habitus nostri honour et frequens toga.
I'auliitimque discessum ad delinimenta vitiorum, porticus et balnea et conviviornm elegantiam; idque apud imperitos humanitas
vocabatnr cum pars servitutis esset."
.,.,t; ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
we
„ also do not make our premature departure be dreaded as a calamity. It must not bo said in after ages, that
'the groans of the Britons ' were elicited by the breaking up of the Roman Empire ; and the groans of the
Indians by the continued existence of the British.
" We may also take a lesson from the Mnhammadans whose conquests have been so extensive and so permanent.
Policy of the Emperor Akbar From the Indian Archipelago to Portugal, Arabic was established as the
to be adopted. language of religion, of literature and of law, the vernacular tongues were
saturated with it ; and the youth of the conquered countries soon began to vie with their first instructors in every
branch of Muhammadan learning. A polite education was understood to mean a Muhammadan Education ; and
the most cultivated and active minds were everywhere engaged on the side of the Muhammadan system. The
Emperor Akbar followed up this policy in India. Arabicised Persian was adopted as the language of his dynasty ;
and the direction thereby given to the national sympathies and ideas greatly contributed to produce that feeling
of veneration for the family which has long survived the loss of its power. This feeling, which in Europe would
be called loyalty, is common to those who have been brought up in the old learning, but is very rarely found in
connection with an English Education. The policy of our predecessors, although seldom worthy of imitation,
was both very sound and very successful in this respect. If we adopt the same policy, it will be more beneficial
to the natives in proportion as English contains a greater fund of true knowledge than Arabic and Persian :
and it will be more beneficial to us in proportion as the natives will study English more zealously and extensively
than they did Arabic and Persian, and will be more completely changed by it in feeling and opinion.
" These views were not worked out by reflection, but were forced on me by actual observation and experience.
I passed some years in parts of India, where, owing to the comparative
ted^atives^ for ^^"ational novelty of our rule and to the absence of any attempt to alter the current of
representative assembly gra- native feeling, the national habits of thinking remained unchanged. There,
dually terminating the English high and low, rich and poor, had only one idea of improving their political
Rule, condition. The upper classes lived upon the prospect of regaining their
former pre-eminence ; and the lower, upon that of having the avenues to wealth and distinction reopened to them
by the re-establishment of a Native Government. Even sensible and comparatively well affected natives had no
notion that there was any remedy for the existing depressed state of their nation except the sudden and absolute
expulsion of the English. After that, I resided for some years in Bengal, and there I found quite another set
of ideas prevalent among the educated natives. Instead of thinking of cutting the throats of the English, they
were aspiring to sit with them on the grand jury, or on the bench of Magistrates. Instead of speculating on
Punjab or Nepaulese politics, they were discussing the advantages of printing and free discussion, in oratorical
English speeches, at debating societies which they had established among themselves. The most sanguine dimly
look forward in the distant future to the establishment of a national representative assembly as the consummation
of their hopes — all of them being fully sensible that these plans of improvement could only be worked out with
the aid and protection of the British Government by the gradual improvement of their countrymen in knowledge
and morality ; and that the re-establishment of a Muhammadan or any other native regime would at once render
all such views impracticable and ridiculous. No doubt, both these schemes of national improvement suppose the
termination of the English rule ; but while that event is the beginning of one, it is only the conclusion of the
other. In one, the sudden and violent overthrow of our government is a necessary preliminary, in the other,
a long continuance of our administration, and the gradual withdrawal of it as the people become fit to govern
themselves, arc equally indispensable.
" Our Native Army is justly regarded as the pillar of our Indian empire ; and no plan of benefiting either the
Popular education will se- natives or ourselves can be worth anything which does not rest on the sup-
cure loyalty of Native Army. position that this pillar will remain unbroken. It is therefore of importance
to inquire how this essential element of power is likely to be affected by the course of policy which has been
described. The Indian Army is made up of two entirely distinct parts ; the English officers, and the Native officers
and men. The former will, under any circumstances, stand firm to their national interests : the latter will be
animated by the feelings of the class of society from which they are drawn, except so far as those feelings may
be modified by professional interests and habits. The native officers rise from the ranks ; and the ranks are
recruited from the labouring class, which is the last that will be affected by any system of national education.
Not one in five hundred of the boys who are instructed in the Zillah Seminaries, will enlist in the army. If the
Sepoys are educated anywhere, it must be in the village schools ; and the organisation of those schools will be the
concluding measure of the series. The instruction given to the labouring class can never be more than merely
elementary. They have not leisure for more. But, such as it is, they will be indebted for it to us ; and as it will
form part of a system established and superintended by ourselves, we shall take care that it is of a kind calculated
INTELLECTUAL AND FINANCIAL ASPECTS OF INDIAN EDUCATION. 237
to inspire feelings of attachment to the British connection. After this, the young men who enlist in the army will
become imbued with the military spirit, and moulded by the habits of military obedience. I leave to others to judge
whether this training is calculated to make better and more attached, or worse and more disaffected, soldiers than
the state of entire neglect, as regards their moral and intellectual improvement, in which the whole class are at
present left. I never heard that the education given in the national schools unfitted the common people of England
for the ranks of the army, although the inducements to honourable and faithful service, which are open to them
after they enter the army, are much inferior to those which are held out to our Sepoys.
" Religious instruction forms no part of the object of the Government seminaries. It would be impossible for
Notwithstanding religious the State to interfere at all with native education on any other condition ; and
neutrality of the State, Eng- ^his js now so weu understood, that religious jealousy offers no obstruction to
lish education will defeat m, ... .., . . , _
superstitious priest-craft of our success- The general favour wlth whlch English education is regarded,
Hindus and mollify the Mu- and tne multitudes who flock to our schools, prove this to be the case. The
hammadans. Brahmans, it is true, ruled supreme over the old system. It was moulded for
the express purpose of enabling them to hold the minds of men in thraldom ; and ages had fixed the stamp of
solidity upon it. Upon this ground they were unassailable. But popular education, through the medium of the
English language, is an entirely new element, with which they are incapable of dealing. It did not enter into the
calculation of the founders of their system ; and they have no machinery to oppose to it. Although they have been
priest-ridden for ages, the people of India are, for all purposes of improvement, a new, and more than a new,
people. Their appetite for knowledge has been whetted by their long-compelled fast ; and aware of the superiority
of the new learning, they devour it more greedily than they ever would have done Sanskrit lore, even if that lore
had not been withheld from them ; they bring to the task, vacant minds and excited curiosity, absence of prejudice,
and an inextinguishable thirst for information. They cannot return under the dominion of the Brahmans. The
spell has been for ever broken. Hinduism is not a religion which will bear examination. It is so entirely destitute
of any thing like evidence, and is identified with so many gross immoralities and physical absurdities, that it gives
way at once before the light of European science. Muhammadanism is made of tougher materials ; yet, even a
Muhammadan youth who has received an English education, is a very different person from one who has been
taught according to the perfect manner of the law of his fathers. As this change advances, India will become
quite another country : nothing more will be heard of excitable religious feelings ; priest-craft will no longer be able
to work by ignorance ; knowledge and power will pass from a dominant caste to the people themselves ; the whole
nation will co-operate with us in reforming institutions, the possibility of altering which could never have been con-
templated if events had taken any other course ; and many causes will concur to introduce a more wholesome state
of morals, which, of all the changes that can take place, is the one in which the public welfare is most concerned.
" There has been a time at which each of the other branches of the public service has psfc-ticularly commanded
attention. The Commercial, the Political, the Judicial, the Revenue Depart-
tiues on ments, have in turn been the subject of special consideration ; and decisive
India could be solved by
spending the interest of only steps have been taken to put them on a satisfactory footing. My object will
£1,000,000 annually, and be sufficiently attained, if I succeed in producing a conviction that the time
secure attachment of Natives nas a,TiVed for taking up the question of public instruction in the same spirit,
and with the same determination to employ whatever means may be requisite
for accomplishing the object in view. The absence of any sensible proof that increased taxation is attended with
any proportionate benefit to India, has long been extremely disheartening both to the natives and to the European
public officers serving in that country.* The entire abolition of the transit duties, and the establishment of an
adequate system of public instruction, would furnish this proof, and would excite the warmest gratitude of every
body who from any cause feels interested in the welfare of India. The interest of a single million sterling,f in
addition to what is already expended, would be sufficient to answer every present purpose as far as education is
concerned. Even, on the narrowest view of national interest, a million could not be better invested. It would ensure
the moral and intellectual emancipation of the people of India, and would render them at once attached to our
rule and worthy of our alliance."J
* A large proportion of the land in the Bengal and Agra Presidencies is held tax-free ; but, although nothing can be more unrea-
sonable than that persons who benefit by the protection of the Government should contribute nothing to its support, and throw the
whole burden on the rest, it is impossible at present to induce the natives to view the subject in this light. Their invariable answer
is, that while it is certain that some will be worse off, they see no reason to suppose that they will themselves be better off if the
exempted lands are brought under contribution.
t The Parliamentary assignment of ten thousand pounds a year still remains to be accounted for to the Committee of Public
Instruction, from July 1813 to May 1821, with compound interest up to the date of payment.
J Trevelyan, On the Education of the People of India, pp. 187-205.
ENGLISH EDUCATION IX INDIA.
The above-quoted views were written by Sir Charles Trevelyan so long ago as 1838, and it will be interesting
m to see how far his anticipations as to the effect of English education in
Sir Charles Trevelyan's fore- r . .
cast of English education how breaking down Hindu superstition and priest-craft were justified during the
far realized. thirty years that followed. For this purpose the testimony of a contemporary
historian, Mr. Iltudns Thomas Pricbard, is available. In his work on the " Adi,nni.tti-ati<m </ linlin, from 1851) f,,
he devotes a whole ChapteTTo the subject of social progress in India, and the following passages may be
quoted from his work : —
No one who has passed twenty consecutive years in India can fail to have observed the great change which
attended the transfer of the country to the direct dominion of the Crown.
Heligious and social effect of
English education up to the The year of the rebellion, 1857-58, was an epoch in the modern history of
decade ending in 1868. India from which future writers will date the commencement of an era of
,vm. And it is certain that if the administration between 1859 and 1869 has been successful, we ought to be
able to trace its results in a general improvement in the condition of the people.
" Among the classes of the native population which come into contact with European civilization, in cosequence
of their beino- located in the Presidency cities and on the great lines of rail-
Rise of Brahmoism super- '
seding Hindu prejudices and way, the change during the last ten years has been very marked. Much of
superstitions. the prejudice and ignorant confidence of Orientals in their own superiority,
which lias always formed so prominent a feature in their character, has yielded to liberal ideas developed by
education, combined with commercial intercourse with European nations. Even the strongholds of Hindu susper-
stitiori, so long intact, have been unable to withstand the progress of thought and the new sect of Brahmos is daily
increasing in influence, and gathering converts in all the large cities on the Bengal side. The tenet of this new
sect are a sort of compromise between Hindusim and common sense. Brahmoism more nearly approaches the
deism of Europe in the earlier part of the present century than any of the systems of philosophy promulgated in
the East. Finding that the fables of the Hindu Mythology (which formed no part of the Hindu religion as
inculcated by the earlier sages) were unable to stand the test of reason, and were rapidly losing their hold upon the
minds of the people, and unwilling at the same time to embrace Christianity — which came to them recommended
indeed by the preaching of Missionaries, but not by the practice of the bulk of the English with whom they came
in contact, the founders of this school endeavoured to enunciate a philosophic and religious system grounded on
those ideas of natural religion which commend themselves to the reason and instincts of mankind. The Brahmos
in fact, deists, but they inculcate the strictest observance of the moral law. As such, it is difficult to perceive",
me writers do, in the present movement any indication of a tendency towards Christianity. On the contrary, it
would seem as if the system of State Education preserving the strictest neutrality in religious questions is produ-
cing exactly the restlts which might have been anticipated. A Hindu educated in our schools and colleges finds
it impossible to believe, for instance, that the world rests on the back of a tortoise or the horns of a bull.
Uninstructed in the Christian faith, he is well acquainted with the history of modern discovery, and more or less
proficient in natural science, having at the same time an innate tendency towards metaphysical speculations. He
therefore gladly takes refuge in a system which in its observance of the moral law satisfies the higher aspira-
tions of his mind, and in its speculative tenets on the existence of a Divine Creator and Ruler of the Universe is
sufficient to fill the void caused by a rejection of the mythological fables which amused him as a child. Prac-
tically, for many years, the few thoughtful men among the Hindus have, I believe, abandoned the superstitions of
the 1' tirrins, but fettered by the bonds of caste, and detered by the bad example of Englishmen from embracing
a rcliirion whose followers seemed to ignore the connexion between precept and practice, and unable to find a refuge
anywhere, they were content to live and die in the faith of their forefathers, believing as much as they could
liriii'_r their minds not to reject, and leaving the great riddle to be solved hereafter.
"In intellectual acquirements and natural capacity, the various classes of natives differ very materially.
Little effect of Christanity Christianity has very little present prospect of success among the Hindus
in the more advanced provin- and Muhammadans of our older Provinces; but wherever it has been preached
e9' among the ruder tribes of the interior, it has generally been received with
some enthusiasm. It is of course only natural that the simple minds of the barbarous descendants of the
aborigines who are to be met with in mountainous tracts in various parts of the Continent of Central India,
and in one portion of Bajpootana, in Bengal Proper, and in Burmah, should be more easily impressed with the
truths of Christianity than the Hindu wedded to a system of Philosophy and long inured to the slavery of caste,
or than the fanatical Muhammadan ; to either, a system of religion whose great principle is that of self-sacrifice
is so utterly foreign that we may cease to wonder at the little effect as yet produced by the teaching of our
Missionaries.
EDUCATION COMMISSION'S OPINION ON EFFECTS OF ENGLISH EDUCATION. 239
" Caste prejudices, however, are gradually yielding, natives are- beginning to understand the value of co-oper-
Caste prejudice? gradually ation, and to see that an irksome system which has been imposed by general
yielding. consent may by general consent be shaken off. Quite recently a reformer,
whose name deserves to be recorded, Peearee Lall, has by persevering agitation succeeded in getting up meetings at
all the large cities in the Upper Provinces, and in inducing a large and influential sect of Brahmins to discontinue
the old-established custom of expensive marriages which has involved so many families in debt and ruin.
" In many parts of India the natives now have their societies and associations, which meet . at stated periods
Native Societies and Asso- and discuss questions of social science. At these congresses all the forms
ciations. used among ourselves at public meetings are strictly observed; the members
address the chairman, and the proceedings are duly recorded and published at the expense of the association under
the auspices of the Secretary. In Oude, the Talookdars' Association has a little more of a political character as
they not nnfrequently discuss questions having reference to their rights and privileges.
•' India is occasionally visited by travellers from the Continent of Europe — Frenchmen, Germans, Italians —
Surprise of European tra- wll° *n *ne Purstlit °f business or pleasure spend a few months rambling over
vellers at the absence of social the Continent. These observers are always struck most forcibly with what
intercourse between the Eng- is beyond a doubt one of the strangest features in our position in the country,
viz., the utter absence of anything like social intercourse between the races.
Englishmen meet Natives in business, and there their connexion ceases. After being upwards of a century in the
country, we have never penetrated the barrier of reserve in which the native shelters himself from social inter-
course with the Englishman. In Bombay the attempt at amalgamation has been occasionally made, with very
indifferent success. It seems as if there was on both sides a deep rooted antipathy to meeting on an equality in
social position which no efforts can overcome.
" One reason of this is the existence of habits and customs which preclude Englishmen and Natives from eat-
Absence of commensality ing an(i drinking together. It is a theory, not grounded on a very exalted
between the English and the view of human life, but it seems as if it were one of the laws of Nature, and
Natives precludes real inti- one of ^e demarcations between man and the lower order of animals, that
mflcv
social intercourse among the former should be best developed by the process
of consuming food in company. Two men dine together, and become friends : two dogs eat out of the same dish,
and the chances are that they fight over their food. The Englishman and the Oriental cannot amalgamate socially,
because their habits and prejudices entail on them the necessity of taking their meals apart. Community of in-
terest is a weaker bond than similarity of taste and manner. This is a truism, but it is a truism aptly illustrated
in the conditions of life in India, where the Englishman and the Native, subjects of one sovereign, originally of
one race, with common sympathies and unity of interests, may meet one another many times daily, week after
week, year after year, in their ordinary avocations, and yet never advance one step towards real intimacy or
friendship."*
These observations do not go to show that the expectations of Sir Charles Trevelyan had been realized
within thirty years from the time when he wrote (1838), for the remarks of Mr. Prichard describe the state of
things as they were in 1868. In chronological order, therefore, come the views of the Indian Education Com-
mission of 1882, and the following passages may be quoted from their Report : —
" An estimate of the effect which collegiate instruction has had upon the general education and enlighten-
ment of the people must in fairness be accompanied by a reference to the
The Education Commission a
opinion as to the effect of objects which it sets before itself. The reformers of 1835, to whom the
English Collegiate instruction system is due, claimed that only by an education in English, and after Euro-
upon the enlightenment of the pean methods, could we hope to raise the moral and intellectual tone of
people,— Indian Society and supply the administration with a competent body of
public servants. To what degree, then, have these objects been attained ? Our answer is in the testimony of
witnesses before this Commission, in the thoughtful opinions delivered from time to time by men whose position
has given them ample opportunities of judging, and in the facts obvious to all eyes throughout the country. And
that answer is conclusive : if not that collegiate education has fulfilled all the expectations entertained of it, at
least that it has not disappointed the hopes of a sober judgment. Many mistakes in the methods employed have
been pointed out and corrected by maturer experience. Much done has had to be undone. Not a little yet
remains for gradual re-consideration. So, too, of the recipients of our college education it is by no means pre-
tended that they are the very crown and flower of Indian humanity. Many unlovely defects of character still
* Administration of India, by Iltudus Thomas Prichard, Vol. II., pp. 96-100.
240 ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
give occasion of scorn to those who are nothing if not critical. Of superficial learning, and of pretentious self-
assertion manifested in a variety of ways, there has no doubt been plenty. It would be strange if it were other-
wise. For in no country under any circumstance has there been equal or similar encouragement to the develop-
ment of such and other faults. The surroundings of the Indian student are not always favourable to the develop-
ment of a high type of character. Neither in the labour nor in the recreations of those about him does he find
much that sorts with his intellectual pursuits. Living in an atmosphere of ignorance his sense of superioritj is
in danger of becoming conceit. Reverence for the current forms of the religion of his country seem difficult to
him. when face to face with dogmas which science has exploded, and a disposition to scoff does not beautify his
nature. Nor is it possible, at least in Government Colleges, to appeal in a large and systematic manner to that
religious teaching which has been found to be the most universal basis of morality. Again, his intercourse with
the ruling race is not wholly without its drawbacks. Unwise enthusiasts flatter him with hopes and prophecies.
The advantages he enjoys give him a distorted idea of claims to be urged upon a Government that has done so
much for him. His self-reliance weakens with encouragement, or he is irritated and rebuked by the chilly
'•oiirtesies of English reserve. The narrow circle of his life ; the absence of facilities for travel, whereby his
sympathies and experience might be enlarged ; the strong temptation to lay aside his studies so soon as
employment supplies his moderate necessities ; the scanty inducement to fit himself for higher duties, — all
help to dwarf the moral and intellectual growth and to foster those faults against which satirists, good humoured
or bitter, have directed so many shafts. All the greater therefore is the credit due to him when he rises above
the influences by which he is surrounded ; and, whatever his weaknesses, it may be safely said that they who best
know the educated native have the most to urge in his favour. It may also be safely said that many of
the faults charged against the earlier generation of college students are disappearing as an English education
is less regarded in the light of a rare distinction. Some of those faults were bom of the time and the
circumstances ; some had root in a system of instruction now every where becoming more thorough and more
scientific.
" Of the professions to which a student takes on leaving college, the most favourite are Government Service
The professions which the and the Law. In the latter will generally be found those whose talents are
majority of English-educated brightest, and in whom self-reliance is most strong ; in the former, those who,
Natives adopt. from narrowness of circumstances or from a doubt of their own powers, have
been glad to accept employment, sometimes of a very humble kind. As a Government Servant, the ex-student is
found everywhere and in all branches of the Administration ; as a clerk, as a subordinate Judicial, and Revenue,
or Police Officer ; as a Professor in a College, or Teacher in a School ; in various capacities in the Department of
Public Works, the Forest Department, the Telegraph, the Railway, the Medical Service. In all he holds appoint-
ments involving considerable trust and exercising zeal, energy, activity. And in some Provinces he has attained
hi.s present position despite strenuous antagonism on the part of his countrymen brought up in the old school, who
were naturally anxious to keep in their families posts regarded, from length of tenure, as hereditary possessions.
That this antagonism was for so long so efficient resulted, in a considerable measure, from an unwillingness on the
part of Civil Officers to employ a class of men with whom they had but slight acquaintance, and who were without
the necessary apprenticeship to official life ; such unwillingness is now becoming a thing of the past. Throughout
the country Civil Officers have begun to discover and readily to acknowledge, that in integrity, capacity for work,
intelligence, industry, the subordinate trained in college excels his fellow brought up according to the traditions of
the past. At the Bar, a profession which in many ways is eminently suited to the bent of the native mind, the
ex-students of our colleges have made their way with honourable success. Even in the Presidency towns, though
pitted against distinguished English lawyers, they carry off a large share of the practice, acquitting themselves
with especial credit in civil cases. If their legal acumen has, for its very subtlety, sometimes been the subject
• 'ibtful compliment, many of their number are conspicuous for grasp of subject, and breadth of view. Though
ling in a foreign tongue, they not seldom display an eloquence and power of debate which would command
admiration before any English tribunal. Some of the ablest of them have attained to the Bench of the Calcutta
Hi\'h Court : and last year during the absence of the Chief Justice, his high post was filled by Mr. Justice Romesh
Chunder Mittra. Madras and Bombay tell the same tale, and though in the more backward Provinces the number
of distinguished advocates is not large, a Musalman gentleman, once a student of the Benares College, was recently
i-al led to fill a vacancy in the Allahabad High Court. In the District Courts, where of old chicanery and many
questionable devices so largely prevailed, the influence of the educated native pleader has generally been of a
healthy kind. And when this is the case it is especially creditable to him. For, away from the eye of those
whose disapproval would mean loss of professional caste, and exposed 'to influences and temptations such as
perhaps advocacy in no other country confronts, he has need of a strong moral rectitude and much earnestness
MORALITY OF EX-STUDENTS OF ENGLISH COLLEGES. 241
of purpose. But with the support of the wholesome pride which the members of his profession feel in so
honourable a career, it every day becomes easier to him to emulate the dignity and self-respect which are so
pre-eminently characteristic of the English Bar. Government service and the Law, as we have said, engage the
attention of the majority of our graduates and undergraduates. A smaller number betake themselves to private
service as clerks, assistants, or managers. Some engage in trade. They are, however, comparatively few in number
for commerce needs capital, and hereditary aptitude for business, neither of which is usually possessed in any
sufficient degree by those educated in our Colleges. Where, indeed, a commercial career is chosen by them, the
general testimony is of the same purport as that borne to the credit with which they fill other positions in life.
Such testimony coming from various quarters, and having reference to a variety of occupations, we might easily
quote at great length.
" It may be enough to cite the opinions of a few gentlemen of high position and varied experience. Tn sucli
Favourable opinions of Sir a ^st no one PernaPs nas a better right to a foremost place than Sir M. R.
M. B. Westropp, Sir W. Wed- Westropp, who, first as a Puisne Judge of the High Court and afterwards,
derburn, and Sir Charles Tur- for nearly twenty years, as Chief Justice of Bombay, had daily opportunity
of gauging the capacity and character of men trained in the Colleges of the
Presidency. In reply to an address presented to him last year on his retirement from the Bench, his Lordship
remarked : ' In tone, in learning, in every thing that was important for professional men, the Pleaders of the High
Court were pre-eminent, and they were now, whatever their predecessors in the Sadar' Adalat might have been in
a by-gone generation, a highly honourable body. This had been proved by their own acts ; and, what was more, they
had proved themselves liberal and generous, as circumstances which he had had the opportunity of noticing, would
show. It had been a great pleasure to him to see so much of them and to notice their daily conduct for so many
years, and the feeling of satisfaction which he experienced was shared by all the Judges. The educational insti-
tutions now in existence in Bombay contributed greatly to the class of men who succeeded in passing the exami-
nation for the career of High Court Pleaders and Subordinate Judges. He trusted the improvement in education
might go on. It had penetrated to a considerable extent among the Pleaders in the mofussil also ; but the
soldiers of the old garrison were too firmly in possession to be dislodged speedily. In the mofussil the old
practitioner had a stronghold, but his place was being gradually filled by the alurnni of the Elphinstone High
School and of the University of Bombay. That they might go on and prosper was the earnest desire of himself
and brethren.' Of similar tenour was the evidence given before the Commission by Sir William Wedderburn.
In Madras, Chief Justice Sir Charles Turner, whose many years acquaintance with the North- Western Provinces
has varied his experience, remarked in his Convocation address delivered in 1881, before the University of
Madras : — 'Modern India has proved by examples that are known to, and honoured by, all in this assembly that
her sons can qualify themselves to hold their own with the best of European talent in the Council Chamber, on
the Bench, at tlie Bar, and in the mart. The time cannot be far distant when she will produce her philosopher,
her moralist, her reformer.'
"Of the morality of our ex-students question has sometimes been made; not so much perhaps because
M 1't f ex students of experience justified an accusation, as because it was pre-snpposed that those
English Colleges and their who received no definite religious instruction must necessarily have but little
efforts to advance enlighten- reverence for a moral law to which were attached no divine sanctions. There
me11*" is, however, no reason whatever why a scientific education should lower the
standard of conduct. It is true that such an education tends to weaken and destroy primitive beliefs, but morality
is independent of those beliefs, and a young man's studies at college are certainly not calculated to weaken his
appreciation of moral truths. Nor in estimating the effect which collegiate education has had upon religious belief
ought we to forget the large extent to which students have joined the Brahmo Samaj and other theistic associa-
tions of the same character, or the constant prominence given in their public writings and discussions to the subject
of a reformed faith. In the restricted sense of integrity, the higher level that prevails is certified by the evidence
of words. It is not merely the Government officer who now feela himself able to place reliance upon the upright-
ness of his subordinate. The same is the case with commercial men, with managers of banks, with Railway
Companies. Dishonest servants are, of course, sometimes found among highly educated natives of India, as they
are sometimes found among highly educated natives of England. And equally, of course, the most has been made
of such instances to discredit an education novel in kind and therefore disliked by many. If again, under the
term morality, we include those qualities which tend to the general welfare of a people, then in a larger sense has
the highly-educated native vindicated his claim to out1 respect. For it is be whose enterprise nnd enthusiasm
have done much to rouse self-effort in education, and whose munificence has not seldom made that effort possible.
It is he who has created the native press in its most intelligent form. His are the various societies, literary and
31
2^2 INGUSH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
scientific, societies for religions and for social reform. To his activity it is due that vernacular literature is so
rapidly multiplying its utility. From his number have come men who have guided the policy of Native States at
critical times, and filled with dignity important offices under the British Government.
" Still, desirous as we are fully to acknowledge the good effects of collegiate education, we do not shut our eyes
to certain deficiencies of result and certain positive evils ascribed to various
ca^Natlves^in^oSntfof defects of system. We cannot affirm that in education has been found a
motives, courtesy and good sufficient cure for the comparative absence of lofty motive and of a sense of
manners, explained. public duty which for long centuries has been an admitted drawback on so
much that is attractive in the character of Natives of India. We cannot deny that though the standard of
morality is higher than it was, it is still a morality based to a large extent upon considerations of a prudent self-
interest, rather than upon any higher principles of action. Moral strength of purpose under circumstances in
which such strength has nothing but itself to rely upon is too often conspicuous for its absence ; and great intellec-
tual attainments are by no means always accompanied by great elevation of character. On the other hand,
however, it must not be forgotten, that improvement in this matter, especially under the conditions imposed by
the past history of the country, must be the work of several generations. In the minor matter of courtesy and
good manners, it is also objected that there has been a distinct deterioration ; that in their desire to cast off the
reproach of subservience, educated natives have mistaken rudeness of behaviour for dignified independence. This
charge within certain limits admits of no dispute. Still, it is a result at which we cannot greatly wonder when
we take into account the ugly faults and unpleasant symptoms that accompany a period of transition. Again,
those who most fully recognise the general improvement, ascribe it to influences of which education is but one, and
by 110 means the most prominent one ; though to this it may perhaps be replied that it is education which has
brought about a state of mind upon which alone those other influences could work. There is another respect, of
a different, and more special character, in which collegiate education has as yet certainly failed. With a feu-
brilliant exceptions, no eminent scholars are to be found in the long list of University Graduates. Two reasons,
however, go a great way to account for this fact. One is to be found in the character of the academic system in
its earlier days. That system aimed rather at giving a general education than at encouraging special knowledge.
The more recent reforms all tend towards the substitution of a small number of subjects for the multifarious re-
quirements which experience has condemned. A second reason is the poverty of the Indian student. To one out
of five hundred, perhaps, it is a matter of indifference whether, when he goes out into the world, he can at once
earn his '"livelihood. With the rest, employment in some shape or other is a necessity ; and that employment
rarely leaves him leisure or inclination to carry on studies of which he has but come to the threshold. Private
liberality has done much for education in many directions. But the endowment of research is not one of these
directions. A life of learned ease is almost unknown to the Indian student; his success must be success of a practical
character ; his ambition waits upon his daily wants.
" In judging of the results already attained, many allowances have to be made ; above all the allowances of
English Collegiate Education time. Even in the most advanced Province of India, collegiate education of
on. the whole beneficial. the present type is barely fifty years old, in some parts of the country its
life measures less than half that span ; in some it has not yet begun. It must be remembered, too, that that educa-
tion is of exotic growth, or, rather, that it has been imposed upon the country by an alien power. If the advent of
the philosopher, the moralist, the reformer, of which Sir Charles Turner is so hopeful, be still 'a far-off adorable
dream,' it is but a sober estimate which declares that, directly or indirectly, collegiate education has been bene-
ficial in a variety of ways to an extensive portion of a vast empire." *
Such being the collective views of the Indian Education Commission of 1882, it is interesting as well as instruc-
Importance of the Views of **ve> *° coraPare them with the opinions of various eminent Indian Statesmen,
eminent Indian Statesmen as such as Sir Richard Temple, a distinguished member of the Indian Civil
to the general effects of Eng- Service, who, after a long and varied experience in holding high administrative
posts in various parts of India, became Finance Minister of India, and subse-
quently Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, and finally Governor of Bombay, from which important office he retired
and is now a Member of the House of Commons. As to the effects of English education he observes as follows : —
" Among the educated Natives, the first-fruit of the new education was an improved standard of rectitude and
Sir Richard Temple's views integrity. The men themselves saw that this was the case, and attributed it
as to early effects of English unhesitatingly to educational influences. Much, happily, was due to this cause,
Education. much also was assignable to other causes, such as the improvement of official
and professional prospects for those who had character as well as ability. The change for the better was percept-
• Report of the Indian Education Commission (1682) ; pp. 300-304.
SIR RICHARD TEMPLE'S VIEWS ON EFFECTS OF1 BRITISH RLT.E. 243
able with the utmost distinctness in the upper classes of the Native officials, especially in the Judicial Department.
When I had first known Calcutta, more than twenty years ago, honesty among these men was, according to com-
mon repute, the exception ; now by the same repute, dishonesty was the exception and honesty the rule. Indeed
I scarcely then expected to live to see the change for the better in these respects which I now saw.
" There was, on the whole, an upheaval of the Native mind in Bengal consequent on the spread of secular
education, although the influence of Christian Missions, however jn-eat else-
Enlightenment of the Brah-
mo sect. Desire of educated wnere> n'as not much felt in Calcutta. The principal factor was the Brahma
Natives of ruling the Country sect, of which the adherents gathered largely at the capital and were scatter-
while the Europeans were to ed throughout the country. In religion they followed the precepts of the
Bible without acknowledging the divinity of Christ ; but they accepted in
addition many doctrines of the Hindu sacred writings. There had been a Hindu Synod named the ' Dharma Szbha,'
instituted to counteract these innovations by recalling the thoughts of the faithful to the ancient ways ; many
organs of opinion also spoke as if the old belief survived. But it was doubtful whether any resistance, passive or
active, would long withstand the advance of new opinions. The existing tendencies were rendering educated
Hindus less submissive in tone and language than formerly, more erect in mental and moral stature in the presence
of Europeans, even jealous of the superior positions held by Europeans in the country, not altogether disposed to
acquiesce in their present status, but rather inclined to criticise the conduct and policy of the Government and to
demand increased privileges. Without going so far as to ask for representative institutions, they aspired to have
a greater share than previously in governing themselves, though they had not formed exact ideas as to how that
share was to be secured. They perhnps desired in effect to have the satisfaction of ruling the country while the
Europeans had the labour of defending it. They had an overweening notion of their own intellectual ability,
believing themselves to be in this respect equal to any nation and superior to most races. They cherished the
notion that wherever brainwork might be absolutely required in India they would rise like oil to the surface of water.
" This uneasiness and restlessness — all the more irksome as arising from no definable cause, and not being
Uneasiness and restlessness susceptible of any specific remedy — found vent in the Vernacular Press. Of
of the Native Press. these utterances some were certainly disloyal or even worse, while others
were merely captious, peevish, fractious, petulant. On the other hand, there was frank outspoken criticism of men.
measures or policy, which was not to be confounded with disloyalty, and which did good every way, as exercising
the faculties of the critics and pointing a moral to those criticized. There was also much, which if rightly inter-
preted, was tantamount to real loyalty such as freemen owe to their liege.
" It was probably the contemplation of these faults which induced many observers to deprecate the high or
Some critics deprecated high superior education which was being given. Some critics recommended that
education. Government should withdraw from taking part in high education, leaving it
to private enterprise, and devote to the promotion of primary education all the resources which could be afforded
by the State. So far from coinciding in that view, however, we strove to foster alike both kinds of education,
higher and lower. We diffused superior instruction by the establishment of additional colleges in the interior of
the country, at the same time developing the village schools and adding tens of thousands every month to the
number of children under primary instruction. The policy was to refrain from supporting any branch of education
entirely by the State resources, but to induce the people themselves to contribute at least half. This proportion
was maintained for the whole educational expenditure, and also for the education of each sort, upper or lower.
"The real fault in the high education was the undue and disproportionate attention devoted to literature ami
philosophy, as compared with physical science and the cognate branches of
Undue and disproportionate
attention to literature and practical instruction. This caused the legal, judicial and administrative pro-
philosophy to the sacrifice of fessions to be overcrowded, while the scientific and practical professions
scientific and practical in- relating to civil and mechanical engineering, to chemistry, botany, agriculture,
and the like, were starved and neglected. It was impossible at that time to
remedy this fault without the co-operation of the Calcutta University. But this institution relating to other
provinces besides Bengal, and being under the Government of India, was not amenable to the Government of
Bengal. Meanwhile the difficulty which very many highly educated men, even graduates of the University, found
in obtaining suitable employment, was producing discontent."*
In the concluding Chapter of the same work Sir Richard Temple has enunciated certain important questions
Important questions enun- relating to tn« effect of the British Rule upon the people of India. After
ciated by Sir Richard Temple dealing with the first question, viz., " What is the economic and financial
as to the effect of British Rule effect of British rule upon the masses of the people ; that is to say, are they
upon the Indian people. growing poorer or richer, irrespective of the question whether India as an
* Men and Events of my Time in India, By Sir Ilichard Temple, Bart., G.C.S.I., C.I.E., D.C.L. ; pp. 430-33.
„., ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
empire is increasing or decreasing in wealth and prosperity ? "-at some length, he goes on to say :-
" The second question stands thus : has the English or Western education elevated the character of the culti-
Has English Education ele- vated classes of the Natives ? Has this elevation been obtained at the cost
vated Native character ? of originality in the Natives, and has it lessened the chance of their self-
development on natural and therefore Asiatic lines ? Ought the education to be in English or in the Indian
vernaculars ?
" Now, the English or Western education has greatly elevated the character of the Natives who have come
within its influence. It has taught them truthfulness and honour both moral-
taSStntagrfty^ndTemove" * ™* intellectually. It has made them regard with aversion that which
superstition, and improved is false nnd dishonest. It has imbued them with a love of abstract truth
morality and intellectual ca- and a desire to exercise the reason with fearless impartiality, to insist upon
pacity. knowing the why and the wherefore for the faith they may be required to
accept. They will no longer tolerate superstitions or any absurdity whatsoever. This improvement is conspicu-
ously manifest in their public conduct, and in all those relations of life which may be called external in contra-
distinction to domestic. It must doubtless affect benefically their home-life also, but regarding that an European
has but little means of judging. In one essential part of domestic conduct they are exemplary, and that com-
piles the efforts put forth by them to impart the new education to their sons. The sacrifices they make, and
the self-denial they undergo, for this object, will hardly be surpassed in the most advanced nations. How far
tlie education of itself has endowed them with amiability, with charitable sentiments and other gentle virtues,
may be doubtful ; for it will probably be held that they possessed these virtues before. They take hopeful views
of the life to come after the death of this body, and respecting the eternal destiny of man. They form positive
conceptions regarding the human soul and its expansive capacities under other conditions of existence. They
acknowledge their responsibility to God for their thoughts, words and deeds. Some few of them have been
charged with yielding to intemperance, a vice which is not confined to the West, but has always existed in the
East also. But this fault has never been enough to detract from the repute of the education and the educated.
As a rule, the young men are temperate, steady, and capable of mental effort long sustained.
" The education is imparted directly or indirectly in two ways. The primary way consists of definite instruc-
tion in ethics or the science of human duty, of the inferences derivable from
Ethical and scientific in- . . .
struction, combined with good Western history and literature, of the mental training from logic and
example of the British Rule, mathematics, and (most important of all) from daily contact and conversa-
have important educational ^ion wth European Professors. The secondary way consists in the contem-
effects. plation of the example set by the British Government in India in its wise
legislation, its dispensation of justice between man and man, its humane administration, its scientific and mecha-
nical achievements, its conscientious efforts for the good of the people. The educational effect of these things
upon the population at large may be greater than is, perhaps, imagined by those who are engaged in the thick
of affairs.
" The effect of this education, direct and indirect, undoubtedly was, in the first instance, to suppress the
, natural originality of the educated. Formerly, they oft-times, indeed, kept
Moral and spiritual efloct of
English literature beneficial, their minds at a fairly high level, observing a right standard. But oft-times
aud creates enthusiasm of they descended to the depths of moral and mental degradation ; from such
humanity. slough they have been extricated by education, and now breathe a purer air.
For a time, bewildered by the superiority of the new civilization, they sought nothing beyond it. They crammed
their memories with bare facts ; they learnt the noblest prose or poetry by rote and repeated it mechanically,
lint this tendency, militating against their originality, operates less and less forcibly with every decade, and its
disappearance after one or two generations may be anticipated. They no longer accept a doctrine, secular or
religious, merely because it is a result of Western civilization. They search for new standards of their own, outside
Europe and its ways. For that purpose they go far afield, reverting to the remotest periods of Asiatic Philo-
sophy, and in spirit crossing the Atlantic to grope for light in the New World. Their antiquarian research is
frequently (though perhaps not always) conducted after a method quite their own. Despite their Western pre-
occupations, it is towards their own traditions that their loving gaze is turned. Their study of Shakespeare,
Milton, Bacon, Locke, does not in the least diminish their reverent allegiance to the Asiatic heroes, poets, saints
and law-givers of old. Morally, almost spiritually, they approach Christianity, verging actually towards its very
borders. But though they venerate its efficacy, they decline to profess it as a religion. Their interpretation of
the poetry in Nature differs from ours ; while learning our notion of ' the unseen universe,' they do not adopt it
unreservedly. They will study the writings of philosophers and economists as Bentham or Malthus, and criticize
SIR RICHARD TEMPLE'S VIEWS ON EFFECTS OF ENGLISH EDUCATION. 245
the conclusions therein set forth. Their ideas regarding the theory of punishment and several branches of civil
and criminal law, differ essentially from those which we strive to impress upon them by our legislation. They
frequently controvert the economic conclusions which we assert regarding the material condition of their country.
In such arguments they often apply the established doctrines of political economy to complex statistics in a
manner which, if not just, is really original. The 'enthusiasm of humanity' is one of the principles which
Christianity introduced into the world; and they have caught some of its sacred fire. But, once touched by this
hallowed sentiment, they have followed its dictates with an earnestness all their own. Numberless instances of
their fai'sighted munificence might be cited in illustration.
" In former ages there was little of philosophizing in respect to Indian art, but much of real art existed.
In later times there has-been much philosophizing but less of actual art.
Indian Art.
At one moment there was danger lest the very life of Indian art should be
stifled by European influence. The European instructors, however, awoke to the danger in time, and now full
play is allowed to the fine originality of the Native genius.
" The British system, in which the Native administrators are now trained, does at first suppress their natural
Distinguished administra- originality. On the other hand, it may be argued that some of the salient
tors of Native States. features in our system have their prototypes among the Indians — for instance,
the settlement of the land under Todar Mall, the Minister of Akbar the Great, is in several respects a model for
British arrangements. The Native States, indeed, copy much that belongs to the British Government, and curiously
appreciate English official designations for every department, civil or military. Yet they retain in their manage-
ment very much which, being their own, must be regarded as original, and which is thought by some, rightly or
wrongly, to be better suited to the Natives than our own method. Of living statesmen among the Natives, Salar
Jang of Hyderabad, perhaps, has become Europeanized in his method of administration. But Dinkar Rao of
Gwalior, was quite original, so was Kirpa Ram of Jammu, and more especially Jang Bahadur of Nepal, who
governed after his own fashion with hardly any tincture of European notions. Madhava Rao of Baroda, too,
though Anglicized to some extent, is quite Asiatic an fond, and, if left to his own resources entirely, would evince
striking originality.
" The Mahratta Brahmans, again, some of the very ablest among the eleves of the modern education, keep their
The Mabratta Brahmins pro- minds riveted upon national models, and would strenuously repudiate the
fit by English Education. notion of their inner thoughts being transformed by what they have been
learning. They must -perforce admire much of all the moral and intellectual novelties to which they have been
introduced. On the other hand, it is to be feared that nothing can shake many of the prepossessions, favourable
to their own ideas and adverse to ours, which have gained strength from father to son through many centuries.
They will learn much from us, and may even acquire new faculties, for all that, as a race they will retain their
individuality. Their Association, named the Sarva Janik Sabha, may be hypercritical, but is certainly original.
" In authorship the educated Natives are prolific even in English, and in the Vernacular the mass of current
literature is known to few Europeans, save those who, like Garcin de Tassy,
make it their special study. Native authors have produced some works of
original merit, but not so many as might have been expected.
" Respecting physical science, they are already apt in verifying its teachings by experiment. Whether they
Progress of physical science will become discoverers cannot be predicted, for as yet our State Education,
among Natives. though now improving fast, has been quite deficient in all branches of this
science, except the medical where it has always been excellent. Nor can any forecast be hazarded as to whether
they will be inventors, for as yet their natural ingenuity has been but little developed by mechanical instruction.
But the constant spectacle of wonder-working mechanism, under British management, must stimulate their
thoughts.
" The new religious sects which have arisen or are arising — the Brahmos of the east and north of India, the
New religious sects due to similar communities in the west — are essentially original, notwithstanding that
English Education. they owe their on'gin to the new education. There is a philosophic mysti-
cism, a transcendentalism, about them which, so far from being derived from the Western teaching given them, is
positively opposed to it. They gather all they can from European instructors in Christianity, and then apply the
instruction after a manner of their own.
" Taking all these considerations together, we may trust that the English or Western Education will not
English Education will not impair the originnlity of the educated, nor lessen the chance of their self
impair the originality of the development. It would be sad if these men were confined to springs of
Natives. thought belonging not to themselves but to their masters ; in that case their
246 ENOtlSH EDUCATION IN INMA.
mental growth would be sickly and stunted. We can never desire that they should be intellectually prostrate
before us in servile imitation. But there is no probability of this happening ; on the contrary, while abandoning
some things of their own, and adopting others from us, they are likely to cherish the essence of nearly all that, is
indigenous. Already this development of theirs is moving in what must be called Asiatic lines— as the lines are
not "exactly European— and will probably diverge still more in an Oriental direction. So far from lessening thi-
chance for them, OHT instruction hM been the main factor in producing it. The education has furnished them
mentally with win-s : and thomrh fledgeling as yet, they are essaying flight, and none can now foresee how hi-h
they will soar. Without it. no such possibility has been opened out for them. For they had lost all power of
self-improvement when British rule dawned upon their hori/on. l?y reason of the invasions from without, the
disturbances from within, the disruption of ancient systems, the submergence of learning by floods of violence,
they had long lost all means of recovering themselves.
•• Female education offers the greatest field now open to benevolent effort ; in no other respect socially is there
Female education in need of so much wllich necds doin"' and which mi°ht Practicallv be do"c- Costless
benevolent effort. some great result will ere long be attained, and that will affect mightily the
coming generation. It is not likely that the Western education will at all extinguish the originality of mind which
i, women often have, notwithstanding the repressive influences of centuries. The flashes of ability and the
sparks of character which have emanated from them — despite disadvantages which to European women would
seem incredible — afford indications of what they may become hereafter, when their minds shall be freed.
-As to whether the superior education generally ought to be in English or in the Indian Vernaculars -
Indian Vernacular literature it may be said that while English is, and must be, the medium of imparting
encouraged. much of the best and highest education — the various vernaculars,
eighteen in number, will probably continue as at present to be the media for instructing the masses. The cultiva-
tion of the vernaculars does certainly strengthen originality among the Natives. Despite their thirst for Western
literature, the educated classes in common with the rest of their countrymen, venerate their own language*.
whether classical or spoken. As the old vernacular literature is both scanty and obsolete, the necessity of provid-
ing food for the mind of the rising generation is evoking, and will yet further evoke, the original talent of native
authors. The Government has responded to the popular sentiment by promoting the culture of the vernacular*
deirree unknown even among the best of the preceding Native Governments. Indeed, the successful
vigour with which this is done by the British in India, is a fact probably unique in the history of conquering
race-.
•• The thirl question is stated thus : is the Western education subverting the several existing religions, and if
What effect has English edu- so, is Christianity advancing sufficiently to take their place ? How far is the
cation on existing religions. system of caste shaken ?
" The Western education has not affected the Muhammadan faith. It has subverted the Hindu faith, or the
Brahmanical religion, among the educated classes of Hindus, but not among
Christianity has not affected The educated people on abandoning what may be termed the
Muhammadamsmjbuttheedu- *
cated classes of Hindus adopt wligi«m of mediaeval Hinduism, do not become irreligious, but revert to the
Theism, and Christianity is primitive Hindu faith, or else adopt some form of Theism. Christianity is
rapidly advancing among the not advancing sufficiently to take the place of the heathen religions whenever
masses, but not among the . renounced. It is growing, however, absolutely fast, though it still
educated classes. • °
coven but a small part of the ground, relatively to the vastness of the popu-
l!ut the number of the Native Christians has increased at the rate of fifty per cent, in every decade for
th.- laM thin or one <_r>'>i.'ra!ion. and with the existing Missionary agencies, some considerable ratio of
increase will probably be maintained. Whether any decided expansion shall occur, must depend upon the efforts
nf the Christian Churches. It may occur largely if the Missionary zeal and the resources of the Churches shall
iiieiva-i-. Meanwhile, the results, as compared with the agency employed, are quite satisfactory to -all concerned.
Christianity has made 1,0 rapid wav among the educated classes by reason of their education. Some of them become
Christians, some aU i amon;r the humbler classes ; the proportion of high-caste and humble-caste men among the
Native Christians probably does not differ from the proportion gf the same castes in the population generally. On
the other hand, the Missions may, if their means be adequate, effect decisive progress among the aboriginal races
and others who are outside caste, numbering in all 27 millions. The conduct of the Native Christian Communities,
now reckoning r early half a million of souls, is good, and worthy of the faith they profess. With judicious guidance
ami encouragement from Europeans, theie is every chance of a Native Chi istian Church being organised with
native clergy and deacons, sustained bv the congregations. Such a Church may have liberty to grow in an Indian
,r Asiatic n. aimer suitable to the circumstances of the East.
DISCONTENT OP EDUCATED NATIVES. 247
" Respecting caste, it is shaken somewhat among the educated classes, and inroads in various directions have
Caste is shaken among edu- been made into its well-guarded pale. Many tendencies of the age, too.
oated classes, but not among militate against its prevalence. Nevertheless, it is as yet quite unshaken
the masses. among the masses, and it possesses social as well as religious force.
"The fourth question is in this wise: are the educated Natives likely to become discontented with their
Are educated Natives dis- existing status, socially and politically, and to ask for privileges which the
contented ? British Government can hardly consent to grant ?
" In the Native States, which comprise statistically one-fifth of our empire, and should be estimated morally
Discontent of educated Na- at a higher proportion, the educated Natives are not at all likely to become
tives in British Territories as discontented with their status socially and politically. On the contrary they
distinguished from Native are there finding already, and will find still more as time rolls on, a scope
and a sphere for their ambition and their energies. But in the British terri-
tories they are now feeling this discontent, and may perhaps feel it in an increasing degree. It has sprung up
within twenty years and has grown somewhat during the last decade. British rule being what it is, the presence
of Europeans in all, or almost all, the important posts is absolutely essential, and must necessarily bar a career
of the best sort for the educated Natives, who, seeing this, must sooner or later become dissatisfied. This dis-
advantage under oar Government is being, and may yet further be, mitigated, but cannot be wholly avoided. Nor
does this fact, per se, prove any superiority on behalf of the Native States over British rule. For it is the British
paramount power that enables the Native States to be what they are ; without the »gis of England, they would
relapse into the barbarism whereby education is stamped out under the iron heel of violence, and careers are
closed to all save the stalwart.
" Socially the educated Natives probably are discontented at not being admitted more than they are to European
Discontent of educated Na- society in India ; but they will doubtless secure this admission, more and
tives owing to exclusion from more, as they become qualified for it. On the other hand, Europeans have
European society in India been in a gtm 6tricter degree debarred from Native society. But as the
dominion of caste recedes, and as Native ladies become educated, there may possibly be a social union between
Europeans and Indians such as no previous era has witnessed.
" The educated Natives will ask for much that the Government can concede, such as improved status and
Demand by educated Na- emoluments in the public service, besides opportunities of influential useful-
tives for improved status and ness by serving in honorary capacities for the welfare of the community
emoluments. as gentlemen serve in England. The progress, which the Government has
secured for them in these directions within the last generation, is an earnest of similar benefits to come. It is to
be hoped that they will entreat the Government to give a more practical turn to several branches of the higher
education, and to impart scientific instruction more largely and efficiently than heretofore, so that they may acquire
the knowledge necessary for carving out new careers.
" Our object should be to educate the character as well as the intellect, teaching the non-official Natives to feel
Importance of educating public spirit, and the official Natives to bear responsibility. Hitherto we have
non-official Natives to feel succeeded most in training Natives to rise to high posts in the Judicial Service.
public spirit. Our ambition should be, however, to train them for the executive posts,
demanding the sterner qualities on which Englishmen justly pride themselves. Most of these posts must needs
continue to be held by Europeans ; it would be dangerous to place such duties in the hands of Natives. Still there
are many posts of a responsible character, which Natives might occupy, if only they were endowed with the more
robust qualities. It should be the aim of the Government to endow them with such qualities, by means of
education direct and indirect.
" They will also ask for some privileges which the British Government cannot concede in full, inasmuch as
Natives will desire represen- tnev wil1 express a desire for representative institutions in the English sense
tative institutions. of the term. They seldom formulate such requests very specifically, for
although they themselves understand the meaning of ' representation,' they remember that the vast majority of
their countrymen do not. They perhaps would like an Oligarchical Council to be formed from among themselves
by some State procedure, or else that the power of electing should rest with the educated only, who form but a
very small minority of the people ; but they have never, probably, thought out such schemes. They certainly
wish to have the power of the purse, which power would dominate the internal administration, while they are
quite content to leave to the Government the duty of external defence.
" Now the Government, believing that the elective franchise had a good moral effect upon those who are
reasonably qualified to exercise it, has already entrusted, subject to an ultimate control by the State, the
0^ ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
municipal administration of the capital cities of Calcutta and Bombay to corporations elected by the rate-payers,
and has extended, or is likely to extend, the principle to the largest muuici-
Elective franchise "Iready ;tieg -n the interior Of the country. Further, the Government seems
allowed in municipalities 01 r . .
Indian Capital Cities may be disposed to entrust some share of power respecting local and provin
extended even for Legislative finances to elected representatives ; but here it cannot relinquish its control-
Councils. ]ing authority. The native members of the Legislative Councils are at
-,t appointed by the Governor-General. Possibly they might be elected, if only any constituency for such a
LtrpOM could be devised ; it would indeed be difficult to devise such. At all events, however, the Government could
not allow them to have anything approaching a majority or equality in the Council. That source of power it must
retain in its own hands.
" Some observers may hold that if high education tends to political discontent, the Government should pru-
dentlv refrain from imparting it. But such a view could not be maintained
High education should not J
be abandoned owing to politi- in the nineteenth century. Surely it is our bounden duty to give to the
cal discontent. Natives the benefit of all that we know ourselves. If we admit that there are
cases in which plain dictates of duty must be followed and reliance placed on Providence for the result, then here
is an example of the strongest kind. Politically we are so secure that we can afford to be generous in imparting
knowledge, even though, in some respects, disaffection were to spring up in consequence ; but in fact true loyalty
and contentment in other and more important respects will thereby be produced or confirmed. At all events this
is an occasion for putting into practice the maxim, ' Be just, and fear not.":
In another of his works on India the same eminent statesman, Sir Richard Temple, makes the following
observations in regard to the effects of English education in India : —
" The educated class is drawn from the several sections of society which have been already mentioned. The
education of this class is for the most part derived from the national
The educated classes in .
I dia brought up under instruction introduced by the British Government. 1 here are, indeed, some
British supervision follow educated men, whose instruction has been obtained purely from indigenous
various professions. sources, independently of aid from their foreign rulers, has been kept
strictlv within the ancient grooves, has been conducted in rustic cloisters, monastic establishments, or the shade
of sacred groves, and is directed chiefly to religious objects. These men, though still numerous, must be
decreasing gradually throughout the country. Men of business are still to be seen, who have been educated only
in the old style, and whose practical talent and acuteness have not been developed by modern instruction. They
are however, becoming more and more rare, and will soon pass away without successors of the same type, for their
sons are all educated in the new style. Thus, the only educated class that need now be observed consists of men
brought up under British supervision, for whose mental and moral condition the British Government is responsible.
These men follow other professions, besides the public service, such as the bar and other legal pursuits, private
practice in medicine, commerce and banking, Civil Engineering, mechanical industries and the like. But many of
them enter the public service in its various grades from the humblest to the highest. They thus become members of
one homogeneous profession, which equals, probably in magnitude and certainly in importance, all the other pro-
fessions taken together. It is this dominant and leading profession which most readily admits of specific obser-
vation, and in which the results of the national education can be best tested.
•• That the natural intelligence of the educated men is sharpened by rigid method, and that their mental
Intelligence, integrity, and stamina are strengthened by discipline, will be surely assumed. That their
loyalty of educated Natives minds are open to the reception of new influences, expanded into a large
satisfactory on the whole. growth, drawn towards wider spheres, raised into higher regions of thought,
and fixed in grooves of stricter accuracy, may be reasonably expected. That they are steadier officers, cleverer
men of business, abler administrators, better workers and apter learners, from being thus educated, is easily
i-niicuivable. The harder questions relate to the effect of the education on the conduct of these men, on their
trustworthiness and integrity, their loyalty to the British Sovereign, their gratitude to their foreign instructors,
their attachment to "Western civilization, and their sentiments in regard to the existing order of things. The
answers to such questions, if thoughtfully rendered, will be found quite as satisfactory as could be fairly anticipated.
" In the first place, a due and proper standard of rectitude among the Native officials of the Upper and Middle
Rectitude of Native officials Grades has been obtained. Such men are now regarded as gentlemen in the
of the Upper and Middle Des* sense of the term, that is, as men of honour. Their character is not
Grades traceable to influences impugned, their rectitude is trusted by public opinion, corruption on their
part is not suspected. In this description, as in all general descriptions, there
• Men and Event* of my Time in India. By Sir Richard Temple, Bart., G.C.S.I., C I.E., D.C.L , pp. 494-504.
EFFECTS ON BRITISH RULE AS A FOREIGN GOVERNMENT. 249
must be reservations and exceptions, but such is the tone pervading these bright parts of the picture. Of the
numerous changes which have of late years arisen in India, this particular change is among the most noteworthy.
For many authorities, still surviving, can remember the time when such Native officials were not regarded as men
of honour, when their uprightness and integrity were constantly impugned, when their conduct was frequently
distrusted, when imputations of corruption were bruited abroad. One cause of the moral improvement, now per-
ceptible, springs from the better organization of the public service. The men are. by the concession of adequate
salaries, placed in a position superior to temptation. They are embodied in regular departments, which have grades
ascending like the steps of a ladder, offer scope for ambition and open out prospects of promotion to be seen
through the vista of coming years. Thus they are so situated that they shall have everything to gain by fidelity,
and everything to lose by misconduct. Another and a higher cause of the improvement is traceable to the
influences of Western education, the moral teaching imparted by European culture, the practical ideas of duty
thereby infused, the virtuous principles thus instilled, the companionship of English instructors and the association
with them in the daily life at school or college. It is to these two main causes that the Natives themselves attri-
bute the amelioration which is happily seen.
" In the lower grades of educated Natives, however, misconduct is still common, and, but too frequent even in
Misconduct of educated the middle grades. Still it will be found to exist almost exactly in proportion
Natives of lower grade. as the advantages, moral and material, allowed to these grades fall short of
those beneficiently granted to the upper grades.
" Together with the public service, the profession of the law has advanced paripassu. This great profession
Advance and improvement is for tne most Part a product of British rule, and is divided, as in England,
of the legal profession among into two branches, like those of Barristers and Solicitors. Admission to the
Natives. Native Bar is regulated by tests and examinations, which ensure the profession
of high qualifications by those who apply for it. An almost equal improvement is visible in the Native Barristers
as in the Native Judges, and a standard of professional etiquette prevails, formed on the English model. The
standard was much lower in former days, when advocates but too often connived at or participated in malpractices
and even in frauds. Any remnants of these evils, which may still linger in the profession, will ere long be
eliminated. As now constituted, the Native Bar is fast becoming a power in the country ; its independence of
demeanour, freedom of- speech and sympathy with the people, are raising it daily in public estimation. Its conduct
fosters the salutary belief, which is settling down in the minds of the Natives, to the effect that the British system
of civil justice constitutes a real palladium of their liberties and privileges. Its loyalty will be true towards the
Government which is its foster-father. Improvements, similar in kind but much less in degree, are taking place
in the profession of the Law, which branch includes Attorneys, Solicitprs, and all other legal practitioners. These
Native practitioners formerly had a very evil repute for stimulating wrongful litigation, promoting fraud and
poisoning the moral atmosphere around the precincts of the Courts. Of this mischief, much has been removed by
the improvements in the Native Bench, and Bar, and by the operation of public opinion ; but much, unfortunately,
remains.
" As an instance of the mental and moral progress of the Natives, the expansion of the Post-Office may be
Expansion of the Post-Offi.ce mentioned. The Government has adopted the principle of all the reforms
an instance of the mental and which have proved so successful in England. By amalgamating under one
moral progress of the Natives. administration the imperial and local Post-Offices in the various provinces
of the empire, postal facilities have been placed within reach of every large village throughout the country.
The increase of letter-writing and of postal business has been remarkable. Within the last fifteen years, the
number of Post-Offices has increased from 2,200 to 5,500, the length of postal lines from 48,000 to 58,000 miles.
The amount of receipts in cash from the public has risen from £401,000 to £660,000 per annum, exclusive of
official postage; and the number of covers delivered from 59 millions to 131 millions annually. A portion of the
increase in correspondence is due to the Government and its servants, also to the non-Official Europeans ; but the
mass of it is due to the Natives, under the influences of education.
" The foreign Government in India must be prepared to realize the fact that the hearts of educated Natives
Importance of the effects of are ^eePlv stirred by the Western education, and that an active process of
English Education among the mental fermentation is setting in. These men are from their youth instruct-
Natives with reference to the ed in matters concerning the rise, progress, zenith, decline and fall of em-
British Rule being a Foreign pires . the relative dimensions, population and resources of the several great
Powers of the world ; the constitution, legislature and privileges of States
monarchical, constitutional, despotic, republican ; the territorial arrangements consequent on modern warfare ;
the various nationalities of which kingdoms are composed. It follows that they will observe current events
32
250 ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
whether peaceful or warlike with an appreciative insight, and will speculate on the effect which such events may
produce on the fortunes of England. A competent knowledge of the recent history of their own country will
show them how often the commerce and the fortunes of India herself have been affected by events occurring in
int. reirions. For example, by the civil contest in America, by the wars in the Crimea, China and Turkey. An
extensive Vernacular Press is growing up, which offers brief summaries of the political affairs and occurrences of
the world. The English Press in India presents daily, full extracts of all the best news and opinions of the press
in England, together with comments suited to the currents of public thought in India, and is read by the English-
speaking Natives with as much attention as by the English themselves. Native trading firms have their head-
quarters or their branches in the United Kingdom or on the Continent of Europe, and will ere long have them
even on the other side of the Atlantic. For these reasons, England must, whenever she engages in affairs of
world-wide importance, be prepared to reckon with a mass of Native opinion instructed to a degree heretofore
unknown. The lights are various in which Natives regard alternatives of peace or war. If in any conjuncture
it should appear that, on a fair consideration of her own interest and honour, England ought to fight and yet holds
back from fighting, then the Natives would be quicker than ever to draw the gravest inferences. If after anxious
suspense, the English standard, ever to Eastern eyes the symbol of victory in the end, is unfurled, it is followed
by the hopes and prayers of the majority of the Natives. More than once of late, when the inevitable moment
seemed near, utterances of loyalty and god-speed arose from the organs of Native opinion in all parts of
the country. Still, as a rule, the Natives raise their voice decidedly for peace, not at any price, but at some
sacrifice, rather than for incurring the risks of war, with the certainty of special taxation in the present and
the probability of the public burdens being augmented in the future. They certainly are adverse to an aggressive,
and favorable to a pacific policy.
" The educated Natives are also moved by aspirations for self-government, for political power, and even for
Aspirations of educated representative institutions, the concession of which does not at present fall
Natives for self-government within the range of practical politics. Such ideas have been mooted in
and political power. former times, but have never been so fully defined, nor so openly declared, as
they are at present. The reports of Parliamentary debates, concerning India and the East proximately or
remotely, are scanned by the Natives with anxious interest. The utterances of English orators or statesmen vindi-
cating the character, conduct, status and interests, fiscal and financial, of the people of India, are welcomed by the
Natives with a gratitude as deeply felt as it is fervently expressed. The name of any member of either house of
Parliament, who by word or deed espouses the cause of the Natives, soon becomes a household word among them.
Although benevolence is admitted by them to be a prominent feature of British rule, still after having been
for so many centuries the sport of despots, the prey of conquerors and the victims of revolution, they have an
i'licable fear that the English nation may prove to be not wholly an exception to the rule of selfishness and
harshness which has so often prevailed with foreign and absolute rulers. They seem always glad to be reassured
by responsible and influential persons regarding the kind and good intentions of England, and such assurances
cannot be too often repeated. There has been of late a tendency with some Natives to rely for sympathy and
support specially on particular parties or sections of parties among the politicians of England. But this tendency
is <!' in-crated by the best organs of Native opinion, on the manifest grounds that the Natives are the very last
persona who should encourage the notion of India ever becoming a battle-field for party-strife in England,
and that all political parties ought to be urged to co-operate for the object of benefiting their Indian fellow-
subjects.
" Thoughtful Englishmen may remember that self-government among the Natives is one of the goals to which
Part takon by the Natives in many of the administrative arrangements of India are tending. Natives
local self-government. are appointed members of the Legislative Council of the Governor-General
for all India, of und the local legislatures of Madras, Bombay and Bengal. They are Honorary Magistrates in the
interior of the districts; they serve as jurymen, as assessors to aid the Judges in criminal trials, as members of
ari lit ration tribunals and of conciliation courts in civil causes. They take part in the administration of the
finids raised by the road cess and other local cesses, in the management of schools, hospitals, dispensaries and
other institutions. They furnish the great majority of the Commissioners in the Municipalities, which exist in
tlif i.-apit:il cities, and are scattered over the length and breadth of the empire. They thus become the respon-
sible trustees, administrators or controllers of the rates for levying the local taxes. In Calcutta and Bombay
•nilly, and in some other central places, they enjoy as rate-payers the electoral franchise for the election of
members of the Municipal Corporations. The system whereby, in so many parts of the country, village commu-
nities !ir<> constituted, or village headmen are vested with petty powers in police matters, is the very embodiment
of the principle of self-government in the rural districts.
EFFECTS ON RELIGIOUS THOUGHT OF HINDUS AND MUHAMMADANS. 251
" Native Associations are formed for the avowed purpose of representing their views, wishes or grievances to the
Native Associations for repre- authorities Several of these bodies, such as the ' British Indian Associatiou '
senting wishes -or grievances of Calcutta, the ' Amjuman ' of Lahore, the ' Sarva Janik Sabha ' of Bombay,
to the Government. can make their voice heard, not only in India, but even as far as England.
Such societies are regarded by the Government, as affording the means for legitimately and temperately repre-
senting or vindicating the opinions of the Natives. Their memorials and addresses, though sometimes transgress-
ing the limits of propriety, are, as a rule, fully reasoned and moderately expressed.
" Personal kindness and charity have always been among the most loveable characteristics of the Natives.
Personal kindness a loveable These sentiments have induced men to support not only their female relatives
characteristic of the Natives. and their aged or helpless connexions, which is well, but also their able-
bodied and idle male relatives, which is not well. Many a rising man is weighted in his career by listless persons
who hang about him, instead of shifting for themselves. This tendency, which has been heretofore excessive, is
diminished by the influences of education. Virtuous and most commendable sacrifices are often made by Natives,
who stint and pinch themselves in order to afford a good education to their young relations. The youths thus
educated generally recompense their friends for these sacrifices, by evincing a resolute spirit of self-help.
" The sympathy of Natives, also spreads beyond the circle of relations, friends or dependents. It extends to
Charitable benevolence of the miserable wherever met with, to the living community at large, and to
the Natives. the needs of posterity yet unborn. The charity of Natives is, indeed, often
misdirected, but is generously profuse. Every Native, who makes a fortune, immediately gives away a part of it
to works of public usefulness or charity. Every city in the empire is improved, endowed or beautified, by the
benevolence or munificence of individual citizens. In prosperous years the sums, thus nobly dispensed, are enor-
mous ; and even in the worst years, the source of this bounty never runs dry. In the interior of the country,
works of public utility, on the roadsides and in many other spots, attest the spirit of philanthropy which prevails
among wealthy Natives. In many provinces the Government wisely publishes a list of the works of public utility
constructed by individuals ; these publications redound to the credit of those concerned.
" The Government always delights to honour the Natives who thus devote a portion of their substance to the
Recognition by Government welfare of their countrymen. Patents of Native nobility are discriminately
of charitable endowments by granted to meritorious persons. Successive Viceroys of India have studied
Natives. ^e unwritten rules which govern the constitution of Native nobility, and
have granted Native titles judiciously and considerately to persons recommended for their good deeds by the several
Local Governments ; a moral force of some potency is thus exercised. British decorations of the ' Star of India '
are bestowed upon Natives ; knighthood not unfrequently has been granted to them, and in rare instances a
Baronetcy has been conferred : the new Order of ' The Indian Empire ' has many Native members : The effect of
these measures upon Native sentiments is to encourage loyalty and public spirit.
"Sound as the national education may. have been in respect of history, literature, practical morality and
Education in India defective political philosophy, it has been, and still is, defective in respect of the
in respect of physical and physical and natural sciences. Yet, scientific study, the value of which is
natural sciences. now recognized in all countries, has in India a special importance. It quali-
fies the Native youth for professions in which they have hitherto had but little place. It diverts from the elder
professions, namely, the law and the public service, some of the students who would otherwise overcrowd those
professions. It displays before the Natives fresh ranges of thought and new modes of thinking. It tends to
correct some of the faults which are admitted to exist in the Native mind, while educing and developing many of
its best qualities and faculties. In two of the most immediately important among the scientific professions, namely,
medicine and civil engineering, the Government has done for the Natives everything that could reasonably be
expected. Hundreds of Native engineers, architects, physicians and surgeons have been, and are being, sent forth
into the world. In respect of other sciences also, something has been effected, but the greater part of what is
needed still remains to be accomplished. The important step which the Universities in India have recently taken,
by granting degrees in science will essentially affect the standards and aims of the national education.
" Reflection upon all these things will lead thoughtful persons to inquire — ' What are the religions tendencies
Muhammadanism not shaken °f the Natives ? ' In the first place, the faith of the Muhammadans does not
by English Education, but edu- seem to have received any shock from Western education and civilization.
cated Hindus become sceptics. Nor has the Hindu faith been shaken with the mass of the Hindus, who
follow the ancestral idolatry with the same simplicity as of yore. The faith is dubious with Hindus who have
some tincture of education, and who probably regard their national religion with half doubt and half belief, much
as the Greeks and Romans regarded the gods of their fathers. But among highly educated Hindus, the faith is
252 ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
1 or living. With some it has been shattered well-nigh to the very base, while from the minds of others it has
already vanished like the fabric of a vision.
•• Many oducitU-d Natives have long cast away the last shreds of their belief in the mythology, the sacred
story and the future world of Hinduism. But they do not become irreligious
Educated Natives discard . .
Hindu Mythology without nicn' nor atheists, nor materialists. They believe in the immortality of the
becoming Atheists or Materi- human soul, in the existence of abstract principles of right and wrong, in
alists. The Brahmos, or tlie omnipresence of a Supreme Being, who is the creator and preserver of all
Theists, likely to expand. things, who is absolutely just and good, to whom all men are accountable
after death for deeds done in this life. They adopt a morality resembling that inculcated by Christianity, and
Mimetimes expressly derived from the Christian Scriptures. Occasionally they listen to sermons preached from
- in the New Testament. By some they would be called Deists or Theists. They call themselves Brahmri/t or
i-Brahmos, members of the Brahmo-Samaj or of the PrartMna-Samaj, and quite recently they have some-
times adopted the name of Theosophists. The spread of the Brahmo sect, first in Bengal and then in other
provinces, is one of the phenomena of the time in India. Keshab Chandar Sen, a man of high qualities and gifts,
is among the best known of its leaders. Its nomenclature signifies ' The believers in the One Creator of all men and
things.' Its growth is understood to have been recently checked by some internal dissensions, but is probably
destined to expand further. Its marriage rites have formed a subject of special legislation. The divine origin of
certain castes is discarded by it, and caste is regarded merely as a human institution, like the social grades of
civilized countries. •
" But, with all these changes, it is remarkable that educated Hindus are bestowing more attention than
has ever yet been bostowed in modem times on the ideas, ethics, and primeval
Educated Hindus investi- ., , . ,, , . , . . -, ,. ,. .
gate the ethics and primeval "Upon which prevailed in the pre-histonc period of their ancestry. They
religion of their pre-historic cast a reverential retrospect towards the dawn of Hindu time, when the day-
ancestors, contained in the spring of genius visited their race, before mists arose to obscure the truth, or
T alas. fables were invented to mar the simplicity of natural religion, or errors grew
up to mislead the conscience and to sully the intuitive perceptions of right and wrong. The writings thus studied
are comprehended in the name of Vedic Literature, which name has now, to educated Hindus, the same sacred
significance that ' Scripture ' has to Christians. Thus, as a result of Western education, the later and more
elaborate writings of the Hindu priesthood are disregarded, while the earliest literature of Hinduism is studied
with renewed veneration.
" There is frequent discussion in India regarding the operation of these influences, moral and mental, upon
.. the loyalty of the educated Natives towards the British Government and
The unsatisfied condition of J }
educated Natives liable to find nation. Fears have been expressed lest unsatisfied ambition, want of suit-
vent in disloyalty of Native able employment, and habits of criticizing unreservedly the existing order of
newspapers. tilings, should gradually undermine the loyalty and gratitude which these
men ought to feel. Such fears, though not fully justified by the facts, have been aroused by divers symptoms
rving attention, and have been aggravated by the conduct of at least a portion of the Native Vernacular Press,
consisting of newspapers published in the various languages of the country. Of the Native newspapers published
in the English Language, as yet few in number, some are distinguished by loyalty and good sense as well as by
cultivated ability, and are creditable products of the new education ; as, for instance, the Hindu Patriot of
Calcutta. Others are notable for a latitude of criticism which, though extreme, does not transgress the limits
ordinaiil for journalism."*
Later on, in discussing the same subject, he makes the following observations : —
" There is danger of discontent being engendered in the minds of educated Natives if adequate and
Danger of discontent among suitable employment does not offer itself to them in various directions.
educated Natives for want of As all the arts and sciences which have helped to make England what
suitable employment. s^e ^ are Ogere(j for> even pressed on, the acceptance of the Natives,
it must be expected that those who do accept these advantages will be animated by hopes and stirred by
emotions, to which they were previously strangers. They will evince an increasing jealousy of any monopoly
of advantage in any respect being maintained in favour of Europeans. They are already raising a cry, louder
and louder, the purport of which is ' India for the Indians.' They discern, or think they discern, undue
liberality in some, and unwise parsimony in other branches of the public expenditure, in reference to Native
interests.
• Indta in 1880. By Sir Richard Temple, Bart., G.C.S.I., C.I.E., D.C.L., pp. 121-32.
PROSPECTS OF MENTAL AND MORAL PROGRESS. 253
" The fulfilment of these ideas is only in part within the power of the Government, being dependent on the
progress of affairs in the country at large. In so far as its means permit,
the Government is bound to attend, indeed, has attended, and is constantly
vide careers for all educated
Natives- but there is room, for attending, to this subject, which is so essential to the mental and moral pro-
practical professions, such as gress of the Natives. The most effective means at the present time consists
Civil Engineering, Scientific Of advancement in the Public Service. It is towards this that the ambition of
gricu i re, c. educated Natives is, too exclusively directed, and regarding this that com-
plaints are too frequently preferred. No well-wisher of the Natives considers that the Government has yet
succeeded in doing nearly all that needs to be done in this cardinal respect. Still, every candid observer must
admit that the story of the measures taken by the Government for gradually improving the pay, promotion, privi-
leges, pensions and official prospects of the Natives in all grades of its service, forms one of the brightest pages
in the annals of British India. Natives have been raised to some of the highest spheres in the country, such as
the Legislative Councils and the High Courts of Judicature. The regulations have been improved, and the
facilities enlarged, for their admission to that Covenanted Civil Service, which is mainly filled by the highest class
of European officials in the country. The improvement of the emoluments of Native officials must be gradual, and
the fact of its being so gradual may diminish the sense of its real magnitude. Some of it is due to the necessity
which the Government felt of remunerating its servants more highly when the money value of everything rose,
and when the remuneration of all sorts of private employment increased. There remains much, however, that is
attributable to the well-meaning desire of the Government to do its duty by the educated Natives. The Govern-
ment is not able to provide careers for all the Natives who become educated. There is danger lest the youths from
schools and colleges should resort too exclusively to overstocked professions, such as the Law and Public Service.
Graduates of a University may be seen applying for lowly-paid appointments, wandering from office to office, or
struggling for the practice of a petty practitioner. It were better far that such men should make careers for
themselves not only in trade, business, or private employ, but also in other professions which spring from the
applied sciences. Such professions are in India fast expanding in connexion with civil engineering, mechanical
industries, medicine, practical chemistry, botany, arboriculture, horticulture, scientific agriculture, geology, art
principles applied to manufactures, and the like. But for the successful pursuit of careers, in some of these
departments, more educational facilities are needed than any which as yet exist. It is in the gradual supply-
ing of such needs that the Government can best co-operate with the enterprise ' of individuals or with the
collective efforts of the Native community.
" All tendencies towards good are assisted by the private Societies, such as the National Indian Association,
Good done by benevolent So- which shew the Natives that they are cared for, and thought of, by benevolent
cieties, such as the National people, ladies and gentlemen, in England. Lasting friendships are formed in
Indian Association inEngland. English circles by Natives who visit England, and these men communicate to
their countrymen happy impressions regarding society in the centres of English life. It is especially desirable
that Natives should be encouraged to finish their education in England, and for such an education the ancient
Universities afford the best and highest opportunities. It was for this purpose that the Indian Institute has been
recently established at Oxford through the kindly solicitude and the unremitting exertions of Professor Monier
Williams.
" Of late certain symptoms of disloyalty manifested by some limited sections of certain educated classes, have
English education tends to caused reflections to be made against the effects of education upon Native
heartfelt allegiance of the loyalty. But that disloyalty was traceable to social and traditional circum-
Natives towards the English stances quite apart from educational causes, and was checked, not fostered
or encouraged, by education. There doubtless will be found disloyal individuals
among the educated classes, as there are among all classes in a country subjected to foreign rule. Nevertheless, a
well-founded assurance may bo entertained that those Natives who have learned to think through the medium of the
language, and are imbued with the literature and the philosophy of England, will bear towards the English nation
that heartfelt allegiance which men may feel without at all relinquishing their own nationality. The Natives
certainly are anxious to be considered loyal. Nothing wounds and irritates more than imputations of disloyalty ;
and nothing gratifies them more than a frank and cordial acknowledgment of their loyalty.
" This view of the mental and moral progress of the Natives shews many gleams of sunshine, as it were, in
Promising prospect of the ^ne national prospect. The peasantry retain the moral robustness for which
mental and moral progress of they were famed in troublous times, have new virtues which are developed
in an era of peace and security, and are, at least passively, loyal to the
British Government. Some of the humblest classes are beginning to feel sentiments of independence unknown
254 ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
before. The trading and banking classes, though not always free from the charge of grasping usuriousness, are
full of enterprising energy, and are actively loyal to the political system under -which they thrive. Though, in
some provinces, the upper classes are unavoidably depressed, grieving over the decay of their territorial influence
and fretting under the restraints of a civilized administration, they yet form in other provinces a wealthy and
lettered class, whose interests are founded absolutely on the stability of British rule. The moral effects of the
national education are clearly perceptible. The educated classes are happily advancing in rectitude and integrity,
and are striving for self -improvement. Though the field for their employment has not yet been widened so much
as they may have expected, and though the existing professions are becoming over-crowded, still their status and
prospects have been greatly improved, and new professions are arising in many directions. Many of these men
have divorced themselves from the superstitions by which their race had been so long enthralled ; and though their
religious state is far from that which is to be desired, still they have not inclined towards infidelity or materialism.
They are indeed moved by political aspirations, but still feel thankful for the many improvements already effected
in their condition, and hopeful of future benefits. Though intelligently alive to the import of passing events
among the great powers of the world, they yet trust in the might of England to preserve her empire. Though
there are occasionally symptoms of discontent and disloyalty here and there, still there is every assurance that the
great majority of the men whose minds are formed by the language, literature, and science of England, will remain
faithful to the British Sovereign and nation."*
There is one more passage from Sir Richard Temple's work which may with advantage be quoted here,
Sir Eichard Temple's views as giving expression to his views on the much-vexed question of moral
as to moral instruction. instruction in English, colleges and schools. His opinions are expressed in the
following words : —
" Above and beyond all the sorts of instruction, which have yet been indicated, is the instruction in ethics, or
the science of human duty. While the Native youths are taught human duty, comprising the relations of man to
man, they are necessarily taught something of their duty towards God, although the teachers are precluded from
adverting to religion. One of the effects of good teaching in history or literature must be to inculcate, always
incidentally and often directly, much of the general duty of man. Thus, happily, much is effected in this most
important direction. The instruction might, however, be better systematized than it now is ; sometimes text-
books are prescribed for it, and sometimes not ; in some institutions it is as an obligatory subject, in others it is
optional. These variations in'practice are found only in the Government institutions ; the subject is obligatory in the
Missionary institutions. It were well if the several Universities should see fit to take up the matter in an uniform
manner. Their action determines the teaching in the colleges and high schools, the example of these superior
institutions is sure to be followed by the middle class institutions, and ultimately by the primary schools, until a
system of national instruction in ethics is established. The Natives will certainly be the willing subjects of such
teaching. Many of them, while thankfully acknowledging all that has been done in this direction, do yet lament
that a more systematic effort is not made to unfold before the minds of the young those eternal principles of right
and wrong, which serve as beacons for the due conduct of life, and which ought especially to be included in au
educational system that unavoidably excludes religious teaching, "f
It is now important to quote the views of another eminent statesman, Sir John Strachey, who after having
Sir John Strachey's Leo- held various important offices in the Indian Civil Service rose to the member-
tures on India before the Uni- ship of the Supreme Council of India and became Lieutenant-Governor of
versity of Cambridge in 1884. the North.Western provinces, and again Finance Minister of India, from which
office he retired and was appointed a member of the Council of the Secretary of State for India. In 1884, on the
invitation of the Historical Board, he gave a course of lectures on India before the University of Cambridge, and
from that work the following quotations are borrowed : —
" In 1885-tiG the total expenditure of the State on education was £2,420,000, of which about £ 1,290,000 was
His estimate of the expen- contributed from imperial, provincial, and municipal funds, and the rest was
diture on education in 1885-86, derived from fees, endowments, und other sources. In every province a con-
»nd the extent of literacy in siderable sum is raised by rates on the land for local purposes, and in almost
every instance a share of it is devoted to education. Some, but not many,
of the towns contribute liberally from municipal resources. It will be understood from the account which I have
given, that although progress has been made during the last thirty years, a very small proportion of the population
of India has received even elementary instruction. The information given by the census of 1881 is incomplete ;
but out of about 116,500.000 males, for whom returns are furnished, only 10,500,000, including those under instruc-
tion, were recorded as being able to read and write, and 106,000,000 as illiterate. At the same time, out of a
• India in J880. By Sir Kichard Temple, Bart., G.C.S.I., C.I.E., D.C.L., pp. 133-37. | t lb., pp. 154, 155.
SIR JOHN STRACHEY'S VIEWS ON ENGLISH EDUCATION. 255
female population of 111,800,000, no less than 111,400,000, were illiterate; only about 400,000 could read and
write, or were being instructed.
" If we turn to higher education,! am afraid that the numerical results are not much better. The number
of Natives of India who can be called highly educated, according to a
Number of highly educated *
Natives extremely small • gra- European standard, is extremely small. have already mentioned that
duates being below 5,000 du- in ten years only 365 graduates passed the M.A. Examination in all the
ring 20 years ending with. Indian Universities. Sir Henry Maine tells us that in the twenty years
i Rft^i
ending with 1883 not more than 5,000 M.A. and B.A. Degrees were given
altogether. ' I will assume,' he says ' that every man who has taken a Bachelor of Arts Degree is sufficiently
educated to have valuable ideas on politics ; and for the purpose of including all who, in any sense, can be called
educated men, I will multiply the total by five. That gives 25,000 Indian gentlemen of an education and age to
take an interest, or a part, in politics. But the population of all India — of British India and of the dependent
States — is rather over 250,000,000 souls. Thus the proportion of the educated element to the rest of the popula-
tion is as 25,000 — which is probably much above the mark — is to 250,000,000, which is below the true total.'*
" I have no doubt that Sir Henry Maine was right in his belief that 25,000 is much above the actual number
S'r Henrv Maine's estimate °^ -^^ian gentlemen who can be called educated, and among the 123,000,000,
of 25 COO well educated Indi- °^ Hindu and Muhammadan women in India, there are probably not 500 to
an gentlemen is much above whom that term could properly be applied. Sir M. E. Grant Duff has esti-
the actual number. mated that in Madras — probably, as he says, the most educated and Anglicised
part of India — the proportion of graduates to the population is thirty-eight to a million. It will be understood
that I am now speaking of those only who have received an English education. The number of Brahmans who
are more or less learned in ancient Sanskrit literature is considerable, although there are not many great scholars ;
but, with rare exceptions, they have no acquaintance with any branches of Western knowlege.
" The Natives of India who have learned enough English for ordinary clerical work, and for many employ -
_. ments in which a knowledge of our language is required, are numerous.
English-knowing Natives fit
for ordinary clerical work nu- They hold almost all the minor appointments in the Government offices ;
merous, and some rise to high- they are a highly useful, efficient and unassuming class, but they have, as a rule,
er ranks in the services and no pretensions to be called educated men. .The great majority of the young
men at our higher schools and colleges go there because it is a certain way
of getting on in life. It is a very successful way, both for themselves and their employers, but they are as a, rule
content witli the minimum amount of English education which enables them to perform their work. A certain
number of them continue their studies and are more ambitions. They often obtain employment in the Executive
Service, and in some provinces they supply a large proportion of the Native Judges. I have already said
how high a character these officers have earned for their attainments and integrity. Some of them have reached,
as judges of the High Courts, the highest judicial rank which anyone, whether he be Native or English, can
attain in India. Many practice at the Bar with as great success as Englishmen ; others are professors and
masters in the colleges and schools, or are in charge of the numerous hospitals and dispensaries. Out of 1,696
graduates of the Calcutta University, between 1871 and 1882, 1,155 are known to have entered the Public Service,
or to have become lawyers, or doctors, or civil engineers. In 1882, out of 971 graduates at Madras, 796 were
holding remunerative employment in various professions. In 1887, in Bengal, among 623 native officers holding
the principal posts in the Executive and Judicial Services, 542 had either passed the Entrance or First Arts
Examinatiun, or had taken degrees. In Madras and Bombay more than 50 per cent, of posts of the same class
were filled by men with similar qualifications. In Noz-thern India English education has made less progress and
the proportion is smaller.
" The facts that I have given show how small an impression has hitherto been made on the enormous mass of
Enormous mass of Indian Indian ignorance. Among all the dangers to which our dominion in India is
ignorance is a great danger to exposed, this ignorance is the greatest. So long as it continues, no one can
the British Rule. gay wjja^ unreasoning panic may not spread like wildfire through the country,
or what may be its consequences. No one now doubts that the mutiny of the Bengal Army, whatever it may sub-
sequently have become, had its real and sole origin in a panic of this kind, in the general and honest belief of the
soldiers that our Government intended to destroy their caste, which involved everything that was most valuable
to them in this world and in the next. It is hardly less true now than it was in 1857, that we are liable at all times
* The Reign of Queen Victoria. — 'India,' vol. I., p. 526. It is shown by the Report of the Public Service Commission, 1886-87,
Appendix M, that the actual number of M.A. and 13. A. Degrees given in the twenty years ending with 1883, was 4,526, or less than
Sir Henry Maine's estimate.
256 ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
to such dangers as this. Ignorance is their foundation, and there is no safeguard against them except the increased
knowledge of the people. We must not undervalue, however, the progress that has been made ; nor, when we
remember how short a time has elapsed since our own country, under far less difficult circumstances, began to
recognise the necessity of elementary education, ought we hastily to blame the Government in India for not having
accomplished more. Four years before the Queen's accession no public money was granted in England for elemen-
tary schools. In 1885 the grants by Parliament and from rates had risen to £4,000,000. In the whole of India,
excepting the North-Western Provinces, when the Government was transferred to the Crown, there were only some
2,000 Government and aided elementary schools, with less than 200,000 scholars. When we consider that in 1886
there were more than 70,000 of these schools, and more than 2,500,000 scholars, we must admit that things are
better than they were.
" I have spoken of the controversy of 1835, which under Lord Macaulay's influence, ended with the decision
that English literature and science must be the basis of higher education in
Sufficient encouragement not ° .
yet given to science and indus- India' Vel7 httle sclence was tau£ht m those days even m Eng!and, and
trial arts. Native Surgeons still less in India ; and it was the study, not of English science, but of
and Native Judges best results English classical literature, that was practically encouraged. As Sir Henry
Maine has often pointed out, the strict and sober tests of truth which modern
science can alone supply, were exactly the element that was wanting in the education of Orientals, and especially
of Hindus. ' Native thought and literature' as he says, ' is elaborately inaccurate ; it is supremely and deliberately
careless of all precision in magnitude, number, and time.' ' The Indian intellect stood in need, beyond everything
else, of stricter criteria of truth. It required a treatment to harden and brace it, and scientific teaching was
exactly the tonic which its infirmities called for.' Even at the present time, although matters in this respect are
somewhat better than they were, science holds a very secondary place in the Indian Universities ; the progress of
literary education has been considerable, but no sufficient encouragement has been given to the study of science
and its application to the industrial arts. We may find an illustration of the truth of Sir Henry Maine's
remarks in the remarkable success achieved by Natives of India whose professions have a more or less scientific,
exact, and practical basis. This is especially the case with those who have devoted themselves to the study and
practice of European Surgery and medicine, and to that of Anglo-Indian Law, the character of which is eminently
accurate and precise. The best results of English education in India are seen in the Native Surgeons and in the
Native Judges ; the worst results are seen in those whose education has been merely literary. Natives have not
been successful as Engineers. As a rule, they dislike physical exertions that can be avoided. A good Engineer
must be himself a master of mechanical arts, always ready in case of necessity to make use of his own hands, and
this is usually not agreeable to the educated Native, especially in Bengal and Southern India.
" No one will doubt that it was right to encourage the study of the English language. For a Native of India
Study of English rightly en- tnere is plainly no other key by which he can unlock the stores of Western
couraged for Western know- knowledge, and without it he cannot hope to take any prominent part in the
ledge, but Oriental literature higher branches of the public administration. Whether it was right, apart
from the higher claims of science, to assign to the classical literature of
England the almost exclusive position which it has held in the Indian educational system, and almost to ignore
the existence of the literature of the East, is another matter. I think that the views of Warren Hastings and
Sir William Jones were nearer the truth than those of Lord Macaulay. If they could have taken part in the
discussions of 1835, they would have said that while the study of English classical literature would be most
valuable to Hindus and Muhammadans, it was not less desirable that they should study the literature of their
own people and kinsmen. A Hindu would often reap more advantage from the Mahabharata and the plays of
Kalidasa, than from Paradise Lost and Hamlet, and Othello. A Muhammadan youth would appreciate the noble
poetry of Arabia more than that of England, the Shdhndmeh would be more profitable to him than translations
of Homer, and he would probably learn more wisdom from Omar Khayyam than from European philosophers. No
one will now sympathise with the contempt with which Lord Macanlay treated the ancient literature of the East.
Whatever may be its value, in comparison with our own, it abounds in works which rank among the remarkable
achievements of human genius."*
Sir John Strachey's work on India contains some more passages which deserve consideration in considering the
Further passages quoted effects of English education in India, and they are so important that they are
from Sir John Straehey's work quoted here :—
on India
• India. By Sir John Strachey, G.C.S.I., pp. 186-92.
UNCIVILIZED CUSTOMS AND CRUEL PRACTICES IN INDIA. 257
" English education has unfortunately hardly begun to penetrate to the cultivating classes in Bengal, and
English-speaking Bengalis "ntil lately' they have f°Und few chamPions among their own countrymen.
support the zemindars, to the The sympathies and the support of that section of the English-speaking
detriment of the ryots, and Bengalis, which has been able, or desirous, to make its voice heard, have been
misrepresent motives of the fop the most t enlisted on the side of the zemindarg and to the detriment
Government in newspapers. , , , ml , . ...
ot the ryots. Ihe time will come when this will cease to be true — already,
I hope, things are better than they were— but hitherto the ryots have had mainly to look to their English rulers for
the defence of their interests. Every measure of political importance is discussed by the organs of the educated
classes in Bengal. Not long ago there could be no doubt as to what would be the reception of any measure that
seemed to threaten the interests of the zemindars. No taxation affecting them could be imposed without the cry
being raised that the solemn pledges of the Permanent Settlement were being violated by an unscrupulous
Government. Every measure which has had for its object the more just distribution of the public burdens has, as a
rule, met with nothing but opposition. We were told that to reduce the salt-tax was folly ; let it be increased if the
Government wants more money. The abolition of customs duties on cotton goods was solely prompted by the desire
to benefit the manufacturers of Manchester, and by the base political purpose of gaining votes in Lancashire.
Educated Bengalis were not to be deceived by the profession that we desired to give to the people of India cheaper
salt and cheaper clothing.
" Thus, through the influence of the Associations and the newspapers of Bengalis taught in our schools and
Absence of sympathy among colleges, English education in Bengal has given frequent aid to the perpetua-
English-speaking Natives of tion of past injustice and to the prevention of reform. I am happy to
Bengal towards their less in- believe that this is now less true than it was ; for I am told that the ryots of
Bengal are beginning to find earnest and capable friends among their own
people. Still, I fear, there can be no doubt that, for a long time to come, it will be only to their English rulers that
they will be able to look for protection and justice. I said in a former lecture,* that an unfortunate result of our
system of higher education in India has been the want of sympathy which many of the English-speaking Natives,
especially in Bengal, show towards the poorer and less instructed classes of their countrymen. The shallow and
imperfect education, which is all that they usually obtain, is derived entirely from English sources. They learn
enough of English habits of thought to enable them to imitate us, sometimes in things that are good, but some-
times in things that it would have been better to avoid. They learn almost nothing about their own country, and
seem frequently to care little for their own people. I need hardly say that there are very many honourable excep-
tions to be made to general statements of this kind. Some of the most benevolent and most enlightened men that
1 have known in India have been educated Natives of Bengal. /
" It is a serious misfortune that discredit should so often be thrown on the results of English education by
Native English newspapers the foolisl1 talk and disloyal writing of a section of the English-speaking
of Bengal often disloyal, Bengalis. Many of them are gifted with a very remarkable faculty of fluent
foolish, and shamefully seur- speech and writing. I have heard of no men in any country enamoured of
their own verbosity in so extraordinary a degree. Although to our taste,
their English is often ridiculously magniloquent, few foreigners master so completely the difficulties of our lan-
guage. Their newspapers, published in English, are sometimes, so far as their style is concerned, extremely well
written, but, with honourable exceptions, they are disloyal, foolish, and sometimes shamefully scurrilous.
" There is no province in India without customs which we think must be repugnant to all civilised men, but
which are almost universally respected because they are believed to have been
Uncivilized customs and .
horrid and cruel practices Divinely ordained, or to have come down from a remote antiquity. Ihere is
still prevalent in India, and hardly a province in which horrid and cruel practices would not instantly
not reprobated by educated spring into vigorous life if our watchfulness were relaxed. The prohibition
of the burning of widows was, and is still, utterly disapproved by all but a
small minority of Hindus. I do not believe that the majority even of the most highly educated classes approve it.
I gave yon, in a previous lecture, an account of the wholesale murder of female children, which has gone on for
centuries, a custom against which no Hindu, however enlightened, raises his voice, and which, with all our efforts,
we have not yet succeeded in eradicating. But for us, even in the provinces where education has made its greatest
progress, Kali would still claim her human victims. Not many years ago, in a time of drought, near a railway
station twenty-five miles from Calcutta, a human head was found before her idol, decked with flowers ; and in
another temple in Bengal a boy was savagely murdered and offered to the goddess.f While this book was passing
through the Press, a ghastly story came from the Central Provinces of the sacrifice of a young man to the local gods,
» Lecture VII., p. 196. f Imperial Gazetteer of India, Art. ' India.'
33
in
g ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
obedience to a widely prevalent belief and ancient practice that this is a sure means of obtaining a plentiful
harvest. Horrors such as these receive no general condemnation in India, nor does the determination of our
Government that they shall be suppressed gain for us any approval even from the educated classes.
" There are in India many questions of another order which it is far more difficult to solve, because we cannot
Child marriages among Hin- deal with them by the strong hand of the law. I will mention one only as an
dus lead to early degraded illustration, the custom of child-marriage. It would be difficult to imagine
widowhood, yet educated Hin- ^hj™ more abominable than its frequent consequences, by which multi-
Hnsdo not reprobate the cus- '
torn or help Government to t^es of girls of ten or twelve, or less, are given over to outrage, or are
suppress it. doomed to lives of miserable and degraded widowhood. Some of the most
holy Brahmans of Bengal make a living by being husbands. A child of twelve is given, as perhaps the fortieth or
fiftieth wife of some old man ; sometimes two sisters are given to the same man, and sometimes to one who has
not Ion" to live. Though it may be certain that the girl must soon be a widow, even this is considered preferable to
allowing her to remain unmarried. Every one has heard of the wretched fate which widowhood in India involves.*
What could be more valuable and interesting than to learn the opinions and receive the advice of highly educated
Natives of India on such subjects as these, and to know that they were striving, by the example of their own lives,
to teach their less-instructed countrymen to abondon these abominations ? What greater encouragement could be
mven to those who desire to see educated Natives admitted to a larger share in the administration than the cer-
tainty that they were anxious to help us towards ampler knowledge of the wants and failings of the people, and
to make us better able to deal with problems that now seem too hard to solve ? You would be much mistaken if
you supposed that in regard to any of these great social questions the Government has ever received advice or
assistance from the much-talking section of the Bengalis. I must class with them a considerable number of the
Maratha Brahmans of Bombay, and of the English-speaking Hindus of Madras. You might search the proceedings
of their Societies, you might examine the files of their newspapers, and the reports of their speeches at their public
Meetings, and you would not find one word of reprobation of the atrocious practices which, under the coyer of im-
memorial custom, are followed throughout India, or one word of a desire to help our Government to suppress them.
" It is not difficult to understand why these terrible questions are avoided. Some of these Native gentlemen
are silent, because they dare not, by speaking of them, bring themselves into
Educated Natives, whilst • ' .
asking for political franchise- collision with the cherished beliefs and prejudices of their countrymen ;
ment have no real desire for others, and I have no doubt the majority, are silent because, in regard to
reform in social and religious these matters, they are at heart as intensely conservative as the mass of the
usages. population, and have no desire for changes in social and religious usacres
which have come down from a venerable antiquity. It is much safer to talk about ' political enfranchisement,'
and it is easy, in this way, to obtain the applause of Englishmen who know nothing of the facts and the difficul-
ties with which the true friends of Indian progress have to deal, but who have an undoubting faith that so-called
popular institutions are good for all men, under all circumstances.
" I have now before me the report of a great political gathering, the ' so-called Indian National Congress,
The Indian National Con- This, we are informed by the report, was a political body met together to
gross, whilst putting forth poli- represent to our rulers our political aspirations,' and wo are expressly told
tical aspirations, excludes all ' that it had nothing to do with social questions. The object aimed at was
compU^foTm^^f^man11^ ^ Political enfranchisement of the country,' by the introduction of represen-
cation who do not represent tative institutions. I do not propose to refer at any length to the declared
the people of India. objects of these political agitators who have lately been making themselves
more and more prominent in India. If you look at their voluminous speeches and proceedings, you will not discern
the smallest recognition of the terrible problems of which I have given some illustrations, but you will find no lack
of sedition and hatred of the British Government, thinly veiled under frequent and fulsome expressions of devo-
tion and loyalty. 1 am far from believing that the majority of these gentlemen are really disloyal. They are,
for the most part, well-meaning men of small education, but *vith a good knowledge of our language, who have
learnt to pour forth the commonplaces of English politics, and who listen with delight to tlieir own eloquence,
which they half believe to be inspired by feelings akin to those which they have read about in Miirke and JIacanlay.
They easily obtain a hearing from sentimental philanthropists, and from those Englishmen who see nothing good
in any political institution, except those of tlieir own peculiar type, and assume that certain abstract principles
are always applicable to the Government of all sorts and conditions of men. Many Knglishmen who read these
harangues, honestly believe that they are listening to the genuine expression of the just expectations of the great
' People of India,' which has no existence, but. the non-existence of which, I am afraid, they are not likely to learn.
* Modern Binluism. By W. J. Wilkins, p. 347.
EMPLOYMENT OP NATIVES IN THE PUBLIC SEEVICE. 259
"Men of a very different stamp, who well deserve the respect of their countrymen and of their rulers, have not
Ii 't'mate claims of the infrequently been drawn into apparent and partial argreement with these poli-
Natives of India to hold im- tical agitators, by the legitimate feeling that Natives of India do not obtain
portant public offices should their just share in the public administration. This is a feeling which has my
be satisfied. sympathy. There are political aspirations which loyal Natives may with com-
plete propriety express, and which it is right that we should endeavour to satisfy ; but let us take caro that we satisfy
them wisely. I said, in a previous lecture* th;it I should return to the subject of the admission of the Natives of
India to the more important public offices. I showed that the greater part of the civil administration is already in
their hands, that the Native Civil Service performs its duties, as a whole, with high efficiency, but at the same time
I stated my opinion that much remains to be done in throwing open to Natives posts now reserved for Englishmen.
" Subject to certain conditions, the true principles on which we ought to treat this question of the wider
employment of Natives in posts of importance was laid down iu the Act of
P-liament passed in 1870 to which I have already referred, but I cannot
approved merit and ability, think that it has hitherto been properly applied. That principle is that
but the same tests of selection almost all offices in India shall be open to Natives, but to those only ' of proved
•which, apply to Englishmen merit an(j ability.' In the case of Englishmen, whether in India or at home,
are not applicable to the Na- it ^ gafe to s&y that appointments to offices in the hi her brancheg f ^
tives of India. . .
public service shall ordinarily be filled by those who, in competitive exami-
nations in their boyhood, are successful in satisfying certain literary and other tests ; but to think of applying such
a system to the Natives of India is nothing less than absurd. Not the least important part of the competitive
examination of the young Englishman was passed for him by his forefathers, who, as we have a right to assume,
have transmitted to him not only their physical courage, but the powers of independent judgment, the decision of
character, the habits of thought, and generally those qualities that are necessary for the Government of men and
the discharge of the various duties of civilised life, and which have given us our empire. The stock-in-trade with
which Englishmen start in life is not that of Bengalis ; but I must not say this of Englishmen only, for it is
equally true of the nobler races of India, although their time has not come for competitive examinations.
" Few would go further than I would go in opening the public service in India to Natives ' of proved merit
The greater executive pow- and abiUty'' but £t is wdl to av°id ' Political hypocrisy.' ' Is there,' Lord
ers of Government cannot be Salisbury asked, ' any man who will have the hardihood to tell me, that it is
entrusted to Natives, owing to within the range of possibility, that a man in India should be appointed
the exigencies of the British Lieutenant-Governor of a province, or Chief Commissioner, or Commander-
in- Chief of the Army, or Viceroy, without any regard whatever to his
race ? ' Some will answer even this question in the affirmative. There will always be people ready to accept
with composure any political folly, provided that it involves some triumph of sentiment over sense, and some ap-
pearance of national humiliation. When we say that we cannot always, in our government of India, ignore differ-
ences of race, this is only another way of saying that the English in India, are a handful of foreigners governing
250 millions of people. I have said that we ai-e not foreigners in India in the sense in which we are foreigners in
Paris, and that the people of one Indian province are often as much foreigners to the people of another province,
as we are ourselves ; still, we are foreigners, and although I suppose that no foreign Government was ever accepted
with less repugnance than that with which the British Government is accepted in India, the fact remains that
there never was a country, and never will be, in which the Government of foreigners is really popular. It will be
the beginning of the end of our empire when we forget this elementary fact, and entrust the greater executive
powers to the hands of Natives, on the assumption that they will always be faithful and strong supporters of our
Government. Iu this there is nothing offensive or disparaging to the Natives of India. It simply means that we
are foreigners, and that, not only in our own interests, but because it is our highest duty towards India itself, we
intend to maintain our dominion. We cannot foresee the time in which the cessation of our rule would not be
the signal for universal anarchy and ruin, and it is clear that the only hope for India is the long continuance of the
benevolent but strong government of Englishmen. Let us give to the Natives the largest possible share in the
administration. In some branches of the service there is almost no limit to the share of public employment which
they may properly receive. This is especially true of the judicial service, for which Natives have shown them-
selves eminently qualified, and in which the higher offices are equal in importance ami ill jnity, and emolument, to
almost any of the great offices of the State. I would grudge them no such offices. But let there be no hypocrisy
about our intention to keep in the hands of our own people those executive posts — and there are not very many of
them — on which and on our political and military power, our actual hold of the country depends. Our Governors of
* Lecture X., pp. 261, 262.
2t;0 ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
Provinces, the chief officers of our army, our magistrates of districts and their principal executive subordinates,
ought to be Englishmen, under all circumstances that we can now foresee.
" It is not only in regard to the employment in India of our own countrymen that we ought never to forget
differences of race. It is quite, as essential to remember them in connection
Legitimate claims of English- . , ,. .
men* and the feelings of the Wlth the employment of Natives. I have, in these lectures, repeatedly m-
Muhammadans, in connection sisted on the fact that there is really no such country as India ; that sucli terms,
with the administration of as • People of India ' and ' Natives of India,' are meaningless, in the sense in
India, should not be ignored. which they are frequently used ; that no countries and no people in Europe
differ from each other so profoundly as countries and peoples differ in India ; that it would be as reasonable to
suppose that English, French, Spaniards, Greeks and Germans will ultimately become one nation, as to suppose
such a thing of Bengalis, Sikhs, Marathas, Rajputs and Pathans. No good administration or permanent political
security is possible unless facts of this kind are remembered. It ought never to be forgotten that you can never
assume that, because a man is a ' Native of India,' he has any natural claim, different in kind from that of an
Englishman, to be employed in the public service in every part of India. Often, indeed, you may go much further.
I used no terms of exaggeration when I said that a Native of Calcutta is more of a foreigner to the hardy races
on the frontiers of Northern India than an Englishman can be. To suppose that the manlier races of India could
ever be governed through feeble and effeminate foreigners of another Indian country, however intellectually acute
those foreigners may be — that Sikhs and Pathans, for instance, should submit to be ruled by Bengalis —is to suppose
an absurdity. The Muhammadan gentleman who remembers the position which his ancestors once held, accepts
with natural regret, but with no humiliation, the government of Englishmen. Although he may not love them,
he admits that they must be respected. But the thought of being subject to the orders of a Bengali fills him
with indignation and contempt. The educated Bengali, although his reasons might be very different, would feel
equal disgust at the thought of having his affairs administered by Sikhs and by Pathans. To allow Natives ' of
proved merit and ability ' to take a larger part in the administration of their own country is right and politic ;
to affirm that they have any similar claims in countries where they are foreigners is foolish.
" I remember a conversation which I once had with a Native of Northern India, a man of great sagacity,
Natives of Northern India wn°se position, wealth, and influence made him one of the most important
unwilling to be governed by personages in his province. Discussions were going on respecting the propriety
Bengali district officers. of making it easier for Natives of India to enter the Covenanted Civil Ser-
vice, and on the suggestion that, with that object, competitive examinations should be held in India as well as in
England. I asked him what he thought about this proposal, and his first answer, given in a manner which showed
that he took little interest in the subject, was to the effect that he supposed it was a good one. ' I am afraid,' I said,
' that for a long time to come there would be no candidates from this part of India ; it is only in Bengal that
young men could be found who would have any chance of success in such an examination as that required. The
result would be that you would some day have a Bengali as your chief district officer.' I shall not forget the scorn
with which he drew himself up and replied to me, ' And does any one think that we, the men of this country, would
stand that ? Do you suppose that you could govern us with Bengalis ? Never ! '
" This book was almost ready for the press when the reports reached England of some remarkable speeches
Speeches of Sir Syed Ahmed made by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan at two great meetings of Muhammadans in
Khan on the political nostrums Northern India. I referred in a previous lecture to Sir Syed Ahmad Khan,
of the so-called National Con- and to the work to which his life has been devoted.* I mention these
speeches because they illustrate, with greater authority than that of any
Englishman, the practical importance of the fact on which I have repeatedly insisted, with which I began these
lectures, and with which I wish to end them, that the most essential of all things to be learnt about India is that
India is a continent filled with the most diverse elements. The special aim of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was to
protest on behalf of his Muhammadan fellow-countrymen against the notion that they — ' men of the blood of
those who made not only Arabia but Asia and Europe to tremble, who for seven hundred years in India had im-
perial sway ' — could be treated as belonging to the same nation as Bengalis, and to express his contempt for the
political nostrums which the so-called ' National Congresses ' propose to apply throughout India. If these were
adopted, the result, he says, would be that ' there would be no part of the country in which we should see at the
tables of justice and authority any faces except those of Bengalis. I am delighted to see the Bengalis making
progress, but what would be the result on the public administration ? Do you think that the Rajput and the
fiery Pathan would remain in peace under Bengalis.' These are illustrations of the opinions of a man universally
honoured, who is entitled to speak on behalf of all that is best and most enlightened among the Muhammadans of
* Lecture VII., pp. 175-79.
CONSERVATION OP THE INDIAN POPULATION. 261
Northern India. ' It is better,' says Machiavelli, ' to follow the real truth of things than an imaginary view of them.
For many republics and princedoms have been imagined which were never seen or known to exist in reality.' If
intelligent people in England would make themselves acquainted with ' the real truth of things,' they would
appreciate at their true 'value the utterances of those agitators who, with some success in this country, pose
as the representatives of an imaginary Indian Nation, ' never seen or known to exist in reality.'
" I must now bring these lectures to a close. I have endeavoured to give to you some general idea of what
The Pax Britannica the ludia is, and of the results which she has obtained from the establishment
greatest blessing to India. Of our power. No reasonable man can doubt the answer that we must give
to the question whether the 200 millions of our Indian subjects have benefited by our Government. The first
great and obvious fact, overshadowing all other facts in significance, is this, that in place of a condition of society
given up, as it was immediately before our time, to anarchy and to the liability to every conceivable form of
violence and oppression, you have now absolute peace. Let not this unspeakable blessing of the Pax Britannica be
forgotten. There are not many European countries where protection to life and property is so complete. Except-
ing England and her colonies, and the United States of America, there is hardly a country in the world where
there is so little needless interference, on the part of the Government, with personal liberty, or such freedom in the
public expression of opinion in matters of politics and religion. Except when sometimes for a moment the fana-
ticism and intolerance of rival sects of Muhammadans and Hindus burst into violent conflict, and show what would
instantly follow if the stong hand of our Government were withdrawn, unbroken tranquillity prevails. Justice is
administered under laws of unequalled excellence and simplicity. There is no country possessing a civilised
administration where taxation is so light or commerce is more free. Mr. J. S. Mill, declared his belief that the
British Government in India was ' not only one of the purest in intention, but one of the most beneficent in act,
ever known among mankind.' I do not doubt that this is still truer now. Whether all this makes our Government
really popular is another question.
" When Lord Lawrence was Viceroy, in 1867, many of the most experienced officers in India were invited to
Lord Lawrence's saying as &*ve their opinion whether our Government was more generally popular than
to prosperity of India under that in the Native States. As might have been anticipated, nearly all the
British Eule. answers were affirmative ; but I shall only refer to that of Lord Lawrence
himself. His conclusion was given in these words. ' The masses of the people are incontestably more prosperous,
and— sua si bona norint— far more happy in British territory than they are under Native rulers.' No Englishman
knew India better than Lord Lawrence. That the people had been made more prosperous by our administration
was, in his opinion, beyond controversy, but when it came to the question of their happiness and of our popularity,
well — yes ; at any rate they ought to be more happy. The proviso is, significant, ' sua si bona norint.'
" The truth is that, in a country in the condition of India, the more actively enlightened our Government be-
Enlightened Government not comes, the less likely it is to be popular. Our Government is highly res-
likely to be popular in India. pected ; the confidence of the people in our justice is unlimited. That accom-
plished traveller, Baron von Hiibner, says in his excellent book, ' Through the British Empire,' that if proof
were needed to show how deeply rooted among the people is this trust in English justice, he would quote the fact
that throughout India the Native prefers, in Civil and still more in Criminal Cases, to go before an English Judge.
' I think,' he says, ' it would be impossible to render a more flattering testimony to British rule ' The duty was once
imposed upon me of transferring a number of villages which had long been included in a British district to one of
the best-governed of the Native States. I shall not forget the loud and universal protests of the people against the
cruel injustice with which they considered they were being treated. Every one who has had experience of similar
cases tells the same story. Nevertheless, I cannot say that our Government is loved ; it is too good for that.
" The sympathies between the people and their English rulers can hardly be anything but imperfect. The
Imperfect sympathy be- system of caste and the differences in all our habits make social intimacy
tween the Natives and their difficult. The stories that are sometimes told about the frequent insolence
English rulers. and brutality of Englishmen are false, but it cannot be denied that the
ordinary Englishman is too rough and vigorous and straightforward to be a very agreeable person to the majority
of the Natives of India. These, however, are not reasons which seriously effect the popularity of our Government.
I repeat that, because it is good it can hardly be popular.
" I never heard of a great measure of improvement that was popular in India, even among the classes that
Conservatism of the Indian haye received tne largest share of education. The people are intensely con-
population prevents apprecia- servative and intensely ignorant, wedded, to an extent difficult for Europeans
tion of enlightened improve- to understand, to every ancient custom, and between their customs and
ments. religion no line of distinction can be drawn. We often deceive ourselves in
2go ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
regard to the changes that are taking place. We believe that our Western knowledge, our railways, and our tele-
graphs must bo breaking up the whole fabric of Hinduism, but these things have touched in reality only the merest
frin-.'e of the ideas and beliefs of the population of India. The vast masses of the people remain in a different world
from ours. They hate everything new, and they especially hate almost everything that we look upon as progress.
" It would thus be an error to suppose that the British Government is administered in a manner that alto-
Aether commends itself to the majority of the Indian population. This we
India should be governed on J J r r
. . , j. pQiJtJcaj cannot help. Considerations of political prudence compel us to tolerate much
prudence, regardless of the that we should wish to alter, but, subject to this condition our duty is plain.
prejudices and superstitions jt jg t0 use tne power which we possess for no other purpose than to govern
of the people. India on the principles which our superior knowledge tells us are right,
although they may often be unpopular, and may offend the prejudices and superstitions of the people. I will quote
to you Sir James Stephen's summmary of the principles which would be really popular in India, and of those
which we enforce, and with it I may fitly close these lectures : —
•• The English in India are the representatives of a belligerent civilisation. The phrase is epigramatic, but
it is strictly true. The English in India are the representatives of peace
Sir James Stephen's view J
of the political situation of compelled by force. The Muhammadans would like to tyramse over Hindus
the British administration in in particular, and in general to propose to every one the alternative between
India, quoted. the Koran, the tribute, and the sword. The Hindus would like to rule — over
Hindus at least — according to the principles of the Brahmanical religion. They would like to be able to condemn
to social infamy every one, who, being born a Hindu, did not observe their rites. They would like to see suttee
practised, to prevent the re-marriage of widows who were not burnt, to do away with the laws which prevent
a change of religion from producing civil disabilties, to prevent a low-caste man from trying or even testifying
against a Brahman ; and Muhammadans, and Hindus, and Sikhs would all alike wish to settle their old accounts
and see who is master. The belligerent civilisation of which I spoke consists in the suppression by force of all
these pretensions, and in compelling by force all sorts and conditions of men in British India to tolerate each
other. Should the British Government abdicate its functions, it would soon turn order into chaos. No country
in the world is more orderly, more quiet, or more peaceful than British India as it is ; but if the vigour of the
Government should ever be relaxed, if it should lose its essential unity of purpose, and fall into hands either
weak or unfaithful, chaos would come again like a flood." *
These quotations may be continued with the opinions of a philosophic thinker and Indian Statesman, Sir Alfred
Sir Alfred Lyall's views on Lyall, who, after having filled many important political offices, was for some
the influence of Europe on years Lieutenant-Governor of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, from
India and her prospects. which high office he retired not long ago to become a member of the Council
of the Secretary of State for India. The following passages are taken from his Asiatic Studies: —
" If we may draw a broad analogy between the social and political changes worked upon the Western world
Analogy between the Roman b? tlle Roman conquests, and that which is being worked upon the great
conquests in Europe and the continent of India by English dominion, then it may not be rash to prolong
English Empire in India, and the parallel, and to speculate on the probability of some consequences
the religious future of the f0]iow;,,ff: |n tno iattcr case, not unlike those which ensued in the former.
NS'e !uv (.'hanging the whole atmosphere in which fantastic superstitions grow
;iml flourish. We may expect that these old forms of supernaturalism will suddenly thaw and subside without
any outward stroke upon them, and without long premonitory sypmtoms of internal dissolution; like icebergs
that, have at last floated into a warmer sea, which topple over at the invisible melting of their submarine base.
At this mom. i-im still o '-land; the intricate jungle of creeds and worships appears thick
and strong a et one may coi uat its roots are being effectually cut away. Uncertainty and insecu-
rity prolonged what ignorance' and stagnation had produced ; but the old order has now changed, giving place to
new. The last stand ma: >. system of peace and law by the warlike and unruly elements of the
population was from IS 1(1 to 1S">8. Never perhaps in all the history of India has more decisive fighting been
sed into twelve years : the Knglish scattered two formidable disciplined armies, the Sikh army and their own
sepoys, and dissolved two incipient kingdoms that might have hardened into nationalities: they prevailed over the
momentary fanaticism of the Hindu and the enthusiasm of the Muhammadan ; they employed these two forces,
to each counteract and repress the other ; they disarmed India, and closed for the present its military era. We
have now established reasonable personal security and free communications ; we are giving to the Indians leisure
and education, the scientific method and the critical spirit ; we are opening to them the flood-gates behind which
* India. By Sir John Strachey, G C.S I.; pp. 351-68.
BENEFITS OP PKACE ESTABLISHED BY BRITISH RULE. 203
Western knowledge is piled iu far greater volume than the stream of Grecian philosophy which the Romans dis-
tributed over their empire, when they made the source accessible and its outflow easy. It is not easy to conceive
any more interesting subject for historical speculation than the probable effect upon India, and consequently upon
the civilization of all Asia, of the English dominion, for though it would be most presumptuous to attempt any
kind of prediction as to the nature or bent of India's religious future, yet we may look forward to a wide and
rapid transformation in two or three generations, if England's rule only be as durable as it has every appearance
of being. It seems possible that the old Gods of Hinduism will die in these new elements of intellectual light
and air, as quickly as a netful of fish lifted up out of the water ; that the alteration in the religious needs of such
an intellectual people as the Hindus, which will have been caused by a change in their circumstances, will make
it impossible for them to find in their new world a place for their ancient deities. Their primitive forms will fade
and disappear silently, as witchcraft vanished from Europe, and as all such delusions become gradually extin-
guished. In the movement itself there is nothing new, but in India it promises to go on with speed and intensity
unprecedented; for she has been taken in tow by Europe, where we are now going forward with steam at high
pressure ; and herein seems to lie the peculiar interest, perhaps the danger, of the Indian situation. At certain
epochs the progressive nations of the world find it necessary to readjust the intellectual equilibrium, that is to
say, to establish afresh a certain harmony between what they believe and what they know. One of the earliest
Symptoms that knowledge and belief are falling out of balance is perceptible in what has been called the malaise
religieux, which was seen in the Roman Empire before Christianity cured it, and which one may fancy to be
visible in India already. It may possibly be that very ' spirit of unrest, ' which Dr. W. W. Hunter has detected
among Indian Muhammadans, as it is probably at the bottom of the Muhammadan revival, which Mr. W. G.
Palgrave believes to be taking place throughout all Islam. It seems certainly indicated by numerous sectarian
advances among the Hindus towards a more spiritual kind of creed ; toward mystical interpretations, at least,
of substantial polytheism, and toward such an abstract dogma as that upon which is founded the profession of the
Brahmo Somaj. In the north it is fermenting among various sects, and in the south it appears in the demand re-
cently made to Government by educated Hindus for the reform of their religious endowments, a demand that will
carry us and them far if we attempt to comply with it ; for any serious attempt to purify the abuses of polytheism
and to establish the external worship upon a decent and rational system, can hardly fail to let in views and prin-
ciples that may disintegrate the very foundations of the whole edifice.
"Thus there may be grounds for anticipating that a solid universal peace and the impetus given by Europe
must together cause such rapid intellectual expansion that India will now be
Solid universal peace estab- carried swiftly through phases which have occupied long stages in the life-
lished by the British Kme in
India will accelerate Indian tlme of a11 other nations. The Hindu now makes m two days a journey
progress and intellectual ex- that occupied a month ten years ago, because the English have laid down
pansion ; but the cement of their railways before the Indians had invented the paved road ; and his men-
some binding idea necessary. tal development may advance by similar overleaping of intermediate im-
provements. And whereas hitherto new religious ideas have constantly sprung up in India, and have as constant-
ly withered or been dissipated for want of protection and undisturbed culture, any such ideas that may hereafter
arise will be fostered and may spread uninterruptedly, if they have the principle of persistent growth. Some
great movement is likely to come about in India, if only the peace lasts ; but what may be the complexion of tliat
movement, and whither its gravitation, is a question which time only can answer. Orderly Christian rule has
given to Islam in India an opportunity for becoming regenerate, and for reuniting its strength, which it owes
entirely to us. We have restored its communications by sea and by land ; we have already felt some of the con-
sequences of pulling down the barriers which Ranjit Singh and his Sikhs set upon our North- western Frontier
between the Muhammadans of India and the rest of Western Asia. Muhammadaiiism may yet occupy a larger
space in the history of Indian rationalism ; but it must make haste, or the country may drift beyond it. Some may
think that Christianity will, a second time in the world's history, step into the vacancy created by a great territorial
empire, and occupy the tracts laid open by the upheaval of a whole continent to a new intellectual and moral level. But
the state of thought in Western Kurope hardly encourages conjecture that India will receive from that quarter any such
decisive impulse as that which overturned the decaying paganism of Greece and Rome just at the time when the Pax
Romano, had at last brought local beliefs into jarring collision one with another, and into contact with the profound
spiritualism of Asia. The influence of Europe on India is essentially industrial and scientific ; England's business in
particular is to construct there some firm political system under which all other social relations may be reared and
directed; but here comes in the difficulty of founding and keeping steady any such edifice without the cement of
some, binding idea. It is in the religious life that Asiatic communities still find the reason of their existence, and the
repose of it. When the Indian has gained his intellectual freedom, there remains to be seen what he will do with
264 ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
it ; and the solution of this problem is of incalculable importance to our successful management of the empire.
The general tendencies of modern thought are towards doubt and negation ; the sum total of what we call civili-
sation is to such a society as that in India a dissolving force ; it is the pouring of new wines into old skins ; the
cutting away of anchors instead of hauling them up, so that in the next emergency there are none to throw out.
Conquest aud civilization together must sweep away the old convictions and prejudices ; and unless some great
enthusiasm rushes in to fill the vacancy thus created, we may find ourselves called to preside over some sort of
spiritual interregnum.
" Such transitional periods are apt to be troublesome to Governments. In India the English difficulty is that,
Unwisdom of demolishing whatever the religious movement may be, we cannot expect to take part in
old-world fabrics suddenly or guide it, because we are in many ways so far ahead of, or at least, too far
must be obviated in India. removed from, the mass of the people whom we have to manage, that our supe-
riority begets want of sympathy, and in our desire to lead them we lose patience and discrimination. On the other
band, there is already springing up among the Natives of India an advanced party, of those who are easily inocu-
lated with the Voltairean spirit, with contempt for irrational beliefs, and for institutions that seem absurd on the
face of them. But all our European experiments in social science have taught us the unwisdom of demolishing
old-world fabrics which no one is yet prepared to replace by anything else. Caste, for instance, looks unnecessary
and burdensome ; it is wildly abused by Europeans,* to whom the Brahmanic rules of behaviour seem unmeaning
and unpractical ; but these things will tumble quite fast enough without our knocking out their key-stones by
premature legislation. It is hardly our interest to bring them down with a crash. We have ourselves to overcome
the rather superficial contempt which an European naturally conceives for societies and habits of thought different
from those within the range of his own ordinary experience ; and also to avoid instilling too much of the destruc-
tive spirit into the mind of Young India: remembering that for English and Natives the paramount object is now to
preserve social continuity. M. Pierre Lafitte, in his 'Considerations Generates sur 1'ensemble de la Civilization
Chinoise,' quotes from a book,f in which an English Protestant Missionary describes China as undergoing a succession
of moral earthquakes, and congratulates Europe on the total ruin of ' fossil prejudices,' bigotry, and superstition,
which these ' terrible convulsions ' are causing. Storms and hurricanes, Mr. Mylne, had observed, purify the air.
But M. Lafitte remarks that this is to welcome a state of violent agitation ending in complete anarchy ; and that to
talk of convulsions as the conditions of progress has a dangerous resemblance to revolutionary jargon, though the
writer may not mean it. Hurricanes clear the earth as well as the air, and earthquakes are not very discrimi-
nating in their operations. It is certain, at any rate, that moral earthquakes and cyclones in the Indian climate
will severely test the stability of our rule, and we are by no means concerned to encourage them. M. Lafitte, in
the lecture just mentioned, points out the vague notions of progress and civilization upon which people rely who
desire to pull down a society which they do not comprehend, or whose real aim is sometimes no more than the
exploitation of the East by the West. He protests, for example, against the English raising a jubilee over the
re-marriage of Hindu widows, and he thinks we had no business whatever to make war on the old custom by
legalising breaches of it. It is possible that M. Lafitte himself may have been verging on the error of judging
the East by the West, and may not have recollected that in India very many girls become widows at an age when
they would still be in an European nursery. Here is good cause for interference, and there are other cases in
which the action of our own law courts, in stereotyping and inforcing, invariably, customs that were naturally very
elastic and varying, tended to check the natural modifications according to circumstances, the sloughing off of
decayed forms, so that special legislation became necessary. Yet, withal, there is something to be said against
onr passing any laws to abolish social rules which do not concern us personally, and which do not openly violate
morality ; and there is everything to be said against being impatient with people who, belonging to a different social
formation, are reluctant to give up hastily, the very principles on which their society has been moulded. Such
impatience is akin to the injustice with which, as has been often remarked, we are too much accustomed to treat
the past, forgetting that written records tell us very little indeed of what really went on, and can still less explain
how and why people felt and acted a few centuries ago. This is, indeed, the reason why an opportunity of study-
ing closely the condition and progress of such a country as India is most valuable, because we can there look
round at things which we can hardly realise by looking behind us on them. We are turning back, as it were,
along the broad path of history, and by seeing with our own eyes the scenes we have often tried to look at through
old books, blurred with ignorance and prejudice, we get at more clear notions of, and sympathy with, those bygone
* "Caste is the devil's yoke Hindu widowhood is Satan's masterpiece Jagnnnath was invented by devils." See " A
Plea for Indian Missions," by Alexander Forbes, 1865 ; a pamphlet which is not only unfair to Satan, but which betrays a cnrioui
tendency toward that very same superstitious polytheism (the belief in a multitude of evil spirits) which the writer is denouncing.
t La Vie rielle en Chine, par le Kuverend C. Mylne, 1858.
SIR ALFRED LYALL's "OPINIONS.
265
times, when men from whom we are descended— who were of like passions with ourselves, nor inf erior in intellect-
yet firmly held beliefs which their posterity rejects with contempt, and conscientiously did deeds which we now
read of with horror and amazement.
"All that the English need do, is to keep the peace and clear the way. Our vocation just now is to mount
Duty of the English to mount guard over India during the transitional period, which may be expected to
guard over India during the follow, much as we used to station a company of soldiers to keep order at
Jagannath's festival in the days of the East India Company. Jagammth
himself may be safely left exposed to the rising tide of that intellectual advancement which the people must
certainly work out for themselves if they only keep pace and have patience. No doubt this negative attitude, this
standing aloof, is an imperfect and not altogether well-secured position, for a political system founded mainly upon
considerations of material interests and well-being has been declared by high philosophic authority to be unstable.
We have not yet sailed out of the region of religious storms in India ; and though spiritual enthusiasm may be
gradually subsiding in fervour, yet it may also tend to combine and organise its forces, as polytheism melts down
and concentrates. Against such impulses, among men who will still die for a rule of faith, as our forefathers did so
often, material considerations must occasionally avail little. But there is, at any rate, one gospel which the English
can preach and practise in India, the gospel of high political morality, which, because it is a complete novelty
and new light among Asiatic rulers, should for that reason be the characteristic note of our administration ; and
to maintain it we may risk much misunderstanding of motive. We must even endure temporary loss of that
reputation for high-handed consistency, whatever it may be worth, which is to be maintained by upholding a
blunder once committed, and by stooping to the untrained public opinion which would applaud it. We cannot
undertake in any way the spiritual direction of Hindus ; but neither are we prepared to take lessons from them
upon questions of public morality. A certain line of conduct may be congenial to the notions of Native Princes or
people ; but our Governors and chief rulers go to India, not to be taught, but to teach, the duties of rulership,
and to instruct the consciences of half-barbarous communities.
" Finally, we may hope, that all reflectiug and far-sighted Natives of that class which we are rapidly training
Educated Natives should Up in large towns to Political knowledge and social freedom, will perceive
realize that quarrels with the tllat England's prime function in India is at present this, to superintend the
English Government upon tranquil elevation of the whole moral and intellectual standard. Those who
administrative details are ruin. are interested in such a change in the ethics of their country, in broadening the
realms of the known and the true, must see, how ruinously premature it is to
quarrel with the English Government upon details of administration, or even upon what are called constitutional
questions. The peculiar crisis and conjuncture of Indian affairs at the end of the last century brought out one
supremely strong Government by the same pressure of circumstances which has struck out the type of all empires.
A modern empire means the maintenance of order by the undisputed predominance of one all-powerful member
of a federation ; and where representative assemblies, in the English sense of the term, are impossible, it is the
best machine for collecting public opinion over a wide area among dissociated communities. It is the most efficient
instrument of comprehensive reforms in law and Government, and the most powerful engine whereby one con-
fessedly superior race can control and lead other races left without nationality or a working social organization.
It breaks up the antipathies, narrowness, and exclusive antagonism which always check the growth of earlier
civilizations, and which have hitherto lain like rusty fetters on India. If ever the imperial system was necessary
and fitted to a time and country, it is to India as we now see it." * ,
To these extracts may be added the views of Sir Monier Williams, the distinguished Professor of Sanskrit
Sir Monier Williams' views a* *'le University of Oxford, who from his position and previous studies, had
on Government education in special advantages for forming an intelligent judgment on the subject of
India. English education in India during his visit to this country not many years
ago. Hi? general impressions are thus expressed : —
" If our whole educational responsibility is bounded by the instruction of the iipper classes of the people in
Educational responsibility of European knowledge, we may, perhaps, take credit to ourselves for a faii-ly
the English in India. respectable fulfilment of our obligations. But if our mission be to educate as
well as instruct, to draw out as well as put in, to form the mind as well as inform it, to teach our pupils how to
become their future self-teachers, to develop symmetrically their physical as well as mental, moral, and religious
faculties, then I fear we have left undone much that we ought to have done, and acquitted ourselves imperfectly
of the duties our position in India imposes upon us. Let me first glance at our so-called higher education.
« Asiatic Studies. By Sir Alfred C. Lyall, K.C.B., C.I.E.; pp. 298-306.
34
.,,.,. ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
" In traversing India from North to South, from East to West, I visited many High Schools, examined many
classes, conversed with many young Indians under education at our Colleges,
BiSterf highlTEnSshTduca- and was brought into contact with a large number who had passed the
tion University matriculation examination, as well as with a few who had taken
their degrees, and earned distinction for high proficiency. I certainly met some really well-educated men— like
Rao Bahadur Gopal H;u-i Deshmnkh, lately appointed a joint judge— who, by their character and acquirements,
were fitted to fill any office or shine in any society. But in plain truth, I was not always favourably impressed
with the general results of our higher educational efforts. I came across a few well-informed men, many half-
informed men, and a great many ill-informed and ill- formed men — men, I mean, without true strength of
character and' with ill-balanced minds. Such men may have read a great deal, but if they think at all, think
loosely. Many are great talkers. They may be said to suffer from attacks of verbal diarrhoea, and generally
talk plausibly, but write inaccurately. They are not given to much sustained exertion. Or if such men act at
all, they act as if guided by no settled principles, and as if wholly irresponsible for their spoken and written words.
They know nothing of the motive power, restraining force, or comforting efficacy of steadfast faith in any religious
system whatever, whether false or true. They neglect their own languages, disregard their own literatures, abjure
their own religions, despise their own philosophies, break their own caste-rules, and deride their own time-honoured
customs, without becoming good English scholars, honest sceptics, wise thinkers, earnest Christians, or loyal subjects
of the British Empire.
" Yet it cannot be said that we make higher education consist in the mere imparting of information, and
Tendencies of English edu- nothing more. We really effect a mighty transformation in the character of
cation. our pupils. We teach a Native to believe in himself. We deprecate his not
desiring to be better than his fathers. We bid him beware of merging his personality in his caste. We imbue him
with an intense consciousnecs of individual existence. We puff him up with an overweening opinion of his own
sufficiency. We inflate him with a sublime sense of his own importance as a distinct unit in the body politic. We
reveal to him the meaning of ' I am,' ' I can,' ' I will,' ' I shall,' and ' I know,' without inculcating any lesson of ' I
ought,' and ' I ought not,' without implanting any sense of responsibility to, and dependence on, an Eternal,
Almighty, and All-wise Being for life, for strength, and for knowledge — without, in short, imparting real self-
knowledge, or teaching true self-mastery, or instilling high principles and high motives. Such a system carries
with it its own nemesis. After much labour we rulers of India turn out what we call an educated Native. Where-
upon he turns round upon us, and, instead of thanking us for the trouble we have taken in his behalf, revenges
himself upon us for the injury we have inflicted on his character by applying the imperfect education he has
received to the injury of his teachers. The spitefully seditious writing which our Government has lately found
it necessary to repress by summary measures is due to this cause.
" And how have we discharged the debt we owe to the lower classes ? Let the truth here also be told with
Absence of effective scheme a^ plainness. In their case we have not yet matured any effective scheme —
for educating the lower not even for the proper informing of their minds, much less for the proper
classes. forming of their characters ... A good beginning has been made in some parts of
India. But I fear we have as yet barely stirred the outer surface of the vast inert mass of popular ignorance and
superstition." *
These extracts may be fitly closed with a hopeful passage from an Address delivered by Sir Alexander J.
Sir Alexander Arbuthnot's Arbuthnot, K. C.S.I., formerly a Member of the Supreme Council of India,
views as to prospects of Eng- as Vice-Chancellor at the Convocation of the Calcutta University, on 13th
lish education. March, 1880 : —
'• ( iuntlemen, this is the last occasion on which I shall ever address a public assembly in India. For the last
five and twenty years a great part of my official life has been employed in dealing with questions bearing upon
the education of the people of this land, and I am glad that my last prominent official act should be connected
with that important object. It may be said in one sense as regards education in India, that it is still the day of
small things ; but it cannot be denied that if we look back to the time when the Indian Universities were first
established, little more than three and twenty years ago, — still more so, if we look back to a period ten or twenty years
earlier — the advance which has been since accomplished, has been very great and very real. The measures which
have conferred so great a benefit upon you, the graduates and undergraduates of this University, were not carried
out without much discussion and much conflict of opinion. The question was fought over in its every phase.
There was first the famous controversy between those whom, for brevity, I may call the Orientalists and the
* Modern India and the Indian!. By Professor Honier Williams ; 3rd ed., pp. 302-305.
RECAPITULATION AND PROSPECTS. 267
Europeans ; between those who advocated the exclusive application of the educational funds to instruction in
Oriental learning and in ancient but obsolete and fantastic science, and those who contended for the diffusion of
European literature and of modern science, principally through the medium of the English language. There was
then the battle between those who urged that the instruction should be entirely secular and those who contend-
ed that instruction without religion wns of no value at all — a battle which was perhaps more keenly fought in
my old Presidency of Madras than in any other part of India. These particular controversies have long been
appeased. The teachers and pupils in the purely secular Government Colleges and Schools, and the teachers and
pupils in the Missionary institutions, now meet together upon common ground, and compete iu a generous rivalry
for the degrees and liouours of the Indian Universities. The great question of primary education, the importance
of which is admitted in all quarters, is making a sure and certain advance. But as regards that higher education,
for the encouragement of which our universities exist, we must not imagine that the contest has altogether died
out. The opposition has now assumed a different phase, and it is now often alleged that the high education which
is imparted in our Colleges and Schools fosters political discontent, and that the seditious writing which defaced
the pages of some of the Vernacular Newspapers a few years ago, was the outcome of our Collegiate and Uni-
versity system. Gentlemen, I need hardly tell you. that I should not be filling the position which I have the
honour to hold in this University, if I shared this opinion. My conviction is, that the more thorough and the more
complete the education is which we impart to the people of India, the better fitted they will be to appreciate the
blessings of British rule, and the more they will deprecate any material change in the existing order of things.
The British Government in India need not fear the light. It need not dread fair and legitimate criticism. But the
charge to which I have alluded, emanating as it sometimes does from men in high and responsible positions, is
not a charge which ought to be entirely ignored. Unjust and unfounded as it may be, — and as I for one believe it
to be, — it is a charge which ought to be borne in mind by those who have a real interest in Native progress, by
those who feel, as I and my colleagues in this Senate feel, that the happiness and prosperity, and I will add the
good Government, of this country, the purity and efficiency of the administration, both judicial and executive, are
closely connected with the character of the education imparted in our colleges and schools ; and the knowledge
that such charges are made, ought to lead all who have an influence in determining the character of the instruc-
tion which is tested by this University, to make it as sound and as deep and as practical as they can, and to do what
in them lies to check any superficial semblance of learning which may bring our educational system into disrepute."
CHAPTER XXXIV.
RECAPITULATION AND PROSPECTS' OF ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
In Chapter IX of this work a summary has been given of the various stages of the policy of education in
Various stages of the policy India from the earliest beginning of the British rule to the year 1830. The
of English education reeapi- whole of that time has been divided into six distinct periods, or stages, ac-
tulated. cording to the nature of the policy and measures adopted by the Government
for the education of the Natives of India. In the next, Chapter X, it has been shown how the five years between
1830 and 1835 form the most important period in the history of English education in India, how the views of
Lord Macaulay in favour of English education, contained in his celebrated minute, dated the 2nd February 1835,
and adopted by Lord William Bentinck in the Government Resolution dated the 7th March 1835, terminated the
cantroversy between the Orientalists and the supporters of English education in favour of the latter, marking a
distinct epoch in the annals of the British administration in India. It has also been shown that, whatever the
views of individual statesmen may have been, the policy of religious neutrality in matters of education was
declared by Lord William Bentinck even at the outset of English education in India, how it was repeatedly
approved by the Court of Directors and strongly re-affirmed in their Despatch of 13th April 1858, and has never
since been departed from, notwithstanding the opposition of Missionaries. The policy of English education which
was inaugurated in 1835, may, in connection with the six stages of educational policy described in Chapter IX of
this work, be regarded as the seventh stage, and it continued with more or less success till the year 1854. The
eighth stage of the policy of education begins with the comprehensive Despatch of the Court of Directors, dated
19th July, 1854, of which an account has been given in Chapter XVII of this work, and under which two important
INGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
events took place— first, the formation of the Educational Department, and, secondly, the establishment of the Indian
Universities in 1857 to 1882, of which an account has been given in Chapter XVIII of this work. In the same
sequence and chronological order the ninth stage of the policy of education may be said to have been inaugurated
by the Indian Education Commission of 1882, of which an account has been given in Chapters XIX to XXII of
this work. Shortly stated, in the words of Sir W. W. Hunter, who was President of the Commission, " the Commis-
sion's Recommendations strongly affirmed the principle of self-help in the extension of High Schools and Colleges,
and laid particular stress on the duty of assisting primary education from Provincial and Municipal funds. They
endeavoured to provide for certain sections of the people, particularly the Mnhammadans, who for various causes
had found themselves unable to avail themselves fully of the State System of public instruction, or in regard to
whom that system had proved defective. The general effect of the Commission's labours, and of the Government
Resolution based thereon is to give a more liberal recognition to private effort of every kind, and to schools and
colleges conducted on the system of grants-in-aid."1
The policy thus inaugurated lias undergone no change, and ample account and statistics of the progress of
English education under it, have been given in the main body of this work.
education, bas'ed upon the ap- And in the last preceding Chapter the views of eminent statesmen in regard to
proved recommendations of the policy of English education in India, and the social, moral, and political
the Education Commission of effects which it has produced upon the people of India in general have been
extensively quoted to enable the reader to form his own opinion upon the best
and most authoritative information available respecting these interesting topics. The present writer's object being
to supply a narrative of events and statistical information, he has closely adhered to the narrative and refrained
from setting forth opinions of his own on various controversial questions more suited to an essay than to a history.
There are some passages, however, in the writings of others on the subject of the past, present, and future of English
education in India which deserve attention and may be suitably quoted in this Chapter.
In his celebrated Lectures on the Expansion of England the distinguished Professor J. R. Seeley of the Univer-
Professor Seeley's views on s^7 °^ Cambridge, devotes a whole Lecture to the subject of the mutual in-
the mutual influence of Eng- fluence of England and India, and, in the following passages, deals with the
land and India. broader aspects of education :—
" England had broken the toils that threatened to imprison her. But how far was she who had so stoutly
Policy of non-interference refused to be influenced by India, entitled to influence India in her turn. We
with Indian life and thought could not fail to see the enormous difference between our civilisation and
that of India, we could not fail on the whole, greatly to prefer our own. But
had we any right to impose our views upon the Natives ? We had our own Christianity, our own views of philo-
sophy, of history and science ; but were we not bound by a sort of tacit contract with the Natives to hold all these
things officially in abeyance ? This was the view which was taken at first. It was not admitted that England was
to play the part of Rome to her empire ; no ; she was to put her civilisation on one side and govern according to
Indian ideas. This view was the more winning as the new and mysterious world of Sanscrit learning was reveal-
ing itself to those first generations of Anglo-Indians. They were under the charm of a remote philosophy and a
fantastic history. They were, as it was said, Brahminised and would not hear of admitting into their enchanted
Oriental enclosure either the Christianity or any of the learning of the West. I have not space left in this lecture
to do more than indicate how we were gradually led to give up this view and to stand out boldly as teachers and
civilisers. The change began in 1813, when on the renewal of the Company's charter, a sum was directed to be
appropriated to the revival of learning and the introduction of useful arts and sciences. Over this enactment an
Education Committee wrangled for twenty years. Were we to use our own judgments, or were we to understand
learning and science in the Oriental sense ? Were we to teach Sanskrit and Arabic, or English ?
"Never on this earth was a more momentous question discussed. Under Lord William Bentinck in 1835, the
Policy of giving English edu- discussion came to a head, and by a remarkable coincidence a famous man
cation settled in 1835, and was on the spot to give lustre to, and take lustre from, a memorable contro-
versy. It was Macaulay's Minute that decided the question in favor of
English. In that Minute or in Sir C. Trevelyan's volume on ' Education in India,' you can study it. Only remark
a strange oversight that was made. The question was discussed as if the choice lay between teaching Sanskrit
and Arabic on the one hand, or English on the other. All these languages alike are to the mass of the population
irly strange. Arabic and English are foreign, and Sanskrit is to the Hindus what Latin is to the Natives
It is the original language out of which the principal spoken languages have been formed, but it is
t has been dead a far longer time than Latin, for it had ceased to be a spoken language in the third
* The Indian Empire. By Sir W. W. Hunter, 2nd Ed., p. 429.
MR. p. w. THOMAS' ESSAY. 269
century before "Christ. By far the greater part of the famous Sanskrit poems and writings, philosophical or
theological, were written artificially and by a learned effort, like the Latin poems of Vida and Sannazaro. Now
over Sanskrit Macaulay had an easy victory, for he had only to show that English had poetry at least as good—
and philosophy, history and science a great deal better. But why should there be no choice but between dead
languages ? Could Macaulay really fancy it possible to teach two hundred and fifty millions of Asiatics English ?
Probably not, probably he thought only of creating a small learned class. I imagine too, that his own classical
training had implanted in his mind a fixed assumption that a dead language is necessary to education. But if
India is really to be enlightened, evidently it must be through the medium neither of Sanscrit nor of English, but of
the vernaculars, that is Hindustani, Hindi, Bengali, &c. These under some vague impression that they were too
rude to be made the veliicles of science or philosophy, Macaulay almost refuses to consider, but against these his
arguments in favour of English would have been powerless. But though this great oversight was made —
it has since been remarked and since the education despatch of Sir Charles Wood in 1854, in some measure
repaired — the decision to which Macaulay's Minute led remains the great landmark in the history of our Empire
considered as an institute of civilisation. It marks the moment when we deliberately recognised that a function
had devolved on us in Asia similar to that which Rome fulfilled in Europe, the greatest function which any
Government can ever be called upon to discharge." *
Another author, Mr. F. W. Thomas, in an Essay on the " History and Prospects of British Education in India "
._ ipnomas> ;Esgav (which won *ne tieBas Prize in 1890 \ has also expressed certain opinions
on British Education in India, which may be incorporated here in his own words as follows : —
1890
" The sum of what we have to say is this. It is unlikely that English will ever become the general language
Summary of Mr. Thomas' either of literature or of every-day life in India. For primary education it
views is unnecessary at present, and for high education necessary. The amount of
English desirable in middle schools is a local question. But it is necessary that, at any rate, some fair relation be
established between the amount of funds devoted to the three branches. This proportion is liable to change :
possibly in a few years there will be a considerable extension of the middle classes in India. The proportion,
therefore, of funds devoted to the various kinds of education ought to be fixed for short periods, and to be open to
revision. Probably a literary education has up to the present been too much fostered at the expense of a practical
one. This is a matter for further consideration. The essential thing is that the Department, as long as it manages
the schools, should not ignorantly interfere, or divert the education of the Hindus into unnatural and specified
channels. It should keep in touch with the development actually proceeding, and only interpose with authoritative
directions where social, political and educational science give a clear verdict as to what is right and what is wrong.
Perhaps the system of grants-in-aid will supply the best solution 6f this as of other questions.
" What has been said so far, concerning religion and the English language, from the nature of the case refers
Importance of primary edu- chiefly to the higlier education and to the upper classes of the educated popu-
cation in India. lation. Primary education is nearly the same the world over, and it is in con-
nection with the secondary training and the classes who'receive it that difficulties oftenest arise. It is among these
classes that are found those who are destined to guide the future of the people, and hence it is on this ground that
questions of principle are oftenest diseased. Nevertheless, primary education is of infinitely greater moment,
and in India its importance is even higher than elsewhere. India is remarkable for the numerical insignificance
of the middle and upper classes. The dumb masses, proportionally more numerous, are more ignorant than
in other civilised countries. Caring only for their caste and local interests, they seldom raise their voice in questions
feverishly debated in the ranks above, and even under the greatest extremities of oppression they commonly make no
stir. Thus they are not seldom forgotten amid the clamours of the small but noisy classes with whom the English
chiefly come in contact, who are but, as it were, the foam on the surface of the ocean. Millions of Hindus live and die
without seeing an English face. To them the sole representatives of intellect and culture are the Brahmans, and to
this day these wield, in the interior, an unlimited and terrible authority. On the day on which I write, in countless
villages in India, the Hiudu women have sought as an honour the permission to drink the water in which a Brahman
has WHshed his feet. It is then a fatal error to lose sight either of the influence of Brahmanism, which is said to
make more converts every year than do all the other religions in India, and which is in the main hostile to and con-
temptuous of foreign knowledge, or of the ignorant millions who are its willing slaves. The shock of English influence
has fallen as yet chiefly on the middle classes, who are becoming against their will more and more affected by it. It
is they who fill the Government Schools and Colleges. For them the native newspapers are written. The masses
still lead the same, simple, monotonous, and idyllic life which the Greek invaders beheld with such amazement.
* The Expansion of England. By J. R. Seeley, M.A., pp. 251-253.
.J70 ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
•• What lias English education done for this portion of the people ? It is to be feared, very little. Accepting
English education has done the ordinary calculation, the 2f millions of boys in primary schools will
very little for the masses of the correspond to a population of 33£ millions out of a total of 250 millions.
people. Do we need to be told that, when only 3\ out of 37£ millions of children are
receiving any instruction at all, these belong to only a very small extent, to the lower classes ? Until 1882 what
lire known as the ' low castes' were practically excluded from Government Schools ; and the Commission, in recom-
niendiiii,- that the regulation dealing with the question which was proposed in the despatch of 1854, should be re-
:,tlitmed as a principle, V»s obliged to advise caution in its application, and even to suggest the provision of special
schools The 'low castes' it is true, number only about 18 millions ; but it is evident that the main body of the
mixed castes is receiving no benefit from the State. It is obvious that with the present funds to be devoted to
education there is little hope of, at any rate, soon making any considerable advance. Of any immediate increase
in the funds there seems no prospect, English and Hindu agreeing that further taxation is not at present possible.
The day when compulsory education may be feasible is evidently very far distant. The only way in which at
present any great extension is possible is by aided and unaided schools taking the place of those maintained by the
department. But we are told that primary schools have no tendency to increase spontaneously in this manner.
li is only by increasing the general taxable wealth of the country — a topic to which we shall have to recur — that
sreneral education can ever be effected.
" For the present it is of the greatest importance that elementary education should not suffer by neglect. It
Elementary education should needs special attention, if only from the fact that it has many enemies. To
be safe-guarded. pass by the tendency of local bodies to encourage superior in preference to
inferior schools, we find the principle still openly proclaimed and defended, that it is the business of the English to
create a highly educated class, who will then transmit their culture to lower strata in society. Primary education
is or was already provided for by the Natives themselves. It is useless for Government to waste its funds on doing
expensively what the Natives themselves can do as well and much more cheaply." f
**##******#****##**
•• In the ' filtering-down ' theory no trust can be put. The larger features of the character of nations do not
The filtering-down theory of change. The intensely sacerdotal spirit of the chief Indian caste, the one
education is fallacious. which benefits most largely by English education, is not dead. The rules of
caste are as rigid as ever. The exclusiveness, which has reigned for three thousand years, is as rampant as
before. Of any thing like public feeling and mutual confidence and help there is no hope for many a year. It is
not conceivable that knowledge should under these circumstances filter down. There is no evidence that it has
tillered down. As we said above, elementary education has no tendency to advance spontaneously, and it has to be
carefully protected even from the bodies who administer it. In the work above alluded to, Sir Roper Lethbridge
.supplies the best refutation of his own views. The necessity of first creating an educated class, he says, is recognized
by the Native public opinion. Every statesman who has been suspected of intending to divert any sums from high
to elementary teaching has evoked a storm of unpopularity. The case of Sir George Campbell is quoted, whose
ices to primary education in Bengal we have commemorated. Are these facts in favour of the ' filtering-
down ' theory, rejected in 1854 and rejected in 1882 ? The newspapers, it is well known, are in the hands of the
class which fills the High Schools and Colleges. Does their vituperation of Sir George Campbell testify to a
strong desire to benefit the poorer classes, or to benefit any one but themselves ?
" Lastly the necessity of having a ' highly educated ' class is altogether denied, if we are to take the phrase,
A highly educated literary *n *^e accepted sense. There is an education which sharpens the critical,
class not needed for social but destroys the inventive faculty, an education which produces politicians,
requirements of India, and newspaper writers, and men of general capacity and culture. While largely
produces discontented sedi- r* ,, .....
^ n literary it is not wholly so, but often embraces the general principles of many
sciences. It is the chief means of producing a refined and cultured society. In
i backward society such an education is an anomaly, is unnatural, and out of place. This is the case in India.
The education given in the Schools and Colleges there is of the kind we have indicated. We suspect, and this
force to our argument, that it is often second-rate in its kind. Of the population of India, nearly seven-tenths
directly, and nine-tenths altogether, are supported by agriculture. A great manufacturing and trading class is
^Commissions in the Army are not open to the natives. Beside a few writers, the Bench, the
the Government service may be said to represent the whole of the small middle class. The
highest class in point of wealth, the Native princes and landlords, is largely illiterate. The Brahmans possess
t The Hi.tcry and Prospect* of British Edition in India being the LoBa* Prize S,iay for 1890. By F. W. Thotna8> Scholar of
Trinity College, Cambridge (1891) ; pp. 134, 137.
NECESSITY OP TECHNICAL AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION. 271
all degrees of wealth : the most important of them are the representatives of the orthodox party which is opposed
to English culture. Under these circumstances what room is there for a cultured and leisured society such as the
current education is calculated to produce ? There is none. Such a society is an expensive luxury which only
highly developed nations can afford to maintain. How, then, can a poor country like India support such a society
in addition to the existing aristocracies of wealth and religion ? The eighty thousand students in High Schools
and Colleges are more than are at present needed. The professions suitable for educated men are notoriously
glutted, and a large and discontented surplus is left, whose disappointment vents itself in perpetually carping
at the Government, vilifying the officials, blackmailing, and spreading sedition. Beaten out of the professions by
the competition of better men, and often suspected by the orthodox or even excommunicated from caste, these men
have no trades or other occupations to which they can turn, even were it not too late. They are lucky if they have
not entirely unfitted themselves for, and can obtain, some wretchedly paid clerkship under merchants and
tradesmen.
" Meanwhile technical education is still 'under consideration.' The medical profession is not popular, and
Technical and professional civil engineering is shunned by the educated Hindu, who scorns anything
education needed for material practical or involving bodily labour. The wealth of the country in coal, in
prosperity of India and good iron and other metals, lies almost entirely neglected. The people are still
feeling among its population. ciothed in cottons from Manchester. The plough which the rayat uses is
the same that he used three thousand years ago. The country has been denuded of forests ; and that which should
be used to enrich the land is burned for fuel. Sanitation and emigration are equally unpopular. The works of
art, which at European exhibitions have been applauded as marvels of taste and delicate skill, are produced with
the rudest instruments and the greatest expenditure of labour and time. The patterns of which they are copies
are of venerable antiquity. Originality in design and execution has been dead for many centuries, and the rule of
the English can only testify to ' a general decay of the native arts.' Every commercial or manufacturing enterprise
which has sprung up during the last century, including even the cultivation of tea, has been introduced and
managed by Englishmen. Under these circumstances, need it be said that what is most desiderated, is new
knowledge, applied to every kind of production ? Need we instance the great advance recently made in English
skilled work, owing to the extension of practically applied science, and of a knowledge of the principles of art ?
The spread of technical education and practical science is a matter scarcely second in importance to the spread
of primary education itself. It is from this source chiefly that we must look for the vast increase in material
wealth for which the country supplies such great natural advantages. Such an increase is not only desirable: it is
imperative. Of the previous checks on population in India, wars and famines, the former have ceased to operate,
and the latter have been provided against by the most careful precautiqns. The mass of the people is growing
at a rate which will double it in the course of a century, and already farms which previously maintained only one
family have to provide for two or three. The increase in the extent of land under cultivation which has been
going on for the last century cannot proceed indefinitely. The only method left of providing for the growing
population is to improve the existing methods of production to introduce new methods by which the land may be
induced to yield more, and to create a surplus wealth which will enable India to purchase from other countries.
To this end a great extension of practical scientific, and of technical education is not only one means, it is far the
greatest means. By model farms and manufactories, by suggesting the introduction of new staples of production,
the Public Works Department can do something. But it is only by creating an interest in the practical applica-
tions of science, by making it understood that a high education is not merely a literary and (jwcm'-scientific or
mathematical training, but embraces every kind of knowledge which is considerable in extent, well-ordered, and
clearly grasped. We are led, then, to this conclusion. It is not high education that India needs ; it is practical
scientific education. It is not by a highly educated society that modern knowledge is to be introduced. The attempt
would result — as it has already resulted — in fostering an unpopular party, which, though it has its merits and
numbers not a few able and upright men, has up to the present been characterized by want of originality, and to
some extent by a proclivity to imitate the English, and abuse them. Let knowledge be introduced in such a way
as to give a practical test of its value by improving arts and manufactures, and increasing men's actual power
over nature for the production of wealth. We are far from neglecting the desirability of general culture. But
this has a spontaneous tendency to grow up where it is needed. On no ground does it appear to be the great
desideratum for India at this moment. It is to the spread of practical knowledge, the influence of which can be
impaired by no sophistries, religious or otherwise, that we have chiefly to look not only for the advance in material
prosperity which is so greatly needed, but also for the breaking down of prejudice and the encouragement of fellow-
feeling between men. Under these circumstances too much stress cannot be laid on the desirability of technical
education now so long promised, and of a great extension in High Schools and Colleges of the study of the physical
ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA,
sciences. It is not to be expected that the Government can often create new industries by itself, but by turning
a stream of science on the existing arts, and by causing it to be understood that a knowledge of material nature
is as worthy an object as is a wide acquaintance with metaphysics or the capacity to write flowery English, it may
not only produce immediate results, but lay the foundations for future prosperity."* * * * * *
" The upper classes on whom much depends, still require considerable attention. It is extremely desirable
Upper classes of India back- that the natural leaders of the people, whether they be spiritual authorities
ward in education. as the Brahmans, or dependent on wealth and position for their importance,
should not remain apart from the general drift of education. As a body the orthodox Brahmans are well affected
towards tlie English, whose treatment of them contrasts vividly with the oppression which they suffered under their
previous rulers ; and now that the Punjab University has been created especially for oriental studies, and that
Sanskrit is once more held in honour in the land of the Veda, it seems that they have, as a body, little to complain of.
Their undoubted intellectual superiority, and the unlimited authority which they wield over two hundred millions of
Hindus, make their loyalty a matter of peculiar moment. The nobles and rich classes are of considerable, if less,
importance. But, as special schools have been provided for them, where every precaution is taken against the
intrusion of their inferiors, this class, in the absence of any opposing cause, cannot long remain apart. It is obvious
how much the conferring of honorary distinctions, employment in important posts under Government, and other
political measures, can contribute to produce this extremely desirable result. In no stage of society is it anything
but dangerous that those who possess leisure, high spirit, and heriditary capacity for ruling, should remain discon-
tented, disaffected, and unemployed."t ***** * *****
" The future of British education in India, conditioned as it must be by various influences, may be variously
The future prospects of construed. It is obvious how greatly the whole future of the empire would
English education. be effected, should some part of it be found colonizable by the English race,
or on the other hand should the British power sustain a serious reverse. Nor must we overlook the possibility of
a reaction against European knowledge, or of a religious revival. So far as can be judged, however, none of these
events are at all probable. Education must for many a year be directed by an English Government, and on the
same lines as at present. Of the higher instruction the English language must long remain the chief medium, as
well as one of the most important subjects. But we must repeat once more how desirable it is that physical
science, the truths of which can be everywhere tested, should receive a larger share of attention than hitherto. In
a country where twenty thousand men and women die yearly from the bite of the cobra alone, medicine, at any
rate, would seem to be worth studying. Again, the attention of educated Hindus might well be turned to a greater
extent on India itself. In what region do animals and plants afford a more interesting study ? Where is there
more scope for geology and meteorology ? In what part of the world is the action of water of greater theoretical
and practical moment ? Nowhere do ethnological and linguistic problems attain to a higher degree of complexity
and importance. Nowhere does a larger mass of material lie ready to the hand of the student of archeology,
custom, law and usage, or, finally of the science of religion. In short, both the land and the people offer a vast
field for research of every kind, which should be least of all neglected by those who have the right to lay claim to
both as in a special sense their own.
" But we cannot expect to hear of any great improvements or scientific discoveries until research is more
No great improvements can largelJ endowed, and until the rich have been attracted to the new learning.
be expected till the richer At present scarcely any one studies except with a view to a profession, and
classes are attracted to Eng- almost the only real students are the representatives of a dead society and
religion. If the educated Brahmans could, without losing their present
position, be attracted to the movement, their superior gifts might give a great impulse to the civilization of India.
Now are they entirely obdurate. Even from their short intercourse with the Greeks, they learnt something which they
have gratefully recorded. Many of the best students are Brahmans, and now that an English education confers such
great advantages, there is hope that interest J will induce the learned class to anticipate the decay of their authority.
" For the lower classes English education has something of the character of an emancipation. The uneducated
Importance of English edu- Hindu is enslaved in three ways. He is the slave of custom and caste, of
cation to the emancipation of Brahmanism, and of superstition. A great number of the rayats are, in
the lower classes. addition, enslaved to the money-lenders. From all of these it is desirable that
they should be set free. Here lies the great importance of the extension of primary education. Among the
• The History and Prospects of British Education in India being the LeBas Prize Essay for 1890. By F. W. Thomas, Scholar of
Trinity College, Cambridge (1891) ; pp. 138-42. f Ib-, PP- 143, 144.
* 1 urn informed that a Pandit who knows English can easily earn Rs. 100 a month, while if ignorant of English, he cannot often
expect more than Ks. 10.
BEIEP EETEOSPECT AND CONCLUSION. 273
subjects now taught in elementary schools at least two are calculated to free the children from errors engrained
in their parents, I mean history and geography. To learn that the world was not made for the Brahmanicul
Indians, that the earth does not consist of concentric rings with India at the centre, nor does it rest on the back
of a tortoise, cannot but have the secondary result of shaking belief in many other childish fables. Where a little
elementary science is taught, if it do nothing else, it may make it plain that, whatever be the power of the
Brahman, he cannot make water boil at any other temperature than that at which it naturally boils, and that
even a million repetitions of Rama's name will not create a good crop without manure, or keep fever aw;i v
from unsanitary homes. Arithmetic, if properly tanght, may reveal at what a fearful disadvantage money in
borrowed when interest is at twelve per cent., and thus encourage prudence by adding to it the power of calcula-
tion. But it is not from mere teaching that the desired results can be expected to flow. To attend a school,
conducted by non-Brahmanical authorities, in which the high caste boy is treated exactly as the low caste boy,
and where facts are taught independently of religious interpretation, must tend to rub the edges off many ancient
prejudices. It is here that the great importance of the provision of Normal Schools and trained teachers comes in :
it is obvious how much good can be done by a single able and well-disposed teacher, and how much harm by one
ill-disposed. What is to be expected from Primary Schools is not that the children should pick up very much
information — a few plain facts will suffice — but that they should learn that there are things which are every-
where and at all times immovably true, and should experience the futility of many prejudices which their parents
are not likely to be able to shake off ; that it should be as widely as possible known that in the eyes of the Govern-
ment, at any rate, there is no difference between Brahman, Sudra, and outcast, but individuals of every class must
rank by individual merits alone.
" We will now add a brief retrospect. The English found in India a widespread system of elementary and
Brief retrospect of the his- higher education, of which the former was mainly practical, the latter mainly
tory of English education. literary, philosophical, and religious. The first period of British effort, which
ended in 1823, was occupied with petty and isolated endeavours, in most cases of a charitable nature and con-
ducted by Missionaries. During the next period, extending to the year 1854, the Government began steadily to
devote attention to the cause of higher education. This period is more interesting than either that which pre-
ceded or that which followed, because during it the most important questions of principle, the position of the
English language and of elementary education, were discussed and settled. In 1854, the despatch of Sir Charles
Wood set forth at length the lines on which operations have since been conducted. Hence the period from 1854,
may be described as one of administration. The chief innovation was the introduction of local rates devoted in
part to the support of chiefly primary instruction. From 1870 to 1881, the mistaken policy became general of
encouraging departmental as opposed to aided, and higher as opposed to elementary, education. Since the im-
portant Commission of 1882-83 this policy has been discontinued. In point of numbers, aided schools now hold
the first place : the department comes next ; then unaided but inspected ; lastly, entirely private enterprise.
The indigenous schools have been either absorbed or replaced, and few any longer remain. The Missionaries have
acquired considerable control over secondary education, but have not neglected primary. About 200,000 children
are at present under their instruction. In the future, elementary schools should still be the chief care, but a
proper proportion of institutions of a higher class ought to be maintained. In the latter the training should be less
literary, and to a greater extent scientific, than it has hitherto been. Provision is being made for the education of
the Native Nobles. Endowment for research is a great desideratum. The education of women still presents
practical difficulties, and needs unremitting attention. Religious and moral instruction should not be generally
attempted, but the Bible might, should the Natives desire it, be with caution locally introduced. On the subject
of the use of the English language no dogmatic position can be adopted : the question must be permitted to settle
itself in the natural way by general convenience, which alone possesses the arlitrium ac norma loquendi. The
system of local control is one of great promise, but will for some time need careful watching. Compulsory atten-
dance at school is a still distant goal. For the present the best policy is to foster private effort, which spreads the
expenditure over a wide area, and provides a solution for some difficult questions. As regards the sums to be
expended, there is little prospect of considerable immediate increase. This will have to await the advance of
general prosperity, which depends on many causes, but can be greatly fostered by the encouragement of practical
and scientific training. On the whole, what has been done bears numerically but a small proportion to what
remains to be effected.
" Dull as it may have seemed in the telling, the history of British Education in India is not uninteresting. The
reaction of the West on the East, and the revival of peoples everywhere visible,
Conclusion. . .„...,.. . , . ,
in Japan, in China, in India, is a phenomenon as remarkable as any m history.
In India, a country where a social order in theory not unlike the ideal Republic of Plato, has been based for two
35
•>7(. ENGLISH EDUCATION IN INDIA.
thousand years on a deep philosophy in some respects similar to his, the study of this revival cannot be without
attraction for educated men. A primitive society has suddenly awoke to find itself face to face with an enemy it
is powerless to resist. The system of caste, excellent in many respects* and of unrivalled tenacity, is neither
labile nor productive enough for the requirements of the modern world-wide competition, from which it would be
idle to expect that India can stand aside. Caste, it is truly held, must either pass away or suffer modification, and
herewith the foundations of Hindu society must be reconstructed. The modern world, where it does not absorb,
cannot but corrupt and destroy. Of its emissaries, the teacher and the missionary, the repeating rifle and the rum
bottle, one or other is sure to find an entrance. It was fortunate for India that the missionary and the teacher
arrived first, though the rum-bottle has of late years made alarming progress. In the East British Education is an
agent at once destructive and constructive. Its negative influence, which has been sometimes only too apparent, is
active even where least perceived: its positive influence Jias latterly given many signs of its working. There, for the
present, the matter rests. But, whatever may be the future of the English connection with India, it is at any rate
certain that, apart from improbabilities, 'by planting our language, our knowledge, and our opinions, in our Asiatic
territories we have put a great work beyond the reach of contingencies.' The ideas which have been introduced
cannot be ineffective or forgotten among a people so interested in intellectual questions as are the Hindus. They
cannot but germinate, and finally change the whole face of Native society. To many the destruction of the old
idyllic life, with its sacred and immemorial customs, even .perhaps with its enormities, may give cause for regret.
The present is, if strong, yet also prosaic. The future must share many of its characteristics. But we may
perhaps here apply the words of a great English poet : —
Haply, the river of Time —
As it grows, as the towns on its marge
Fling their wavering lights
On a wider, statelier stream —
May acquire, if not the calm
Of its early mountainous shore,
Yet a solemn peace of its own." t
* On this subject, Prof. Monier Williams has some remarks in his Brahmanism and Hinduism ; Vide Chap. XVIII, and esp. p. 461
t T he History and Progress of British Education in India being the Le Bas Prize Essay for 1890. By F. W. Thomas, Scholar of Trinity
College, Cambridge (1891) ; pp. U5-150.
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